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[ [ "Diatessaron" ], [ "Introduction", "Parchment manuscript of the Ephrem's Commentary on the Diatessaron, from Egypt, late 5th or early 6th century, in the Chester Beatty LibraryThe '''''Diatessaron''''' (; c. 160–175 AD) is the most prominent early gospel harmony, and was created in the Syriac language by Tatian, an Assyrian early Christian apologist and ascetic.", "Tatian sought to combine all the textual material he found in the four gospels - Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John - into a single coherent narrative of Jesus's life and death.", "However, and in contradistinction to most later gospel harmonists, Tatian appears not to have been motivated by any aspiration to validate the four separate canonical gospel accounts; or to demonstrate that, as they stood, they could each be shown as being without inconsistency or error.Although widely used by early Syriac Christians, the original text has not survived.", "It was reconstructed in 1881 by Theodor Zahn from translations and commentaries." ], [ "Terminology", "The title ''Diatessaron'' comes from the Latin ''diatessarōn'' (\"made of four ingredients\"), derived in turn from Greek, διὰ τεσσάρων (''dia tessarōn'') (\"out of four\"; i.e., ''διά, dia'', \"at intervals of\" and ''tessarōn'' genitive of τέσσαρες, ''tessares'', \"four\").The Syriac name for this gospel harmony is '' (Ewangeliyôn Damhalltê) meaning 'Gospel of the Mixed'." ], [ "Overview", "Abul Faraj al-Tayyib from Syriac to Arabic, 11th centuryTatian's harmony follows the gospels closely in terms of text but, in order to fit all the canonical material in, he created his own narrative sequence, which is different from both the synoptic sequence and John's sequence; and occasionally creates intervening time periods that are found in none of the source accounts.", "This sequence is coherent and consistent within itself, but not necessarily consistent with that in all or any of the separate canonical gospels; and Tatian apparently applies the same principle in respect of the narrative itself.", "Where the gospels differ from one another in respect of the details of an event or teaching, the Diatessaron resolves such apparent contradictions by selecting one or another alternative wording and adding consistent details from the other gospels; while omitting apparent duplicate matter, especially across the synoptics.", "Hence, in respect of the healing of the blind at Jericho the Diatessaron reports only one blind man, Bartimeaus, healed by Jesus when leaving the city according to the account in Mark 10:46ff (expanded with phrases from Luke 18:36–37); consequently omitting any separate mention of two unnamed blind men healed by Jesus leaving Jericho (Matthew 20:29ff), and also the healing by Jesus entering Jericho the previous day of a single unnamed blind man (Luke 18:35ff).Otherwise, Tatian originally omitted altogether both of the different genealogies in Matthew and Luke, as well as Luke's introduction (Luke 1:1–4); and also did not originally include Jesus' encounter with the adulteress (John 7:53–8:11).", "The pericope is present in western manuscripts believed to be based on the Diatessaron (e.g., Codex Fuldensis) but is generally considered to be a latter interpolation.", "This whole passage is also generally considered to be a late addition to the Gospel of John, with the Diatessaron itself often cited as an early textual witness in support of its omission.", "Most scholars agree that Tatian did, from the beginning, include the longer ending of Mark (Mark 16: 9–20), and correspondingly is amongst the earliest witnesses to this inclusion.", "Tatian added no significant wording to the textual material he took from the separate gospels.", "Only 56 verses in the canonical Gospels do not have a counterpart in the Diatessaron, mostly the genealogies and the ''Pericope Adulterae''.", "The final work is about 72 per cent the length of the four gospels put together; around a quarter of the text of the separate gospels being adjudged by Tatian to be duplicated.", "(McFall, 1994).In the early Church, the gospels at first circulated independently, with Matthew the most popular.", "The Diatessaron is notable evidence for the authority already enjoyed by the gospels by the mid- to late-2nd century.", "Within twenty years after Tatian's harmony was written, Irenaeus was expressly arguing for the authoritative character of the Four Gospels.", "It is unclear whether Tatian intended the Diatessaron to supplement or replace the four separate gospels; but both outcomes came to pass in different churches.", "The Diatessaron became adopted as the standard lectionary text of the gospels in some Syriac-speaking churches from the late 2nd to the 5th century, until it gave way to the four separate Gospels such as the Syriac Sinaitic gospels, or later in the Peshitta version.", "At the same time, in the churches of the Latin west, the Diatessaron circulated as a supplement to the four gospels, especially in the Latin translation." ], [ "Recensions and translations", "A number of recensions of the ''Diatessaron'' are extant.", "The earliest, part of the eastern family of recensions, is preserved in 4th century theologian Ephrem the Syrian's ''Commentary'' on Tatian's work, which itself is preserved in two versions: an Armenian translation preserved in two copies, and a copy of Ephrem's original Syriac text dated to the late 5th or early 6th century, which has been edited by Louis Leloir (Paris, 1966).Many other translations have been made, sometimes including substantial revisions to the text.", "There are translations into Arabic, Latin, Old Georgian, Old High German, Middle High German, Middle English, Middle Dutch and Old Italian.", "There is a Persian harmony that seems to have borrowed some readings from the ''Diatessaron''.", "There are also Parthian texts with borrowings from the ''Diatessaron''.", "The Arabic translation was made by Ibn al-Tayyib in the early 11th century from the original Syriac." ], [ "Tatian's harmony", "Tatian was a pupil of 2nd-century Christian convert, apologist, and philosopher Justin MartyrTatian was an Assyrian who was a pupil of Justin Martyr in Rome, where, Justin says, the ''apomnemoneumata'' (recollections or memoirs) of the Apostles, the gospels, were read every Sunday.", "When Justin quotes the synoptic Gospels, he tends to do so in a harmonised form, and Helmut Koester and others conclude that Justin must have possessed a Greek harmony text of Matthew, Luke and Mark.If so, it is unclear how much Tatian may have borrowed from this previous author in determining his own narrative sequence of Gospel elements.", "It is equally unclear whether Tatian took the Syriac Gospel texts composited into his Diatessaron from a previous translation, or whether the translation was his own.", "Where the Diatessaron records Gospel quotations from the Jewish Scriptures, the text appears to agree with that found in the Syriac Peshitta Old Testament rather than that found in the Greek Septuagint—as used by the original Gospel authors.", "The majority consensus is that the Peshitta Old Testament preceded the Diatessaron, and represents an independent translation from the Hebrew Bible.", "Resolution of these scholarly questions remained very difficult so long as no complete version of the ''Diatessaron'' in Syriac or Greek had been recovered; while the medieval translations that had survived—in Arabic and Latin—both relied on texts that had been heavily corrected to conform better with later canonical versions of the separate Gospel texts.There is scholarly uncertainty about what language Tatian used for its original composition, whether Syriac or Greek." ], [ "Diatessaron in Syriac Christianity", "The ''Diatessaron'' was used as the standard Gospel text in the liturgy of at least some sections of the Syrian Church for possibly up to two centuries and was quoted or alluded to by Syrian writers.", "Ephrem the Syrian wrote a commentary on it, the Syriac original of which was rediscovered only in 1957, when a manuscript acquired by Sir Chester Beatty in 1957 (now Chester Beatty Syriac MS 709, Dublin) turned out to contain the text of Ephrem's commentary.", "The manuscript constituted approximately half of the leaves of a volume of Syriac writings that had been catalogued in 1952 in the library of the Coptic monastery of Deir es-Suriani in Wadi Natrun, Egypt.", "Subsequently, the Chester Beatty library was able to track down and buy a further 42 leaves, so that now approximately eighty per cent of the Syriac commentary is available (McCarthy 1994).", "Ephrem did not comment on all passages in the Diatessaron, and nor does he always quote commentated passages in full; but for those phrases that he does quote, the commentary provides for the first time a dependable witness to Tatian's original; and also confirms its content and their sequence.", ".Theodoret, bishop of Cyrrhus on the Euphrates in upper Syria in 423, suspecting Tatian of having been a heretic, sought out and found more than two hundred copies of the ''Diatessaron'', which he \"collected and put away, and introduced instead of them the Gospels of the four evangelists\"." ], [ "Vernacular harmonies derived from the Diatessaron", "No Christian tradition, other than some Syriac ones, has ever adopted a harmonized Gospel text for use in its liturgy.", "However, in many traditions, it was not unusual for subsequent Christian generations to seek to provide paraphrased Gospel versions in language closer to the vernacular of their own day.", "Frequently such versions have been constructed as Gospel harmonies, sometimes taking Tatian's Diatessaron as an exemplar; other times proceeding independently.", "Hence from the Syriac Diatessaron text was derived an 11th-century Arabic harmony (the source for the published versions of the Diatessaron in English); and a 13th-century Persian harmony.", "The Arabic harmony preserves Tatian's sequence exactly, but uses a source text corrected in most places to that of the standard Syriac Peshitta Gospels; the Persian harmony differs greatly in sequence, but translates a Syriac text that is rather closer to that in Ephrem's commentary.A Vetus Latina version of Tatian's Syriac text appears to have circulated in the West from the late 2nd century; with a sequence adjusted to conform more closely to that of the canonical Gospel of Luke; and also including additional canonical text (such as the ''Pericope Adulterae''), and possibly non-canonical matter from the Gospel of the Hebrews.", "With the gradual adoption of the Vulgate as the liturgical Gospel text of the Latin Church, the Latin Diatessaron was increasingly modified to conform to Vulgate readings.", "In 546 Victor of Capua discovered such a mixed manuscript; and, further corrected by Victor so as to provide a very pure Vulgate text within a modified Diatessaron sequence and to restore the two genealogies of Jesus side-by-side, this harmony, the Codex Fuldensis, survives in the monastic library at Fulda, where it served as the source text for vernacular harmonies in Old High German, Eastern Frankish and Old Saxon (the alliterative poem 'Heliand').", "The older mixed Vulgate/Diatessaron text type also appears to have continued as a distinct tradition, as such texts appear to underlie surviving 13th–14th century Gospel harmonies in Middle Dutch, Middle High German, Middle French, Middle English, Tuscan and Venetian; although no example of this hypothetical Latin sub-text has ever been identified.", "The Liège Diatessaron is a particularly poetic example.", "This Latin Diatessaron textual tradition has also been suggested as underlying the enigmatic 16th century Islam-influenced Gospel of Barnabas (Joosten, 2002)." ], [ "Use of the word \"God\"", "Robert F. Shedinger writes that in quotations to the Old Testament where the great uncial codices have ''κύριος'' and the Hebrew OT manuscripts יהוה (YHWH), Tatian wrote the term \"God\".", "Pavlos D. Vasileiadis reports that \"Shedinger proposed that the Syriac Diatessaron, composed some time after the middle of the second century CE, may provide additional confirmation of Howard’s hypothesis (Tatian and the Jewish Scriptures, 136–140).", "Additionally, within the Syriac Peshitta is discernible the distinction between κύριος rendered as ܡܪܝܐ (''marya'', which means \"lord\" and refers to the God as signified by the Tetragrammaton; see Lu 1:32) and ܡܪܢ (''maran'', a more generic term for \"lord\"; see Joh 21:7).\"", "R. F. Shedinger holds that after יהוה, θεός could be a term before κύριος became the standard term in the New Testament Greek copies.Shedinger's work has been strongly criticized.", "Since Tatian's Diatessaron is known only indirectly from references to it in other works, Shedinger's dissertation is based on his collection of 69 ''possible'' readings, only two of which, in the judgment of William L. Petersen.", "reach the level of probability.", "Peterson complains of Shedinger's \"inconsistent methodology\" and says that the surviving readings do not support his conclusions.", "Petersen thinks the dissertation should never have been accepted for a doctoral degree, in view of \"the illogical arguments, inconsistent standards, philological errors, and methodological blunders that mar this book.", "... the errors are so frequent and so fundamental that this volume can contribute nothing to scholarship.", "What it says that is true has already been said elsewhere, with greater clarity and perspective.", "What it says that is new is almost always wrong, plagued ... with philological, logical, and methodological errors, and a gross insensitivity to things historical (both within the discipline, as well as the transmission-history of texts).", "Reading this book fills one with dismay and despair.", "It is shocking that a work which does not rise to the level of a master's thesis should be approved as a doctoral dissertation; how it found its way into print is unfathomable.", "One shudders to think of the damage it will do when, in the future, it is cited by the ignorant and the unsuspecting as \"demonstrating\" what it has not.\"", "Jan Joosten's review of Shedinger's work is also condemnatory.", "In his judgment \"Shedinger's study remains unconvincing, not only in the final conclusions but also in the details of the argument.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Dura Parchment 24* Papyrus 25" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* Jan Joosten, (2001).", "\"Tatian's Diatessaron and the Old Testament Peshitta\", Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol.", "120, No.", "3 (Autumn, 2001), pp.", "501–523* Jan Joosten, (2002).", "\"The Gospel of Barnabas and the Diatessaron\", Harvard Theological Review 95.1 (2002): pp 73–96.", "Carmel McCarthy, (1994).", "''Saint Ephrem's Commentary on Tatian's Diatessaron: An English Translation of Chester Beatty Syriac MS 709 with Introduction and Notes'' (Oxford University Press) The first English translation.", "** Jeffrey Tigay, editor, (1986) ''Empirical Models for Biblical Criticism.''", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.", "" ], [ "Further reading", "* " ], [ "External links", " Early Christian Writings: ''Diatessaron'' e-text and commentaries.", "* Philip Schaff: ANF09.The Gospel of Peter, The Diatessaron of Tatian, The Apocalypse of Peter, the Vision of Paul, The Apocalypse of the Virgin and Sedrach, The Testament of Abraham, The Acts of Xanthippe and Polyxena, The Narrative of Zosimus, The Apology of Aristid - Christian Classics Ethereal Library an English translation of an Arabic text, published at Rome in 1888.", "* The Dura fragment of the Diatessaron (from the Internet Archive)* Text of Arabic and Latin Translations of Diatessaron * Diatessaron wiki * The Diatessaron and its Relevance to the Study of the Pentateuch - TheTorah.com* * Tatian’s Diatessaron and the Greek Text of the Gospels* CHURCH FATHERS: The Diatessaron (Tatian)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dean Koontz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dean Ray Koontz''' (born July 9, 1945) is an American author.", "His novels are billed as suspense thrillers, but frequently incorporate elements of horror, fantasy, science fiction, mystery, and satire.", "Many of his books have appeared on ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list, with fourteen hardcovers and sixteen paperbacks reaching the number-one position.", "Koontz wrote under a number of pen names earlier in his career, including \"David Axton\", \"Deanna Dwyer\", \"K.R.", "Dwyer\", \"Leigh Nichols\" and \"Brian Coffey\".", "He has published over 105 novels and a number of novellas and collections of short stories, and has sold over 450 million copies of his work." ], [ "Early life", "Koontz was born on July 9, 1945, in Everett, Pennsylvania, the son of Florence (née Logue) and Raymond Koontz.", "He has said that he was regularly beaten and abused by his alcoholic father, which influenced his later writing, as also did the courage of his physically diminutive mother in standing up to her husband.", "In his senior year at Shippensburg State College, he won a fiction competition sponsored by ''Atlantic Monthly'' magazine.", "After graduation in 1967, he went to work as an English teacher at Mechanicsburg High School in Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania.", "In the 1960s, Koontz worked for the Appalachian Poverty Program, a federally funded initiative designed to help poor children.", "In a 1996 interview with ''Reason'' magazine, he said that while the program sounded \"very noble and wonderful, ... in reality, it was a dumping ground for violent children ... and most of the funding ended up 'disappearing somewhere.'\"", "This experience greatly shaped Koontz's political outlook.", "In his book, ''The Dean Koontz Companion'', he recalled that he\"... realized that most of these programs are not meant to help anyone, merely to control people and make them dependent.", "I was forced to reconsider everything I'd once believed.", "I developed a profound distrust of government regardless of the philosophy of the people in power.", "I remained a liberal on civil-rights issues, became a conservative on defense, and a semi-libertarian on all other matters.\"" ], [ "Career", "In his spare time, Koontz wrote his first novel, ''Star Quest'', which was published in 1968.Koontz went on to write over a dozen science fiction novels.", "Seeing the Catholic faith as a contrast to the chaos in his family, Koontz converted in college because faith provided existential answers for life; he admired Catholicism's \"intellectual rigor,\" saying it permitted a view of life that saw mystery and wonder in all things.", "He says he sees Catholicism as English writer and Catholic convert G. K. Chesterton did: that it encourages a \"joy about the gift of life\".", "Koontz says that spirituality has always been part of his books, as are grace and our struggle as fallen souls, but he \"never gets on a soapbox\".In the 1970s, Koontz began writing suspense and horror fiction, both under his own name and several pseudonyms, sometimes publishing up to eight books a year.", "Koontz has stated that he began using pen names after several editors convinced him that authors who switched back and forth between different genres invariably fell victim to \"negative crossover\" (alienating established fans and simultaneously failing to pick up any new ones).", "Known pseudonyms used by Koontz during his career include Deanna Dwyer, K. R. Dwyer, Aaron Wolfe, David Axton, Brian Coffey, John Hill, Leigh Nichols, Owen West, Richard Paige, and Anthony North.", "As Brian Coffey, he wrote the \"Mike Tucker\" trilogy (''Blood Risk'', ''Surrounded'', ''Wall of Masks'') in acknowledged tribute to the Parker novels of Richard Stark (Donald E. Westlake).", "Many of Koontz's pseudonymous novels are now available under his real name.", "Many others remain suppressed by Koontz, who bought back the rights to ensure they could not be republished; he has, on occasion, said that he might revise some for republication, but only three have appeared — ''Demon Seed'' and ''Invasion'' were both heavily rewritten before they were republished, and ''Prison of Ice'' had certain sections bowdlerised.After writing full-time for more than 10 years, Koontz had his acknowledged breakthrough novel with ''Whispers'', published in 1980.The two books before that, ''The Key to Midnight'' and ''The Funhouse'', also sold over a million copies, but were written under pen names.", "His first bestseller was ''Demon Seed'', the sales of which picked up after the release of the film of the same name in 1977, and sold over two million copies in one year.", "His first hardcover bestseller, which finally promised some financial stability and lifted him out of the midlist hit-and-miss range, was his book ''Strangers''.Since then, 12 hardcovers and 14 paperbacks written by Koontz have reached number one on ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list.Bestselling science fiction writer Brian Herbert has stated, \"I even went through a phase where I read everything that Dean Koontz wrote, and in the process I learned a lot about characterization and building suspense.", "\"In 1997, psychologist Katherine Ramsland published an extensive biography of Koontz based on interviews with his family and him.", "This \"psychobiography\" (as Ramsland called it) often showed the conception of Koontz's characters and plots from events in his own life.Early author photos on the back of many of his novels show a balding Koontz with a mustache.", "After Koontz underwent hair transplantation surgery in the late 1990s, his subsequent books have featured a new, clean-shaven appearance with a fuller head of hair.", "Koontz explained the change by claiming that he was tired of looking like G. Gordon Liddy.Many of his novels are set in and around Orange County, California.", "As of 2006, he lives there with his wife, Gerda (Cerra), in Newport Coast, California, behind the gates of Pelican Hills.", "In 2008, he was the world's sixth-most highly paid author, tied with John Grisham, at $25 million annually.In 2019, Koontz began publishing with Amazon Publishing.", "At the time of the announcement, Koontz was one of the company's most notable signings." ], [ "Pet dogs", "One of Koontz's pen names was inspired by his dog, Trixie Koontz, a Golden Retriever, shown in many of his book-jacket photos.", "Trixie originally was a service dog with Canine Companions for Independence (CCI), a charitable organization that provides service dogs for people with disabilities.", "Trixie was a gift from CCI in gratitude of Koontz's substantial donations, totaling $2.5 million between 1991 and 2004.Koontz was taken with the charity while he was researching his novel ''Midnight'', a book which included a CCI-trained dog, a black Labrador Retriever, named Moose.In 2004, Koontz wrote and edited ''Life Is Good: Lessons in Joyful Living'' in her name, and in 2005, Koontz wrote a second book credited to Trixie, ''Christmas Is Good''.", "Both books are written from a supposed canine perspective on the joys of life.", "The royalty payments of the books were donated to CCI.", "In 2007, Trixie contracted terminal cancer that created a tumor in her heart.", "The Koontzes had her euthanized outside their family home on June 30.After Trixie's death, Koontz has continued writing on his website under the name \"TOTOS\", standing for \"Trixie on the Other Side\".", "Trixie is widely thought to have been his inspiration for his November 2007 book, ''The Darkest Evening of the Year'', about a woman who runs a Golden Retriever rescue home, and who rescues a \"special\" dog, named Nickie, which eventually saves her life.", "In August 2009, Koontz published ''A Big Little Life'', a memoir of his life with Trixie.In October 2008, Koontz revealed that he had adopted a new dog, Anna.", "Eventually, he learned that Anna was the grandniece of Trixie.", "Anna died on May 22, 2016.Koontz then adopted a new dog, Elsa, on July 11, 2016." ], [ "Disputed authorship", "A number of letters, articles, and novels were ostensibly written by Koontz during the 1960s and 1970s, but he has stated he did not write them.", "These include 30 erotic novels, allegedly written together by Koontz and his wife Gerda, including books such as ''Thirteen and Ready!", "'', ''Swappers Convention'', and ''Hung'', the last one published under the name \"Leonard Chris\".", "They also include contributions to the fanzines ''Energumen'' and ''BeABohema'' in the late 1960s and early 1970s, including articles that mention the erotic novels, such as a movie column called \"Way Station\" in ''BeABohema''.Koontz wrote in ''How to Write Best Selling Fiction'', a much revised and updated version of 'Writing Popular Fiction' (1972), \"During my first six years as a full-time novelist ...", "I wrote a lot of ephemeral stuff; anything that would pay some bills ...", "I did Gothic romance novels under a pen-name ... Like many writers, I did some pornography too, and a variety of other things, none of which required me to commit my heart or my soul to the task.", "(This is not to say I didn't bother to do a good job; on the contrary, I never wrote down to any market, and I always tried to give my editors and readers their money's worth.)\"", "The Gothic novels are identifiable, but none of Koontz's acknowledged work fits into the latter category.Koontz has stated on his website that he used only the ten known pen names and \"there are no secret pen names used by Dean\"; he adds that his own identity was stolen by \"a person he had previously worked with professionally\", who submitted letters and some articles to fanzines under Koontz's name between 1969 and at least the early 1970s.", "Koontz has stated that he was only made aware of these bogus letters and articles in 1991 in a written admission from the identity thief.", "He has stated that he will reveal this person's name in his memoirs." ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "Screenplays", "* 1979 – ''CHiPs'' episode 306: \"Counterfeit\" (as Brian Coffey)* 1990 – \"The Face of Fear\"* 1998 – \"Phantoms\"* 2005 – \"Dean Koontz's Frankenstein\"" ], [ "Film adaptations", "* ''Demon Seed'' (1977) – MGM – starring Julie Christie, Fritz Weaver, and Robert Vaughn as the voice of Proteus* ''The Passengers'' (1977) – MGM – starring Jean-Louis Trintignant (French film adaptation of Koontz's novel ''Shattered'')* ''Watchers'' (1988) – Universal Pictures – starring Corey Haim, Barbara Williams, and Michael Ironside* ''Whispers'' (1990) – Cinepix – starring Victoria Tennant, Chris Sarandon, and Jean LeClere* ''Watchers II'' (1990) – Concorde Pictures – starring Marc Singer and Tracy Scoggins* ''The Face of Fear'' (1990) – CBS – starring Pam Dawber and Lee Horsley, also includes Kevin Conroy and William Sadler* ''Servants of Twilight'' (1991) – Trimark – starring Bruce Greenwood* ''Watchers 3'' (1994) – Concorde Pictures – starring Wings Hauser* ''Hideaway'' (1995) – Tristar Pictures – starring Jeff Goldblum, Christine Lahti, Jeremy Sisto, and Alicia Silverstone* ''Intensity'' (1997) – Fox – starring John C. McGinley, Molly Parker, and Piper Laurie* ''Mr.", "Murder'' (1998) – ABC – starring Stephen Baldwin, Thomas Haden Church, and James Coburn* ''Phantoms'' (1998) – Miramax/Dimension Films – starring Peter O'Toole, Ben Affleck, Rose McGowan, and Joanna Going* ''Watchers Reborn'' (1998) – Concorde Pictures – starring Mark Hamill* ''Sole Survivor'' (2000) – Fox – starring Billy Zane, John C. McGinley, and Gloria Reuben* ''Black River'' (2001) – Fox – starring Jay Mohr and Stephen Tobolowsky* ''Frankenstein'' (2004) – USA Network – starring Adam Goldberg, Parker Posey, Michael Madsen, Vincent Perez, and Thomas Kretschmann (Koontz pulled out of the project midway through production because he did not like the direction the film was headed.", "He ended up writing his own books with the storyline he had originally created.", "The project continued without him.", ")* ''Odd Thomas'' (2013) – starring Anton Yelchin" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dean Koontz – The Official Website* * * Dean Koontz article including information on his erotic books*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Drake equation" ], [ "Introduction", "Frank DrakeThe '''Drake equation''' is a probabilistic argument used to estimate the number of active, communicative extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way Galaxy.The equation was formulated in 1961 by Frank Drake, not for purposes of quantifying the number of civilizations, but as a way to stimulate scientific dialogue at the first scientific meeting on the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI).", "The equation summarizes the main concepts which scientists must contemplate when considering the question of other radio-communicative life.", "It is more properly thought of as an approximation than as a serious attempt to determine a precise number.Criticism related to the Drake equation focuses not on the equation itself, but on the fact that the estimated values for several of its factors are highly conjectural, the combined multiplicative effect being that the uncertainty associated with any derived value is so large that the equation cannot be used to draw firm conclusions." ], [ "Equation", "The Drake equation is:where* = the number of civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy with which communication might be possible (i.e.", "which are on the current past light cone);and* = the average rate of star formation in our Galaxy.", "* = the fraction of those stars that have planets.", "* = the average number of planets that can potentially support life per star that has planets.", "* = the fraction of planets that could support life that actually develop life at some point.", "* = the fraction of planets with life that go on to develop intelligent life (civilizations).", "* = the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases detectable signs of their existence into space.", "* = the length of time for which such civilizations release detectable signals into space." ], [ "History", "In September 1959, physicists Giuseppe Cocconi and Philip Morrison published an article in the journal ''Nature'' with the provocative title \"Searching for Interstellar Communications\".", "Cocconi and Morrison argued that radio telescopes had become sensitive enough to pick up transmissions that might be broadcast into space by civilizations orbiting other stars.", "Such messages, they suggested, might be transmitted at a wavelength of 21 cm (1,420.4 MHz).", "This is the wavelength of radio emission by neutral hydrogen, the most common element in the universe, and they reasoned that other intelligences might see this as a logical landmark in the radio spectrum.Two months later, Harvard University astronomy professor Harlow Shapley speculated on the number of inhabited planets in the universe, saying \"The universe has 10 million, million, million suns (10 followed by 18 zeros) similar to our own.", "One in a million has planets around it.", "Only one in a million million has the right combination of chemicals, temperature, water, days and nights to support planetary life as we know it.", "This calculation arrives at the estimated figure of 100 million worlds where life has been forged by evolution.", "\"Seven months after Cocconi and Morrison published their article, Drake began searching for extraterrestrial intelligence in an experiment called Project Ozma.", "It was the first systematic search for signals from communicative extraterrestrial civilizations.", "Using the dish of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Green Bank in Green Bank, West Virginia, Drake monitored two nearby Sun-like stars: Epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti, slowly scanning frequencies close to the 21 cm wavelength for six hours per day from April to July 1960.The project was well designed, inexpensive, and simple by today's standards.", "It detected no signals.Soon thereafter, Drake hosted the first search for extraterrestrial intelligence conference on detecting their radio signals.", "The meeting was held at the Green Bank facility in 1961.The equation that bears Drake's name arose out of his preparations for the meeting.The ten attendees were conference organizer J. Peter Pearman, Frank Drake, Philip Morrison, businessman and radio amateur Dana Atchley, chemist Melvin Calvin, astronomer Su-Shu Huang, neuroscientist John C. Lilly, inventor Barney Oliver, astronomer Carl Sagan and radio-astronomer Otto Struve.", "These participants called themselves \"The Order of the Dolphin\" (because of Lilly's work on dolphin communication), and commemorated their first meeting with a plaque at the observatory hall." ], [ "Usefulness", "The Allen Telescope Array for SETIThe Drake equation amounts to a summary of the factors affecting the likelihood that we might detect radio-communication from intelligent extraterrestrial life.", "The last three parameters, , , and , are not known and are very difficult to estimate, with values ranging over many orders of magnitude (see ).", "Therefore, the usefulness of the Drake equation is not in the solving, but rather in the contemplation of all the various concepts which scientists must incorporate when considering the question of life elsewhere, and gives the question of life elsewhere a basis for scientific analysis.", "The equation has helped draw attention to some particular scientific problems related to life in the universe, for example abiogenesis, the development of multi-cellular life, and the development of intelligence itself.Within the limits of existing human technology, any practical search for distant intelligent life must necessarily be a search for some manifestation of a distant technology.", "After about 50 years, the Drake equation is still of seminal importance because it is a 'road map' of what we need to learn in order to solve this fundamental existential question.", "It also formed the backbone of astrobiology as a science; although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories.", "Some 50 years of SETI have failed to find anything, even though radio telescopes, receiver techniques, and computational abilities have improved significantly since the early 1960s.", "SETI efforts since 1961 have conclusively ruled out widespread alien emissions near the 21 cm wavelength of the hydrogen frequency." ], [ "Estimates", "===Original estimates===There is considerable disagreement on the values of these parameters, but the 'educated guesses' used by Drake and his colleagues in 1961 were: * = 1 yr−1 (1 star formed per year, on the average over the life of the galaxy; this was regarded as conservative)* = 0.2 to 0.5 (one fifth to one half of all stars formed will have planets)* = 1 to 5 (stars with planets will have between 1 and 5 planets capable of developing life)* = 1 (100% of these planets will develop life)* = 1 (100% of which will develop intelligent life)* = 0.1 to 0.2 (10–20% of which will be able to communicate)* = somewhere between 1000 and 100,000,000 yearsInserting the above minimum numbers into the equation gives a minimum N of 20 (see: Range of results).", "Inserting the maximum numbers gives a maximum of 50,000,000.Drake states that given the uncertainties, the original meeting concluded that , and there were probably between 1000 and 100,000,000 planets with civilizations in the Milky Way Galaxy.===Current estimates===This section discusses and attempts to list the best current estimates for the parameters of the Drake equation.====Rate of star creation in this Galaxy, ====Calculations in 2010, from NASA and the European Space Agency indicate that the rate of star formation in this Galaxy is about of material per year.", "To get the number of stars per year, we divide this by the initial mass function (IMF) for stars, where the average new star's mass is about .", "This gives a star formation rate of about 1.5–3 stars per year.====Fraction of those stars that have planets, ====Analysis of microlensing surveys, in 2012, has found that may approach 1—that is, stars are orbited by planets as a rule, rather than the exception; and that there are one or more bound planets per Milky Way star.====Average number of planets that might support life per star that has planets, ====In November 2013, astronomers reported, based on ''Kepler'' space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of sun-like stars and red dwarf stars within the Milky Way Galaxy.", "11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting sun-like stars.", "Since there are about 100 billion stars in the galaxy, this implies is roughly 0.4.The nearest planet in the habitable zone is Proxima Centauri b, which is as close as about 4.2 light-years away.The consensus at the Green Bank meeting was that had a minimum value between 3 and 5.Dutch science journalist Govert Schilling has opined that this is optimistic.", "Even if planets are in the habitable zone, the number of planets with the right proportion of elements is difficult to estimate.", "Brad Gibson, Yeshe Fenner, and Charley Lineweaver determined that about 10% of star systems in the Milky Way Galaxy are hospitable to life, by having heavy elements, being far from supernovae and being stable for a sufficient time.The discovery of numerous gas giants in close orbit with their stars has introduced doubt that life-supporting planets commonly survive the formation of their stellar systems.", "So-called hot Jupiters may migrate from distant orbits to near orbits, in the process disrupting the orbits of habitable planets.On the other hand, the variety of star systems that might have habitable zones is not just limited to solar-type stars and Earth-sized planets.", "It is now estimated that even tidally locked planets close to red dwarf stars might have habitable zones, although the flaring behavior of these stars might speak against this.", "The possibility of life on moons of gas giants (such as Jupiter's moon Europa, or Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus) adds further uncertainty to this figure.The authors of the rare Earth hypothesis propose a number of additional constraints on habitability for planets, including being in galactic zones with suitably low radiation, high star metallicity, and low enough density to avoid excessive asteroid bombardment.", "They also propose that it is necessary to have a planetary system with large gas giants which provide bombardment protection without a hot Jupiter; and a planet with plate tectonics, a large moon that creates tidal pools, and moderate axial tilt to generate seasonal variation.====Fraction of the above that actually go on to develop life, ====Geological evidence from the Earth suggests that may be high; life on Earth appears to have begun around the same time as favorable conditions arose, suggesting that abiogenesis may be relatively common once conditions are right.", "However, this evidence only looks at the Earth (a single model planet), and contains anthropic bias, as the planet of study was not chosen randomly, but by the living organisms that already inhabit it (ourselves).", "From a classical hypothesis testing standpoint, without assuming that the underlying distribution of is the same for all planets in the Milky Way, there are zero degrees of freedom, permitting no valid estimates to be made.", "If life (or evidence of past life) were to be found on Mars, Europa, Enceladus or Titan that developed independently from life on Earth it would imply a value for close to 1.While this would raise the number of degrees of freedom from zero to one, there would remain a great deal of uncertainty on any estimate due to the small sample size, and the chance they are not really independent.Countering this argument is that there is no evidence for abiogenesis occurring more than once on the Earth—that is, all terrestrial life stems from a common origin.", "If abiogenesis were more common it would be speculated to have occurred more than once on the Earth.", "Scientists have searched for this by looking for bacteria that are unrelated to other life on Earth, but none have been found yet.", "It is also possible that life arose more than once, but that other branches were out-competed, or died in mass extinctions, or were lost in other ways.", "Biochemists Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel laid special emphasis on this uncertainty: \"At the moment we have no means at all of knowing\" whether we are \"likely to be alone in the galaxy (Universe)\" or whether \"the galaxy may be pullulating with life of many different forms.\"", "As an alternative to abiogenesis on Earth, they proposed the hypothesis of directed panspermia, which states that Earth life began with \"microorganisms sent here deliberately by a technological society on another planet, by means of a special long-range unmanned spaceship\".In 2020, a paper by scholars at the University of Nottingham proposed an \"Astrobiological Copernican\" principle, based on the Principle of Mediocrity, and speculated that \"intelligent life would form on other Earth-like planets like it has on Earth, so within a few billion years life would automatically form as a natural part of evolution\".", "In the authors' framework, , , and are all set to a probability of 1 (certainty).", "Their resultant calculation concludes there are more than thirty current technological civilizations in the galaxy (disregarding error bars).====Fraction of the above that develops intelligent life, ====This value remains particularly controversial.", "Those who favor a low value, such as the biologist Ernst Mayr, point out that of the billions of species that have existed on Earth, only one has become intelligent and from this, infer a tiny value for .", "Likewise, the Rare Earth hypothesis, notwithstanding their low value for above, also think a low value for dominates the analysis.", "Those who favor higher values note the generally increasing complexity of life over time, concluding that the appearance of intelligence is almost inevitable, implying an approaching 1.Skeptics point out that the large spread of values in this factor and others make all estimates unreliable.", "(See Criticism).In addition, while it appears that life developed soon after the formation of Earth, the Cambrian explosion, in which a large variety of multicellular life forms came into being, occurred a considerable amount of time after the formation of Earth, which suggests the possibility that special conditions were necessary.", "Some scenarios such as the snowball Earth or research into extinction events have raised the possibility that life on Earth is relatively fragile.", "Research on any past life on Mars is relevant since a discovery that life did form on Mars but ceased to exist might raise the estimate of but would indicate that in half the known cases, intelligent life did not develop.Estimates of have been affected by discoveries that the Solar System's orbit is circular in the galaxy, at such a distance that it remains out of the spiral arms for tens of millions of years (evading radiation from novae).", "Also, Earth's large moon may aid the evolution of life by stabilizing the planet's axis of rotation.There has been quantitative work to begin to define .", "One example is a Bayesian analysis published in 2020.In the conclusion, the author cautions that this study applies to Earth's conditions.", "In Bayesian terms, the study favors the formation of intelligence on a planet with identical conditions to Earth but does not do so with high confidence.Planetary scientist Pascal Lee of the SETI Institute proposes that this fraction is very low (0.0002).", "He based this estimate on how long it took Earth to develop intelligent life (1 million years since ''Homo erectus'' evolved, compared to 4.6 billion years since Earth formed).====Fraction of the above revealing their existence via signal release into space, ====For deliberate communication, the one example we have (the Earth) does not do much explicit communication, though there are some efforts covering only a tiny fraction of the stars that might look for human presence.", "(See Arecibo message, for example).", "There is considerable speculation why an extraterrestrial civilization might exist but choose not to communicate.", "However, deliberate communication is not required, and calculations indicate that current or near-future Earth-level technology might well be detectable to civilizations not too much more advanced than present day humans.", "By this standard, the Earth is a communicating civilization.Another question is what percentage of civilizations in the galaxy are close enough for us to detect, assuming that they send out signals.", "For example, existing Earth radio telescopes could only detect Earth radio transmissions from roughly a light year away.====Lifetime of such a civilization wherein it communicates its signals into space, ====Michael Shermer estimated as 420 years, based on the duration of sixty historical Earthly civilizations.", "Using 28 civilizations more recent than the Roman Empire, he calculates a figure of 304 years for \"modern\" civilizations.", "It could also be argued from Michael Shermer's results that the fall of most of these civilizations was followed by later civilizations that carried on the technologies, so it is doubtful that they are separate civilizations in the context of the Drake equation.", "In the expanded version, including ''reappearance number'', this lack of specificity in defining single civilizations does not matter for the end result, since such a civilization turnover could be described as an increase in the ''reappearance number'' rather than increase in , stating that a civilization reappears in the form of the succeeding cultures.", "Furthermore, since none could communicate over interstellar space, the method of comparing with historical civilizations could be regarded as invalid.David Grinspoon has argued that once a civilization has developed enough, it might overcome all threats to its survival.", "It will then last for an indefinite period of time, making the value for potentially billions of years.", "If this is the case, then he proposes that the Milky Way Galaxy may have been steadily accumulating advanced civilizations since it formed.", "He proposes that the last factor be replaced with , where is the fraction of communicating civilizations that become \"immortal\" (in the sense that they simply do not die out), and representing the length of time during which this process has been going on.", "This has the advantage that would be a relatively easy-to-discover number, as it would simply be some fraction of the age of the universe.It has also been hypothesized that once a civilization has learned of a more advanced one, its longevity could increase because it can learn from the experiences of the other.The astronomer Carl Sagan speculated that all of the terms, except for the lifetime of a civilization, are relatively high and the determining factor in whether there are large or small numbers of civilizations in the universe is the civilization lifetime, or in other words, the ability of technological civilizations to avoid self-destruction.", "In Sagan's case, the Drake equation was a strong motivating factor for his interest in environmental issues and his efforts to warn against the dangers of nuclear warfare.An intelligent civilization might not be organic, as some have suggested that artificial general intelligence may replace humanity.===Range of results===As many skeptics have pointed out, the Drake equation can give a very wide range of values, depending on the assumptions, as the values used in portions of the Drake equation are not well established.", "In particular, the result can be , meaning we are likely alone in the galaxy, or , implying there are many civilizations we might contact.", "One of the few points of wide agreement is that the presence of humanity implies a probability of intelligence arising of greater than zero.As an example of a low estimate, combining NASA's star formation rates, the rare Earth hypothesis value of , Mayr's view on intelligence arising, Drake's view of communication, and Shermer's estimate of lifetime::, , , Drake, above, and yearsgives::i.e., suggesting that we are probably alone in this galaxy, and possibly in the observable universe.On the other hand, with larger values for each of the parameters above, values of can be derived that are greater than 1.The following higher values that have been proposed for each of the parameters::, , , , , Drake, above, and yearsUse of these parameters gives::Monte Carlo simulations of estimates of the Drake equation factors based on a stellar and planetary model of the Milky Way have resulted in the number of civilizations varying by a factor of 100.===Have other technological species ''ever'' existed?===In 2016, Adam Frank and Woodruff Sullivan modified the Drake equation to determine just how unlikely the event of a technological species arising on a given habitable planet must be, to give the result that Earth hosts the ''only'' technological species that has ''ever'' arisen, for two cases: (a) this Galaxy, and (b) the universe as a whole.", "By asking this different question, one removes the lifetime and simultaneous communication uncertainties.", "Since the numbers of habitable planets per star can today be reasonably estimated, the only remaining unknown in the Drake equation is the probability that a habitable planet ''ever'' develops a technological species over its lifetime.", "For Earth to have the only technological species that has ever occurred in the universe, they calculate the probability of any given habitable planet ever developing a technological species must be less than .", "Similarly, for Earth to have been the only case of hosting a technological species over the history of this Galaxy, the odds of a habitable zone planet ever hosting a technological species must be less than (about 1 in 60 billion).", "The figure for the universe implies that it is extremely unlikely that Earth hosts the only technological species that has ever occurred.", "On the other hand, for this Galaxy one must think that fewer than 1 in 60 billion habitable planets develop a technological species for there not to have been at least a second case of such a species over the past history of this Galaxy." ], [ "Modifications", "As many observers have pointed out, the Drake equation is a very simple model that omits potentially relevant parameters, and many changes and modifications to the equation have been proposed.", "One line of modification, for example, attempts to account for the uncertainty inherent in many of the terms.Combining the estimates of the original six factors by major researchers via a Monte Carlo procedure leads to a best value for the non-longevity factors of 0.85 1/years.", "This result differs insignificantly from the estimate of unity given both by Drake and the Cyclops report.Others note that the Drake equation ignores many concepts that might be relevant to the odds of contacting other civilizations.", "For example, David Brin states: \"The Drake equation merely speaks of the number of sites at which ETIs spontaneously arise.", "The equation says nothing directly about the contact cross-section between an ETIS and contemporary human society\".", "Because it is the contact cross-section that is of interest to the SETI community, many additional factors and modifications of the Drake equation have been proposed.", ";Colonization : It has been proposed to generalize the Drake equation to include additional effects of alien civilizations colonizing other star systems.", "Each original site expands with an expansion velocity , and establishes additional sites that survive for a lifetime .", "The result is a more complex set of 3 equations.", ";Reappearance factor : The Drake equation may furthermore be multiplied by ''how many times'' an intelligent civilization may occur on planets where it has happened once.", "Even if an intelligent civilization reaches the end of its lifetime after, for example, 10,000 years, life may still prevail on the planet for billions of years, permitting the next civilization to evolve.", "Thus, several civilizations may come and go during the lifespan of one and the same planet.", "Thus, if is the average number of times a new civilization reappears on the same planet where a previous civilization once has appeared and ended, then the total number of civilizations on such a planet would be , which is the actual ''reappearance factor'' added to the equation.", ":The factor depends on what generally is the cause of civilization extinction.", "If it is generally by temporary uninhabitability, for example a nuclear winter, then may be relatively high.", "On the other hand, if it is generally by permanent uninhabitability, such as stellar evolution, then may be almost zero.", "In the case of total life extinction, a similar factor may be applicable for , that is, ''how many times'' life may appear on a planet where it has appeared once.", ";METI factor : Alexander Zaitsev said that to be in a communicative phase and emit dedicated messages are not the same.", "For example, humans, although being in a communicative phase, are not a communicative civilization; we do not practise such activities as the purposeful and regular transmission of interstellar messages.", "For this reason, he suggested introducing the METI factor (messaging to extraterrestrial intelligence) to the classical Drake equation.", "He defined the factor as \"the fraction of communicative civilizations with clear and non-paranoid planetary consciousness\", or alternatively expressed, the fraction of communicative civilizations that actually engage in deliberate interstellar transmission.", ":The METI factor is somewhat misleading since active, purposeful transmission of messages by a civilization is not required for them to receive a broadcast sent by another that is seeking first contact.", "It is merely required they have capable and compatible receiver systems operational; however, this is a variable humans cannot accurately estimate.", ";Biogenic gases : Astronomer Sara Seager proposed a revised equation that focuses on the search for planets with biosignature gases.", "These gases are produced by living organisms that can accumulate in a planet atmosphere to levels that can be detected with remote space telescopes.", ":The Seager equation looks like this::::where::: = the number of planets with detectable signs of life:: = the number of stars observed:: = the fraction of stars that are quiet:: = the fraction of stars with rocky planets in the habitable zone:: = the fraction of those planets that can be observed:: = the fraction that have life:: = the fraction on which life produces a detectable signature gas:Seager stresses, \"We're not throwing out the Drake Equation, which is really a different topic,\" explaining, \"Since Drake came up with the equation, we have discovered thousands of exoplanets.", "We as a community have had our views revolutionized as to what could possibly be out there.", "And now we have a real question on our hands, one that's not related to intelligent life: Can we detect any signs of life in any way in the very near future?", "\";Carl Sagan version of Drake Equation:American astronomer Carl Sagan made some modifications in drake equation and presented it in the program Cosmos: A Personal Voyage.The modified equation is shown below where* = the number of civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy with which communication might be possible (i.e.", "which are on the current past light cone);and* = Number of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy * = the fraction of those stars that have planets.", "* = the average number of planets that can potentially support life per star that has planets.", "* = the fraction of planets that could support life that actually develop life at some point.", "* = the fraction of planets with life that go on to develop intelligent life (civilizations).", "* = the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases detectable signs of their existence into space.", "* = fraction of a planetary lifetime graced by a technological civilization" ], [ "Criticism", "Criticism of the Drake equation follows mostly from the observation that several terms in the equation are largely or entirely based on conjecture.", "Star formation rates are well-known, and the incidence of planets has a sound theoretical and observational basis, but the other terms in the equation become very speculative.", "The uncertainties revolve around the present day understanding of the evolution of life, intelligence, and civilization, not physics.", "No statistical estimates are possible for some of the parameters, where only one example is known.", "The net result is that the equation cannot be used to draw firm conclusions of any kind, and the resulting margin of error is huge, far beyond what some consider acceptable or meaningful.One reply to such criticisms is that even though the Drake equation currently involves speculation about unmeasured parameters, it was intended as a way to stimulate dialogue on these topics.", "Then the focus becomes how to proceed experimentally.", "Indeed, Drake originally formulated the equation merely as an agenda for discussion at the Green Bank conference.===Fermi paradox===A civilization lasting for tens of millions of years could be able to spread throughout the galaxy, even at the slow speeds foreseeable with present day technology.", "However, no confirmed signs of civilizations or intelligent life elsewhere have been found, either in this Galaxy or in the observable universe of 2 trillion galaxies.", "According to this line of thinking, the tendency to fill (or at least explore) all available territory seems to be a universal trait of living things, so the Earth should have already been colonized, or at least visited, but no evidence of this exists.", "Hence Fermi's question \"Where is everybody?", "\".A large number of explanations have been proposed to explain this lack of contact; a book published in 2015 elaborated on 75 different explanations.", "In terms of the Drake Equation, the explanations can be divided into three classes:Few intelligent civilizations ever arise.", "This is an argument that at least one of the first few terms, , has a low value.", "The most common suspect is , but explanations such as the rare Earth hypothesis argue that is the small term.", "Intelligent civilizations exist, but we see no evidence, meaning is small.", "Typical arguments include that civilizations are too far apart, it is too expensive to spread throughout the galaxy, civilizations broadcast signals for only a brief period of time, communication is dangerous, and many others.", "The lifetime of intelligent, communicative civilizations is short, meaning the value of is small.", "Drake suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, and he further speculated that the lack of evidence of such civilizations may be because technological civilizations tend to disappear rather quickly.", "Typical explanations include it is the nature of intelligent life to destroy itself, it is the nature of intelligent life to destroy others, they tend to be destroyed by natural events, and others.These lines of reasoning lead to the Great Filter hypothesis, which states that since there are no observed extraterrestrial civilizations despite the vast number of stars, at least one step in the process must be acting as a filter to reduce the final value.", "According to this view, either it is very difficult for intelligent life to arise, or the lifetime of technologically advanced civilizations, or the period of time they reveal their existence must be relatively short.An analysis by Anders Sandberg, Eric Drexler and Toby Ord suggests \"a substantial ''ex ante'' probability of there being no other intelligent life in our observable universe\"." ], [ "In fiction and popular culture", "The equation was cited by Gene Roddenberry as supporting the multiplicity of inhabited planets shown on ''Star Trek'', the television series he created.", "However, Roddenberry did not have the equation with him, and he was forced to \"invent\" it for his original proposal.", "The invented equation created by Roddenberry is:Regarding Roddenberry's fictional version of the equation, Drake himself commented that a number raised to the first power is just the number itself." ], [ "See also", " * * * * * * ''The Search for Life: The Drake Equation'', BBC documentary" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * " ], [ "External links", " Interactive Drake Equation Calculator* Frank Drake's 2010 article on \"The Origin of the Drake Equation\"* \"Only a matter of time, says Frank Drake\".", "A Q&A with Frank Drake in February 2010* * Macromedia Flash page allowing the user to modify Drake's values from PBS's ''Nova''* \"The Drake Equation\", ''Astronomy Cast'' episode #23; includes full transcript* Animated simulation of the Drake equation.", "()* \"The Alien Equation\", BBC Radio program ''Discovery'' (22 September 2010)* \"Reflections on the Equation\" (PDF), by Frank Drake, 2013" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Damascus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Damascus''' ( , ; ) is the capital of Syria, the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth holiest city in Islam.", "Known colloquially in Syria as () and dubbed, poetically, the \"City of Jasmine\" ( ), Damascus is a major cultural center of the Levant and the Arab world.Situated in southwestern Syria, Damascus is the center of a large metropolitan area.", "Nestled among the eastern foothills of the Anti-Lebanon mountain range inland from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean on a plateau above sea level, Damascus experiences an arid climate because of the rain shadow effect.", "The Barada River flows through Damascus.Damascus is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.", "First settled in the 3rd millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750.After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad.", "Damascus saw its importance decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods.", "Today, it is the seat of the central government of Syria.", ", eight years into the Syrian civil war, Damascus was named the least livable city out of 140 global cities in the Global Liveability Ranking.", ", it was the least livable out of 173 global cities in the same Global Liveability Ranking." ], [ "{{anchor\|Names and etymology}}Names and etymology", "The name of Damascus first appeared in the geographical list of Thutmose III as () in the 15th century BC.The etymology of the ancient name is uncertain.", "It is attested as () in Akkadian, () in Egyptian, () in Old Aramaic and () in Biblical Hebrew.", "A number of Akkadian spellings are found in the Amarna letters, from the 14th century BC: (), (), and ().Later Aramaic spellings of the name often include an intrusive ''resh'' (letter ''r''), perhaps influenced by the root , meaning \"dwelling\".", "Thus, the English and Latin name of the city is , which was imported from Greek and originated from the Qumranic (), and () in Syriac, meaning \"a well-watered land\".In Arabic, the city is called Dimashq ( ).", "The city is also known as by the citizens of Damascus, of Syria and other Arab neighbors and Turkey ().", "is an Arabic term for \"Levant\" and for \"Syria\"; the latter, and particularly the historical region of Syria, is called (, ).", "The latter term etymologically means \"land of the left-hand side\" or \"the north\", as someone in the Hijaz facing east, oriented to the sunrise, will find the north to the left.", "This is contrasted with the name of Yemen ( ), correspondingly meaning \"the right-hand side\" or \"the south\".", "The variation ('), of the more typical (), is also attested in Old South Arabian, (), with the same semantic development." ], [ "Geography", "Spot satelliteMount Qasioun overlooking the cityDamascus was built in a strategic site on a plateau above sea level and about inland from the Mediterranean, sheltered by the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, supplied with water by the Barada River, and at a crossroads between trade routes: the north–south route connecting Egypt with Asia Minor, and the east–west cross-desert route connecting Lebanon with the Euphrates river valley.", "The Anti-Lebanon Mountains mark the border between Syria and Lebanon.", "The range has peaks of over and blocks precipitation from the Mediterranean sea, so the region of Damascus is sometimes subject to droughts.", "However, in ancient times this was mitigated by the Barada River, which originates from mountain streams fed by melting snow.", "Damascus is surrounded by the Ghouta, irrigated farmland where many vegetables, cereals, and fruits have been farmed since ancient times.", "Maps of Roman Syria indicate that the Barada river emptied into a lake of some size east of Damascus.", "Today it is called Bahira Atayba, the hesitant lake because in years of severe drought, it does not even exist.The modern city has an area of , out of which is urban, while Jabal Qasioun occupies the rest.One of the rare periods the Barada river is high, seen here next to the Four Seasons hotel in downtown DamascusThe old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, lies on the south bank of the river Barada which is almost dry ( left).", "To the southeast, north, and north-east it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages: Midan in the southwest, Sarouja and Imara in the north and north-west.", "These neighborhoods originally arose on roads leading out of the city, near the tombs of religious figures.", "In the 19th century outlying villages developed on the slopes of Jabal Qasioun, overlooking the city, already the site of the al-Salihiyah neighborhood centered on the important shrine of medieval Andalusian Sheikh and philosopher Ibn Arabi.", "These new neighborhoods were initially settled by Kurdish soldiery and Muslim refugees from the European regions of the Ottoman Empire which had fallen under Christian rule.", "Thus they were known as ''al-Akrad'' ''(the Kurds)'' and ''al-Muhajirin'' ''(the migrants)''.", "They lay north of the old city.From the late 19th century on, a modern administrative and commercial center began to spring up to the west of the old city, around the Barada, centered on the area known as al-Marjeh or \"the meadow\".", "Al-Marjeh soon became the name of what was initially the central square of modern Damascus, with the city hall in it.", "The courts of justice, post office, and railway station stood on higher ground slightly to the south.", "A Europeanized residential quarter soon began to be built on the road leading between al-Marjeh and al-Salihiyah.", "The commercial and administrative center of the new city gradually shifted northwards slightly towards this area.Municipalities of DamascusIn the 20th century, newer suburbs developed north of the Barada, and to some extent to the south, invading the Ghouta oasis.", "In 1956–1957, the new neighborhood of Yarmouk became a second home to thousands of Palestinian refugees.", "City planners preferred to preserve the Ghouta as far as possible, and in the later 20th century some of the main areas of development were to the north, in the western Mezzeh neighborhood and most recently along the Barada valley in Dummar in the north west and on the slopes of the mountains at Barzeh in the north-east.", "Poorer areas, often built without official approval, have mostly developed south of the main city.Damascus used to be surrounded by an oasis, the Ghouta region (), watered by the Barada river.", "The Fijeh spring, west along the Barada valley, used to provide the city with drinking water and various sources to the west are tapped by water contractors.", "The flow of the Barada dropped with the rapid expansion of housing and industry in the city and it is almost dry.", "The lower aquifers are polluted by the city's runoff from heavily used roads, industry and sewage.===Climate===Damascus has a cool arid climate (''BWk'') in the Köppen-Geiger system, due to the rain shadow effect of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and the prevailing ocean currents.", "Summers are prolonged, dry and hot with less humidity.", "Winters are cool and somewhat rainy; snowfall is infrequent.", "Autumn is brief and mild, but has the most drastic temperature change, unlike spring where the transition to summer is more gradual and steady.", "Annual rainfall is around , occurring from October to May." ], [ "History", "===Early settlement===Carbon-14 dating at Tell Ramad, on the outskirts of Damascus, suggests that the site may have been occupied since the second half of the seventh millennium BC, possibly around 6300 BC.", "However, evidence of settlement in the wider Barada basin dating back to 9000 BC exists, although no large-scale settlement was present within Damascus' walls until the second millennium BC.===Late Bronze===Some of the earliest Egyptian records are from the 1350 BC Amarna letters, when Damascus (called ''Dimasqu'') was ruled by king Biryawaza.", "The Damascus region, as well as the rest of Syria, became a battleground circa 1260 BC, between the Hittites from the north and the Egyptians from the south, ending with a signed treaty between Hattusili III and Ramesses II where the former handed over control of the Damascus area to Ramesses II in 1259 BC.", "The arrival of the Sea Peoples, around 1200 BC, marked the end of the Bronze Age in the region and brought about new development of warfare.", "Damascus was only a peripheral part of this picture, which mostly affected the larger population centers of ancient Syria.", "However, these events contributed to the development of Damascus as a new influential center that emerged with the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.Damascus is mentioned in Genesis 14:15 as existing at the time of the War of the Kings.", "According to the 1st-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus in his twenty-one volume ''Antiquities of the Jews'', Damascus (along with Trachonitis), was founded by Uz, the son of Aram.", "In Antiquities i.", "7, Josephus reports:===Aram-Damascus===Annotated view of Damascus and surroundings from space.Damascus is first documented as an important city during the arrival of the Aramaeans, a Semitic people, in the 11th century BC.", "By the start of the first millennium BC, several Aramaic kingdoms were formed, as Aramaeans abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and formed federated tribal states.", "One of these kingdoms was Aram-Damascus, centered on its capital Damascus.", "The Aramaeans who entered the city without battle, adopted the name \"Dimashqu\" for their new home.", "Noticing the agricultural potential of the still-undeveloped and sparsely populated area, they established the water distribution system of Damascus by constructing canals and tunnels which maximized the efficiency of the river Barada.", "The same network was later improved by the Romans and the Umayyads, and still forms the basis of the water system of the old part of the city today.", "The Aramaeans initially turned Damascus into an outpost of a loose federation of Aramaean tribes, known as Aram-Zobah, based in the Beqaa Valley.The city would gain pre-eminence in southern Syria when Ezron, the claimant to Aram-Zobah's throne who was denied kingship of the federation, fled Beqaa and captured Damascus by force in 965 BC.", "Ezron overthrew the city's tribal governor and founded the independent entity of Aram-Damascus.", "As this new state expanded south, it prevented the Kingdom of Israel from spreading north and the two kingdoms soon clashed as they both sought to dominate trading hegemony in the east.", "Under Ezron's grandson, Ben-Hadad I (880–841 BC), and his successor Hazael, Damascus annexed Bashan (modern-day Hauran region), and went on the offensive with Israel.", "This conflict continued until the early 8th century BC when Ben-Hadad II was captured by Israel after unsuccessfully besieging Samaria.", "As a result, he granted Israel trading rights in Damascus.Another possible reason for the treaty between Aram-Damascus and Israel was the common threat of the Neo-Assyrian Empire which was attempting to expand into the Mediterranean coast.", "In 853 BC, King Hadadezer of Damascus led a Levantine coalition, that included forces from the northern Aram-Hamath kingdom and troops supplied by King Ahab of Israel, in the Battle of Qarqar against the Neo-Assyrian army.", "Aram-Damascus came out victorious, temporarily preventing the Assyrians from encroaching into Syria.", "However, after Hadadzezer was killed by his successor, Hazael, the Levantine alliance collapsed.", "Aram-Damascus attempted to invade Israel, but was interrupted by the renewed Assyrian invasion.", "Hazael ordered a retreat to the walled part of Damascus while the Assyrians plundered the remainder of the kingdom.", "Unable to enter the city, they declared their supremacy in the Hauran and Beqa'a valleys.By the 8th century BC, Damascus was practically engulfed by the Assyrians and entered a Dark Age.", "Nonetheless, it remained the economic and cultural center of the Near East as well as the Arameaen resistance.", "In 727, a revolt took place in the city, but was put down by Assyrian forces.", "After Assyria led by Tiglath-Pileser III went on a wide-scale campaign of quelling revolts throughout Syria, Damascus became totally subjugated by their rule.", "A positive effect of this was stability for the city and benefits from the spice and incense trade with Arabia.", "In 694 BC, the town was called ''Šaʾimerišu'' (Akkadian: 𒐼𒄿𒈨𒊑𒋙𒌋) and its governor was named ''Ilu-issīya''.", "However, Assyrian authority was dwindling by 609–605 BC, and Syria-Palestine was falling into the orbit of Pharaoh Necho II's Egypt.", "In 572 BC, all of Syria had been conquered by Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonians, but the status of Damascus under Babylon is relatively unknown.===Hellenistic period===Damascus was conquered by Alexander the Great.", "After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Damascus became the site of a struggle between the Seleucid and Ptolemaic empires.", "The control of the city passed frequently from one empire to the other.", "Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander's generals, made Antioch the capital of his vast empire, which led to the decline of Damascus' importance compared with new Seleucid cities such as Syrian Laodicea in the north.", "Later, Demetrius III Philopator rebuilt the city according to the Greek hippodamian system and renamed it \"Demetrias\".=== Roman period ===Jupiter Temple at the entrance of Al-Hamidiyah SouqIn 64 BC, the Roman general Pompey annexed the western part of Syria.", "The Romans occupied Damascus and subsequently incorporated it into the league of ten cities known as the Decapolis which themselves were incorporated into the province of Syria and granted autonomy.The city of Damascus was entirely redesigned by the Romans after Pompey conquered the region.", "Still today the Old Town of Damascus retains the rectangular shape of the Roman city, with its two main axes: the Decumanus Maximus (east-west; known today as the ''Via Recta'') and the Cardo (north-south), the Decumanus being about twice as long.", "The Romans built a monumental gate which still survives at the eastern end of Decumanus Maximus.", "The gate originally had three arches: the central arch was for chariots while the side arches were for pedestrians.Remnants of ancient DamascusIn 23 BC, Herod the Great was given lands controlled by Zenodorus by Caesar Augustus and some scholars believe that Herod was also granted control of Damascus as well.", "The control of Damascus reverted to Syria either upon the death of Herod the Great or was part of the lands given to Herod Philip which were given to Syria with his death in 33/34 AD.It is speculated that control of Damascus was gained by Aretas IV Philopatris of Nabatea between the death of Herod Philip in 33/34 AD and the death of Aretas in 40 AD but there is substantial evidence against Aretas controlling the city before 37 AD and many reasons why it could not have been a gift from Caligula between 37 and 40 AD.", "In fact, all these theories stem not from any actual evidence outside the New Testament but rather \"a certain understanding of 2 Corinthians 11:32\" and in reality \"neither from archaeological evidence, secular-historical sources, nor New Testament texts can Nabatean sovereignty over Damascus in the first century AD be proven.\"", "Roman emperor Trajan who annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, creating the province of Arabia Petraea, had previously been in Damascus, as his father Marcus Ulpius Traianus served as governor of Syria from 73 to 74 AD, where he met the Nabatean architect and engineer, Apollodorus of Damascus, who joined him in Rome when he was a consul in 91 AD, and later built several monuments during the 2nd century AD.Damascus became a metropolis by the beginning of the 2nd century and in 222 it was upgraded to a ''colonia'' by the Emperor Septimius Severus.", "During the ''Pax Romana'', Damascus and the Roman province of Syria in general began to prosper.", "Damascus's importance as a caravan city was evident with the trade routes from southern Arabia, Palmyra, Petra, and the silk routes from China all converging on it.", "The city satisfied the Roman demands for eastern luxuries.", "Circa 125 AD the Roman emperor Hadrian promoted the city of Damascus to \"Metropolis of Coele-Syria\".Little remains of the architecture of the Romans, but the town planning of the old city did have a lasting effect.", "The Roman architects brought together the Greek and Aramaean foundations of the city and fused them into a new layout measuring approximately , surrounded by a city wall.", "The city wall contained seven gates, but only the eastern gate, Bab Sharqi, remains from the Roman period.", "Roman Damascus lies mostly at depths of up to below the modern city.The Biblical Street called Straight of DamascusThe old borough of Bab Tuma was developed at the end of the Roman/Byzantine era by the local Eastern Orthodox community.", "According to the Acts of the Apostles, Saint Paul and Saint Thomas both lived in that neighborhood.", "Roman Catholic historians also consider Bab Tuma to be the birthplace of several Popes such as John V and Gregory III.", "Accordingly, there was a community of Jewish Christians who converted to Christianity with the advent of Saint Paul's proselytisation.During the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, the city was besieged and captured by Shahrbaraz in 613, along with a large number of Byzantine troops as prisoners, and was in Sasanian hands until near the end of the war.===Rashidun period===Muhammad's first indirect interaction with the people of Damascus was when he sent a letter, through his companion Shiya ibn Wahab, to Harith ibn Abi Shamir, the king of Damascus.", "In his letter, Muhammad stated: \"Peace be upon him who follows true guidance.", "Be informed that my religion shall prevail everywhere.", "You should accept Islam, and whatever under your command shall remain yours.", "\"Courtyard of the Umayyad MosqueAfter most of the Syrian countryside was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate during the reign of Caliph Umar (), Damascus itself was conquered by the Arab Muslim general Khalid ibn al-Walid in August–September 634 CE.", "His army had previously attempted to capture the city in April 634, but without success.", "With Damascus now in Muslim-Arab hands, the Byzantines, alarmed at the loss of their most prestigious city in the Near East, had decided to wrest back control of it.", "Under Emperor Heraclius, the Byzantines fielded an army superior to that of the Rashidun in manpower.", "They advanced into southern Syria during the spring of 636 and consequently Khalid ibn al-Walid's forces withdrew from Damascus to prepare for renewed confrontation.", "In August, the two sides met along the Yarmouk River where they fought a major battle which ended in a decisive Muslim victory, solidifying Muslim rule in Syria and Palestine.", "While the Muslims administered the city, the population of Damascus remained mostly Christian—Eastern Orthodox and Monophysite—with a growing community of Muslims from Mecca, Medina, and the Syrian Desert.", "The governor assigned to the city which had been chosen as the capital of Islamic Syria was Mu'awiya I.=== Umayyad and Abbasid periods ===View of Damascus with the Umayyad Mosque in centerFollowing the fourth Rashidun caliph Ali's death in 661, Mu'awiya was chosen as the caliph of the expanding Islamic empire.", "Because of the vast amounts of assets his clan, the Umayyads, owned in the city and because of its traditional economic and social links with the Hijaz as well as the Christian Arab tribes of the region, Mu'awiya established Damascus as the capital of the entire Caliphate.", "With the ascension of Caliph Abd al-Malik in 685, an Islamic coinage system was introduced and all of the surplus revenue of the Caliphate's provinces were forwarded to the treasury of Damascus.", "Arabic was also established as the official language, giving the Muslim minority of the city an advantage over the Aramaic-speaking Christians in administrative affairs.Abd al-Malik's successor, al-Walid initiated construction of the Grand Mosque of Damascus (known as the Umayyad Mosque) in 706.The site originally had been the Christian Cathedral of St. John and the Muslims maintained the building's dedication to John the Baptist.", "By 715, the mosque was complete.", "Al-Walid died that same year and he was succeeded at first by Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik and then by Umar II, who each ruled for brief periods before the reign of Hisham in 724.With these successions, the status of Damascus was gradually weakening as Suleiman had chosen Ramla as his residence and later Hisham chose Resafa.", "Following the murder of the latter in 743, the Caliphate of the Umayyads—which by then stretched from Spain to India— was crumbling as a result of widespread revolts.", "During the reign of Marwan II in 744, the capital of the empire was relocated to Harran in the northern Jazira region.dome of Damascus' treasury in the Umayyad MosqueOn 25 August 750, the Abbasids, having already beaten the Umayyads in the Battle of the Zab in Iraq, conquered Damascus after facing little resistance.", "With the heralding of the Abbasid Caliphate, Damascus became eclipsed and subordinated by Baghdad, the new Islamic capital.", "Within the first six months of Abbasid rule, revolts began erupting in the city, albeit too isolated and unfocused to present a viable threat.", "Nonetheless, the last of the prominent Umayyads were executed, the traditional officials of Damascus ostracised, and army generals from the city were dismissed.", "Afterwards, the Umayyad family cemetery was desecrated and the city walls were torn down, reducing Damascus into a provincial town of little importance.", "It roughly disappeared from written records for the next century and the only significant improvement of the city was the Abbasid-built treasury dome in the Umayyad Mosque in 789.In 811, distant remnants of the Umayyad dynasty staged a strong uprising in Damascus that was eventually put down.Ahmad ibn Tulun, a dissenting Turkish governor appointed by the Abbasids, conquered Syria, including Damascus, from his overlords in 878–79.In an act of respect for the previous Umayyad rulers, he erected a shrine on the site of Mu'awiya's grave in the city.", "Tulunid rule of Damascus was brief, lasting only until 906 before being replaced by the Qarmatians who were adherents of Shia Islam.", "Due to their inability to control the vast amount of land they occupied, the Qarmatians withdrew from Damascus and a new dynasty, the Ikhshidids, took control of the city.", "They maintained the independence of Damascus from the Arab Hamdanid dynasty of Aleppo and the Baghdad-based Abbasids until 967.A period of instability in the city followed, with a Qarmatian raid in 968, a Byzantine raid in 970, and increasing pressures from the Fatimids in the south and the Hamdanids in the north.Damascus was the capital of the Umayyad caliphate, which extended from Portugal to IranThe Shia Fatimids gained control in 970, inflaming hostilities between them and the Sunni Arabs of the city who frequently revolted.", "A Turk, Alptakin drove out the Fatimids five years later, and through diplomacy, prevented the Byzantines during the Syrian campaigns of John Tzimiskes from attempting to annex the city.", "However, by 977, the Fatimids under Caliph al-Aziz, wrested back control of the city and tamed Sunni dissidents.", "The Arab geographer, al-Muqaddasi, visited Damascus in 985, remarking that the architecture and infrastructure of the city was \"magnificent\", but living conditions were awful.", "Under al-Aziz, the city saw a brief period of stability that ended with the reign of al-Hakim (996–1021).", "In 998, hundreds of Damascus' citizens were rounded up and executed by him for incitement.", "Three years after al-Hakim's mysterious disappearance, the Arab tribes of southern Syria formed an alliance to stage a massive rebellion against the Fatimids, but they were crushed by the Fatimid Turkish governor of Syria and Palestine, Anushtakin al-Duzbari, in 1029.This victory gave the latter mastery over Syria, displeasing his Fatimid overlords, but gaining the admiration of Damascus' citizens.", "He was exiled by Fatimid authorities to Aleppo where he died in 1041.From that date to 1063, there are no known records of the city's history.", "By then, Damascus lacked a city administration, had an enfeebled economy, and a greatly reduced population.===Seljuq and Ayyubid periods===With the arrival of the Seljuq Turks in the late 11th century, Damascus again became the capital of independent states.", "It was ruled by Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I starting in 1079 and he was succeeded by his son Abu Nasr Duqaq in 1095.The Seljuqs established a court in Damascus and a systematic reversal of Shia inroads in the city.", "The city also saw an expansion of religious life through private endowments financing religious institutions (''madrasas'') and hospitals (''maristans'').", "Damascus soon became one of the most important centers of propagating Islamic thought in the Muslim world.", "After Duqaq's death in 1104, his mentor (''atabeg''), Toghtekin, took control of Damascus and the Burid line of the Seljuq dynasty.", "Under Duqaq and Toghtekin, Damascus experienced stability, elevated status and a revived role in commerce.", "In addition, the city's Sunni majority enjoyed being a part of the larger Sunni framework effectively governed by various Turkic dynasties who in turn were under the moral authority of the Baghdad-based Abbasids.While the rulers of Damascus were preoccupied in conflict with their fellow Seljuqs in Aleppo and Diyarbakir, the Crusaders, who arrived in the Levant in 1097, conquered Jerusalem, Mount Lebanon and Palestine.", "Duqaq seemed to have been content with Crusader rule as a buffer between his dominion and the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt.", "Toghtekin, however, saw the Western invaders as a viable threat to Damascus which, at the time, nominally included Homs, the Beqaa Valley, Hauran, and the Golan Heights as part of its territories.", "With military support from Sharaf al-Din Mawdud of Mosul, Toghtekin managed to halt Crusader raids in the Golan and Hauran.", "Mawdud was assassinated in the Umayyad Mosque in 1109, depriving Damascus of northern Muslim backing and forcing Toghtekin to agree to a truce with the Crusaders in 1110.In 1126, the Crusader army led by Baldwin II fought Burid forces led by Toghtekin at Marj al-Saffar near Damascus; however, despite their tactical victory, the Crusaders failed in their objective to capture Damascus.Nur ad-Din also Known as the Madrasah Nuriyya al-KubraFollowing Toghtekin's death in 1128, his son, Taj al-Muluk Buri, became the nominal ruler of Damascus.", "Coincidentally, the Seljuq prince of Mosul, Imad al-Din Zengi, took power in Aleppo and gained a mandate from the Abbasids to extend his authority to Damascus.", "In 1129, around 6,000 Isma'ili Muslims were killed in the city along with their leaders.", "The Sunnis were provoked by rumors alleging there was a plot by the Isma'ilis, who controlled the strategic fort at Banias, to aid the Crusaders in capturing Damascus in return for control of Tyre.", "Soon after the massacre, the Crusaders aimed to take advantage of the unstable situation and launch an assault against Damascus with nearly 2,000 knights and 10,000 infantry.", "However, Buri allied with Zengi and managed to prevent their army from reaching the city.", "Buri was assassinated by Isma'ili agents in 1132; he was succeeded by his son, Shams al-Mulk Isma'il who ruled tyrannically until he himself was murdered in 1135 on secret orders from his mother, Safwat al-Mulk Zumurrud; Isma'il's brother, Shihab al-Din Mahmud, replaced him.", "Meanwhile, Zengi, intent on putting Damascus under his control, married Safwat al-Mulk in 1138.Mahmud's reign then ended in 1139 after he was killed for relatively unknown reasons by members of his family.", "Mu'in al-Din Unur, his ''mamluk'' (\"slave soldier\") took effective power of the city, prompting Zengi—with Safwat al-Mulk's backing—to lay siege against Damascus the same year.", "In response, Damascus allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem to resist Zengi's forces.", "Consequently, Zengi withdrew his army and focused on campaigns against northern Syria.In 1144, Zengi conquered Edessa, a crusader stronghold, which led to a new crusade from Europe in 1148.In the meantime Zengi was assassinated and his territory was divided among his sons, one of whom, Nur ad-Din, emir of Aleppo, made an alliance with Damascus.", "When the European crusaders arrived, they and the nobles of Jerusalem agreed to attack Damascus.", "Their siege, however, was a complete failure.", "When the city seemed to be on the verge of collapse, the crusader army suddenly moved against another section of the walls, and were driven back.", "By 1154, Damascus was firmly under Nur ad-Din's control.In 1164, King Amalric of Jerusalem invaded Fatimid Egypt, which requested help from Nur ad-Din.", "The Nur ad-Din sent his general Shirkuh, and in 1166 Amalric was defeated at the Battle of al-Babein.", "When Shirkuh died in 1169, he was succeeded by his nephew Yusuf, better known as Saladin, who defeated a joint crusader-Byzantine siege of Damietta.", "Saladin eventually overthrew the Fatimid caliphs and established himself as Sultan of Egypt.", "He also began to assert his independence from Nur ad-Din, and with the death of both Amalric and Nur ad-Din in 1174, he was well-placed to begin exerting control over Damascus and Nur ad-Din's other Syrian possessions.", "In 1177 Saladin was defeated by the crusaders at the Battle of Montgisard, despite his numerical superiority.", "Saladin also besieged Kerak in 1183, but was forced to withdraw.", "He finally launched a full invasion of Jerusalem in 1187, and annihilated the crusader army at the Battle of Hattin in July.", "Acre fell to Saladin soon after, and Jerusalem itself was captured in October.", "These events shocked Europe, resulting in the Third Crusade in 1189, led by Richard I of England, Philip II of France and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, though the last drowned en route.The surviving crusaders, joined by new arrivals from Europe, put Acre to a lengthy siege which lasted until 1191.After re-capturing Acre, Richard defeated Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf in 1191 and the Battle of Jaffa in 1192, recovering most of the coast for the Christians, but could not recover Jerusalem or any of the inland territory of the kingdom.", "The crusade came to an end peacefully, with the Treaty of Jaffa in 1192.Saladin allowed pilgrimages to be made to Jerusalem, allowing the crusaders to fulfil their vows, after which they all returned home.", "Local crusader barons set about rebuilding their kingdom from Acre and the other coastal cities.Saladin died in 1193, and there were frequent conflicts between different Ayyubid sultans ruling in Damascus and Cairo.", "Damascus was the capital of independent Ayyubid rulers between 1193 and 1201, from 1218 to 1238, from 1239 to 1245, and from 1250 to 1260.At other times it was ruled by the Ayyubid rulers of Egypt.", "During the internecine wars fought by the Ayyubid rulers, Damascus was besieged repeatedly, as, e.g., in 1229.The patterned Byzantine and Chinese silks available through Damascus, one of the Western termini of the Silk Road, gave the English language \"damask\".===Mamluk period===Woodcut of 1497Venetian delegation in Damascus, painting of 1511.Louvre-Lens.Ayyubid rule (and independence) came to an end with the Mongol invasion of Syria in 1260, in which the Mongols led by Kitbuqa entered the city on 1 March 1260, along with the King of Armenia, Hethum I, and the Prince of Antioch, Bohemond VI; hence, the citizens of Damascus saw for the first time for six centuries three Christian potentates ride in triumph through their streets.", "However, following the Mongol defeat at Ain Jalut on 3 September 1260, Damascus was captured five days later and became the provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, ruled from Egypt, following the Mongol withdrawal.", "Following their victory at the Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar, the Mongols led by Ghazan besieged the city for ten days, which surrendered between December 30, 1299, and January 6, 1300, though its Citadel resisted.", "Ghazan then retreated with most of his forces in February, probably because the Mongol horses needed fodder, and left behind about 10,000 horsemen under the Mongol general Mulay.", "Around March 1300, Mulay returned with his horsemen to Damascus, then followed Ghazan back across the Euphrates.", "In May 1300, the Egyptian Mamluks returned from Egypt and reclaimed the entire area without a battle.", "In April 1303, the Mamluks managed to defeat the Mongol army led by Kutlushah and Mulay along with their Armenian allies at the Battle of Marj al-Saffar, to put an end to Mongol invasions of the Levant.", "Later on, the Black Death of 1348–1349 killed as much as half of the city's population.In 1400, Timur, the Turco-Mongol conqueror, besieged Damascus.", "The Mamluk sultan dispatched a deputation from Cairo, including Ibn Khaldun, who negotiated with him, but after their withdrawal Timur sacked the city on 17 March 1401.The Umayyad Mosque was burnt and men and women taken into slavery.", "A huge number of the city's artisans were taken to Timur's capital at Samarkand.", "These were the luckier citizens: many were slaughtered and their heads piled up in a field outside the north-east corner of the walls, where a city square still bears the name ''Burj al-Ru'us'' (between modern-day Al-Qassaa and Bab Tuma), originally \"the tower of heads\".Rebuilt, Damascus continued to serve as a Mamluk provincial capital until 1516.===Ottoman period===Damascus in 1690 by Jacob Balthasar PeetersA Turkish Divan in Damascus, in 1836, by John CarneDamascus, view taken from the Christian quarter, in 1876.In early 1516, the Ottoman Empire, wary of the danger of an alliance between the Mamluks and the Persian Safavids, started a campaign of conquest against the Mamluk sultanate.", "On 21 September, the Mamluk governor of Damascus fled the city, and on 2 October the khutba in the Umayyad mosque was pronounced in the name of Selim I.", "The day after, the victorious sultan entered the city, staying for three months.", "On 15 December, he left Damascus by Bab al-Jabiya, intent on the conquest of Egypt.", "Little appeared to have changed in the city: one army had simply replaced another.", "However, on his return in October 1517, the sultan ordered the construction of a mosque, tekkiye and mausoleum at the shrine of Shaikh Muhi al-Din ibn Arabi in al-Salihiyah.", "This was to be the first of Damascus' great Ottoman monuments.During this time, according to an Ottoman census, Damascus had 10,423 households.The Ottomans remained for the next 400 years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840.Because of its importance as the point of departure for one of the two great Hajj caravans to Mecca, Damascus was treated with more attention by the Porte than its size might have warranted—for most of this period, Aleppo was more populous and commercially more important.", "In 1559 the western building of Sulaymaniyya Takiyya, comprising a mosque and khan for pilgrims on the road to Mecca, was completed to a design by the famous Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, and soon afterwards the Salimiyya Madrasa was built adjoining it.Early in the nineteenth century, Damascus was noted for its shady cafes along the banks of the Barada.", "A depiction of these by William Henry Bartlett was published in 1836, along with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon, see Under Ottoman rule, Christians and Jews were considered dhimmis and were allowed to practice their religious precepts.", "During the Damascus affair of 1840 the false accusation of ritual murder was brought against members of the Jewish community of Damascus.", "The massacre of Christians in 1860 was also one of the most notorious incidents of these centuries, when fighting between Druze and Maronites in Mount Lebanon spilled over into the city.", "Several thousand Christians were killed in June 1860, with many more being saved through the intervention of the Algerian exile Abd al-Qadir and his soldiers (three days after the massacre started), who brought them to safety in Abd al-Qadir's residence and the Citadel of Damascus.", "The Christian quarter of the old city (mostly inhabited by Catholics), including a number of churches, was burnt down.", "The Christian inhabitants of the notoriously poor and refractory Midan district outside the walls (mostly Orthodox) were, however, protected by their Muslim neighbors.American Missionary E.C.", "Miller records that in 1867 the population of the city was 'about' 140,000, of whom 30,000 were Christians, 10,000 Jews and 100,000 'Mohammedans' with fewer than 100 Protestant Christians.", "In the meantime, American writer Mark Twain visited Damascus, then wrote about his travel in ''The Innocents Abroad'', in which he mentioned: \"Though old as history itself, thou art fresh as the breath of spring, blooming as thine own rose-bud, and fragrant as thine own orange flower, O Damascus, pearl of the East!\".", "In November 1898, German emperor Wilhelm II toured Damascus, during his trip to the Ottoman Empire.===Modern period=======20th century====4th Light Horse RegimentIn the early years of the 20th century, nationalist sentiment in Damascus, initially cultural in its interest, began to take a political coloring, largely in reaction to the turkicisation program of the Committee of Union and Progress government established in Istanbul in 1908.The hanging of a number of patriotic intellectuals by Jamal Pasha, governor of Damascus, in Beirut and Damascus in 1915 and 1916 further stoked nationalist feeling, and in 1918, as the forces of the Arab Revolt and the British Imperial forces approached, residents fired on the retreating Turkish troops.King Faisal of Syria and T.E.", "Lawrence in Damascus during World War I, 1918.On 1 October 1918, T.E.", "Lawrence entered Damascus, the third arrival of the day, the first being the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade, led by Major A.C.N.", "'Harry' Olden.", "Two days later, 3 October 1918, the forces of the Arab revolt led by Prince Faisal also entered Damascus.", "A military government under Shukri Pasha was named and Faisal ibn Hussein was proclaimed king of Syria.", "Political tension rose in November 1917, when the new Bolshevik government in Russia revealed the Sykes-Picot Agreement whereby Britain and France had arranged to partition the Arab east between them.", "A new Franco-British proclamation on 17 November promised the \"complete and definitive freeing of the peoples so long oppressed by the Turks.\"", "The Syrian National Congress in March adopted a democratic constitution.", "However, the Versailles Conference had granted France a mandate over Syria, and in 1920 a French army commanded by the General Mariano Goybet crossed the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, defeated a small Syrian defensive expedition at the Battle of Maysalun and entered Damascus.", "The French made Damascus capital of their League of Nations Mandate for Syria.When in 1925 the Great Syrian Revolt in the Hauran spread to Damascus, the French suppressed with heavy weaponry, bombing and shelling the city on 9 May 1926.As a result, the area of the old city between Al-Hamidiyah Souq and Medhat Pasha Souq was burned to the ground, with many deaths, and has since then been known as ''al-Hariqa'' (\"the fire\").", "The old city was surrounded with barbed wire to prevent rebels infiltrating from the Ghouta, and a new road was built outside the northern ramparts to facilitate the movement of armored cars.On 21 June 1941, 3 weeks into the Allied Syria-Lebanon campaign, Damascus was captured from the Vichy French forces by a mixed British Indian and Free French force.", "The French agreed to withdraw in 1946, following the British intervention during the Levant Crisis, thus leading to the full independence of Syria.", "Damascus remained the capital.In 1979, the Old City of Damascus, with its collection of archaeological and historical religious sites, was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.==== Civil war ====The Damascus Opera House, opened in 2004Damascus in 2006, taken from the International Space StationBy January 2012, clashes between the regular army and rebels reached the outskirts of Damascus, reportedly preventing people from leaving or reaching their houses, especially when security operations there intensified from the end of January into February.Umayyad SquareBy June 2012, bullets and shrapnel shells smashed into homes in Damascus overnight as troops battled the Free Syrian Army in the streets.", "At least three tank shells slammed into residential areas in the central Damascus neighborhood of Qaboun, according to activists.", "Intense exchanges of assault-rifle fire marked the clash, according to residents and amateur video posted online.The Damascus suburb of Ghouta suffered heavy bombing in December 2017 and a further wave of bombing started in February 2018, also known as Rif Dimashq Offensive.On 20 May 2018, Damascus and the entire Rif Dimashq Governorate came fully under government control for the first time in 7 years after the evacuation of IS from Yarmouk Camp.", "In September 2019, Damascus entered the ''Guinness World Records'' as the least liveable city, scoring 30.7 points on the Economist's Global Liveability Index in 2019, based on factors such as: stability, healthcare, culture and environment, education, and infrastructure.", "However, the trend of being the least liveable city on Earth started in 2017, and continued as of 2023." ], [ "Economy", "The historical role that Damascus played as an important trade center has changed in recent years due to political development in the region as well as the development of modern trade.", "Most goods produced in Damascus, as well as in Syria, are distributed to countries of the Arabian peninsula.", "Damascus has also held an annual international trade exposition every fall, since 1954.The tourism industry in Damascus has a lot of potential, however the civil war has hampered these prospects.", "The abundance of cultural wealth in Damascus has been modestly employed since the late 1980s with the development of many accommodation and transportation establishments and other related investments.", "Since the early 2000s, numerous boutique hotels and bustling cafes opened in the old city which attract plenty of European tourists and Damascenes alike.", "In 2009 new office space was built and became available on the real estate market.", "Bank Al-Sharq and the Blue Tower Hotel, a 4 star hotel in Hamra Street.Damascus is home to a wide range of industrial activity, such as textile, food processing, cement and various chemical industries.", "The majority of factories are run by the state, however limited privatization in addition to economic activities led by the private sector, were permitted starting in the early 2000s with the liberalization of trade that took place.Traditional handcrafts and artisan copper engravings are still produced in the old city.The Damascus stock exchange formally opened for trade in March 2009, and the exchange is the only stock exchange in Syria.", "It is located in the Barzeh district, within Syria's financial markets and securities commission.", "Its final home is to be located in the upmarket business district of Yaafur." ], [ "Demographics", "=== Population ===Three Damascene women, 1873: peasant (left), Druze in ''tantour'' headdress, and urban lady wearing ''qabqab'' (i.e.", "kabkab or platform shoes)Scene in a bazaar in Damascus, in 1838, by Charles G. Addison.", "British Library.Damascus's population in 2004 was estimated to be 2.7 million people.", "The estimated population of Damascus in 2011 was 1,711,000.However, in 2022, the city had an estimated population of 2,503,000, which in early 2023 rose to 2,584,771.Damascus is the center of a crowded metropolitan area with an estimated population of 5 million.", "The metropolitan area of Damascus includes the cities of Douma, Harasta, Darayya, Al-Tall and Jaramana.The city's growth rate is higher than Syria as a whole, primarily due to rural-urban migration and the influx of young Syrian migrants drawn by employment and educational opportunities.", "The migration of Syrian youths to Damascus has resulted in an average age within the city that is below the national average.", "Nonetheless, the population of Damascus is thought to have decreased in recent years as a result of the ongoing Syrian civil war.===Ethnicity===The vast majority of Damascenes are Syrian Arabs.", "The Kurds are the second largest ethnic minority, with a population of approximately 300,000.They reside primarily in the neighborhoods of Wadi al-Mashari (\"Zorava\" or \"Zore Afa\" in Kurdish) and Rukn al-Din.", "Other minorities include Palestinians, Assyrians, Syrian Turkmen, Armenians, Circassians and a small Greek community.There was once a significant Jewish community in Damascus, but as of 2023 no Jews remain.===Religion===Islam is the largest religion.", "The majority of Muslims are Sunni while Alawites and Twelver Shi'a comprise sizeable minorities.", "Alawites live primarily in the Mezzeh districts of Mezzeh 86 and Sumariyah.", "Twelvers primarily live near the Shia holy sites of Sayyidah Ruqayya and Sayyidah Zaynab.", "It is believed that there are more than 200 mosques in Damascus, the most well-known being the Umayyad Mosque.Christians represent about 10%–15% of the population.", "Several Eastern Christian rites have their headquarters in Damascus, including the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, and the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch.", "The Christian districts in the city are Bab Tuma, Qassaa and Ghassani.", "Each have many churches, most notably the ancient Chapel of Saint Paul and St Georges Cathedral in Bab Tuma.", "At the suburb of Soufanieh a series of apparitions of the Virgin Mary have reportedly been observed between 1982 and 2004.The Patriarchal See of the Syriac Orthodox is based in Damascus, Bab Touma.A smaller Druze minority inhabits the city, notably in the mixed Christian-Druze suburbs of Tadamon, Jaramana, and Sahnaya.There was a small Jewish community namely in what is called ''Harat al-Yahud'' the Jewish quarter.", "They are the remnants of an ancient and much larger Jewish presence in Syria, dating back at least to Roman times, if not before to the time of King David.=== Gallery ===Melkite Greek Catholic Church, Damascus, Syria.jpg\|The Greek-Melkite Patriarchal Cathedral of the Dormition of Our LadySyriac Catholic Church, Damascus 01.jpg\|The Syriac Catholic Cathedral of Saint PaulDamascus-Bab Kisan.jpg\|The Chapel of Saint PaulTakiyya as-Süleimaniyya Mosque 01.jpg\|The Sulaymaniyya TakiyyaFile:Syria, Damascus, The Umayyad Mosque, The Great Mosque of Damascus.jpg\|The Umayyad MosqueSayyidah Ruqayya Mosque 03.jpg\|The Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque====Sufism====Sufism throughout the second half of the 20th century has been an influential current in the Sunni religious practises, particularly in Damascus.", "The largest women-only and girls-only Muslim movement in the world happens to be Sufi-oriented and is based in Damascus, led by Munira al-Qubaysi.", "Syrian Sufism has its stronghold in urban regions such as Damascus, where it also established political movements such as Zayd, with the help of a series of mosques, and clergy such as Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, Sa'id Hawwa, Abd al-Rahman al-Shaghouri and Muhammad al-Yaqoubi." ], [ "Historical sites", "Typical historic Damascene streetAl-Hamidiyah Souq, dating back to the Ottoman eraDamascus has a wealth of historical sites dating back to many different periods of the city's history.", "Since the city has been built up with every passing occupation, it has become almost impossible to excavate all the ruins of Damascus that lie up to below the modern level.", "The Citadel of Damascus is in the northwest corner of the Old City.", "The ''Damascus Straight Street'' (referred to in the account of the conversion of St. Paul in Acts 9:11), also known as the ''Via Recta'', was the decumanus (east–west main street) of Roman Damascus, and extended for over .", "Today, it consists of the street of Bab Sharqi and the Souk Medhat Pasha, a covered market.", "The Bab Sharqi street is filled with small shops and leads to the old Christian quarter of Bab Tuma (St. Thomas's Gate), where St George's Cathedral, the seat of the Syriac Orthodox Church, is notably located.", "Medhat Pasha Souq is also a main market in Damascus and was named after Midhat Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Syria who renovated the Souk.", "At the end of the Bab Sharqi street, one reaches the House of Ananias, an underground chapel that was the cellar of Ananias's house.", "The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Grand Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest mosques in the world and also one of the oldest sites of continuous prayer since the rise of Islam.", "A shrine in the mosque is said to contain the body of St. John the Baptist.", "The mausoleum where Saladin was buried is located in the gardens just outside the mosque.", "Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque, the shrine of the youngest daughter of Husayn ibn Ali, can also be found near the Umayyad Mosque.", "The ancient district of Amara is also within a walking distance from these sites.", "Another heavily visited site is Sayyidah Zaynab Mosque, where the tomb of Zaynab bint Ali is located.Shias, Fatemids and Dawoodi Bohras believe that after the battle of Karbala (680 AD), in Iraq, the Umayyad Caliph Yezid brought Imam Husain's head to Damascus, where it was first kept in the courtyard of Yezid Mahal, now part of Umayyad Mosque complex.", "All other remaining members of Imam Husain's family (left alive after Karbala) along with heads of all other companions, who were killed at Karbala, were also brought to Damascus.", "These members were kept as prisoners on the outskirts of the city (near Bab al-Saghir), where the other heads were kept at the same location, now called Ru'ûs ash-Shuhadâ-e-Karbala or ganj-e-sarha-e-shuhada-e-Karbala.", "There is a qibla (place of worship) marked at the place, where devotees say Imam Ali-Zain-ul-Abedin used to pray while in captivity.The Harat Al Yehud or Jewish Quarter is a recently restored historical tourist destination popular among Europeans before the outbreak of civil war.===Walls and gates of Damascus===Bab Tuma gateThe Old City of Damascus with an approximate area of 86.12 hectares is surrounded by ramparts on the northern and eastern sides and part of the southern side.", "There are seven extant city gates, the oldest of which dates back to the Roman period.", "These are, clockwise from the north of the citadel:* Bab al-Faradis (\"the gate of the orchards\", or \"of the paradise\")* Bab al-Salam (\"the gate of peace\"), all on the north boundary of the Old City* Bab Tuma (\"Touma\" or \"Thomas's Gate\") in the north-east corner, leading into the Christian quarter of the same name,* Bab Sharqi (\"eastern gate\") in the east wall, the only one to retain its Roman plan* Bab Kisan in the south-east, from which tradition holds that Saint Paul made his escape from Damascus, lowered from the ramparts in a basket; this gate has been closed and turned into Chapel of Saint Paul marking this event,* Bab al-Saghir (The Small Gate)* Bab al-Jabiya at the entrance to Souk Midhat Pasha, in the south-west.Other areas outside the walled city also bear the name \"gate\": Bab al-Faraj, Bab Mousalla and Bab Sreija, both to the south-west of the walled city.===Churches in the old city===Chapel of Saint Paul* Chapel of Saint Paul* House of Saint Ananias* Mariamite Cathedral of Damascus* Cathedral of the Dormition of Our Lady* Saint John the Damascene Church* Saint Paul's Laura* Saint George's Syriac Orthodox Cathedral===Islamic sites in the old city===Saladin mausoleumGrave of Bilal ibn Rabah in Bab al-Saghir cemetery, Damascus* Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus* Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque* Bab Saghir Cemetery* Mausoleum of Saladin* Nabi Habeel Mosque===Madrasas===* Al-Adiliyah Madrasa* Az-Zahiriyah Library* Nur al-Din Madrasa===Khans===* Khan Jaqmaq* Khan As'ad Pasha* Khan Sulayman Pasha===Old Damascene houses===Narrow alley in old Damascus* Azm Palace, originally built in 1750 as the residence for the Ottoman governor of Damascus As'ad Pasha al-Azm, housing the Museum of Arts and Popular Traditions.", "* Bayt al-Aqqad.", "* Maktab Anbar, a mid-19th-century Jewish private mansion, restored by the Ministry of Culture in 1976 to serve as a library, exhibition center, museum and craft workshops.", "* Beit al-Mamlouka, a 17th-century Damascene house, serving as a luxury boutique hotel within the old city since 2005.===Threats to the future of the old City===Due to the rapid decline of the population of Old Damascus (between 1995 and 2009 about 30,000 people moved out of the old city for more modern accommodation), a growing number of buildings are being abandoned or are falling into disrepair.", "In March 2007, the local government announced that it would be demolishing Old City buildings along a stretch of rampart walls as part of a redevelopment scheme.", "These factors resulted in the Old City being placed by the World Monuments Fund on its 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world.", "It is hoped that its inclusion on the list will draw more public awareness to these significant threats to the future of the historic Old City of Damascus.====State of old Damascus====In spite of the recommendations of the UNESCO World Heritage Center:* Souq al-Atiq, a protected buffer zone, was destroyed in three days in November 2006;* King Faysal Street, a traditional hand-craft region in a protected buffer zone near the walls of Old Damascus between the Citadel and ''Bab Touma'', is threatened by a proposed motorway.", "* In 2007, the Old City of Damascus and notably the district of Bab Tuma have been recognized by The World Monument Fund as one of the most endangered sites in the world.In October 2010, Global Heritage Fund named Damascus one of 12 cultural heritage sites most \"on the verge\" of irreparable loss and destruction." ], [ "Education", "Damascus UniversityDamascus is the main center of education in Syria.", "It is home to Damascus University, which is the oldest and largest university in Syria.", "After the enactment of legislation allowing private higher institutions, several new universities were established in the city and in the surrounding area, including:* Syrian Virtual University* International University for Science and Technology* Syrian Private University* Arab International University* University of Kalamoon* Yarmouk Private University* Wadi International University* Al-Jazeera University* European University DamascusThe institutes play an important rule in the education, including:* Higher Institute of Business Administration* Higher Institute for Applied Science and Technology* Higher Institute for Dramatic Arts* National Institute of AdministrationIn Damascus, Higher education in Syrian Arab Republic started with sustainable development steps through Damascus University.", "* Additional:*Syrian International Academy for Training and Development" ], [ "Transportation", "A highway in DamascusDamascus is linked with other major cities in Syria via a motorway network.", "The M5 connects Damascus with Homs, Hama, Aleppo and Turkey in the north and Jordan in the south.", "The M1 is going from Homs onto Latakia and Tartus.The M4 links the city with Al-Hasakah and Iraq.", "The M1 highway connects the city to the western Syria and Beirut.The main airport is Damascus International Airport, approximately away from the city, with connections to a few Middle Eastern cities.", "Before the beginning of the Syrian civil war, the airport had connectivity to many Asian, European, African, and, South American cities.Streets in Damascus are often narrow, especially in the older parts of the city, and speed bumps are widely used to limit the speed of vehicles.", "Many taxi companies operate in Damascus.", "Fares are regulated by law and taxi drivers are obliged to use a taximeter.Public transport in Damascus depends extensively on buses and minibuses.", "There are about one hundred lines that operate inside the city and some of them extend from the city center to nearby suburbs.", "There is no schedule for the lines, and due to the limited number of official bus stops, buses will usually stop wherever a passenger needs to get on or off.", "The number of buses serving the same line is relatively high, which minimizes the waiting time.", "Lines are not numbered, rather they are given captions mostly indicating the two end points and possibly an important station along the line.", "Between 2019 and 2022, more than 100 modern buses were delivered from China as part of the international agreement.", "These deliveries strengthened and modernized the public transport of Damascus.thumbAl-Hejaz StationServed by Chemins de Fer Syriens, the former main railway station of Damascus was al-Hejaz railway station, about west of the old city.", "The station is now defunct and the tracks have been removed, but there still is a ticket counter and a shuttle to Damacus Qadam station in the south of the city, which now functions as the main railway station.In 2008, the government announced a plan to construct a Damascus Metro.", "The green line will be an essential west–east axis for the future public transportation network, serving Moadamiyeh, Sumariyeh, Mezzeh, Damascus University, Hijaz, the Old City, Abbassiyeen and Qaboun Pullman bus station.", "A four-line metro network is expected be in operation by 2050." ], [ "Culture", "National Museum of DamascusDamascus was chosen as the 2008 Arab Capital of Culture.", "The preparation for the festivity began in February 2007 with the establishing of the Administrative Committee for \"Damascus Arab Capital of Culture\" by a presidential decree.===Museums=== National Museum of Damascus* Azem Palace* Military Museum* October War Panorama Museum* Museum of Arabic Calligraphy* Nur al-Din Bimaristan===Sports and leisure===Al-Fayhaa Sports ComplexPopular sports include football, basketball, swimming, tennis, table tennis, equestrian and chess.", "Damascus is home to many football clubs that participate in the Syrian Premier League including al-Jaish, al-Shorta, Al-Wahda and Al-Majd.", "Many Other sport clubs are located in several districts of the city: Barada SC, Al-Nidal SC, Al-Muhafaza, Qasioun SC, al-Thawra SC, Maysalun SC, al-Fayhaa SC, Dummar SC, al-Majd SC and al-Arin SC.The fifth and the seventh Pan Arab Games were held in Damascus in 1976 and 1992 respectively.The now modernized Al-Fayhaa Sports City features a basketball court and a hall that can accommodate up to 8,000 people.", "In late November 2021, Syria's national basketball team played there against Kazakhstan, making Damascus host of Syria's first international basketball tournament in almost two decades.The city also has a modern golf course located near the Ebla Cham Palace Hotel at the southeastern outskirts of Damascus.Damascus has busy nightlife.", "Coffeehouses offer Arabic coffee, tea and nargileh (water pipes).", "Card games, tables (backgammon variants), and chess are activities frequented in cafés.", "These coffeehouses have had in the past an international reputation, as indicated by Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration, ''Cafes in Damascus'', to a picture by William Henry Bartlett in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837.Current movies can be seen at Cinema City which was previously known as Cinema Dimashq.Tishreen Park is one of the largest parks in Damascus.", "It is home to the annual Damascus Flower Show.", "Other parks include: al-Jahiz, al-Sibbki, al-Tijara, al-Wahda, etc..", "The city's famous Ghouta oasis is also a weekend-destination for recreation.", "Many recreation centers operate in the city including sport clubs, swimming pools and golf courses.", "The Syrian Arab Horse Association in Damascus offers a wide range of activities and services for horse breeders and riders.===Nearby attractions===Zabadani resort near DamascusBooza being sold in the Bakdash ice cream shop in the Damascus market* Madaya: a small mountainous town well known holiday resort.", "* Bloudan: a town located north-west of the Damascus, its moderate temperature and low humidity in summer attracts many visitors from Damascus and throughout Syria, Lebanon and the Persian Gulf.", "* Zabadani: a city in close to the border with Lebanon.", "Its mild weather along with the scenic views, made the town a popular resort both for tourists and for visitors from other Syrian cities.", "* Maaloula: a town dominated by speakers of Western Neo-Aramaic.", "* Saidnaya: a city located in the mountains, above sea level, it was one of the episcopal cities of the ancient Patriarchate of Antioch." ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "* Ankara, Turkey* Astana, Kazakhstan* Bucharest, Romania* Buenos Aires, Argentina* Córdoba, Spain* Dubai, United Arab Emirates* Istanbul, Turkey* Rabat, Morocco * Toledo, Spain* Yerevan, Armenia" ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "See also", "Damascus DocumentList of World Heritage in Danger" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Map of Damascus, 1929, Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel, Historic Cities Research Project." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diplomatic immunity" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Diplomatic immunity''' is a principle of international law by which certain foreign government officials are recognized as having legal immunity from the jurisdiction of another country.", "It allows diplomats safe passage and freedom of travel in a host country and affords almost total protection from local lawsuits and prosecution.", "Diplomatic immunity is one of the oldest and most widespread practices in international relations; most civilizations since antiquity have granted some degree of special status to foreign envoys and messengers.", "It is designed to facilitate relations between states by allowing their respective representatives to conduct their duties freely and safely, even during periods of political tension and armed conflict.", "Moreover, such protections are generally understood to be reciprocal and therefore mutually beneficial.", "As a longstanding and nearly universal concept, diplomatic immunity has long been considered customary law; however, it was traditionally granted on a bilateral, ''ad hoc'' basis, leading to varying and sometimes conflicting standards of protection.", "Modern practices of diplomatic immunity have largely conformed to the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which formally codified the legal and political status of diplomats, and has been ratified by the vast majority of sovereign states.", "Contrary to popular belief, diplomats are not entirely immune from the jurisdiction of their host country.", "Like most foreign persons, they may still be declared ''persona non grata'' and expelled.", "A foreign official's home country may waive immunity, typically in the event that they are involved in some manner in a serious crime unrelated to their diplomatic role (as opposed to, for example, allegations of spying).", "However, many countries refuse to waive immunity as a matter of course, and diplomats have no authority to waive their own immunity (except perhaps in cases of defection).", "Alternatively, the home country may prosecute the individual on its own accord or through the insistence of the host country." ], [ "History", "===Pre-modern era===Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, mediating for peace to avert the Kurukshetra War of MahabharataThe concept of diplomatic immunity can be found in ancient Indian epics like ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'', where messengers and diplomats were given immunity from capital punishment.", "In ''Ramayana'', when the demon king Ravana ordered the killing of Hanuman, Ravana's younger brother Vibhishana pointed out that messengers or diplomats should not be killed, as per ancient practices.During the evolution of international justice, many wars were considered rebellions or unlawful by one or more combatant sides.", "In such cases, the servants of the \"criminal\" sovereign were often considered accomplices and their persons violated.", "In other circumstances, harbingers of inconsiderable demands were killed as a declaration of war.", "Herodotus records that when heralds of the Persian king Xerxes demanded \"earth and water\" (i.e., symbols of submission) of Greek cities, the Athenians threw them into a pit and the Spartans threw them down a well for the purpose of suggesting they would find both earth and water at the bottom, these often being mentioned by the messenger as a threat of siege.", "However, even for Herodotus, this maltreatment of envoys is a crime.", "He recounts a story of divine vengeance befalling Sparta for this deed.A Roman envoy was urinated on as he was leaving the city of Tarentum.", "The oath of the envoy, \"This stain will be washed away with blood!", "\", was fulfilled during the Pyrrhic War.", "Gregory of Tours recorded that Frankish envoys sent from King Childebert II to the Byzantine emperor Maurice were killed in Carthage by the prefect of the city, after one of the Franks had murdered a merchant.", "After Emperor Maurice heard about this, he ordered for several Carthaginians to be arrested and sent to Childebert for judgment on account of what happened to his envoys.The arrest and ill-treatment of the envoy of Raja Raja Chola by the king of Kulasekhara dynasty (Second Cheras), which is now part of modern India, led to the naval Kandalur War in AD 994.The Islamic prophet Muhammad sent and received envoys and strictly forbade harming them.", "This practice was continued by the Rashidun caliphs who exchanged diplomats with the Ethiopians and the Byzantines.", "This diplomatic exchange continued during the Arab–Byzantine wars.Classical Sharia called for hospitality to be shown towards anyone who has been granted ''amān'' (or right of safe passage).", "''Amān'' was readily granted to any emissary bearing a letter or another sealed document.", "The duration of the ''amān'' was typically a year.", "Envoys with this right of passage were given immunity of person and property.", "They were exempt from taxation, as long as they did not engage in trade.As diplomats by definition enter the country under safe conduct, violating them is normally viewed as a great breach of honor.", "Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for insisting on the rights of diplomats, and would often take terrifying vengeance against any state that violated these rights; at times razing entire cities in retaliation for the execution of their ambassadors.", "The Mongols invaded and destroyed the Khwarezmid Empire after their ambassadors were mistreated.===16th–19th century===The British Parliament first guaranteed diplomatic immunity to foreign ambassadors under the Diplomatic Privileges Act in 1709, after Count Andrey Matveyev, a Russian resident in London, was subjected to verbal and physical abuse by British bailiffs.Modern diplomatic immunity evolved parallel to the development of modern diplomacy.", "In the 17th century, European diplomats realized that protection from prosecution was essential to doing their jobs, and a set of rules evolved guaranteeing the rights of diplomats.", "These were still confined to Western Europe and were closely tied to the prerogatives of nobility.", "Thus, an emissary to the Ottoman Empire could expect to be arrested and imprisoned upon the outbreak of hostilities between his state and the empire.", "The French Revolution also disrupted this system, as the revolutionary state and Napoleon imprisoned numerous diplomats who were accused of working against France.", "More recently, the Iran hostage crisis is universally considered a violation of diplomatic immunity.", "Although the hostage takers did not officially represent the state, host countries are obligated to protect diplomatic property and personnel.", "On the other hand, during World War II, diplomatic immunity was upheld and the embassies of the belligerents were evacuated through neutral countries.For the upper class of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, diplomatic immunity was an easy concept to understand.", "The first embassies were not permanent establishments but actual visits by high-ranking representatives, often close relatives of the sovereign, or by the sovereign in person.", "As permanent representations evolved, usually on a treaty basis between two powers, they were frequently staffed by relatives of the sovereign or high-ranking nobles.Warfare was a status of hostilities not between individual states but between their sovereigns, as well as the officers and officials of European governments, and armies often changed employers.", "Truces and ceasefires were commonplace, as was the fraternization between officers of opposing armies.", "If officers were taken prisoner, they usually gave their parole and were only restricted to a city away from the theatre of war.", "Almost always, they were given leave to carry their personal sidearms.", "Even during the French Revolutionary Wars, British scientists visited the French Academy.", "In such an atmosphere, it was easy to accept that some persons were immune to the laws.", "After all, they were still bound by strict requirements of honour and customs.===Modern era and Vienna convention===In the 19th century, the Congress of Vienna reasserted the rights of diplomats; they have been largely respected since then, as the European model has spread throughout the world.", "Currently, diplomatic relations, including diplomatic immunity, are governed internationally by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which has been ratified by almost every country in the world.In modern times, diplomatic immunity continues to provide a means, albeit imperfect, to safeguard diplomatic personnel from any animosity that might arise between nations.", "As one article put it: \"So why do we agree to a system in which we're dependent on a foreign country's whim before we can prosecute a criminal inside our own borders?", "The practical answer is: because we depend on other countries to honor our own diplomats' immunity just as scrupulously as we honor theirs.", "\"During the 18 April 1961 Vienna Convention, the Holy See was granted diplomatic immunity to its foreign ambassadors as well.In the United States, the Diplomatic Relations Act of 1978 ( et seq.)", "follows the principles introduced by the Vienna Conventions.", "The United States tends to be generous when granting diplomatic immunity to visiting diplomats, because a large number of US diplomats work in host countries less protective of individual rights.", "If the United States were to punish a visiting diplomat without sufficient grounds, US representatives in other countries could receive harsher treatment.", "If a person with immunity is alleged to have committed a crime or faces a civil lawsuit, the State Department asks the home country to waive immunity of the alleged offender so that the complaint can be moved to the courts.", "If immunity is not waived, prosecution cannot be undertaken.", "However, the State Department still has the right to expel the diplomat.", "In many such cases, the diplomat's visas are revoked, and they and their family may be barred from returning to the United States.", "Crimes committed by members of a diplomat's family can also result in dismissal." ], [ "Exceptions to the Vienna Convention", "Some countries have made reservations to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, but they are minor.", "A number of countries limit the diplomatic immunity of persons who are citizens of the receiving country.", "As nations keep faith to their treaties with differing zeal, other rules may also apply, though in most cases this summary is a reasonably accurate approximation.", "The Convention does not cover the personnel of international organizations, whose privileges are decided upon on a case-by-case basis, usually in the treaties founding such organizations.=== UN organisations ===The United Nations system (including its agencies, which comprise the most recognizable international bodies such as the World Bank and many others) has a relatively standardized form of limited immunities for staff traveling on UN laissez-passer; diplomatic immunity is often granted to the highest-ranking officials of these agencies.", "Consular officials (that do not have concurrent diplomatic accreditation) formally have a more limited form of immunity, generally limited to their official duties.", "Diplomatic technical and administrative staff also have more limited immunity under the Vienna Convention; for this reason, some countries may accredit a member of technical or administrative staff as an attaché.=== Others ===Other categories of government officials that may travel frequently to other countries may not have diplomatic passports or diplomatic immunity, such as members of the military, high-ranking government officials, ministers, and others.", "For the US military, official passports can be used for work related travels only.", "Many countries provide non-diplomatic official passports to such personnel, and there may be different classes of such travel documents such as official passports, service passports, and others.", "De facto recognition of some form of immunity may be conveyed by states accepting officials traveling on such documents, or there may exist bilateral agreements to govern such cases (as in, for example, the case of military personnel conducting or observing exercises on the territory of the receiving country).Formally, diplomatic immunity may be limited to officials accredited to a host country, or traveling to or from their host country.", "In practice, many countries may effectively recognize diplomatic immunity for those traveling on diplomatic passports, with admittance to the country constituting acceptance of the diplomatic status.", "However, this is not universal, and diplomats have been prosecuted and jailed for crimes committed outside the country they are accredited to.As a result of their title, diplomats are exempt from being prosecuted by the state in open court when they are suspected to be guilty of a crime.", "Not only are these agents free from the criminal jurisdiction of the state, they are also immune from administrative and civil jurisdiction.", "This applies for most scenarios; however, there are some exceptions when the diplomatic immunity is subject to waiver.# Any events that are associated with individual stationary property in the land of the given receiving State – with the exception of whether or not he is directed to do so for a plan.", "# Any events with regards to a diplomat serving as another role from another State, including heir, inheritor of a will, executor, administrator.# Any activity by a diplomat, in the receiving State, that is related to any professional or commercial operations beyond the scope of his directed responsibilities.Asadollah Asadi, an Iranian diplomat, was arrested while returning to his residence in Austria on a highway in Germany on June 10, 2018, accused of being involved in an attempted bombing at a gathering of the National Council of Resistance of Iran (a political organisation opposing the Iranian regime).", "While Assadi was entitled to diplomatic immunity where applicable, it was deemed that he was not protected when he was arrested as he was on holiday (in Germany) outside the country where he was posted and hence protected." ], [ "Uses and abuses", "In reality, most diplomats are representatives of nations with a tradition of professional civil service; they are expected to obey regulations governing their behaviour and suffer severe disciplinary action if they flout local laws.", "In many nations, a professional diplomat's career may be compromised if they (or members of their family) disobey the local authorities or cause serious embarrassment, and such cases are, at any rate, a violation of the spirit of the Vienna Conventions.The Vienna Convention is explicit that \"without prejudice to their privileges and immunities, it is the duty of all persons enjoying such privileges and immunities to respect the laws and regulations of the receiving State.\"", "Nevertheless, on some occasions, protected diplomats have violated laws (including those that would be violations at home as well) of the host country, and that country has been essentially limited to informing the diplomat's nation that the diplomat is no longer welcome (''persona non grata'').", "Diplomatic agents are not, however, exempt from the jurisdiction of their home state, and hence prosecution may be undertaken by the sending state.", "For minor violations of the law, the sending state may impose administrative procedures specific to the foreign service or diplomatic mission.Violation of the law by diplomats has included espionage, smuggling, child custody law violations, money laundering, tax evasion, making terrorist threats, slavery, child solicitation, and murder.===Offences against the person===On-duty police officer Yvonne Fletcher was murdered in London in 1984, by a person shooting from inside the Libyan embassy during a protest.", "The incident caused a breakdown in diplomatic relations until Libya admitted \"general responsibility\" in 1999.The incident became a major factor in Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's decision to allow President of the United States Ronald Reagan to launch the US bombing of Libya in 1986 from American bases in the United Kingdom.In 1987, the Human Resources Administration of New York City placed 9-year-old Terrence Karamba in a foster home after his elementary school teachers noticed suspicious scars and injuries.", "He and his 7-year-old sister, who was also placed in city custody, told officials the wounds had been inflicted by their father, Floyd Karamba, an administrative attaché at the Zimbabwean Mission to the UN.", "No charges were filed, as Karamba had diplomatic immunity.In February 1999 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Kazuko Shimokoji, wife of the Japanese Consul-General, showed up at the emergency department of a city hospital with two black eyes and a bruised neck.", "She told doctors that her husband had beaten her.", "When local police questioned her husband, Mr. Shimokoji said, \"Yes, I punched her out and she deserved it\", and described the incident as \"a cultural thing and not a big deal\".", "Although an arrest warrant was issued, Mr. Shimokoji could not be arrested due to his diplomatic immunity.", "However, his statement to the police was widely reported in both the local and Japanese press.", "The subsequent public uproar prompted the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs to waive Mr. Shimokoji's immunity.", "Though he pleaded guilty in Canadian court, he was given an absolute discharge.", "Nonetheless, he was recalled to Japan where he was reassigned to office duty and had his pay cut.In 2002, a Colombian diplomat in the United Kingdom was prosecuted for manslaughter once diplomatic immunity was waived by the Colombian government.In November 2006 in New York City, Fred Matwanga, Kenyan diplomat to the UN, was taken into police custody by officers responding to reports that he had assaulted his son; he was released after asserting diplomatic immunity.In 2011, Turkish president Erdogan and his team started fighting with UN officials at the United Nations Headquarters.", "The then secretary general, Ban Ki Moon, soon ran over and apologised to Erdogan.In April 2012 in the Philippines, Erick Shcks Bairnals, a technical officer of the Panama Maritime Authority's regional office in Manila, was accused of raping a 19-year-old Filipino woman.", "Being an attached agency to the Panamanian embassy in Manila, the AMP office was classified as a diplomatic entity, its officers possessing the same privileges conferred to the embassy's diplomats.", "Shcks was later released from detention because Shcks \"enjoys protection under the 1961 Vienna Convention.", "\"In March 2013, the Supreme Court of India restricted Italian ambassador Daniele Mancini from leaving India for breaching an undertaking given to the apex court.", "Despite Italian and European Union protests regarding the restrictions as contrary to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the Supreme Court of India said it would be unacceptable to argue diplomatic immunity after voluntarily submitting to the court's jurisdiction.", "The Italian envoy had invoked Article 32 of the Constitution of India when filing an affidavit to the Supreme Court taking responsibility for the return of the two Italian marines to India after casting their votes in the March 2012 general elections in Italy.", "The Indian Supreme Court opined that the Italian ambassador had waived his diplomatic immunity and could be charged for contempt.", "The two marines were being tried in India for the murder of two Indian fishermen off the coast of Kerala (see the Enrica Lexie case).In October 2013, Russian diplomat Dmitri Borodin was arrested in The Hague, The Netherlands, after neighbours called the police.", "Borodin was alleged to have been drunk and violent towards his children, aged two and four.", "Police were in the area because Borodin's wife had lost control over her car while also intoxicated, and had rammed four parked cars near the diplomats' house.", "Russia immediately demanded an apology from the Dutch government for violating Borodin's diplomatic immunity.", "The row came at a time of tension between Russia and the Netherlands, after the Russian security services captured a Greenpeace vessel sailing under the Dutch flag, ''Arctic Sunrise'', that was protesting against oil drilling in the Prirazlomnoye field.In June 2014, the New Zealand government confirmed that Mohammed Rizalman Bin Ismail from Malaysia, aged in his 30s and employed at Malaysia's High Commission in Wellington, had invoked diplomatic immunity when faced with charges of burglary and assault with intent to rape after allegedly following a 21-year-old woman to her home.", "He returned to Malaysia in May 2014 with his family while the case was still in hearing.", "The New Zealand foreign ministry was criticized for allowing the defendant to leave the country, which was blamed on miscommunication between the foreign ministries of the two countries, as Prime Minister John Key expressed his view that \"the man should have faced the charges in New Zealand\".", "Malaysia eventually agreed to send the diplomat back to assist in investigations and he was eventually tried and sentenced to nine months' home detention in New Zealand.In July 2017, in Jordan, two Jordanian carpenters were invited to repair furniture at an Israeli diplomatic security agent's residence near the Israeli embassy.", "It is believed that the Jordanians and Israeli security agent quarreled over the ongoing tensions regarding the installations of metal detectors at entry points to al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem.", "One carpenter, a teenager of Palestinian origin reportedly tried to stab the Israeli security agent with his screwdriver, and the Israeli security agent shot and killed the Jordanian carpenter, and also shot the property landlord as well, a doctor, who happened to be there at the time.", "Israel refused to allow Jordanian authorities to question the agent, claiming diplomatic immunity under the Vienna convention.In August 2017, Grace Mugabe, the former First Lady of Zimbabwe, invoked diplomatic immunity on 15 August after assault charges were laid against her by a South African model.In 2018, Saudi American journalist Jamal Khashoggi was killed by Saudi officials inside the Saudi embassy in Turkey.", "The Turkish police were not allowed to enter the premises days after this death.", "Furthermore, a Saudi government vehicle with diplomatic license plates was spotted entering a park.In August 2022, UN diplomat Charles Dickens Imene Oliha of South Sudan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs claimed diplomatic immunity and was released from jail in New York City after raping a woman twice inside her apartment building.", "He subsequently returned to South Sudan, where he was suspended from his duties and is to be investigated.===Theft===In April 2021, two Pakistani diplomats in South Korea were caught shoplifting in Seoul.", "The Pakistani diplomats were caught stealing $1.70 chocolate and a $10 hat.", "The case was closed owing to their diplomatic immunity.===Smuggling===Diplomats and officials involved in drug smuggling have benefited from diplomatic immunity.", "For example, a Venezuelan general wanted in the United States on drugs charges was arrested in Aruba only to be released after the Venezuelan government protested his diplomatic immunity and threatened sanctions if Aruba did not release him.In December 2014, Gambian diplomats were found guilty by Southwark Crown Court of London for selling tax-free tobacco from the Gambian embassy in the United Kingdom.", "The Crown Prosecution Service told the court that much of this was sold from the embassy without paying value-added tax and excise duty.===Employer abuse and slavery===Diplomatic immunity from local employment and labor law has precipitated incidents in which diplomatic staff have been accused of abusing local workers, who are often hired for positions requiring local knowledge (such as an administrative assistant, press/PR officer) or for general labor.", "In such situations, the employees are in a legal limbo where the laws of neither the host country nor the diplomat's country are enforceable.", "Diplomats have ignored local laws concerning minimum wages, maximum working hours, vacation and holidays, and in some cases have imprisoned employees in their homes, deprived them of their earned wages, passports, food, and communication with the outside world, abused them physically and emotionally, and invaded their privacy.", "Reported incidents include the following:* In 1999, a Bangladeshi woman, Shamela Begum, claimed she had been enslaved by a senior Bahraini envoy to the United Nations and his wife.", "Begum charged that the couple took her passport, struck her, and paid her just $800 for ten months of service—during which she was only twice allowed out of the couple's New York apartment.", "The envoy and his wife claimed diplomatic immunity, and Begum later reached a civil settlement with her employers.", "By some estimates, \"hundreds of women have been exploited by their diplomat employers over the past 20 years.", "\"* In 2003 in Finland, a Filipina maid escaped from an embassy of an unidentified Asian country, and reported being held in conditions approaching slavery: she was forced to work from 7 a.m. to 10 p.m., 7 days a week, and the ambassador's children were permitted to hit her.", "On grounds of diplomatic immunity, no charges could be filed.", "* In 2009, South Africa was criticised for claiming immunity from labor laws relating to a Ukrainian domestic worker at the residence of the South African ambassador in Ireland.", "* In 2010, the American Civil Liberties Union filed an amicus brief in ''Swarna v. Al-Awadi'' to argue that human trafficking is a commercial activity engaged in for personal profit, which falls outside the scope of a diplomat's official functions, and therefore diplomatic immunity does not apply.", "An appeals court ruled that Al-Awadi did not have diplomatic immunity in that situation.", "* In 2013, Indian consular official Devyani Khobragade was detained, hand-cuffed, strip searched, DNA swabbed, and held in a federal holding cell in New York, relating to allegations of non-payment of US minimum wage and for fraudulently lying about the wages to be paid on a visa application for her domestic worker.", "India registered a strong protest and initiated a review of privileges afforded to American consular officials in India as a result.", "* In 2015, two Nepalese women were rescued from the fifth floor of the Gurgaon residence of a Saudi Arabian diplomat in India.", "They were allegedly confined there and abused physically and sexually by the diplomat and his family and friends.", "The women were rescued in a police raid planned after the police received a letter from the Nepal embassy regarding their plight.", "Several persons, the Saudi diplomat among them, were booked for wrongful confinement and gang rape.", "Saudi Ambassador Saud Mohammed Alsati commented, \"This is completely false.", "We would not like to comment any further since the case is under investigation by the Indian police.\"", "Ten days after the diplomat was accused, it was confirmed that he had left India.===Vehicular offences=======Parking violations====A particular problem is the difficulty in enforcing ordinary laws, such as prohibitions on double parking.", "For example, the Autobahn 555 in Cologne, Germany was nicknamed the \"Diplomatenrennbahn\" (Diplomat's Raceway), when Bonn was the capital of West Germany, because of the numerous diplomats that used to speed through the highway under diplomatic immunity.", "Certain cities, for example The Hague and New York City have taken to impounding such cars rather than fining their owners.", "Diplomats' status does not guarantee the release of impounded cars.", "Diplomats' cars may not be searched or entered in the US.Diplomatic missions have their own regulations, but many require their staff to pay any fines due for parking violations.", "A 2006 economic study found that there was a significant correlation between home-country corruption (as measured by Transparency International) and unpaid parking fines: six countries had in excess of 100 violations per diplomat: Kuwait, Egypt, Chad, Sudan, Bulgaria and Mozambique.", "In particular, New York City, which hosts the United Nations Headquarters, regularly protests to the United States Department of State about nonpayment of parking tickets because of diplomatic status.", "In 2001, the city had more than 200,000 outstanding parking tickets from diplomats, totaling more than $21.3 million, of which only $160,682 had been collected; a decade later, the total cost of unpaid parking tickets was over $17 million.", "In 1997, then-mayor Rudy Giuliani proposed to the Clinton administration that the U.S. State Department revoke the special DPL plates for diplomats who ignore parking summonses; the State Department denied Giuliani's request.In cities that impose a congestion charge, the decision of some diplomatic missions not to furnish payment has proved controversial.", "In London, embassies have amassed approximately £58 million in unpaid charges as of 2012, with the American embassy comprising approximately £6 million and the Russian, German and Japanese missions around £2 million each.====Vehicular assault and drunk driving=========Georgian driver in the United States=====In January 1997, Giorgi Makharadze, a high-ranking Georgian diplomat, caused a five-car pileup in Washington, D.C., in the United States, which killed a 16-year-old girl.", "Makharadze's claim of diplomatic immunity created a national outrage in the United States, particularly given Makharadze's previous record of driving offenses: In April 1996, Makharadze had been charged with speeding in Virginia, and four months later, he was detained by District of Columbia police on suspicion of drunk driving.", "In both prior cases, charges were dismissed based on his immunity.", "On the basis of the media coverage, Georgia revoked Makharadze's immunity, and he was ultimately sentenced to seven years in prison after pleading guilty to one count of involuntary manslaughter and four counts of aggravated assault.=====American driver in Russia=====On 27 October 1998, in Vladivostok, Russia, Douglas Kent, the American Consul General to Russia, was involved in a car accident that left a young man, Alexander Kashin, disabled.", "Kent was not prosecuted in a US court.", "Under the Vienna Convention, diplomatic immunity does not apply to civil actions relating to vehicular accidents, but in 2006, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that, since he was using his vehicle for consular purposes, Kent could not be sued civilly.=====Russian driver in Canada=====In 2001, a Russian diplomat, Andrei Knyazev, hit and killed a woman while driving drunk in Ottawa.", "Knyazev refused to take a breathalyzer at the scene of the crash, citing diplomatic immunity.", "Russia refused Canadian requests to waive his immunity, and Knyazev was expelled from Canada.", "Though the Russian Foreign Ministry fired him and charged him with involuntary manslaughter, and Russian and Canadian authorities cooperated in the investigation, the case caused a political storm in Canada.", "Many accused the Foreign Ministry of incompetence after it emerged that Knyazev had twice been previously investigated for drunk driving.", "The Canadian Foreign Minister had fought unsuccessfully to have Knyazev tried in Ottawa.", "In 2002, Knyazev was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter in Russia.=====American driver in Romania=====On 3 December 2004, in Bucharest, Romania, Christopher Van Goethem, an American Marine serving his embassy, ran a red traffic signal, collided with a taxi, and killed popular Romanian musician Teo Peter.", "The Romanian government requested the American government to lift his immunity, which it refused to do.", "In a court-martial, he was acquitted of manslaughter and adultery but was convicted of obstruction of justice and making false statements.=====Canadian driver in Tanzania=====On 9 December 2009, in Tanzania, Canadian Junior Envoy Jean Touchette was arrested after it was reported that he spat at a traffic police officer on duty in the middle of a traffic jam in the Banana district on the outskirts of Dar es Salaam.", "Canada's High Commissioner, Robert Orr, was summoned by the Tanzanian Foreign Ministry over the incident, and the junior envoy was later recalled.=====Romanian driver in Singapore=====On 15 December 2009, in Singapore, the Romanian chargé d'affaires, Silviu Ionescu, was allegedly behind a drunk-driving hit-and-run accident that killed a 30-year-old man and seriously injured two others.", "He left Singapore for Romania three days after the accident.", "The Romanian foreign ministry suspended Ionescu from his post.", "A coroner's inquiry in Singapore, which included testimony by the Romanian embassy driver, concluded that Ionescu was solely responsible for the accident.", "An Interpol Red Notice was subsequently issued for his arrest and possible extradition notwithstanding the fact that Romania had not waived his diplomatic immunity and had commenced criminal proceedings against him in Romania.", "The Singapore government argued that by reason of Article 39(2) of the Vienna Convention, Ionescu was no longer protected by diplomatic immunity.", "Ionescu was eventually sentenced to six years in jail.=====American driver in Pakistan=====In January 2011 in Lahore, Pakistan, American embassy employee Raymond Allen Davis shot and killed two Pakistani civilians, while a third man was struck and killed by a US consulate car responding to the shooting.", "According to Davis, they were about to rob him and he acted in self-defense.", "When detained by police, Davis claimed to be a consultant at the US consulate in Lahore.", "He was formally arrested and remanded into custody.", "Further investigations revealed that he was working with the CIA as a contractor in Pakistan.", "The US State Department declared him a diplomat and repeatedly requested immunity under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, to which Pakistan is a signatory.", "On 16 March 2011, Davis was released after the families of the two killed men were paid $2.4 million in ''diyya'' (a form of monetary compensation or blood money).", "Judges then acquitted him on all charges and Davis immediately departed Pakistan.=====United Nations driver in Pakistan=====On 10 April 2011, in Islamabad, Pakistan, Patrick Kibuta, an electrical engineer in the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan caused a vehicle collision with another vehicle, while under the influence of alcohol.", "Kibuta, who was driving in the opposing lane, injured a Canadian citizen residing in Islamabad, who suffered multiple fractures and required surgery.", "The Kohsar police impounded Kibuta's UN vehicle on the scene, and a blood test confirmed that he had an elevated blood alcohol level.", "Charges for reckless and drunken driving were filed against Kibuta, who enjoyed diplomatic immunity.=====American driver in Pakistan=====On 14 February 2013, a vehicle bearing diplomatic plates registered to the US Embassy got into an accident in Islamabad, Pakistan involving two residents out of which one was killed and the other survived.", "Murder charges were laid under Section 320 of the Pakistani Penal Code against the driver of the vehicle who is a diplomat according to Pakistani officials.=====American driver in Kenya=====In July 2013, Joshua Walde, an American diplomat in Nairobi, Kenya, crashed into a mini-bus, killing one man and seriously injuring eight others, who were left with no financial assistance to pay for hospital bills.", "United States embassy officials took the diplomat and his family out of Kenya the following day.", "The United States government was concerned about the impact the accident could have on bilateral relations with Kenya.", "Walde gave a statement to police, but was not detained due to his diplomatic immunity.", "Kenyan police say the case remains under investigation.=====Lebanese driver in South Korea=====In September 2013, Jad Saeed al-Hassan, Lebanese Ambassador to South Korea, was involved in a hit-and-run in Seoul.", "Right after the accident, he drove directly into the Lebanese embassy compound and refused to cooperate with the local police investigation, claiming his diplomatic immunity.", "He stayed in his post as ambassador until his death due to another traffic collision in Seoul in 2014.=====Qatari driver in the United States=====On 12 September 2015, Sheikh Khalid bin Hamad Al Thani tried to claim diplomatic immunity when his Ferrari LaFerrari and a Porsche 911 GT3 were caught on camera drag racing through a residential neighborhood in Beverly Hills.", "He owns the cars and a drag racing team, and is a member of Qatar's ruling family.", "The Beverly Hills Police Department contacted the US State Department to clarify if he had diplomatic immunity.", "They stated he did not.", "However, his face was not shown on camera, and no officer witnessed the crime, so the state of California has not yet pressed charges.", "He has since fled the country.", "The investigation is ongoing.=====Saudi driver in Germany=====In June 2017, in Berlin, Germany a Saudi driver killed a cyclist by opening the door of his Porsche directly into the cyclist's path without checking to see if the road was clear.", "Anger arose when the Saudi claimed diplomatic immunity.", "Police said that under normal circumstances the driver would face investigation and possible prosecution on suspicion of negligent manslaughter, but prosecutors said they had no choice but to close the case because he had diplomatic immunity.=====American driver in the United Kingdom=====On 27 August 2019, Anne Sacoolas, the wife of an American government employee working in the United Kingdom, was a suspect in a traffic incident involving 19-year-old Harry Dunn in Croughton, Northamptonshire, England.", "Dunn was riding his motorcycle when it was reported that a woman emerged from RAF Croughton driving on the wrong side of the road, resulting in a head-on collision.", "After 999 handlers wrongly categorized the call, there was a 43-minute wait for an ambulance, resulting in a two-hour delay arriving at a trauma center, where Harry Dunn later died.", "Sacoolas was breathalyzed at the accident site.", "The following day, police interviewed Sacoolas at her home, learning the US claimed diplomatic immunity.Sacoolas told police she had no immediate plans to leave the country.", "However, on 13 October US authorities notified the UK's Foreign and Commonwealth Office of plans to send Sacoolas home, unless serious objections were raised: on 16 October, the UK's Foreign Secretary, Dominic Raab, went to present objections, a day after the family was sent back.Woody Johnson, U.S.", "Ambassador to the UK, expressed \"profound sadness\" at the death of Harry Dunn and the US Embassy also offered their sympathies and condolences.", "U.S. President Donald Trump called it a \"terrible accident\" and mentioned that the woman was \"driving on the wrong side of the road, and that can happen\".", "The US government has not waived the diplomatic immunity afforded to Sacoolas and has stated she would not return to the UK, despite calls by the UK government to do so.Sacoolas was scheduled to appear in UK court via video link charged with causing the death of Mr Dunn by dangerous driving.", "A hearing took place in Westminster Magistrates Court on the 18th January 2022.She appeared by video-link at the Old Bailey, where she pleaded guilty to causing death by careless driving on 20 October 2022.She was handed an eight-month jail term, suspended for 12 months, and was also disqualified from driving for 12 months.===Financial abuse===Historically, large debts run up by diplomats has caused many problems.", "Some financial institutions do not extend credit to diplomats because they have no legal means of ensuring the money be repaid.", "Local citizens and businesses are often at a disadvantage when filing civil claims against a diplomat, especially in cases of unpaid rent, alimony, and child support.====Rents====The bulk of diplomatic debt lies in the rental of office space and living quarters.", "Individual debts can range from a few thousand dollars to $1 million in back rent.", "A group of diplomats and the office space in which they work are referred to as a diplomatic mission.", "Creditors cannot sue missions individually to collect money they owe.", "Landlords and creditors have found that the only thing they can do is contact a city agency to see if they can try to get some money back.", "They cannot enter the offices or apartments of diplomats to evict them because the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act says that \"the property in the United States of a foreign state shall be immune from attachment, arrest and execution\" ().", "This has led creditors who are owed money by diplomats to become more cautious about their renters and to change their rental or payment policies.In one case, for example, officials from Zaire stopped paying rent to their private landlord and ran up $400,000 in debt.", "When the landlord sued, the US State Department defended the Zaireans on the basis of diplomatic immunity, and a circuit court agreed.", "When the landlord finally cut off the utilities, the officials fled without paying their back rent.", "The landlords reportedly later reached an \"amicable agreement\" with the Zairean government.====Alimony and child support====The issue of abusing diplomatic immunity in family relations, especially alimony and child support, has become so widespread that it prompted discussion at the 1995 UN Fourth World Conference on Women, in Beijing.", "Historically, the United Nations has not become involved with family disputes and has refused to garnish the wages of diplomats who owe money for child support, citing sovereign immunity.", "However, in September 1995, the incumbent head of Legal Affairs for the United Nations acknowledged there was a moral and legal obligation to take at least a partial responsibility in family disputes.", "Fathers working as diplomats who refused to fulfill their family-related financial duties were increasing in numbers in the United Nations: several men who had left their wives and children were still claiming UN dependency, travel, and education allowances for their families, though they are no longer supporting those families.====Taxes and fees====Diplomats are exempt from most taxes, but not from \"charges levied for specific services rendered\".", "In certain cases, whether a payment is or is not considered a tax may be disputed, such as central London's congestion charge.", "It was reported in 2006 that the UAE embassy had agreed to pay their own accumulated charges of nearly £100,000.There is an obligation for the receiving state not to \"discriminate as between states\"; in other words, any such fees should be payable by all accredited diplomats equally.", "This may allow the diplomatic corps to negotiate as a group with the authorities of the receiving country.Diplomats are exempt from import duty and tariffs for items for their personal use.", "In some countries, this has led to charges that diplomatic agents are profiting personally from resale of \"tax free\" goods.", "The receiving state may choose to impose restrictions on what may reasonably constitute personal use (for example, only a certain quantity of cigarettes per day).", "When enacted, such restrictions are generally quite generous so as to avoid tit-for-tat responses.==== Money laundering ====''United States v. Al Sharaf'' is a criminal case which was filed by the government on March 5, 2015 in the United States District Court, District of Columbia.", "Al Sharaf was a Kuwaiti Financial Attaché assigned to handle the finances of Kuwait Health Office in Washington, D.C. She was charged by the government as she had violated 18 U.S.C § 1956 for conspiring to launder money.", "Al Sharaf filed a motion to dismiss the case on the basis of lack of subject matter jurisdiction because as per the 22 U.S.C § 254d her actions were immune under the diplomatic immunity that she had.", "Since it was a criminal case, the prosecution presented evidence beyond a reasonable doubt to prove that Al Sharaf had engaged in commercial activity and her actions were different from her official functions as a representative of Kuwait, thereby, as per the VCDR art.", "31(c) her diplomatic immunity was subject to waiver.", "The court ruled in prosecution's favor and stated that since the defendant had engaged in commercial activity which was different from her official functions, her diplomatic immunity was subject to waiver and hence the defendant's motion to dismiss the case on the basis of lack of subject matter jurisdiction was denied.===Espionage and sabotage===Franz von Papen entered the diplomatic service in December 1913 as a military attaché to the German ambassador in the United States.", "Starting in September 1914, Papen abused his diplomatic immunity as German military attaché, violating US laws to start organising plans for incursions into Canada for a campaign of sabotage against canals, bridges and railroads.", "In October 1914, Papen became involved with what was later dubbed \"the Hindu–German Conspiracy\", by covertly arranging with Indian nationalists based in California for arms trafficking to the latter for a planned uprising against the British Raj.", "In February 1915, Papen also covertly organised the Vanceboro international bridge bombing, in which his diplomatic immunity protected him from arrest.", "At the same time, he remained involved in plans to restore Huerta to power, and arranged for the arming and financing of a planned invasion of Mexico.", "Papen's covert operations were known to British intelligence, which shared its information with the US government.", "As a result, for complicity in the planning of acts of sabotage on 28 December 1915, Captain von Papen was declared ''persona non grata'' and recalled to Germany.", "Upon his return, he was awarded the Iron Cross.On 24 April 2008, in New Orleans, Mexican press attaché Rafael Quintero Curiel was seen stealing BlackBerry PDA units from a White House press meeting room.", "Quintero made it all the way to the airport before members of the United States Secret Service caught up with him.", "He initially denied taking the devices, but after being confronted with security video, Quintero claimed it was purely accidental, gave the devices back, claimed diplomatic immunity and left New Orleans with the Mexican delegation.", "He was eventually fired for the incident.In 2021, it was reported that the UAE embassy in Canberra was building non-compliant fences and installing a lot of CCTV." ], [ "In the United States", "The following chart outlines the immunities afforded to foreign diplomatic personnel residing in the United States.", "In general, these rules follow the Vienna Convention (or the New York Convention for UN officials) and apply in other countries as well (with the exceptions of immunities for United Nations officials, which can vary widely across countries based on the \"Host Country Agreement\" signed between the UN and the host country, whereby additional immunities beyond those granted by the New York Convention may be established).", "Category May be arrested or detained Residence may be entered subject to ordinary procedures May be issued traffic ticket May be subpoenaed as witness May be prosecuted Official family member Diplomatic Diplomatic agent No No Yes (although not obliged to pay) No No Same as sponsor Member of administrative and technical staff No No Yes No No Same as sponsor Service staff Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Consular Career consular officers Yes, if for a felony and pursuant to a warrant.", "Yes Yes No, for official acts.", "Testimony may not be compelled in any case.", "No, for official acts.", "Otherwise, yes NoHonorary consular officers Yes Yes Yes No, for official acts.", "Yes, in all other cases No, for official acts.", "Otherwise, yes NoConsular employees Yes Yes Yes No, for official acts.", "Yes, in all other cases No, for official acts.", "Otherwise, yes No International organization Diplomatic-level staff of missions to international organizations No No Yes No No Same as sponsor International organization staff Yes Yes Yes No, for official acts.", "Yes, in all other cases No, for official acts.", "Otherwise, yes No Support staff of missions to international organizations Yes Yes Yes No, for official acts.", "Yes, in all other cases No, for official acts.", "Otherwise, yes No" ], [ "See also", "* International Organizations Immunities Act" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* David B. Michaels, ''International privileges and immunities: A case for a universal statute'', Springer, July 1971, * \" Diplomatic and Consular Immunity: Guidance for Law Enforcement and Judicial Authorities\" - United States Department of State Office of Foreign Missions." ], [ "External links", "* New York City Mayor's Office for International Affairs* Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961* Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (VCCR), 1963" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "DDR SDRAM" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory''' ('''DDR SDRAM''') is a double data rate (DDR) synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) class of memory integrated circuits used in computers.", "DDR SDRAM, also retroactively called DDR1 SDRAM, has been superseded by DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3 SDRAM, DDR4 SDRAM and DDR5 SDRAM.", "None of its successors are forward or backward compatible with DDR1 SDRAM, meaning DDR2, DDR3, DDR4 and DDR5 memory modules will not work on DDR1-equipped motherboards, and vice versa.Compared to single data rate (SDR) SDRAM, the DDR SDRAM interface makes higher transfer rates possible through more strict control of the timing of the electrical data and clock signals.", "Implementations often have to use schemes such as phase-locked loops and self-calibration to reach the required timing accuracy.", "The interface uses double pumping (transferring data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal) to double data bus bandwidth without a corresponding increase in clock frequency.", "One advantage of keeping the clock frequency low is that it reduces the signal integrity requirements on the circuit board connecting the memory to the controller.", "The name \"double data rate\" refers to the fact that a DDR SDRAM with a certain clock frequency achieves nearly twice the bandwidth of a SDR SDRAM running at the same clock frequency, due to this double pumping.With data being transferred 64 bits at a time, DDR SDRAM gives a transfer rate (in bytes/s) of (memory bus clock rate) × 2 (for dual rate) × 64 (number of bits transferred) / 8 (number of bits/byte).", "Thus, with a bus frequency of 100 MHz, DDR SDRAM gives a maximum transfer rate of 1600 MB/s." ], [ "History", "A Samsung DDR SDRAM 64 Mbit chipIn the late 1980s IBM had built DRAMs using a dual-edge clocking feature and presented their results at the International Solid-State Circuits Convention in 1990.Samsung demonstrated the first DDR memory prototype in 1997, and released the first commercial DDR SDRAM chip (64Mbit) in June 1998, followed soon after by Hyundai Electronics (now SK Hynix) the same year.", "The development of DDR began in 1996, before its specification was finalized by JEDEC in June 2000 (JESD79).", "JEDEC has set standards for the data rates of DDR SDRAM, divided into two parts.", "The first specification is for memory chips, and the second is for memory modules.", "The first retail PC motherboard using DDR SDRAM was released in August 2000." ], [ "Specification", "Single generic DDR memory moduleFour DDR RAM slotsCorsair DDR-400 memory with heat spreadersPhysical DDR layoutComparison of memory modules for portable/mobile PCs (SO-DIMM)=== Modules ===To increase memory capacity and bandwidth, chips are combined on a module.", "For instance, the 64-bit data bus for DIMM requires eight 8-bit chips, addressed in parallel.", "Multiple chips with common address lines are called a memory rank.", "The term was introduced to avoid confusion with chip internal '''rows''' and '''banks'''.", "A memory module may bear more than one rank.", "The term '''sides''' would also be confusing because it incorrectly suggests the physical placement of chips on the module.", "All ranks are connected to the same memory bus (address + data).", "The chip select signal is used to issue commands to specific rank.Adding modules to the single memory bus creates additional electrical load on its drivers.", "To mitigate the resulting bus signaling rate drop and overcome the memory bottleneck, new chipsets employ the multi-channel architecture.+ Comparison of DDR SDRAM standards Name Chip Bus Timings Voltage Standard Type ModuleClock rate Cycle time Clock rate Transfer rate Bandwidth(MB/s) CL-T-T CAS latency DDR-200 PC-1600 100 10 100 200 1600 2-2-2 20 2.5±0.2 DDR-266 PC-2100 7.5 266.67 2.5-3-3 18.75 DDR-333 PC-2700 6 2.5-3-3 15 DDR-400 A PC-3200 200 5 200 400 3200 2.5-3-3 12.5 2.6±0.1 B 3-3-3 15 C 3-4-4 15'''Note:''' All items listed above are specified by JEDEC as JESD79F.", "All RAM data rates in-between or above these listed specifications are not standardized by JEDEC – often they are simply manufacturer optimizations using tighter tolerances or overvolted chips.", "The package sizes in which DDR SDRAM is manufactured are also standardized by JEDEC.There is no architectural difference between DDR SDRAM modules.", "Modules are instead designed to run at different clock frequencies: for example, a PC-1600 module is designed to run at , and a PC-2100 is designed to run at .", "A module's clock speed designates the data rate at which it is guaranteed to perform, hence it is guaranteed to run at lower (''underclocking'') and can possibly run at higher (''overclocking'') clock rates than those for which it was made.DDR SDRAM modules for desktop computers, dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs), have 184 pins (as opposed to 168 pins on SDRAM, or 240 pins on DDR2 SDRAM), and can be differentiated from SDRAM DIMMs by the number of notches (DDR SDRAM has one, SDRAM has two).", "DDR SDRAM for notebook computers, SO-DIMMs, have 200 pins, which is the same number of pins as DDR2 SO-DIMMs.", "These two specifications are notched very similarly and care must be taken during insertion if unsure of a correct match.", "Most DDR SDRAM operates at a voltage of 2.5 V, compared to 3.3 V for SDRAM.", "This can significantly reduce power consumption.", "Chips and modules with the DDR-400/PC-3200 standard have a nominal voltage of 2.6 V.JEDEC Standard No.", "21–C defines three possible operating voltages for 184 pin DDR, as identified by the key notch position relative to its centreline.", "Page 4.5.10-7 defines 2.5V (left), 1.8V (centre), TBD (right), while page 4.20.5–40 nominates 3.3V for the right notch position.", "The orientation of the module for determining the key notch position is with 52 contact positions to the left and 40 contact positions to the right.Increasing the operating voltage slightly can increase maximum speed but at the cost of higher power dissipation and heating, and at the risk of malfunctioning or damage.", ";Capacity;Number of DRAM devices: The number of chips is a multiple of 8 for non-ECC modules and a multiple of 9 for ECC modules.", "Chips can occupy one side (''single sided'') or both sides (''dual sided'') of the module.", "The maximal number of chips per DDR module is 36 (9×4) for ECC and 32 (8x4) for non-ECC.", ";ECC vs non-ECC: Modules that have error-correcting code are labeled as ECC.", "Modules without error correcting code are labeled '''non-ECC'''.", ";Timings: CAS latency (CL), clock cycle time (tCK), row cycle time (tRC), refresh row cycle time (tRFC), row active time (tRAS).", ";Buffering: Registered (or buffered) vs unbuffered.", ";Packaging: Typically DIMM or SO-DIMM.", ";Power consumption: A test with DDR and DDR2 RAM in 2005 found that average power consumption appeared to be of the order of 1–3 W per 512 MB module; this increases with clock rate and when in use rather than idling.", "A manufacturer has produced calculators to estimate the power used by various types of RAM.Module and chip characteristics are inherently linked.Total module capacity is a product of one chip's capacity and the number of chips.", "ECC modules multiply it by because they use 1 bit per byte (8 bits) for error correction.", "A module of any particular size can therefore be assembled either from 32 small chips (36 for ECC memory), or 16(18) or 8(9) bigger ones.DDR memory bus width per channel is 64 bits (72 for ECC memory).", "Total module bit width is a product of bits per chip and number of chips.", "It also equals number of ranks (rows) multiplied by DDR memory bus width.", "Consequently, a module with a greater number of chips or using ×8 chips instead of ×4 will have more ranks.+ Example: Variations of 1 GB PC2100 registered DDR SDRAM module with ECC Modulesize Numberof chips Chipsize Chiporganization Numberof ranks 1 GB 36 256 64M×4 MBit 2 1 GB 18 512 64M×8 MBit 2 1 GB 18 512 128M×4 MBit 1This example compares different real-world server memory modules with a common size of 1 GB.", "One should definitely be careful buying 1 GB memory modules, because all these variations can be sold under one price position without stating whether they are ×4 or ×8, single- or dual-ranked.There is a common belief that number of module ranks equals number of sides.", "As above data shows, this is not true.", "One can also find 2-side/1-rank modules.", "One can even think of a 1-side/2-rank memory module having 16(18) chips on single side ×8 each, but it is unlikely such a module was ever produced.=== Chip characteristics ===die of a Samsung DDR-SDRAM 64MBit package;DRAM density: Size of the chip is measured in megabits.", "Most motherboards recognize only 1 GB modules if they contain ''64M×8'' chips (''low density'').", "If ''128M×4'' (''high density'') 1 GB modules are used, they most likely will not work.", "The JEDEC standard allows ''128M×4'' only for registered modules designed specifically for servers, but some generic manufacturers do not comply.", ";Organization: The notation like ''64M×4'' means that the memory matrix has 64 million (the product of ''banks'' x ''rows'' x ''columns'') 4-bit storage locations.", "There are ''×4, ×8,'' and ''×16'' DDR chips.", "The ''×4'' chips allow the use of advanced error correction features like Chipkill, memory scrubbing and Intel SDDC in server environments, while the ''×8'' and ''×16'' chips are somewhat less expensive.", "''x8'' chips are mainly used in desktops/notebooks but are making an entry into the server market.", "There are normally 4 banks and only one row can be active in each bank.==== Double data rate (DDR) SDRAM specification ====From Ballot JCB-99-70, and modified by numerous other Board Ballots, formulated under the cognizance of Committee JC-42.3 on DRAM Parametrics.Standard No.", "79 Revision Log:Release 1, June 2000Release 2, May 2002Release C, March 2003 – JEDEC Standard No.", "79C.", "\"This comprehensive standard defines all required aspects of 64Mb through 1Gb DDR SDRAMs with X4/X8/X16 data interfaces, including features, functionality, ac and dc parametrics, packages and pin assignments.", "This scope will subsequently be expanded to formally apply to x32 devices, and higher density devices as well.", "\"=== Organization ===PC3200 is DDR SDRAM designed to operate at 200 MHz using DDR-400 chips with a bandwidth of 3,200 MB/s.", "Because PC3200 memory transfers data on both the rising and falling clock edges, its effective clock rate is 400 MHz.1 GB PC3200 non-ECC modules are usually made with 16 512 Mbit chips, 8 on each side (512 Mbits × 16 chips) / (8 bits (per byte)) = 1,024 MB.", "The individual chips making up a 1 GB memory module are usually organized as 226 8-bit words, commonly expressed as 64M×8.Memory manufactured in this way is low-density RAM and is usually compatible with any motherboard specifying PC3200 DDR-400 memory." ], [ "Generations", "DDR (DDR1) was superseded by DDR2 SDRAM, which had modifications for a higher clock frequency and again doubled throughput, but operates on the same principle as DDR.", "Competing with DDR2 was Rambus XDR DRAM.", "DDR2 dominated due to cost and support factors.", "DDR2 was in turn superseded by DDR3 SDRAM, which offered higher performance for increased bus speeds and new features.", "DDR3 has been superseded by DDR4 SDRAM, which was first produced in 2011 and whose standards were still in flux (2012) with significant architectural changes.DDR's prefetch buffer depth is 2 (bits), while DDR2 uses 4.Although the effective clock rates of DDR2 are higher than DDR, the overall performance was not greater in the early implementations, primarily due to the high latencies of the first DDR2 modules.", "DDR2 started to be effective by the end of 2004, as modules with lower latencies became available.Memory manufacturers stated that it was impractical to mass produce DDR1 memory with effective transfer rates in excess of 400 MHz (i.e.", "400 MT/s and 200 MHz external clock) due to internal speed limitations.", "DDR2 picks up where DDR1 leaves off, utilizing internal clock rates similar to DDR1, but is available at effective transfer rates of 400 MHz and higher.", "DDR3 advances extended the ability to preserve internal clock rates while providing higher effective transfer rates by again doubling the prefetch depth.The DDR4 SDRAM is a high-speed dynamic random-access memory internally configured as 16 banks, 4 bank groups with 4 banks for each bank group for ×4/×8 and 8 banks, 2 bank groups with 4 banks for each bank group for ×16 DRAM.The DDR4 SDRAM uses an 8''n'' prefetch architecture to achieve high-speed operation.", "The 8''n'' prefetch architecture is combined withan interface designed to transfer two data words per clock cycle at the I/O pins.", "A single read or write operation for the DDR4 SDRAM consists of a single 8''n''-bit-wide 4-clock data transfer at the internal DRAM core and 8 corresponding ''n''-bit-wide half-clock-cycle data transfers at the I/O pins.RDRAM was a particularly expensive alternative to DDR SDRAM, and most manufacturers dropped its support from their chipsets.", "DDR1 memory's prices substantially increased from Q2 2008, while DDR2 prices declined.", "In January 2009, 1 GB DDR1 was 2–3 times more expensive than 1 GB DDR2.+ Comparison of DDR SDRAM generations Name Releaseyear Chip Bus Voltage(V) Pins Gen Standard Clock rate(MHz) Cycle time(ns) Pre-fetch Clock rate(MHz) Transfer rate(MT/s) Bandwidth(MB/s) DIMM SO-DIMM Micro-DIMM DDRDDR-200 1998 10010 2n 100 2001600 2.5 184 200 172DDR-2661337.5133266DDR-3336333DDR-400200520040032002.6DDR2DDR2-400 2003 10010 4n 200 4003200 1.8 240 200 214DDR2-5337.5DDR2-6676DDR2-80020054008006400DDR2-10663.75DDR3DDR3-800 2007 10010 8n 400 8006400 1.5/1.35 240 204 214DDR3-10667.5DDR3-13336DDR3-16002005800160012800DDR3-18664.29DDR3-21333.75DDR4DDR4-1600 2014 2005 8n 800 160012800 1.2/1.05 288 260DDR4-18664.29DDR4-21333.75DDR4-24003001200240019200DDR4-26663DDR4-29332.73DDR4-32004002.51600320025600DDR5DDR5-32002020200516n16003200256001.1288262DDR5-36002254.441800360028800DDR5-400025042000400032000DDR5-48003002400480038400DDR5-50003.22500500040000DDR5-51203202560512040960DDR5-53333DDR5-56003502.862800560044800DDR5-64004002.53200640051200DDR5-72004502.223600720057600=== Mobile DDR ===MDDR is an acronym that some enterprises use for Mobile DDR SDRAM, a type of memory used in some portable electronic devices, like mobile phones, handhelds, and digital audio players.", "Through techniques including reduced voltage supply and advanced refresh options, Mobile DDR can achieve greater power efficiency." ], [ "See also", " Fully Buffered DIMM* ECC memory, a type of computer data storage * List of interface bit rates* Serial presence detect" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Don Rosa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Keno Don Hugo Rosa''' (), known as '''Don Rosa''' (born June 29, 1951), is an American comic book writer and illustrator known for his Disney comics stories about Scrooge McDuck, Donald Duck, and other characters which Carl Barks created for Disney-licensed comic books, first published in America by Dell Comics.", "Many of his stories are built on characters and locations created by Barks; among these was his first Duck story, \"The Son of the Sun\" (1987), which was nominated for a Harvey Award in the \"Best Story of the Year\" category.Rosa created about 90 stories between 1987 and 2006.In 1995, his 12-chapter work ''The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck'' won the Eisner Award for Best Serialized Story." ], [ "Early life", "Don Rosa's grandfather, Gioachino Rosa, lived in Maniago, a town at the foot of the Alps in Northern Italy, in the province of Pordenone.", "He immigrated to Kentucky, the United States, around 1900, established a successful tile and terrazzo company, then returned to Italy to marry and start a family.", "In 1915 just after the birth of his son Ugo Rosa, Gioachino returned to Kentucky with his wife, two daughters and two sons.", "Ugo Rosa grew up and was later married in Kentucky.", "His wife was born to a German-American father and a mother with both Scottish and Irish ancestry.Don Rosa was born Keno Don Hugo Rosa on June 29, 1951, in Louisville, Kentucky.", "He was named after both his father and grandfather.", "Gioachino was called \"Keno\" for short.", "Don's father was named Ugo Dante Rosa but used the name \"Hugo Don\" Rosa in America.Rosa's older sister, Deanna, was an avid collector of comics and exposed Don to comics as a storytelling medium at a very early age, teaching him to “read the pictures.”Rosa's favorite comic books while growing up were ''Uncle Scrooge'' and ''Little Lulu'' comics from Dell Comics, as well as his sister's collection of MAD magazines.", "At age 12, Rosa discovered the Superman titles of DC Comics, with particular attention to editor Mort Weisinger's period, drawn mostly by Superman artists Curt Swan and Kurt Schaffenberger.", "Shortly after Rosa started to collect Superman comics, he also began to trade in the comics he had inherited from his older sister for old Superman comics.", "By the 1970s Rosa's comic trading had ended up with him only having two Barks duck comics issues left from the collection his sister originally passed on to him.", "One of them being ''Dell Comics' Four Color Comics #386'' (also known as Dell Comics' One shot's) issue titled: ''\"Uncle Scrooge in Only a Poor Old Man\"'', which was unknown to him to be the first issue of the new Carl Barks Uncle Scrooge Title.", "The second issue is his other favorite Barks Comic from his youth, Dell's Donald Duck in \"The Golden Helmet\".", "Later when Rosa became a serious collector of all comics of the post-war years, he particularly enjoyed and collected the classic E.C.", "Comics of the horror and science fiction genres published in the early 1950s, Will Eisner's ''The Spirit'', Walt Kelly's ''Pogo'', and virtually all other comics from 1945 and onward.Rosa entered the University of Kentucky in 1969.He graduated in 1973 with a Bachelor of Science degree in civil engineering." ], [ "Career", "In 1969, while still in college, Rosa won an award as \"best political cartoonist in the nation in a college paper\".", "\"I'm not really an editorial cartoonist.", "I'd much rather be doing comedy adventure.", "But I must have done something right, for at one point ''The Journal of Higher Education'' named me one of the five or six best college newspaper cartoonists in the nation.", "\"275pxRosa's first published comic (besides the spot illustrations in his grade school and high school newspapers) was a comic strip featuring his own character, Lancelot Pertwillaby, titled ''The Pertwillaby Papers''.", "He created the strip in 1971 for ''The Kentucky Kernel'', a college newspaper of the University of Kentucky, which wanted the strip to focus on political satire.Rosa later switched the strip to comedy-adventure, his favorite style of comics, and drew the story ''Lost in (an alternative section of) the Andes''.", "(The title is a reference to ''Lost in the Andes!", "'', a Donald Duck story by Carl Barks, first published in April, 1949.)", "The so-called ''Pertwillaby Papers'' included 127 published episodes by the time Rosa graduated in 1973.Meanwhile, Rosa participated in contributing art and articles to comic collector fanzines.", "One contribution was ''An Index of Uncle Scrooge Comics''.", "According to his introduction: \"Scrooge being my favorite character in comic history and Barks my favorite pure cartoonist, I'll try not to get carried away too much.", "\"After attaining his bachelor's degree, Rosa continued to draw comics purely as a hobby, his only income came from working in the ''Keno Rosa Tile and Terrazzo Company'', a company founded by his paternal grandfather.Rosa authored and illustrated the monthly ''Information Center'' column in the fanzine ''Rocket's Blast Comicollector'' from 1974 to 1979.This was a question-and-answer feature dealing with readers' queries on all forms of pop entertainment of which Rosa was a student, including comics, TV and movies.", "He also revived the ''Pertwillaby Papers'' in this \"RBCC\" fanzine as a comic book style story rather than a newspaper comic strip from 1976 to 1978.Rosa accepted an offer from the editor of the local newspaper to create a weekly comic strip.", "This led to his creation of the comic strip character Captain Kentucky for the Saturday edition of the local newspaper ''Louisville Times''.", "Captain Kentucky was the superhero alter ego of Lancelot Pertwillaby.", "The pay was $25/week and not worth the 12+ hours each week's strip entailed, but Rosa did it as part of his hobby.", "Publication started on October 6, 1979.The comic strip ended on August 15, 1982, after the publication of 150 episodes.", "After three years with Captain Kentucky, Don decided that it was not worth the effort.", "He retired from cartooning and did not draw a single line for the next four years.", "Years later, as his fame grew, his non-Disney work was published by the Norwegian publisher Gazette Bok in 2001, in the two hard cover \"Don Rosa Archives\" volumes, ''The Pertwillaby Papers'' and ''The Adventures of Captain Kentucky''.===Gladstone===In 1986, Rosa discovered a Gladstone Comics comic book.", "This was the first American comic book that contained Disney characters since Western Publishing's discontinuation of their Whitman Comics in the 1970s.", "Since early childhood Don Rosa had been fascinated by Carl Barks' stories about Donald Duck and Scrooge McDuck.", "He immediately called the editor, Byron Erickson, and told him that he was the only American who was born to write and draw one Scrooge McDuck adventure.", "Erickson agreed to let him send a story, and Don Rosa started drawing his first Duck story, \"The Son of the Sun,\" the very next day.", "\"The Son of the Sun\" was a success and Rosa's very first professional comic story was nominated for a Harvey Award \"Best Story of the Year\".", "The plot of the story was the same as his earlier story, ''Lost in (an alternative section of) the Andes''.", "As Don Rosa explained it, he was just \"(...) turning that old Pertwillaby Papers adventure back into the story it originally was in my head, starring Scrooge, Donald, the nephews, and Flintheart Glomgold.", "\"Rosa created a few more comics for Gladstone until 1989.He then stopped working for them, because the policies of their licensor, Disney, did not allow for the return of original art for a story to its creators.After making some stories for the Dutch publisher Oberon, the publishers of an American Disney children's magazine called ''DuckTales'' (based on the animated series of the same name) offered Rosa employment.", "They even offered him a much higher salary than the one he received at Gladstone.", "Rosa made just one script (''Back in Time for a Dime'').", "The publishers never asked him to make more, and due to problems with receiving the payment, he did not care.===Egmont===Rosa making a drawing for a fan in Helsinki, Finland, in 1999After working with the ''DuckTales'' magazine, Rosa found out that the Denmark-based International publisher Egmont (at that time called Gutenberghus) was publishing reprints of his stories and wanted more.", "Rosa joined Egmont in 1990.Two years later, at Rosa's suggestion, Byron Erickson, the former editor at Gladstone also went to work for Egmont and has been working there ever since as an editor and later as a freelancer.In 1991 Rosa started creating ''The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck'', a 12 chapter story about his favorite character.", "The series was a success, and in 1995 he won an Eisner Award for best continuing series.", "After the end of the original series, Rosa sometimes produced additional \"missing\" chapters.", "Some of the extra chapters were turned down by Egmont, because they were not interested in any more episodes.", "Fortunately, the French magazine ''Picsou'' was eager to publish the stories.", "From 1999, Rosa started working freelance for Picsou magazine as well.", "All of these chapters were compiled as ''The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Companion''.===On strike===During early summer 2002, Rosa suddenly laid down work.", "As an artist, he could not live under the conditions Egmont was offering him but he did not want to give up making Scrooge McDuck comics either.", "So, his only choice was to go on hiatus and try to come to an agreement with Egmont.", "His main issues were that he had no control over his works.", "Rosa had discovered too often that his stories were printed with incorrect pages of art, improper colors, poor lettering, or pixelated computer conversions of the illustrations.", "Rosa has never, nor has any other artist working on Disney-licensed characters, received royalties for the use or multi-national reprinting of any of his stories worldwide.Rosa came to an agreement with Egmont in December of the same year, which gave him more control over the stories and the manner in which they were publicized.===Quitting===Rosa, who had poor eyesight since childhood, experienced a severe retinal detachment in March 2008, which required emergency eye surgery.", "However, the surgery was only partially successful, and Rosa had to undergo further surgery in both eyes, making drawing even more challenging.", "In an interview at the Danish Komiks.dk fair on June 2, 2008, Rosa announced his decision not to continue creating comics due to various reasons such as his eye troubles, low pay, and the use of his stories by international Disney licensees in special hardback or album editions without payment of royalties or permission for the use of his name.In 2012, Rosa wrote an essay about his retirement for Egmont's 9-volume ''Don Rosa Collection'', which was to be published in Finland, Norway, Germany and Sweden.", "The essay, posted at '' career-end.donrosa.de'', cites the above reasons, with special emphasis on the \"Disney comics system\" for paying writers and artists a flat per-page rate, and then allowing publishers around the world to print the stories without payment to the creators.Rosa is more popular with readers in Europe than in his native United States.", "According to him, even his next-door neighbors do not know his profession." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1980, Rosa married Ann Payne.", "Payne is a retired social studies middle school teacher.=== Character ===Don Rosa describes himself as an introvert due to being socially isolated as a child.", "Also, he thinks of himself as a workaholic.Rosa suffered from depression during the years before he quit.", "He believes that it was caused by working hard while taking little time for leisure, a result of his self-imposed work regimen due to his enthusiasm for Barks' characters.===Hobbies===Rosa is an avid collector of many things, including comic books, ''TV Guide'', ''National Geographic'', and movie magazines, fanzines, books, White Castle memorabilia, pinball machines and movies and more.Rosa also grows exotic chili plants and tends nearly 30 acres of a private nature preserve with wildflower fields and numerous forest trails.", "That and taking semi-annual European signing tours to visit his fellow BarksDucks fans, takes up all of his time.", "He is also working to complete his collections of all American comic books published between 1945 and 1970." ], [ "Work", "Don Rosa (left) at the Helsinki Book Fair 2014.In Europe, Rosa is recognized as one of the best Disney comics creators.", "Carl Barks and Rosa are among the few artists who have their name written on the covers of Disney magazines when their stories are published.", "Rosa enjoys including subtle references to his movies and comic as well as his own previous work.", "He normally uses about twelve panels per page, instead of the more common eight.Rosa has an especially large following in Finland, and in 1999, he created a special 32-page adventure featuring Scrooge McDuck for his Finnish fans called; ''Sammon Salaisuus'' (translates to ''The secret of the Sampo'', but it is officially named ''The Quest for Kalevala'' in English), based on the Finnish national epic, the Kalevala.", "The publication of this story created a national sensation in Finland where Donald Duck and the Kalevala are important aspects of culture.", "It was published in many other countries as well.", "The cover for the comic book was a spoof of a famous painting by Akseli Gallen-Kallela.The latest work that Rosa has worked on is a cover for the album ''Music Inspired by the Life and Times of Scrooge'' by Tuomas Holopainen from Nightwish who is a fan of Rosa's comics.===Drawing style===With a Bachelor of Arts degree in civil engineering as his only real drawing education, Rosa has some unusual drawing methods, as he writes: \"I suspect ''nothing'' I do is done the way anyone else does it.", "\"Because of being self-taught in making comics, Rosa relies mostly on the skills he learned in engineering school, which means using technical pens and templates extensively.", "He applies templates and other engineering tools to draw what other artists draw freehand.", "He usually drew just under a page per day, but that depended on the amount of detail he puts in the picture.Rosa's drawing style is considered much more detailed and \"dirtier\" than that of most Disney artists, living or dead, and often likened to that of underground artists, and he is frequently compared to Robert Crumb.", "When Rosa was first told of this similarity, he said that he \"drew that bad\" long before he discovered underground comics during college.", "He went on to explain these similarities to underground artists with a similar background of making comics as a hobby::\"I think that both my style and that of Robert Crumb are similar only because we both grew up making comics for our personal enjoyment, without ever taking drawing seriously, and without ever trying to attain a style that would please the average comics publisher.", "We drew comics for fun!", "\"===Carl Barks===\"I want to take everything Barks wrote and forge it into a workable timeline.", "My original dream was to become the new Carl Barks.", "I wanted to write, draw, and letter all my own stories.", "People tell me that my pencils look just like Barks, but my inks are pure Rosa, and I can't letter properly!", "So I'll have to settle for being Don Rosa.\"", "– Don Rosa in 1987\"Don Rosa has often been called the heir of Carl Barks, especially for the way in which he has carried on the Ducks' Family Saga.", "But I don't think so: in my opinion Don Rosa ... is an author who has used Barks' characters to make stories that are completely new, 'Donrosian' rather than 'Barksian', just like Barks can't be considered the heir of Al Taliaferro only because he has worked on the Ducks after him.\"", "– Carlo Chendi, Italian Disney comics writerRosa's idol when it comes to comics is Carl Barks.", "Rosa builds almost all his stories on characters and locations that Barks invented.", "Many of Rosa's stories contain references to some fact pointed out in a Barks story.", "At the request of publishers in response to reader demands, Rosa has even created sequels of old Barks stories.", "For example, his ''Return to Plain Awful'' is a sequel to ''Lost in the Andes!", "'', where the Ducks return to the same hidden country.", "To add more to his admiration and consistency to Barks and Barks' stories, Rosa makes all his ducks' stories set in the 1950s.", "This is because Barks writes most of the stories about Scrooge, Donald and all people of Duckburg in the 1950s (it also conveniently resolves potential continuity problems, such as Scrooge's age).", "As explained in text pages in the ''Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck'' and its companion volume, Rosa does intense research of time periods to ensure not only that he gets the physical details right, but also to ensure that all characters could have been present.Barks either created most of the characters used by Rosa or is credited for greatly developing their personalities.", "Rosa thus feels obliged to make his stories factually consistent.", "He has spent a lot of time in making lists of facts and anecdotes pointed out in different stories by his mentor.", "Especially ''The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck'' was based mostly on the earlier works of Barks.", "Rosa admitted however that a scene of the first chapter was inspired by a story by Tony Strobl.As most of the characters Rosa uses were created by Barks, and because Rosa considers Scrooge rather than Donald to be the main character of the Duck universe, he does not regard himself as a pure Disney artist, nor the characters really as Disney's.", "\"Rosa prefers to say that the characters he uses are Barks's, Barks having reshaped Donald Duck's personality and creating everything else we know of Duckburg while working as a freelancer in 1942–1967 for an independent licensed publisher (Dell/Western Comics).", "Barks even claimed to have also created Huey, Dewey, and Louie while working as a writer on Donald Duck animated cartoons in 1937.\"", "Because of his idolization of Barks, he repeatedly discourages his fans to use an absolutist way of saying his clearly different drawing style would be better than Barks's, and he found that notion confirmed when Barks himself spoke about Rosa's style in a critical tone though it is uncertain whether those comments were Barks's or those of his temporary \"business managers\" who filtered his communications.Unlike his idol Carl Barks, Rosa uses a lot of slapstick and humorously exaggerated facial expressions in his stories.", "Sequence from ''Incident at McDuck Tower'' (''Donald and Scrooge #1'', 1991, INDUCKS story code D+90345).", "\"I usually don't like my stories.", "I mean I try really hard, but I know I don't draw that well.", "I know people like it because it's got lots of extra details, but art directors know good artwork, and they know mine is not good artwork.", "Now, people always say, 'You're being too modest, you're being too modest', and I say, 'What?'", "They just have to ask me the right question.", "I know it's not good artwork and I don't know if it's well-drawn, but I know it's entertaining.\"", "– Don Rosa, Torino Comics Festival, April 2011\"Don Rosa has a style that is a little bit different from the Disney style.", "I know that there is a great deal of people that like that style, which is extremely detailed.", "So, there is room in the business for artists like Don Rosa and for others like Van Horn.", "They have a different style.", "But if they have a good story and tell it properly, then people are going to like it.\"", "– Carl Barks, interview given at Disneyland Paris, July 7, 1994Beside Rosa's constant effort to remain faithful to the universe Barks created, there is also a number of notable differences between the two artists.", "The most obvious of these is Rosa's much more detailed drawing style, often with many background gags, which has been credited as being a result of Rosa's love of the Will Elder stories of ''MAD'' comics and magazines.", "While Barks himself discouraged the use of extreme grimacing and gesturing in any other panel for comical or dramatic effect, Rosa's stories are rich with exaggerated facial expressions and physical slapstick.", "Barks had over 600 Duck stories to his name while Rosa only created 85 until his eye trouble set in, but whereas Barks made many short one and two-pagers centered around a subtle, compact gag, Rosa's oeuvre consists almost exclusively of long adventure stories.Andrea \"Bramo\" Bramini identifies the following four differences between Barks's and Rosa's way of storytelling:* Rosa follows a very strict continuity, while Barks paid very little attention to continuity between stories.", "* Rosa's characterization of Scrooge is that of a much more sentimental person for often relishing his memories of past adventures.", "* Barks situated his stories in the present day of when he was creating them and had a penchant for satire.", "Rosa strictly writes stories taking place in an era at least half a century prior to their creation, and mostly abstains from any political or social commentary.", "* With his engineering degree, Rosa often goes to great lengths to give scientifically plausible explanations within his stories, whereas Barks never cared much for any detailed scientific rationalizations to his stories.===D.U.C.K.===Most of Rosa's stories have the letters D.U.C.K.", "hidden within either the first panel or, if Rosa has created the cover art, within the cover art itself.", "D.U.C.K.", "is a backronym for \"'''D'''edicated to '''U'''nca '''C'''arl from '''K'''eno\" (Carl being Carl Barks and Keno being Rosa's given first name).", "Due to Disney's refusal to allow artists to sign their work, early Rosa dedications to Barks were deleted as they seemed to be a form of a signature.", "Later Rosa began hiding the dedication acronym from his editors in various and unlikely places within his drawings.Rosa has drawn covers for reprints of Carl Barks stories and has included his D.U.C.K.", "dedication within them as well.===Mickeys===Another curiosity is his Hidden Mickeys.", "Rosa is only interested in creating stories featuring the Duck family, but he often hides small Mickey Mouse heads or figures in the pictures, sometimes in a humiliating or unwanted situation.", "An example of this is in the story ''The Terror of the Transvaal'' where a flat Mickey can be seen under an elephant's foot.", "This is mostly a gag done for the fun of it.", "Rosa has admitted to neither liking nor disliking Mickey Mouse, but being indifferent to him.In the story ''Attack of the Hideous Space-Varmints'', the asteroid with Uncle Scrooge's money bin on it crashes into the Moon along with two missiles, creating a large Mickey Mouse head on the surface.", "When Huey, Dewey, and Louie tell Donald that the missiles hit the \"dark\" (far) side of the Moon, Donald is thankful no one is going to see it — \"For a minute there, I thought we were going to have some legal problems.", "\"In the second Rosa story featuring The Three Caballeros, Donald Duck is shocked by the sight of a capybara standing on its hind legs, with shrubs, leaves and fruit in front of its body, coincidentally making it look like Mickey Mouse.", "José Carioca and Panchito Pistoles, never having seen Mickey Mouse, ask Donald what is wrong, but Donald replies he is just tired.", "Later in the same story, the Caballeros free several animals from a poacher.", "One panel shows the animals fleeing; Mickey can be seen among them.In ''The Quest for Kalevala'' this running gag can be seen on the original, Akseli Gallen-Kallela-inspired cover art.", "In the original work, Louhi is depicted as bare-chested, but the Disneyfied version has been drawn a top, of fabric patterned with Mickey Mouse heads." ], [ "Awards", "Rosa at 270pxHis work has won Rosa a great deal of recognition in the industry, including nominations for the Comics' Buyer's Guide Award for Favorite Writer in 1997, 1998, and 1999.Heidi MacDonald of Comics Buyer's Guide also mentioned Rosa's 1994 story ''Guardians of the Lost Library'' as ''\"possibly the greatest comic book story of all time\"''.In 1995, Rosa was awarded the Eisner Award for Best Serialized Story for ''The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck''.", "In 1997 he won an Eisner for Best Artist/Writer – Humor Category.", "He was awarded the Inkpot Award in 2014.Rosa's story ''The Black Knight GLORPS Again!''", "was nominated for the 2007 Eisner Award in the category Best Short Story.", "While ''The Prisoner of White Agony Creek'', Rosa's latest Duck story to-date, was published in 2006, he was also nominated for the 2007 Harvey Awards in five categories (more than any other creator was that year) for his Uncle Scrooge comics: \"Best Writer\", \"Best Artist\", \"Best Cartoonist\", \"Best Cover Artist\", and \"Special Award for Humor in Comics.\"", "In 2013 Rosa received the Bill Finger Award which recognizes excellence in comic book writing for writers who have not received their rightful reward and/or recognition.International \"Best Cartoonist of the Year\" awards include:Germany: International Grand Prize 2005 (Frankfurt Book Fair).", "Denmark: ORLA Award (DR Television Network).", "Sweden:Svenska Serieakademins (Swedish Comics Academy).", "Seriefrämjandets Unghunden (Swedish Comics Association).", "Norway: Sproing Award (Norsk Tegneserieforum / Norwegian Comics Forum).", "Italy:Yambo Award (Lucca Comics Festival).", "Premio U Giancu Award (U Giancu & Rapallo Comics Festival).", "Spain: Haxtur Award (Gijon Comics Festival)." ], [ "Biographies", "In 1997 the Italian publishing house Editrice ComicArt published a lavish volume about Rosa's biography and work related to the Disney characters.", "It was titled ''Don Rosa e il Rinascimento Disneyano'' (\"Don Rosa and the Disneyean Renaissance\") and written by famous Disney and Rosa scholars, Alberto Becattini, Leonardo Gori and Francesco Stajano.", "This work not only discusses all of Rosa's creative life up to 1997, but it also gives a comprehensive biography, lists up to that date his Disney work and presents an extensive interview with Rosa.In 2009, Danish director Sebastian S. Cordes shot a 75-minute documentary called ''The Life and Times of Don Rosa'', consisting of exclusive interviews with Rosa himself on his farm near Louisville, Kentucky.", "According to the project's Facebook group, the English-language DVD was released in Denmark on April 16, 2011.In 2011, Italian Disney fan forum ''papersera.net'' published ''Don Rosa: A Little Something Special'' (edited by Italian Rosa fan Paolo Castagno), a large folio format, bilingual (Italian and English) book about Rosa's life and work, containing interviews with Rosa and articles by many Italian and European Disney artists, Disney scholars, and established art critics commenting on Rosa's work and career, also including many exclusive, rare Rosa drawings and illustrations.", "The book was originally made as a gift by ''papersera.net'' for Rosa himself upon the occasion of Rosa's April 2011 visit to Turin, Italy.In 2017 the book, ''I Still Get Chills!", "'', featuring text by German journalist Alex Jakubowski and photographs by Lois Lammerhuber, was published by Edition Lammerhuber in honour of Rosa's 66th birthday and the 70th anniversary of the first appearance of Scrooge McDuck.A feature documentary about Don Rosa and Scrooge McDuck by French director Morgann Gicquel titled ''The Scrooge Mystery'' was released in December 2017 and was released on DVD and Blu-ray in 2018." ], [ "Comic collections", "===United States===''The Don Rosa Classics — The Pertwillaby Papers''''The Don Rosa Classics — The Adventures of Captain Kentucky''''The Don Rosa Classics — The Early (So-Called) Art of Don Rosa''''The Don Rosa Library of Uncle Scrooge Adventures in Color'' Vols.", "1–8* ''The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck''* ''The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Companion''* ''The Barks/Rosa Collection'' Vols.", "1–3* ''Walt Disney Treasury: Donald Duck'' Vols.", "1–2* ''Uncle Scrooge and Donald Duck: The Don Rosa Library'' Vols.", "1–10* ''Don Rosa's The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck: Artist's Edition'' Vols.", "1–2* ''The Complete Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck'' Vols.", "1–2===Other countries===Apart from the ''Don Rosa Collection'' in Germany and ''Don Rosas Samlade/Samlede Verk'' and ''Don Rosan kootut'' in the Nordic nations, the following collections only contain Rosa's work for Disney.", "Country Collection Year Remarks Brazil — Tio Patinhas e Pato Donald – Biblioteca Don Rosa 1-10 2017–2020 Denmark — Hall of Fame: Don Rosa – bog 1–10— Don Rosas Samlede Værker 1–9 2004–20092014–2015 Including non-Disney comics Finland — Don Rosan Parhaita— Don Rosan kootut 1–9 1995–20102011–2013 Including non-Disney comics France — La jeunesse de Picsou 1-2/Les trésors de Picsou 3–7— Intégrale Don Rosa 1–7 2004–20082012–2016 Germany — Onkel Dagobert von Don Rosa 0–32— Hall of Fame: Don Rosa 1–8— Don Rosa Collection 1–9— Don Rosa Library 1–10 1994–20062004–20112011–20132020–2022 IncompleteIncluding non-Disney comicsGreece — Βιβλιοθήκη Κόμιξ vol 1-6 2008–2012 Not including ''The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck'' and ''The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Companion'' collections and the story ''A Little Something Special'' Indonesia — Komik Petualangan Paman Gober Karya Don Rosa 1–8 2011 Incomplete Italy — The Don Rosa Library - Zio Paperone & Paperino 2017–2019 Netherlands — Oom Dagobert 53–74— Het levensverhaal / De reisavonturen van Dagobert Duck 1996–20052013–2019 Incomplete (only upper collection) Norway — Hall of Fame: Don Rosa – bok 1–10— Don Rosa Samlede Verk 1–9 2004–20102011–2013 Including non-Disney comics Poland — Komiksy z Kaczogrodu: Życie i czasy Sknerusa McKwacza 2000 Russia — Дядюшка Скрудж и Дональд Дак - Библиотека Дона Росы 2017–2019 Sweden — Hall of Fame: Don Rosa – bok 1–10— Don Rosas samlade verk 1–9— Don Rosa-biblioteket 1–10 2004–20092011–20132020– Including non-Disney comics" ], [ "See also", "* List of Disney comics by Don Rosa* Donaldism* Donald Duck universe* Clan McDuck* List of people from the Louisville metropolitan area" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Don Rosa at the Comiclopedia* DuckMania German fansite* Don-McDuck German fansite* Duckhunt German fansite* DuckMaster Finnish fansite* Don Rosa about Don Rosa* Life and Times of Don Rosa Documentary (2010)* The Scrooge Mystery Documentary (2018)* Don Rosa's official Facebook page" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dziga Vertov" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dziga Vertov''' (, born '''David Abelevich Kaufman''', , and also known as '''Denis Kaufman'''; – 12 February 1954) was a Soviet pioneer documentary film and newsreel director, as well as a cinema theorist.", "His filming practices and theories influenced the cinéma vérité style of documentary movie-making and the Dziga Vertov Group, a radical film-making cooperative which was active from 1968 to 1972.He was a member of the Kinoks collective, with Elizaveta Svilova and Mikhail Kaufman.In the 2012 ''Sight & Sound'' poll, critics voted Vertov's ''Man with a Movie Camera'' (1929) the eighth-greatest film ever made.Vertov's younger brothers Boris Kaufman and Mikhail Kaufman were also noted filmmakers, as was his wife, Yelizaveta Svilova." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years===Vertov was born David Abelevich Kaufman into a Jewish family in Białystok, Poland, then a part of the Russian Empire.", "He Russified his Jewish name and patronymic, David Abelevich, to '''Denis Arkadievich''' at some point after 1918.Vertov studied music at Białystok Conservatory until his family fled from the invading German Army to Moscow in 1915.The Kaufmans soon settled in Petrograd, where Vertov began writing poetry, science fiction, and satire.", "In 1916–1917 Vertov was studying medicine at the Psychoneurological Institute in Saint Petersburg and experimenting with \"sound collages\" in his free time.", "He eventually adopted the name \"Dziga Vertov\", which translates loosely from Ukrainian as 'spinning top'.===Early writings===Vertov is known for many early writings, mainly while still in school, that focus on the individual versus the perceptive nature of the camera lens, which he was known to call his \"second eye\".Most of Vertov's early work was unpublished, and few manuscripts survived after the Second World War, though some material surfaced in later films and documentaries created by Vertov and his brothers, Boris Kaufman and Mikhail Kaufman.Vertov is known for quotes on perception, and its ineffability, in relation to the nature of qualia (sensory experiences).===After the October Revolution===After the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, at the age of 22, Vertov began editing for ''Kino-Nedelya'' (, the Moscow Cinema Committee's weekly film series, and the first newsreel series in Russia), which first came out in June 1918.While working for ''Kino-Nedelya'' he met his future wife, the film director and editor, Elizaveta Svilova, who at the time was working as an editor at Goskino.", "She began collaborating with Vertov, beginning as his editor but becoming assistant and co-director in subsequent films, such as ''Man with a Movie Camera'' (1929), and ''Three Songs About Lenin'' (1934).Vertov worked on the ''Kino-Nedelya'' series for three years, helping establish and run a film-car on Mikhail Kalinin's agit-train during the ongoing Russian Civil War between Communists and counterrevolutionaries.", "Some of the cars on the agit-trains were equipped with actors for live performances or printing presses; Vertov's had equipment to shoot, develop, edit, and project film.", "The trains went to battlefronts on agitation-propaganda missions intended primarily to bolster the morale of the troops; they were also intended to stir up revolutionary fervor of the masses.In 1919, Vertov compiled newsreel footage for his documentary ''Anniversary of the Revolution;'' he also supervised the filming of his project ''The Battle for Tsaritsyn'' (1919).", "in 1921 he compiled ''History of the Civil War.''", "The so-called \"Council of Three,\" a group issuing manifestoes in LEF, a radical Russian newsmagazine, was established in 1922; the group's \"three\" were Vertov, his (future) wife and editor Elizaveta Svilova, and his brother and cinematographer Mikhail Kaufman.", "Vertov's interest in machinery led to a curiosity about the mechanical basis of cinema.His statement \"We: Variant of a Manifesto\" was published in the first issue of Kino-Fot, published by Aleksei Gan in 1922.It commenced with a distinction between \"kinoks\" and other approaches to the emergent cinematic industry::\"We call ourselves kinoks – as opposed to \"cinematographers\", a herd of junkmen doing rather well peddling their rags.", ":We see no connection between true kinochestvo and the cunning and calculation of the profiteers.", ":We consider the psychological Russo-German film-drama – weighed down with apparitions and childhood memories – an absurdity.", "\"====''Kino-Pravda''====In 1922, the year that ''Nanook of the North'' was released, Vertov started the ''Kino-Pravda'' series.", "The series took its title from the official government newspaper ''Pravda''.", "\"Kino-Pravda\" (literally translated, \"film truth\") continued Vertov's agit-prop bent.", "\"The Kino-Pravda group began its work in a basement in the centre of Moscow\", Vertov explained.", "He called it damp and dark.", "There was an earthen floor and holes one stumbled into at every turn.", "Vertov said, \"This dampness prevented our reels of lovingly edited film from sticking together properly, rusted our scissors and our splicers.Vertov's driving vision, expounded in his frequent essays, was to capture \"film truth\"—that is, fragments of actuality which, when organized together, have a deeper truth that cannot be seen with the naked eye.", "In the ''Kino-Pravda'' series, Vertov focused on everyday experiences, eschewing bourgeois concerns and filming marketplaces, bars, and schools instead, sometimes with a hidden camera, without asking permission first.", "Usually, the episodes of ''Kino-Pravda'' did not include reenactments or stagings.", "(One exception is the segment about the trial of the Social Revolutionaries: the scenes of the selling of the newspapers on the streets and the people reading the papers in the trolley were both staged for the camera.)", "The cinematography is simple, functional, unelaborate—perhaps a result of Vertov's disinterest in both \"beauty\" and the \"grandeur of fiction\".", "Twenty-three issues of the series were produced over a period of three years; each issue lasted about twenty minutes and usually covered three topics.", "The stories were typically descriptive, not narrative, and included vignettes and exposés, showing for instance the renovation of a trolley system, the organization of farmers into communes, and the trial of Social Revolutionaries; one story shows starvation in the nascent Communist state.", "Propagandistic tendencies are also present, but with more subtlety, in the episode featuring the construction of an airport: one shot shows the Tsar's tanks helping prepare a foundation, with an intertitle reading \"Tanks on the labor front\".Vertov clearly intended an active relationship with his audience in the series—in the final segment he includes contact information—but by the 14th episode the series had become so experimental that some critics dismissed Vertov's efforts as \"insane\".", "Vertov responded to their criticisms with the assertion that the critics were hacks nipping \"revolutionary effort\" in the bud, and concluded an essay with a promise to \"explode art's tower of Babel\".", "In Vertov's view, \"art's tower of Babel\" was the subservience of cinematic technique to narrative—what film theorist Noël Burch terms the institutional mode of representation—which would come to dominate the classical Hollywood cinema.By this point in his career, Vertov was clearly and emphatically dissatisfied with narrative tradition, and expresses his hostility towards dramatic fiction of any kind both openly and repeatedly; he regarded drama as another \"opiate of the masses\".", "Vertov freely admitted one criticism leveled at his efforts on the ''Kino-Pravda'' series—that the series, while influential, had a limited release.By the end of the ''Kino-Pravda'' series, Vertov made liberal use of stop motion, freeze frames, and other cinematic \"artificialities\", giving rise to criticisms not just of his trenchant dogmatism, but also of his cinematic technique.", "Vertov explains himself in \"On 'Kinopravda' \": in editing \"chance film clippings\" together for the Kino-Nedelia series, he \"began to doubt the necessity of a literary connection between individual visual elements spliced together....", "This work served as the point of departure for 'Kinopravda' \".", "Towards the end of the same essay, Vertov mentions an upcoming project which seems likely to be ''Man with a Movie Camera'' (1929), calling it an \"experimental film\" made without a scenario; just three paragraphs above, Vertov mentions a scene from ''Kino Pravda'' which should be quite familiar to viewers of ''Man with the Movie Camera'': the peasant works, and so does the urban woman, and so too, the woman film editor selecting the negative... \"====''Man with a Movie Camera''====With Lenin's admission of limited private enterprise through the New Economic Policy (NEP) of 1921, Russia began receiving fiction films from afar, an occurrence that Vertov regarded with undeniable suspicion, calling drama a \"corrupting influence\" on the proletarian sensibility (\"On 'Kinopravda' \", 1924).", "By this time Vertov had been using his newsreel series as a pedestal to vilify dramatic fiction for several years; he continued his criticisms even after the warm reception of Sergei Eisenstein's ''Battleship Potemkin'' (1925).", "''Potemkin'' was a heavily fictionalized film telling the story of a mutiny on a battleship which came about as a result of the sailors' mistreatment; the film was an obvious but skillful propaganda piece glorifying the proletariat.", "Vertov lost his job at Sovkino in January 1927, possibly as a result of criticizing a film which effectively preaches the line of the Communist Party.", "He was fired for making ''A Sixth Part of the World: Advertising and the Soviet Universe'' for the State Trade Organization into a propaganda film, selling the Soviet as an advanced society under the NEP, instead of showing how they fit into the world economy.The Ukraine State Studio hired Vertov to create ''Man with a Movie Camera''.", "Vertov says in his essay \"The Man with a Movie Camera\" that he was fighting \"for a decisive cleaning up of film-language, for its complete separation from the language of theater and literature\".", "By the later segments of ''Kino-Pravda'', Vertov was experimenting heavily, looking to abandon what he considered film clichés (and receiving criticism for it); his experimentation was even more pronounced and dramatic by the time of ''Man with a Movie Camera'', which was filmed in Ukraine.", "Some have criticized the obvious stagings in this film as being at odds with Vertov's credos of \"life as it is\" and \"life caught unawares\": the scene of the woman getting out of bed and getting dressed is obviously staged, as is the reversed shot of the chess pieces being pushed off a chess board and the tracking shot that films Mikhail Kaufman riding in a car filming a third car.However, Vertov's two credos, often used interchangeably, are in fact distinct, as Yuri Tsivian comments in the commentary track on the DVD for ''Man with the Movie Camera:'' for Vertov, \"life as it is\" means to record life as it would be without the camera present.", "\"Life caught unawares\" means to record life when surprised, and perhaps provoked, by the presence of a camera.", "This explanation contradicts the common assumption that for Vertov \"life caught unawares\" meant \"life caught unaware of the camera\".", "All of these shots might conform to Vertov's credo \"caught unawares\".", "His slow motion, fast motion, and other camera techniques were a way to dissect the image, Mikhail Kaufman stated in an interview.", "It was to be the honest truth of perception.", "For example, in ''Man with a Movie Camera'', two trains are shown almost melting into each other.", "Although we are taught to see trains as not riding that close, Vertov tried to portray the actual sight of two passing trains.", "Mikhail spoke about Eisenstein's films as being different from his and his brother's in that Eisenstein \"came from the theatre, in the theatre one directs dramas, one strings beads\".", "\"We all felt...that through documentary film we could develop a new kind of art.", "Not only documentary art, or the art of chronicle, but rather an art based on images, the creation of an image-oriented journalism\", Mikhail explained.", "More than even film truth, ''Man with a Movie Camera'' was supposed to be a way to make those in the Soviet Union more efficient in their actions.", "He slowed down his movements, such as the decision whether to jump or not.", "You can see the decision in his face, a psychological dissection for the audience.", "He wanted a peace between the actions of man and the actions of a machine, for them to be, in a sense, one.====''Cine-Eye''====\"Cine-Eye\" is a montage method developed by Dziga Vertov and first formulated in his work \"WE: Variant of a Manifesto\" in 1919.Dziga Vertov believed his concept of ''Kino-Glaz'', or \"Cine Eye\" in English, would help contemporary \"man\" evolve from a flawed creature into a higher, more precise form.", "He compared man unfavorably to machines: \"In the face of the machine we are ashamed of man's inability to control himself, but what are we to do if we find the unerring ways of electricity more exciting than the disorderly haste of active people ...\" As he put it in a 1923 credo, \"I am the Cine-Eye.", "I am the mechanical eye.", "I the machine show you the world as only I can see it.", "I emancipate myself henceforth and forever from human immobility.", "''I am in constant motion...'' My path leads towards the creation of a fresh perception of the world.", "I can thus decipher a world that you do not know.", "\"Like other Russian filmmakers, he attempted to connect his ideas and techniques to the advancement of the aims of the Soviet Union.", "Whereas Sergei Eisenstein viewed his montage of attractions as a creative tool through which the film-viewing masses could be subjected to \"emotional and psychological influence\" and therefore able to perceive \"the ideological aspect\" of the films they were watching, Vertov believed the Cine-Eye would influence the actual evolution of man, \"from a bumbling citizen through the poetry of the machine to the perfect electric man\".Vertov surrounded himself with others who were also firm believers in his ideas.", "These were the Kinoks, other Russian filmmakers who would assist him in his hopes of making \"cine-eye\" a success.Vertov believed film was too \"romantic\" and \"theatricalised\" due to the influence of literature, theater, and music, and that these psychological film-dramas \"prevent man from being as precise as a stopwatch and hamper his desire for kinship with the machine\".", "He desired to move away from \"the pre-Revolutionary 'fictional' models\" of filmmaking to one based on the rhythm of machines, seeking to \"bring creative joy to all mechanical labour\" and to \"bring men closer to machines\".In May 1927 Vertov moved to Ukraine, and the Cine-Eye movement broke up.===Late career===Vertov's successful career continued into the 1930s.", "''Enthusiasm: Symphony of the Donbass'' (1931), an examination into Soviet miners, has been called a 'sound film', with sound recorded on location, and these mechanical sounds woven together, producing a symphony-like effect.Three years later, ''Three Songs About Lenin'' (1934) looked at the revolution through the eyes of the Russian peasantry.", "For his film, Vertov had been hired by Mezhrabpomfilm.", "The film, finished in January 1934 for Lenin's obit, was only publicly released in the Soviet Union in November of that year.", "From July 1934 it was shown at private screenings to various high-ranking Soviet officials and also to prominent foreigners including H. G. Wells, William Bullitt, and others, and it was screened at the Venice Film Festival in August 1934.A new version of the film was released in 1938, including a longer sequence to reflect Stalin's achievements at the end of the film and leaving out footage of \"enemies\" of that time.", "Today there exists a 1970 reconstruction by Yelizaveta Svilova.", "With the rise and official sanction of socialist realism in 1934, Vertov was forced to cut his personal artistic output significantly, eventually becoming little more than an editor for Soviet newsreels.", "''Lullaby'', perhaps the last film in which Vertov was able to maintain his artistic vision, was released in 1937.Dziga Vertov died of cancer in Moscow in 1954." ], [ "Family", "Vertov's brother Boris Kaufman was a cinematographer who worked with Jean Vigo on ''L'Atalante'' (1934) and much later for directors such as Elia Kazan in the United States who won an Oscar for his work on ''On the Waterfront''.", "His other brother, Mikhail Kaufman, worked with Vertov on his films until he became a documentarian in his own right.", "Mikhail Kaufman's directorial debut was the film ''In Spring'' (1929).In 1923, Vertov married his long-time collaborator Elizaveta Svilova." ], [ "Influence and legacy", "Vertov's legacy still lives on today.", "His ideas are echoed in cinéma vérité, the movement of the 1960s named after Vertov's ''Kino-Pravda''.", "The 1960s and 1970s saw an international revival of interest in Vertov.The independent, exploratory style of Vertov influenced and inspired many filmmakers and directors like the Situationist Guy Debord and independent companies such as Vertov Industries in Hawaii.", "The Dziga Vertov Group borrowed his name.", "In 1960, Jean Rouch used Vertov's filming theory when making ''Chronicle of a Summer''.", "His partner Edgar Morin coined the term ''cinéma vérité'' when describing the style, using direct translation of Vertov's ''KinoPravda''.The Free Cinema movement in the United Kingdom during the 1950s, the Direct Cinema in North America in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and the ''Candid Eye'' series in Canada in the 1950s all essentially owed a debt to Vertov.This revival of Vertov's legacy included rehabilitation of his reputation in the Soviet Union, with retrospectives of his films, biographical works, and writings.", "In 1962, the first Soviet monograph on Vertov was published, followed by another collection, \"Dziga Vertov: Articles, Diaries, Projects\".", "In 1984, to recall the 30th anniversary of Vertov's death, three New York cultural organizations put on the first American retrospective of Vertov's work.New Media theorist Lev Manovich suggested Vertov as one of the early pioneers of database cinema genre in his essay ''Database as a symbolic form''.Vertov's work has inspired notable artist and filmmaker William Kentridge." ], [ "Filmography", "Poster for ''Kino-Eye'', designed by Alexander Rodchenko (1924)''Soviet Toys''1918 Кинонеделя (''Kino Nedelya''/''Cinema Week'')1918 Годовщина революции (''Anniversary of the Revolution'')1921 История гражданской войны (''History of the Civil War'')1922 Киноправда (''Kino-Pravda'')1924 Советские игрушки (''Soviet Toys'')1924 Кино-глаз (''Kino-Eye''), cameraman Ilya Kopalin1926 Шестая часть мира (''A Sixth Part of the World'')1928 Одиннадцатый (''The Eleventh Year'')1929 Человек с киноаппаратом (''Man with a Movie Camera'')1931 Энтузиазм (Симфония Донбаса) (''Enthusiasm'')1934 Три песни о Ленине (''Three Songs About Lenin'')1937 Памяти Серго Орджоникидзе (''In Memory of Sergo Ordzhonikidze'')1937 Колыбельная (''Lullaby'')1938 Три героини (''Three Heroines'')1942 Казахстан – фронту!", "(''Kazakhstan for the Front!", "'')1944 В горах Ала-Тау (''In the Mountains of Ala-Tau'')1954 Новости дня (''News of the Day'')=== Lost films ===Some early Vertov's films were lost for many years.", "Only 12 minutes of his 1918 ''Anniversary of the Revolution'' were known; in 2018 Russian film historian Nikolai Izvolov found lost film in the Russian State Documentary Film & Photo Archive and restored it.", "In 2022 he reconstructed another lost film, 1921 ''The History of the Civil War'' using archive materials." ], [ "See also", "Soviet montage theoryFormalist film theoryCinéma VéritéPure CinemaAbstract Film" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", ";Books and articlesBarnouw, Erik.", "''Documentary: a History of the Non-fiction Film.''", "Oxford University Press.", "Original copyright 1974.", "Bohlman, Philip Vilas.", "''Music, Modernity, and the Foreign in the New Germany.''", "1994, pp.", "121–152Christie, Ian.", "\"Rushes: Pordenone Retrospective: Gazing into the Future.", "\", in: ''Sight and Sound''.", "2005, 15, 1, 4–5, British Film InstituteCook, Simon. \"", "Our Eyes, Spinning Like Propellers: Wheel of Life, Curve of Velocities, and Dziga Vertov's Theory of the Interva l.\" ''October'', 2007: 79–91.", "* Natascha Drubek-Meyer; Murasov, Jurij, ''Rhapsodie und Apparatur.", "Zu den Filmen des Dziga Vertov''.", "Frankfurt a.M.", "1999.", "Ellis, Jack C. ''The Documentary Idea: a Critical History of English-Language Documentary Film and Video.''", "Prentice Hall, 1989.", "Feldman, Seth.", "\"'Peace between Man and Machine': Dziga Vertov's ''The Man with a Movie Camera.''\"", "in: Barry Keith Grant, and Jeannette Sloniowski, eds.", "''Documenting the Documentary: Close Readings of Documentary Film and Video.''", "Wayne State University Press, 1998.pp. 40–53.", "Feldman, Seth.", "''Evolution of style in the early work of Dziga Vertov.''", "1977, Arno Press, New York.", "Graffy, Julian; Deriabin, Aleksandr; Sarkisova, Oksana; Keller, Sarah; Scandiffio, Theresa .", "''Lines of Resistance: Dziga Vertov and the Twenties''; edited and with an introduction by Yuri Tsivian.", "Le Giornate del cinema muto, Gemona, UdineHeftberger, Adelheid.", "''Kollision der Kader.", "Dziga Vertovs Filme, die Visualisierung ihrer Strukturen und die Digital Humanities''.", "Munich: edition text + kritik, 2016.", "Hicks, Jeremy.", "''Dziga Vertov: Defining Documentary Film.''", "London & New York: I.", "B. Tauris, 2007.", "Le Grice, Malcolm.", "''Abstract Film and Beyond.''", "Studio Vista, 1977.", "MacKay, John.", "\"Allegory and Accommodation: Vertov's «Three Songs of Lenin» (1934) as a Stalinist Film.\"", "In ''Film History: An International Journal''; 18.4 (2006) 376–391.", "MacKay, John.", "\"Disorganized Noise: ''Enthusiasm'' and the Ear of the Collective.\"", "MacKay, John.", "\"Film Energy: Process and Metanarrative in Dziga Vertov's «The Eleventh Year» (1928).\"", "''October''; 121 (Summer 2007): 41–78.", "MacKay, John.", "\"The 'Spinning Top' Takes Another Turn: Vertov Today.", "\"MacKay, John.", "John MacKay \| Yale University – Academia.edu Drafts of ''Dziga Vertov: Life and WorkMichelson, Annette & Turvey, Malcolm, eds.", "\"New Vertov Studies.\"", "Special Issue of ''October'', (''October'' 121 (Summer 2007)).", "* Lech, Dorota.", "Dziga Vertov's Long-Lost Films, mubi.com, 8 February 2022.", "Molcard, Eva.", "2020.", "\"Elizaveta Svilova.\"", "In Jane Gaines, Radha Vatsal, and Monica Dall'Asta, eds.", "Women Film Pioneers Project.", "New York, NY: Columbia University Libraries.", "Roberts, Graham.", "''The Man with the Movie Camera.''", "I.", "B. Tauris, 2001.", "Singer, Ben.", "\"Connoisseurs of Chaos: Whitman, Vertov and the 'Poetic Survey,'\" ''Literature/Film Quarterly''; 15:4 (Fall 1987): 247–258.", "Tode, Thomas & Wurm, Barbara, Austrian Film Museum, eds.", "''Dziga Vertov.", "The Vertov Collection at the Austrian Film Museum,'' Bilingual (German-English).", "(Paperback – May 2006), FilmmuseumSynemaPublikationen.-- online version available here.", "Tsivian, Yuri, ed.", "''Lines of Resistance: Dziga Vertov and the Twenties''.", "Le Giornate del Cinema Muto, 2004.", "Vertov, Dziga.", "''On Kinopravda.''", "1924, and ''The Man with the Movie Camera.''", "1928, in: Annette Michelson ed.", "Kevin O'Brien tr.", "''Kino-Eye : The Writings of Dziga Vertov,'' University of California Press, 1995.", "Dziga Vertov.", "''We.", "A Version of a Manifesto.''", "1922, in Ian Christie, Richard Taylor eds.", "''The Film Factory: Russian and Soviet Cinema in Documents, 1896–1939'' Routledge, 1994.", "Warren, Charles, ed.", "''Beyond Document: Essays on Nonfiction Film.''", "Wesleyan University Press, 1996.;DVDs''Dziga Vertov's Man with the Movie Camera'' DVD, audio commentary track by Yuri Tsivian.", "''Entuziazm (Simfonija Donbassa)'' DVD, restored version and unrestored version plus documentary on Peter Kubelka's restoration." ], [ "External links", "** Senses Of Cinema: Dziga Vertov* Dziga Vertov's ''Kino-Eye'' and ''Three Songs About Lenin'' at UBUWEB* Newsreels by Vertov on europeanfilmgateway.eu, by John MacKay, Yale University* Central Studio for Documentary Film (ЦСДФ) museum biography page (in Russian)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deimos" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Deimos''', a Greek word for ''dread'', may refer to:" ], [ "In general", "* Deimos (deity), one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite in Greek mythology* Deimos (moon), the smaller and outermost of Mars' two natural satellites" ], [ "Fictional characters", "* Deimos (comics), villain for the Warlord comic series* Deimos, the brother of Kratos in the ''God of War'' series* Deimos, the identity of an antagonistic character from the 2018 video game ''Assassin's Creed Odyssey''" ], [ "Transportation and vehicles", "* Elecnor Deimos, a Spanish aerospace company* Deimos-1, an artificial Earth observation satellite* Deimos-2, an artificial Earth observation satellite* SpaceX ''Deimos'', a floating Starship launch and landing platform* , a U.S. Navy shipname** , a ship in the US Navy in World War II" ], [ "Other uses", "* DEIMOS, an early message passing OS for the Cray-1, replaced by the Cray Time Sharing System* Deimos (Doctor Who audio), an audio drama" ], [ "See also", "* Demos (disambiguation)* Demoz (disambiguation)*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Delaware General Corporation Law" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Delaware General Corporation Law''' (Title 8, Chapter 1 of the Delaware Code) is the statute of the Delaware Code that governs corporate law in the U.S. state of Delaware.", "The statute was adopted in 1899.Since then, Delaware has become the most prevalent jurisdiction in United States corporate law.", "Delaware is considered a corporate haven because of its business-friendly corporate laws compared to most other U.S. states.", "66% of the ''Fortune'' 500, including Walmart and Apple (two of the world's largest companies by revenue) are incorporated (and therefore have their domiciles for service of process purposes) in the state.", "Over half of all publicly traded corporations listed in the New York Stock Exchange (including its owner, Intercontinental Exchange) are incorporated in Delaware." ], [ "History", "Delaware acquired its status as a corporate haven in the early 20th century.", "Following the example of New Jersey, which enacted corporate-friendly laws at the end of the 19th century to attract businesses from New York, Delaware adopted on March 10, 1899, a general incorporation act aimed at attracting more businesses.", "The group that pushed for this legislation intended to establish a corporation that would sell services to other businesses incorporating in Delaware.", "Before the rise of general incorporation acts, forming a corporation required a special act of the state legislature.", "General incorporation allowed anyone to form a corporation by simply raising money and filing articles of incorporation with the state's Secretary of State." ], [ "Other legal aspects", "Because of the extensive experience of the Delaware courts, Delaware has a more well-developed body of case law than other states, which serves to give corporations and their counsel greater guidance on matters of corporate governance and transaction liability issues.", "Disputes over the internal affairs of Delaware corporations are usually filed in the Delaware Court of Chancery, which is a separate court of equity, as opposed to a court of law.", "Because it is a court of equity, there are no juries; its cases are heard by judges, called chancellors.", "Since 2018, the court has consisted of one chancellor and six vice-chancellors.", "The court is a trial court, with one chancellor hearing each case.", "Litigants may appeal final decisions of the Court of Chancery to the Delaware Supreme Court.Delaware has also attracted major credit card banks because of its relaxed rules regarding interest.", "Many U.S. states have usury laws limiting the amount of interest a lender can charge.", "Federal law allows a national bank to \"import\" these laws from the state in which its principal office is located.", "Delaware (among others) has relatively relaxed interest laws, so several national banks have decided to locate their principal office in Delaware.", "National banks are, however, corporations formed under federal law, not Delaware law.", "A corporation formed under Delaware state law benefits from the relaxed interest rules to the extent it conducts business in Delaware, but is subject to restrictions of other states' laws if it conducts business in other states.Pursuant to the \"internal affairs doctrine\", corporations which act in more than one state are subject only to the laws of their state of incorporation with regard to the regulation of the internal affairs of the corporation.", "As a result, Delaware corporations are subject almost exclusively to Delaware law, even when they do business in other states.While most states require a for-profit corporation to have at least one director and two officers, Delaware laws do not have this restriction.", "All offices may be held by a single person who also can be the sole shareholder.", "The person, who does not need to be a U.S. citizen or resident, may also operate anonymously with only the listing agent through whom the company is registered named." ], [ "Tax benefits and burdens", "Delaware charges no income tax on corporations not operating within the state, so taking advantage of Delaware's other benefits does not result in taxation.", "At the same time, Delaware has a particularly aggressive tax on banks that locate in the state.", "However, in general, the state is viewed as a positive location for corporate tax purposes because favorable laws of incorporation allow companies to minimize corporate expenditures (achieved through legal standardization of corporate legal processes), creating a nucleus in Delaware with operating companies often in other states.In addition, Delaware has used its position as the state of incorporation to generate revenue from its abandoned and unclaimed property laws.", "Under U.S. Supreme Court precedent, the state of incorporation gets to keep any abandoned and unclaimed property, such as uncashed checks and unredeemed gift certificates, if the corporation does not have information about the location of the owner of the property.Delaware charges a franchise tax on the corporations incorporated in it.", "Franchise taxes in Delaware are higher than in most other states which typically get revenue from corporate income taxes on the portion of the corporation's business done in that state.", "Delaware's franchise taxes supply about one-fifth of its state revenue.In February 2013, ''The Economist'' published an article on tax-friendly jurisdictions, commenting that Delaware stood for \"Dollars and Euros Laundered And Washed At Reasonable Expense\".", "Jeffrey W. Bullock, Delaware's Secretary of State, insists that the state has struck the right balance between curbing criminality and \"paying deference to the millions of legitimate businesspeople who benefit\" from hassle-free incorporation." ], [ "2013 amendments", "On June 30, 2013, Delaware Governor Jack Markell signed amendments to the Delaware General Corporation Law.", "The new legislation took effect August 1, 2013, except for ratification of defective corporate acts amendment which took effect in 2014." ], [ "Securities law", "In 2020, the Delaware Supreme Court upheld a provision allowing companies to require in their certificates of incorporation all Securities Act of 1933 claims to be filed in federal court.DGCL 203 is particularly known as an antitakeover law." ], [ "See also", "Combined reportingCorporation Service CompanyCorporation Trust Center (CT Corporation), Wilmington, Delaware, home to over 6,500 Delaware corporationsCorporationCorporate haven''Delaware Journal of Corporate Law''Say on payFlag of convenience (business)United Kingdom company law" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", " Delaware Department of State, Division of Corporations – official website, corporation name search.", "* Delaware's General Corporation Law* Delaware Division of Corporations* The Delaware Journal of Corporate Law" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Detroit River" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Detroit River''' flows west and south for from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie as a strait in the Great Lakes system.", "The river divides the metropolitan areas of Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario—an area collectively referred to as Detroit–Windsor—and forms part of the border between Canada and the United States.", "The Ambassador Bridge, the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel, and the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel connect the cities.The river's English name comes from the French (translated as \"River of the Strait\").", "The Detroit River has served an important role in the history of Detroit and Windsor, and is one of the world's busiest waterways.", "It is an important transportation route connecting Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, and Lake Superior to Lake Erie and eventually to Lake Ontario, the St. Lawrence Seaway and the Erie Canal.", "When Detroit underwent rapid industrialization at the turn of the 20th century, the Detroit River became notoriously polluted and toxic.", "Since the late 20th century, however, a vast restoration effort has been undertaken because of the river's ecological importance.In the early 21st century, the river today has a wide variety of economic and recreational uses.", "There are numerous islands in the Detroit River, and much of the lower portion of the river is part of the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge.", "The portion of the river in the city of Detroit has been organized into the Detroit International Riverfront and the William G. Milliken State Park and Harbor.", "The Detroit River is designated both an American Heritage River and a Canadian Heritage River—the only river to have this dual designation." ], [ "Geography", "Aerial view of the Detroit River looking northThe Detroit River flows for from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie.", "By definition, this classifies it as both a river and a strait — a strait being a narrow passageway connecting two large bodies of water, which is how the river earned its name from early French settlers.", "However, today, the Detroit River is rarely referred to as a strait, because bodies of water referred to as straits are typically much wider relative to their length.", "The river forms the southern portion of the waterway connecting Lake Huron to the north and Lake Erie to the south, with other portions including the St. Clair River and Lake St. Clair.The Detroit River is only wide.", "It begins with an east-to-west flow from Lake St. Clair, but curves and runs north to south.", "The deepest portion of the Detroit River is in its northern portion.", "At its source, the river is at an elevation of above sea level.", "The river is relatively level, dropping only before entering Lake Erie at .", "As the river contains no dams and no locks, it is easily navigable by even the smallest of vessels.", "The watershed basin for the Detroit River is approximately .", "Since the river is fairly short, it has few tributaries, the largest being the River Rouge in Michigan; this is four times longer than the Detroit River and contains most of the watershed.", "The only other major American tributary to the Detroit River is the much smaller Ecorse River.", "Tributaries on the Canadian side include Little River, Turkey Creek, and the River Canard.", "The discharge for the Detroit River is relatively high for a river of its size.", "The river's discharge averaged over the year is , and the river's flow is relatively constant.The Detroit River forms a major element of the international border between the United States and Canada.", "The river on the American side is all under the jurisdiction of Wayne County, Michigan, and the Canadian side is under the administration of Essex County, Ontario.", "The largest city along the Detroit River is Detroit, and most of the population along the river lives in Michigan.", "The Detroit River has two automobile traffic crossings connecting the United States and Canada: the Ambassador Bridge and the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel.", "Both of these are strongly protected by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection and the Canada Border Services Agency.The upper portion of the river is one of the two places where a Canadian city lies directly south of an American city.", "In this case, the city of Detroit is directly north of the city of Windsor, Ontario.", "The only other location where this occurs is Fort Erie, Ontario, which lies south of several cities in Niagara County, New York.", "The cities and communities southwest of Detroit along the American side of the river are popularly referred to as the Downriver area, because those areas are said to be \"down the river\" from Detroit.", "Several of these communities do not border the Detroit River but the term \"Downriver\" refers broadly to the cluster of 18 suburban communities that lie to the southwest of the city of Detroit and to the west of the Detroit River.Satellite photo showing Lake Saint Clair (center) with the Detroit River connecting it to Lake Erie (to the south) and the St. Clair River connecting it to Lake Huron (to the north).===Islands===The Detroit River contains 31 charted islands.", "The majority of the islands are located on the American side of the river.", "Many of the islands are small and uninhabited, and none are divided by the international border, as the two countries do not share a land border along the river.", "Grosse Ile is the largest and most populated of all islands, and Fighting Island is the largest Canadian island.", "Most islands are located in the southern portion of the river." ], [ "History", "Aerial view of a classification yard and two train ferries, 1943Europeans first recorded navigating the Detroit River in the 17th century.", "The Iroquois traded furs with the Dutch colonists at New Amsterdam by traveling through the Detroit River.", "The French later claimed the area for New France.", "The famed sailing ship ''Le Griffon'' reached the mouth of the Detroit River in mid-August 1679 on its maiden voyage through the Great Lakes.", "Later, when the French began settling in the area, they navigated the river using canoes made of birch or elm bark.", "Handcrafted vessels were a common mode of travel across the river, and pirogues and bateaux were also used.", "As the North American fur trade intensified, European settlers expanded their trade westward into uncharted territories.", "French explorer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac sailed up the Detroit River on July 23, 1701.The next day, he established Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, which developed as Detroit.", "The French named the river as ''Rivière Détroit''.", "''Détroit'' is French for \"strait\".", "The river was known literally as the \"River of the Strait\".When Great Britain defeated the French in the Seven Years' War (known as the French and Indian War on the American front), it took over control of the Detroit River, as well as other French territory east of the Mississippi River.", "The newly formed United States claimed this territory during the American Revolution, but the British did not transfer it until 1796.During the War of 1812, the Detroit River served as a major barrier between the American Michigan Territory and British Upper Canada, especially during the Battle of Fort Detroit in August 1812.Detroit briefly fell to the British.", "After the completion of the Erie Canal in 1817, which opened up easier travel to Lake Erie from the East Coast of the United States, connecting the Great Lakes to the Hudson River and the port of New York City, the Detroit River became a route for many migrating settlers traveling to northern Michigan.", "Detroit rapidly attracted a share of new residents.", "Following the Patriot War, in which British regulars and Michigan militia nearly came to armed conflict on the ice-covered Detroit River, the United States built Fort Wayne at Detroit to counter Britain's riverside Fort Malden at Amherstburg across the river.The Detroit River served as a final stop on the Underground Railroad and was the most active entry point along the United States–Canada border for fugitive slaves.", "Escaping slaves often chose to cross through the Detroit River rather than flee to Mexico because of the river's location near free states made it less risky than traveling through slaveholding states that border Mexico.", "The strong Underground Railroad networks in the Canadian border region also assisted Blacks hoping to flee from the U.S. once the Fugitive Slave Act was strengthened in 1850.Canada also granted legal immigration status to Blacks, while Mexico did not for many years.", "Individuals and organizations assisted escaping slaves hoping to cross the Detroit River from the United States into Canada.", "The Second Baptist Church of Detroit and First Baptist Church of Amherstburg coordinated ferrying thousands of Blacks across the Detroit River into Canada, and Detroit's Colored Vigilant Committee assisted over 1,500 fugitives in crossing into Canada.", "Famous abolitionists and Underground Railroad conductors including George DeBaptiste and William Lambert worked individually and with these organizations to assist fleeing slaves and condemn slavery.", "There was considerable transnational fluidity between the Canadian and American sides of the river until the middle of the 19th century.", "The 1833 Blackburn Riots in Detroit, which erupted after slave hunters detained couple Lucie and Thornton Blackburn, marked the end of hundreds of years of a nearly porous border between Canada and the United States on the Detroit River.", "Detroit's African American population protested and helped the Blackburns escape across the Detroit River to Upper Canada, where the British colonial government in Canada declared former slaves could not be extradited to be returned to their owners.", "With their freedom in Canada secured, crossing the Detroit River out of the United States became an imperative for escaping slaves.", "During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the Union feared the seceded Confederate States of America (CSA) would plan a northerly attack from Canada, which was controlled by the British Empire and remained neutral in the war.", "The Union feared the CSA would cross the Detroit River to launch this attack.", "For that reason, Union forces regularly patrolled the Detroit River and the fortification at Fort Wayne improved, although it was far removed from any major combat.", "A Confederate plot to capture the U.S. Navy warship, USS ''Michigan'', and liberate Confederate prisoners from Johnson Island, in western Lake Erie, was narrowly averted only after the Confederates had captured two passenger steamships.At the beginning of the 20th century, Detroit's industrialization took off on an unprecedented scale.", "The Detroit River became the world's busiest commercial river and in 1908 was dubbed \"the Greatest Commercial Artery on Earth\" by ''The Detroit News''.", "In 1907, the Detroit River carried 67,292,504 tons (61 billion kg) of shipping commerce through Detroit to markets all over the world.", "By comparison, London shipped 18,727,230 tons (16 billion kg), and New York shipped 20,390,953 tons (18 billion kg).===Prohibition===From 1920 to 1933, the United States (US) enforced the Prohibition era.", "The sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol for consumption were nationally banned.", "Detroit, as the largest city bordering Canada, where alcohol remained legal during Prohibition, became the center of a new industry known as rum-running, smuggling liquor into the US.No bridges connected Ontario, Canada and Michigan, US, until the Ambassador Bridge was finished in 1929 and the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel in 1930.Smugglers used boats of varying sizes to transport alcohol across the river during the summer, and during the winter months, rum-runners traveled back and forth across the frozen Detroit River by car.", "In some cases, overloaded cars fell through the ice.", "In the 21st century, car parts from this era are occasionally still found on the bottom of the river.", "Rum-running in Windsor and production of bootleg liquor became common practices.", "American mobsters such as the Purple Gang of Detroit used violence to control the route known as the \"Detroit-Windsor Funnel,\" and continue to gain lucrative returns from the trade.", "The name parodied the newly built tunnel between the cities and nations.", "The Detroit River, Lake St. Clair, and the St. Clair River are estimated to have carried 75% of all liquor smuggled into the United States during Prohibition.", "Government officials were unable or unwilling to deter the flow.The rum-running industry died when prohibition was repealed in 1933 by the Twenty-first Amendment.===Submerged objects===Because of the booming businesses and long history of Metro Detroit and Windsor, Ontario, the Detroit River has been the site of many artifacts, some lost with sunken ships and others abandoned, such as murder weapons or stolen bronze statues.", "A DMC DeLorean has also been recovered from the river.", "The artifacts recovered are well preserved due to the river's fresh water but low visibility makes them difficult to find.A 1940s-era bronze statue depicting a classical nude woman was originally installed to overlook a reflecting pool in the Grosse Pointe War Memorial.", "It was nicknamed \"The Nude,\" and, in 2001, was believed to have been successfully stolen for display in some art collector's private cache.", "During a police diving exercise near a submerged Jeep, the statue was found in 2009, restored, and returned to the memorial.Anchors from the ''SS Greater Detroit,'' a luxury steamship that toured the Detroit River from 1924 to 1950, and the famed ''SS Edmund Fitzgerald'', a lake freighter that sank in a terrible 1975 storm, have notably both been recovered from the river.", "The 6,000-pound anchor of the ''SS Greater Detroit'' was raised in November 2016.It was installed at the Detroit/Wayne County Port Authority Building.", "The lost anchor of the ''SS Edmund Fitzgerald'' was recovered during a July 1992 project, and the anchor was installed in the yard of the Dossin Great Lakes Museum on Belle Isle.Since the 1980s, divers have recovered a total of six 1700s-era cannons from the river.", "The last was found in 2011 near the Cobo Center.", "They are believed to have been part of the pre-War of 1812 inventory kept by the British garrison in this area.", "Historians believe another three cannon may still be in the river.", "Inventory documents record a total of 17 cannons and 14 have been accounted for.", "It is believed that the British dragged the cannons onto the frozen river so they would sink with the spring thaw, and be kept from use by the American enemy.", "Another seven, larger cannons may have fallen off a barge closer to Amherstburg, Ontario, and may yet be found in the river.===Pollution and conservation efforts===Much of the land that surrounds the Detroit River is urbanized and, in some places, has been used for industrial purposes for more than 100 years.", "There has been excessive water pollution of the river from the long-term, unregulated dumping of chemicals, industrial waste, garbage, and sewage.", "Much of the Detroit River and its shoreline were polluted and unsafe for recreational use.", "Thousands of migrating birds died each year because of the oil slicks and contaminated water around the mouth of the Detroit River at Lake Erie.", "The river's oxygen levels were depleted to the point where fish could not inhabit its waters.", "Because this pollution often drained into and affected Lake Erie, the lake was considered \"dead\" and unable to support aquatic life.In 1961, a congressional order founded the Wyandotte National Wildlife Refuge.", "That began the government's placing tighter restrictions on industries; substantial government funding at various levels has been allocated to clean up the river.", "In this early period, opponents believed that such efforts would adversely affect Detroit's industry and economy.", "In 1970, toxic levels of mercury in the water resulted in the total closing of the fishing industry in the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, the Detroit River, and Lake Erie.", "Finally, a massive conservation effort was initiated to clean up the Detroit River.", "For years, the multi-million dollar cost of removing pollutants from the river and the political influence of nearby industries, hindered conservation efforts.In 1998, the Detroit River was designated as an American Heritage River by the US Environmental Protection Agency and in 2001 as a Canadian Heritage River.", "It is the only river in North America to have such dual designations.In 2001, the Wyandotte National Wildlife Refuge was absorbed into the larger Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge, a cooperative effort between the United States and Canada to preserve the area as an ecological refuge.", "The millions of dollars spent since that time to dredge pollutants out of the Detroit River has led to a remarkable restoration, although problems remain.", "Today, many species of native animals that had been driven out by human development are returning to the area.", "The river is home to a growing number of bird species such as eagles (including reintroduced bald eagles), ospreys, and peregrine falcons.", "Large numbers of lake whitefish, sturgeon, silver bass, black bass, salmon, perch, and walleye are again thriving in the river.", "The Detroit River and its recovery efforts were listed as a Michigan State Historic Site in 2007.A historic marker was erected along the river in a park that now serves as the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge visitor center in the city of Trenton." ], [ "Economy", "MV ''American Courage'' passing through the Detroit River.", "Lake freighters are a common sight on the river.The Detroit Princess is one of many cruise ships on the river.The Detroit River is used for shipping and trading.", "The earliest use of the river for these economic activities was the shipping of furs for trade as early as the 17th century.", "By the time the fur trade decreased, Michigan had begun to exploit the lumber-rich areas of Northern Michigan and the Upper Peninsula.", "Detroit turned into a major industrial region, largely because of the Detroit River.", "The only way a ship could travel out of the upper Great Lakes system was to travel down the Detroit River.", "From there, ships could travel anywhere in the world out of the St. Lawrence Seaway or the Erie Canal to New York City.", "At the beginning of the 20th century, the automotive industry boomed, and the many manufacturers imported abundant supplies of iron ore, sand, limestone and wood.The Detroit River provides substantial revenue for the local economies.", "A 1991 study showed $20.1 million came from sales related to waterfowl hunting along the Detroit River.", "The same year, bird watching, photography, and other non-consumptive uses of waterfowl contributed another $192.8 million to Michigan's economy.", "Local economies benefit through boating registrations and fishing licenses.", "It is estimated walleye fishing alone brings in $1 million to the economy of communities along the lower Detroit River each spring.", "Other fish caught by recreational fisherman include white bass, bluegill, crappie, freshwater drum, smallmouth bass, northern pike and muskie.", "There are over 800,000 recreation boats in Michigan, and more than half of them are regularly used on or near the Detroit River.", "Popular river destinations in Detroit include the Detroit International Riverfront and Belle Isle Park — both of which host events throughout the year.", "Several restaurants on the river have docks for boaters.", "Tour boats and dinner cruises travel through the sights of Detroit and the undeveloped islands downriver.", "Cruise ships support tourism on the Great Lakes and dock at the Port Detroit passenger terminal downtown.", "The iconic Renaissance Center is on the banks of the Detroit River." ], [ "Bridges and crossings", "According to a 2004 study, 150,000 jobs and $13 billion in annual production depend on the river crossings connecting Detroit to Windsor.", "In 2004, the American trade with Ontario alone was $407 billion, in which 28% ($113.3 billion) crossed the Detroit River.There are two automobile traffic routes that completely cross the river: the Detroit–Windsor tunnel and the privately owned Ambassador Bridge, both of which connect Detroit, Michigan, to Windsor, Ontario.", "A railway tunnel and a commercial truck ferry service also travel between Detroit and Windsor.", "In Michigan, there are two bridges connecting the mainland to Grosse Ile, as well as the MacArthur Bridge that connects the mainland Detroit to Belle Isle.", "All ports of entry on the American side are secured by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection, and the Canadian side is secured by the Canada Border Services Agency; all areas between the American ports of entry and on the American side of the river are secured by the United States Border Patrol.The Gordie Howe International Bridge is a new bridge project which began construction in 2019; it will directly connect Highway 401 in Canada to Interstate 75 in the United States.", "Crossing Image Carries Connecting Coordinates Wayne County Bridge 100px Grosse Ile Parkway Trenton – Grosse Ile Grosse Ile Toll Bridge 100px Bridge Road Riverview – Grosse Ile Gordie Howe International Bridge(under construction) 100px Detroit – Windsor Detroit–Windsor Truck Ferry 100px Truck ferry services Ambassador Bridge 100px Ambassador Bridge Street Michigan Central Railway Tunnel 100px Canadian Pacific Railway Detroit–Windsor Tunnel 100px MacArthur Bridge 100px E. Grand Boulevard / Casino Way Detroit – Belle Isle Park" ], [ "See also", "* Canada–United States border* Detroit–Windsor* Detroit-Windsor Tunnel* Detroit International Riverfront* Detroit Water and Sewerage Department* Great Lakes Water Authority* List of international river borders* List of islands in the Detroit River* List of rivers of Michigan* List of rivers of Ontario* Renaissance Center* Riverfront Towers* William G. Milliken State Park and Harbor* Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival" ], [ "References", "==Further reading== * Scott, I.D.", "(1921) Inland Lakes of Michigan Michigan Geological Society." ], [ "External links", "* Detroit Riverfront Conservancy* Sea Grant Michigan* Friends of the Detroit River* * The Detroit River Looking Up to the Entrance to Lake St. Clair, Windsor, Canada, September 24, 1864 by D.J.", "Kennedy, Historical Society of Pennsylvania * Nolan, Jenny, \"How the Detroit River shaped lives and history\" (February 11, 1997), ''Detroit News''." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dsungaripterus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Dsungaripterus''''' is a genus of dsungaripterid pterosaur with an average wingspan of .", "''Dsungaripterus'' lived during the Early Cretaceous in what is now China, and its first fossil was found in the Tugulu Group (Lianmuqin and Shengjinkou Formations) the Junggar Basin." ], [ "Description", "Restoration of ''Dsungaripterus'' (above) and the related ''Noripterus''''Dsungaripterus weii'' had a wing span of .", "Like most dsungaripteroids it had a rather robust skeleton with thick walls and stouty bodily proportions, suggesting a mostly terrestrial lifestyle.", "The flight style of these animals is unclear, but it was probably punctuated by abrupt landings and extensive flapping.The skull of ''Dsungaripterus'', long, bore a low bone crest that ran down from the base of the skull to halfway to the beak.", "''Dsungaripterus'''s head and neck were together almost long.", "Its most notable feature are its long, narrow, upcurved jaws with a pointed tip.", "It had no teeth in the front part of its jaws, which were probably used to remove prey from cracks in rocks and/or the sandy, muddy inland environments it inhabited.", "It had knobbly flat teeth more to the back of the jaw that were well suited for crushing the armor of shellfish or other hard objects.", "''Dsungaripterus'' also had a palate similar to that of azhdarchoid pterosaurs." ], [ "History of discovery", "Holotype specimen, Paleozoological Museum of China''Dsungaripterus'' was described in 1964 named by Yang Zhongjian.", "The genus name combines a reference to the Junggar Basin with a Latinized Greek ''pteron'', \"wing\".", "The type species is ''Dsungaripterus weii'', the specific name honoring paleontologist C.M.", "Wei of the Palaeontological Division, Institute of Science, Bureau of Petroleum of Xinjiang.", "The holotype is IVPP V-2776, a partial skull and skeleton from the Lianmuqin Formation.", "From 1973 more material has been found within the Shengjinkou Formation, which includes almost complete skulls.In 1980 Peter Galton renamed ''Pterodactylus brancai'' (Reck 1931), a form from a late Jurassic African formation, into ''Dsungaripterus brancai'', but the identification is now commonly rejected.", "In 1982 Natasha Bakhurina named a new species, ''Dsungaripterus parvus'', based on a smaller skeleton from Mongolia.", "Later, this was renamed into \"Phobetor\", a preoccupied name, and in 2009 concluded to be identical to ''Noripterus''.", "In 2002 a ''Dsungaripterus'' wing finger phalanx was reported from Korea." ], [ "Classification", "Skull IVPP V4064, Paleozoological Museum of ChinaSkeletal reconstruction ''Dsungaripterus'' was classified by Yang as a member of the Dsungaripteridae.", "Below is a cladogram showing the results of a phylogenetic analysis presented by Andres and colleagues in 2014.They recovered ''Dsungaripterus'' within the clade Dsungaripteromorpha (a subgroup within the Azhdarchoidea), more specifically within the Dsungaripteridae, sister taxon to ''Domeykodactylus''.", "Their cladogram is shown below.In 2019, a different topology, this time by Kellner and colleagues, was published.", "In this study, ''Dsungaripterus'' was recovered outside the Azhdarchoidea, within the larger group Tapejaroidea, sister taxon to ''Noripterus''.", "The cladogram of the analysis is shown below." ], [ "See also", "* List of pterosaur genera* Timeline of pterosaur research" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "David Huffman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Oliver Huffman''' (May 10, 1945 – February 27, 1985) was an American actor and producer." ], [ "Personal life", "Huffman was born on May 10, 1945, in Berwyn, Illinois, to Clarence and Opal Huffman (née Dippel).Huffman married casting director Phyllis Huffman (''nee'' Grennan) in 1967, whom he had met as a student at Webster University in St. Louis, Missouri.", "The couple had two sons and remained married until Huffman's death in 1985.Huffman was an avid sailor, recreational painter, and country‐and‐western guitarist." ], [ "Murder", "On the morning of February 27, 16-year-old Genaro Samano Villanueva, was taken into San Diego police custody after attempting to steal a radio from a car near his home.", "Released into the custody of his high school vice principal, Villanueva left school and went to Balboa Park.", "There he was spotted by Canadian tourist Jack Beamer prowling around inside the motor home of Beamer's friends.", "After Beamer accosted him, Villanueva fled the scene.Huffman, who was cast in the play ''Of Mice and Men'' at the Old Globe Theatre and was set to begin work on the television miniseries ''North and South'' the following week, had visited the theatre shortly before noon to share cookies with the cast and crew and was sitting in his van near the theatre playing his bagpipes when he saw Beamer confront Villanueva.", "He gave chase in his vehicle, parking the van near the Spreckels Organ Pavilion and following Villanueva into the park.", "When he caught up with Villanueva, the two became involved in a physical altercation, during which Villanueva stabbed Huffman twice in the chest with a screwdriver.", "Huffman died of exsanguination, likely within 30 to 45 seconds.", "His body was found less than an hour later in a Palm Canyon crevice by a group of children, although it was not positively identified until later that night.On March 2 and 3, Crime Stoppers produced a reenactment of the crime that was shown on San Diego television and published in several national newspapers.", "The Canadian tourists whose motor home was burglarized saw Huffman's photo and death announcement in the newspaper and called police.", "Huffman was buried on March 5 at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills).Villanueva was arrested on March 12 after a police officer recognized Villanueva from a composite sketch given to police by the Canadian tourist.", "On June 24, 1986, Villanueva was sentenced to 26 years to life in prison and admitted to the California State Prison, Centinela.", "On December 9, 2011, he was denied parole for 15 years." ], [ "Broadway stage credits", "''Butterflies Are Free'' as Don Baker (October 21, 1969 – July 2, 1972)" ], [ "Filmography", "+ Film Year Title Role Notes 1978 ''F.I.S.T.''", "Abe Belkin 1978 ''Ice Castles'' Brian Dockett 1979 ''The Onion Field'' District Attorney Phil Halpin 1980 ''Wolf Lake'' David 1980 ''Leo and Loree'' Dennis 1981 ''Blood Beach'' Harry Caulder 1981 ''St Helens'' David Jackson 1982 ''Firefox'' Captain Buckholz 1983 ''Last Plane Out'' Jim Conley + Television Year Title Role Notes 1973 ''Pueblo'' Seaman Television movie 1973 ''Love Story'' David Ross Episode: \"Mirabelle's Summer\" 1974 ''F.", "Scott Fitzgerald and 'The Last of the Belles''' Andy McKenna Television movie 1974 ''The Yanks Are Coming'' Unknown Television movie 1974 ''Lincoln'' Ellmer Ellsworth Miniseries 1974 ''Police Story'' T. Byron Bentley Episode: \"A Dangerous Age\" 1974 ''Nakia'' Unknown Episode: \"The Hostage\" 1974 ''The Gun'' Wayne Television movie 1976 ''Eleanor and Franklin'' Elliott Roosevelt (socialite) Television movie 1976 ''Baretta'' Jesse Bryant Episode: \"The Blood Bond\" 1976 ''Bert D'Angelo/Superstar'' Unknown Episode: \"A Noise in the Street\" 1976 ''Amelia Earhart'' Radio Operator Miniseries 1976 ''Look What's Happened to Rosemary's Baby'' Peter Simon Television movie 1976 ''Captains and the Kings'' Sean Armagh Miniseries 1977 ''Play of the Month'' Chadwick Newsome Episode: \"The Ambassadors\" 1977 ''Testimony of Two Men'' Harold Ferrier Miniseries 1977 ''In the Matter of Karen Ann Quinlan'' Paul Armstrong Television movie 1978 ''The Winds of Kitty Hawk'' Orville Wright Television movie 1979 ''Tom Edison: The Boy Who Lit Up the World'' Tom Edison Television movie 1979 ''Lou Grant'' Daniel Todson Episode: \"Hype\" 1980 ''Baby Comes Home'' Jeff Winston Television movieProducer 1981 ''The Million Dollar Face'' Christopher Ward Television movie 1981 ''Sidney Shorr: A Girl's Best Friend'' Jimmy Television movie 1982 ''Little House on the Prairie'' Reverend Addison Hale Episode: \"Alden's Dilemma\" 1983 ''Jane Doe'' David Television movie 1983 ''Remington Steele'' Wilson Jeffries Episode: \"Vintage Steele\" 1983 ''Trapper John, M.D.''", "Barry Laughton / Frank Maxwyn 2 episodes 1983 ''Sparkling Cyanide'' Stephan Farraday Television movie 1984 ''T.", "J. Hooker'' Dr. Don Travers Episode: \"The Lipstick Killer\" 1984 ''The Mississippi'' Harley Morhaim Episode: \"Going Back to Hannibal\" 1984 ''Newhart'' Ted Kingston Episode: \"Cats\" 1984 ''When She Says No'' Carl Jerome Television movie 1984 ''Children in the Crossfire'' Larry Malone Television movie, (final film role)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*** David Huffman(Aveleyman) * David Huffman at Find A Grave Huffman and Gloria Swanson in 1972 play version ''Butterflies Are Free'':* Picture 1(archived) Picture 2(archived) Picture 3(archived)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dagome iudex" ], [ "Introduction", "thumbthumbPoland under Mieszko's rule (ca.", "960–992)'''''Dagome iudex''''' is one of the earliest historical documents relating to Poland.", "Although Poland is not mentioned by name, it refers to ''Dagome'' and ''Ote'' (Mieszko I and his wife, Oda von Haldensleben) and their sons in 991, placing their land (called \"Civitas Schinesghe\") under the protection of the Apostolic See.", "The document's name derives from its opening words." ], [ "History", "The ''Dagome iudex'' survives in the form of a summary, completed .", "It was found in a register compiled by a curial cardinal during the papacy of Gregory VII.Most historians believe that the word ''\"Dagome\"'' is a melding of two names: the Christian ''\"Dago\"'', for \"Dagobert\" (Mieszko's hypothetical baptismal name), and the ''\"Me,\"'' for pagan \"Mieszko.\"", "The Latin word (\"judge\") could refer to \"prince.\"", "Another interpretation is that ''\"Dagome iudex\"'' is a corruption of ''\"Ego Mesco dux\"'' (\"I, Prince Mieszko\").", "In the Vatican copy, the e of Dagome might have an ''s adscriptum'' (similar to cedilla), although the Vatican copyist read ''iudex'' literally, relating it to Sardinia and its four \"judges\".Place names are misspelled by the writer who made the summary.", "He was apparently unaware that the document related to territory later called Poland.The boundaries of the \"Gniezno\" state are described as those that extended to the \"Long Sea\" (the Baltic), Prussia, Rus', Kraków, Moravia and the Oder River.", "Lesser Poland is included by the mention of its capital, Kraków (\"craccoa\").", "Between ''alemura'', probably Olomouc and Upper Lusatia region of the Milceni (''terra mileze'') a straightened border could include Silesia.The text seems to use ''civitas schinesghe'' as a synonym of Greater Poland.", "Otherwise, the boundary description would be more logical if ''schenisghe'' meant the city of Szczecin.", "Of the other regions and places in Mieszko's territory, it mentioned only Kraków and Lusatia, both without ''fines'' (border).", "The regions outside Mieszko's rule, ''pruzze'' (Prussia) and ''russe'' (Ruthenia) were mentioned with the word ''fines''.The ''Dagome iudex'' is of critical importance to Polish history, since it provided a general description of the future Polish state in that period.", "It, however, left many questions unanswered.", "First, it did not explain ''why'' Mieszko I placed his state under the Pope's protection.", "Also, it is unclear why the document did not mention Mieszko's eldest son, Bolesław I the Brave.", "Instead, his sons by his second wife (except the third), Oda, were mentioned instead.", "Finally, Mieszko I is not referred to as \"''Dagome''\" in any other document.Historians suppose that Bolesław's absence from the document might be explained by an old custom whereby children received their inheritance as soon as they reached the age of majority.", "Thus, Bolesław the Brave might have received Kraków as his part of his father's legacy before the ''Dagome iudex'' was written." ], [ "Text of the ''Dagome iudex''", "* In Latin:: * In English translation:: \"Also in another volume from the times of Pope John XV, Dagome, lord, and Ote, lady, and their sons Misico and Lambert (I do not know of which nation those people are, but I think they are Sardinians, for those are ruled by four judges) were supposed to give to Saint Peter one state in whole which is called Schinesghe, with all its lands in borders which run along the long sea, along Prussia to the place called Rus, thence to Kraków and from said Kraków to the River Oder, straight to a place called Alemure, and from said Alemure to the land of Milczanie, and from the borders of that people to the Oder and from that, going along the River Oder, ending at the earlier mentioned city of Schinesghe.\"" ], [ "External links", "* Alternative translation" ], [ "Notes", "Notes based on interpretations by the Polish historian Gerard Labuda:''a.''", "When Lusatia came in sight of medieval writers, the lived only in Lower Lusatia, the Milceni in Upper Lusatia.", "Later on, the term ''Lusatia'' (Lausitz, Lužice) was spread to the south.", "Therefore, nowaday's term Lusatian Mountains does not totally fit with the history of settlement.''b.''", "\"Dagome\" is commonly identified as Mieszko I.", "However, the question remains open whether this was a misspelling or his Christian name.", "If the latter, it might correspond to the names \"Dago\", \"Dagon\" or \"Dagobert\".''c.''", "In classical Latin, the term ''iudex'' was used to refer to \"a person who is ordered to do some work on behalf of others\" and was identical in meaning to the Byzantine ''archont''.", "However, in medieval Latin ''iudex'' could also mean a sovereign ruler.", "Princes of Slavic tribes were sometimes referred to as ''iudices''.", "Nevertheless, some historians claim that this was a misspelling of the Latin ''dux'' (\"duke\" or \"prince\").''d.''", "Literally, \"lady-senator\".", "Cf.", "\"senate\".''e.''", "It is unclear why Bolesław I the Brave, Mieszko's eldest son and his successor, is not mentioned while the children from Mieszko's marriage to Ote are.''f.''", "Scribe's note, only in the Vatican copy; the four is written non-classical as iiii.''g.''", "The origin of the name ''Schinesghe'' is unclear.", "Some historians argue that it is a corruption of \"Gniezno\", then Poland's capital.", "Others identify it with the town of Szczecin.''h.''", "\"Long sea\": Some historians identify it with the Baltic Sea, others with the province of Pomerania (the Baltic coast), a part of Poland ca.", "990.''i.''", "''Alemure'' might be the city of Olomouc, in Moravia.", "However, this is uncertain." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "DA" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Da''', '''DA''', '''dA''', '''DÄ''' and other variants may refer to:" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "DA!", "(band), a Chicago post-punk band of the 1980s''Da'' (play), a 1978 play by Hugh Leonard*''Da'' (film), a 1988 film based on the playDamon Amendolara, American sports talk radio hostDaniel Amos, also known as D.A.", "and Dä, an American Christian rock bandDestination America, television channelDeviantArt or DA, a website that focuses on artDumbledore's Army, a group formed by Harry Potter in his 5th year to teach students defensive spells" ], [ "Degrees and licenses", "Diploma of Anesthesiology, a degree conferred by some medical institutions such as the Royal College of AnaesthetistsDoctor of Arts, an academic degree" ], [ "Organizations", "Da!, a Russian youth movementDebtors AnonymousAir Georgia, a Georgian airline (IATA code DA)" ], [ "Politics and judiciary", "Da (political party), a defunct Israeli political partyDefence Advisory Notice, a government demand in Australia and the UK not to publish or broadcast a specified news itemDemocratic Alliance (South Africa), a South African political partyDemocratic Awakening, East German political partyDepartment of Agriculture (Philippines), an executive departmentDeutsche Alternative (\"German Alternative\"), a rightist groupDistrict attorney, (United States) chief prosecutor for a local government area, particularly a countyDreptate şi Adevăr a defunct alliance of parties in Romania" ], [ "Places", "Da County, a division in Sichuan, ChinaDA postcode area, a postcode area in EnglandDa River or Black River, a river in China and northwestern VietnamDah, Ivory Coast, a village in Montagnes District, Ivory Coast, also spelt \"Da\"" ], [ "Science and technology", "===Biology and medicine===DA (chemotherapy), standard-dose cytarabine plus daunorubicinDeoxyanthocyanidinDomoic acid, a neurotoxin produced by phytoplanktonDonor-AcceptorDopamine, a monoamine neurotransmitter===Other uses in science and technology===Dalton (unit) (symbol Da), also called the unified atomic mass unitDeca- or da-, an SI prefix for a factor of 10Distribution amplifier, a device that accepts a single input signal and provides this same signal to multiple isolated outputsDouble-action, a firearm operation mechanism in which the trigger both cocks and releases the hammerNZR DA class, a New Zealand diesel locomotiveSJ Da, a Swedish electric locomotiveDomain authority Domain Authority" ], [ "Sports", "U.S. Soccer Development Academy, former United States soccer league" ], [ "Other uses", "D.A.", "Wallach (born 1985), American musician and business executiveDa (Javanese), a syllable in Javanese scriptDa.", "or Dòna, the honorific Mrs. in Occitan languageDa Hoss, an American racehorseDame of St Andrew, a discontinued award within the Order of BarbadosDanish language (ISO 639-1 alpha-2 code DA)Dearness allowance, cost of living allowance to government employees in Bangladesh, India, and PakistanDesk accessory, graphical programsDirect action (military), in special operationsDisadvantage, an off-case argument used by the Negative team in a policy debateDoomsday argument, a probabilistic argument based on demographics predicting how many people will be bornDuck's ass or duck's arse, a haircut; particularly popular during the 1950sDynamic game difficulty balancing, also known as difficulty adjustment or DA, an algorithm in video games." ], [ "See also", "Da Da Da (disambiguation)Dah (disambiguation)The D.A.", "(disambiguation)*''Boti'', a cutting utensil also known as ''daa''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Derek Walcott" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Derek Alton Walcott''' OM (23 January 1930 – 17 March 2017) was a Saint Lucian poet and playwright.", "He received the 1992 Nobel Prize in Literature.", "His works include the Homeric epic poem ''Omeros'' (1990), which many critics view \"as Walcott's major achievement.\"", "In addition to winning the Nobel Prize, Walcott received many literary awards over the course of his career, including an Obie Award in 1971 for his play ''Dream on Monkey Mountain'', a MacArthur Foundation \"genius\" award, a Royal Society of Literature Award, the Queen's Medal for Poetry, the inaugural OCM Bocas Prize for Caribbean Literature, the 2010 T. S. Eliot Prize for his book of poetry ''White Egrets'' and the Griffin Trust For Excellence in Poetry Lifetime Recognition Award in 2015." ], [ "Early life and childhood", "Walcott was born and raised in Castries, Saint Lucia, in the West Indies, the son of Alix (Maarlin) and Warwick Walcott.", "He had a twin brother, the playwright Roderick Walcott, and a sister, Pamela Walcott.", "His family is of English, Dutch and African descent, reflecting the complex colonial history of the island that he explores in his poetry.", "His mother, a teacher, loved the arts and often recited poetry around the house.", "His father was a civil servant and a talented painter.", "He died when Walcott and his brother were one year old, and were left to be raised by their mother.", "Walcott was brought up in Methodist schools.", "His mother, who was a teacher at a Methodist elementary school, provided her children with an environment where their talents could be nurtured.", "Walcott's family was part of a minority Methodist community, who felt overshadowed by the dominant Catholic culture of the island established during French colonial rule.As a young man Walcott trained as a painter, mentored by Harold Simmons, whose life as a professional artist provided an inspiring example for him.", "Walcott greatly admired Cézanne and Giorgione and sought to learn from them.", "Walcott's painting was later exhibited at the Anita Shapolsky Gallery in New York City, along with the art of other writers, in a 2007 exhibition named ''The Writer's Brush: Paintings and Drawing by Writers''.He studied as a writer, becoming \"an elated, exuberant poet madly in love with English\" and strongly influenced by modernist poets such as T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound.", "Walcott had an early sense of a vocation as a writer.", "In the poem \"Midsummer\" (1984), he wrote:Forty years gone, in my island childhood, I felt that the gift of poetry had made me one of the chosen, that all experience was kindling to the fire of the Muse.At 14, Walcott published his first poem, a Miltonic, religious poem, in the newspaper ''The Voice of St Lucia''.", "An English Catholic priest condemned the Methodist-inspired poem as blasphemous in a response printed in the newspaper.", "By 19, Walcott had self-published his first two collections with the aid of his mother, who paid for the printing: ''25 Poems'' (1948) and ''Epitaph for the Young: XII Cantos'' (1949).", "He sold copies to his friends and covered the costs.", "He later commented:I went to my mother and said, \"I'd like to publish a book of poems, and I think it's going to cost me two hundred dollars.\"", "She was just a seamstress and a schoolteacher, and I remember her being very upset because she wanted to do it.", "Somehow she got it—a lot of money for a woman to have found on her salary.", "She gave it to me, and I sent off to Trinidad and had the book printed.", "When the books came back I would sell them to friends.", "I made the money back.The influential Bajan poet Frank Collymore critically supported Walcott's early work.After attending high school at Saint Mary's College, he received a scholarship to study at the University College of the West Indies in Kingston, Jamaica." ], [ "Career", " Walcott at VIII Festival Internacional, 1992Derek Walcott reciting his poem \"names\"After graduation, Walcott moved to Trinidad in 1953, where he became a critic, teacher and journalist.", "He founded the Trinidad Theatre Workshop in 1959 and remained active with its board of directors.Exploring the Caribbean and its history in a colonialist and post-colonialist context, his collection ''In a Green Night: Poems 1948–1960'' (1962) attracted international attention.", "His play ''Dream on Monkey Mountain'' (1970) was produced on NBC-TV in the United States the year it was published.", "Makak is the protagonist in this play; and \"Makak\"s condition represents the condition of the colonized natives under the oppressive forces of the powerful colonizers\".", "In 1971 it was produced by the Negro Ensemble Company off-Broadway in New York City; it won an Obie Award that year for \"Best Foreign Play\".", "The following year, Walcott won an OBE from the British government for his work.He was hired as a teacher by Boston University in the United States, where he founded the Boston Playwrights' Theatre in 1981.That year he also received a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in the United States.", "Walcott taught literature and writing at Boston University for more than two decades, publishing new books of poetry and plays on a regular basis.", "Walcott retired from his position at Boston University in 2007.He became friends with other poets, including the Russian expatriate Joseph Brodsky, who lived and worked in the U.S. after being exiled in the 1970s, and the Irishman Seamus Heaney, who also taught in Boston.Walcott's epic poem ''Omeros'' (1990), which loosely echoes and refers to characters from the ''Iliad'', has been critically praised as his \"major achievement.\"", "The book received praise from publications such as ''The Washington Post'' and ''The New York Times Book Review'', which chose ''Omeros'' as one of its \"Best Books of 1990\".Walcott was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1992, the second Caribbean writer to receive the honour after Saint-John Perse, who was born in Guadeloupe, received the award in 1960.The Nobel committee described Walcott's work as \"a poetic oeuvre of great luminosity, sustained by a historical vision, the outcome of a multicultural commitment\".", "He won an Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for Lifetime Achievement in 2004.His later poetry collections include ''Tiepolo's Hound'' (2000), illustrated with copies of his watercolours; ''The Prodigal'' (2004), and ''White Egrets'' (2010), which received the T. S. Eliot Prize and the 2011 OCM Bocas Prize for Caribbean Literature.Derek Walcott held the Elias Ghanem Chair in Creative Writing at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas in 2007.In 2008, Walcott gave the first Cola Debrot Lectures In 2009, Walcott began a three-year distinguished scholar-in-residence position at the University of Alberta.", "In 2010, he became Professor of Poetry at the University of Essex.As a part of St Lucia's Independence Day celebrations, in February 2016, he became one of the first knights of the Order of Saint Lucia." ], [ "Writing", "Wall poem \"Omeros\" in Leiden Wall poem \"Midsummer, Tobago\" in The Hague===Themes===Methodism and spirituality have played a significant role from the beginning in Walcott's work.", "He commented: \"I have never separated the writing of poetry from prayer.", "I have grown up believing it is a vocation, a religious vocation.\"", "Describing his writing process, he wrote: \"the body feels it is melting into what it has seen… the 'I' not being important.", "That is the ecstasy...", "Ultimately, it's what Yeats says: 'Such a sweetness flows into the breast that we laugh at everything and everything we look upon is blessed.'", "That's always there.", "It's a benediction, a transference.", "It's gratitude, really.", "The more of that a poet keeps, the more genuine his nature.\"", "He also notes: \"if one thinks a poem is coming on... you do make a retreat, a withdrawal into some kind of silence that cuts out everything around you.", "What you're taking on is really not a renewal of your identity but actually a renewal of your anonymity.", "\"===Influences===Walcott said that his writing was influenced by the work of the American poets Robert Lowell and Elizabeth Bishop, who were also friends.===Playwriting===He published more than twenty plays, the majority of which have been produced by the Trinidad Theatre Workshop and have also been widely staged elsewhere.", "Many of them address, either directly or indirectly, the liminal status of the West Indies in the post-colonial period.", "Through poetry he also explores the paradoxes and complexities of this legacy.===Essays===In his 1970 essay \"What the Twilight Says: An Overture\", discussing art and theatre in his native region (from ''Dream on Monkey Mountain and Other Plays''), Walcott reflects on the West Indies as a colonized space.", "He discusses the problems for an artist of a region with little in the way of truly Indigenous forms, and with little national or nationalist identity.", "He states: \"We are all strangers here... Our bodies think in one language and move in another\".", "The epistemological effects of colonization inform plays such as ''Ti-Jean and his Brothers''.", "Mi-Jean, one of the eponymous brothers, is shown to have much information but truly knows nothing.", "Every line Mi-Jean recites is rote knowledge gained from the coloniser; he is unable to synthesize it or apply it to his life as a colonised person.Walcott notes of growing up in West Indian culture:What we were deprived of was also our privilege.", "There was a great joy in making a world that so far, up to then, had been undefined... My generation of West Indian writers has felt such a powerful elation at having the privilege of writing about places and people for the first time and, simultaneously, having behind them the tradition of knowing how well it can be done—by a Defoe, a Dickens, a Richardson.Walcott identified as \"absolutely a Caribbean writer\", a pioneer, helping to make sense of the legacy of deep colonial damage.", "In such poems as \"The Castaway\" (1965) and in the play ''Pantomime'' (1978), he uses the metaphors of shipwreck and Crusoe to describe the culture and what is required of artists after colonialism and slavery: both the freedom and the challenge to begin again, salvage the best of other cultures and make something new.", "These images recur in later work as well.", "He writes: \"If we continue to sulk and say, Look at what the slave-owner did, and so forth, we will never mature.", "While we sit moping or writing morose poems and novels that glorify a non-existent past, then time passes us by.\"" ], [ "''Omeros''", "Walcott's epic book-length poem ''Omeros'' was published in 1990 to critical acclaim.", "The poem very loosely echoes and references Homer and some of his major characters from ''The Iliad''.", "Some of the poem's major characters include the island fishermen Achille and Hector, the retired English officer Major Plunkett and his wife Maud, the housemaid Helen, the blind man Seven Seas (who symbolically represents Homer), and the author himself.Although the main narrative of the poem takes place on the island of St. Lucia, where Walcott was born and raised, Walcott also includes scenes from Brookline, Massachusetts (where Walcott was living and teaching at the time of the poem's composition), and the character Achille imagines a voyage from Africa onto a slave ship that is headed for the Americas; also, in Book Five of the poem, Walcott narrates some of his travel experiences in a variety of cities around the world, including Lisbon, London, Dublin, Rome, and Toronto.", "Composed in a variation on ''terza rima'', the work explores the themes that run throughout Walcott's oeuvre: the beauty of the islands, the colonial burden, the fragmentation of Caribbean identity, and the role of the poet in a post-colonial world.In this epic, Walcott speaks in favour of unique Caribbean cultures and traditions to challenge the modernity that existed as a consequence of colonialism.===Criticism and praise===Walcott's work has received praise from major poets including Robert Graves, who wrote that Walcott \"handles English with a closer understanding of its inner magic than most, if not any, of his contemporaries\", and Joseph Brodsky, who praised Walcott's work, writing: \"For almost forty years his throbbing and relentless lines kept arriving in the English language like tidal waves, coagulating into an archipelago of poems without which the map of modern literature would effectively match wallpaper.", "He gives us more than himself or 'a world'; he gives us a sense of infinity embodied in the language.\"", "Walcott noted that he, Brodsky, and the Irish poet Seamus Heaney, who all taught in the United States, were a band of poets \"outside the American experience\".The poetry critic William Logan critiqued Walcott's work in a ''New York Times'' book review of Walcott's ''Selected Poems''.", "While he praised Walcott's writing in ''Sea Grapes'' and ''The Arkansas Testament'', Logan had mostly negative things to say about Walcott's poetry, calling ''Omeros'' \"clumsy\" and ''Another Life'' \"pretentious\".", "Logan concluded with: \"No living poet has written verse more delicately rendered or distinguished than Walcott, though few individual poems seem destined to be remembered.", "\"Most reviews of Walcott's work are more positive.", "For instance, in ''The New Yorker'' review of ''The Poetry of Derek Walcott'', Adam Kirsch had high praise for Walcott's oeuvre, describing his style in the following manner:By combining the grammar of vision with the freedom of metaphor, Walcott produces a beautiful style that is also a philosophical style.", "People perceive the world on dual channels, Walcott's verse suggests, through the senses and through the mind, and each is constantly seeping into the other.", "The result is a state of perpetual magical thinking, a kind of ''Alice in Wonderland'' world where concepts have bodies and landscapes are always liable to get up and start talking.Kirsch calls ''Another Life'' Walcott's \"first major peak\" and analyzes the painterly qualities of Walcott's imagery from his earliest work through to later books such as ''Tiepolo's Hound''.", "Kirsch also explores the post-colonial politics in Walcott's work, calling him \"the postcolonial writer par excellence\".", "Kirsch calls the early poem \"A Far Cry from Africa\" a turning point in Walcott's development as a poet.", "Like Logan, Kirsch is critical of ''Omeros'', which he believes Walcott fails to successfully sustain over its entirety.", "Although ''Omeros'' is the volume of Walcott's that usually receives the most critical praise, Kirsch believes ''Midsummer'' to be his best book.In 2013 Dutch filmmaker Ida Does released ''Poetry is an Island'', a feature documentary film about Walcott's life and the ever-present influence of his birthplace of St Lucia." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1954 Walcott married Fay Moston, a secretary, and they had a son, the St. Lucian painter Peter Walcott.", "The marriage ended in divorce in 1959.Walcott married a second time to Margaret Maillard in 1962, who worked as an almoner in a hospital.", "Together they had two daughters, Elizabeth Walcott-Hackshaw and Anna Walcott-Hardy, before divorcing in 1976.In 1976, Walcott married for a third time, to actress Norline Metivier; they divorced in 1993.His companion until his death was Sigrid Nama, a former art gallery owner.Walcott was also known for his passion for travelling to countries around the world.", "He split his time between New York, Boston, and St. Lucia, and incorporated the influences of different locations into his pieces of work." ], [ "Allegations of sexual harassment", "In 1982, a Harvard sophomore accused Walcott of sexual harassment in September 1981.She alleged that after she refused a sexual advance from him, she was given the only C in the class.", "In 1996 a student at Boston University sued Walcott for sexual harassment and \"offensive sexual physical contact\".", "The two reached a settlement.In 2009, Walcott was a leading candidate for the position of Oxford Professor of Poetry.", "He withdrew his candidacy after reports of the accusations against him of sexual harassment from 1981 and 1996.When the media learned that pages from an American book on the topic were sent anonymously to a number of Oxford academics, this aroused their interest in the university's decisions.", "Ruth Padel, also a leading candidate, was elected to the post.", "Within days, ''The Daily Telegraph'' reported that she had alerted journalists to the harassment cases.", "Under severe media and academic pressure, Padel resigned.", "Padel was the first woman to be elected to the Oxford post, and some journalists attributed the criticism of her to misogyny and a gender war at Oxford.", "They said that a male poet would not have been so criticized, as she had reported published information, not rumour.Numerous respected poets, including Seamus Heaney and Al Alvarez, published a letter of support for Walcott in ''The Times Literary Supplement,'' and criticized the press furore.", "Other commentators suggested that both poets were casualties of the media interest in an internal university affair because the story \"had everything, from sex claims to allegations of character assassination\".", "Simon Armitage and other poets expressed regret at Padel's resignation." ], [ "Death", "Walcott's grave on Morne FortuneWalcott died at his home in Cap Estate, St. Lucia, on 17 March 2017.He was 87.He was given a state funeral on Saturday, 25 March, with a service at the Cathedral Basilica of the Immaculate Conception in Castries and burial at Morne Fortune." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1993, a public square and park located in central Castries, Saint Lucia, was named Derek Walcott Square.", "A documentary film, ''Poetry Is an Island: Derek Walcott'', by filmmaker Ida Does, was produced to honour him and his legacy in 2013.The Saint Lucia National Trust acquired Walcott's childhood home at 17 Chaussée Road, Castries, in November 2015, renovating it before opening it to the public as Walcott House in January 2016.In January 2020, the Sir Arthur Lewis Community College in St. Lucia announced that Walcott's books on Caribbean Literature and poetry have been donated to its Library." ], [ "Awards and honours", "* 1969: Cholmondeley Award* 1971: Obie Award for Best Foreign Play (for ''Dream on Monkey Mountain'')* 1972: Officer of the Order of the British Empire* 1981: MacArthur Foundation Fellowship (\"genius award\")* 1988: Queen's Gold Medal for Poetry* 1990: Arts Council of Wales International Writers Prize* 1990: W. H. Smith Literary Award (for poetry ''Omeros'')* 1992: Nobel Prize in Literature* 2004: Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for Lifetime Achievement* 2008: Honorary doctorate from the University of Essex* 2011: T. S. Eliot Prize (for poetry collection ''White Egrets'')* 2011: OCM Bocas Prize for Caribbean Literature (for ''White Egrets'')* 2015: Griffin Trust For Excellence in Poetry Lifetime Recognition Award* 2016: Knight Commander of the Order of Saint Lucia" ], [ "List of works", "* ===Poetry collections===* 1948: ''25 Poems''* 1949: ''Epitaph for the Young: Xll Cantos''* 1951: ''Poems''* 1962: ''In a Green Night: Poems 1948—60''* 1964: ''Selected Poems''* 1965: ''The Castaway and Other Poems''* 1969: ''The Gulf and Other Poems''* 1973: ''Another Life''* 1976: ''Sea Grapes''* 1979: ''The Star-Apple Kingdom''* 1981: ''Selected Poetry''* 1981: ''The Fortunate Traveller''* 1983: ''The Caribbean Poetry of Derek Walcott and the Art of Romare Bearden''* 1984: ''Midsummer''* 1986: ''Collected Poems, 1948–1984'', featuring \"Love After Love\"* 1987: ''The Arkansas Testament''* 1990: ''Omeros''* 1997: ''The Bounty''* 2000: ''Tiepolo's Hound,'' includes Walcott's watercolors* 2004: ''The Prodigal''* 2007: ''Selected Poems'' (edited, selected, and with an introduction by Edward Baugh)* 2010: ''White Egrets''* 2014: ''The Poetry of Derek Walcott 1948–2013''* 2016: ''Morning, Paramin'' (illustrated by Peter Doig)===Plays===* 1950: ''Henri Christophe: A Chronicle in Seven Scenes''* 1952: ''Harry Dernier: A Play for Radio Production''* 1953: ''Wine of the Country''* 1954: ''The Sea at Dauphin: A Play in One Act''* 1957: ''Ione''* 1958: ''Drums and Colours: An Epic Drama''* 1958: ''Ti-Jean and His Brothers''* 1966: ''Malcochon: or, Six in the Rain''* 1967: ''Dream on Monkey Mountain''* 1970: ''In a Fine Castle''* 1974: ''The Joker of Seville''* 1974: ''The Charlatan''* 1976: ''O Babylon!", "''* 1977: ''Remembrance''* 1978: ''Pantomime''* 1980: ''The Joker of Seville and O Babylon!", ": Two Plays''* 1982: ''The Isle Is Full of Noises''* 1984: ''The Haitian Earth''* 1986: Three Plays: ''The Last Carnival'', ''Beef, No Chicken'', and ''A Branch of the Blue Nile''* 1991: ''Steel''* 1993: ''Odyssey: A Stage Version''* 1997: ''The Capeman'' (book and lyrics, both in collaboration with Paul Simon)* 2002: ''Walker and The Ghost Dance''* 2011: ''Moon-Child''* 2014: ''O Starry Starry Night''===Other books===* 1990: ''The Poet in the Theatre'', Poetry Book Society (London)* 1993: ''The Antilles: Fragments of Epic Memory'' (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux)* 1996: ''Conversations with Derek Walcott'', (Jackson, MS: University of Mississippi)* 1996: (With Joseph Brodsky and Seamus Heaney) ''Homage to Robert Frost'' (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux)* 1998: ''What the Twilight Says'' (essays), (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux)* 2002: ''Walker and Ghost Dance'' (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux)* 2004: ''Another Life: Fully Annotated'', Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers" ], [ "See also", "Black Nobel Prize laureates \"Love After Love\", a poem by Derek Walcott* Omeros, epic poetry by Derek Walcott* Caribbean Epic" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Abani, Chris.", "''The myth of fingerprints: Signifying as displacement in Derek Walcott's \"Omeros\".''", "University of Southern California, PhD dissertation.", "2006.", "* Abodunrin, Femi.", "\"The Muse of History: Derek Walcott and the Topos of {Un} naming in West Indian Writing\".", "''Journal of West Indian Literature'' 7, no.", "1 (1996): 54–77.", "* Amany Abdelkahhar Aldardeer Ahmed, Amany.", "\"The Quest for a Cultural Identity in Derek Walcott's Another Life\".", "مجلة کلية الآداب 57, no.", "3 (2020): 101–146.", "* Baer, William, ed.", "''Conversations with Derek Walcott''.", "Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1996.", "* Baugh, Edward, ''Derek Walcott''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.", "* Breslin, Paul, ''Nobody's Nation: Reading Derek Walcott''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.", "* Brown, Stewart, ed., ''The Art of Derek Walcott''.", "Chester Springs, PA.: Dufour, 1991; Bridgend: Seren Books, 1992.", "* Burnett, Paula, ''Derek Walcott: Politics and Poetics''.", "Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001.", "* Figueroa, John J.", "\"Some subtleties of the isle: A commentary on certain aspects of Derek Walcott's sonnet sequence.", "''Tales of the Islands.''", "(1976): 190–228.", "* Fumagalli, Maria Cristina, ''The Flight of the Vernacular: Seamus Heaney, Derek Walcott and the Impress of Dante''.", "Amsterdam-New York: Rodopi, 2001.", "* Fumagalli, Maria Cristina, ''Agenda'' 39:1–3 (2002–03), Special Issue on Derek Walcott.", "Includes Derek Walcott's \"Epitaph for the Young\" (1949), republished here in its entirety.", "* Goddard, Horace I.", "\"Untangling the thematic threads: Derek Walcott's poetry.\"", "''Kola'' 21, no.", "1 (2009): 120-131.", "* Goddard, Horace I.", "\"The Rediscovery of Ancestral Experience in Derek Walcott's Early Poetry.\"", "''Kola'' 29, no.", "2 (2017): 24-40.", "* Hamner, Robert D., ''Derek Walcott''.", "Updated edition.", "Twayne's World Authors Series.", "TWAS 600.New York: Twayne, 1993.", "* Izevbaye, D. S. \"The Exile and the Prodigal: Derek Walcott as West Indian Poet.\"", "''Caribbean Quarterly'' 26, no.", "1–2 (1980): 70-82.", "* King, Bruce, ''Derek Walcott and West Indian Drama: \"Not Only a Playwright But a Company\": The Trinidad Theatre Workshop 1959–1993''.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995.", "* King, Bruce, ''Derek Walcott, A Caribbean Life''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.", "* Marks, Susan Jane.", "''That terrible vowel, that I: autobiography and Derek Walcott's Another life.''", "Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 1989.", "* * * * Sinnewe, Dirk :''Divided to the Vein?", "Derek Walcott‘s drama and the formation of cultural Identities.''", "Königshausen u. Neumann, Dec.", "2001.", "* Terada, Rei, ''Derek Walcott's Poetry: American Mimicry''.", "Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1992.", "* Thieme, John, ''Derek Walcott''.", "Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999." ], [ "External links", " * British Council writers' profile, works listing, critical review* Profile, poems written and audio at Poetry Archive * Profile and poems at Poetry Foundation* Profile, poems audio and written, Poetry of American Poets* Profile and analysis, Emory University* Profile, interviews, articles, archive.", "Prague Writers' Festival* Edward Hirsch, \"Derek Walcott, The Art of Poetry No.", "37\", ''The Paris Review'', Winter 1986* Lannan Foundation Reading and Conversation With Glyn Maxwell.", "November 2002 (audio).", "* Biography available in Saint Lucians and the Order of CARICOM* * Appearance on ''Desert Island Discs'', BBC Radio 4, 9 June 1991*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Decipherment" ], [ "Introduction", "In philology, '''decipherment''' is the discovery of the meaning of texts written in ancient or obscure languages or scripts.", "Decipherment in cryptography refers to decryption." ], [ "Ancient languages", "In a few cases, a multilingual artifact has been necessary to facilitate decipherment, the Rosetta Stone being the classic example.", "Statistical techniques provide another pathway to decipherment, as does the analysis of modern languages derived from ancient languages in which undeciphered texts are written.", "Archaeological and historical information is helpful in verifying hypothesized decipherments." ], [ "Decipherers", "Name of scholarScript decipheredDateMagnus CelsiusStaveless Runes1674Jón Ólafsson of GrunnavíkCipher runes1740sJean-Jacques BarthélemyPalmyrene alphabet1754Jean-Jacques BarthélemyPhoenician alphabet1758Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de SacyPahlavi script1791Jean-François ChampollionEgyptian Hieroglyphs (Decipherment)1822Georg Friedrich Grotefend, Eugène Burnouf, and Henry RawlinsonOld Persian Cuneiform (Decipherment)1823Thomas YoungDemotic scriptManuel Gómez-MorenoNortheastern Iberian scriptJames PrinsepBrahmi, KharosthiEdward HincksMesopotamian CuneiformBedřich HroznýHittite CuneiformVilhelm ThomsenOld TurkicGeorge Smith and Samuel Birch, et al.Cypriot syllabaryHans Bauer and Édouard Paul DhormeUgaritic alphabetWáng Yìróng, Liú È, Sūn Yíràng, et al.", "Oracle Bone scriptAleksei Ivanovich Ivanov, Nikolai Aleksandrovich Nevsky, et al.Tangut scriptMichael Ventris, John Chadwick, and Alice KoberLinear BYuri Knorozov and Tatiana Proskouriakoff, et al.", "MayaLouis Félicien de SaulcyLibyco-Berber script (almost fully)Jan-Olof Tjäder\"Enlarged opening script\" of Ravenna (variant of the Latin alphabet)Zaza AlexidzeCaucasian Albanian alphabetFrançois DessetLinear Elamite" ], [ "See also", "===Deciphered scripts===* Cuneiform* Egyptian hieroglyphs* Kharoshthi* Linear B* Mayan* Staveless Runes* Cypriot Syllabary===Undeciphered scripts===* Rongorongo (Decipherment of rongorongo)* Indus script* Cretan hieroglyphs* Byblos syllabary* Linear A* Linear Elamite* Cypro-Minoan syllabary* Espanca* Numidian language===Undeciphered texts===* Phaistos Disc* Rohonc Codex* Voynich Manuscript" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Decca Navigator System" ], [ "Introduction", "thumbThe display panel of a Decca Navigator Mk 12 (ca.", "1962).", "Decca position coordinates were directly displayed by four decometers and these were plotted on a conventional chart that had been over-printed with Decca lattices.The '''Decca Navigator System''' was a hyperbolic radio navigation system that allowed ships and aircraft to determine their position by using radio signals from a dedicated system of static radio transmitters.", "The system used phase comparison of two low frequency signals between 70 and 129 kHz, as opposed to pulse timing systems like Gee and LORAN.", "This made it much easier to design receivers using 1940s electronics, and operation was simplified by giving a direct readout of Decca coordinates without the complexity of a cathode ray tube and highly skilled operator.The system was invented and developed by Decca in the UK.", "It was first deployed by the Royal Navy during World War II for the vital task of clearing the minefields to enable the D-Day landings.", "The Allied forces needed an accurate system not known to the Germans and thus free of jamming.", "After the war, it came off the secret list and was commercially developed by the Decca Company and deployed around UK and later used in many areas around the world.", "At its peak there were about 180 transmitting stations using \"chains\" of three or four transmitters each to allow position fixing by plotting intersecting electronic lines.", "Decca's primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters, offering much better accuracy than the competing LORAN system.", "Fishing vessels were major post-war users, but it was also used on some aircraft, including a very early (1949) application of moving map displays.", "The system was deployed extensively in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to oil platforms.The opening of the more accurate Loran-C system to civilian use in 1974 offered stiff competition, but Decca was well established by this time and continued operations to 2000.Decca Navigator was eventually replaced, along with Loran and similar systems, by the GPS in 2000, when that became available for public use." ], [ "Principles of operation", "=== Overview ===''The Decca Navigator principle.''", "The phase difference between the signals received from stations A (Master) and B (Secondary) is constant along each hyperbolic curve.", "The foci of the hyperbolas are at the transmitting stations, A and B.The Decca Navigator System consisted of individual groups of land-based radio transmitters organised into ''chains'' of three or four stations.", "Each chain consisted of a master station and three (occasionally two) secondary stations, termed Red, Green and Purple.", "Ideally, the secondaries would be positioned at the vertices of an equilateral triangle with the master at the centre.", "The baseline length, that is, the master-secondary distance, was typically .Each station transmitted a continuous wave signal that, by comparing the phase difference of the signals from the master and one of the secondaries, produced a relative phase measure that was presented on a clock-like display.", "The phase difference was caused by the relative distance between the stations as seen by the receiver.", "As the receiver moves these distances change and those changes are represented by the movement of the hands on the displays.If one selects a particular phase difference, say 30 degrees, and plots all the locations where that phase difference occurs, the result is a set of hyperbolic ''lines of position'' called a ''pattern''.", "As there were three secondaries there were three patterns, also termed Red, Green and Purple.", "The patterns were drawn on nautical charts as a set of hyperbolic lines in the appropriate colour.Receivers determined their location by measuring the phase difference from two or more of the patterns from the displays.", "They could then look at the chart to find where the two closest charted hyperbolas crossed.", "The accuracy of this measurement was improved by choosing the set of two patterns that resulted in the lines crossing at as close to a right angle as possible.=== Detailed principles of operation ===When two stations transmit at the phase-locked frequency, the difference in phase between the two signals is constant along a hyperbolic path.", "If two stations transmit on the same frequency, it is impossible for the receiver to separate them.", "Instead, each chain was allocated a nominal frequency, known as 1f, and each station in the chain transmitted at a harmonic of this base frequency, as follows: Station Harmonic Frequency (kHz) Master 6f 85.000 Purple 5f 70.833 Red 8f 113.333 Green 9f 127.500The frequencies given are those for Chain 5B, known as the English Chain, but all chains used similar frequencies between 70 kHz and 129 kHz.Decca receivers multiplied the signals received from the Master and each Slave by different values to arrive at a common frequency (least common multiple, LCM) for each Master/Slave pair, as follows: Pattern Slave Harmonic Slave Multiplier Master Harmonic Master Multiplier Common Frequency Purple 5f ×6 6f ×5 30f Red 8f ×3 6f ×4 24f Green 9f ×2 6f ×3 18fIt was phase comparison at this common frequency that resulted in the hyperbolic lines of position.", "The interval between two adjacent hyperbolas on which the signals are in phase was called a ''lane''.", "Since the wavelength of the common frequency was small compared with the distance between the Master and Slave stations there were many possible lines of position for a given phase difference, and so a unique position could not be arrived at by this method.Other receivers, typically for aeronautical applications, divided the transmitted frequencies down to the basic frequency (1f) for phase comparison, rather than multiplying them up to the LCM frequency.=== Lanes and zones ===Admiralty Decca Chart of the Thames Estuary, marked with red and green lanes and zones.Early Decca receivers were fitted with three rotating ''Decometers'' that indicated the phase difference for each pattern.", "Each Decometer drove a second indicator that counted the number of lanes traversed – each 360 degrees of phase difference was one lane traversed.", "In this way, assuming the point of departure was known, a more or less distinct location could be identified.The lanes were grouped into ''zones'', with 18 green, 24 red, or 30 purple lanes in each zone.", "This meant that on the baseline (the straight line between the Master and its Slave) the zone width was the same for all three patterns of a given chain.", "Typical lane and zone widths on the baseline are shown in the table below (for chain 5B): Lane or Zone Width on Baseline Purple lane 352.1 m Red lane 440.1 m Green lane 586.8 m Zones (all patterns) 10563 mThe lanes were numbered 0 to 23 for red, 30 to 47 for green and 50 to 79 for purple.", "The zones were labelled A to J, repeating after J.", "A Decca position coordinate could thus be written: Red I 16.30; Green D 35.80.Later receivers incorporated a microprocessor and displayed a position in latitude and longitude.=== Multipulse ===''Multipulse'' provided an automatic method of lane and zone identification by using the same phase comparison techniques described above on lower frequency signals.The nominally continuous wave transmissions were in fact divided into a 20-second cycle, with each station in turn simultaneously transmitting all four Decca frequencies (5f, 6f, 8f and 9f) in a phase-coherent relationship for a brief period of 0.45 seconds each cycle.", "This transmission, known as Multipulse, allowed the receiver to extract the 1f frequency and so to identify the lane that the receiver was in (to a resolution of a zone).As well as transmitting the Decca frequencies of 5f, 6f, 8f and 9f, an 8.2f signal, known as Orange, was also transmitted.", "The beat frequency between the 8.0f (Red) and 8.2f (Orange) signals allowed a 0.2f signal to be derived and so resulted in a hyperbolic pattern in which one cycle (360°) of phase difference equates to 5 zones.Assuming that one's position was known to this accuracy, this gave an effectively unique position.=== Range and accuracy ===During daylight, ranges of around could be obtained, reducing at night to 200 to , depending on propagation conditions.The accuracy depended on:* Width of the lanes* Angle of cut of the hyperbolic lines of position* Instrumental errors* Propagation errors (for example, Skywave)By day these errors could range from a few meters on the baseline up to a nautical mile at the edge of coverage.", "At night, skywave errors were greater and, on receivers without multipulse capabilities, it was not unusual for the position to jump a lane, sometimes without the navigator knowing.Although in the days of differential GPS this range and accuracy may appear poor, in its day the Decca system was one of the few, if not the only, position fixing system available to many mariners.", "Since the need for an accurate position is less when the vessel is further from land, the reduced accuracy at long ranges was not a great problem." ], [ "History", "Decca Navigator Mk.", "21, with the Decometer dials prominent.=== Origins ===In 1936 William J. O'Brien, an engineer, contracted tuberculosis that put his career on hold for a period of two years.", "During this period he had the idea of position fixing by means of phase comparison of continuous wave transmissions.", "This was not the first such system, but O'Brien apparently developed his version without knowledge of the others, and made several advancements in the art that would prove useful.", "He initially imagined the system being used for aircraft testing, specifically the accurate calculation of ground speed.", "Some experiments were carried out in California in 1938, selecting frequencies with harmonic \"beats\" that would allow for station identification in a network of transmitters.", "Both the U.S. Army and Navy considered the idea too complicated and work ended in 1939.O’Brien's friend, Harvey F. Schwarz, was chief engineer of the Decca Record company in England.", "In 1939 O’Brien sent him details of the system so it could be put forward to the British military.", "Initially Robert Watson-Watt reviewed the system but he did not follow it up, deeming it too easily jammed (and likely due to the existing work on the Gee system, being carried out by Watt's group).", "However, in October 1941 the British Admiralty Signal Establishment (ASE) became interested in the system, which was then classified as ''Admiralty Outfit QM''.", "The first marine trials were conducted between Anglesey and the Isle of Man, at frequencies of 305/610 kHz, on 16 September 1942.Further trials were conducted in the northern Irish Sea in April 1943 at 70/130 kHz.", "It was decided that the original frequencies were not ideal, and a new system using a 14 kHz inter-signal spacing was selected.", "This led to the common 5, 6, 8 and 9''f'' frequencies, used throughout the life of the Decca system.", "7''f'' was reserved for a Loran-C-like extension, but never developed.", "A follow-up test was carried out in the Irish Sea in January 1944 to test a wide variety of upgrades and production equipment.", "By this time the competing Gee system was known to the Admiralty and the two systems were tested head-to-head under the code names QM and QH.", "QM was found to have better sea-level range and accuracy, which led to its adoption.===D-Day landings===A three-station trial was held in conjunction with a large-scale assault and landing exercise in the Moray Firth in February/March 1944.The success of the trials and the relative ease of use and accuracy of the system resulted in Decca receiving an order for 27 ''Admiralty Outfit QM'' receivers.", "The receiver consisted of an electronics unit with two dials and was known to its operators as the \"Blue Gasmeter Job\".", "A Decca chain was set up, consisting of a master station at Chichester and slaves at Swanage and Beachy Head.", "A fourth decoy transmitter was located in the Thames Estuary as part of the deception that the invasion would be focussed on the Calais area.21 minesweepers and other vessels were fitted with ''Admiralty Outfit QM'' and, on 5 June 1944, 17 of these ships used it to accurately navigate across the English Channel and to sweep the minefields in the planned areas.", "The swept areas were marked with buoys in preparation for the Normandy Landings.After the initial ship tests, Decca conducted tests in cars, driving in the Kingston By-Pass area to verify receiver accuracy.", "In the car installation, it was found possible to navigate within an individual traffic lane.", "The company entertained high hopes that the system could be used in aircraft, to permit much more precise navigation in the critical airspace around airports and urban centres where traffic density was highest.=== Commercial deployment ===Decca receiver, Mk.51 seen in the National Museum of ScotlandAfter the end of World War II the Decca Navigator Co. Ltd. was formed (1945) and the system expanded rapidly, particularly in areas of British influence; at its peak it was deployed in many of the world's major shipping areas.", "More than 15,000 receiving sets were in use aboard ships in 1970.There were 4 chains around England, 1 in Ireland and 2 in Scotland, 12 in Scandinavia (5 each in Norway and Sweden and 1 each in Denmark and Finland), a further 4 elsewhere in northern Europe and 2 in Spain.Canada was another early user, with branch offices set up in Toronto in 1953.The first chain was installed in southwest Newfoundland in 1956 as part of a joint Canada-US Navy surveying program.", "This led to commercial deployments the next year in Nova Scotia and an inland system for air traffic in the busy Quebec City-Montreal area.", "A fourth chain covering eastern Newfoundland was added in 1958.When meetings in Montreal in 1958 led to VOR and DME being selected as the standard aviation navigation systems, the Montreal system was moved eastward to cover the Anticosti Island area of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the western Newfoundland chain was later repositioned to better cover the Cabot Strait.", "A series of chains was also proposed to cover the Northwest Passage had oil tanker traffic used the area, but this never came to be.", "Another was briefly set up covering Lake Ontario in 1971 for the International Field Year for the Great Lakes.", "The last Canadian chain shut down in 1986, after Loran-C became widespread.In the late 1950s an experimental Decca chain was set up in the United States, in the New York area, to be used for navigating the Vertol 107 helicopters of New York Airways.", "These helicopters were operating from the principal local airports—Idlewild Airport on Long Island, Newark Airport in New Jersey, LaGuardia Airport in the Borough of Queens, nearer to Manhattan, and a site on the top of the (then) PanAm Building on Park Avenue.", "Use of Decca was essential because its signals could be received down to sea level, were not subject to the line-of-sight limitations of VOR/DME and did not suffer the slant-range errors that create problems with VOR/DME close to the transmitters.", "The Decca installations in the New York Airways helicopters included the unique Decca 'roller map' displays that enabled the pilot to see his or her position at a glance, a concept infeasible with VOR/DME.This chain installation was considered highly controversial at the time, for political reasons.", "This led to the U.S. Coast Guard, under instructions from the Treasury Department to which it reported, banning the use of Decca receivers in ships entering New York harbour for fear that the system might create a de facto standard (as it had become in other areas of the world).", "It also served to protect the marketing interests of the Hoffman Electronics division of ITT, a principal supplier of VOR/DME systems, that Decca might have been poised to usurp.This situation was exacerbated by the workload problems of the Air Traffic Controllers Association (ATCA), under its executive director Francis McDermott, whose members were forced to use radar data on aircraft positions, relaying those positions by radio to the aircraft from their control locations.", "An example of the problem, cited by experts, was the collision of a Douglas DC8 and a Lockheed Constellation over Staten Island, New York, that—according to some experts—could have been avoided if the aircraft had been Decca-equipped and could not only have determined their positions more precisely but would not have suffered from the rho-theta position errors inherent in VOR/DME.Other chains were established in Japan (6 chains); Namibia and South Africa (5 chains); India and Bangladesh (4 chains); North-West Australia (2 chains); the Persian Gulf (1 chain with stations in Qatar and the United Arab Emirates and a second chain in the north of the Gulf with stations in Iran) and the Bahamas (1 chain).", "Four chains were planned for Nigeria but only two were built and these did not enter into public service.", "Two chains in Vietnam were used during the Vietnam War for helicopter navigation, with limited success.During the Cold War period, following WWII, the R.A.F.", "established a confidential chain in Germany.", "The Master station was in Bad Iburg near Osnabrück and there were two Slaves.", "The purpose of this chain was to provide accurate air navigation for the corridor between Western Germany and Berlin in the event that a mass evacuation of allied personnel may be required.", "In order to maintain secrecy, frequencies were changed at irregular intervals.=== Decca, Racal, and the closedown ===An ''ap'' Decca receiver Mk II from the 1980s that could be purchased instead of leased.", "It could store 25 waypoints.The headquarters of Decca Navigator were at New Malden, Surrey, just off the Kingston by-pass.", "There was a Decca School, at Brixham, Devon, where employees were sent on courses from time to time.", "Racal, the UK weapons and communications company, acquired Decca in 1980.Merging Decca's radar assets with their own, Racal began selling off the other portions of the company, including avionics and Decca Navigator.A significant amount of income from the Decca system was due to the receivers being leased to users, not sold outright.", "This guaranteed predictable annual income.", "When the patents on the original technology lapsed in the early 1980s, new receivers were quickly built by a number of companies.", "In particular, Aktieselskabet Dansk Philips ('Danish Philips', ''ap'') introduced receivers that could be purchased outright, and were much smaller and easier to use than the current Decca counterparts.", "The \"ap\" versions directly output the longitude and latitude to two decimals (originally in datum ED50 only) instead of using the \"deco meter\" displays, offering accuracy better than ±9.3 m, much better than the Decca units.", "This also eliminated the need for the special charts printed with Decca lanes and zones.Decca sued ap for infringement and, in the ensuing court battle, Decca lost the monopoly.", "That signalled the beginning of the end for the company.", "Income dwindled and eventually, the UK Ministry of Transport stepped in, having the lighthouse authorities take responsibility for operating the system in the early 1990s.A ruling from the European Union forced the UK government to withdraw funding.", "The general lighthouse authority ceased Decca transmissions at midnight on 31 March 2000.The Irish chain provided by Bórd Iascaigh Mhara continued transmitting until 19 May 2000.Japan continued operating their Hokkaidō chain until March 2001, the last Decca chain in operation." ], [ "Other applications", "=== Delrac ===In the immediate post-war era, Decca began studying a long-range system like Decca, but using much lower frequencies to enable reception of skywaves at long distances.", "In February 1946 the company proposed a system with two main stations located at Shannon Airport in Ireland and Gander International Airport in Newfoundland (today part of Canada).", "Together, these stations would provide navigation over the main great circle route between London and New York.", "A third station in Bermuda would provide general ranging information to measure progress along the main track.Work on this concept continued, and in 1951 a modified version was presented that offered navigation over very wide areas.", "This was known as '''Delrac''', short for \"Decca Long Range Area Cover\".", "A further development, including features of the General Post Office's POPI system, was introduced in 1954, proposing 28 stations that provided worldwide coverage.", "The system was predicted to offer accuracy at range 95% of the time.", "Further development was ended in favour of the Dectra system.=== Dectra ===In the early 1960s the Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA), as part of a wider ICAO effort, began the process of introducing a standard long-range radio navigation system for aviation use.", "Decca proposed a system that could offer both high-accuracy at short ranges and trans-Atlantic navigation with less accuracy, using a single receiver.", "The system was known as '''Dectra''', short for \"Decca Track\".Unlike the Delrac system, Dectra was essentially the normal Decca Navigator system with the modification of several existing transmitter sites.", "These were located at the East Newfoundland and Scottish chains, which were equipped with larger antennas and high-power transmitters, broadcasting 20 times as much energy as normal chain stations.", "Given that the length of the chain baselines did not change, and were relatively short, at long distance the signal offered almost no accuracy.", "Instead, Dectra operated as a track system; aircraft would navigate by keeping themselves within the signal defined by a particular Decca lane.The main advantage of Dectra compared to other systems being proposed for the RTCA solution was that it could be used for both medium-range navigation over land, as well as long-range navigation over the Atlantic.", "In comparison, the VOR/DME system that ultimately won the competition offered navigation over perhaps a 200-mile radius, and could not offer a solution to the long-distance problem.", "Additionally, as the Decca system provided an X and Y location, as opposed to the angle-and-range VOR/DME, Decca proposed offering it with their Decca Flight Log moving map display to further improve ease of navigation.", "In spite of these advantages, the RTCA ultimately chose VOR/DME for two primary reasons; VOR offered coverage over about the same range as Decca, about 200 miles, but did so with a single transmitter instead of Decca's four, and Decca's frequencies proved susceptible to interference from static due to lightning, while VOR's higher frequencies were not quite as sensitive.Decca continued to propose that Dectra be used for the long-range role.", "In 1967 they installed another transmitter in Iceland to provide ranging along the Scotland-Newfoundland track, with a second proposed to be installed on the Azores.", "They also installed Dectra receivers with Omnitrac computers and a lightweight version of the Flight Log on a number of commercial airliners, notably a BOAC Vickers VC10.The Omnitrac could take inputs from Decca (and Dectra), Loran-C, VOR/DME, an air data computer and doppler radars and combine them all to produce a lat/long output along with bearing, distance-to-go, bearing and an autopilot coupling.", "Their efforts to standardize this were eventually abandoned as inertial navigation systems began to be installed for these needs.===Hi-Fix===A more accurate system named Hi-Fix was developed using signalling in the 1.6 MHz range.", "It was used for specialised applications such as precision measurements involved with oil-drilling and by the Royal Navy for detailed mapping and surveying of coasts and harbours.", "The Hi-Fix equipment was leased for a period with temporary chains established to provide coverage of the area required, Hi-Fix was commercialised by Racal Survey in the early 1980s.", "An experimental chain was installed with coverage of central London and receivers placed in London buses and other vehicles to demonstrate an early vehicle location and tracking system.", "Each vehicle would report its location automatically via a conventional VHF two-way radio link, the data added to a voice channel.Another application was developed by the Bendix Pacific division of Bendix Corporation, with offices in North Hollywood, California, but not deployed: PFNS—Personal Field Navigation System—that would enable individual soldiers to ascertain their geographic position, long before this capability was made possible by the satellite-based GPS (Global Positioning System).A further application of the Decca system was implemented by the U.S. Navy in the late 1950s and early 1960s for use in the Tongue of the Ocean/Eleuthera Sound area near The Bahamas, separating the islands of Andros and New Providence.", "The application was for sonar studies made possible by the unique characteristics of the ocean floor.An interesting characteristic of the Decca VLF signal discovered on BOAC, later British Airways, test flights to Moscow, was that the carrier switching could not be detected even though the carrier could be received with sufficient strength to provide navigation.", "Such testing, involving civilian aircraft, is quite common and may well not be in the knowledge of a pilot.The 'low frequency' signalling of the Decca system also permitted its use on submarines.", "One 'enhancement' of the Decca system was to offer the potential of keying the signal, using Morse code, to signal the onset of nuclear war.", "This option was never taken up by the UK government.", "Messages were clandestinely sent, however, between Decca stations thereby bypassing international telephone calls, especially in non-UK chains." ], [ "Special DECCA towers", "* Puckeridge DECCA tower* Zeven DECCA-transmitter" ], [ "See also", "GEE (navigation)Loran-COmega (navigation system)Local positioning systemDatatrak" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography=== *A modified version is = Jerry Proc, \"The GEE System\", 14 January 2001 The Decca Navigator - Principles and Performance of the System, The Decca Navigator Company Limited, July 1976* Night Passage to Normandy, Lieutenant-Commander Oliver Dawkins, R.N.V.R, Decca, 1969* The Decca Navigator System on D-Day, 6 June 1944, An Acid Test, Commander Hugh St. A. Malleson, R.N.", "(Ret.", ")* Hyperbolic Radionavigation Systems, Compiled by Jerry Proc VE3FAB, 2007 * Navigation Systems: A Survey of Modern Electronic Aids, ed.", "G.E.", "Beck, van Nostrand Reinhold, 1971" ], [ "External links", "* Decca Navigator System by Jerry Proc* A virtual tour of a Decca Main Chain* Decca Navigator Spain by Santiago Insua (in Spanish)* Decca Navigator Station Zeven (Germany)*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dana Rohrabacher" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dana Tyrone Rohrabacher''' ( ; born June 21, 1947) is an American former politician who served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1989 to 2019.A Republican, he represented for the last three terms of his House tenure.", "Rohrabacher was defeated by Democrat Harley Rouda in 2018.Rohrabacher has expressed strong pro-Russia and pro-Putin opinions which have raised questions about his relationship with Vladimir Putin and the Russian government.", "''Politico'' dubbed him as \"Putin's favorite congressman\"." ], [ "Early life, education, and early career", "Dana Tyrone Rohrabacher was born on June 21, 1947, in Coronado, California, the son of Doris M. (née Haring) and Donald Tyler Rohrabacher.", "Rohrabacher graduated from Palos Verdes High School in Palos Verdes Estates, California, attended Los Angeles Harbor College, and earned a bachelor's degree in history at California State University, Long Beach in 1969.He received his master's degree in American Studies at the University of Southern California.President Ronald Reagan faking a punch to Dana Rohrabacher aboard Air Force One and trip back to California in 1986While in graduate school and during the early 1970s, Rohrabacher had a side activity as a folk singer.", "He was also a writer for the ''Orange County Register''.", "Rohrabacher served as assistant press secretary to Ronald Reagan during his 1976 and 1980 presidential campaigns.", "Rohrabacher then worked as a speechwriter and special assistant to President Reagan from 1981 to 1988.During his tenure at the White House, Rohrabacher played a leading role in the formulation of the Reagan Doctrine." ], [ "U.S. House of Representatives", "===Elections===Rohrabacher left the Reagan administration in 1988 to pursue Dan Lungren's recently vacated House seat.", "With his friend Oliver North's fundraising help, Rohrabacher won the Republican primary with a plurality of 35%.", "He won the general election with 64% of the vote.", "He twice experienced serious primary competition, in 1992 and 1998.After redistricting, he won a three-candidate primary election in 1992 with a plurality of 48%.", "In 1998, he won an open primary with 54% of the vote.", "==== 2008 ====In 2008, Rohrabacher defeated Democratic nominee Debbie Cook, 53–43%.==== 2010 ====In 2010, Rohrabacher defeated Democratic nominee Ken Arnold, 62–38%.==== 2012 ====After redistricting, Rohrabacher announced in 2012 that he would run in the newly redrawn 48th Congressional district.", "He said \"The new 48th District is a good fit and something that will enable me to serve my constituents and the country well.\"", "He won election in the 48th district with 61% of the vote.Rohrabacher shakes hands with a supporter wearing a Guy Fawkes mask in 2013==== 2014 ====Rohrabacher won re-election with 64% of the vote.==== 2016 ====Rohrabacher won re-election with 59% of the vote.==== 2018 ====In March 2018, CNN reported that Erik Prince, a former intern of Rohrabacher while he was freshman congressman in 1990 and very close ally of Rohrabacher, hosted a fundraiser at Prince's Virginia home with expected attendees including Oliver North on March 18, 2018.On October 12, 2018, the ''Los Angeles Times'' reported that the Congressional Leadership Fund, a Super PAC closely associated with House Speaker Paul Ryan, had passed over Rohrabacher in its initial round of broadcast television advertising across Southern California.", "Rohrabacher's campaign denied this, saying that CLF had spent \"about $2.4 million and they have an additional $1 million in media buys scheduled\" for Rohrabacher.Democrat Harley Rouda defeated Rohrabacher on Election Day.===Tenure===A picture of Rohrabacher from the 105th Congress's directory (1997)FRC President Tony Perkins in 2003====Election fraud and conviction====Rohrabacher was charged with improper use of campaign contributions in connection with a 1995 state assembly election.", "Rohrabacher provided some of his campaign funds to his campaign manager (and future wife), Rhonda Carmony, to promote a decoy Democratic candidate to draw away votes from another Democratic candidate.", "Rohrabacher was found guilty and fined $50,000.====Payment for 30-year-old screenplay====On November 4, 2005, the ''Los Angeles Times'' reported that Rohrabacher was paid $23,000 for a 30-year-old screen play he had written.", "At issue was whether the producer paid him for the screenplay or for introductions to congressional and federal officials.", "Rohrabacher said that the introductions were made in good faith, were nothing that was not done regularly for legitimate causes, and that the introductions had only become an issue because of Joseph Medawar's alleged misdeeds.", "In May 2006, Rohrabacher announced through his press secretary that he would return the $23,000 (~$ in ).", "The decision was made public shortly before Medawar took responsibility in a United States District Court for bilking $3.4 million from about 50 investors.====2011 visit to Iraq====During a trip to Iraq in June 2011, Rohrabacher said that when Iraq becomes a wealthy nation, it should pay back the US for all the money it had spent since the Iraq invasion.", "Rohrabacher also commented that he would be holding a hearing with the Sub-Committee on Oversight and Investigations into whether Iraq committed \"crimes against humanity\" during an attack on Camp Ashraf in April 2011.The incident left 34 residents killed and over 300 wounded.", "The delegation was denied access to the camp by Iraqi government, citing their sovereignty.", "Rohrabacher's delegation was subsequently asked to leave the country.====2012 FBI warning====Rohrabacher was warned in 2012 in a secure room at the Capitol building by an agent from the FBI that Russian spies may have been trying to recruit him to act on Russia's behalf as an \"agent of influence\", after he met with a member of the Russian foreign ministry privately in Moscow.", "Following the ISIS terrorist attacks in Tehran on June 7, 2017, in which 17 innocent civilians were killed, he suggested that the attack could be viewed as 'a good thing', and surmised that President Trump might have been behind the coordination of this terrorist attack.", "An article in ''The Atlantic'' suggested that there was serious concern in the State Department of ties between Rohrabacher and the Russian government.====Jack Wu====In June 2015, Rohrabacher released a statement accusing former treasurer of his reelection committee, Jack Wu, of embezzling more than $170,000 from his campaign.", "Rohrabacher's attorney, Charles H. Bell Jr., stated that the congressman had filed criminal charges against Wu with the Orange County district attorney and state attorney general.====2016 consideration for Secretary of State====Following the election of Donald Trump in 2016, Rohrabacher was on the shortlist for Secretary of State along with Mitt Romney and eventual pick Rex Tillerson.===Committee assignments===Rohrabacher presides over a meeting of the Space and Aeronautics Subcommittee of the House Science Committee.", "* '''Committee on Foreign Affairs''' Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations (Chairman)* '''Committee on Science, Space and Technology''' Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Subcommittee on Energy and EnvironmentRohrabacher chaired the Space and Aeronautics Subcommittee of the House Science Committee from 1997 until January 2005; he received a two-year waiver to serve beyond the six-year term limit.As a senior member of the International Relations Committee, Rohrabacher led the effort to deny Most Favored Nation trading status to the People's Republic of China, citing that nation's dismal human rights record and opposition to democracy.", "His subcommittee assignments were East Asia and Pacific, and Middle East and South Asia.===Caucus memberships===* Congressional Cannabis Caucus* Congressional Human Rights Caucus* United States Congressional International Conservation Caucus* Congressional Taiwan Caucus* Sportsmen's Caucus* Freedom Caucus* House Baltic Caucus" ], [ "Foreign and security policy positions", "In foreign policy, Rohrabacher supported withdrawing U.S. troops from Afghanistan, called for Trump to punish Turkish President Erdoğan on embassy violence, sided with Russia in the Russia–Georgia war, and gave a qualified defense of the annexation of Crimea in 2014.===Russia===Rohrabacher has expressed strong pro-Russia and pro-Putin opinions which have raised questions about his relationship with Vladimir Putin and the Russian government.", "''Politico'' and others have dubbed him \"Putin's favorite congressman\".Early in Rohrabacher's congressional career in 1990 or 1991, KGB agent and deputy mayor of Saint Petersburg Vladimir Putin and two other Russians entered Rohrabacher's congressional office in Washington, D.C.", "In a 2013 interview, Rohrabacher asserted that he and Putin later became close friends.According to Erik Prince, Prince, as an intern on Rohrabacher's staff, travelled around the world on fact finding missions to support Rohrabacher's interests.Rohrabacher called the Russian banker Aleksandr Torshin, a Putin ally, \"sort of the conservatives' favorite Russian\".On September 8, 2008, at a House of Representatives Foreign Affairs Committee meeting, Rohrabacher argued that the Georgians had initiated a recent military confrontation in the ongoing Russia–Georgia war.In 2012, the FBI warned Rohrabacher that his support for Russia's interests was allowing Russia to cultivate him for its purposes.In February 2013, Rohrabacher gave a speech urging the right to self-determination for the Baloch people in Pakistan at an UNPO conference in London.In April 2014, he tweeted that \"If majority of people legally residing in Alaska want to be part of Russia then its OK with me.\"", "In April 2016, Rohrabacher and a member of his staff, Paul Behrends, traveled to Russia and returned with Yuri Chaika's confidential talking points memo about incriminating information on Democratic donors.", "The talking points paper used at the Trump Tower meeting on June 9, 2016 by Natalia Veselnitskaya was very similar to the document Rohrabacher had obtained from Chaika in April.Rohrabacher is known for his longtime friendship with Putin and for his defense of \"the Russian point of view\".", "On June 15, 2016, then-House Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy told a group of Republicans, \"'There's two people I think Putin pays: Rohrabacher and Trump.", "Swear to God'\".", "Then-House Speaker Paul Ryan ended the conversation by saying \"'No leaks.", "This is how we know we're a real family here'\".", "The Republicans present were sworn to secrecy.", "Brendan Buck, counselor to Paul Ryan, initially denied these reports, but was then told that ''The Washington Post'' had a recording.", "After the recording was leaked by the ''Post'' in May 2017, McCarthy said the comment was intended as a joke.Around that time, Rohrabacher planned--in his capacity as chair of the Europe subcommittee--to hold a hearing on the Magnitsky Act, which bars certain Russian officials from entering the United States or holding any financial assets in American banks.", "Rohrabacher reportedly wanted Bill Browder, the American-born investor who had lobbied for the act's passage after what he claims was the illegal appropriation of his hedge fund's assets and the subsequent murder of his Russian lawyer, to testify.", "Rohrabacher planned to subject him to what was described as a \"show trial\".", "In addition to questioning Browder closely and skeptically about his claims, Rohrabacher intended to show a feature-length documentary film critical of the Magnitsky claims.", "Another scheduled witness was Russian lawyer Natalia Veselnitskaya, a longtime lobbyist against the Magnitsky Act who attended the June 9 Trump Tower meeting.", "In July 2017, Browder testified to the Senate Judiciary Committee that persons supporting the interests of foreign governments or acting on their behalf, especially Russia, must comply with Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) requirements, and that no one behind the screening of the Andrei Nekrasov film had met the disclosure filings under FARA.When Foreign Affairs Committee chairman Ed Royce learned of Rohrabacher's plans, he canceled the hearing and forbade Rohrabacher from showing the film.", "In its stead, he held a full committee hearing on U.S.-Russia relations at which Rohrabacher was allowed to submit some of the pro-Russian claims into evidence.", "The film was ultimately shown at the Newseum, and an intern in Rohrabacher's office who later worked for the Trump transition team sent emails promoting the film from the subcommittee offices.After Donald Trump won the 2016 presidential election, Rohrabacher defended his approach to improving Russian–American relations.", "He had previously met at least twice with Rinat Akhmetshin, a former Soviet spy \"who met with President Trump's son, son-in-law and campaign manager in June 2016\", to discuss Russian sanctions.In a May 2017 interview with CNN, Rohrabacher said, \"'We have a huge double standard with Russia when it comes to prisoners and other things'\".", "Rohrabacher added that interference by the Russian intelligence services' in the 2016 U.S. election was the same as the National Security Agency (NSA) bugging German Chancellor Angela Merkel's phone.In July 2017, Rohrabacher voted to impose sanctions on Iran, North Korea, and Russia.On 16 August 2017, Rohrabacher visited Julian Assange in the Ecuadorian Embassy in London and told him that Trump would pardon him on the condition that he would agree to say that Russia was not involved in the 2016 Democratic National Committee email leaks.", "At his extradition hearings in 2020, Assange's defense team alleged in court that this offer was made \"on instructions from the president\".", "Trump and Rohrabacher subsequently said they had never spoken about the offer, and Rohrabacher said he had made the offer on his own initiative.In October 2017, the House Committee on Foreign Affairs placed restrictions on Rohrabacher's ability to use committee money to pay for foreign travel due to concerns over his interest in Russia.On November 21, 2017, ''The New York Times'' reported that Rohrabacher had come under scrutiny from special counsel Robert Mueller and the Senate Intelligence Committee for his close ties to the Kremlin.Rohrabacher speaking at the 2011 Conservative Political Action Conference (CPAC)Rohrabacher with Larry Elder and Kirk Elder accept Congressional Gold Medal on behalf of Staff Sgt.", "Randolph ElderIn an interview with Fox Business Channel on August 24, 2018, Rohrabacher attacked Attorney General Jeff Sessions because Sessions had refused to fire Robert Mueller and shut down the Russia collusion investigation.", "He said: \"'The fact that Jeff Sessions has not quit is a disloyalty to this president and to the country, the fact is, if he disagrees with what the president wants him to do, he should resign'\".In February 2020, Rohrabacher told Yahoo News that his goal during his 2017 meeting with Julian Assange was to find evidence for a widely debunked conspiracy theory that WikiLeaks' real source was not Russian intelligence agents for the DNC emails but former DNC staffer Seth Rich.", "Stephanie Grisham, a White House spokesperson for President Trump, stated that Trump barely knew Rohrabacher and had not spoken with Rohrabacher \"'on this subject or almost any subject'\".", "On February 19, 2020, Edward Fitzgerald, Julian Assange's barrister, asserted at Westminster Magistrates' Court in London that Rohrabacher had been sent on behalf of President Trump in August 2017 to offer Assange a pardon from Trump if Assange could release material to show that Russian intelligence were not involved in the 2016 United States election interference.===Terrorism===In 2006, Rohrabacher chaired the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the U.S. House Committee on International Relations, which investigated whether the Oklahoma City bombers had assistance from foreign sources; the committee determined there was no conclusive evidence of a foreign connection.", "In the 113th Congress, Rohrabacher was chair of the House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Europe, Eurasia and Emerging Threats.Speaking about Islam, he said during a hearing in April 2013, \"I hope we all work together against a religion that will motivate people to murder children and other threats to us as a civilization.", "\"In the wake of the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, Rohrabacher put out a press release stating that he felt \"outrage\" and a \"renewed commitment to defeat and destroy the radical Islamic movement that fosters such mayhem.\"", "He stressed that Americans must \"be sure not to label all Muslims as terrorist murderers.\"", "Rohrabacher met Seddique Mateen, the father of the shooter, in 2014 during routine meetings with constituents.", "He called Mateen an \"estranged individual.", "\"In a statement to clarify his position, Rohrabacher wrote that he opposes \"the use of force against unarmed civilians no matter who is the victim or who is doing the killing\" but he is also against \"Iran's vicious Mullah monarchy\" and \"when it comes to Sunni terrorists or Shiite terrorists, I prefer them to target each other rather than any other victims, especially innocent civilians and Americans.\"", "He added that it will \"require support for those proud Iranians who want to win their freedom and heritage from Mullahs and are willing to fight for it.", "That does not include Isis, but it may include a lot of Iranians who see blowing up Khomeini's mausoleum as an expression of freedom from the yolk sic of Islamic terror.", "\"===Defense of interrogation techniques and extraordinary rendition===On April 17, 2007, during a House hearing on trans-Atlantic relations, Rohrabacher defended the Bush administration's program of extraordinary rendition.", "He said that the unfair treatment of one innocent suspect is an acceptable \"unfortunate consequence\" of holding others who would otherwise be free to commit terror acts.", "After he received boos and groans from the gallery, Rohrabacher responded, \"Well, I hope it's your families, I hope it's your families that suffer the consequences,\" and \"I hope it's your family members that die.\"", "Rohrabacher was subsequently interrupted by protesters wearing orange jumpsuits who were removed from the gallery.", "For his comment that imprisoning and torturing one innocent person was a fair price to pay for locking up 50 terrorists who would \"go out and plant a bomb and kill 20,000 people\", on April 25 Rohrabacher was named ''Countdown with Keith Olbermann's'' \"Worst Person in the World\".===Afghanistan===Rohrabacher's interest in Afghanistan extends back at least to the late 1980s, before his time in office, when he entered the country in the company of Afghan mujahideen fighters who were fighting Soviet occupation forces.", "Reportedly, these fighters \"actually engaged Soviet troops in combat near the city of Jalalabad during the two months Rohrabacher was with them.\"", "In the years after the Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989), Rohrabacher said his \"passion\" was to bring back the country's exiled king, Muhammad Zahir Shah.In 2003, Rohrabacher defended the new Afghan constitution against those who saw in it mainly empowerment of warlords, saying:Rohrabacher has since become a proponent of withdrawing from Afghanistan.", "He protested against the troop build-up in Afghanistan by President Obama, saying \"If the Taliban is going is be defeated, it's got to be by the Afghan people themselves, not by sending more U.S. troops, which could actually be counterproductive.\"", "When Congressman Jim McGovern offered an amendment in 2011 requiring the Pentagon to draw up an exit plan from Afghanistan, Rohrabacher was just one of six Republicans to sign on.", "Rohrabacher voted for McGovern's Amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act, requiring an exit plan from Afghanistan.", "The bill failed by a 204–215 margin.Rohrabacher was against former President Obama's gradual drawdown of troops, instead supporting a full withdrawal.", "Saying \"If we're going to leave, we should leave.\"", "Rohrabacher has said that \"The centralized system of government foisted upon the Afghan people is not going to hold after we leave.\"", "And \"So let's quit prolonging the agony and inevitable.", "Karzai's regime is corrupt and non representative of Afghanistan's tribal culture.", "This failed strategy is not worth one more drop of American blood.", "Under the current strategy, our military presence alienates more Afghans that it pacifies.", "So if you're going to pull the plug, then we need to get the hell out now.\"", "Rohrabacher has repeatedly raised high-level concerns in the US Congress and Washington, D.C., about the significant corruption in Afghanistan, including the Kabul Bank scandal, where hundreds of millions of U.S. taxpayers' dollars allegedly disappeared in a short period of time at the apparent hands of close Karzai family members, including brothers Mahmoud Karzai (a.k.a.", "Mahmood Karzai) and Ahmed Wali Karzai.", "Rohrabacher worked to bring attention to the systemic corruption in the Karzai government and cut U.S. taxpayers' funding for these wasteful projects and programs, involving corruption within the Hamid Karzai government.In April 2012, CNN reported that \"A top Republican on the House Foreign Affairs committee was asked by the State Department not to go to Afghanistan because President Hamid Karzai objected to the visit.", "... Dana Rohrabacher, R-California, told Security Clearance he was readying to travel with five other Republicans from Dubai to Afghanistan's capital, Kabul, when the State Department requested he stay behind.", "\"===Bosnia and Kosovo independence===Rohrabacher speaking at the 2016 Young Americans for Liberty California State ConventionRohrabacher was opposed to the involvement of American ground troops in the Yugoslav Wars.", "He advocated for the direct bombing of the military on Yugoslav soil, criticizing the ineffectiveness of western forces against the Bosnian Serbs.", "(NATO was limited to small fixed attacks, as these Serbs penetrated UN safe areas and attacked Bosniak forces.)", "Rohrabacher said they \"should bomb Serbia's military infrastructure, in Serbia – get that, in Serbia – rather than dropping a couple of duds on tents, which only proves the West's gutlessness, and emboldens Serbian cutthroats.\"", "Rohrabacher considered the events in Bosnia to constitute genocide.", "In 1995, Rohrabacher personally visited Sarajevo in Bosnia, criticizing the devastation Serb forces inflicted on the city, saying \"This is a loss to all mankind, not just to the people of Sarajevo.\"", "He also encountered vagabond children asking for money.In 2001, the leader of the Albanian American Civic League ethnic lobby group, Joseph J. DioGuardi, praised Rohrabacher for his support to the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), a militia that was once labeled by Bill Clinton's special envoy to the Balkans Robert Gelbard as a terrorist organization, saying \"He was the first member of Congress to insist that the United States arm the Kosova Liberation Army, and one of the few members who to this day publicly supports the independence of Kosova.\"", "Also in 2001, Rohrabacher gave a speech in support of American equipping the KLA with weaponry, comparing it to French support of America in the Revolutionary War, saying \"Based on our own experience, the Kosova Liberation Army should have been armed.", "...", "If the U.S. had armed the KLA in 1998, we would not be where we are today.", "The 'freedom fighters' would have secured their freedom and Kosova would be independent.", "\"=== China ===After a reconnaissance flight over the Spratly Islands in 1998, Rohrabacher said, \"We can't ignore this bullying by the Communist Chinese in the Spratlys.", "The presence of the Chinese military troops...is not only a concern of the Philippines.", "It is also a concern of the U.S. and other democratic countries in the world.", "\"In July 1999, Rohrabacher led the House floor in opposition to legislation normalizing trade ties between the United States and China.", "The following year, as the House weighed another China trade bill, Rohrabacher said the trade bill was a giveaway to a select number of American billionaires and the Beijing regime, adding that President Bill Clinton could call \"communist China 'our strategic partner' until his face turns blue, but it won't make them any less red.", "\"In 2011 interviews, Rohrabacher described the Chinese government under the leadership of Hu Jintao as \"a gangster regime that murders its own people\" and described the Chinese government as Nazis.In December 2016, after President-elect Trump had a phone call with President of Taiwan Tsai Ing-wen, Rohrabacher said the call had \"showed the dictators in Beijing that he's not a pushover\" and that China \"has had an enormously aggressive foreign policy\".====Organ harvesting in China====In 2012 Rohrabacher stated,and===Iraq War===Rohrabacher voted in support of the Authorization for the Use of Military Force Against Iraq in 2002, a position that he later said was \"a mistake\".===Iran===In August 2012, Rohrabacher noted on his official website that he had written a letter addressed to the U.S. State Department, noting his support of U.S. sponsorship of separatist movements in Iran.", "This elicited criticism from the Iranian-American community, which included challenging Rohrabacher's understanding of the historical background alluded to in his letter to the Department of State.In June 2017, a day after an ISIL attack in Tehran, during a House Foreign Affairs Committee hearing, Rohrabacher stated: \"Isn't it a good thing for us to have the United States finally backing up Sunnis who will attack Hezbollah and the Shiite threat to us, isn't that a good thing?\"", "This comment was strongly criticized by the National Iranian American Council, which wrote, \"Rohrabacher has a long history of bizarre and offensive statements on Iran, but his callousness toward the Iranian victims of ISIS terror might be his most callous and extreme thus far.", "\"Rohrabacher supported removing the People's Mujahedin of Iran (MEK) from the United States State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations; it was included on the list from 1997 to 2012.===Aid to Pakistan===In May 2011, in the wake of Osama Bin Laden's death, Rohrabacher introduced a bill to stop aid to Pakistan, stating that members of the government and of Pakistan's security force, the ISI, were either sheltering Bin Laden or completely incompetent.", "\"We can no longer afford this foolishness.", "...", "The time has come for us to stop subsidizing those who actively oppose us.", "Pakistan has shown itself not to be America's ally.\"", "Rohrabacher also demanded the return of the US helicopter that crashed in the operation to kill Bin Laden, stating \"If this is not done immediately, it is probable, given Pakistan's history, that our technology has already found its way into the hands of the Communist Chinese military that is buying, building, and stealing the necessary military technology to challenge the United States.", "\"In June 2017, while speaking to Assistant Secretary of State for Political-Military Affairs Tina Kaidanow, Rohrabacher said, \"We need to go on the record here, in this part of our government, to say that we're not going to be providing weapons systems to Pakistan that we're afraid are going to shoot down our own people.", "And we know they're engaged in terrorism.", "\"===Support for Mohiuddin Ahmed===In 2007, Rohrabacher supported Mohiuddin Ahmed, a detainee in the U.S., who was said to be involved in an attempted coup in Bangladesh, during which several people were murdered.", "He was convicted of the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the first President of Bangladesh.", "Bangladesh's extradition request was halted as Rohrabacher voiced concern about his legal rights, saying that he should be sent somewhere with no death penalty.", "His support was applauded by both Amnesty International and the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops.", "Mohiuddin Ahmed was found guilty of being a participant in the assassinations and was executed on January 28, 2010.===Taiwan===Rohrabacher speaking at the 2013 California Young Americans for Liberty State ConventionAfter President-elect Donald Trump answered a congratulatory phone call from democratically elected President of Taiwan Tsai Ing-wen on December 2, 2016, Rohrabacher said Trump's phone call with Taiwan's president was \"terrific\" because of the diplomatic warning it sent to China.", "\"He showed the dictators in Beijing that he's not a pushover.\"", "He emphasized, \"China has had an enormously aggressive foreign policy and by him actually going to Taiwan, he's showing the people in Beijing that they cannot have this aggressive foreign policy and expect to be treated just the same by an American president.", "\"===Ukraine===Rohrabacher gave a \"qualified defense\" of the annexation of Crimea by Russia in 2014.On March 6, 2014, he was one of 23 members of the House of Representatives to vote against a $1 billion loan guarantee to support the new government of Ukraine.", "On March 11, 2014, Rohrabacher voted \"present\", the only member to do so, on a resolution condemning Russian military actions in Ukraine; the resolution passed 402-7.Commenting on the issue, he stated, \"Starting with our own American Revolution, groups of people have declared themselves, rightfully, to be under a different government or a government of their choosing.", "People forget that's what our Declaration of Independence is all about.\"", "He also said, \"The sanctions are an abomination of hypocrisy.", "This is ridiculous: What we were doing with the violence and military action we took to secure the Kosovars' right to self-determination was far more destructive and had far more loss of life than what Putin's done trying to ensure the people of Crimea are not cut off from what they would choose as their destiny with Russia.", "\"===Uzbekistan===During a US Congressional delegation's visit to Uzbekistan in February 2013, Rohrabacher made several controversial statements.", "The chief among those statements was that the United States should treat Uzbekistan like Saudi Arabia by disregarding the former's human rights abuses in achieving America's national interests, particularly in selling armaments and drones to Uzbekistan.===North Macedonia===In 2017, in an interview for an Albanian TV channel Vizion Plus Rohrabacher suggested that Macedonia \"is not a country\" and that the \"Kosovars and Albanians from Macedonia should be part of Kosovo and the rest of Macedonia should be part of Bulgaria or any other country to which they believe they are related\", which provoked a response from the Macedonian foreign ministry which accused him of inflaming \"nationalistic rhetoric\".=== Turkey ===In the wake of the clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence in May 2017, Rohrabacher called Donald Trump to never invite Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan again to the United States, and to bar Americans from purchasing Turkish government debt.=== Eritrea ===In August 2017, Rohrabacher proposed amending the Department of Defense budget whereby the United States would establish military ties with Eritrea.", "Rohrabacher suggested that the two countries should cooperate in fighting the War on Terror, curbing Iranian influence in the Yemeni Civil War, and securing the Red Sea region.", "At the time of Rohrabacher's proposal, Eritrea was subject to international sanctions due to its alleged support of Al-Shabaab in Somalia, and to U.S. sanctions against the Eritrean Navy following an alleged shipment of North Korean military hardware to Eritrea.=== Julian Assange ===In August 2017, Rohrabacher attended a meeting in London with Julian Assange organized and attended by right-wing political activist Charles C. Johnson.", "Rohrabacher said that the discussion was about the possibility of a presidential pardon in exchange for Assange supplying information on the theft of emails from the Democratic National Committee, which were published by WikiLeaks before the 2016 presidential election.", "In October 2017, Rohrabacher and Johnson met with Senator Rand Paul (R-Kentucky) to discuss Assange supplying information about the source of leaked emails.", "However, Assange responded to news accounts of the meeting, tweeting, \"WikiLeaks never has and never will reveal a source.", "Offers have been made to me—not the other way around.", "I do not speak to the public through third parties.", "\"===Other foreign policy===In March 2005, Rohrabacher introduced HR 1061, the American Property Claims Against Ethiopia Act, which would \"prohibit United States assistance to the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia until the Ethiopian government returns all property of United States citizens\".", "The bill was introduced by Rohrabacher at the behest of Gebremedhin Berhane, a former Eritrean national and friend of the Rohrabacher family, after his business was expropriated by the Ethiopian government.On March 7, 2006, Rohrabacher introduced HR 4895, an amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, \"to limit the provision of the United States military assistance and the sale, transfer, or licensing of United States military equipment or technology to Ethiopia\".During an appearance on MSNBC's ''The Ed Show'', Rohrabacher accused Barack Obama of allowing violence in Iran to get out of hand because he did not speak forcefully enough against the country's leadership.", "He also said that Gorbachev tore down the Berlin Wall because Reagan told him to (\"Tear down this wall\").In early 2010, he went to Honduras to commend the election of the new president.", "His entourage included a group of Californian property investors and businessmen, a dealer in rare coins, and CEOs from San Diego biofuels corporation (which is headed by a family friend)." ], [ "Domestic political positions", "Rohrabacher in 108th Congress, 2003–2004 (age 56).Rohrabacher voted to repeal Obamacare, disputed evidence of man-made global warming, was a staunch opponent of illegal immigration, and favored the legalization of cannabis.", "Rohrabacher had drawn public criticism for some of his positions.", "His controversial statements included the conspiracy theory, first promoted by the politically-biased conspiracy theory website InfoWars, that Democrats secretly organized the Unite the Right Rally in Charlottesville to provoke violence by the alt-right to discredit President Trump.He had been a staunch supporter of Donald Trump.===National Endowment for the Arts===In 1990, Rohrabacher opposed the National Endowment of the Arts and joined Mel Hancock in demanding its abolition.", "In a February letter to other members of Congress, Rohrabacher sent a photograph by artist and AIDS activist David Wojnarowicz.", "In April, liberal constitutional rights group People for the American Way announced its intent to launch a newspaper advert campaign against Rohrabacher.", "Western vice president of the organization Michael Hudson stated, \"'Americans overwhelmingly reject censorship of the arts and support the NEA'\".", "Rohrabacher welcomed the announcement, stating that his constituents \"don't want federal dollars to go to sacrilegious or obscene art'\" and that it would help voters to understand the issue.", "Explaining his position, Rohrabacher stated that he did not believe \"'anyone should be prevented from seeing what they want to see or painting what they want to paint...on their own time and their own dime.", "But if you get a government subsidy, that's another question'\".In October, the House passed a bill to reauthorize funds for the NEA with the directive that the organization could not fund obscene art.", "Rohrabacher introduced an amendment that would include specific guidelines on the kind of art projects that could not be funded, such as works that were sexually explicit or denigrated the American flag or religions; the amendment was rejected by a vote of 249-175.Rohrabacher stated his amendment was supposed to ensure that the federal government was \"\"not subsidizing obscenity, child pornography, attacks on religion, desecration of the American flag or any other of the outrages we have seen in the past'\".", "By the time the House passed the bill, Rohrabacher had become known as \" the House's most outspoken critic of the NEA\".===Race quotas===In October 1991, Rohrabacher wrote a letter to the civil rights division of the Education Department after seven Filipino students complained to the media that they were denied admission to the University of California, San Diego (UCSD).", "Rohrabacher requested the department conduct a federal civil rights investigation on what seemed to be \"a quota based upon race that illegally discriminates against Filipino-Americans and possibly applicants of other races\".", "UCSD vice chancellor for undergraduate affairs Joseph Watson refuted the letter, dismissing Rohrabacher as \"wrong when he says that 40% of admissions are reserved for certain races\".", "He stated that the school ranks all applicants using a grade-based formula.", "Watson charged Rohrabacher with fanning hysteria over discrimination: \"The Rohrabacher approach is to play to public fears that something fishy is going on.", "We don't want anyone to feel we're not giving everyone a fair and equitable review that can stand up to any scrutiny.", "\"===Impeachment of Bill Clinton===In November 1997, Rohrabacher was one of eighteen Republicans in the House to co-sponsor a resolution by Bob Barr that sought to launch an impeachment inquiry against President Bill Clinton.", "The resolution did not specify any charges or allegations.", "This was an early effort to impeach Clinton, predating the eruption of the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal.", "The eruption of that scandal would ultimately lead to a more serious effort to impeach Clinton in 1998.On October 8, 1998, Rohrabacher voted in favor of legislation that was passed to open an impeachment inquiry.", "On December 19, 1998, Rohrabacher voted in favor of all four proposed articles of impeachment against Clinton (only two of which received the majority of votes needed to be adopted).===Firearms===In 2018, Sacha Baron Cohen's television program ''Who Is America?''", "premiered, showing Rohrabacher supporting a hoax \"kinderguardians program\" which supported training toddlers with firearms.", "Rohrabacher claims that he never spoke to Cohen, that he was taken out of context, and that he spoke, \"broadly of making sure young people could get training in self-defense\".===Global warming===Rohrabacher doubts the scientific consensus that global warming is caused by humans.", "During a congressional hearing on climate change on February 8, 2007, Rohrabacher mused that previous warming cycles may have been caused by carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by \"dinosaur flatulence\": ''Politico'' and ''The New York Times'' reported that on May 25, 2011, Rohrabacher expressed further skepticism regarding the existence of man-made global warming and suggested that, if global warming is an issue, a possible solution could be clear-cutting rain forests, and replanting.", "These reports sparked strong criticism by some scientists, including Oliver Phillips, a geography professor at the University of Leeds.", "They noted the consensus that intact forests act as net absorbers of carbon, reducing global warming.Rohrabacher does not believe that global warming is a problem.", "At a town hall meeting with the Newport Mesa Tea Party in August 2013, Rohrabacher said \"global warming is a total fraud\" and part of a \"game plan\" by liberals to \"create global government\".===Healthcare===On May 4, 2017, Rohrabacher voted in favor of repealing the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and passing the American Health Care Act.", "During his 2018 re-election campaign, Rohrabacher pledged to protect protections for individuals with preexisting conditions.", "Rohrabacher voted for his party's Obamacare replacement bill that included state waivers from rules that prohibit charging higher prices to people with pre-existing conditions.===Immigration===Rohrabacher was an advocate for the state of California's Proposition 187, which prohibited illegal immigrants from acquiring government services.", "In 2004, he sponsored an amendment that would have prohibited federal reimbursement of hospital-provided emergency care and certain transportation services to undocumented aliens unless the hospital provided information about the aliens' citizenship, immigration status, financial data, and employer to the Secretary of Homeland Security.", "Aliens who were in the country illegally would receive reimbursement only after they were deported.", "The proposed bill was defeated, 331–88.In 2005, Rohrabacher opined that the Republican Party was split on the issue of immigration: \"There are those of us who identify with the national wing and patriotic wing of the party who have always been adamant on the illegal immigration issues.", "And, on the other side, you have those people who believe in the business and global marketplace concept.", "So, you have a party with two different views on one of the major issues of the day.", "\"In early 2008, Rohrabacher endorsed Mitt Romney in the Republican presidential primary, citing his positions on stemming illegal immigration and criticizing John McCain.", "About McCain, he said: \"He's been the enemy of those of us who have stemmed the flow of illegals into our country, whereas Romney has made some very tough commitments.", "\"In 2011, Rohrabacher proposed the bill H.R.", "787 known as the \"No Social Security for Illegal Immigrants Act of 2011\".", "The bill: \"Amends title II of the Social Security Act to exclude from creditable wages and self-employment income any wages earned for services by aliens performed in the United States, and self-employment income derived from a trade or business conducted in the United States, while the alien was not authorized to be so employed or to perform a function or service in such a trade or business.", "\"In 2013, an 18-year-old student visited Rohrabacher's office to discuss immigration reform.", "At some point their conversation became disagreeable, and the student said the congressman yelled at her: \"I hate illegals!\"", "He also allegedly threatened to deport her family.", "Rohrabacher's spokesperson has disputed both statements, averring that it was actually the student who started the confrontation by yelling at the spokesperson and telling her to \"butt out\".In September 2017, Rohrabacher supported the Trump administration's rescinding of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program, saying that those \"in Congress must work to prevent such cynical loopholes from being created again by executive fiat\" despite their possible empathy for the immigrants.The organization NumbersUSA has given Rep. Rohrabacher an A+ rating in accordance to his stance on illegal immigration.===LGBT issues===Rohrabacher has drawn controversy over his views on LGBT rights.", "He opposed same-sex marriage and endorsed Proposition 8, the ballot initiative in 2008 that would have prohibited same-sex marriage in California, during a debate at Orange Coast College, stating he \"would suggest not changing the definition of marriage in our society to make a small number of people feel more comfortable\".Rohrabacher voted in favor of the Federal Marriage Amendment in both 2004 and 2006, a proposed amendment to the U.S. Constitution that would have defined marriage as between a man and a woman and forbade states from recognizing or legalizing same-sex marriage.", "After the Supreme Court issued its decision in ''Hollingsworth v. Perry'' in 2013, that legalized same-sex marriage in California, Rohrabacher criticized the decision, stating that the decision was \"not based on the merits of the issue but on a technicality\".", "However, Rohrabacher has appeared to have endorsed the idea of leaving marriage to religious institutions only, stating on Twitter that churches should be solely responsible for conducting marriages but that the government should only recognize them.In May 2018, Rohrabacher provoked severe criticism after telling a meeting of the Orange County Association of Realtors that homeowners \"should be able to make a decision not to sell their home to someone (if) they don't agree with their lifestyle.\"", "Though the statement did not explicitly refer to LGBT people, it was widely interpreted as such.", "LGBT groups denounced Rohrabacher for the remarks, and the National Association of Realtors, which had previously donated to Rohrabacher's re-election campaigns, condemned Rohrabacher, halted all of its financial support for him and repudiated its past donations to him.", "After Rohrabacher's constituents unseated him in favor of Harley Rouda, ''The Advocate'' praised the results and condemned Rohrabacher.Despite criticism from the LGBT community later in his career, early in his political career, Rohrabacher supported a proposal by gays to move to a rural California county and take leadership roles.", "Rohrabacher's \"California Libertarian Alliance endorsed the project.", "'Your main resources are the freedom you offer plus the environment you are locating in,' Dana Rohrabacher, one of the libertarian group’s founders and later speechwriter to then-President Reagan, wrote in a letter to GLF.", "'The economic goods are perfect for some kind of a combination ski gambling resort.'\"", "===Cannabis===Dana Rohrabacher (right) with Steven T. KuykendallRohrabacher supported the legalization of cannabis for both medical and recreational purposes.", "He spoke against the policy of cannabis prohibition as early as May 2013, calling it a \"colossal failure\" in an op-ed penned for the ''Orange County Register''.", "He further outlined his views in a May 2014 op-ed in ''National Review'', arguing that the prohibition of cannabis has incurred a number of undesirable costs upon free society, such as an increase in gang violence, soaring incarceration rates, unconstitutional seizure of private property through civil forfeiture, corruption and militarization of police forces, and negative impacts on minority communities and relationships with Latin-American countries.", "Rohrabacher has called on fellow Republicans to reconsider their stance towards cannabis, citing core conservative principles such as limited government, individual liberty, respect for the Tenth Amendment, and respect for the doctor–patient relationship that Rohrabacher says lend support to loosening current laws.", "He also notes conservative leaders such as Milton Friedman, William F. Buckley, and Grover Norquist that have espoused similar drug policy views.", "In April 2016, Rohrabacher announced his endorsement of California's Proposition 64, the Adult Use of Marijuana Act.Rohrabacher is a strong proponent of states' rights when it comes to cannabis policy.", "He has introduced the Rohrabacher–Farr amendment for a number of years beginning in 2003, to prohibit the Justice Department from spending funds to interfere with the implementation of state medical cannabis laws.", "The amendment passed the House for the first time in May 2014, becoming law in December 2014 as part of an omnibus spending bill.", "Additional legislation that Rohrabacher has introduced includes the Respect State Marijuana Laws Act and the Veterans Equal Access Act.", "Rohrabacher has called on the DEA / DOJ to remove cannabis from the list of Schedule I drugs.", "In February 2017, Rohrabacher co-founded the Congressional Cannabis Caucus – along with Reps. Don Young (R–AK), Jared Polis (D–CO), and Earl Blumenauer (D–OR) – to help advance policy change regarding cannabis at the federal level.", "Rohrabacher earned an \"A+\" rating from NORML for his voting record regarding cannabis-related matters.===Patent reform===Rohrabacher was an opponent of the America Invents Act, a bill that is attempting to change the current Patent System.", "Rohrabacher opposes changing from a \"first to invent system\" to a \"first to file system\" saying it \"hurts the little guy\".", "Rohrabacher commented: \"Make no mistake, 'first to file' weakens patent protection.", "It is likely to make vulnerable individual and small inventors, who don't have an army of lawyers on retainer.", "These 'little guys' have been the lifeblood of American progress and competitiveness for more than 200 years.", "Our system was designed to protect individual rights, and it has worked for all – not just the corporate elite.\"", "Rohrabacher went on to comment in a ''Politico'' op-ed: \"We're told this is necessary to harmonize with Japanese and European patent law.", "But those systems were established by elitists and economic shoguns interested in corporate power, not individual rights.", "\"===Space===Rohrabacher was chairman of the Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics from 1997 to January 2005 and has been active on space-related issues.", "In 2000, Space.com described Rohrabacher as \"a strident advocate for supremacy in space, a philosophy shaped along a winding road from libertarian activist to White House speech writer in the Reagan administration\".", "In 2007, Rohrabacher introduced a bill that would direct NASA to develop a strategy \"for deflecting and mitigating potentially hazardous near-Earth objects\".", "Rohrabacher has applauded the Apollo astronauts, calling them unofficial ambassadors.", "Rohrabacher stated \"I applaud their efforts and accomplishments over the past fifty years.", "And I encourage all Americans to join with me in thanking them for their accomplishments and for the international role they have played in serving as unofficial Ambassadors to the world on our behalf.", "\"On July 18, 2017, Rohrabacher asked a panel of space experts testifying before the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology if civilizations could have existed on Mars in the past.", "Kenneth Farley, a project scientist on NASA's Mars Rover 2020 Project, said: \"I would say that is extremely unlikely.", "\"===Tax reform===Rohrabacher voted against the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017.Despite efforts made by Republicans to change the bill to be more generous regarding cap deductions on new home mortgages, Rohrabacher remained staunch at voting nay on the bill, as the more than half of the new mortgages in his district are above the $750,000 cap.", "He stated on his Facebook page that \"Due to the pressure of several members like me, the bill was improved, but not enough for my constituents.", "\"===2020 presidential election===After leaving office, Rohrabacher participated in \"Stop the Steal\" rallies in support of Donald Trump.", "On January 6, 2021, Rohrabacher was filmed breaching a United States Capitol Police barricade during the January 6 United States Capitol attack, although he was not charged with an offense." ], [ "Post-congressional endeavors", "In May 2019, Rohrabacher announced his appointment to the advisory board of BudTrader.com, a company that provides cannabis-related advertising services." ], [ "Personal life", "Rohrabacher plays guitar for attendees at the 2016 Young Americans for Liberty California State ConventionRohrabacher has been married to his wife, Rhonda Carmony, since 1997.In 2004, they became parents of triplets.Rohrabacher is Protestant.", "He was described by the ''Los Angeles Times'' as \"an avid surfer\".", "Rohrabacher revealed in May 2016 that he uses a cannabis-infused topical rub to treat his arthritis pain, allowing him to sleep through the night.", "The product is legal under California state law, but remains a banned substance under federal law.In December 2018, a month after losing his bid for re-election, Rohrabacher announced that he intended to move to Maine and to write film scripts." ], [ "Electoral history" ], [ "See also", "* List of federal political scandals in the United States* Timeline of Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Planetary Defense, ''Baltimore Chronicle'', March 15, 2007" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "DARPA" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency''' ('''DARPA''') is a research and development agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military.Originally known as the '''Advanced Research Projects Agency''' ('''ARPA'''), the agency was created on February 7, 1958, by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957.By collaborating with academia, industry, and government partners, DARPA formulates and executes research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, often beyond immediate U.S. military requirements.", "''The Economist'' has called DARPA the agency \"that shaped the modern world,\" and said that \"Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine sits alongside weather satellites, GPS, drones, stealth technology, voice interfaces, the personal computer and the internet on the list of innovations for which DARPA can claim at least partial credit.\"", "Its track record of success has inspired governments around the world to launch similar research and development agencies.DARPA is independent of other military research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management.", "DARPA comprises approximately 220 government employees in six technical offices, including nearly 100 program managers, who together oversee about 250 research and development programs.The name of the organization first changed from its founding name, ARPA, to DARPA, in March 1972, changing back to ARPA in February 1993, then reverted to DARPA in March 1996.The agency's current director, appointed in March 2021, is Stefanie Tompkins." ], [ "Mission", ", their mission statement is \"to make pivotal investments in breakthrough technologies for national security\"." ], [ "History", "DARPA achievements for the past 50 years===Early history (1958–1969)===Virginia Square neighborhood of Arlington.", "The agency is currently located in a new building at 675 North Randolph St.The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was suggested by the President's Scientific Advisory Committee to President Dwight D. Eisenhower in a meeting called after the launch of Sputnik .", "ARPA was formally authorized by President Eisenhower in 1958 for the purpose of forming and executing research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, and able to reach far beyond immediate military requirements.", "The two relevant acts are the Supplemental Military Construction Authorization (Air Force) (Public Law 85-325) and Department of Defense Directive 5105.15, in February 1958.It was placed within the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) and counted approximately 150 people.", "Its creation was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U.S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology.", "Initial funding of ARPA was $520 million.", "ARPA's first director, Roy Johnson, left a $160,000 management job at General Electric for an $18,000 job at ARPA.", "Herbert York from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was hired as his scientific assistant.Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPA's funding were transferred to it.", "Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do \"high-risk\", \"high-gain\", \"far out\" basic research, a posture that was enthusiastically embraced by the nation's scientists and research universities.", "ARPA's second director was Brigadier General Austin W. Betts, who resigned in early 1961 and was succeeded by Jack Ruina who served until 1963.Ruina, the first scientist to administer ARPA, managed to raise its budget to $250 million.", "It was Ruina who hired J. C. R. Licklider as the first administrator of the Information Processing Techniques Office, which played a vital role in creation of ARPANET, the basis for the future Internet.Additionally, the political and defense communities recognized the need for a high-level Department of Defense organization to formulate and execute R&D projects that would expand the frontiers of technology beyond the immediate and specific requirements of the Military Services and their laboratories.", "In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a wide range of scientific disciplines that address the full spectrum of national security needs.From 1958 to 1965, ARPA's emphasis centered on major national issues, including space, ballistic missile defense, and nuclear test detection.", "During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the military space programs to the individual services.This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender (defense against ballistic missiles), Project Vela (nuclear test detection), and Project AGILE (counterinsurgency R&D) programs, and to begin work on computer processing, behavioral sciences, and materials sciences.", "The DEFENDER and AGILE programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radar, infrared sensing, and x-ray/gamma ray detection.ARPA at this point (1959) played an early role in Transit (also called NavSat) a predecessor to the Global Positioning System (GPS).", "\"Fast-forward to 1959 when a joint effort between DARPA and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory began to fine-tune the early explorers' discoveries.", "TRANSIT, sponsored by the Navy and developed under the leadership of Richard Kirschner at Johns Hopkins, was the first satellite positioning system.", "\"During the late 1960s, with the transfer of these mature programs to the Services, ARPA redefined its role and concentrated on a diverse set of relatively small, essentially exploratory research programs.", "The agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1972, and during the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, and tactical technologies.Concerning information processing, DARPA made great progress, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing.", "All modern operating systems rely on concepts invented for the Multics system, developed by a cooperation among Bell Labs, General Electric and MIT, which DARPA supported by funding Project MAC at MIT with an initial two-million-dollar grant.DARPA supported the evolution of the ARPANET (the first wide-area packet switching network), Packet Radio Network, Packet Satellite Network and ultimately, the Internet and research in the artificial intelligence fields of speech recognition and signal processing, including parts of Shakey the robot.", "DARPA also supported the early development of both hypertext and hypermedia.", "DARPA funded one of the first two hypertext systems, Douglas Engelbart's NLS computer system, as well as The Mother of All Demos.", "DARPA later funded the development of the Aspen Movie Map, which is generally seen as the first hypermedia system and an important precursor of virtual reality.===Later history (1970–1980)===The Mansfield Amendment of 1973 expressly limited appropriations for defense research (through ARPA/DARPA) only to projects with direct military application.The resulting \"brain drain\" is credited with boosting the development of the fledgling personal computer industry.", "Some young computer scientists left the universities to startups and private research laboratories such as Xerox PARC.Between 1976 and 1981, DARPA's major projects were dominated by air, land, sea, and space technology, tactical armor and anti-armor programs, infrared sensing for space-based surveillance, high-energy laser technology for space-based missile defense, antisubmarine warfare, advanced cruise missiles, advanced aircraft, and defense applications of advanced computing.Many of the successful programs were transitioned to the Services, such as the foundation technologies in automatic target recognition, space-based sensing, propulsion, and materials that were transferred to the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO), later known as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO), now titled the Missile Defense Agency (MDA).===Recent history (1981–present)===During the 1980s, the attention of the Agency was centered on information processing and aircraft-related programs, including the National Aerospace Plane (NASP) or Hypersonic Research Program.", "The Strategic Computing Program enabled DARPA to exploit advanced processing and networking technologies and to rebuild and strengthen relationships with universities after the Vietnam War.", "In addition, DARPA began to pursue new concepts for small, lightweight satellites (LIGHTSAT) and directed new programs regarding defense manufacturing, submarine technology, and armor/anti-armor.In 1981, two engineers, Robert McGhee and Kenneth Waldron, started to develop the Adaptive Suspension Vehicle (ASV) nicknamed the \"Walker\" at the Ohio State University, under a research contract from DARPA.", "The vehicle was 17 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 10.5 feet high, and had six legs to support its three-ton aluminum body, in which it was designed to carry cargo over difficult terrains.", "However, DARPA lost interest in the ASV, after problems with cold-weather tests.On February 4, 2004, the agency shut down its so called \"LifeLog Project\".", "The project's aim would have been, \"to gather in a single place just about everything an individual says, sees or does\".On October 28, 2009, the agency broke ground on a new facility in Arlington County, Virginia a few miles from The Pentagon.In fall 2011, DARPA hosted the 100-Year Starship Symposium with the aim of getting the public to start thinking seriously about interstellar travel.On June 5, 2016, NASA and DARPA announced that it planned to build new X-planes with NASA's plan setting to create a whole series of X planes over the next 10 years.Between 2014 and 2016, DARPA shepherded the first machine-to-machine computer security competition, the Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC),bringing a group of top-notch computer security experts to search for security vulnerabilities, exploit them, and create fixes that patch those vulnerabilities in a fully automated fashion.", "It is one of DARPA prize competitions to spur innovations.", "In June 2018, DARPA leaders demonstrated a number of new technologies that were developed within the framework of the GXV-T program.", "The goal of this program is to create a lightly armored combat vehicle of not very large dimensions, which, due to maneuverability and other tricks, can successfully resist modern anti-tank weapon systems.In September 2020, DARPA and the US Air Force announced that the Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC) are ready for free-flight tests within the next year.Victoria Coleman became the director of DARPA in November 2020.In recent years, DARPA officials have contracted out core functions to corporations.", "For example, during fiscal year 2020, Chenega ran physical security on DARPA's premises, System High Corp. carried out program security, and Agile Defense ran unclassified IT services.", "General Dynamics runs classified IT services.", "Strategic Analysis Inc. provided support services regarding engineering, science, mathematics, and front office and administrative work.File:01 The Formative Years 1958 - 1975 (DARPA history).ogv\|The formative years(1958–1975)File:02 - The Cold War Era 1975 - 1989 (DARPA history).ogv\|The Cold War era(1975–1989)File:03 - The Post-Soviet Years 1989 - Present 2008 (DARPA history).ogv\|The Post-Soviet years(1989–present)" ], [ "Organization", "===Current program offices===DARPA has six technical offices that manage the agency's research portfolio, and two additional offices that manage special projects.", "All offices report to the DARPA director, including:* The Aerospace Projects Office (APO) DARPA launched the Aerospace Projects Office (APO) in 2015 in response to a new Defense Department initiative, the Aerospace Innovation Initiative (AII), which aims to ensure that the United States can maintain air dominance in future contested environments.", "The AII includes a new program, AII-X, tasked with designing and demonstrating advanced aircraft technologies.", "The AII-X program is being led by DARPA, and the APO is its home.", "* The Adaptive Capabilities Offices (ACO) The Adaptive Capabilities Office (ACO), works in close partnership with the military services to focus on pathways to address critical national security challenges.", "ACO is defining architectural solutions that combine emerging technologies with new warfighting constructs to address challenges in contested environments.", "These architectures will be vetted with a combination of modeling and simulation and a robust campaign of experimentation in order to realize new doctrine, concepts of operations, and technologies that will enable joint, highly integrated capability sets.", "* The Defense Sciences Office (DSO): DSO identifies and pursues high-risk, high-payoff research initiatives across a broad spectrum of science and engineering disciplines and transforms them into important, new game-changing technologies for U.S. national security.", "Current DSO themes include novel materials and structures, sensing and measurement, computation and processing, enabling operations, collective intelligence, and global change.", "* The Information Innovation Office (I2O) aims to ensure U.S. technological superiority in all areas where information can provide a decisive military advantage.", "Some of the program managers in I2O are Stuart Wagner (as of September 2014), Steve Jameson (as of August 2014), Angelos Keromytis (as of July 2014), David Doermann (as of April 2014), and Brian Pierce (prior to September 2018).", "As of August 2021, William Scherlis is currently the office director.", "* The Microsystems Technology Office (MTO) core mission is the development of high-performance, intelligent microsystems and next-generation components to ensure U.S. dominance in Command, Control, Communications, Computer, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C4ISR), Electronic Warfare (EW), and Directed Energy (DE).", "The effectiveness, survivability, and lethality of systems that relate to these applications depend critically on microsystems and components.", "* The Strategic Technology Office (STO) mission is to focus on technologies that have a global theater-wide impact and that involve multiple Services.", "* The Tactical Technology Office (TTO) engages in high-risk, high-payoff advanced military research, emphasizing the \"system\" and \"subsystem\" approach to the development of aeronautic, space, and land systems as well as embedded processors and control systems* The Biological Technologies Office (BTO) fosters, demonstrates, and transitions breakthrough fundamental research, discoveries, and applications that integrate biology, engineering, and computer science for national security.", "Created in April 2014 by then director Arati Prabhakar, taking programs from the MTO and DSO offices.===Former offices===* The Adaptive Execution Office (AEO) was created in 2009 by the DARPA Director, Regina Dugan.", "The office's four project areas included technology transition, assessment, rapid productivity and adaptive systems.", "AEO provided the agency with robust connections to the warfighter community and assisted the agency with the planning and execution of technology demonstrations and field trials to promote adoption by the warfighter, accelerating the transition of new technologies into DoD capabilities.", "* Information Awareness Office: 2002–2003* The Advanced Technology Office (ATO) researched, demonstrated, and developed high payoff projects in maritime, communications, special operations, command and control, and information assurance and survivability mission areas.", "* The Special Projects Office (SPO) researched, developed, demonstrated, and transitioned technologies focused on addressing present and emerging national challenges.", "SPO investments ranged from the development of enabling technologies to the demonstration of large prototype systems.", "SPO developed technologies to counter the emerging threat of underground facilities used for purposes ranging from command-and-control, to weapons storage and staging, to the manufacture of weapons of mass destruction.", "SPO developed significantly more cost-effective ways to counter proliferated, inexpensive cruise missiles, UAVs, and other platforms used for weapon delivery, jamming, and surveillance.", "SPO invested in novel space technologies across the spectrum of space control applications including rapid access, space situational awareness, counterspace, and persistent tactical grade sensing approaches including extremely large space apertures and structures.", "* The Office of Special Development (OSD) in the 1960s developed a real-time remote sensing, monitoring, and predictive activity system on trails used by insurgents in Laos, Cambodia, and the Republic of Vietnam.", "This was done from an office in Bangkok, Thailand, that was ostensibly established to catalog and support the Thai fishing fleet, of which two volumes were published.", "This is a personal recollection without a published citation.", "A report on the ARPA group under which OSD operated is found here.", "A 1991 reorganization created several offices which existed throughout the early 1990s:* The Electronic Systems Technology Office combined areas of the Defense Sciences Office and the Defense Manufacturing Office.", "This new office will focus on the boundary between general-purpose computers and the physical world, such as sensors, displays and the first few layers of specialized signal-processing that couple these modules to standard computer interfaces.", "* The Software and Intelligent Systems Technology Office and the Computing Systems office will have responsibility associated with the Presidential High-Performance Computing Initiative.", "The Software office will also be responsible for \"software systems technology, machine intelligence and software engineering.", "\"* The Land Systems Office was created to develop advanced land vehicle and anti-armor systems, once the domain of the Tactical Technology Office.", "* The Undersea Warfare Office combined areas of the Advanced Vehicle Systems and Tactical Technology offices to develop and demonstrate submarine stealth and counter-stealth and automation.A 2010 reorganization merged two offices:* The Transformational Convergence Technology Office (TCTO) mission was to advance new crosscutting capabilities derived from a broad range of emerging technological and social trends, particularly in areas related to computing and computing-reliant subareas of the life sciences, social sciences, manufacturing, and commerce.", "The TCTO was folded into the I2O in 2010.", "* The Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) focused on inventing the networking, computing, and software technologies vital to ensuring DOD military superiority.", "The IPTO was combined with TCTO in 2010 to form the I2O." ], [ "Projects", "A list of DARPA's active and archived projects is available on the agency's website.", "Because of the agency's fast pace, programs constantly start and stop based on the needs of the U.S. government.", "Structured information about some of the DARPA's contracts and projects is publicly available.DARPA publishes a list of current research programs, and a list of archived programs.===Active projects===* AdvaNced airCraft Infrastructure-Less Launch And RecoverY X-Plane (ANCILLARY) (2022): The program is to develop and demonstrate a vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) plane that can launch without the supporting infrastructure, with low-weight, high-payload, and long-endurance capabilities.", "In June 2023, DARPA selected nine companies to produce initial operational system and demonstration system conceptual designs for an uncrewed aerial system (UAS).", "* AI Cyber Challenge (AIxCC) (2023): It is a two-year competition to identify and fix software vulnerabilities using AI in partnership with Anthropic, Google, Microsoft, and OpenAI which will provide their expertise and their platforms for this competition.", "There will be a semifinal phase and the final phase.", "Both competitions will be held at DEF CON in Las Vegas in 2024 and 2025, respectively.", "Air Space Total Awareness for Rapid Tactical Execution (ASTARTE) (2020): The program is conducted in partnership with the Army and Air Force on sensors, artificial intelligence algorithms, and virtual testing environments in order to create an understandable common operating picture when troops are spread out across battlefieldsAtmospheric Water Extraction (AWE) program* Biomanufacturing: Survival, Utility, and Reliability beyond Earth (B-SURE) (2021): This program aims to address foundational scientific questions to determine how well industrial bio-manufacturing microorganisms perform in space conditions.", "International Space Station (ISS) announced in April 2023 that Rhodium-DARPA Biomanufacturing 01 investigation was launched on SpaceX, and ISS crew members are carrying out this project which examines gravity's effect on production of drugs and nutrients from bacteria and yeast.", "* Big Mechanism: Cancer research.", "(2015) The program aims to develop technology to read research abstracts and papers to extract pieces of causal mechanisms, assemble these pieces into more complete causal models, and reason over these models to produce explanations.", "The domain of the program is cancer biology with an emphasis on signaling pathways.", "It has a successor program called World Modelers.", "Binary structure inference system: extract software properties from binary code to support repository-based reverse engineering for micro-patching that minimizes lifecycle maintenance and costs (2020).", " Blackjack (2017): a program to develop and test military satellite constellation technologies with a variety of \"military-unique sensors and payloads attached to commercial satellite buses.", "...as an 'architecture demonstration intending to show the high military utility of global LEO constellations and mesh networks of lower size, weight, and cost spacecraft nodes.'", "...", "The idea is to demonstrate that 'good enough' payloads in LEO can perform military missions, augment existing programs, and potentially perform 'on par or better than currently deployed exquisite space systems.\"", "Blue Canyon Technologies, Raytheon, and SA Photonics Inc. were working on phases 2 and 3 as of fiscal year 2020.On June 12, 2023 DARPA launched four satellites for a technology demonstration in low Earth orbit on the SpaceX Transporter-8 rideshare.", "broadband, electro-magnetic spectrum receiver system: prototype and demonstration BlockADE: Rapidly constructed barrier.", "(2014)* Captive Air Amphibious Transporter (CAAT)* Causal Exploration of Complex Operational Environments (\"Causal Exploration\") – computerized aid to military planning.", "(2018)* Clean-Slate Design of Resilient, Adaptive, Secure Hosts (CRASH), a DARPA Transformation Convergence Technology Office (TCTO) initiative* Collaborative Operations in Denied Environment (CODE): Modular software architecture for UAVs to pass information to each other in contested environments to identify and engage targets with limited operator direction.", "(2015)Control of Revolutionary Aircraft with Novel Effectors (CRANE) (2019): The program seeks to demonstrate an experimental aircraft design based on active flow control (AFC), which is defined as on-demand addition of energy into a boundary layer in order to maintain, recover, or improve aerodynamic performance.", "The aim is for CRANE to generally improve aircraft performance and reliability while reducing cost.", "In May 2023, DARPA designated the experimental uncrewed aircraft the X-65 which will use banks of compressed air nozzles to execute maneuvers without traditional, exterior-moving flight controls.", " Computational Weapon Optic (CWO) (2015): Computer rifle scope that combines various features into one optic.", "* DARPA Triage Challenge (DTC) (2023): The DTC will use a series of challenge events to spur development of novel physiological features for medical triage.", "The three-year competition focuses on improving emergency medical response in military and civilian mass casualty incidents.", "* DARPA XG (2005) : technology for Dynamic Spectrum Access for assured military communications.", "Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations (DRACO) (2021): The program is to demonstrate a nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) in orbit by 2027 in collaboration with NASA (nuclear thermal engine) and U.S. Space Force (launch).", "Detection system consisting of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-based assays paired with reconfigurable point-of-need and massively multi-plexed devices for diagnostics and surveillanceElectronics Resurgence Initiative (ERI) (2019): Started in 2019, the initiative aims at both national security capabilities and commercial economic competitiveness and sustainability.", "These programs emphasize forward-looking partnerships with U.S. industry, the defense industrial base, and university researchers.", "In 2023, DARPA expanded ERI's focus with the announcement of ERI 2.0 seeking to reinvent domestic microelectronics manufacturing.", " Experimental Spaceplane 1 (formerly XS-1): In 2017, Boeing was selected for Phases 2 and 3 for the fabrication and flight of a reusable unmanned space transport after it completed the initial design in Phase 1 as one of the three teams.", "In January 2020, Boeing ended its role in the program.", "* Fast Lightweight Autonomy: Software algorithms that enable small UAVs to fly fast in cluttered environments without GPS or external communications.", "(2014)Fast Network Interface Cards (FastNICs): develop and integrate new, clean-slate network subsystems in order to speed up applications, such as the distributed training of machine learning classifiers by 100x.", "Perspecta Labs and Raytheon BBN were working on FastNICs as of fiscal year 2020.", " Force Application and Launch from Continental United States (FALCON): a research effort to develop a small satellite launch vehicle.", "(2008) This vehicle is under development by AirLaunch LLC.", "Gamma Ray Inspection Technology (GRIT) program: research and develop high-intensity, tunable, and narrow-bandwidth gamma ray production in compact, transportable form.", "This technology can be utilized for discovering smuggled nuclear material in cargo via new inspection techniques, and enabling new medical diagnostics and therapies.", "RadiaBeam Technologies LLC was working on a phase 1 of the program, Laser-Compton approach, in fiscal year 2020.", "Glide Breaker program: technology for an advanced interceptor capable of engaging maneuvering hypersonic vehicles or missiles in the upper atmosphere.", "Northrop Grumman and Aerojet Rocketdyne were working on this program as of fiscal year 2020.", "* Gremlins (2015): Air-launched and recoverable UAVs with distributed capabilities to provide low-cost flexibility over expensive multirole platforms.", "In October 2021, two X-61 Gremlin air vehicles were tested at the Army's Dugway Proving Ground, Utah.", "* Ground X-Vehicle Technology (GXV-T) (2015): This program aims to improve mobility, survivability, safety, and effectiveness of future combat vehicles without piling on armor.", "* High Productivity Computing Systems* High Operational Temperature Sensors (HOTS)(2023): The program is to develop sensor microelectronics consisting of transducers, signal conditioning microelectronics, and integration that operate with high bandwidth (>1 MHz) and dynamic range (>90 dB) at extreme temperatures (i.e., at least 800 °C).", "HIVE (Hierarchical Identify Verify Exploit) CPU architecture.", "(2017)Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC).", "This program is a joint DARPA/U.S.", "Air Force effort that seeks to develop and demonstrate critical technologies to enable an effective and affordable air-launched hypersonic cruise missile.", "Hypersonic Boost Glide Systems ResearchInsect Allies (2017–2021)* Integrated Sensor is Structure (ISIS): This was a joint DARPA and U.S. Air Force program to develop a sensor of unprecedented proportions to be fully integrated into a stratospheric airship.", "* Intelligent Integration of Information (I3) in SISTO, 1994–2000 – supported database research and with ARPA CISTO and NASA funded the NSF Digital Library program, that led.", "a.o.", "to Google.", "Joint All-Domain Warfighting Software (JAWS): software suite featuring automation and predictive analytics for battle management and command & control with tactical coordination for capture (\"target custody\") and kill missions.", "Systems & Technology Research of Woburn, Massachusetts, is working on this project, with an expected completion date of March 2022.Raytheon is also working on this project, with an expected completion date of April 2022.", "Lasers for Universal Microscale Optical Systems (LUMOS): integrate heterogeneous materials to bring high performance lasers and amplifiers to manufacturable photonics platforms.", "As of fiscal year 2020, the Research Foundation for the State University of New York (SUNY) was working to enable \"on-chip optical gain\" to integrated photonics platforms, and enable complete photonics functionality \"on a single substrate for disruptive optical microsystems.", "\"LongShot (2021): The program is to demonstrate an unmanned air-launched vehicle (UAV) capable of employing air-to-air weapons.", "Phase 1 design work started in early 2021.In June 2023, DARPA awarded a Phase 3 contract to General Atomics for the manufacturing and a flight demonstration in 2025 of an air-launched, flying and potentially recoverable missile carrier.", " Manta Ray (2020): The program is to develop a series of autonomous, large-size, unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs) capable of long-duration missions and having large payload capacities.", "In December 2021, DARPA awarded Phase 2 contracts to Northrop Grumman Systems Corporation and Martin Defense Group to work on subsystem testing followed by fabrication and in-water demonstrations of full-scale integrated vehicles.", "Media Forensics (MediFor): A project aimed at automatically spotting digital manipulation in images and videos, including Deepfakes.", "(2018).", "MediFor largely ended in 2020 and DARPA launched a follow-on program in 2021 called the semantic forensics, or SemaFor.", " MEMS Exchange: Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) Implementation Environment (MX)Millimeter-wave GaN Maturation (MGM) program: develop new GaN transistor technology to attain high-speed and large voltage swing at the same time.", "HRL Laboratories LLC, a joint venture between Boeing and General Motors, is working on phase 2 as of fiscal year 2020.", "Modular Optical Aperture Building Blocks (MOABB) program (2015): design free-space optical components (e.g., telescope, bulk lasers with mechanical beam-steering, detectors, electronics) in a single device.", "Create a wafer-scale system that is one hundred times smaller and lighter than existing systems and can steer the optical beam far faster than mechanical components.", "Research and design electronic-photonic unit cells that can be tiled together to form large-scale planar apertures (up to 10 centimeters in diameter) that can run at 100 watts of optical power.", "The overall goals of such technology are (1) rapid 3D scanning using devices smaller than a cell-phone camera; (2) high-speed laser communications without mechanical steering; (3) and foliage-penetrating perimeter sensing, remote wind sensing, and long-range 3-D mapping.", "As of fiscal year 2020, Analog Photonics LLC of Boston, Massachusetts, was working on phase 3 of the program and is expected to finish by May 2022.", "Multi- Azimuth Defense Fast Intercept Round Engagement System (MAD-FIRES) program: develop technologies that combine advantages of a missile (guidance, precision, accuracy) with advantages of a bullet (speed, rapid-fire, large ammunition capacity) to be used on a medium-caliber guided projectile in defending ships.", "Raytheon is currently working on MAD-FIRES phase 3 (enhance seeker performance, and develop a functional demonstration illuminator and engagement manager to engage and defeat a representative surrogate target) and is expected to be finished by November 2022.", " Near Zero Power RF and Sensor Operations (N-ZERO): Reducing or eliminating the standby power unattended ground sensors consume.", "(2015)* Neural implants for soldiers.", "(2014)Novel, nonsurgical, bi-directional brain-computer interface with high spacio-temporal resolution and low latency for potential human use.", "Open, Programmable, Secure 5G (OPS-5G) (2020): The program is to address security risks of 5G networks by pursuing research leading to the development of a portable standards-compliant network stack for 5G mobile that is open source and secure by design.", "OPS-5G seeks to create open source software and systems that enable secure 5G and subsequent mobile networks such as 6G.", "Operational Fires (OpFires): developing a new mobile ground-launched booster that helps hypersonic boost glide weapons penetrate enemy air defenses.", "As of 17 July 2020, Lockheed Martin was working on phase 3 of the program (develop propulsion components for the missile's Stage 2 section) to be completed by January 2022.The system was successfully tested in July 2022.", " Persistent Close Air Support (PCAS): DARPA created the program in 2010 to seek to fundamentally increase Close Air Support effectiveness by enabling dismounted ground agents—Joint Terminal Attack Controllers—and combat aircrews to share real-time situational awareness and weapons systems data.", "PREventing EMerging Pathogenic Threats (PREEMPT) QuASAR: Quantum Assisted Sensing and Readout* QuBE: Quantum Effects in Biological Environments* QUEST: Quantum Entanglement Science and Technology* Quiness: Macroscopic Quantum Communications* QUIST: Quantum Information Science and TechnologyRADICS: Rapid Attack Detection, Isolation and Characterization SystemsRational Integrated Design of Energetics (RIDE): developing tools that speed up and facilitate energetics research.", "Remote-controlled insects Robotic Servicing of Geosynchronous Satellites program (RSGS): a telerobotic and autonomous robotic satellite-servicing project, conceived in 2017.In 2020, DARPA selected Northrop Grumman's SpaceLogistics as its RSGS partner.", "The U.S.", "Naval Research Laboratory designed and developed the RSGS robotic arm with DARPA funding.", "The RSGS system is anticipated to start servicing satellites in space in 2025.", "* Robotic Autonomy in Complex Environments with Resiliency (RACER) (2020): This is a four-year program and aims to make sure algorithms aren't the limiting part of the system and that autonomous combat vehicles can meet or exceed soldier driving abilities'''.'''", "RACER conducted its third experiment to assess the performance of off-road unmanned vehicles March 12-27, 2023.", "* SafeGenes: a synthetic biology project to program \"undo\" sequences into gene editing programs (2016)* Sea Train (2019): The program goal is to develop and demonstrate ways to overcome range limitations in medium unmanned surface vessels by exploiting wave-making resistance reductions.", "Applied Physical Sciences Corp. of Groton, Connecticut, is undertaking Phase 1 of the Sea Train program, with an expected completion date of March 2022.Sea Train, NOMARS and Manta Ray are the three programs that could significantly impact naval operations by extending the range and payloads for unmanned vessels on and below the surface.", "Secure Advanced Framework for Simulation & Modeling (SAFE-SiM) program: build a rapid modeling and simulation environment to enable quick analysis in support of senior-level decision-making.", "As of fiscal year 2020, Radiance Technologies and L3Harris were working on portions of the program, with expected completion in August and September 2021, respectively.", "Securing Information for Encrypted Verification and Evaluation (SIEVE) program: use zero knowledge proofs to enable the verification of capabilities for the US military \"without revealing the sensitive details associated with those capabilities.\"", "Galois Inc. of Portland, Oregon, and Stealth Software Technologies of Los Angeles, California, are currently working on the SIEVE program, with a projected completion date of May 2024.", "* Semantic Forensics (SemaFor) program: develop technologies to automatically detect, attribute, and characterize falsified media (e.g., text, audio, image, video) to defend against automated disinformation.", "SRI International of Menlo Park, California, and Kitware Inc. of Clifton, New York, are working on the SemaFor program, with an expected completion date of July 2024.", "* Sensor plants: DARPA \"is working on a plan to use plants to gather intelligence information\" through DARPA's Advanced Plant Technologies (APT) program, which aims to control the physiology of plants in order to detect chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear threats.", "(2017)* Synthetic Hemo-technologIEs to Locate and Disinfect (SHIELD) (2023): The program aims to develop prophylaxes and prevent bloodstream infections (BSI) caused by bacterial/fungal agents, a threat to military and civilian populations.", "* SIGMA: A network of radiological detection devices the size of smart phones that can detect small amounts of radioactive materials.", "The devices are paired with larger detector devices along major roads and bridges.", "(2016)SIGMA+ program (2018): by building on concepts theorized in the SIGMA program, develop new sensors and analytics to detect small traces of explosives and chemical and biological weaponry throughout any given large metropolitan area.", "In October 2021, SIGMA+ program, in collaboration with the Indianapolis Metropolitan Police Department (IMPD), concluded a three-month-long pilot study with new sensors to support early detection and interdictions of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) threats.", " SoSITE: System of Systems Integration Technology and Experimentation: Combinations of aircraft, weapons, sensors, and mission systems that distribute air warfare capabilities across a large number of interoperable manned and unmanned platforms.", "(2015)SSITH: System Security Integrated Through Hardware and Firmware - secure hardware platform (2017); basis for open-source, hack-proof voting system project and 2019 system prototype contract SXCT: Squad X Core Technologies: Digitized, integrated technologies that improve infantry squads' awareness, precision, and influence.", "(2015)* SyNAPSE: Systems of Neuromorphic Adaptive Plastic Scalable Electronics* Tactical Boost Glide (TBG): Air-launched hypersonic boost glide missile.", "(2016)* Tactically Exploited Reconnaissance Node (Tern)(2014): The program seeks to develop ship based UAS systems and technologies to enable a future air vehicle that could provide persistent ISR and strike capabilities beyond the limited range and endurance provided by existing helicopter platforms.", "* TransApps (Transformative Applications), rapid development and fielding of secure mobile apps in the battlefield* ULTRA-Vis (Urban Leader Tactical Response, Awareness and Visualization): Heads-up display for individual soldiers.", "(2014)underwater network, heterogeneous: develop concepts and reconfigurable architecture, leveraging advancement in undersea communications and autonomous ocean systems, to demonstrate utility at sea.", "Raytheon BBN is currently working on this program, with work expected through 4 May 2021, though if the government exercises all options on the contract then work will continue through 4 February 2024.", " Upward Falling Payloads: Payloads stored on the ocean floor that can be activated and retrieved when needed.", "(2014)Urban Reconnaissance through Supervised Autonomy (URSA) program: develop technology for use in cities to enable autonomous systems that U.S. infantry and ground forces operate to detect and identify enemies before U.S. troops come across them.", "Program will factor in algorithms, multiple sensors, and scientific knowledge about human behavior to determine subtle differences between hostiles and innocent civilians.", "Soar Technology Inc. of Ann Arbor, Michigan, is currently working on pertinent vehicle autonomy technology, with work expected completed by March 2022.", " Warrior Web: Soft exosuit to alleviate musculoskeletal stress on soldiers when carrying heavy loads.", "(2014) * Waste Upcycling for Defense (WUD) (2023): to turn scrap wood, cardboard, paper, and other cellulose-derived matter into sustainable materials such as building materials for re-use.===Past or transitioned projects===* 4MM (4-minute mile): Wearable jetpack to enable soldiers to run at increased speed.", "* Air Dominance Initiative: a 2015 program to develop technologies to be used in sixth-generation jet fighters.", "The Air Dominance Initiative study led to the U.S. Air Force's sixth-generation air superiority initiative, the Next Generation Air Dominance.", "* Anti-submarine warfare (ASW) Continuous Trail Unmanned Vessel (ACTUV) (2010): A project to build an unmanned anti-submarine warfare vessel.", "* AGM-158C LRASM: Anti-ship cruise missile.", "* Adaptive Vehicle Make: Revolutionary approaches to the design, verification, and manufacturing of complex defense systems and vehicles.", "* ARPA Midcourse Optical Station (AMOS), a research facility that now forms part of the Haleakala Observatory.", "* ArcLight: Ship-based weapon system capable of striking targets nearly anywhere on the globe, based on the Standard Missile 3.", "* ARPANET, earliest predecessor of the Internet.", "* Assault Breaker: technology integration to defeat armored attacks* ASTOVL, precursor of the Joint Strike Fighter program* The Aspen Movie Map allowed one to virtually tour the streets of Aspen, Colorado.", "Developed in 1978, it is the earliest predecessor to products like Google Street View.", "* Atlas: A humanoid robot.", "* Battlefield Illusion* BigDog/Legged Squad Support System (2012): legged robots.", "* Boeing Pelican* Boeing X-37 (2004): The X-37 program was transferred from NASA to DARPA in September 2004.", "* The Boeing X-45 unmanned combat aerial vehicle refers to a mid-2000s concept demonstrator for autonomous military aircraft.", "* Boomerang (mobile shooter detection system): an acoustic gunfire locator developed by BBN Technologies for detecting snipers on military combat vehicles.", "* CALO or \"Cognitive Assistant that Learns and Organizes\": software* Combat Zones That See (CTS): \"track everything that moves\" in a city by linking up a massive network of surveillance cameras* Cognitive Technology Threat Warning System (CT2WS) (2011)* Consortium for Execution of Rendezvous and Servicing Operations (CONFERS) (2017).", "* CPOF: the command post of the future—networked information system for Command control.", "* DAML* ALASA: (Airborne Launch Assist Space Access): A rocket capable of launching a 100-pound satellite into low Earth orbit for less than $1 million.", "* FALCON* DARPA Grand Challenge: driverless car competitions* DARPA GXV-T: Ground X Vehicle * Hydra: Undersea network of mobile unmanned sensors.", "(2013)* DARPA Network Challenge (before 2010)* DARPA Shredder Challenge 2011 – Reconstruction of shredded documents* DARPA Silent Talk: A planned program attempting to identify EEG patterns for words and transmit these for covert communications.", "* DARPA Spectrum Challenge (2014)* DEFENDER* Defense Simulation Internet, a wide-area network supporting Distributed Interactive Simulation* Discoverer II radar satellite constellation* EATR* EXACTO: Sniper rifle firing guided smart bullets.", "* GALE: Global Autonomous Language Exploitation* High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP): An ionospheric research program jointly funded by DARPA, the U.S. Air Force's AFRL and the U.S. Navy's NRL.", "The most prominent area during this research was the high-power radio frequency transmitter facility, which tested the use of the Ionospheric Research Instrument (IRI).", "* High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System (HELLADS) The goal of the HELLADS program was to develop a 150 kilowatt (kW) laser weapon system.", "In 2015, DARPA's contractor, General Atomics, successfully demonstrated a prototype.", "In 2020, General Atomics and Boeing announced to develop a 100 kW liquid laser system, with plans to scale it up to 250 kW.", "* High Performance Knowledge Bases* HISSS* Human Universal Load Carrier: battery-powered human exoskeleton.", "* Hypersonic Research Program* Luke Arm, a DEKA creation produced under the Revolutionizing Prosthetics program.", "* MAHEM: Molten penetrating munition.", "* MEMEX (2014-2017): an online search tool to fight human trafficking crimes on the dark web.", "In 2016, DARPA Memex program received the 2016 Presidential Award for Extraordinary Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons for the development of the anti-trafficking technology tool.", "The program was named and inspired by the Vannevar Bush's hypothetical device described in his 1945 article.", "* MeshWorm: an earthworm-like robot.", "* Mind's Eye: A visual intelligence system capable of detecting and analyzing activity from video feeds.", "* MOSIS* MQ-1 Predator* Multics* Next Generation Tactical Wearable Night Vision: Smaller and lighter sunglass-sized night vision devices that can switch between different viewing bands.", "* NLS/Augment: the origin of the canonical contemporary computer user interface* Northrop Grumman Switchblade: an unmanned oblique-wing flying aircraft for high speed, long range and long endurance flight* One Shot: Sniper scope that automatically measures crosswind and range to ensure accuracy in field conditions.", "* Onion routing, a technique developed in the mid-1990s and later employed by Tor to anonymize communications over a computer network.", "* Passive radar* Phoenix: A 2012–early-2015 satellite project with the aim to recycle retired satellite parts into new on-orbit assets.", "The project was initiated in July 2012 with plans for system launches no earlier than 2016.At the time, Satlet tests in low Earth orbit were projected to occur as early as 2015.", "* Policy Analysis Market, evaluating the trading of information futures contracts based on possible political developments in several Middle Eastern countries.", "An application of prediction markets.", "* POSSE* Project AGILE, a Vietnam War-era investigation into methods of remote, asymmetric warfare for use in conflicts with Communist insurgents.", "* Project MAC* Proto 2: a thought-controlled prosthetic arm* Rapid Knowledge Formation* Sea Shadow* SIMNET: Wide area network with vehicle simulators and displays for real-time distributed combat simulation: tanks, helicopters and airplanes in a virtual battlefield.", "* System F6—''Future, Fast, Flexible, Fractionated Free-flying Spacecraft United by Information Exchange''—technology demonstrator: a 2006–2012 * I3 (Intelligent Integration of Information), supported the Digital Library research effort through NSF* Strategic Computing Program* Synthetic Aperture Ladar for Tactical Applications (SALTI)* XOS: powered military exoskeleton $226 million technology development program.", "Cancelled in 2013 before the notionally planned 2015 launch date.", "* SURAN (1983–87)* Project Vela (1963)* UAVForge (2011)* Vertical Take-Off and Landing Experimental Aircraft (VTOL X-Plane) (2013)* Viet Cong Motivation and Morale Project (1964-1968)* Vulture: Long endurance, high-altitude unmanned aerial vehicle.", "* VLSI Project (1978) – Its offspring include BSD Unix, the RISC processor concept, many CAD tools still in use today.", "* Walrus HULA: high-capacity, long range cargo airship.", "* Wireless Network after Next (WNaN), advanced tactical mobile ad hoc network* WolfPack (2010)* XDATA: Processing and analyzing vast amounts of information.", "(2012)* Rockwell-MBB X-31* Grumman X-29" ], [ "Notable fiction", "DARPA is well known as a high-tech government agency, and as such has many appearances in popular fiction.", "Some realistic references to DARPA in fiction are as \"ARPA\" in ''Tom Swift and the Visitor from Planet X'' (DARPA consults on a technical threat), in episodes of television program ''The West Wing'' (the ARPA-DARPA distinction), the television program ''Numb3rs'', and the Netflix film ''Spectral''.==See also==* Air Force Nuclear Weapons Center (NWC)* Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL)* Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy (ARPA-E)* Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health (ARPA-H)* Advanced Research Projects Agency–Infrastructure (ARPA-I) * Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC)* Homeland Security Advanced Research Projects Agency (HSARPA)* Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA)Joint European Disruptive Initiative (JEDI) Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL or LBL)* Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL)* Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL)* Marine Corps Combat Development Command (MCCDC)* Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake (NAWS)* Naval Research Laboratory (NRL)* Office of Naval Research (ONR)* Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL)* Sandia National Laboratories (SNL)* United States Army Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC)* United States Army Research, Development and Engineering Command (RDECOM) * United States Army Research Laboratory (ARL)* United States Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory (MCWL)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* '' The Advanced Research Projects Agency, 1958-1974 '', Barber Associates, December 1975.", "* '' DARPA Technical Accomplishments: 1958-1990 '', Volumes 1–3, Richard H. Van Atta, Sidney G. Reed, Seymour J. Deitchman, et al., Institute for Defense Analyses, January 1990 - March 1991.", "* William Saletan writes of Belfiore's book that \"His tone is reverential and at times breathless, but he captures the agency's essential virtues: boldness, creativity, agility, practicality and speed.\"", "()* Castell, Manuel, ''The Network Society: A Cross-cultural Perspective'', Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham, UK, 2004.", "* Jacobsen, Annie, * * * * Weinberger, Sharon, ''The Imagineers of War: The Untold Story of DARPA, the Pentagon Agency that Changed the World'', New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 2017, ." ], [ "External links", "* DARPA Home Page* www.darpa.org, 8 May 1999* Ongoing Research Programs* Declassified DARPA documents, OSD & Joint Staff FOIA Service * DARPA FY2015 Research Program * Breakthrough Technologies for National Security DARPA March 2015 (approved for public release, distribution unlimited)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dunstan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dunstan''', OSB ( – 19 May 988) was an English bishop.", "He was successively Abbot of Glastonbury Abbey, Bishop of Worcester, Bishop of London and Archbishop of Canterbury, later canonised.", "His work restored monastic life in England and reformed the English Church.", "His 11th-century biographer Osbern, himself an artist and scribe, states that Dunstan was skilled in \"making a picture and forming letters\", as were other clergy of his age who reached senior rank.Dunstan served as an important minister of state to several English kings.", "He was the most popular saint in England for nearly two centuries, having gained fame for the many stories of his greatness, not least among which were those concerning his famed cunning in defeating the Devil." ], [ "Early life (909–943)", "===Birth and relatives===According to Dunstan's earliest biographer, known only as 'B', his parents were called Heorstan and Cynethryth and they lived near Glastonbury.", "B states that Dunstan was \"''oritur''\" in the days of King Æthelstan, 924 to 939.", "\"''Oritur''\" has often been taken to mean \"born\", but this is unlikely as another source states that he was ordained during Æthelstan's reign, and he would have been under the minimum age of 30 if he was born no earlier than 924.It is more likely that \"''oritur''\" should be taken as \"emerged\", and that he was born around 910.B states that he was related to Ælfheah the Bald, the Bishop of Winchester and Cynesige, Bishop of Lichfield.", "According to a later biographer, Adelard of Ghent, he was a nephew of Athelm, Archbishop of Canterbury, but this is less certain as it is not mentioned by B, who should have known as he had been a member of Dunstan's household.===School to the king's court===As a young boy, Dunstan studied under the Irish monks who then occupied the ruins of Glastonbury Abbey.", "Accounts tell of his youthful optimism and of his vision of the abbey being restored.", "While still a boy, Dunstan was stricken with a near-fatal illness and effected a seemingly miraculous recovery.", "Even as a child, he was noted for his devotion to learning and for his mastery of many kinds of artistic craftsmanship.", "With his parents' consent he was tonsured, received minor orders and served in the ancient church of St Mary.", "He became so well known for his devotion to learning that he is said to have been summoned by Athelm to enter his service.", "He was later appointed to the court of King Æthelstan.Dunstan playing his harp as the Devil is paying a visitDunstan soon became a favourite of the king and was the envy of other members of the court.", "A plot was hatched to disgrace him and Dunstan was accused of being involved with witchcraft and black magic.", "The king ordered him to leave the court and as Dunstan was leaving the palace his enemies physically attacked him, beat him severely, bound him, and threw him into a cesspool.", "He managed to crawl out and make his way to the house of a friend.", "From there, he journeyed to Winchester and entered the service of Ælfheah, Bishop of Winchester.The bishop tried to persuade him to become a monk, but Dunstan was doubtful whether he had a vocation to a celibate life.", "The answer came in the form of an attack of swelling tumours all over Dunstan's body.", "This ailment was so severe that it was thought to be leprosy.", "It was more probably some form of blood poisoning caused by being beaten and thrown in the cesspool.", "Whatever the cause, it changed Dunstan's mind.", "He took Holy Orders in 943, in the presence of Ælfheah, and returned to live the life of a hermit at Glastonbury.", "Against the old church of St Mary he built a small cell long and deep.", "It was there that Dunstan studied, worked at his art, and played on his harp.", "It is at this time, according to a late 11th-century legend, that the Devil is said to have tempted Dunstan and to have been held by the face with Dunstan's tongs." ], [ "Monk and abbot (943–957)", "===Life as a monk===Possibly Dunstan praying before ChristDunstan worked as a silversmith and in the scriptorium while he was living at Glastonbury.", "It is thought likely that he was the artist who drew the well-known image of Christ with a small kneeling monk beside him in the ''Glastonbury Classbook'', \"one of the first of a series of outline drawings which were to become a special feature of Anglo-Saxon art of this period.\"", "Dunstan became famous as a musician, illuminator, and metalworker.", "Lady Æthelflæd, King Æthelstan's niece, made Dunstan a trusted adviser and on her death, she left a considerable fortune to him.", "He used this money later in life to foster and encourage a monastic revival in England.", "About the same time, his father Heorstan died and Dunstan inherited his fortune as well.", "He became a person of great influence, and on the death of King Æthelstan in 940, the new King, Edmund, summoned him to his court at Cheddar and made him a minister.Again, royal favour fostered jealousy among other courtiers and again Dunstan's enemies succeeded in their plots.", "The King was prepared to send Dunstan away.", "There were then at Cheddar certain envoys from the \"Eastern Kingdom\", which probably meant East Anglia.", "Dunstan implored the envoys to take him with them when they returned to their homes.", "They agreed to do so, but it never happened.", "The story is recorded:===Abbot of Glastonbury===Dunstan, now Abbot of Glastonbury, went to work at once on the task of reform.", "He had to re-create monastic life and to rebuild the abbey.", "He began by establishing Benedictine monasticism at Glastonbury.", "The Rule of St. Benedict was the basis of his restoration according to the author of 'Edgar's Establishment of the Monasteries' (written in the 960s or 970s) and according to Dunstan's first biographer, who had been a member of the community at Glastonbury.", "Their statements are also in accordance with the nature of his first measures as abbot, with the significance of his first buildings, and with the Benedictine leanings of his most prominent disciples.Nevertheless, not all the members of Dunstan's community at Glastonbury were monks who followed the Benedictine Rule.", "In fact, Dunstan's first biographer, 'B.", "', was a cleric who eventually joined a community of canons at Liège after leaving Glastonbury.choir of Glastonbury Abbey churchDunstan's first care was to rebuild the Church of St. Peter, rebuild the cloister, and re-establish the monastic enclosure.", "The secular affairs of the house were committed to his brother, Wulfric, \"so that neither himself nor any of the professed monks might break enclosure.\"", "A school for the local youth was founded and soon became the most famous of its time in England.", "A substantial extension of the irrigation system on the surrounding Somerset Levels was also completed.Within two years of Dunstan's appointment, in 946, King Edmund was assassinated.", "His successor was Eadred.", "The policy of the new government was supported by the Queen mother, Eadgifu of Kent, by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Oda, and by the East Anglian nobles, at whose head was the powerful ealdorman Æthelstan the \"Half-king\".", "It was a policy of unification and conciliation with the Danish half of the kingdom.", "The goal was a firm establishment of royal authority.", "In ecclesiastical matters it favoured the spread of Catholic observance, the rebuilding of churches, the moral reform of the clergy and laity, and the end of the religion of the Danes in England.Against all these reforms were the nobles of Wessex, who included most of Dunstan's own relatives, and who had an interest in maintaining established customs.", "For nine years Dunstan's influence was dominant, during which time he twice refused the office of bishop (that of Winchester in 951 and Crediton in 953), affirming that he would not leave the king's side so long as the king lived and needed him.===Changes in fortune===King Eadwig's reign was marred by conflicts with his family and with Dunstan.In 955, Eadred died, and the situation was at once changed.", "Eadwig, the elder son of Edmund, who then came to the throne, was a headstrong youth wholly devoted to the reactionary nobles.", "According to one legend, the feud with Dunstan began on the day of Eadwig's coronation, when he failed to attend a meeting of nobles.", "When Dunstan eventually found the young monarch, he was cavorting with a noblewoman named Ælfgifu and her mother, and refused to return with the bishop.", "Infuriated by this, Dunstan dragged Eadwig back and forced him to renounce the girl as a \"strumpet\".", "Later realising that he had provoked the king, Dunstan fled to the apparent sanctuary of his cloister, but Eadwig, incited by Ælfgifu, whom he married, followed him and plundered the monastery.Although Dunstan managed to escape, he saw that his life was in danger.", "He fled England and crossed the channel to Flanders, where he found himself ignorant of the language and of the customs of the locals.", "The count of Flanders, Arnulf I, received him with honour and lodged him in the Abbey of Mont Blandin, near Ghent.", "This was one of the centres of the Benedictine revival in that country, and Dunstan was able for the first time to observe the strict observance that had seen its rebirth at Cluny at the beginning of the century.", "His exile was not of long duration.", "Before the end of 957, the Mercians and Northumbrians revolted and drove out Eadwig, choosing his brother Edgar as king of the country north of the Thames.", "The south remained faithful to Eadwig.", "At once Edgar's advisers recalled Dunstan." ], [ "Bishop and archbishop (957–978)", "===Bishop of Worcester and of London===On Dunstan's return, Archbishop Oda consecrated him a bishop and, on the death of Coenwald of Worcester at the end of 957, Oda appointed Dunstan to the see.In the following year the see of London became vacant and was conferred on Dunstan, who held it simultaneously with Worcester.", "In October 959, Eadwig died and his brother Edgar was readily accepted as ruler of Wessex.", "One of Eadwig's final acts had been to appoint a successor to Archbishop Oda, who died on 2 June 958.The chosen candidate was Ælfsige of Winchester, but he died of cold in the Alps as he journeyed to Rome for the pallium.", "In his place Eadwig then nominated the Bishop of Wells, Byrhthelm.", "As soon as Edgar became king, he reversed this second choice on the ground that Byrhthelm had not been able to govern even his first diocese properly.", "The archbishopric was then conferred on Dunstan.===Archbishop of Canterbury===Theological manuscript from Glastonbury Abbey (Bodleian Library):''Abbot Dunstan ordered the writing of this book''.Dunstan went to Rome in 960, and received the pallium from Pope John XII.", "On his journey there, Dunstan's acts of charity were so lavish as to leave nothing for himself and his attendants.", "His steward complained, but Dunstan seems to have suggested that they trust in Jesus Christ.On his return from Rome, Dunstan at once regained his position as virtual prime minister of the kingdom.", "By his advice Ælfstan was appointed to the Bishopric of London, and Oswald to that of Worcester.", "In 963, Æthelwold, the Abbot of Abingdon, was appointed to the See of Winchester.", "With their aid and with the ready support of King Edgar, Dunstan pushed forward his reforms in the English Church.", "The monks in his communities were taught to live in a spirit of self-sacrifice, and Dunstan actively enforced the law of celibacy whenever possible.", "He forbade the practices of simony (selling ecclesiastical offices for money) and ended the custom of clerics appointing relatives to offices under their jurisdiction.", "Monasteries were built, and in some of the great cathedrals, monks took the place of the secular canons; in the rest the canons were obliged to live according to rule.", "The parish priests were compelled to be qualified for their office; they were urged to teach parishioners not only the truths of the Christian faith, but also trades to improve their position.", "The state saw reforms as well.", "Good order was maintained throughout the realm and there was respect for the law.", "Trained bands policed the north, and a navy guarded the shores from Viking raids.", "There was a level of peace in the kingdom unknown in living memory.In 973, Dunstan's statesmanship reached its zenith when he officiated at the coronation of King Edgar.", "Edgar was crowned at Bath in an imperial ceremony planned not as the initiation, but as the culmination of his reign (a move that must have taken a great deal of preliminary diplomacy).", "This service, devised by Dunstan himself and celebrated with a poem in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' forms the basis of the present-day British coronation ceremony.", "There was a second symbolic coronation held later.", "This was an important step, as other kings of Britain came and gave their allegiance to Edgar at Chester.", "Six kings in Britain, including the kings of Scotland and of Strathclyde, pledged their faith that they would be the king's liege-men on sea and land.Edgar ruled as a strong and popular king for 16 years.", "Edgar's reign, and implicitly his governing partnership with Dunstan, was praised by early chroniclers and historians who regarded it as a golden age.", "The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' caveated the acclaim with one complaint, criticising the high level of immigration that took place at that time.", "It would appear from William of Malmesbury's later history that the objection was limited to the mercenary seaman, employed from around the North Sea littoral, to assist in the defence of the country.In 975, Edgar was succeeded by his eldest son Edward \"the Martyr\".", "His accession was disputed by his stepmother, Ælfthryth, who wished her own son Æthelred to reign.", "Through the influence of Dunstan, Edward was chosen and crowned at Winchester.", "Edgar's death had encouraged the reactionary nobles, and at once there was a determined attack upon the monks, the protagonists of reform.", "Throughout Mercia they were persecuted and deprived of their possessions.", "Their cause, however, was supported by Æthelwine, the ealdorman of East Anglia, and the realm was in serious danger of civil war.", "Three meetings of the Witan were held to settle these disputes, at Kyrtlington, at Calne, and at Amesbury.", "At the second of them the floor of the hall where the Witan was sitting gave way, and all except Dunstan, who clung to a beam, fell into the room below; several men were killed." ], [ "Final years (978–88)", "In March 978, King Edward was assassinated at Corfe Castle, possibly at the instigation of his stepmother, and Æthelred the Unready became king.", "His coronation on Low Sunday 31 March 978 was the last state event in which Dunstan took part.", "According to William of Malmsesbury, writing over a century later, when the young king took the usual oath to govern well, Dunstan addressed him in solemn warning.", "He criticised the violent act whereby he became king and prophesied the misfortunes that were shortly to fall on the kingdom, but Dunstan's influence at court was ended.", "Dunstan retired to Canterbury, to teach at the cathedral school.Only three more public acts are known.", "In 980, Dunstan joined Ælfhere of Mercia in the solemn translation of the relics of King Edward, soon to be regarded as a saint, from their grave at Wareham to a shrine at Shaftesbury Abbey.", "In 984, in obedience to a vision of Andrew the Apostle, he persuaded King Æthelred to appoint Ælfheah as Bishop of Winchester in succession to Æthelwold.", "In 986, Dunstan induced the king, by a donation of 100 pounds of silver, to stop his persecution of the See of Rochester.Dunstan's retirement at Canterbury consisted of long hours, both day and night, spent in private prayer, as well as his regular attendance at Mass and the daily office.", "He visited the shrines of St Augustine and St Æthelberht, and there are reports of a vision of angels who sang to him heavenly canticles.", "He worked to improve the spiritual and temporal well-being of his people, to build and restore churches, to establish schools, to judge suits, to defend widows and orphans, to promote peace, and to enforce respect for purity.", "He practised his crafts, made bells and organs and corrected the books in the cathedral library.", "He encouraged and protected European scholars who came to England, and was active as a teacher of boys in the cathedral school.", "On the vigil of Ascension Day 988, it is recorded that a vision of angels warned he would die in three days.", "On the feast day itself, Dunstan said Mass and preached three times to the people: at the Gospel, at the benediction, and after the Agnus Dei.", "In this last address, he announced his impending death and wished his congregation well.", "That afternoon he chose the spot for his tomb, then went to his bed.", "His strength failed rapidly, and on Saturday morning, 19 May, he caused the clergy to assemble.", "Mass was celebrated in his presence, then he received Extreme Unction and the Viaticum, and died.", "Dunstan's final words are reported to have been, \"He hath made a remembrance of his wonderful works, being a merciful and gracious Lord: He hath given food to them that fear Him.", "\"The English people accepted him as a saint shortly thereafter.", "He was formally canonised in 1029.That year at the Synod of Winchester, St Dunstan's feast was ordered to be kept solemnly throughout England." ], [ "Legacy", "Until Thomas Becket's fame overshadowed Dunstan's, he was the favourite saint of the English people.", "Dunstan had been buried in his cathedral.", "In 1180 his relics were translated to a tomb on the south side of the high altar, when that building was restored after being partially destroyed by a fire in 1174.The monks of Glastonbury used to claim that during the sack of Canterbury by the Danes in 1012, Dunstan's body had been carried for safety to their abbey.", "This story was disproved by Archbishop William Warham, who opened the tomb at Canterbury in 1508.They found Dunstan's relics still to be there.", "Within a century, however, his shrine was destroyed during the English Reformation.===Patronage and feast day===Dunstan became patron saint of English goldsmiths and silversmiths because he worked as a silversmith making church plate.", "The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church mark his feast day on 19 May.", "Dunstan is also honoured in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 19 May.In 2023, a pastoral area of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Clifton was named in honour of Dunstan.===In literature and folklore===English literature contains many references to him: for example, in ''A Christmas Carol'' by Charles Dickens, and in this folk rhyme: St Dunstan, as the story goes,Once pull'd the devil by the noseWith red-hot tongs, which made him roar,That he was heard three miles or more.This folk story is already shown in an initial in the ''Life of Dunstan'' in the Canterbury ''Passionale'', from the second quarter of the 12th century (British Library, Harley MS 315, f.", "15v.", ").Dunstan shoeing the Devil's hoof, as illustrated by George CruikshankDaniel Anlezark has tentatively suggested that Dunstan may be the medieval author of the poem ''Solomon and Saturn'', citing the style, word choice, and Hiberno-Latin used in the texts.", "However, Clive Tolley examines this claim from a linguistic point-of-view and disagrees with Anlezark's claim.Another story relates how Dunstan nailed a horseshoe to the Devil's foot when he was asked to re-shoe the Devil's cloven hoof.", "This caused the Devil great pain, and Dunstan only agreed to remove the shoe and release the Devil after he promised never to enter a place where a horseshoe is over the door.", "This is claimed as the origin of the lucky horseshoe.A further legend relating to Dunstan and the Devil seeks to explain the phenomena of Franklin nights, late frosts which occur around his Feast Day.", "The story goes that Dunstan was a great brewer and negotiated an agreement whereby the Devil could blast the blossom of local apple trees with frost, damaging the cider crop so that Dunstan's own beer would sell more readily.===An East London saint===As Bishop of London, Dunstan was also Lord of the Manor of Stepney, and may, like subsequent bishops, have lived there.", "Dunstan is recorded as having founded (or rebuilt) Stepney's church, in 952 AD.", "This church was dedicated to All Saints, but was rededicated to Dunstan after his canonisation in 1029, making Dunstan the patron saint of Stepney." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===*********** *******===Further reading=======Primary sources===='Author B', ''Vita S. Dunstani'', ed.", "W. Stubbs, ''Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury''.", "Rolls Series.", "London, 1874.3–52.Portions of the text are translated by Dorothy Whitelock in ''English Historical Documents c. 500–1042''.", "2nd ed.", "London, 1979.These have been superseded by the new edition and translation by Michael Lapidge and Michael Winterbottom, ''The Early Lives of St Dunstan'', Oxford University Press, 2012.", "Adelard of Ghent, ''Epistola Adelardi ad Elfegum Archiepiscopum de Vita Sancti Dunstani'', Adelard's letter to Archbishop Ælfheah of Canterbury (1005–1012) on the Life of St Dunstan, ed.", "W. Stubbs, ''Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury''.", "Rolls Series 63.London, 1874.53–68.Also in the new edition and translation by Michael Lapidge and Michael Winterbottom, ''The Early Lives of St Dunstan'', Oxford University Press, 2012.", "Wulfstan of Winchester, ''The Life of St Æthelwold'', ed.", "and tr.", "M. Lapidge and M. Winterbottom, ''Wulfstan of Winchester.", "The Life of St Æthelwold''.", "Oxford Medieval Texts.", "Oxford, 1991.", "''Reliquiae Dunstanianae'', ed.", "W. Stubbs, ''Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury''.", "Rolls Series.", "London, 1874.354–439.", "''Fragmenta ritualia de Dunstano'', ed.", "W. Stubbs, ''Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury''.", "Rolls Series.", "London, 1874.440–57.", "Osbern of Canterbury, ''Vita sancti Dunstani'' and ''Liber Miraculorum Sancti Dunstani'', ed.", "W. Stubbs, ''Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury''.", "Rolls Series.", "London, 1874.69–161.", "Eadmer, ''Vita S. Dunstani'' and ''Miracula S. Dunstani'', ed.", "and tr.", "Bernard J. Muir and Andrew J. Turner, ''Eadmer of Canterbury.", "Lives and Miracles of Saints Oda, Dunstan, and Oswald''.", "OMT.", "Oxford, 2006.41–159 and 160–212; ed.", "W. Stubbs, ''Memorials of St Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury''.", "Rolls Series 63.London, 1874.162–249, 412–25.", "''An Old English Account of the King Edgar's Establishment of the Monasteries'', tr.", "D. Whitelock, ''English Historical Documents I''.", "Oxford University Press, 1979.====Secondary sources====Dales, Douglas, ''Dunstan: Saint and Statesman'', 3rd ed., James Clark & Co, 2023Duckett, Eleanor.", "''Saint Dunstan of Canterbury'' (1955).", "Dunstan, St. ''Encyclopedia of World Biography'', 2nd ed.", "17 vols.", "Gale Research, 1998.", "Knowles, David.", "''The Monastic Orders in England'' (1940; 2d ed.", "1963).", "Ramsay, Nigel ''St Dunstan: his Life, Times, and Cult'', Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK; Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 1992.", "Sayles, G. O., ''The Medieval Foundations of England'' (1948; 2d ed.", "1950).", "William of Malmesbury, ''Vita sancti Dunstani'', ed.", "and tr.", "Bernard J. Muir and Andrew J. Turner, ''William of Malmesbury.", "Lives of SS.", "Wulfstan, Dunstan, Patrick, Benignus and Indract''.", "Oxford Medieval Texts.", "Oxford, 2002; ed.", "W. Stubbs, ''Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury''.", "Rolls Series.", "London, 1874.250–324.", "John Capgrave, ''Vita sancti Dunstani'', ed.", "W. Stubbs, ''Memorials of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury''.", "Rolls Series.", "London, 1874.325–53." ], [ "External links", " * ''The True Legend of St. Dunstan and the Devil'' by Edward G. Flight, illustrated by George Cruikshank, published in 1871, and available from Project Gutenberg* Dunstan at the British Library, BL medieval manuscripts blogpost, May 2016" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deprogramming" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Deprogramming''' is a controversial tactic that seeks to dissuade someone from \"strongly held convictions\" such as religious beliefs.", "Deprogramming purports to assist a person who holds a particular belief system—of a kind considered harmful by those initiating the deprogramming—to change those beliefs and sever connections to the group associated with them.", "Typically, people identifying themselves as deprogrammers are hired by a person's relatives, often parents of adult children.", "The subject of the deprogramming is usually forced to undergo the procedure, which might last days or weeks, against their will.Methods and practices of deprogramming are varied but have often involved kidnapping and false imprisonment, which have sometimes resulted in criminal convictions.", "The practice has led to controversies over freedom of religion, civil rights, criminality and the use of violence.", "Proponents of deprogramming present the practice as a necessary counter-measure to the systematic \"brainwashing\" procedures allegedly employed by religious groups, which they claim deprive the individual of their capacity for free choice." ], [ "Background", "In the United States in the early 1970s there was an increasing number of New Religious Movements.", "Ted Patrick, the \"father of deprogramming\", formed an organisation he called \"The Citizens' Freedom Foundation\" and began offering 'deprogramming' services to people who wanted to break a family member's connection to an NRM.", "Patrick's methods involved abduction, physical restraint, detention over days or weeks while maintaining a constant presence with the victim, food and sleep deprivation, prolonged verbal and emotional abuse, and desecration of the symbols of the victim's faith.Deprogrammers justified their actions by applying a theory of \"brainwashing\" to New Religious Movements.", "Brainwashing theory denied the possibility of authentic spiritual choice for an NRM member, proposing instead that such individuals were subject to systematic mind control programs that overrode their capacity for independent volition.", "Ted Patrick's theory of brainwashing was that individuals were hypnotized by brainwaves projected from a recruiter's eyes and fingertips, after which the state was maintained by constant indoctrination, a totalistic environment and self-hypnosis.", "Most academic research, however, indicated that the reasons for people joining, remaining in, or leaving NRMs were complex, varied from group to group and individual to individual, and generally reflected the continued presence of a capacity for individual responsibility and choice.The Citizens' Freedom Foundation, which later became known as the Cult Awareness Network, became the most prominent group in the emerging national anti-cult movement of the 1970s and 80s.", "The anti-cult movement lobbied for state and national legislative action to legitimize its activities, and although this had very limited success, the movement was nevertheless able to forge alliances with a number of governmental agencies.", "This was primarily on the back of its propagation of the brainwashing/mind control ideology, which succeeded in turning affiliation with NRMs into an issue of public—rather than private—concern, and gave a pseudo-legitimacy to the anti-cultists' more extreme claims and actions.Although the CFF and CAN were in favour of deprogramming, they distanced themselves from the practice from the late 1970s onwards.", "Despite this apparent repudiation, however, they continued the practice.", "CFF and CAN referred thousands of paying clients to activist members who kept lists of deprogrammers.", "The total number that occurred is unknown, but in 1980 Ted Patrick claimed to have been hired over 2000 times as a professional abductor.", "Many other operators emerged both during and after the period in which he was active, many of them trained by him.", "The practice of deprogramming was an integral part of the anti-cult ideology and economy, and was seen as an effective response to the demand emanating from people who wanted a family member extracted, but it also clashed with the need for anti-cult organizations to present themselves as 'educational' associations (the CFF, for example, received tax-exempt status as an educational trust).", "This, along with its tenuous legal and moral status, meant that deprogramming tended to be publicly disavowed, while its practice continued clandestinely." ], [ "Use of violence", "Deprogramming became a controversial practice due to the violent and illegal nature of some of its methods.", "Various academics have commented on the practice.", "Sociologist Anson D. Shupe and others wrote that deprogramming is comparable to exorcism in both methodology and manifestation.", "Professor of Sociology and Judicial Studies James T. Richardson described deprogramming as a \"private, self-help process whereby participants in unpopular new religious movements (NRMs) were forcibly removed from the group, incarcerated, and put through radical resocialization processes that were supposed to result in their agreeing to leave the group.\"", "Law professor Douglas Laycock, author of ''Religious Liberty: The Free Exercise Clause'', wrote:Beginning in the 1970s, many parents responded to the initial conversion with \"deprogramming.\"", "The essence of deprogramming was to physically abduct the convert, isolate him and physically restrain him, and barrage him with continuous arguments and attacks against his new religion, threatening to hold him forever until he agreed to leave it.Deprogrammers generally operated on the presumption that the people they were paid to extract from religious organizations were victims of mind control or brainwashing.", "Since the theory was that such individuals were incapable of rational thought, extreme measures were thought to be justified for their own good, up to and including the use of criminal violence.", "Ted Patrick was eventually tried and convicted of multiple felonies relating to kidnapping and false imprisonment of deprogramming subjects.Violence of one degree or another is common to all anecdotal accounts of deprogramming.", "There are numerous testimonies from people who describe being threatened with a gun, beaten, denied food and sleep, and sexually assaulted.", "In these accounts the deprogramming usually begins with the victim being forced into a vehicle and taken to a place where they are isolated from everyone but their captors.", "Told that they would not be released until they renounce their beliefs, they are then subjected to days and sometimes weeks of verbal, emotional, psychological and/or physical pressure, until the demands of their abductors are satisfied.According to sociologist Eileen Barker, \"one does not have to rely on the victims for stories of violence: Ted Patrick, one of the most notorious deprogrammers used by CAGs cult-awareness groups (who has spent several terms in prison for his exploits) openly boasts about some of the violence he employed.\"", "A number of other prominent members of \"cult-awareness groups\" have been convicted of violent crimes committed in the course of deprogrammings.Carol Giambalvo, who worked for the Cult Awareness Network in the 1980s (although she went on to advocate for \"voluntary exit counseling\" and \"thought reform consultation\") said that although abductions certainly occurred, the more common practice was to forcefully detain people in their own homes, or in a cabin or motel room.", "Giambalvo tells of \"horror stories\" of restraint, beatings, use of handcuffs and weapons, sexual abuse and even rape, although she claims that these were only used in the minority of cases and that deprogramming \"helped to free many individuals\"." ], [ "Rationale and effectiveness", "Carol Giambalvo described the reasoning behind deprogramming thus:It was believed that the hold of the brainwashing over the cognitive processes of a cult member needed to be broken – or \"snapped\" as some termed it – by means that would shock or frighten the cultist into thinking again.", "For that reason in some cases cult leader's pictures were burned or there were highly confrontational interactions between deprogrammers and cultist.", "What was often sought was an emotional response to the information, the shock, the fear, and the confrontation.Another associate of Ted Patrick, Sylvia Buford, identified five stages in the deprogramming which would, ideally, bring the subject to a recognition of their condition:#Discrediting the authority figure#Presenting contradictions - comparing the ideology with the reality; for example, \"How can he preach love when he exploits people?", "\"#The breaking point, at which the subject begins to accept the deprogrammer's position and begins doubting the ideology#Self-expression: the subject begins to voice criticisms and complaints against the cult.#Identification and transference: the subject begins to identify with the deprogrammers, thinking as an opponent of the cult rather than as a member.According to Giambalvo and others, however, deprogramming frequently failed completely to achieve the desired outcome and often caused significant harm.", "While some advocates claimed a high success rate, studies show that natural attrition rates are actually higher than those achieved by deprogramming interventions.Professor of psychiatry Saul V. Levine suggests that it is doubtful that deprogramming helps many people and goes on to say that it actually causes harm to the victim by the very nature of deprogramming.", "For deprogramming to work, the victim must be convinced that they joined a religious group against their will.", "They then must renounce responsibility and accept that in some mysterious way that their minds were controlled.", "He argues that deprogramming destroys a person's identity and is likely to create permanent anxiety about freedom of choice and leave the deprogrammed subject dependent upon the guidance and advice of others.The Dialog Center International (DCI) a major Christian counter-cult organization founded in 1973 by a Danish professor of missiology and ecumenical theology, Johannes Aagaard, rejects deprogramming, believing that it is counterproductive, ineffective, and can harm the relationship between a cult member and concerned family members." ], [ "Government", "Deprogrammers have sometimes operated with overt or tacit support of law enforcement and judicial officials.", "Richardson sees government involvement in deprogramming as existing on a continuum from implicit approval to active involvement.", "In the United States, where there are First Amendment protections for religious groups, government officials and agencies frequently \"turned a blind eye\" to the activities of deprogrammers.", "In China, Government agencies have at times promoted activities resembling deprogramming to enforce official views of \"correct\" beliefs and behaviors, for example in the suppression of the Falun Gong movement.", "This can involve \"vigorous, even violent, efforts to dissuade people from participating in groups deemed unacceptable to the government\" and have been \"given legal sanction by the passage of laws that make illegal the activities or even the beliefs of the unpopular movement or group being targeted\".In the United States—in New York, Kansas, Nebraska, Connecticut, Illinois, New Jersey, Ohio, Oregon and Texas—lawmakers unsuccessfully attempted to legalize involuntary deprogramming, either through a deprogramming bill or conservatorship legislation.", "In New York, two bills were actually passed by the legislature (in 1980 and 1981), but both were vetoed by Governor Hugh Carey because of their violation of religious and other constitutional freedoms.", "In other states the bills failed to pass the legislature." ], [ "Controversy and related issues", "In the United States, from the mid-1970s and throughout the 1980s mind control was a widely accepted theory in public opinion, and the vast majority of newspaper and magazine accounts of deprogrammings assumed that recruits' relatives were well justified to seek conservatorships and to hire deprogrammers.One disturbing aspect from a civil rights point of view, was that people hiring deprogrammers would use deception or other ethically questionable methods—including kidnapping—to get their relative into deprogrammers' hands, without allowing them any recourse to a lawyer or psychiatrist of their own choosing.", "Previously, there would be a sanity hearing first, and only then a commitment to an asylum or involuntary therapy.", "But with deprogramming, judges routinely granted parents legal authority over their adult children without a hearing.Critics contend that deprogramming and exit counseling begin with a false premise.", "Lawyers for some groups who have lost members due to deprogramming, as well as some civil liberties advocates, sociologists and psychologists, argue that it is not the religious groups but rather the deprogrammers who are the ones who deceive and manipulate people.During the 1990s, deprogrammer Rick Ross was sued by Jason Scott, a former member of a Pentecostal group called the Life Tabernacle Church, after an unsuccessful deprogramming attempt.", "In 1995, the jury awarded Scott US$875,000 in compensatory damages and US$2,500,000 in punitive damages against Ross, which were later settled for US$5,000 and 200 hours of services.", "More significantly, the jury also found that the leading anti-cult group known as the Cult Awareness Network (CAN) was a co-conspirator in the crime and fined CAN around US$1,000,000 in punitive damages, forcing the group into bankruptcy.", "This case is often seen as effectively closing the door on the practice of involuntary deprogramming in the United States." ], [ "Referral and kickback system", "Anti-cult groups play a central role in maintaining the underground network of communications, referrals, transportation, and housing necessary for continued deprogramming.The Cult Awareness Network operated a referral scheme (NARDEC) in which they would refer people to deprogrammers in return for a \"kickback\" in the form of a donation or as a commission.", "Deprogrammers such as Rick Alan Ross, Steven Hassan and Carol Giambalvo were among the CAN-referred deprogrammers." ], [ "Historical examples", "+YearSubjectGroupDescriptionDeprogrammer1974Kathy CramptonLove FamilyThe abduction and deprogramming were televised across the United States; shortly after what was thought to be a 'successful' deprogramming, she went back to the group.", "Deprogrammer charged with kidnapping but acquitted.Ted Patrick1980Susan Wirth, a 35-year-old teacher living in San FranciscoCoalition to Fight the Death Penalty; African People's Solidarity Committee; anti-nuclearTaken off the street and shoved into a van by 4 kidnappers, at the instigation of her parents.", "The parents paid US$27,000 for the deprogramming, which included being gagged, handcuffed to a bed for two weeks, denied food and water and repeatedly threatened.", "Despite the ordeal Wirth remained committed to her causes and spoke out against deprogramming, but declined to press legal charges against her parents.", "Ted Patrick1980Roberta McElfish, a 26-year-old Tucson waitress.", "Wesley Thomas FamilyAbducted off the street by relatives who thought she had joined a cult, McElfish managed to escape before a deprogramming was administered.", "Deprogrammer convicted of conspiracy, kidnapping, and false imprisonment; sentenced to one year in prison and fined US$5,000.Ted Patrick1981Stephanie Riethmiller, who lived in Ohiolesbian relationshipKidnapped by deprogrammers hired by her parents; she was allegedly held against her will and repeatedly raped.", "Filed civil charges against her parents and the deprogrammers, which were dismissed in a trial that generated some controversy in the media.1981Thomas WardUnification ChurchHeld captive for 35 days and subjected to physical and psychological abuse by deprogrammers and family members.", "In Ward's civil action the 4th U.S.", "Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that federal civil rights laws protect against religious discrimination.", "The judgement contradicted the (then common) \"parental immunity\" principle in such cases.1990Elma Miller, an Amish woman liberal sectDeprogrammers hired by her husband to return her to him and the Amish church.", "Criminal charges of conspiracy were filed against the husband, brother, and two others but were later dropped on her request to the prosecuting attorney.Ted Patrick1990sJason ScottPentecostalist group called the Life Tabernacle Church (part of United Pentecostal Church International)Unsuccessful deprogramming.", "Scott became a former member and sued.", "The jury awarded Scott US$875,000 in compensatory damages and US$1,000,000 in punitive damages against the Cult Awareness Network (CAN), and US$2,500,000 against Ross (later settled for US$5,000 and 200 hours of services \"as an expert consultant and intervention specialist\").Rick Ross" ], [ "Exit counseling", "Proponents of \"Exit counseling\" distinguish it from coercive forms of deprogramming.", "The fundamental difference is that involuntary deprogramming involves forced confinement of the individual whereas in exit counseling they are free to leave at any time.", "The absence of physical coercion is thought to increase the likelihood of establishing a rapport and of not alienating, enraging or terrifying the subject.", "Exit counsellors are typically brought in during a \"family Intervention\", where they explain their role and seek to change the subject's attitude to their religious group through reasoning and persuasion.Langone, writing in 1993, estimated that deprogramming costs typically rise to at least US$10,000, compared to exit counseling which typically costs US$2,000 to US$4,000, although cases requiring extensive research of little-known groups can cost much more.", "Deprogramming, especially when it fails, also entails considerable legal risk and psychological risk (for example, a permanent alienation of the subject from their family).", "In exit counseling, these psychological and legal risks are reduced.", "Although deprogrammers prepare family members (other than the subject) for the process, exit counselors tend to work with such family members directly, expecting those requesting the intervention to contribute to the process.", "Exit counseling requires that families establish a reasonable and respectful level of communication with their loved one before the program itself can begin.", "Because deprogramming relies on coercion (which is illegal except in the case of conservatorship and is generally viewed as unethical) deprogrammers' critiques of the religious organization tend to be less credible to the subject than the arguments of exit counselors.Steven Hassan, a proponent of exit counseling and author of ''Combatting Cult Mind Control'', states that he took part in a number of deprogrammings in the late 1970s, but has been critical of them since 1980.Hassan states that he has not participated in any deprogrammings since then, although he says that forced intervention should be kept as a last resort if all non-coercive \"strategies to influence the cult member\" fail." ], [ "See also", "*Anti-cult movement" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Daily Planet" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Daily Planet''''' is a fictional newspaper appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, commonly in association with Superman.", "The newspaper was first mentioned in ''Action Comics'' #9 (November 13, 1939) - Underworld Politics, War on Crime.", "The ''Daily Planet'' building's distinguishing feature is the enormous globe that sits on top of the building.Based in the fictional city of Metropolis, the paper employs Clark Kent, Lois Lane, Jimmy Olsen, and Perry White as its editor-in-chief.", "The building's original features were inspired by the Old Toronto Star Building where Superman's co-creator, Joe Shuster, was a newsboy when the ''Toronto Star'' was still called the ''Daily Star''.", "Shuster has claimed that Metropolis was visually inspired by Toronto.", "Over the years, however, Metropolis has come to serve as an analogue to New York City." ], [ "Fictional history", "The Daily Planet building (1942)===Golden and Silver Age===Old Toronto Star Building, demolished in 1972, was Shuster's model for the ''Daily Planet'' building.When Superman first appeared in comics (specifically 1938's ''Action Comics'' #1), his alter ego Clark Kent worked for a newspaper named the ''Daily Star'', under editor George Taylor.", "Joe Shuster named the ''Daily Star'' after the ''Toronto Daily Star'' newspaper in Toronto, Ontario, which had been the newspaper that Shuster's parents received and for which Shuster had worked as a newsboy.", "It was not until later years that the fictional paper became the ''Daily Planet.''", "(The real-world newspaper was called the ''Evening Star'' prior to 1899; the ''Toronto Daily Star'' is now known as the ''Toronto Star''.", ")While choosing a name for the fictitious newspaper, consideration was given to combining the names of ''The Globe and Mail'' (another Toronto newspaper) and the ''Daily Star'' to become ''The Daily Globe''.", "But when the comic strip appeared, the newspaper's name was permanently made the ''Daily Planet'' to avoid a name conflict with real newspapers.", "In ''Superman'' #5 (Summer 1940), the publisher of the ''Daily Planet'' is shown to be Burt Mason, a man who is determined to print the truth even when corrupt politician Alex Evell threatens him.", "In ''Superman'' #6 (September–October 1940), Mason gives free printing equipment to ''The Gateston Gazette'' after its editor, Jim Tirrell, is killed and its equipment is destroyed by racketeers that Tirrell insisted on reporting.When DC made use of its multiverse means of continuity tracking between the early 1960s and mid-1980s, it was declared that the ''Daily Star'' was the newspaper's name in the Golden Age or \"Earth-Two\" versions of Clark Kent, Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen, while the ''Daily Planet'' was used in the Silver Age or \"Earth-One\" versions.", "The Clark Kent of Earth-Two eventually became the editor-in-chief of the ''Daily Star'', something his Earth-One counterpart did not achieve.A ''Daily Planet'' headline (1941)In the Silver and Bronze Age universes, Clark's first contact with the ''Daily Planet'' came when reporter (and future editor) Perry White came to Smallville to write a story about Superboy, and wound up getting an interview where the Boy of Steel first revealed his extraterrestrial origins.", "The story resulted in Perry earning a Pulitzer Prize.", "During Clark Kent's years in college, Perry White was promoted to editor-in-chief upon the retirement of the ''Daily Planet'''s previous editor, the Earth-One version of George Taylor.After graduating from Metropolis University with a degree in journalism, Clark Kent went to work at the ''Planet'', and quickly met Lois Lane (who had been working there for some time already).", "After Clark was hired, Jimmy Olsen joined the paper's staff.In 1971, the ''Daily Planet'' was purchased by Morgan Edge, president of the Galaxy Broadcasting System.", "Edge proceeded to integrate Metropolis television station WGBS-TV's studios into the ''Daily Planet'' building, and named Clark Kent as the anchor for the WGBS evening news.", "Eventually, Clark's former schoolmate from Smallville Lana Lang joined Clark as a co-anchor.After the 1985–1986 miniseries ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'', many of these elements, including Morgan Edge buying the ''Daily Planet'', were retroactively changed or eliminated from the Superman canon.===Post-Crisis===In the post-Crisis comics' canon, years before Clark or Lois began working for the paper, Lex Luthor owned the ''Daily Planet.''", "When Luthor, deciding to sell the paper, began taking bids for the ''Planet'', Perry White convinced an international conglomerate, TransNational Enterprises, to buy the paper.", "They agreed to this venture with only one stipulation: that Perry White would become editor-in-chief.", "White had served as the ''Planet'' editor-in-chief ever since, barring the few times he was absent.", "During those times people such as Sam Foswell and Clark Kent have looked after the paper.", "Franklin Stern, an old friend of White's, became the ''Daily Planet'''s publisher.The Daily Planet building in ''Action Comics'' #1014 (October 2019).", "Art by Szymon Kudranski.The ''Planet'' saw its share of rough times during White's tenure.", "For example, it had many violent worker strikes.", "The building itself, along with most of the city, was destroyed during the \"Fall of Metropolis\" storyline; it is only much later that it was restored by the efforts of various superheroes.", "The ''Planet'' building sustained heavy damages after the villain Doomsday's rampage.", "Later, Franklin Stern decided to put the paper up for sale.", "Lex Luthor, disliking the heavy criticism of himself and his company that the ''Planet'' became noted for, purchased the ''Daily Planet'' and subsequently closed the paper down.", "Luthor fired every employee of the newspaper except for four people: Simone D'Neige, Dirk Armstrong, Jimmy Olsen, and Lois Lane.", "As a final insult, Luthor saw to it that the ''Planet'' globe was unceremoniously dumped in the Metropolis landfill.", "In the ''Planet'''s place emerged \"LexCom,\" a news-oriented Internet website that primarily catered to Luthor's views of \"quality journalism.", "\"After Lois Lane made a deal with Luthor where, in exchange for him returning the ''Planet'' to Perry, she would kill one story of his choosing with no questions asked, Luthor sold the ''Daily Planet'' to Perry White for the token sum of one dollar.", "The paper was quickly reinstated, rehiring all of its old staff.", "Sometime later, ownership of the ''Planet'' fell into the hands of Bruce Wayne, where it has remained ever since.", "In the ''Batman: Hush'' storyline, it is named a subsidiary of Wayne Entertainment.During the \"Y2K\" storyline (involving the city of Metropolis being infused with futuristic technology thanks to a descendant of the villain Brainiac), the ''Daily Planet'' building was \"upgraded\" along with the rest of Metropolis, and a holographic globe replaced the physical one.", "Eventually due to temporal instabilities caused by the B13 Virus, Metropolis and the Daily Planet building, globe and all, were restored to their former states.In the current comics and media spinoffs, the ''Daily Planet'' is presented as a thoroughly modern news operation, including operating an Internet website much like most large newspapers.", "The ''Planet'''s reporters also have access to the best modern equipment to aid their work, though Perry White has often been shown as still favoring his manual typewriter.", "In 2008, it was said that Clark (at least in this era/continuity) uses a typewriter at his desk due to his powers causing minor interference in regular desktop computers.During this era, the ''Planet''s major competitors in Metropolis include the tabloid newspaper the ''Daily Star'', WGBS-TV (which also employed Jimmy Olsen and Cat Grant for a time), and Lex Luthor's various media operations.", "A contemporary publication is ''Newstime'' Magazine, where Clark Kent worked as the editor for a time.", "The publisher of ''Newstime'' is Colin Thornton, who is secretly the demon Satanus, an enemy of Superman's.===''Superman: Birthright''===In the ''Superman: Birthright'' limited series, the ''Daily Planet'''s publisher was Quentin Galloway, an abrasive overbearing loudmouth who bullied Jimmy Olsen, and later Clark Kent, before being told off by Lois Lane, whom Galloway could not fire because of her star status.", "This was meant to be a new origin for Superman but one that applied to the Post-Crisis continuity, so later ''Planet'' history concerning Luthor temporarily owning it and other events still applied.===Post-Infinite Crisis===During the story ''Infinite Crisis'', parts of the Post-Crisis history were altered.", "These changes were explained gradually over the next several years.", "The 2009 mini-series ''Superman: Secret Origin'' clarified the earlier history of the ''Planet'' in the new continuity.", "The story established that while Lex Luthor, in the revised history, owns every media in Metropolis and uses it to enforce his public image as a wealthy benefactor, the ''Planet'' had always stood free, refusing him ownership and even condemning his actions in editorials signed by Perry White himself.", "As a result, when Clark Kent is first inducted into the ''Planet'', the newspaper was almost bankrupt, dilapidated and unable to afford new reporters.", "This changed after Superman begins his career.", "Thanks to Superman granting exclusive interviews and photographs to Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen when he debuts, the paper's circulation increased 700%.General Sam Lane (Lois' father) attempted to capture Superman, seeing him as an alien threat.", "When he failed to do so, he forcibly shut down the ''Planet'' as part of an attempt to force Perry White and Lois to turn over any information they had on Superman that they haven't released to the public.", "Eventually, Superman turned the public to his favor and Sam Lane was seen in a bad light after his soldier John Corben AKA Metallo ruthlessly endangered civilians.", "These events lead to the people of Metropolis no longer looking at Lex Luthor as a savior and ''The Daily Planet'' becomes the city's top-selling paper, as well as a major player in media.In ''Final Crisis'' #2, the villain Clayface triggers an explosion in The ''Daily Planet'' building, greatly damaging the offices, leaving many injured and at least one person dead.", "Lois Lane is hospitalized.", "Despite the chaos of ''Final Crisis'' and more than half of humanity being enslaved by evil, the newspaper continues to spread news and inform the public via a printing press in Superman's Fortress of Solitude.", "In ''Final Crisis'' #7, it is shown functioning once again.===The New 52===The Daily Planet building as it appears in the New 52.Art from ''Superman'' (vol.", "3) #1 (November 2011) by George Pérez and Jesús Merino.With the reboot of DC's line of comics in 2011, the ''Daily Planet'' was shown in the ''Superman'' comics as being bought by Morgan Edge and merged with the Galaxy Broadcasting System, similar to the Silver/Bronze Age continuity.", "In ''Action Comics'', it is revealed that in the new history/universe, Clark Kent begins his journalism career in Metropolis roughly six years before Galaxy Broadcasting merges with the ''Daily Planet''.", "Along with being a writer for ''The Daily Star'', partly because editor George Taylor was a friend of his adopted parents, Clark is an active blogger who speaks against political corruption and reports on the troubles of everyday citizens who are not often the focus of news media.", "While working at the ''Star'', Clark meets ''Planet'' photographer Jimmy Olsen and the two become friends despite working at rival publications.", "Clark is also a great fan of Lois Lane's work at the ''Daily Planet'', eventually meeting her through Jimmy.", "Months after Superman makes his public debut, Clark leaves ''The Daily Star'' on good terms and accepts a position at ''The Daily Planet''.After the merger with Galaxy Broadcasting, Lois was promoted to run the TV division, with Clark acting as an on-the-scene reporter for the TV division.", "Clark is later assigned the \"Superman beat.\"", "But after rising tension between himself and Lois, as well as with Galaxy Broadcasting head Morgan Edge, Clark concludes that the ''Daily Planet'' is now more concerned with ratings and internet page views than actual journalism.", "He quits and goes off to begin an independent, internet news site with fellow journalist Cat Grant.", "Though Lois and Jimmy consider this to be a bad and risky decision, they continue to act as Clark's friends and confidants, offering aid when they can.At the conclusion of the New 52, following the New 52 Superman's death, Lex Luthor buys the ''Daily Planet''.===30th and 31st Centuries===In virtually every incarnation of the era inhabited by the Legion of Super-Heroes, the ''Daily Planet'' is depicted as a fixture in Metropolis, and one of Earth's major media sources.", "Frequently, the Flash's wife Iris West Allen (a native of the era) is depicted as a member of its staff or editorial board." ], [ "Fictional employees", "The staff of the ''Daily Planet'' from ''Action Comics'' Annual #11 (July 2008).", "Art by Adam Kubert and Stéphane Roux.", "''Daily Planet's'' staff at various times included:* Clark Kent - Reporter* Lois Lane - Reporter* Jimmy Olsen - Photographer and Cub Reporter* Perry White - Editor-in-Chief* Lana Lang - Business Columnist and editor* Cat Grant - Gossip Columnist and editor* Ron Troupe - Political Columnist and editor* Steve Lombard - Sports Columnist and editor" ], [ "In other media", "The ''Daily Planet'' has been featured in all adaptations of ''Superman'' to other media.", "From 1976 to 1981, the ''Daily Planet'' was a promotional page appearing in regular DC publications (similar to Marvel Comics' Bullpen Bulletins), featuring previews of upcoming publications set in the format of a page from the titular newspaper.", "Notable features of the page were \"The Answer Man\", where DC writer/editor Bob Rozakis would answer questions sent in by readers, and a comic strip by cartoonist Fred Hembeck poking fun at DC characters.", "A 16-page \"Special Invasion Edition\" of ''The Daily Planet'' was published by DC in November 1988 as a tie-in to the ''Invasion!''", "crossover event, ostensibly the same edition of the paper shown on the final page of ''Invasion!''", "#1.===Live-action television===During most of the 1950s television series ''Adventures of Superman'', the ''Daily Planet'' exterior was Los Angeles City Hall.", "In season one, the E. Clem Wilson Building was used for exterior shots of the Planet building.", "The ''Daily Planet'' in ''The Adventures of Superpup'' is named the ''Daily Bugle'', which is not to be confused with the Marvel newspapers also named the ''Daily Bugle''.", "''Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'' introduced the idea of a smaller globe above the building's entrance.", "The rooftop was shown in episode 19 (first season) and indicated that the building has a helipad with no large globe.", "At the end of the first season the paper was bought and closed down by Luthor (as would later happen in the comics).", "Its relaunch was funded by Metropolis businessman Franklin Stern.", " In the 2000s live-action television series ''Smallville'', the ''Daily Planet'' building is located across the street from the LuthorCorp building.", "One of the main characters of ''Smallville'', Chloe Sullivan, worked in the basement of the ''Planet'' (seasons 5–7).", "Her cousin Lois Lane continues to work there, as did Chloe's on again/off again love interest (and eventual husband) Jimmy Olsen until his death at the end of season 8.Clark Kent started to work at the ''Daily Planet'' as a copy boy in the show's eighth season, but eventually worked his way up to a reporter in the ninth season.", "In episode 10 of the sixth season a street sign is shown as Chloe (Allison Mack) runs out of the ''Daily Planet'' from Linda Lake (Tori Spelling) and shows that the ''Planet'' is located at 355 Burrard St. (which is the actual address of the Marine Building where location filming for the series was shot in Vancouver).", "Smallville also features the ''Daily Star'' as a separate newspaper, which was first seen in \"Icarus\".", "* In the series premiere of ''Superman & Lois'', the ''Daily Planet'' is bought out by Morgan Edge, resulting in layoffs which also hit Clark Kent.", "When Lois Lane's exposé on Edge is turned into a puff piece, she quits in protest.", "Later episodes show Clark and Lois working at the ''Daily Planet'' through flashbacks.=== Animation television ===* In ''Superman: The Animated Series'', in the episode \"World's Finest Part 2\", it is mentioned that the ''Daily Planet'' has offices in Gotham City, when Lois Lane says she is asking for a transfer \"to the ''Planet''s Gotham City bureau.", "\"* On the animated series ''DC Super Hero Girls'', the Metropolis High School student newspaper is the ''Daily Planetoid.''", "A teenage Lois Lane is its editor-in-chief and hopes to secure an internship at the ''Daily Planet''.===Films===In 1978's ''Superman'' and its sequels, the ''Daily Planet'' exterior was the New York ''Daily News'' building.", "The globe, which used to be on the top of the building, was apparently replaced with one in the lobby as to make room for a helipad on the roof.", "In fact, The Daily News building in New York has featured a globe in its lobby for almost all of its history.", "The real-life ''Daily News'' was headquartered in The News Building until the mid-1990s.", "The 2006 ''Superman Returns'' movie has redesigned the ''Daily Planet'' as a completely computer generated image of a fictional building inserted into the Empire State Building skyline.", "The ''Daily Planet'' appears in DC Extended Universe, the ''Daily Planet'' exterior was filmed in the Chicago Board of Trade Building.", "The interior was filmed in the Willis Tower.", "In the 2013 film ''Man of Steel'', the paper's headquarters is located in Metropolis and collapsed during the attack on the city by General Zod's Kryptonian forces.", "The ''Planet'' appears again in ''Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice'' (2016), which was rebuilt after the invasion with a new building located next to Parque Heroes.", "All the events of the invasion and against Superman are published, also about Batman in Gotham City.", "At the end it talks about the tragic deaths of Superman and Clark Kent, along with the truth about Lex Luthor in the face of his crimes exposed by Lois Lane.", "The ''Planet'' appears again in ''Justice League'' (2017), where Martha Kent and Lois Lane talk about talked about having financial issues with the bank, before they get interrupted by a Daily Planet employee who replaced Lane as a reporter, asked her about source, which Lois lies saying it's a she.", "The two would talk about Clark, which Martha bring up that Clark said to her one time that Lois was always hungry to find a news story.", "After the resurrection of Superman and the defeat of Steppenwolf, Lois returns to the ''Planet'' where she writes about hope and heroes.", "* A ''Daily Planet'' newspaper with the headline \"Superman is back\" appears in ''Shazam!''", "(2019), where Freddy Freeman shows all his information to Billy Batson.", "The ''Daily Planet'' appears in ''Superman: Doomsday''.", "The ''Daily Planet'' appears in ''Superman Unbound''.", "In ''Justice League: War'', the Daily Planet building is seen in the background of a fight between Superman, Batman, and Green Lantern.", " A parallel universe version of the ''Daily Planet'' renamed PLANETNWZ.COM appears in the 2015 animated film ''Justice League: Gods and Monsters''.", "PLANETNWZ.COM is a blog and a harsh critic of the Justice League's violent and destructive method.", "The ''Daily Planet'' globe is destroyed in the 2021 live-action/animated film ''Space Jam: A New Legacy'', during a sequence involving a hijacked subway train.", "It then causes chaos.", "The ''Daily Planet'' appears in ''DC League of Super-Pets''.===Video games===* The ''Daily Planet'' appears in ''Superman: Shadow of Apokolips''.", "* The ''Daily Planet'' appears as a stage in ''Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe''.", "* The ''Daily Planet'' appears in ''DC Universe Online''.", "It is located in Downtown Metropolis and has been bottled up by Brainiac.", "* The ''Daily Planet'' building can be seen off in the distance in ''Batman Arkham Knight''.", "Additionally, newspapers can be found outside a storage crate that say strange meteors have struck Smallville hinting at the discovery of Kryptonite.", "* The ''Daily Planet'' appears in ''Lego Dimensions'' where it is transported into the ''Back to the Future'' world by Lord Vortech.===Music===''The Daily Planet'' is the name of a song from the 1998 self-titled solo album by Mark Hollis" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " ''Daily Planet'' for Pinterest.", "* \"Superman at the ''Star''\": An interview with Superman co-creator Joe Shuster from the ''Toronto Star'', April 26, 1992, about Shuster's memories of Toronto and the ''Evening Star'' newspaper.", "* The Superman Homepage's entry for the ''Daily Planet''* Supermanica: ''Daily Planet'' Supermanica entry on the Pre-Crisis ''Daily Planet''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Digital Private Network Signalling System" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Digital Private Network Signalling System''' ('''DPNSS''') is a network protocol used on digital trunk lines for connecting to PABX.", "It supports a defined set of inter-networking facilities.DPNSS was originally defined by British Telecom.", "The specification for the protocol is defined in BTNR188.The specification currently comes under the Network Interoperability Consultative Committee." ], [ "History", "DPNSS was developed in the early 1980s by BT, or its forerunner, Post Office Telecommunications in recognition that the emerging Digital Private Circuit Primary Rate product 'Megastream' had to address the market for both data and voice, the latter being significantly greater because of the market for PBXs.", "At the time, BT dictated what signalling could be used on its leased lines and, whilst it only had a minority interest in the sales of PBXs, was requested by the PBX manufacturers to produce a standard to prevent the creation of a plethora of conflicting PBX protocols being developed.", "Under the liberalization rules of the day (1979), BT was barred from manufacturing, selling or supplying PBXs of more than 200 extensions.", "Digital (PCM-based) PBXs were just starting to come into the marketplace with the Plessey PDX (a licensed version of the ROLM CBX) and the GEC SL1 (a licensed version of the Northern Telecom SL1).", "It was recognised that corporate customers would wish to network these systems across the country.", "At the time, 'CAS' inter node signaling was slow and inter-register signaling MF5, developed from PSTN signalling protocols, was complex and would not support sufficient features.The support for DPNSS as BT's own signalling protocol also differentiated BT's private circuit's services from those of its emerging rival Mercury Communications.DPNSS was an active (and successful) collaboration between PBX manufacturers and BT which started relatively slowly (BT & Plessey) but quickly snowballed with MITEL, GEC, Ericsson, Philips and eventually Nortel all joining to create a powerful and feature rich protocol.BT and some of the UK manufacturers championed DPNSS into ECMA and CCITT (ITU) but it was eventually deprecated by the standards bodies in favour of Q931 and QSig.", "Nevertheless, the elegance of the protocol and its compatibility with PBX features ensured the adoption DPNSS actually grew in Europe, compared to the much slower take-up of Qsig.There were also attempts (during 1984) to take DPNSS into North America.", "Unfortunately the structures for the creation of standards in North America seemed to prevent manufacturer collaboration as a route forward and the ANSI standards body was not interested in creating PBX interworking standards.Version 1 of BTNR188 (DPNSS) was issued in 1983; the last version of DPNSS to be released 6 in 1995 included compatibility with ISDN features released in V5.A lightweight version of DPNSS 'APNSS' was developed using analogue trunks (Sometimes compressed) and a modem to support D channel signalling." ], [ "Overview of the Protocol", "Layer 1(CCITT) ITU-G703 defines the physical and electrical interface.", "G704 defines the Frame structure of the 2,048 Mbs sent across the link.", "G732 defines the allocation of that frame structure into the 32 discrete 64Kbit 'channels', of which 0 is used for alignment of the frames and 16 is (by convention only) allocated to common channel signalling.", "Speech is carried as G711.Layer 2 Timeslot 16, 64Kbs operates as HDLC LAPB, to support up to 60 PVCs or DLCs (data link connections) (30 directly associated with the bearer channels and 30 for unrelated messages) as the specification describes them.", "Therefore, at maximum operation, each potential traffic channel can have two simultaneous data channels available for messages.", "Note that HDLC operates as a statistical multiplexing system.", "When traffic deltas are low, a single call establishment message will have access to the full 64Kbs (allowing for overheads).DPNSS is a layer 3 protocol functioning as common channel signalling.", "The functionality is divided into Levels (confusingly nothing to do with OSI layers.)", "Levels 1-6 deal with simple call establishment (make call/break call) and are the minimum requirements by which a PBX can be said to be DPNSS compatible.", "The remaining levels are allocated to telephony features, supplementary services or to administrative features.", "Note that support of 'levels' by a PBX is not necessarily incremental.", "Some levels are interdependent but a PBX may omit support of some levels (above 6) and support others.DPNSS is a compelled protocol in that each instruction issued must be met with an appropriate response from the other PBX otherwise the message is re-transmitted (until timer expiry).", "This means that when interworking two PBXs features invoked on PBX A must be acknowledged by PBX B even if that feature is not supported.DPNSS carries its protocol messages as short strings of IA5 text.", "It is therefore much easier to interpret in its native form than Q931/Qsig or H323/H450 and a precursor to the plain language format of SIP." ], [ "Practical Considerations", "As HDLC can operate successfully in quite poor (errored) data environments, DPNSS will work over a 2 Mbit/s link running without proper synchronisation (plesiochronously) and over poor quality connections (including badly terminated connectors).", "When setting up PBXs to run a DPNSS connection one end must be defined as the primary or 'A' end.", "This is a protocol requirement and has nothing to do with link synchronisation.", "However, such badly synchronised links were frowned upon because of the problems associated with sending faxes and/or other modem based communication which were not specifically identified within the protocol." ], [ "DPNSS and VoIP", "For a protocol that began life in the 1980s, DPNSS is natively a long way from VoIP.", "However, many of the hybrid VoIP PBXs available from manufacturers worldwide provide on-board DPNSS trunk cards.", "Where they do not, a protocol converter is necessary.", "Commercially available equipment offers the ability to convert from DPNSS to Q.Sig.", "Note that it is also possible to tunnel DPNSS and its associated PCM (G711) over an IP network.", "This can be point to point where the IP network carries packetised voice N x 64 Kbs speech and a separate IP signalling channel to carry the notional 64 Kbs of DPNSS signalling.", "A more sophisticated solution uses intelligence on the edge of the IP network to route voice to the correct node.", "This is a Voice VPN.Note that this should not be confused with the pre-VOIP 'Voice VPN' deployed by routing calls intelligently in a TDM switching platform, often Nortel DMS100 and customers PBX nodes." ], [ "Criticisms", "Some critics of DPNSS suggest that it is too loosely defined and allows too much latitude in its interpretation of message formats and timers.", "It is also sometimes mistakenly believed that DPNSS is semi proprietary and that it is only possible to connect PBXs from the same manufacturer.", "i.e.", "Siemens will connect to Siemens, Mitel to Mitel etc.", "Experience indicates that this is not the case and BT's FeatureNet platform (Nortel's DMS100) running DPNSS, has interconnected successfully to many PBX types available in the UK.", "In addition, as part of the first commercial implementation of DPNSS (in the Government Telephone Network or GTN in 1983), BT insisted that the core of the network be made from PBXs of different manufacture to prove the interoperability in real life." ], [ "See also", "* Digital Access Signalling System 1 (DASS1) (obsolete)* Digital Access Signalling System 2 (DASS2) (obsolete)* QSIG (the ISO equivalent of DPNSS, uses the Q.931 and ROSE protocols.", "It is widely used in the rest of Europe).", "* Digital Subscriber System No.", "1 (DSS1) The ISDN PBX interface is most often used for (new) PRA connected PBX* Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) SIP is most often used for IP connected PBX" ], [ "External links", "* ND1301:2001/03, The DPNSS specification at NICC" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Digital Access Signalling System 1" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Digital Access Signalling System 1''' ('''DASS1''') is a proprietary protocol defined by British Telecom to provide ISDN services in the United Kingdom.", "It is now obsolete, having been replaced by DASS2.This too will become obsolete over the coming years as Q.931, a European standard, becomes widely adopted in the EU." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Digital Access Signalling System 2" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Digital Access Signalling System 2''' ('''DASS2''') is an obsolescent protocol defined by British Telecom for digital links to PSTN based on ISDN.", "Although still available on request, it has been superseded by ETS 300 102 (\"EuroISDN\").DASS2 is an improved version over DASS1, based on experiences with DPNSS.", "In the UK, the ISDN concept was first introduced to customers by BT with theirDASS2 connections.", "DASS2 (Digital Access Signalling System) is a BT-designedsignalling standard, and was introduced before the Q.931 standard was finalisedby the international community.", "British Telecom used the term '''ISDN''' whendescribing their DASS2 lines.DASS2 lines are provided to customers on a 2Mbit/s link and can handle 30 simultaneous calls (64kbit/s each).", "DASS2 is still offered by BT and other UK carriers.", "Q.931 is the name of the CCITT document that describes the agreed signalling format for International ISDN.", "CCITT had previously been known as ''International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee''.", "The organisation set out the internationally agreed standards for telecommunications, and subsequently evolved into the ITU.", "In the United Kingdom, the Q.931-based protocol is ETS 300 102 (also known as EuroISDN).", "This is a very close implementation of the original CCITT specification.", "It is a 2Mbit/s service aswith DASS2, but the feature capability is far greater and has negated the problems associated with DASS2, including echo problems and circuit spikes.", "In the UK, both DASS 2 and EuroISDN (ETS 300 102) lines are available to customers with EuroISDN as the preferred signalling type.", "Customers normally choose the desired signalling system, as this will be dictated by their CPE (Customer Premises Equipment),usually a PABX.Most modern PABXs can handle many different types of signalling system, howeverthe trend seems to be away from the DASS2 (which is no longer being developed byBT and has been known to deny problems with their DASS2 circuits), and towards the internationally recognised Q.931 standard, which is utilised by many country's telephony service providers.The CCITT specify the standards for the layers 1, 2 and 3 signalling messages.", "The layer 3 messages are the messages which actually control the call setup, teardown, and routing.The layer 3 messages or ''call control messages'' are the minimum messages that must be understood by the interfacing equipment.", "Individual service providers maypublish their own documentation which details further messages that will betransported in addition to Q.931 messages.", "There are a number of additionalEuropean documents that cover supplementary services.", "These cover features that may be instigated by exchanges via the ISDN and require a higher degree of layer 3 implementation." ], [ "See also", "DSS1 (ETSI \"Euro-ISDN\", also used in many non-European countries)DSS2 (Digital Subscriber Signalling System No.", "2) - enhanced DSS1." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Devanagari" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Devanagari''' ( ; , , Sanskrit pronunciation: ) is an Indic script used in the northern Indian subcontinent.", "Also simply called '''Nāgari''' (), it is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental writing system), based on the ancient ''Brāhmi'' script.", "It is one of the official scripts of the Republic of India and Nepal.", "It was developed and in regular use by the 7th century CE and achieved its modern form by 1000 CE.", "The Devanāgari script, composed of 48 primary characters, including 14 vowels and 34 consonants, is the fourth most widely adopted writing system in the world, being used for over 120 languages.The orthography of this script reflects the pronunciation of the language.", "Unlike the Latin alphabet, the script has no concept of letter case.", "It is written from left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines, and is recognisable by a horizontal line, known as a , that runs along the top of full letters.", "In a cursory look, the Devanāgarī script appears different from other Indic scripts, such as Bengali-Assamese or Gurmukhi, but a closer examination reveals they are very similar except for angles and structural emphasis.Among the languages using it as a primary or secondary script are Marathi, Pāḷi, Sanskrit, Hindi, Boro, Nepali, Sherpa, Prakrit, Apabhramsha, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Braj Bhasha, Chhattisgarhi, Haryanvi, Magahi, Nagpuri, Rajasthani, Khandeshi, Bhili, Dogri, Kashmiri, Maithili, Konkani, Sindhi, Nepal Bhasa, Mundari, Angika, Bajjika and Santali.", "The Devanāgarī script is closely related to the Nandināgarī script commonly found in numerous ancient manuscripts of South India, and it is distantly related to a number of southeast Asian scripts." ], [ "Etymology", " is formed by the addition of the word () to the word ().", "is an adjective derived from (), a Sanskrit word meaning \"town\" or \"city,\" and literally means \"urban\" or \"urbane.\".", "The word (implicitly modifying , \"script\") was used on its own to refer to a North Indian script, or perhaps a number of such scripts, as Al-Biruni attests in the 11th century; the form is attested later, at least by the 18th century.", "The name of the Nandināgarī script is also formed by adding a prefix to the generic script name .", "The precise origin and significance of the prefix remains unclear." ], [ "History", "Devanāgarī is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet, and Southeast Asia.", "It is a descendant of the 3rd century BCE Brāhmī script, which evolved into the Nagari script which in turn gave birth to Devanāgarī and Nandināgarī.", "Devanāgarī has been widely adopted across India and Nepal to write Sanskrit, Marathi, Hindi, Central Indo-Aryan languages, Konkani, Boro, and various Nepalese languages.Some of the earliest epigraphic evidence attesting to the developing Sanskrit Nāgarī script in ancient India is from the 1st to 4th century CE inscriptions discovered in Gujarat.", "Variants of script called , recognisably close to Devanāgarī, are first attested from the 1st century CE Rudradaman inscriptions in Sanskrit, while the modern standardised form of Devanāgarī was in use by about 1000 CE.", "Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of Nāgarī-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nāgarī scripts.", "For example, the mid 8th-century Pattadakal pillar in Karnataka has text in both Siddha Matrika script, and an early Telugu-Kannada script; while, the Kangra Jawalamukhi inscription in Himachal Pradesh is written in both Sharada and Devanāgarī scripts.The Nāgarī script was in regular use by the 7th century CE, and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium.", "The use of Sanskrit in Nāgarī script in medieval India is attested by numerous pillar and cave-temple inscriptions, including the 11th-century Udayagiri inscriptions in Madhya Pradesh, and an inscribed brick found in Uttar Pradesh, dated to be from 1217 CE, which is now held at the British Museum.", "The script's prototypes and related versions have been discovered with ancient relics outside India, in places such as Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Indonesia.", "In East Asia, the script (considered as the closest precursor to Nāgarī) was in use by Buddhists.", "Nāgarī has been the of the Indic scripts.", "It has long been used traditionally by religiously educated people in South Asia to record and transmit information, existing throughout the land in parallel with a wide variety of local scripts (such as Moḍī, Kaithi, and Mahajani) used for administration, commerce, and other daily uses.Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir.", "An early version of Devanāgarī is visible in the Kutila inscription of Bareilly dated to VS 1049 (992 CE), which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group letters belonging to a word.", "One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit texts from the early post-Maurya period consists of 1,413 Nāgarī pages of a commentary by Patanjali, with a composition date of about 150 BCE, the surviving copy transcribed about 14th century CE.Original manuscript, dates in Saka Samvat, and uncertainties associated with it: === East Asia ===In the 7th century, under the rule of Songtsen Gampo of the Tibetan Empire, Thonmi Sambhota was sent to Nepal to open marriage negotiations with a Nepali princess and to find a writing system suitable for the Tibetan language.", "He then invented the Tibetan script based on the Nāgarī used in Kashmir.", "He added 6 new characters for sounds that did not exist in Sanskrit.Other scripts closely related to Nāgarī (such as Siddhaṃ) were introduced throughout East and Southeast Asia from the 7th to the 10th centuries CE: notably in Indonesia, Vietnam, and Japan.Most of the Southeast Asian scripts have roots in Dravidian scripts, but a few found in south-central regions of Java and isolated parts of southeast Asia resemble Devanāgarī or its prototypes.", "The Kawi script in particular is similar to the Devanāgarī in many respects, though the morphology of the script has local changes.", "The earliest inscriptions in the Devanāgarī-like scripts are from around the 10th century CE, with many more between the 11th and 14th centuries.Some of the old-Devanāgarī inscriptions are found in Hindu temples of Java, such as the Prambanan temple.", "The Ligor and the Kalasan inscriptions of central Java, dated to the 8th century, are also in the Nāgarī script of north India.", "According to the epigraphist and Asian Studies scholar Lawrence Briggs, these may be related to the 9th century copper plate inscription of Devapaladeva (Bengal) which is also in early Devanāgarī script.", "The term kawi in Kawi script is a loan word from (poetry).", "According to anthropologists and Asian studies scholars John Norman Miksic and Goh Geok Yian, the 8th century version of early Nāgarī or Devanāgarī script was adopted in Java, Bali, and Khmer around the 8th–9th centuries, as evidenced by the many contemporaneous inscriptions of this period." ], [ "Letters", "The letter order of Devanāgarī, like nearly all Brāhmic scripts, is based on phonetic principles that consider both the manner and place of articulation of the consonants and vowels they represent.", "This arrangement is usually referred to as the (\"garland of letters\").", "The format of Devanāgarī for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application, with minor variations or additions, to other languages.=== Vowels ===The vowels and their arrangement are: Independent form IAST ISO IPA As diacritic with (Barakhadi) Independent form IAST ISO IPA As diacritic with (Barakhadi)''''(Guttural) ''''(Palatal) (Labial) 6 6''''(Retroflex) 4 (Dental) 4 4, 5 ''''(Palatoguttural) ''''(Labioguttural) / 1,2 / 1 7 7 # Arranged with the vowels are two consonantal diacritics, the final nasal and the final fricative (called and ).", "notes of the in Sanskrit that \"there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganic nasal stop , a nasalised vowel, a nasalised semivowel, or all these according to context\".", "The represents post-vocalic voiceless glottal fricative , in Sanskrit an allophone of , or less commonly , usually in word-final position.", "Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the vowel after the breath: .", "considers the along with letters and for the \"largely predictable\" velar and palatal nasals to be examples of \"phonetic overkill in the system\".# Another diacritic is the / .", "describes it as a \"more emphatic form\" of the , \"sometimes used to mark a true vowel nasalization\".", "In a new Indo-Aryan language such as Hindi the distinction is formal: the indicates vowel nasalisation while the indicates a homorganic nasal preceding another consonant: e.g., \"laughter\", \"the Ganges\".", "When an has a vowel diacritic above the top line, that leaves no room for the (\"moon\") stroke , which is dispensed with in favour of the lone dot: \"am\", but \"are\".", "Some writers and typesetters dispense with the \"moon\" stroke altogether, using only the dot in all situations.# The ( ) (usually transliterated with an apostrophe) is a Sanskrit punctuation mark for the elision of a vowel in sandhi: ( ← + ) (\"this one\").", "An original long vowel lost to coalescence is sometimes marked with a double : ( ← + ) \"always, the self\".", "In Hindi, states that its \"main function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout\": .", "In Madhyadeshi languages like Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili, etc.", "which have \"quite a number of verbal forms that end in that inherent vowel\", the is used to mark the ''non-''elision of word-final inherent , which otherwise is a modern orthographic convention: \"sit\" versus # The syllabic consonants , , and are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the of other languages.", "The sound represented by has also been largely lost in the modern languages, and its pronunciation now ranges from (Hindi) to (Marathi).# is not an actual phoneme of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters.# There are non-regular formations of , , and .# There are two more vowels in Marathi, and , that respectively represent , similar to the RP English pronunciation of in ''act'', and , similar to the RP pronunciation of in ''cot''.", "These vowels are sometimes used in Hindi too, as in (\"dollar\").", "IAST transliteration is not defined.", "In ISO 15919, the transliteration is and , respectively.# Kashmiri Devanagari uses letters like , , , , , , , to represent its vowels (see Kashmiri_language#Devanagari).=== Consonants ===The table below shows the consonant letters (in combination with inherent vowel ) and their arrangement.", "To the right of the Devanāgarī letter it shows the Latin script transliteration using International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, and the phonetic value (IPA) in Hindi.", "Phonetics → (Occlusive) (Nasal) (Approximant) /(Fricative) Voicing → Aspiration → (Velar)(Palatal)(Retroflex)(Dental)(Labial)* Additionally, there is (IPA: or ), the intervocalic lateral flap allophone of the voiced retroflex stop in Vedic Sanskrit, which is a phoneme in languages such as Marathi, Konkani, Garhwali, and Rajasthani.", "* Beyond the Sanskritic set, new shapes have rarely been formulated.", "offers the following, \"In any case, according to some, all possible sounds had already been described and provided for in this system, as Sanskrit was the original and perfect language.", "Hence it was difficult to provide for or even to conceive ''other'' sounds, unknown to the phoneticians of Sanskrit\".", "Where foreign borrowings and internal developments did inevitably accrue and arise in New Indo-Aryan languages, they have been ignored in writing, or dealt through means such as diacritics and ligatures (ignored in recitation).", " The most prolific diacritic has been the subscript dot () .", "Hindi uses it for the Persian, Arabic and English sounds /q/, /x/, /ɣ/, /z/, /ʒ/, and /f/, and for the allophonic developments /ɽ/ and .", "(Although could also exist, it is not used in Hindi.", ") Devanagari used to write Mahl dialect of Dhivehi uses nukta on , , , , , , to represent other Perso-Arabic phonemes (see Maldivian_writing_systems#Devanagari_script_for_Mahl).", " Sindhi's and Saraiki's implosives are accommodated with a line attached below: , , , .", " Aspirated sonorants may be represented as conjuncts/ligatures with : , , , , , , .", " notes Marwari as using for (while represents ).", " Devanagari used to write Avestan uses letters like /ʒ/ to represent its sounds.For a list of all 297 (33×9) possible Sanskrit consonant-short vowel syllables see .=== Vowel diacritics ===Vowel diacritics on Table: Consonants with vowel diacritics.", "Vowels in their independent form on the top and in their corresponding dependent form (vowel sign) combined with the consonant '' on the bottom. ''", "is without any added vowel sign, where the vowel '' is inherent.aāêôiīuūeēaioōaur̥r̥̄l̥l̥̄ṁḥअआॲऑइईउऊऎएऐऒओऔऋॠऌॡअंअःkakākêkôkikīkukūkekēkaikokōkaukr̥kr̥̄kl̥kl̥̄kaṁkaḥkककाकॅकॉकिकीकुकूकॆकेकैकॊकोकौकृकॄकॢकॣकंकःक्A vowel combines with a consonant in their diacritic form.", "For example, the vowel () combines with the consonant () to form the syllabic letter (), with halant (cancel sign) removed and added vowel sign which is indicated by diacritics.", "The vowel () combines with the consonant () to form () with halant removed.", "But the diacritic series of , , , (, respectively) is without any added vowel sign, as the vowel () is inherent.", "The is a commentary on the ''Bhagavad Gita'', dated to 1290 CE.", "It is in written in Marathi using the Devanāgarī script.", "The combinations of all consonants and vowels, each in alphabetical order, are laid out in the () or () table.", "In the following table, the transliteration of each combination will appear on mouseover: Barakhadi tableaāiīuūeaioauaṁaḥ k- kh- g- gh- ṅ- c- ch- j- jh- ñ- ṭ- ṭh- ḍ- ḍh- ṇ- t- th- d- dh- n- p- ph- b- bh- m- y- r- l- v- ś- ṣ- s- h-=== Old forms ===A mid-10th century Sanskrit land grant for a college, written in Devanāgarī, and discovered on a stone buried in north Karnataka.", "Parts of the inscription are written in Canarese script.The following letter variants are also in use, particularly in older texts and in specific regions:+ Letter variants Standard Ancient 15px 15px 15px 15px 15px 15px 15px 15px=== Conjunct consonants ===Picture with conjuncts from ''An Elementary Grammar of the Sanscrit Language'', page 25, Monier Monier-Williams (1846).As mentioned, successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join as a conjunct consonant or ligature.", "When Devanāgarī is used for writing languages other than Sanskrit, conjuncts are used mostly with Sanskrit words and loan words.", "Native words typically use the basic consonant and native speakers know to suppress the vowel when it is conventional to do so.", "For example, the native Hindi word is written ().", "The government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules, with special exceptions within.", "While standardised for the most part, there are certain variations in clustering, of which the Unicode used on this page is just one scheme.", "The following are a number of rules:All forms of * 24 out of the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke ( , , etc.).", "As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster (when letters are to be written as half pronounced), they lose that stroke.", "e.g.", "+ = , + = , + = .", "In Unicode, as in Hindi, these consonants without their vertical stems are called \"half forms\".", "appears as a different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment preceding , , , , and , causing these second members to be shifted down and reduced in size.", "Thus , , , , , and .", "* as a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or its diacritic.", "e.g.", ", , , .", "As a final member with , , , , , , it is two lines together below the character pointed downwards.", "Thus , , , , , .", "Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke extending leftwards and down.", "e.g.", ".", "is shifted up to make the conjunct .", "* As first members, remaining characters lacking vertical strokes such as and may have their second member, reduced in size and lacking its horizontal stroke, placed underneath.", ", , and shorten their right hooks and join them directly to the following member.", "* The conjuncts for and are not clearly derived from the letters making up their components.", "The conjunct for is ( + ) and for it is ( + ).=== Accent marks ===The pitch accent of Vedic Sanskrit is written with various symbols depending on shakha.", "In the Rigveda, is written with a bar below the line (), with a stroke above the line () while is unmarked.=== Punctuation ===The end of a sentence or half-verse may be marked with the \"\" symbol (called a , meaning \"bar\", or called a , meaning \"full stop/pause\").", "The end of a full verse may be marked with a double-, a \"\" symbol.", "A comma (called an '''', meaning \"short stop/pause\") is used to denote a natural pause in speech.", "Punctuation marks of Western origin, such as the colon, semicolon, exclamation mark, dash, and question mark have been in use in Devanāgarī script since at least the 1900s, matching their use in European languages.=== Numerals ===+ '''Devanāgarī digits''' === Fonts ===A variety of Unicode fonts are in use for Devanāgarī.", "These include Akshar, Annapurna, Arial, CDAC-Gist Surekh, CDAC-Gist Yogesh, Chandas, Gargi, Gurumaa, Jaipur, Jana, Kalimati, Kanjirowa, Lohit Devanagari, Mangal, Kokila, Raghu, Sanskrit2003, Santipur OT, Siddhanta, and Thyaka.The form of Devanāgarī fonts vary with function.", "According to Harvard College for Sanskrit studies: The Google Fonts project has a number of Unicode fonts for Devanāgarī in a variety of typefaces in serif, sans-serif, display and handwriting categories." ], [ "Transliteration", "Indic scripts share common features, and along with Devanāgarī, all major Indic scripts have been historically used to preserve Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts.There are several methods of Romanisation or transliteration from Devanāgarī to the Roman script.=== Hunterian system ===The Hunterian system is the national system of romanisation in India, officially adopted by the Government of India.=== ISO 15919 ===A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001.It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brāhmic graphemes to the Latin script.", "The Devanāgarī-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for Sanskrit, IAST.=== IAST ===The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is the academic standard for the romanisation of Sanskrit.", "IAST is the de facto standard used in printed publications, like books, magazines, and electronic texts with Unicode fonts.", "It is based on a standard established by the ''Congress of Orientalists'' at Athens in 1912.The ISO 15919 standard of 2001 codified the transliteration convention to include an expanded standard for sister scripts of Devanāgarī.The National Library at Kolkata romanisation, intended for the romanisation of all Indic scripts, is an extension of IAST.=== Harvard-Kyoto ===Compared to IAST, Harvard-Kyoto looks much simpler.", "It does not contain all the diacritic marks that IAST contains.", "It was designed to simplify the task of putting large amount of Sanskrit textual material into machine readable form, and the inventors stated that it reduces the effort needed in transliteration of Sanskrit texts on the keyboard.", "This makes typing in Harvard-Kyoto much easier than IAST.", "Harvard-Kyoto uses capital letters that can be difficult to read in the middle of words.=== ITRANS ===ITRANS is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanāgarī into ASCII that is widely used on Usenet.", "It is an extension of the Harvard-Kyoto scheme.", "In ITRANS, the word is written \"devanaagarii\" or \"devanAgarI\".", "ITRANS is associated with an application of the same name that enables typesetting in Indic scripts.", "The user inputs in Roman letters and the ITRANS pre-processor translates the Roman letters into Devanāgarī (or other Indic languages).", "The latest version of ITRANS is version 5.30 released in July 2001.It is similar to Velthuis system and was created by Avinash Chopde to help print various Indic scripts with personal computers.==== Velthuis ====The disadvantage of the above ASCII schemes is case-sensitivity, implying that transliterated names may not be capitalised.", "This difficulty is avoided with the system developed in 1996 by Frans Velthuis for TeX, loosely based on IAST, in which case is irrelevant.=== ALA-LC Romanisation ===ALA-LC romanisation is a transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association, and widely used in North American libraries.", "Transliteration tables are based on languages, so there is a table for Hindi, one for Sanskrit and Prakrit, etc.=== WX ===WX is a Roman transliteration scheme for Indian languages, widely used among the natural language processing community in India.", "It originated at IIT Kanpur for computational processing of Indian languages.", "The salient features of this transliteration scheme are as follows.", "* Every consonant and every vowel has a single mapping into Roman.", "Hence it is a prefix code, advantageous from computation point of view.", "* Lower-case letters are used for unaspirated consonants and short vowels, while capital letters are used for aspirated consonants and long vowels.", "While the retroflex stops are mapped to 't, T, d, D, N', the dentals are mapped to 'w, W, x, X, n'.", "Hence the name 'WX', a reminder of this idiosyncratic mapping." ], [ "Encodings", "=== ISCII ===ISCII is an 8-bit encoding.", "The lower 128 codepoints are plain ASCII, the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific.It has been designed for representing not only Devanāgarī but also various other Indic scripts as well as a Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts.ISCII has largely been superseded by Unicode, which has, however, attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks.=== Unicode ===The Unicode Standard defines four blocks for Devanāgarī: Devanagari (U+0900–U+097F), Devanagari Extended (U+A8E0–U+A8FF), Devanagari Extended-A (U+11B00–11B5F), and Vedic Extensions (U+1CD0–U+1CFF)." ], [ "Devanāgari keyboard layouts", "Introduction to Inscript Key board=== InScript layout ===InScript is the standard keyboard layout for Devanāgarī as standardized by the Government of India.", "It is inbuilt in all modern major operating systems.", "Microsoft Windows supports the InScript layout, which can be used to input unicode Devanāgarī characters.", "InScript is also available in some touchscreen mobile phones.Devanāgarī INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard layout=== Typewriter ===This layout was used on manual typewriters when computers were not available or were uncommon.", "For backward compatibility some typing tools like Indic IME still provide this layout.=== Phonetic ===Devanāgari Phonetic Keyboard LayoutTransliteration) or \"\" (Inscript) typing options to search or edit Devanagari-script articles as shown in this video clip example.", "CC instructions are available for British English.Such tools work on phonetic transliteration.", "The user writes in the Latin alphabet and the IME automatically converts it into Devanāgarī.", "Some popular phonetic typing tools are Akruti, Baraha IME and Google IME.The Mac OS X operating system includes two different keyboard layouts for Devanāgarī: one resembles the INSCRIPT/KDE Linux, while the other is a phonetic layout called \"Devanāgarī QWERTY\".Any one of the Unicode fonts input systems is fine for the Indic language Wikipedia and other wikiprojects, including Hindi, Bhojpuri, Marathi, and Nepali Wikipedia.", "While some people use InScript, the majority uses either Google phonetic transliteration or the input facility Universal Language Selector provided on Wikipedia.", "On Indic language wikiprojects, the phonetic facility provided initially was java-based, and was later supported by Narayam extension for phonetic input facility.", "Currently Indic language Wiki projects are supported by Universal Language Selector (ULS), that offers both phonetic keyboard (Aksharantaran, Marathi: , Hindi: ) and InScript keyboard (Marathi: ).The Ubuntu Linux operating system supports several keyboard layouts for Devanāgarī, including Harvard-Kyoto, WX notation, Bolanagari and phonetic.", "The 'remington' typing method in Ubuntu IBUS is similar to the Krutidev typing method, popular in Rajasthan.", "The 'itrans' method is useful for those who know English (and the English keyboard) well but are not familiar with typing in Devanāgarī." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General sources ===* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .=== Census and catalogues of manuscripts in Devanāgarī ===Thousands of manuscripts of ancient and medieval era Sanskrit texts in Devanāgarī have been discovered since the 19th century.", "Major catalogues and census include:* , Medical Hall Press, Princeton University Archive* , Vol 1: Upanishads, Friedrich Otto Schrader (Compiler), University of Michigan Library Archives* A preliminary list of the Sanskrit and Prakrit manuscripts, Vedas, Sastras, Sutras, Schools of Hindu Philosophies, Arts, Design, Music and other fields, Friedrich Otto Schrader (Compiler), (Devanagiri manuscripts are identified by Character code '''De.", "''')* Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, Part 1: Vedic Manuscripts, Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)* Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, Part 4: Manuscripts of Hindu schools of Philosophy and Tantra, Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)* Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, Part 5: Manuscripts of Medicine, Astronomy and Mathematics, Architecture and Technical Science Literature, Julius Eggeling (Compiler), Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)* , Part 6: Poetic, Epic and Purana Literature, Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)* David Pingree (1970–1981), Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit: Volumes 1 through 5, American Philosophical Society , Manuscripts in various Indic scripts including Devanāgarī" ], [ "External links", "* Devnagari Unicode Legacy Font Converters * Digital Nāgarī fonts, University of Chicago* Devanāgarī in different fonts, Wazu, Japan (Alternate collection: Luc Devroye's comprehensive Indic Fonts , McGill University)* , Rudradaman's inscription in Sanskrit Nāgarī script from 1st through 4th century CE (coins and epigraphy), found in Gujarat, India, pages 30–45* Numerals and Text in Devanāgarī , 9th century temple in Gwalior Madhya Pradesh, India, Current Science*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diplomatic mission" ], [ "Introduction", "Spanish embassy to the Holy See and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta in RomeEmbassy of the United States in Helsinki, FinlandMultiple embassies in one location: The embassies of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden in a joint compound of Nordic Embassies in Berlin, Germany.A '''diplomatic mission''' or '''foreign mission''' is a group of people from a state or organization present in another state to represent the sending state or organization officially in the receiving or host state.", "In practice, the phrase usually denotes an '''embassy''' or '''high commission''', which is the main office of a country's diplomatic representatives to another country; it is usually, but not necessarily, based in the receiving state's capital city.", "Consulates, on the other hand, are smaller diplomatic missions that are normally located in major cities of the receiving state (but can be located in the capital, typically when the sending country has no embassy in the receiving state).", "As well as being a diplomatic mission to the country in which it is situated, an embassy may also be a nonresident permanent mission to one or more other countries.The term embassy is sometimes used interchangeably with chancery, the physical office or site of a diplomatic mission.", "Consequently, the terms \"embassy residence\" and \"embassy office\" are used to distinguish between the ambassador's residence and the chancery." ], [ "Terminology", "A country may have several different types of diplomatic missions in another country.", ";Embassy: Diplomatic mission generally located in the capital city of another country which offers a full range of services, including consular services.", ";High commission: Embassy of a Commonwealth country located in another Commonwealth country.", ";Permanent mission: Diplomatic mission to a major international organization.", ";Consulate-general: Diplomatic mission located in a major city, usually other than the capital city, which provides a full range of consular services.", ";Consulate: Diplomatic mission that is similar to a consulate general but may not provide a full range of services.", ";Legation: Diplomatic representative office of lower rank than an embassy.", "Where an embassy was headed by an ambassador, a legation was headed by a minister.", "Ambassadors outranked ministers and had precedence at official events.", "Legations were originally the most common form of diplomatic mission, but they fell out of favor after World War II and were upgraded to embassies.", ";Honorary Consul: The head of a consular mission which provides only a limited range of services.The head of an embassy is known as an ambassador or high commissioner.", "The term ''embassy'' is commonly used also as a section of a building in which the work of the diplomatic mission is carried out, but strictly speaking, it is the diplomatic delegation itself that is the embassy, while the office space and the diplomatic work done is called the ''chancery''.", "Therefore, the embassy operates in the chancery.The members of a diplomatic mission can reside within or outside the building that holds the mission's chancery, and their private residences enjoy the same rights as the premises of the mission as regards inviolability and protection.All missions to the United Nations are known simply as ''permanent missions'', while EU member states' missions to the European Union are known as ''permanent representations'', and the head of such a mission is typically both a permanent representative and an ambassador.", "European Union missions abroad are known as EU delegations.", "Some countries have more particular nomenclature for their missions and staff: a Vatican mission is headed by a ''nuncio'' (Latin for \"envoy\") and consequently known as an ''apostolic nunciature''.", "Under the rule of Muammar Gaddafi, Libya's missions used the name ''people's bureau'', headed by a secretary.Missions between Commonwealth countries are known as ''high commissions'', and their heads are high commissioners.", "Generally speaking, ambassadors and high commissioners are regarded as equivalent in status and function, and embassies and high commissions are both deemed to be diplomatic missions.In the past, a diplomatic mission headed by a lower-ranking official (an ''envoy'' or ''minister resident'') was known as a ''legation''.", "Since the ranks of envoy and minister resident are effectively obsolete, the designation of ''legation'' is no longer among the diplomatic ranks used in diplomacy and international relations.A consulate is similar to, but not the same as a diplomatic office, but with focus on dealing with individual persons and businesses, as defined by the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations.", "A consulate or consulate general is generally a representative of the embassy in locales outside of the capital city.", "For instance, the Philippines has its embassy to the United States in the latter's capital, Washington, D.C., but also maintains seven consulates-general in major US cities.", "The person in charge of a consulate or consulate-general is known as a consul or consul-general, respectively.", "Similar services may also be provided at the embassy (to serve the region of the capital) in what is normally called a consular section.In cases of dispute, it is common for a country to recall its head of mission as a sign of its displeasure.", "This is less drastic than cutting diplomatic relations completely, and the mission will still continue operating more or less normally, but it will now be headed by a ''chargé d'affaires'' (usually the deputy chief of mission) who may have limited powers.", "A ''chargé d'affaires ad interim'' also heads the mission during the interim between the end of one chief of mission's term and the beginning of another." ], [ "Extraterritoriality", "Seal of a diplomatic corpsContrary to popular belief, diplomatic missions sometimes do not enjoy full extraterritorial status and are generally not sovereign territory of the represented state.", "The sending state can give embassies sovereign status but this only happens with a minority of countries.", "Rather, the premises of an embassy remain under the jurisdiction of the host state while being afforded special privileges (such as immunity from most local laws) by the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.", "Diplomats themselves still retain full diplomatic immunity, and (as an adherent to the Vienna Convention) the authorities of the host country may not enter the premises of the mission (which means the head of mission's residence) without permission of the represented country, even to put out a fire.", "International rules designate an attack on an embassy as an attack on the country it represents.", "The term 'extraterritoriality' is often applied to diplomatic missions, but normally only in this broader sense.As the host country's authorities may not enter the representing country's embassy without permission, embassies are sometimes used by refugees escaping from either the host country or a third country.", "For example, North Korean nationals, who would be arrested and deported from China upon discovery, have sought sanctuary at various third-country embassies in China.", "Once inside the embassy, diplomatic channels can be used to solve the issue and send the refugees to another country.", "See the list of people who took refuge in a diplomatic mission for a list of some notable cases.Notable violations of embassy extraterritoriality include repeated invasions of the British Embassy in Beijing (1967), the hostage crisis at the American embassy in Tehran, Iran (1979–1981), and the hostage crisis at the Japanese ambassador's residence in Lima, Peru (1996–1997)." ], [ "Role", "Embassy of Argentina, Beijing, Chinafunctioning as a polling stationThe basic role of a diplomatic mission is to represent and safeguard the interests of the home country and its citizens in the host country.", "According to the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which establishes the framework of diplomacy among sovereign states:The functions of a diplomatic mission consist, ''inter alia'', in representing the sending State in the receiving State; protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law; negotiating with the Government of the receiving State; ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State; promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations.Diplomatic missions between members of the Commonwealth of Nations are not called embassies, but high commissions, for Commonwealth nations share a special diplomatic relationship.", "It is generally expected that an embassy of a Commonwealth country in a non-Commonwealth country will do its best to provide diplomatic services to citizens from other Commonwealth countries if the citizen's country does not have an embassy in that country.", "Canadian and Australian nationals enjoy even greater cooperation between their respective consular services, as outlined in the Canada-Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement.", "The same kind of procedure is also followed multilaterally by the member states of the European Union (EU).", "European citizens in need of consular help in a country without diplomatic or consular representation of their own country may turn to any consular or diplomatic mission of another EU member state (art.", "23 TFEU)." ], [ "Multiple missions in a city", "Some cities may host more than one mission from the same country.In Rome, many states maintain separate missions to both Italy and the Holy See.", "It is not customary for these missions to share premises nor personnel.", "At present, only the Iraqi and United States embassies to Italy and the Holy See share premises; however, separate ambassadors are appointed, one to each country.", "In the case of the UN's Food Agencies, the sending country's ambassador to the Italian Republic is usually accredited as permanent representative.", "The United States maintains a separate mission to the UN agencies, led by its own ambassador, but is located in the compound that houses its embassies to Italy and the Holy See.Several cities host both embassies/consulates and permanent representatives to international organizations, such as New York City (United Nations), Washington, D.C. (Organization of American States), Jakarta (ASEAN) and Brussels (European Union and North Atlantic Treaty Organization).In some cases, an embassy or consulate is divided between multiple locations in the same city.", "For example, the Bangladeshi Deputy High Commission in Kolkata, has two locations: one at Park Circus and another, opened later, at Mirza Ghalib Street, to reduce overcrowding." ], [ "Non-diplomatic offices", "Governments of states not recognized by the receiving state and of territories that make no claim to be sovereign states may set up offices abroad that do not have official diplomatic status as defined by the Vienna Convention.", "Examples are the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Offices that represent the government of the Republic of China; Somaliland's Representative Offices in London, Addis Ababa, Rome, Taipei, and Washington, D.C.; the Hong Kong and Macau economic and trade offices that represent the governments of those two territories.", "Such offices assume some of the non-diplomatic functions of diplomatic posts, such as promoting trade interests and providing assistance to its citizens and residents.", "They are nevertheless not diplomatic missions, their personnel are not diplomats and do not have diplomatic visas, although there may be legislation providing for personal immunities and tax privileges, as in the case of the Hong Kong offices in London and Toronto or the Macau office in Lisbon, for example." ], [ "See also", "* International relations* Diplomacy* Embassy chapel* Embassy Row, Washington, D.C.* List of attacks on diplomatic missions* List of countries by number of diplomatic missions* Lists of diplomatic missions* List of people who took refuge in a diplomatic mission* Paradiplomacy* Chancery" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Embassies and consulates around the world* Embassies and Consulates Search Directory* What is the difference between an Embassy and a Consulate?" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "DEC Alpha" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Alpha''' (original name '''Alpha AXP''') is a 64-bit reduced instruction set computer (RISC) instruction set architecture (ISA) developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).", "Alpha was designed to replace 32-bit VAX complex instruction set computers (CISC) and to be a highly competitive RISC processor for Unix workstations and similar markets.Alpha is implemented in a series of microprocessors originally developed and fabricated by DEC.", "These microprocessors are most prominently used in a variety of DEC workstations and servers, which eventually formed the basis for almost all of their mid-to-upper-scale lineup.", "Several third-party vendors also produced Alpha systems, including PC form factor motherboards.Operating systems that support Alpha included OpenVMS (formerly named OpenVMS AXP), Tru64 UNIX (formerly named DEC OSF/1 AXP and Digital UNIX), Windows NT (discontinued after NT 4.0; and prerelease Windows 2000 RC2), Linux (Debian, SUSE, Gentoo and Red Hat), BSD UNIX (NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD up to 6.x), Plan 9 from Bell Labs, and the L4Ka::Pistachio kernel.", "A port of Ultrix to Alpha was carried out during the initial development of the Alpha architecture, but was never released as a product.The Alpha architecture was sold, along with most parts of DEC, to Compaq in 1998.Compaq, already an Intel x86 customer, announced that they would phase out Alpha in favor of the forthcoming Hewlett-Packard/Intel Itanium architecture, and sold all Alpha intellectual property to Intel, in 2001, effectively killing the product.", "Hewlett-Packard purchased Compaq in 2002, continuing development of the existing product line until 2004, and selling Alpha-based systems, largely to the existing customer base, until April 2007." ], [ "History", "===PRISM===Alpha emerged from an earlier RISC project named Parallel Reduced Instruction Set Machine (PRISM), itself the product of several earlier projects.", "PRISM was intended to be a flexible design, supporting Unix-like applications, and Digital's existing VAX/VMS software, after minor conversion.", "A new operating system named MICA would support both ULTRIX and VAX/VMS interfaces on a common kernel, allowing software for both platforms to be easily ported to the PRISM architecture.Started in 1985, the PRISM design was continually changed during its development in response to changes in the computer market, leading to lengthy delays in its introduction.", "It was not until the summer of 1987 that it was decided that it would be a 64-bit design, among the earliest such designs in a microprocessor format.", "In October 1987, Sun Microsystems introduced the Sun-4, their first workstation using their new SPARC processor.", "The Sun-4 runs about three to four times as fast as their latest Sun-3 designs using the Motorola 68020, and any Unix offering from DEC.", "The plans changed again; PRISM was realigned once again as a 32-bit part and aimed directly at the Unix market.", "This further delayed the design.Having watched the PRISM delivery date continue to slip, and facing the possibility of more delays, a team in the Palo Alto office decided to design their own workstation using another RISC processor.", "After due diligence, they selected the MIPS R2000 and built a working workstation running Ultrix in a period of 90 days.", "This sparked off an acrimonious debate within the company, which came to a head in a July 1988 management meeting.", "PRISM appeared to be faster than the R2000, but the R2000 machines could be in the market by January 1989, a year earlier than PRISM.", "When this proposal was accepted, one of the two original roles for PRISM disappeared.", "The decision to make a VMS PRISM had already ended by this point, so there was no remaining role.", "PRISM was cancelled at the meeting.===RISCy VAX===As the meeting broke up, Bob Supnik was approached by Ken Olsen, who stated that the RISC chips appeared to be a future threat to their VAX line.", "He asked Supnik to consider what might be done with VAX to keep it competitive with future RISC systems.This led to the formation of the \"RISCy VAX\" team.", "They initially considered three concepts.", "One was a cut-down version of the VAX instruction set architecture (ISA) that would run on a RISC-like system and leave more complex VAX instructions to system subroutines.", "Another concept was a pure RISC system that would translate existing VAX code into its own ISA on-the-fly and store it in a CPU cache.", "Finally, there was still the possibility of a much faster CISC processor running the complete VAX ISA.", "Unfortunately, all of these approaches introduced overhead and would not be competitive with a pure-RISC machine running native RISC code.The group then considered hybrid systems that combined one of their existing VAX one-chip solution and a RISC chip as a coprocessor used for high-performance needs.", "These studies suggested that the system would inevitably be hamstrung by the lower-performance part and would offer no compelling advantage.", "It was at this point that Nancy Kronenberg pointed out that people ran VMS, not VAX, and that VMS only had a few hardware dependencies based on its modelling of interrupts and memory paging.", "There appeared to be no compelling reason why VMS could not be ported to a RISC chip as long as these small bits of the model were preserved.", "Further work on this concept suggested this was a workable approach.Supnik took the resulting report to the Strategy Task Force in February 1989.Two questions were raised: could the resulting RISC design also be a performance leader in the Unix market, and should the machine be an open standard?", "And with that, the decision was made to adopt the PRISM architecture with the appropriate modifications.", "This became the \"EVAX\" concept, a follow-on to the successful CMOS CVAX implementation.", "When management accepted the findings, they decided to give the project a more neutral name, removing \"VAX\", eventually settling on Alpha.", "Soon after, work began on a port of VMS to the new architecture.===Alpha===The new design uses most of the basic PRISM concepts, but was re-tuned to allow VMS and VMS programs to run at reasonable speed with no conversion at all.", "The primary Alpha instruction set architects were Richard L. Sites and Richard T. Witek.", "The PRISM's Epicode was developed into the Alpha's PALcode, providing an abstracted interface to platform- and processor implementation-specific features.The main contribution of Alpha to the microprocessor industry, and the main reason for its performance, is not so much the architecture but rather its implementation.", "At that time (as it is now), the microchip industry was dominated by automated design and layout tools.", "The chip designers at Digital continued pursuing sophisticated manual circuit design in order to deal with the complex VAX architecture.", "The Alpha chips show that manual circuit design applied to a simpler, cleaner architecture allows for much higher operating frequencies than those that are possible with the more automated design systems.", "These chips caused a renaissance of custom circuit design within the microprocessor design community.Originally, the Alpha processors were designated the ''DECchip 21x64'' series, with \"DECchip\" replaced in the mid-1990s with \"Alpha\".", "The first two digits, \"21\" signifies the 21st century, and the last two digits, \"64\" signifies 64 bits.", "The Alpha was designed as 64-bit from the start and there is no 32-bit version.", "The middle digit corresponds to the generation of the Alpha architecture.", "Internally, Alpha processors were also identified by ''EV'' numbers, EV officially standing for \"Extended VAX\" but having an alternative humorous meaning of \"Electric Vlasic\", giving homage to the Electric Pickle experiment at Western Research Lab.In May 1997, DEC sued Intel for allegedly infringing on its Alpha patents in designing the original Pentium, Pentium Pro, and Pentium II chips.", "As part of a settlement, much of DEC's chip design and fabrication business was sold to Intel.", "This included DEC's StrongARM implementation of the ARM computer architecture, which Intel marketed as the XScale processors commonly used in Pocket PCs.", "The core of Digital Semiconductor, the Alpha microprocessor group, remained with DEC, while the associated office buildings went to Intel as part of the Hudson fab.===Improved models===The first few generations of the Alpha chips were some of the most innovative of their time.", "* The first version, the ''Alpha 21064'' or ''EV4'', is the first CMOS microprocessor whose operating frequency rivalled higher-powered ECL minicomputers and mainframes.", "* The second, ''21164'' or ''EV5'', is the first microprocessor to place a large secondary cache on-chip.", "* The third, ''21264'' or ''EV6'', is the first microprocessor to combine both high operating frequency and the more complicated out-of-order execution microarchitecture.", "* The ''21364'' or ''EV7'' is the first high performance processor to have an on-chip memory controller.", "* The unproduced ''21464'' or ''EV8'' would have been the first to include simultaneous multithreading, but this version was canceled after the sale of DEC to Compaq.", "The ''Tarantula'' research project, which most likely would have been called ''EV9'', would have been the first Alpha processor to feature a vector processor unit.A persistent report attributed to DEC insiders suggests the choice of the ''AXP'' tag for the processor was made by DEC's legal department, which was still smarting from the VAX trademark fiasco.", "After a lengthy search the tag \"AXP\" was found to be entirely unencumbered.", "Within the computer industry, a joke got started that the acronym ''AXP'' meant \"Almost eXactly PRISM\"." ], [ "Design principles", "The Alpha architecture was intended to be a high-performance design.", "Digital intended the architecture to support a one-thousandfold increase in performance over twenty-five years.", "To ensure this, any architectural feature that impeded multiple instruction issue, clock rate or multiprocessing was removed.", "As a result, the Alpha does not have:* Branch delay slots* Suppressed instructions* Byte load or store instructions (later added with the Byte Word Extensions (BWX))===Condition codes===The Alpha does not have condition codes for integer instructions to remove a potential bottleneck at the condition status register.", "Instructions resulting in an overflow, such as adding two numbers whose result does not fit in 64 bits, write the 32 or 64 least significant bits to the destination register.", "The carry is generated by performing an unsigned compare on the result with either operand to see if the result is smaller than either operand.", "If the test was true, the value one is written to the least significant bit of the destination register to indicate the condition." ], [ "Registers", "+ DEC Alpha registers 63 .", ".", ".", "47 .", ".", ".", "31 .", ".", ".", "15 .", ".", ".", "01 00 ''(bit position)'' '''General-purpose registers''' R0 R0 R1 R1 R2 R2 • • • R29 R29 R30 R30 R31 ''(zero)'' R31, always zero '''Floating-point registers''' F0 F0 F1 F1 F2 F2 • • • F29 F29 F30 F30 F31 ''(zero)'' F31, always zero '''Program counter''' PC 0 0 '''P'''rogram '''C'''ounter '''Control registers''' LR0 '''L'''ock '''R'''egister 0 LR1 '''L'''ock '''R'''egister 1 FPCR '''FP''' '''C'''ontrol '''R'''egister The architecture defines a set of 32 integer registers and a set of 32 floating-point registers in addition to a program counter, two lock registers and a floating-point control register (FPCR).", "It also defines registers that were optional, implemented only if the implementation required them.", "Lastly, registers for PALcode are defined.The integer registers are denoted by R0 to R31 and floating-point registers are denoted by F0 to F31.The R31 and F31 registers are hardwired to zero and writes to those registers by instructions are ignored.", "Digital considered using a combined register file, but a split register file was determined to be better, as it enables two-chip implementations to have a register file located on each chip and integer-only implementations to omit the floating-point register file containing the floating-point registers.", "A split register file was also determined to be more suitable for multiple instruction issue due to the reduced number of read and write ports.", "The number of registers per register file was also considered, with 32 and 64 being contenders.", "Digital concluded that 32 registers was more suitable as it required less die space, which improves clock frequencies.", "This number of registers was deemed not to be a major issue in respect to performance and future growth, as thirty-two registers could support at least eight-way instruction issue.The program counter is a 64-bit register which contains a longword-aligned virtual byte address, that is, the low two bits of the program counter are always zero.", "The PC is incremented by four to the address of the next instruction when an instruction is decoded.", "A lock flag and locked physical address register are used by the load-locked and store-conditional instructions for multiprocessor support.", "The floating-point control register (FPCR) is a 64-bit register defined by the architecture intended for use by Alpha implementations with IEEE 754-compliant floating-point hardware." ], [ "Data types", "In the Alpha architecture, a ''byte'' is defined as an 8-bit datum (octet), a ''word'' as a 16-bit datum, a ''longword'' as a 32-bit datum, a ''quadword'' as a 64-bit datum, and an ''octaword'' as a 128-bit datum.The Alpha architecture originally defined six data types:* Quadword (64-bit) integer* Longword (32-bit) integer* IEEE T-floating-point (double precision, 64-bit)* IEEE S-floating-point (single precision, 32-bit)To maintain a level of compatibility with the VAX, the 32-bit architecture that preceded the Alpha, two other floating-point data types are included:* VAX G-floating point (double precision, 64-bit)* VAX F-floating point (single precision, 32-bit)VAX H-floating point (quad precision, 128-bit) was not supported, but another 128-bit floating-point option, X-floating point, is available on Alpha, but not VAX.H and X have been described as similar, but not identical.", "Software emulation for H-floating is available from DEC, as is a source-code level converter named DECmigrate." ], [ "Memory", "The Alpha has a 64-bit linear virtual address space with no memory segmentation.", "Implementations can implement a smaller virtual address space with a minimum size of 43 bits.", "Although the unused bits were not implemented in hardware such as TLBs, the architecture required implementations to check whether they are zero to ensure software compatibility with implementations with a larger (or full) virtual address space." ], [ "Instruction formats", "The Alpha ISA has a fixed instruction length of 32 bits.", "It has six instruction formats.", "31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 '''Type''' Opcode Ra Rb Unused 0 Function Rc Integer operate Opcode Ra Literal 1 Function Rc Integer operate, literal Opcode Ra Rb Function Rc Floating-point operate Opcode Ra Rb Displacement Memory format Opcode Ra Displacement Branch format Opcode Function CALL_PAL formatThe integer operate format is used by integer instructions.", "It contains a 6-bit opcode field, followed by the Ra field, which specifies the register containing the first operand and the Rb field, specifies the register containing the second operand.", "Next is a 3-bit field which is unused and reserved.", "A 1-bit field contains a \"0\", which distinguished this format from the integer literal format.", "A 7-bit function field follows, which is used in conjunction with the opcode to specify an operation.", "The last field is the Rc field, which specifies the register which the result of a computation should be written to.", "The register fields are all 5 bits long, required to address 32 unique locations, the 32 integer registers.The integer literal format is used by integer instructions which use a literal as one of the operands.", "The format is the same as the integer operate format except for the replacement of the 5-bit Rb field and the 3 bits of unused space with an 8-bit literal field which is zero-extended to a 64-bit operand.The floating-point operate format is used by floating-point instructions.", "It is similar to the integer operate format, but has an 11-bit function field made possible by using the literal and unused bits which are reserved in integer operate format.The memory format is used mostly by load and store instructions.", "It has a 6-bit opcode field, a 5-bit Ra field, a 5-bit Rb field and a 16-bit displacement field.Branch instructions have a 6-bit opcode field, a 5-bit Ra field and a 21-bit displacement field.", "The Ra field specifies a register to be tested by a conditional branch instruction, and if the condition is met, the program counter is updated by adding the contents of the displacement field with the program counter.", "The displacement field contains a signed integer and if the value of the integer is positive, if the branch is taken then the program counter is incremented.", "If the value of the integer is negative, then program counter is decremented if the branch is taken.", "The range of a branch thus is ±1 Mi instructions, or ±4 MiB.", "The Alpha Architecture was designed with a large range as part of the architecture's forward-looking goal.The CALL_PAL format is used by the CALL_PAL instruction, which is used to call PALcode subroutines.", "The format retains the opcode field but replaces the others with a 26-bit function field, which contains an integer specifying a PAL subroutine." ], [ "Instruction set", "===Control instructions===The control instructions consist of conditional and unconditional branches, and jumps.", "The conditional and unconditional branch instructions use the branch instruction format, while the jump instructions use the memory instruction format.Conditional branches test whether the least significant bit of a register is set or clear, or compare a register as a signed quadword to zero, and branch if the specified condition is true.", "The conditions available for comparing a register to zero are equality, inequality, less than, less than or equal to, greater than or equal to, and greater than.", "The new address is computed by longword aligning and sign extending the 21-bit displacement and adding it to the address of the instruction following the conditional branch.Unconditional branches update the program counter with a new address computed in the same way as conditional branches.", "They also save the address of the instruction following the unconditional branch to a register.", "There are two such instructions, and they differ only in the hints provided for the branch prediction hardware.There are four jump instructions.", "These all perform the same operation, saving the address of the instruction following the jump, and providing the program counter with a new address from a register.", "They differ in the hints provided to the branch prediction hardware.", "The unused displacement field is used for this purpose.===Integer arithmetic===The integer arithmetic instructions perform addition, multiplication, and subtraction on longwords and quadwords; and comparison on quadwords.", "There is no instruction(s) for division as the architects considered the implementation of division in hardware to be adverse to simplicity.", "In addition to the standard add and subtract instructions, there are ''scaled'' versions.", "These versions shift the second operand to the left by two or three bits before adding or subtracting.", "The ''Multiply Longword'' and ''Multiply Quadword'' instructions write the least significant 32 or 64 bits of a 64- or 128-bit result to the destination register, respectively.", "Since it is useful to obtain the most significant half, the ''Unsigned Multiply Quadword High'' (UMULH) instruction is provided.", "UMULH is used for implementing multi-precision arithmetic and division algorithms.", "The concept of a separate instruction for multiplication that returns the most significant half of a result was taken from PRISM.The instructions that operate on longwords ignore the most significant half of the register and the 32-bit result is sign-extended before it is written to the destination register.", "By default, the add, multiply, and subtract instructions, with the exception of UMULH and scaled versions of add and subtract, do not trap on overflow.", "When such functionality is required, versions of these instructions that perform overflow detection and trap on overflow are provided.The compare instructions compare two registers or a register and a literal and write '1' to the destination register if the specified condition is true or '0' if not.", "The conditions are equality, inequality, less than or equal to, and less than.", "With the exception of the instructions that specify the former two conditions, there are versions that perform signed and unsigned compares.The integer arithmetic instructions use the integer operate instruction formats.===Logical and shift===The logical instructions consist of those for performing bitwise logical operations and conditional moves on the integer registers.", "The bitwise logical instructions perform AND, NAND, NOR, OR, XNOR, and XOR between two registers or a register and literal.", "The conditional move instructions test a register as a signed quadword to zero and move if the specified condition is true.", "The specified conditions are equality, inequality, less than or equal to, less than, greater than or equal to, and greater than.", "The shift instructions perform arithmetic right shift, and logical left and right shifts.", "The shift amount is given by a register or literal.", "Logical and shift instructions use the integer operate instruction formats." ], [ "Extensions", "===Byte-Word Extensions (BWX)===Later Alphas include byte-word extensions, a set of instructions to manipulate 8-bit and 16-bit data types.", "These instructions were first introduced in the 21164A (EV56) microprocessor and are present in all subsequent implementations.", "These instructions perform operations that formerly required multiple instructions to implement, which improves code density and the performance of certain applications.", "BWX also makes the emulation of x86 machine code and the writing of device drivers easier.", "Mnemonic Instruction LDBU Load Zero-Extended Byte from Memory to Register LDWU Load Zero-Extended Word from Memory to Register SEXTB Sign Extend Byte SEXTW Sign Extend Word STB Store Byte from Register to Memory STW Store Word from Register to Memory===Motion Video Instructions (MVI)===Motion Video Instructions (MVI) was an instruction set extension to the Alpha ISA that added instructions for single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) operations.", "Alpha implementations that implement MVI, in chronological order, are the Alpha 21164PC (PCA56 and PCA57), Alpha 21264 (EV6) and Alpha 21364 (EV7).", "Unlike most other SIMD instruction sets of the same period, such as MIPS' MDMX or SPARC's Visual Instruction Set, but like PA-RISC's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX-1, MAX-2), MVI was a simple instruction set composed of a few instructions that operate on integer data types stored in existing integer registers.MVI's simplicity is due to two reasons.", "Firstly, Digital had determined that the Alpha 21164 was already capable of performing DVD decoding through software, therefore not requiring hardware provisions for the purpose, but was inefficient in MPEG-2 encoding.", "The second reason is the requirement to retain the fast cycle times of implementations.", "Adding many instructions would have complicated and enlarged the instruction decode logic, reducing an implementation's clock frequency.MVI consists of 13 instructions: Mnemonic Instruction MAXSB8 Vector Signed Byte Maximum MAXSW4 Vector Signed Word Maximum MAXUB8 Vector Unsigned Byte Maximum MAXUW4 Vector Unsigned Word Maximum MINSB8 Vector Signed Byte Minimum MINSW4 Vector Signed Word Minimum MINUB8 Vector Unsigned Byte Minimum MINUW4 Vector Unsigned Word Minimum PERR Pixel Error PKLB Pack Longwords to Bytes PKWB Pack Words to Bytes UNPKBL Unpack Bytes to Longwords UNPKBW Unpack Bytes to Words===Floating-point Extensions (FIX)===Floating-point extensions (FIX) are an extension to the Alpha Architecture.", "It introduces nine instructions for floating-point square-root and for transferring data to and from the integer registers and floating-point registers.", "The Alpha 21264 (EV6) is the first microprocessor to implement these instructions.", "Mnemonic Instruction FTOIS Floating-point to Integer Register Move, S_floating FTOIT Floating-point to Integer Register Move, T_floating ITOFF Integer to Floating-point Register Move, F_floating ITOFS Integer to Floating-point Register Move, S_floating ITOFT Integer to Floating-point Register Move, T_floating SQRTF Square root F_floating SQRTG Square root G_floating SQRTS Square root S_floating SQRTT Square root T_floating===Count Extensions (CIX)===Count Extensions (CIX) is an extension to the architecture which introduces three instructions for counting bits.", "These instructions are categorized as integer arithmetic instructions.", "They were first implemented on the Alpha 21264A (EV67).", "Mnemonic Instruction CTLZ Count Leading Zero CTPOP Count Population CTTZ Count Trailing Zero" ], [ "Implementations", "At the time of its announcement, Alpha was heralded as an architecture for the next 25 years.", "While this was not to be, Alpha has nevertheless had a reasonably long life.", "The first version, the ''Alpha 21064'' (otherwise named the ''EV4'') was introduced in November 1992 running at up to 192 MHz; a slight shrink of the die (the ''EV4S'', shrunk from 0.75 µm to 0.675 µm) ran at 200 MHz a few months later.", "The 64-bit processor was a superpipelined and superscalar design, like other RISC designs, but nevertheless outperformed them all and DEC touted it as the world's fastest processor.", "Careful attention to circuit design, a hallmark of the Hudson design team, like a huge centralized clock circuitry, allowed them to run the CPU at higher speeds, even though the microarchitecture was fairly similar to other RISC chips.", "In comparison, the less expensive Intel Pentium ran at 66 MHz when it was launched the following spring.The ''Alpha 21164'' or ''EV5'' became available in 1995 at processor frequencies of up to 333 MHz.", "In July 1996 the line was speed bumped to 500 MHz, in March 1998 to 666 MHz.", "Also in 1998 the ''Alpha 21264'' (''EV6'') was released at 450 MHz, eventually reaching (in 2001 with the ''21264C''/''EV68CB'') 1.25 GHz.", "In 2003, the ''Alpha 21364'' or ''EV7'' ''Marvel'' was launched, essentially an EV68 core with four 1.6 GB/s inter-processor communication links for improved multiprocessor system performance, running at 1 or 1.15 GHz.In 1996, the production of Alpha chips was licensed to Samsung Electronics Company.", "Following the purchase of Digital by Compaq the majority of the Alpha products were placed with API NetWorks, Inc. (formerly Alpha Processor Inc.), a private company funded by Samsung and Compaq.", "In October 2001, Microway became the exclusive sales and service provider of API NetWorks' Alpha-based product line.On June 25, 2001, Compaq announced that Alpha would be phased out by 2004 in favor of Intel's Itanium, canceled the planned ''EV8'' chip, and sold all Alpha intellectual property to Intel.", "Hewlett-Packard merged with Compaq in 2002; HP announced that development of the Alpha series would continue for a few more years, including the release of a 1.3 GHz EV7 variant named the ''EV7z''.", "This would be the final iteration of Alpha, the 0.13 µm ''EV79'' also being canceled.Alpha is also implemented in the ''Piranha'', a research prototype developed by Compaq's Corporate Research and Nonstop Hardware Development groups at the Western Research Laboratory and Systems Research Center.", "''Piranha'' is a multicore design for transaction processing workloads that contains eight simple cores.", "It was described at the 27th Annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture in June 2000.Early revisions of the Sunway architecture are claimed to be based on Alpha, however since the SW26010, Sunway uses a new instruction set architecture unrelated to Alpha.===Model history=== Model Model number Year Frequency MHz Process µm Transistors millions Die size mm2 IO pins Power W Voltage Dcache KB Icache KB Scache Bcache ISAEV4210641992100–2000.751.68234290303.388–128 KB–16 MB EV4S210641993100–2000.6751.68186290273.388–128 KB–16 MB EV4521064A1994200–3000.52.85333.31616–256 KB–16 MB LCA4210661993100–1660.6751.75213.388– LCA4210681994660.6751.7593.388– LCA4521066A1994100–2660.51.8233.388– LCA4521068A19941000.51.83.388– EV5211641995266–5000.59.3299296563.3/2.58896 KBUp to 64 MBREV5621164A1996366–6660.359.6631–553.3/2.58896 KBUp to 64 MBR,BPCA5621164PC1997400–5330.353.514126426–353.3/2.5816–512 KB–4 MBR,B,MPCA5721164PC 600–6660.285.710128318–232.5/2.01632–512 KB–4 MBR,B,MEV6212641998450–6000.3515.2314389732.06464–2–8 MBR,B,M,FEV6721264A1999600–7500.2515.2210389 2.06464–2–8 MBR,B,M,F,CEV68AL21264B2001800–8330.1815.2125 1.76464–2–8 MBR,B,M,F,C,TEV68CB21264C20011000–12500.1815.2125 65–751.656464–2–8 MBR,B,M,F,C,TEV68CX21264D 1.656464–2–8 MBR,B,M,F,C,TEV72136420031000–11500.181301251.564641.75 MB–R,B,M,F,C,TEV7z21364200413000.181301251.564641.75 MB–R,B,M,F,C,T CancelledEV78/EV7921364ASlated for 200417000.131521201.264641.75 MB–R,B,M,F,C,TEV821464Slated for 20031200–20000.1252504201800?", "?1.264643 MB–R,B,M,F,C,T;ISA extensions:* '''R''' – Hardware support for rounding to infinity and negative infinity.", "* '''B''' – BWX, the \"Byte/Word Extension\", adding instructions to allow 8- and 16-bit operations from memory and I/O* '''M''' – MVI, \"multimedia\" instructions* '''F''' – FIX, instructions to move data between integer and floating-point registers and for square root* '''C''' – CIX, instructions for counting and finding bits* '''T''' – support for prefetch with modify intent to improve the performance of the first attempt to acquire a lock" ], [ "Performance", "To illustrate the comparative performance of Alpha-based systems, some Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC) performance numbers (SPECint95, SPECfp95) are listed below.", "Note that the SPEC results claim to report the measured performance of a whole computer system (CPU, bus, memory, compiler optimizer), not just the CPU.", "Also note that the benchmark and scale changed from 1992 to 1995.However, the figures give a rough impression of the performance of the Alpha architecture (64-bit), compared with the contemporary HP (64-bit) and Intel-based offerings (32-bit).", "Perhaps the most obvious trend is that while Intel could always get reasonably close to Alpha in integer performance, in floating-point performance the difference was considerable.", "On the other side, HP (PA-RISC) is also reasonably close to Alpha, but these CPUs are running at significantly lower clock rates (MHz).", "The tables lack two important values: the power consumption and the price of a CPU.", "System CPU MHz integer floating point+SPEC benchmark 1995 performance comparison (using ''SPECint95'' and ''SPECfp95'' results )AlphaServer 8400 5/35021164 (EV5)35010.114.2Intel Alder System (200 MHz, 256 KB L2) Pentium Pro2008.96.75HP 9000 C160PA 800016010.416.3 System CPU MHz integer floating point+2000 performance comparison (using ''SPECint95'' and ''SPECfp95'' results)AlphaServer ES40 6/83321264 (EV6)83350.0100.0Intel VC820 motherboardPentium III100046.831.9HP 9000 C3600 PA-860055242.164.0" ], [ "Alpha-based systems", "The first generation of DEC Alpha-based systems comprise the DEC 3000 AXP series workstations and low-end servers, DEC 4000 AXP series mid-range servers, and DEC 7000 AXP and 10000 AXP series high-end servers.", "The DEC 3000 AXP systems use the same TURBOchannel bus as the prior MIPS-based DECstation models, whereas the 4000 is based on Futurebus+ and the 7000/10000 share an architecture with corresponding VAX models.DEC also produced a personal computer (PC) configuration Alpha workstation with an Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) bus, the DECpc AXP 150 (codename ''Jensen'', also named the DEC 2000 AXP).", "This is the first Alpha system to support Windows NT.", "DEC later produced Alpha versions of their Celebris XL and Digital Personal Workstation PC lines, with 21164 processors.Digital also produced single-board computers based on the VMEbus for embedded and industrial use.", "The first generation includes the 21068-based AXPvme 64 and AXPvme 64LC, and the 21066-based AXPvme 160.These were introduced on March 1, 1994.Later models such as the AXPvme 100, AXPvme 166 and AXPvme 230 are based on the 21066A processor, while the Alpha VME 4/224 and Alpha VME 4/288 are based on the 21064A processor.", "The last models, the Alpha VME 5/352 and Alpha VME 5/480, are based on the 21164 processor.The 21066 chip is used in the DEC Multia VX40/41/42 compact workstation and the ALPHAbook 1 laptop from Tadpole Technology.In 1994, DEC launched a new range of AlphaStation and AlphaServer systems.", "These use 21064 or 21164 processors and introduced the PCI bus, VGA-compatible frame buffers and PS/2-style keyboards and mice.", "The AlphaServer 8000 series supersedes the DEC 7000/10000 AXP and also employs XMI and FutureBus+ buses.The AlphaStation XP1000 is the first workstation based on the 21264 processor.", "Later AlphaServer/Station models based on the 21264 are categorised into ''DS'' (departmental server), ''ES'' (enterprise server) or ''GS'' (global server) families.The final 21364 chip is used in the AlphaServer ES47, ES80 and GS1280 models and the AlphaStation ES47.A number of OEM motherboards were produced by DEC, such as the 21066 and 21068-based AXPpci 33 \"NoName\", which was part of a major push into the OEM market by the company, the 21164-based AlphaPC 164 and AlphaPC 164LX, the 21164PC-based AlphaPC 164SX and AlphaPC 164RX and the 21264-based AlphaPC 264DP.", "Several third parties such as Samsung and API also produced OEM motherboards such as the API UP1000 and UP2000.To assist third parties in developing hardware and software for the platform, DEC produced Evaluation Boards, such as the EB64+ and EB164 for the Alpha 21064A and 21164 microprocessors respectively.The 21164 and 21264 processors were used by NetApp in various network-attached storage systems, while the 21064 and 21164 processors were used by Cray in their T3D and T3E massively parallel supercomputers.===Supercomputers===The fastest supercomputer based on Alpha processors was the ASCI Q at Los Alamos National Laboratory.", "The machine was built as an HP AlphaServer SC45/GS Cluster.", "It had 4096 Alpha (21264 EV-68, 1.25 GHz) CPUs, and reached an Rmax of 7.727 TFLOPS." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Alpha Architecture Handbook, Version 4* The Alpha Architecture Handbook, Version 3* Digital Technical Journal, Volume 4, Number 4, Special Issue 1992 Alpha AXP Architecture and Systems This issue contains several articles from Alpha's Architects* Archived technical documentation library This link features the hardware reference manuals and datasheets for Alpha microprocessors, chipsets and OEM motherboards.", "Includes the Alpha Architecture Handbook and various programming manuals.", "* A Conversation with Dan Dobberpuhl (October 1, 2003)* Dr. Bruce Hutton's lecture notes on Computer Architecture" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dagger" ], [ "Introduction", "The Fairbairn–Sykes fighting knife, a modern-day daggerA '''dagger''' is a fighting knife with a very sharp point and usually one or two sharp edges, typically designed or capable of being used as a cutting or thrusting weapon.", "Daggers have been used throughout human history for close combat confrontations, and many cultures have used adorned daggers in ritual and ceremonial contexts.", "The distinctive shape and historic usage of the dagger have made it iconic and symbolic.", "A dagger in the modern sense is a weapon designed for close-proximity combat or self-defense; due to its use in historic weapon assemblages, it has associations with assassination and murders.", "Double-edged knives, however, play different sorts of roles in different social contexts.", "A wide variety of thrusting knives have been described as daggers, including knives that feature only a single cutting edge, such as the European rondel dagger or the Afghan pesh-kabz, or, in some instances, no cutting edge at all, such as the stiletto of the Renaissance.", "However, in the last hundred years or so, in most contexts, a dagger has certain definable characteristics, including a short blade with a sharply tapered point, a central spine or fuller, and usually two cutting edges sharpened the full length of the blade, or nearly so.", "Most daggers also feature a full crossguard to keep the hand from riding forwards onto the sharpened blade edges.Daggers are primarily weapons, so knife legislation in many places restricts their manufacture, sale, possession, transport, or use." ], [ "History", "===Antiquity===Lorestan, Iran, 2600–2350 BCEA Neolithic dagger from the Muséum de ToulousePre-Roman Iberian iron dagger forged between the middle of the 5th and the 3rd century BCBronze Age swords, Iranian Kurdistan, Museum of SanandajIberian triangular iron dagger, The earliest daggers were made of materials such as flint, ivory or bone in Neolithic times.Copper daggers appeared first in the early Bronze Age, in the 3rd millennium BC, and copper daggers of Early Minoan III (2400–2000 BC) were recovered at Knossos.Relief of akinakes, a type of ancient dagger, worn by an Achaemenid guard in Persepolis, IranIn ancient Egypt, daggers were usually made of copper or bronze, while royalty had gold weapons.", "At least since pre-dynastic Egypt, () daggers were adorned as ceremonial objects with golden hilts and later even more ornate and varied construction.", "One early silver dagger was recovered with midrib design.", "The 1924 opening of the tomb of Tutankhamun revealed two daggers, one with a gold blade, and one of smelted iron.", "It is held that mummies of the Eleventh Dynasty were buried with bronze sabres; and there is a bronze dagger of Thut-mes III.", "(Eighteenth Dynasty), , and bronze armour, swords and daggers of Mene-ptah II.", "of the (Nineteenth Dynasty) .Iron production did not begin until 1200 BC, and iron ore was not found in Egypt, making the iron dagger rare, and the context suggests that the iron dagger was valued on a level equal to that of its ceremonial gold counterpart.", "These facts, and the composition of the dagger had long suggested a meteoritic origin, however, evidence for its meteoritic origin was not entirely conclusive until June 2016 when researchers using x-ray fluorescence spectrometry confirmed similar proportions of metals (Iron, 10% nickel, and 0.6% cobalt) in a meteorite discovered in the area, deposited by an ancient meteor shower.One of the earliest objects made of smelted iron is a dagger dating to before 2000 BC, found in a context that suggests it was treated as an ornamental object of great value.", "Found in a Hattic royal tomb dated about 2500 BC, at Alaca Höyük in northern Anatolia, the dagger has a smelted iron blade and a gold handle.The artisans and blacksmiths of Iberia in what is now southern Spain and southwestern France produced various iron daggers and swords of high quality from the 5th to the 3rd century BC, in ornamentation and patterns influenced by Greek, Punic (Carthaginian), and Phoenician culture.", "The exceptional purity of Iberian iron and the sophisticated method of forging, which included cold hammering, produced double-edged weapons of excellent quality.", "One can find technologically advanced designs such as folding knives rusted among the artifacts of many Second Iberian Iron Age cremation burials or in Roman Empire excavations all around Spain and the Mediterranean.", "Iberian infantrymen carried several types of iron daggers, most of them based on shortened versions of double-edged swords, but the true Iberian dagger had a triangular-shaped blade.", "Iberian daggers and swords were later adopted by Hannibal and his Carthaginian armies.", "The Lusitanii, a pre-Celtic people dominating the lands west of Iberia (most of modern Portugal and Extremadura) successfully held off the Roman Empire for many years with a variety of innovative tactics and light weapons, including iron-bladed short spears and daggers modeled after Iberian patterns.During the Roman Empire, legionaries were issued a ''pugio'' (from the Latin , or \"fight\"), a double-edged iron thrusting dagger with a blade of .", "The design and fabrication of the ''pugio'' was taken directly from Iberian daggers and short swords; the Romans even adopted the triangular-bladed Iberian dagger, which they called the ''parazonium''.", "Like the ''gladius'', the ''pugio'' was most often used as a thrusting (stabbing weapon).", "As an extreme close-quarter combat weapon, the ''pugio'' was the Roman soldier's last line of defense.", "When not in battle, the ''pugio'' served as a convenient utility knife.===Middle Ages===The term ''dagger'' appears only in the Late Middle Ages, reflecting the fact that while the dagger had been known in antiquity, it had disappeared during the Early Middle Ages, replaced by the hewing knife or seax.Depiction of combat with the dagger (''degen'') in Hans Talhoffer (1467)The dagger reappeared in the 12th century as the \"knightly dagger\", or more properly cross-hilt or quillon dagger, and was developed into a common arm and tool for civilian use by the late medieval period.Modern reproductions of medieval daggers.", "From left to right: Ballock dagger, Rondel dagger, and a Quillon daggerThe earliest known depiction of a cross-hilt dagger is the so-called \"Guido relief\" inside the Grossmünster of Zürich ().", "A number of depictions of the fully developed cross-hilt dagger are found in the Morgan Bible ().", "Many of these cross-hilt daggers resemble miniature swords, with cross guards and pommels very similar in form to swords of the period.", "Others, however, are not an exact match to known sword designs, having for example pommel caps, large hollow star shaped pommels on so-called \"Burgundian Heraldic daggers\" or antenna style cross and pommel, reminiscent of Hallstatt era daggers.", "The cross-hilt type persisted well into the RenaissanceThe Old French term ''dague'' appears to have referred to these weapons in the 13th century, alongside other terms such as ''poignal'' and ''basilard''.", "The Middle English ''dagger'' is used from the 1380s.During this time, the dagger was often employed in the role of a secondary defense weapon in close combat.", "The knightly dagger evolved into the larger baselard knife in the 14th century.", "During the 14th century, it became fairly common for knights to fight on foot to strengthen the infantry defensive line.", "This necessitated more use of daggers.", "At Agincourt (1415) archers used them to dispatch dismounted knights by thrusting the narrow blades through helmet vents and other apertures.", "The baselard was considered an intermediate between a short sword and a long dagger, and became popular also as a civilian weapon.", "Sloane MS. 2593 () records a song satirizing the use of oversized baselard knives as fashion accessories.", "Weapons of this sort called ''anelace'', somewhere between a large dagger and a short sword, were much in use in 14th century England as civilians' accoutrements, worn \"suspended by a ring from the girdle\".In the Late Middle Ages, knives with blade designs that emphasized thrusting attacks, such as the stiletto, became increasingly popular, and some thrusting knives commonly referred to as 'daggers' ceased to have a cutting edge.", "This was a response to the deployment of heavy armor, such as maille and plate armour, where cutting attacks were ineffective and focus was on thrusts with narrow blades to punch through mail or aim at armour plate intersections (or the eye slits of the helmet visor).", "These late medieval thrusting weapons are sometimes classed by the shape of their hilt as either roundel, bollock or ear daggers.", "The term ''dagger'' is coined in this time, as are the Early Modern German equivalents ''dolch'' (''tolch'') and ''degen'' (''tegen'').", "In the German school of fencing, Johannes Liechtenauer (Ms. 3227a) and his successors (specifically Andres Lignizer in Cod.", "44 A 8) taught fighting with the dagger.These techniques in some respects resemble modern knife fighting, but emphasized thrusting strokes almost exclusively, instead of slashes and cuts.", "When used offensively, a standard attack frequently employed the reverse or icepick grip, stabbing downward with the blade to increase thrust and penetrative force.", "This was done primarily because the blade point frequently had to penetrate or push apart an opponent's steel chain mail or plate armor in order to inflict an injury.", "The disadvantage of employing the medieval dagger in this manner was that it could easily be blocked by a variety of techniques, most notably by a block with the weaponless arm while simultaneously attacking with a weapon held in the right hand.", "Another disadvantage was the reduction in effective blade reach to the opponent when using a reverse grip.", "As the wearing of armor fell out of favor, dagger fighting techniques began to evolve which emphasized the use of the dagger with a conventional or forward grip, while the reverse or icepick grip was retained when attacking an unsuspecting opponent from behind, such as in an assassination.===Renaissance and early modern period===Mughal dagger, Louvre''Dagger with Zoomorphic Hilt'', , Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe dagger was very popular as a fencing and personal defense weapon in 17th and 18th century Spain, where it was referred to as the ''daga'' or ''puñal''.", "During the Renaissance Age the dagger was used as part of everyday dress, and daggers were the only weapon commoners were allowed to carry on their person.", "In English, the terms ''poniard'' and ''dirk'' are loaned during the late 16th to early 17th century, the latter in the spelling ''dork'', ''durk'' (presumably via Low German, Dutch or Scandinavian ''dolk, dolch'', ultimately from a West Slavic ''tulich''), the modern spelling ''dirk'' dating to 18th-century Scots.Beginning in the 17th century, another form of dagger—the plug bayonet and later the socket bayonet—was used to convert muskets and other longarms into spears by mounting them on the barrel.", "They were periodically used for eating; the arm was also used for a variety of other tasks such as mending boots, house repairs and farm jobs.", "The final function of the dagger was as an obvious and ostentatious means of enhancing a man's personal apparel, conforming to fashion which dictated that all men carried them.===Modern period (19th–21st century)===20th-century daggersWW1 trench warfare caused daggers and fighting knives to come back in play.", "They also replaced the sabres worn by officers, which were too long and clumsy for trench warfare.", "They were worn with pride as a sign of having served front line duty.Daggers achieved public notoriety in the 20th century as ornamental uniform regalia during the Fascist dictatorships of Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany.", "Dress daggers were used by several other countries as well, including Japan, but never to the same extent.", "As combat equipment they were carried by many infantry and commando forces during the Second World War.", "British Commando and other elite units were issued an especially slender dagger, the Fairbairn–Sykes fighting knife, developed by William E. Fairbairn and Eric A. Sykes from real-life close-combat experiences gained while serving on the Shanghai Municipal Police Force.", "The F-S dagger proved very popular with the commandos, who used it primarily for sentry elimination.", "Some units of the U.S. Marine Corps Raiders in the Pacific were issued a similar fighting dagger, the Marine Raider stiletto, though this modified design proved less than successful when used in the type of knife combat encountered in the Pacific theater due to this version using inferior materials and manufacturing techniques.During the Vietnam War, the Gerber Mark II, designed by US Army Captain Bud Holzman and Al Mar, was a popular fighting knife pattern that was privately purchased by many U.S. soldiers and marines who served in that war.Aside from military forces, most daggers are no longer carried openly, but concealed in clothing.", "One of the more popular forms of the concealable dagger is the ''boot knife''.", "The boot knife is nothing more than a shortened dagger that is compact enough to be worn on the lower leg, usually by means of a sheath clipped or strapped to a boot or other footwear." ], [ "Cultural symbolism", "The dagger is symbolically ambiguous.", "For some cultures and military organizations the dagger symbolizes courage and daring in combat.", "However, daggers may be associated with deception or treachery due to the ease of concealment and surprise that the user could inflict upon an unsuspecting victim.", "Indeed, many assassinations have been carried out with the use of a dagger, including that of Julius Caesar.", "A cloak and dagger attack is one in which a deceitful, traitorous, or concealed enemy attacks a person.", "Some have noted a phallic association between daggers and the succession of royal dynasties in British literature.In European artwork, daggers were sometimes associated with Hecate, the Ancient Greek goddess of witchcraft.The social stigma of the dagger originates in its periodic use in the commission of disreputable and murderous attacks, from the 44 BC assassination of Julius Caesar to the use of the stiletto dagger by the Black Hand of early 20th century America.", "Consequently, it developed a public association with surprise assaults by criminals and murderers intent on stabbing unsuspecting victims.", "To this day, criminal codes of many nations and some US states specifically ban the carrying of the dagger as a prohibited weapon." ], [ "Modern use", "The dagger is in military use as a close combat and ceremonial arm.", "The U.S. Army Special Operations Command unit patch, a U.S. Army emblem with daggerMany nations use the dagger pattern in the form of the bayonet.", "Daggers are commonly used as part of the insignias of elite military units or special forces, such as the US Army Special Operations Command, the US Army Special Forces, or the Commando Dagger patch for those who have completed the British All Arms Commando Course." ], [ "Art knives", "Buster Warenski daggerDaggers are a popular form of what is known as the \"art knife\", due in part to the symmetry of the blade.", "One of the knives required of an American Bladesmith Society Mastersmith is the construction of an \"art knife\" or a \"European style\" dagger." ], [ "See also", "* * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " Capwell, Dr. Tobias.", "''The World Encyclopedia of Knives, Daggers, and Bayonets''.", "Hermes House.", "Leicestershire.", "2011..* Dean, Bashford.", "''Catalogue of European Daggers 1300–1800''.", "Metropolitan Museum of Art.", "New York.", "1929.", "* Edge, David and Paddock, John Miles.", "''Arms & Armor of the Medieval Knight - An Illustrated History of Weapons in the Middle Ages''.", "Crescent Books.", "New York.", "1988.", "* Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, Cyril John Gadd, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond.", "''The Cambridge Ancient History''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "1970.", "()* Peterson, Harold L. ''Daggers & Fighting Knives of the Western World''.", "Bonanza Books.", "New York.", "1970.", "* Thompson, Logan.", "''Daggers and Bayonets - A History''.", "Paladin Press.", "Boulder.", "1999.", "* Vail, Jason.", "''Medieval and Renaissance Dagger Combat''.", "Paladin Press.", "Boulder.", "2006." ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dominican Order" ], [ "Introduction", "Saint Dominic, portrayed in the ''Perugia Altarpiece'' by Fra Angelico, Galleria Nazionale dell'Umbria, Perugia.", "A figure depicting the term ''domini canes'' (lat.", "\"hounds of the lord\") since the Inquisition in the 13th century, on a corner of a former Dominican monastery (before the Reformation), Old University, Marburg, Germany.The '''Order of Preachers''' (; abbreviated '''OP'''), also known as the '''Dominican Order''', is a Catholic mendicant order of pontifical right that was founded in France by a Castilian priest named Dominic de Guzmán.", "It was approved by Pope Honorius III via the papal bull on 22 December 1216.Members of the order, who are referred to as '''Dominicans''', generally display the letters ''OP'' after their names, standing for , meaning 'of the Order of Preachers'.", "Membership in the order includes friars, nuns, active sisters, and lay or secular Dominicans (formerly known as tertiaries).", "More recently, there has been a growing number of associates of the religious sisters who are unrelated to the tertiaries.Founded to preach the gospel and to oppose heresy, the teaching activity of the order and its scholastic organisation placed it in the forefront of the intellectual life of the Middle Ages.", "The order is famed for its intellectual tradition by having produced many leading theologians and philosophers.", "In 2018, there were 5,747 Dominican friars, including 4,299 priests.", "The order is headed by the master of the order who, , is Gerard Timoner III.", "Mary Magdalene and Catherine of Siena are the co-patronesses of the order." ], [ "Foundation", "Saint Dominic on the front cover of ''Doctrina Christiana'' catechism in Spanish and Tagalog with an eight-pointed star (a symbol of the Blessed Virgin Mary) over his head.", "Woodcut cover.", "Printed in Manila in 1593.The Dominican Order came into being during the Middle Ages at a time when men of God were no longer expected to stay behind the walls of a cloister.", "Instead, they travelled among the people, taking as their examples the apostles of the primitive Church.", "Out of this ideal emerged two orders of mendicant friars – one, the Friars Minor, was led by Francis of Assisi; the other, the Friars Preachers, by Dominic de Guzmán.", "Like his contemporary, Francis, Dominic saw the need for a new type of organization, and the quick growth of the Dominicans and Franciscans during their first century of existence confirms that conditions were favorable for the growth of the orders of mendicant friars.", "The Dominicans and other mendicant orders may have been an adaptation to the rise of the profit economy in medieval Europe.Dominic sought to establish a new kind of order, one that would bring the dedication and systematic education of the older monastic orders like the Benedictines to bear on the religious problems of the burgeoning population of cities, but with more organizational flexibility than either monastic orders or the secular clergy.", "The Order of Preachers was founded in response to a then perceived need for informed preaching.", "Dominic's new order was to be trained to preach in the vernacular languages.Dominic inspired his followers with loyalty to learning and virtue, a deep recognition of the spiritual power of worldly deprivation and the religious state, and a highly developed governmental structure.", "At the same time, Dominic inspired the members of his order to develop a \"mixed\" spirituality.", "They were both active in preaching, and contemplative in study, prayer and meditation.", "The brethren of the Dominican Order were urban and learned, as well as contemplative and mystical in their spirituality.", "While these traits affected the women of the order, the nuns especially absorbed the latter characteristics and made those characteristics their own.", "In England, the Dominican nuns blended these elements with the defining characteristics of English Dominican spirituality and created a spirituality and collective personality that set them apart.===Dominic de Guzmán===Saint Dominic (1170–1221), portrait by El Greco, about 1600.As an adolescent, Dominic de Guzmán had a particular love of theology, and the Scriptures became the foundation of his spirituality.", "During his studies in Palencia, Spain, there was a dreadful famine, prompting Dominic to sell all of his beloved books and other equipment to help his neighbours.", "He was made a canon and ordained to the priesthood in the monastery of Santa María de La Vid.", "After completing his studies, Bishop Martin Bazan and Prior Diego de Acebo appointed him to the cathedral chapter of Osma.===Preaching to the Cathars===In 1203, Dominic de Guzmán joined Diego de Acebo, the Bishop of Osma, on a diplomatic mission to Denmark for the monarchy of Spain, to arrange the marriage between the son of King Alfonso VIII of Castile and a niece of King Valdemar II of Denmark.", "At that time the south of France was the stronghold of the Cathar movement.", "The Cathars (also known as Albigensians, due to their stronghold in Albi, France) were considered a heretical neo-gnostic sect.", "They believed that matter was evil and only the spirit was good; this was a fundamental challenge to the notion of the incarnation, central to Catholic theology.", "The Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) was a 20-year military campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc, in southern France.Dominic saw the need for a response that would attempt to sway members of the Albigensian movement back to mainstream Catholic thought.", "Dominic became inspired to achieve this by preaching and teaching, starting near Toulouse, since the Albigensian Christians refused to compromise their principles despite the overwhelming force of the crusades brought against them.", "Diego suggested another reason that was possibly aiding the spread of the reform movement.", "The representatives of the Catholic Church acted and moved with an offensive amount of pomp and ceremony.", "In contrast, the Cathars generally led ascetic lifestyles.", "To try persuasion in place of persecution, Diego suggested that the regional papal legates begin to live a reformed apostolic life.", "The legates agreed to the proposed changes if they could find a strong leader who could meet the Albigensians on their own ground.The prior took up the challenge, and he and Dominic dedicated themselves to the conversion of the Cathars.", "Despite this particular mission, Dominic met limited success converting Cathars by persuasion, \"for though in his ten years of preaching a large number of converts were made, it has to be said that the results were not such as had been hoped for\".", "The differences in religious principles of the Albigensians called for far greater reforms than moderated appearances.===Dominican convent established===Dominic became the spiritual father to several Albigensian women he had reconciled to the faith, and in 1206 he established them in a convent in Prouille, near Toulouse.", "This convent would become the foundation of the Dominican nuns, thus making the Dominican nuns older than the Dominican friars.", "Diego sanctioned the building of a monastery for girls whose parents had sent them to the care of the Albigensians because their families were too poor to fulfill their basic needs.", "The monastery in Prouille would later become Dominic's headquarters for his missionary effort.", "After two years on the mission field, Diego died while traveling back to Spain." ], [ "History", "Dominic founded the Dominican Order in 1215.Dominic established a religious community in Toulouse in 1214, to be governed by the rule of Saint Augustine and statutes to govern the life of the friars, including the Primitive Constitution.", "The founding documents establish that the order was founded for two purposes: preaching and the salvation of souls.Henri-Dominique Lacordaire noted that the statutes had similarities with the constitutions of the Premonstratensians, indicating that Dominic had drawn inspiration from the reform of Prémontré.===Middle Ages===Dominic's room at Maison Seilhan, in Toulouse, is considered the place where the Order was born.In July 1215, with the approbation of Bishop Foulques of Toulouse, Dominic ordered his followers into an institutional life.", "Its purpose was revolutionary in the pastoral ministry of the Catholic Church.", "These priests were organized and well trained in religious studies.", "Dominic needed a framework—a rule—to organize these components.", "The Rule of Saint Augustine was an obvious choice for the Dominican Order, according to Dominic's successor Jordan of Saxony, in the Libellus de principiis, because it lent itself to the \"salvation of souls through preaching\".", "By this choice, however, the Dominican brothers designated themselves not monks, but canons regular.", "They could practice ministry and common life while existing in individual poverty.The Order of Preachers was approved in December 1216 and January 1217 by Pope Honorius III in the papal bulls and ''Nos attendentes''.", "On January 21, 1217, Honorius issued the bull ''Gratiarum omnium'' recognizing Dominic's followers as an order dedicated to study and universally authorized to preach, a power formerly reserved to local episcopal authorization.Along with charity, the other concept that most defines the work and spirituality of the order is study, the method most used by the Dominicans in working to defend the Church against the perils it faced.", "In Dominic's thinking, it was impossible for men to preach what they did not or could not understand.", "On August 15, 1217, Dominic dispatched seven of his followers to the great university center of Paris to establish a priory focused on study and preaching.", "The Convent of St. Jacques would eventually become the order's first ''studium generale''.", "Dominic was to establish similar foundations at other university towns of the day, Bologna in 1218, Palencia and Montpellier in 1220, and Oxford just before his death in 1221.The women of the order also established schools for the children of the local gentry.Dominican epitaph of Berthold de Wyrbna from 1316 on the tower of the parish church in Szprotawa, PolandDoctor Angelicus, Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), considered by many Catholics to be the greatest Catholic theologian, is girded by angels with a mystical belt of purity after his proof of chastity.Miguel Cabrera.In 1219 Pope Honorius III invited Dominic and his companions to take up residence at the ancient Roman basilica of Santa Sabina, which they did by early 1220.Before that time the friars had only a temporary residence in Rome at the convent of San Sisto Vecchio which Honorius III had given to Dominic circa 1218 intending it to become a convent for a reformation of nuns at Rome under Dominic's guidance.", "In May 1220 at Bologna the order's first General Chapter mandated that each new priory of the order maintain its own ''studium conventuale'', thus laying the foundation of the Dominican tradition of sponsoring widespread institutions of learning.", "The official foundation of the Dominican convent at Santa Sabina with its ''studium conventuale'' occurred with the legal transfer of property from Honorius III to the Order of Preachers on June 5, 1222.This ''studium'' was transformed into the order's first ''studium provinciale'' by Thomas Aquinas in 1265.Part of the curriculum of this ''studium'' was relocated in 1288 at the ''studium'' of Santa Maria sopra Minerva which in the 16th century world be transformed into the College of Saint Thomas ().", "In the 20th century the college would be relocated to the convent of Saints Dominic and Sixtus and would be transformed into the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, ''Angelicum''.The Dominican friars quickly spread, including to England, where they appeared in Oxford in 1221.In the 13th century the order reached all classes of Christian society, fought heresy, schism, and paganism by word and book, and by its missions to the north of Europe, to Africa, and Asia passed beyond the frontiers of Christendom.", "Its schools spread throughout the entire Church; its doctors wrote monumental works in all branches of knowledge, including the extremely important Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas.", "Its members included popes, cardinals, bishops, legates, inquisitors, confessors of princes, ambassadors, and ''paciarii'' (enforcers of the peace decreed by popes or councils).The order's origins in battling heterodoxy influenced its later development and reputation.", "Many later Dominicans battled heresy as part of their apostolate.", "Indeed, many years after Dominic reacted to the Cathars, the first Grand Inquistor of Spain, Tomás de Torquemada, would be drawn from the Dominican Order.", "The order was appointed by Pope Gregory IX the duty to carry out the Inquisition.", "Torture was not regarded as a mode of punishment, but as a means of eliciting the truth.", "In his papal bull ''Ad extirpanda'' of 1252, Pope Innocent IV authorised the Dominicans' use of torture under prescribed circumstances.The expansion of the order produced changes.", "A smaller emphasis on doctrinal activity favoured the development here and there of the ascetic and contemplative life and there sprang up, especially in Germany and Italy, the mystical movement with which the names of Meister Eckhart, Heinrich Suso, Johannes Tauler, and Catherine of Siena are associated.", "(See German mysticism, which has also been called \"Dominican mysticism\".)", "This movement was the prelude to the reforms undertaken, at the end of the century, by Raymond of Capua, and continued in the following century.At the same time the order found itself face to face with the Renaissance.", "It struggled against pagan tendencies in Renaissance humanism, in Italy through Dominici and Savonarola, in Germany through the theologians of Cologne but it also furnished humanism with such advanced writers as Francesco Colonna (probably the writer of the ''Hypnerotomachia Poliphili'') and Matteo Bandello.", "Many Dominicans took part in the artistic activity of the age, the most prominent being Fra Angelico and Fra Bartolomeo.====Women====Although Dominic and the early brethren had instituted female Dominican houses at Prouille and other places by 1227, houses of women attached to the Order became so popular that some of the friars had misgivings about the increasing demands of female religious establishments on their time and resources.", "Nonetheless, women's houses dotted the countryside throughout Europe.", "There were seventy-four Dominican female houses in Germany, forty-two in Italy, nine in France, eight in Spain, six in Bohemia, three in Hungary, and three in Poland.", "Many of the German religious houses that lodged women had been home to communities of women, such as Beguines, that became Dominican once they were taught by the traveling preachers and put under the jurisdiction of the Dominican authoritative structure.", "A number of these houses became centers of study and mystical spirituality in the 14th century, as expressed in works such as the sister-books.", "There were one hundred and fifty-seven nunneries in the order by 1358.After that year, the number lessened considerably due to the Black Death.In places besides Germany, convents were founded as retreats from the world for women of the upper classes.", "These were original projects funded by wealthy patrons.", "Among these was Countess Margaret of Flanders who established the monastery of Lille, while Val-Duchesse at Oudergem near Brussels was built with the wealth of Adelaide of Burgundy, Duchess of Brabant (1262).Female houses differed from male Dominican houses in that they were enclosed.", "The sisters chanted the Divine Office and kept all the monastic observances.", "The nuns lived under the authority of the general and provincial chapters of the order.", "They shared in all the applicable privileges of the order.", "The friars served as their confessors, priests, teachers and spiritual mentors.Women could be professed to the Dominican religious life at the age of thirteen.", "The formula for profession contained in the Constitutions of Montargis Priory (1250) requires that nuns pledge obedience to God, the Blessed Virgin, their prioress and her successors according to the Rule of Saint Augustine and the institute of the order, until death.", "The clothing of the sisters consisted of a white tunic and scapular, a leather belt, a black mantle, and a black veil.", "Candidates to profession were questioned to reveal whether they were actually married women who had merely separated from their husbands.", "Their intellectual abilities were also tested.", "Nuns were to be silent in places of prayer, the cloister, the dormitory, and refectory.", "Silence was maintained unless the prioress granted an exception for a specific cause.", "Speaking was allowed in the common parlor, but it was subordinate to strict rules, and the prioress, subprioress or other senior nun had to be present.As well as sewing, embroidery and other genteel pursuits, the nuns participated in a number of intellectual activities, including reading and discussing pious literature.", "In the Strassburg monastery of Saint Margaret, some of the nuns could converse fluently in Latin.", "Learning still had an elevated place in the lives of these religious.", "In fact, Margarette Reglerin, a daughter of a wealthy Nuremberg family, was dismissed from a convent because she did not have the ability or will to learn.====English Province====The English Province and the Hungarian Province both date back to the second general chapter of the Dominican Order, held in Bologna during the spring of 1221.Dominic dispatched twelve friars to England under the guidance of their English prior, Gilbert of Fresney, and they landed in Dover on August 5, 1221.The province officially came into being at its first provincial chapter in 1230.The English Province was a component of the international order from which it obtained its laws, direction, and instructions.", "It was also, however, a group of Englishmen.", "Its direct supervisors were from England, and the members of the English Province dwelt and labored in English cities, towns, villages, and roadways.", "English and European ingredients constantly came in contact.", "The international side of the province's existence influenced the national, and the national responded to, adapted, and sometimes constrained the international.The first Dominican site in England was at Oxford, in the parishes of St. Edward and St. Adelaide.", "The friars built an oratory to the Blessed Virgin Mary and by 1265, the brethren, in keeping with their devotion to study, began erecting a school.", "Actually, the Dominican brothers likely began a school immediately after their arrival, as priories were legally schools.", "Information about the schools of the English Province is limited, but a few facts are known.", "Much of the information available is taken from visitation records.", "The \"visitation\" was an inspection of the province by which visitors to each priory could describe the state of its religious life and its studies at the next chapter.", "There were four such visits in England and Wales—Oxford, London, Cambridge and York.", "All Dominican students were required to learn grammar, old and new logic, natural philosophy and theology.", "Of all of the curricular areas, however, theology was the most important.Dartford Priory was established long after the primary period of monastic foundation in England had ended.", "It emulated, then, the monasteries found in Europe—mainly France and Germany-as well as the monastic traditions of their English Dominican brothers.", "The first nuns to inhabit Dartford were sent from the in France.", "Even on the eve of the Dissolution, Prioress Jane Vane wrote to Cromwell on behalf of a postulant, saying that though she had not actually been professed, she was professed in her heart and in the eyes of God.", "Profession in Dartford Priory seems, then, to have been made based on personal commitment, and one's personal association with God.As heirs of the Dominican priory of Poissy in France, the nuns of Dartford Priory in England were also heirs to a tradition of profound learning and piety.", "Strict discipline and plain living were characteristic of the monastery throughout its existence.===From the Reformation to the French Revolution===Bartolomé de Las Casas (c.1484–1566)Bartolomé de Las Casas, as a settler in the New World, was galvanized by witnessing the brutal torture and genocide of the Native Americans by the Spanish colonists.", "He became famous for his advocacy of the rights of Native Americans, whose cultures, especially in the Caribbean, he describes with care.Gaspar da Cruz (c.1520–1570), who worked all over the Portuguese colonial empire in Asia, was probably the first Christian missionary to preach (unsuccessfully) in Cambodia.", "After a (similarly unsuccessful) stint, in 1556, in Guangzhou, China, he eventually returned to Portugal and became the first European to publish a book devoted exclusively to China in 1569/1570.The beginning of the 16th century confronted the order with the upheavals of Reformation.", "The spread of Protestantism cost it six or seven provinces and several hundreds of convents, but the discovery of the New World opened up a fresh field of activity.", "In the 18th century, there were numerous attempts at reform, accompanied by a reduction in the number of devotees.", "The French Revolution ruined the order in France, and crises that more or less rapidly followed considerably lessened or wholly destroyed numerous provinces ===From the 19th century to the present===During the early 19th century, the number of Preachers seems never to have sunk below 3,500.Statistics for 1876 show 3,748, but 500 of these had been expelled from their convents and were engaged in parochial work.", "Statistics for 1910 show a total of 4,472 nominally or actually engaged in proper activities of the order.", ", there were 6,058 Dominican friars, including 4,470 priests., there are 5,753 friars overall, and 4,219 priests.LacordaireIn the revival movement France held a foremost place, owing to the reputation and convincing power of the orator, Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire (1802–1861).", "He took the habit of a Friar Preacher at Rome (1839), and the province of France was canonically erected in 1850.From this province were detached the province of Lyon, called Occitania (1862), that of Toulouse (1869), and that of Canada (1909).", "The French restoration likewise furnished many laborers to other provinces, to assist in their organization and progress.", "From it came the master general who remained longest at the head of the administration during the 19th century, Père Vincent Jandel (1850–1872).", "Here should be mentioned the province of Saint Joseph in the United States.", "Founded in 1805 by Edward Fenwick (1768–1832), afterwards first Bishop of Cincinnati, Ohio (1821–1832).", "In 1905, it established the Dominican House of Studies in Washington, D.C.,.The province of France has produced many preachers.", "The conferences of Notre-Dame-de-Paris were inaugurated by Père Lacordaire.", "The Dominicans of the province of France furnished Lacordaire (1835–1836, 1843–1851), Jacques Monsabré, and Joseph Ollivier.", "The pulpit of Notre Dame has been occupied by a succession of Dominicans.", "Père Henri Didon (1840–1900) was a Dominican.", "The house of studies of the province of France publishes ''L'Année Dominicaine'' (founded 1859), ''La Revue des Sciences Philosophiques et Theologiques'' (1907), and ''La Revue de la Jeunesse'' (1909).", "French Dominicans founded and administer the École Biblique et Archéologique française de Jérusalem founded in 1890 by Marie-Joseph Lagrange (1855–1938), one of the leading international centres for biblical research.", "It is at the ''École Biblique'' that the famed Jerusalem Bible (both editions) was prepared.", "Likewise Cardinal Yves Congar was a product of the French province of the Order of Preachers.Doctrinal development has had an important place in the restoration of the Preachers.", "Several institutions, besides those already mentioned, played important parts.", "Such is the Biblical school at Jerusalem, open to the religious of the order and to secular clerics, which publishes the ''Revue Biblique.''", "The ''Pontificium Collegium Internationale Angelicum'', the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas (''Angelicum'') established in Rome in 1908 by Master Hyacinth Cormier, opened its doors to regulars and seculars for the study of the sacred sciences.", "In addition to the reviews above are the ''Revue Thomiste,'' founded by Père Thomas Coconnier (d. 1908), and the ''Analecta Ordinis Prædicatorum'' (1893).", "Among numerous writers of the order in this period are: Cardinals Thomas Zigliara (d. 1893) and Zephirin González (d. 1894), two esteemed philosophers; Alberto Guillelmotti (d. 1893), historian of the Pontifical Navy, and historian Heinrich Denifle (d. 1905).During the Reformation, many of the convents of Dominican nuns were forced to close.", "One which managed to survive, and afterwards founded many new houses, was St Ursula's in Augsburg.", "In the seventeenth century, convents of Dominican women were often asked by their bishops to undertake apostolic work, particularly educating girls and visiting the sick.", "St Ursula's returned to an enclosed life in the eighteenth century, but in the nineteenth century, after Napoleon had closed many European convents, King Louis I of Bavaria in 1828 restored the Religious Orders of women in his realm, provided that the nuns undertook some active work useful to the State (usually teaching or nursing).", "In 1877, Bishop Ricards in South Africa requested that Augsburg send a group of nuns to start a teaching mission in King Williamstown.", "From this mission were founded many Third Order Regular congregations of Dominican sisters, with their own constitutions, though still following the Rule of Saint Augustine and affiliated to the Dominican Order.", "These include the Dominican Sisters of Oakford, KwazuluNatal (1881), the Dominican Missionary Sisters, Zimbabwe, (1890) and the Dominican Sisters of Newcastle, KwazuluNatal (1891).The Dominican Order has influenced the formation of other orders outside of the Catholic Church, such as the Anglican Order of Preachers within the Anglican Communion.", "Since not all members are obliged to take solemn or simple vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, it operates more like a third order with a third order style structure, with no contemporary or canonical ties to the historical order founded by Dominic of Guzman.", "The Order of Christ the Saviour is a dispersed Anglo-Catholic Dominican community founded in the 21st century within the Episcopal Church.===Missions abroad===The Pax Mongolica of the 13th and 14th centuries that united vast parts of the European-Asian continents enabled western missionaries to travel east.", "\"Dominican friars were preaching the Gospel on the Volga Steppes by 1225 (the year following the establishment of the Kipchak Khanate by Batu), and in 1240 Pope Gregory IX despatched others to Persia and Armenia.\"", "The most famous Dominican was Jordanus de Severac who was sent first to Persia then in 1321, together with a companion (Nicolas of Pistoia) to India.", "Jordanus' work and observations are recorded in two letters he wrote to the friars of Armenia, and a book, ''Mirabilia'', translated as ''Wonders of the East''.Another Dominican, Ricold of Monte Croce, worked in Syria and Persia.", "His travels took him from Acre to Tabriz, and on to Baghdad.", "There \"he was welcomed by the Dominican fathers already there, and with them entered into a disputation with the Nestorians.\"", "Although a number of Dominicans and Franciscans persevered against the growing faith of Islam throughout the region, all Christian missionaries were soon expelled with Timur's death in 1405.By the 1850s, the Dominicans had half a million followers in the Philippines and well-established missions in the Chinese province of Fujian and Tonkin, Vietnam, performing thousands of baptisms each year.", "The Dominicans presence in the Philippines has become one of the leading proponents of education with the establishment of Colegio de San Juan de Letran." ], [ "Divisions", "The Friars, Nuns and Third Orders form the Order of Preachers.", "Together with the Members of Priestly Fraternities of Saint Dominic, Dominican Laity and Dominican Youths they form the Dominican family.===Governance===The highest authority within the Order of Preachers is the '''General Chapter''', which is empowered to develop legislation governing all organizations within the Dominican umbrella, as well as enforce that legislation.", "The General Chapter is composed of two bodies, the Chapter of Provincials and the Chapter of Definitors (or ''Diffinitors''), a unique configuration within the Catholic Church.", "Each body is of equal authority to propose legislation and discuss other matters of general importance within the order, and each body may be called individually or jointly.", "The Provincials consists of the superiors of individual Dominican provinces, while the Diffinitors consists of \"grass root\" representatives of each province, so created to avoid provincial superiors having to spend excessive time away from their day-to-day duties of governing.", "To maintain stability of the legislation of the order, new legislation is enacted only when approved by three successive meetings of the General Chapter.The first General Chapters were held at Pentecost in the years 1220 and 1221.More recent General Chapters have been held as follows:1998 - Bologna, Italy 2001 - Providence, USA 2004 – Kraków, Poland2010 – 290th General Chapter, 1–21 September 2010, Rome, which elaborated the ''mission mandates'' of the order.", "2016 – Bologna 2019 – Elective General Chapter, 9 July – 4 August 2019, at the Convent of St. Martin de Porres, Biên Hòa, Viet Nam2022 – 16 July – 8 August 2022, Tultenango in the State of Mexico, a Chapter of Definitors.The General Chapter elects a Master of the Order, who has \"broad and direct authority over every brother, convent and province, and over every nun and monastery\".", "The master is considered the successor of Dominic, the first Master of the Order, who envisioned the office to be one of service to the community.", "The master is currently elected for a 9-year term, and is aided by the General Curia of the Order.", "His authority is subject only to the General Chapter.", "He, along with the General Chapter, may assign members, and appoint or remove superiors and other officials for the good of the order.===Nuns===The Dominican nuns were founded by Dominic even before he had established the friars.", "They are contemplatives in the cloistered life.", "The nuns celebrated their 800th anniversary in 2006.Some monasteries raise funds for their operations by producing religious articles such as priestly vestments or baking communion wafers.===Friars===Friars are male members of the order, and consist of members ordained to the priesthood as well as non-ordained members, known as cooperator brothers.", "Both priests and cooperators participate in a variety of ministries, including preaching, parish assignments, educational ministries, social work, and related fields.", "Dominican life is organized into four pillars that define the order's chrism: prayer, study, community and preaching.", "Dominicans are known for their intellectual rigor that informs their preaching, as well as engaging in academic debate with contemporary scholars.", "A significant period of academic study is required prior to taking final vows of membership.=== Sisters===Marble relief of SS Dominic and CatherineWomen have been part of the Dominican Order since the beginning, but distinct active congregations of Dominican sisters in their current form are largely a product of the nineteenth century and afterward.", "They draw their origins both from the Dominican nuns and the communities of women tertiaries (laywomen) who lived in their own homes and gathered regularly to pray and study: the most famous of these was the Mantellates attached to Saint Dominic's church in Siena, to which Catherine of Siena belonged.", "In the seventeenth century, some European Dominican monasteries (e.g.", "St Ursula's, Augsburg) temporarily became no longer enclosed, so they could engage in teaching or nursing or other work in response to pressing local need.", "Any daughter houses they founded, however, became independent.", "But in the nineteenth century, in response to increasing missionary fervor, monasteries were asked to send groups of women to found schools and medical clinics around the world.", "Large numbers of Catholic women traveled to Africa, the Americas, and the East to teach and support new communities of Catholics there, both settlers and converts.", "Owing to the large distances involved, these groups needed to be self-governing, and they frequently planted new self-governing congregations in neighboring mission areas in order to respond more effectively to the perceived pastoral needs.", "Following on from this period of growth in the nineteenth century, and another great period of growth in those joining these congregations in the 1950s, there are currently 24,600 Sisters belonging to 150 Dominican Religious Congregations present in 109 countries affiliated to Dominican Sisters International.As well as the friars, Dominican sisters live their lives supported by four common values, often referred to as the Four Pillars of Dominican Life, they are community life, common prayer, study, and service.", "Dominic called this fourfold pattern of life \"holy preaching\".", "Henri Matisse was so moved by the care that he received from the Dominican Sisters that he collaborated in the design and interior decoration of their Chapelle du Saint-Marie du Rosaire in Vence, France.===Priestly Fraternities of St. Dominic===The Priestly Fraternities of St. Dominic consist of diocesan priests who are formally affiliated to, and \"true members\" of, the Order of Preachers (Dominicans) through a Rule of life that they profess, and who strive for evangelical perfection under the overall direction of the Dominican friars.", "The origins of the Dominican fraternities can be traced from the Dominican third Order secular, which then included both priests and lay persons as members.", "Now existing as a separate association from that of the laity, and with its own distinct rule to follow, the Priestly Fraternities of St. Dominic continue to be guided by the Order in embracing the gift of the spirituality of Dominic in the unique context of the diocesan priesthood.", "Along with the special grace of the Sacrament of Holy Orders, which helps them to perform the acts of the sacred ministry worthily, they receive new spiritual help from the profession, which makes them members of the Dominican Family and sharers in the grace and mission of the Order.", "While the Order provides them with these spiritual aids and directs them to their own sanctification, it leaves them free for the complete service of the local Church, under the jurisdiction of their own Bishop.===Laity===''The Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine of Siena'' (1347–1380) by Giovanni di Paolo, (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)Lay Dominicans are governed by their own rule, the Rule of the Lay Fraternities of St. Dominic, promulgated by the Master in 1987.It is the fifth Rule of the Dominican Laity; the first was issued in 1285.Lay Dominicans are also governed by the Fundamental Constitution of the Dominican Laity, and their provinces provide a General Directory and Statutes.", "According to their Fundamental Constitution of the Dominican Laity, sec.", "4, \"They have a distinctive character in both their spirituality and their service to God and neighbor.", "As members of the Order, they share in its apostolic mission through prayer, study and preaching according to the state of the laity.", "\"Pope Pius XII, in Chosen Laymen, an Address to the Third Order of St. Dominic (1958), said, \"The true condition of salvation is to meet the divine invitation by accepting the Catholic 'credo' and by observing the commandments.", "But the Lord expects more from you Lay Dominicans, and the Church urges you to continue seeking the intimate knowledge of God and His works, to search for a more complete and valuable expression of this knowledge, a refinement of the Christian attitudes which derive from this knowledge.", "\"The two greatest saints among them are Catherine of Siena and Rose of Lima, who lived ascetic lives in their family homes, yet both had widespread influence in their societies.Today, there is a growing number of Associates who share the Dominican charism.", "Dominican Associates are Christian women and men; married, single, divorced, and widowed; clergy members and lay persons who were first drawn to and then called to live out the charism and continue the mission of the Dominican Order – to praise, to bless, to preach.", "Associates do not take vows, but rather make a commitment to be partners with vowed members, and to share the mission and charism of the Dominican Family in their own lives, families, churches, neighborhoods, workplaces, and cities.", "They are most often associated with a particular apostolic work of a congregation of active Dominican sisters." ], [ "Spirituality", "The Dominican emphasis on learning and charity distinguishes it from other monastic and mendicant orders.", "As the order first developed in Europe, learning continued to be emphasized by those friars and their sisters in Christ.", "These religious also struggled for a deeply personal and intimate relationship with God.", "When the order reached England, many of the attributes were kept, but the English gave the order additional specialized characteristics.===Humbert of Romans===Humbert of Romans, the master general of the order from 1254 to 1263, was a great administrator, preacher, and writer.", "It was under his tenure as master general that the nun of the order were given a new constitution.", "He also wanted his friars to reach excellence in their preaching, his most lasting contribution to the order.Humbert is at the center of ascetic writers in the Dominican Order.", "He advised his readers,\"Young Dominicans are also to be instructed not to be eager to see visions or work miracles, since these avail little to salvation, and sometimes we are fooled by them; but rather they should be eager to do good in which salvation consists.", "Also, they should be taught not to be sad if they do not enjoy the divine consolations they hear others have; but they should know the loving Father for some reason sometimes withholds these.", "Again, they should learn that if they lack the grace of compunction or devotion they should not think they are not in the state of grace as long as they have good will, which is all that God regards\".", "The English Dominicans took this to heart and made it the focal point of their mysticism.===Mysticism===The Dominican Order was affected by a number of elemental influences.", "Its early members imbued the order with a mysticism and learning.", "Mysticism refers to the conviction that all believers have the capability to experience God's love.", "This love may manifest itself through brief ecstatic experiences, such that one may be engulfed by God and gain an immediate knowledge of him, which is unknowable through the intellect alone.", "Although the ultimate attainment for mysticism is union with God, the goal is just as much to become like Christ as it is to become one with him.", "Those who believe in Christ should first have faith in him without becoming engaged in such overwhelming phenomena.The Europeans of the order embraced ecstatic mysticism on a grand scale and looked to a union with the Creator.", "The English Dominicans looked for this complete unity as well but were not so focused on ecstatic experiences.", "Instead, their goal was to emulate the moral life of Christ more completely.", "The Dartford nuns were surrounded by all of those legacies and used them to create something unique.====Saint Albertus Magnus====Painting of Albertus Magnus (1206–1280) by Justus van Gent, Another member of the order who contributed significantly to its spirituality is Albert the Great, whose influence on the brotherhood permeated nearly every aspect of Dominican life.Albertus Magnus championed the idea, drawn from Dionysius the Areopagite, that positive knowledge of God is possible but obscure.", "Thus, it is easier to state what God is not than to state what God is:Albert the Great wrote that wisdom and understanding enhance one's faith in God.", "According to him, these are the tools that God uses to commune with a contemplative.", "Love in the soul is both the cause and result of true understanding and judgement.", "It causes not only an intellectual knowledge of God, but a spiritual and emotional knowledge as well.", "Contemplation is the means whereby one can obtain this goal of understanding.", "Things that once seemed static and unchanging become full of possibility and perfection.", "The contemplative then knows that God is, but they do not know what God is.", "Thus, contemplation forever produces a mystified, imperfect knowledge of God.", "The soul is exalted beyond the rest of God's creation but it cannot see God himself.====Rhineland mysticism====Mysticism in the Rhineland emerged from a series of crises—political, social (the Black Death and its consequences), and religious.", "The writings of Albertus Magnus made a significant contribution to German mysticism, which became vibrant in the minds of the Beguines and women such as Hildegard of Bingen and Mechthild of Magdeburg.In Europe, it was often the female members of the order, such as Catherine of Siena, Mechthild of Magdeburg, Christine of Stommeln, Margaret Ebner, and Elsbet Stagl, who gained reputations for having mystical experiences.", "Notable male members of the order associated with mysticism include Henry Suso and Johannes Tauler.One of Meister Eckhart's themes is that one should be mindful of the great nobility which God has given the soul.====English Dominican mysticism====By 1300, the enthusiasm for preaching and conversion within the order had lessened.", "Mysticism, full of the ideas Albertus Magnus expostulated, became the devotion of the greatest minds and hands within the organization.", "It became a \"powerful instrument of personal and theological transformation both within the Order of Preachers and throughout the wider reaches of Christendom.", "Although Albertus Magnus did much to instill mysticism in the Order of Preachers, it is a concept that reaches back to the Hebrew Bible.", "In the tradition of Holy Writ, the impossibility of coming face to face with God is a recurring motif.", "As time passed, Jewish and early Christian writings presented the idea of \"unknowing\" in which God's presence was enveloped in a dark cloud.", "All of those ideas associated with mysticism were at play in the spirituality of the Dominican community.English Dominican mysticism in the late medieval period differed from European strands of it in that, whereas European Dominican mysticism tended to concentrate on ecstatic experiences of union with the divine, English Dominican mysticism's ultimate focus was on a crucial dynamic in one's personal relationship with God.", "That was an essential moral imitation of the Savior as an ideal for religious change and as the means for reformation of humanity's nature as an image of divinity.", "This type of mysticism carried with it four elements.", "Firstly, spiritually it emulated the moral essence of Christ's life.", "Secondly, there was a connection linking moral emulation of Christ's life and humanity's disposition as images of the divine.", "Thirdly, English Dominican mysticism focused on an embodied spirituality with a structured love of fellow men at its center.", "Finally, the supreme aspiration of this mysticism was either an ethical or an actual union with God.For English Dominican mystics, the mystical experience was not expressed just in one moment of the full knowledge of God but in the journey of or process of faith.", "That then led to an understanding that was directed toward an experiential knowledge of divinity.", "It is important to understand, however, that for these mystics it was possible to pursue mystical life without the visions and voices that are usually associated with such a relationship with God.The centre of all mystical experience is of course Christ.", "English Dominicans sought to gain a full knowledge of Christ through an imitation of his life.", "English mystics of all types tended to focus on the moral values that the events in Christ's life exemplified.", "That led to a \"progressive understanding of the meanings of Scripture—literal, moral, allegorical, and anagogical,\" which was contained within the mystical journey itself.", "From these considerations of Scripture comes the simplest way to imitate Christ: an emulation of the moral actions and attitudes that Jesus demonstrated in his earthly ministry becomes the most significant way to feel and have knowledge of God.The English concentrated on the spirit of the events of Christ's life.", "They neither expected nor sought the appearance of the stigmata or any other physical manifestation.", "They wanted to create in themselves that environment that allowed Jesus to fulfill his divine mission, insofar as they were able.", "At the centre of that environment was love, which Christ showed for humanity in becoming human.", "Christ's love reveals the mercy of God and his care for his creation.", "English Dominican mystics sought through that love to become images of God.", "English Dominican spirituality concentrated on the moral implications of image-bearing.", "Love led to spiritual growth that, in turn, reflected an increase in love for God and humanity.===Devotion to Mary===Devotion to the Virgin Mary was another very important aspect of Dominican spirituality.", "As an order, the Dominicans believed that they were established through the good graces of Christ's mother, and through prayers, she sent missionaries to save the souls of nonbelievers.", "Dominican brothers and sisters unable to participate in the Divine Office sang the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary each day and saluted her as their advocate.Throughout the centuries, the Holy Rosary has been an important element among the Dominicans.", "Pope Pius XI stated: \"The Rosary of Mary is the principle and foundation on which the very Order of Saint Dominic rests for making perfect the life of its members and obtaining the salvation of others.\"", "Histories of the Holy Rosary often attribute its origin to Dominic himself through the Virgin Mary.", "Our Lady of the Rosary is the title related to the Marian apparition to Dominic in 1208 in the church of Prouille in which the Virgin Mary gave the Rosary to him.", "For centuries, Dominicans have been instrumental in spreading the rosary and emphasizing the Catholic belief in the power of the rosary.On January 1, 2008, the master of the order declared a year of dedication to the Rosary." ], [ "Other names", "A number of other names have been used to refer to both the order and its members.", " In England and other countries, the Dominican friars are referred to as '''Black Friars''' because of the black ''cappa'' or cloak they wear over their white habits.", "Dominicans were \"Blackfriars\", as opposed to \"Whitefriars\" (i.e., Carmelites) or \"Greyfriars\" (i.e., Franciscans).", "They are also distinct from the \"Austin friars\" (i.e., Augustinian Friars) who wear a similar habit.", "* In France, the Dominicans were known as '''Jacobins''' because their convent in Paris was attached to the Church of Saint-Jacques, now demolished, on the way to Saint-Jacques-du-Haut-Pas, which belonged to the Italian Order of Saint James of Altopascio (James the Less) ''Sanctus Iacobus'' in Latin.", "* Their identification as Dominicans gave rise to the pun that they were the '''''Domini canes''''', or \"Hounds of the Lord\"." ], [ "Mottoes", "; : To praise, to bless and to preach (from the Dominican Missal, ''Preface of the Blessed Virgin Mary''); : Truth; : To study and to hand on the fruits of study (or, to contemplate and to hand on the fruits of contemplation); One in faith, hope, and love" ], [ "Notable members", "Pope Innocent V depicted in a 1350s fresco by Tommaso da Modena, in Treviso.=== Dominican Popes and Cardinals ===Four Dominican friars have served as Bishop of Rome:* Pope Innocent V (r. 1276)* Pope Benedict XI (r. 1303–04)* Pope Pius V (r. 1566–72)* Pope Benedict XIII (r. 1724–30)==== First elected cardinal ====* Hugh of Saint-Cher (elected 1244) first Dominican CardinalThere are three Dominican friars in the College of Cardinals:* Dominik Duka (b.", "1943), Czech, Archbishop of Prague* Christoph Schönborn (b.", "1945), Austrian, Archbishop of Vienna* Jose Advincula (b.", "1952), Filipino, Archbishop of Manila=== Other Dominicans ===Other notable Dominicans include:* Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274), doctor of the Church* Matteo Bandello (c. 1480–1562), author of novellas and soldier* Gabriel Barletta (fl.", "15th century), renowned preacher* Fra Angelico (1395-1455), painter* Fra Bartolomeo (1472–1517), Italian Renaissance painter* Conradin of Bornada (d. 1429), renowned preacher* Vincent of Beauvais (c. 1184-c. 1264), author/compiler of the encyclopedic text ''The Great Mirror'' (''Speculum Maius'')* Frei Betto (b.", "1945), Brazilian friar, theologian, political activist and former government adviser* Martin Bucer (1491–1551), apostate who left the Order to join the Protestant Reformation* Meister Eckhart (c. 1260-c. 1328) German mystic and preacher* Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), philosopher and astronomer condemned as a heretic condemned and burned in Rome by the Inquisition* Edward Ambrose Burgis (c. 1673–1747), historian and theologian* Elias Burneti of Bergerac (fl.", "13th century), theologian* Anne Buttimer (1938–2017), University College Dublin* Thomas Cajetan (1469–1534), theologian, philosopher, and cardinal, who famously debated Martin Luther* Tommaso Campanella (1568–1639), philosopher, theologian, astrologer, and poet, who was denounced by the Inquisition* Melchor Cano (1509–1560), Spanish theologian of the School of Salamanca* Oliviero Carafa (1430–1511), Italian cardinal and diplomat* Diego Carranza (b.", "1559), Mexican missionary* Bartolomé de las Casas (1484–1566), Spanish bishop in the West, known as the ''Protector of the Indians''* Marie-Dominique Chenu (1895–1990), French theologian of the ''Nouvelle Théologie''* Richard Luke Concanen (1747–1810), first Bishop of New York* Yves Congar (1904–1995), French theologian of the ''Nouvelle Théologie'', later cardinal* Brian Davies (b.", "1951), distinguished Professor of Philosophy, Fordham University; former Regent of Blackfriars, Oxford* Jeanine Deckers (1933–1985), briefly famous Belgian singer-songwriter* Joseph Augustine Di Noia (b.", "1943), American Theologian, Adjunct Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith* Nicholas Eymerich (c. 1316–1399), Inquisitor General of the Kingdom of Aragon and theologian* Anthony Fisher (b.", "1960), Archbishop of Sydney* Réginald Marie Garrigou-Lagrange (1877–1964), leading 20th-century Thomist* Bernard Gui (1261–1331), French bishop and inquisitor of the Cathars* Gustavo Gutierrez (b.", "1928), Peruvian liberation theologian* Jean Jérôme Hamer (1916–1996), Belgian theologian and Curia official, cardinal* Hermann of Minden, 13th century provincial superior of the German province of Dominicans* Henrik Kalteisen (c. 1390–1464), 24th Archbishop of Nidaros* Robert Kilwardby (c. 1215–1279), Archbishop of Canterbury and cardinal* Heinrich Kramer (1430–1505), German author of the ''Malleus Maleficarum'', a handbook for witch hunting* Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire (1802–1861), French theologian, journalist, and political activist* James of Lausanne (d. 1321), superior of the Order in France* Osmund Lewry (1929–1987), English theologian* Domingo de Soto (1494–1546), Spanish theologian and philosopher of the School of Salamanca* John Tauler (–1361), one of the Rhineland Mystics* Johann Tetzel (–1519), Inquisitor for Poland and Saxony, renowned preacher and indulgence seller* Herbert McCabe (1926–2001), English theologian and scholar* José S. Palma (b.", "1950), Archbishop of Cebu* Teodoro Bacani Jr. (b.", "1947), Bishop of Novaliches * Rodolfo Fontiveros Beltran (1948–2017), Bishop of San Fernando de La Union * Socrates Villegas (b.", "1960), Archbishop of Lingayen-Dagupan* Malcolm McMahon (b.", "1949), Archbishop of Liverpool* Vincent McNabb (1868–1943), Irish scholar, apologist and ecumenist* Aidan Nichols (b.", "1948), English theologian* Marco Pellegrini (fl.1500), Vicar-General of the Dominicans in Lombardy* Dominique Pire (George) (1910–1969), recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize* Timothy Radcliffe (b.", "1945), 85th Master of the Order of Preachers* Girolamo Savonarola (1452–1498), Italian orator, ''de facto'' ruler of Florentine Republic after the overthrow of the Medici family, burned by the Inquisition* Edward Schillebeeckx (1914–1998), Belgian theologian* E. Anne Schwerdtfeger (1930–2008), American composer* Francisco de Vitoria (c. 1483–1546), Spanish philosopher and theologian of the School of Salamanca, renowned for his work in international law* Michel-Louis Guérard des Lauriers (1898–1988), French theologian, professor at the Pontifical Lateran University in Rome, advisor of Pope Pius XII on the dogma of the Assumption of Mary, author of the Thesis of Cassiciacum, Sedevacantist bishop* Christopher Cardone (b.", "1957) Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Honiara." ], [ "Educational institutions", "327x327px* Albertus Magnus College, New Haven, Connecticut, United States – est.1925* Angelicum School Iloilo, Iloilo City, Philippines – est.", "1978* Aquinas College (Michigan), Grand Rapids, Michigan, United States – est.", "1886* Aquinas Institute of Theology, St. Louis, Missouri, United States – est.", "1939* Aquinas School, San Juan, Metro Manila, Philippines – est.", "1965* Barry University, Miami Shores, Florida, United States – est.", "1940* Bishop Lynch High School, Dallas, Texas, United States – est.", "1963* Blackfriars Hall, Oxford, United Kingdom* Blackfriars Priory School, Prospect, South Australia, Australia – est.", "1953* Blessed Imelda's School, Taipei, Taiwan – est.", "1916* Cabra Dominican College, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia – est.", "1886* Caldwell University, Caldwell, New Jersey, United States – est.", "1939* Catholic Dominican School, Yigo, Guam – est.", "1995* Colegio de San Juan de Letran, Bataan, Abucay, Bataan, Philippines* Colegio de San Juan de Letran, Calamba, Philippines* Colegio de San Juan de Letran, Intramuros, Philippines – est.", "1620* Colegio de San Juan de Letran, Manaoag ''(formerly Our Lady of Manaoag College)'', Manaoag, Pangasinan, Philippines* Colegio Lacordaire, Cali, Colombia – est.", "1956* Dominican College of San Juan, San Juan, Metro Manila, Philippines* Dominican College of Santa Rosa, Santa Rosa, Laguna, Philippines – est.", "1994* Dominican College of Tarlac, Capas, Tarlac, Philippines – est.", "1947* Dominican Convent High School, Bulawayo, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe – est.", "1956* Dominican Convent High School, Harare, Zimbabwe – est.", "1892* Dominican International School Kaohsiung, Taiwan – est.", "1953* Dominican International School, Taipei City, Taiwan – est.", "1957* Dominican School Manila, Sampaloc, Manila, Philippines – est.", "1958* Dominican School, Semaphore, South Australia – est.", "1899* Dominican School of Calabanga, Calabanga, Metro Naga, Camarines Sur, Philippines* Dominican School of Philosophy and Theology, Berkeley, California, United States – est.", "1861* Dominican University College, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada – est.", "1900* Dominican University (Illinois), River Forest, Illinois, United States – est.", "1901* Dominican University of California, San Rafael, California, United States – est.", "1890* Domuni Universitas, Toulouse, France, France – est.", "1998* Edgewood College, Madison, Wisconsin, United States – est.", "1927* Emerald Hill School, Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe* Fenwick High School, Oak Park, Illinois, United States – est.", "1929* Holy Rosary School of Pardo, El Pardo, Cebu Ciyy, Philippines – est.", "1965* Holy Trinity University, Puerto Princesa City, Philippines – est.", "1940* Marian Catholic High School, Chicago Heights, Illinois, United States – est.", "1958* Molloy University, Rockville Centre, New York, United States – est.", "1955* Mount Saint Mary College, Newburgh, New York, United States* Newbridge College, Newbridge, Co. Kildare, Republic of Ireland* Ohio Dominican University, Columbus, Ohio, United States* Pontifical Faculty of the Immaculate Conception* Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas* Providence College, Providence, Rhode Island, United States* Rosaryhill School , Hong Kong, China – est.", "1959* San Pedro College, Davao City* Santa Sabina Dominican College, Dublin* Siena College of San Jose* Siena College of Quezon City* Siena College of Taytay, Taytay, Rizal* Siena College, Camberwell, Victoria, Australia* St Agnes Academy, Houston, Texas, United States – est.", "1905* St Dominic's Chishawasha, Zimbabwe* St Dominic's College, Henderson, Auckland, New Zealand* St Dominic's College, Wanganui, New Zealand* St Dominic's Priory College, North Adelaide, South Australia – est.", "1884* St. Catharine College, St. Catharine, Kentucky, United States* St. John's High School (Harare), Zimbabwe* St Mary's College, Adelaide, South Australia – est.", "1869* St. Mary's Dominican High School, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States* St. Michael Academy, Northern Samar, Philippines* St. Rose of Lima School, Bacolod City, Philippines* Superior Institute of Religious Sciences of St. Thomas Aquinas* The Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, The Catholic University of the Philippines – est.", "1611* Universidad Santo Tomas de Aquino, Bogota, Colombia* Universidad Santo Tomas de Aquino, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, est.", "1538 – First University of the New World* University of Santo Tomas-Legazpi ''(formerly Aquinas University of Legazpi)'', Legazpi City, Albay – est.", "1948* UST-Angelicum College ''(formerly Angelicum College)'', Quezon City, Philippines – est.", "1972" ], [ "See also", "* Anglican Order of Preachers* Community of the Lamb, a new branch of the Dominican Order, founded in 1983* Dominican Nuns of the Perpetual Rosary* Dominican Rite, the Separate Use for Dominicans in the Latin Church* Dominican Sisters of Mary, Mother of the Eucharist* Dominican Sisters of St. Cecilia* List of saints of the Dominican Order* List of sites of the Dominican Order* Master of the Order of Preachers* Spanish Inquisition* ''The Blackfriars of Shrewsbury''* Third Order of Saint Dominic* Thomistic sacramental theology* Thought of Thomas Aquinas" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===****************************** *" ], [ "External links", " Order of Preachers Homepage – Available * ''Dominican Observer'' – weekly magazine of Dominican friars* * The Dominican nuns Monastery of Saint Jude in Marbury, Alabama* Our Lady of the Holy Rosary Monastery in Buffalo NY (A Dominican contemplative monastery with Latin chant)* The Dominican nuns Monastery Pius XII in Fatima, Portugal* Dominican School of Philosophy and Theology* Lectures in Dominican History* Online Resource Library* Greyfriars and Blackfriars, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Henrietta Leyser, Anthony Kenny & Alexander Murray (''In Our Time'', Nov.10, 2005)* Dominican Sisters of Mary, Mother of the Eucharist" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Don McLean" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Donald McLean III''' (born October 2, 1945) is an American singer-songwriter and guitarist.", "Known to fans as the \"American Troubadour\" or \"King of the Trail\", he is best known for his 1971 hit song \"American Pie\", an eight-and-a-half-minute folk rock \"cultural touchstone\" about the loss of innocence of the early rock and roll generation.", "His other hit singles include \"Vincent\" (about Vincent van Gogh), \"Dreidel\", and \"Wonderful Baby\"; as well as his renditions of Roy Orbison's \"Crying\" and the Skyliners' \"Since I Don't Have You\".McLean's song \"And I Love You So\" has been recorded by Elvis Presley, Perry Como, Helen Reddy, Glen Campbell, and others.", "In 2000, Madonna had a hit with a rendition of \"American Pie\".In 2004, McLean was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.", "In January 2018, BMI certified that \"American Pie\" had reached five million airplays and \"Vincent\" three million." ], [ "Early life", "McLean's grandfather and father, both also named Donald McLean, were of Scottish origin.", "McLean's mother, Elizabeth Bucci, was Italian, originated from Abruzzo in central Italy.", "He has other extended family in Los Angeles and Boston.", "McLean grew up in New Rochelle, New York, where he delivered newspapers as a boy.===Musical roots===Though some of his early musical influences included Frank Sinatra and Buddy Holly, as a teenager, McLean became interested in folk music, particularly the Weavers' 1955 recording ''The Weavers at Carnegie Hall''.", "He often missed long periods of school because of childhood asthma, and although McLean slipped back in his studies, his love of music was allowed to flourish.", "By age 16, he had bought his first guitar and began making contacts in the music business, becoming friends with the folk singers Erik Darling and Fred Hellerman of the Weavers.", "Hellerman said, \"He called me one day and said, 'I'd like to come and visit you', and that's what he did!", "We became good friends — he has the most remarkable music memory of anyone I've ever known.", "\"When McLean was 15, his father died.", "Fulfilling his father's request, McLean graduated from Iona Preparatory School in 1963, and briefly attended Villanova University, dropping out after four months.", "After leaving Villanova, McLean became associated with the famed folk music agent Harold Leventhal for several months before teaming up with his personal manager, Herb Gart, for 18 years.", "For the next six years, he performed at venues and events including The Bitter End and the Gaslight Cafe in New York, the Newport Folk Festival, the Cellar Door in Washington, D.C., and the Troubadour in Los Angeles.", "Gart's 18-year tenure as McLean's manager ended acrimoniously in the 1980s.", "Following Gart's death in September 2018, McLean wrote:McLean attended night school at Iona College and received a bachelor's degree in business administration in 1968.He turned down a scholarship to Columbia University Graduate School in favor of pursuing a career as a singer-songwriter, performing at such venues as Caffè Lena in Saratoga Springs, New York and The Main Point in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania.Later that year, with the help of a grant from the New York State Council on the Arts, McLean began reaching a wider audience, with visits to towns up and down the Hudson River.", "He learned the art of performing from his friend and mentor Pete Seeger.", "McLean accompanied Seeger on his ''Clearwater'' boat trip up the Hudson River in 1969 to raise awareness about environmental pollution in the river.", "During this time, McLean wrote songs that appeared on his first album ''Tapestry''.", "McLean co-edited the book ''Songs and Sketches of the First Clearwater Crew'', with sketches by Thomas B. Allen, for which Seeger wrote the foreword.", "Seeger and McLean sang \"Shenandoah\" on the 1974 Clearwater album.", "McLean still thinks about his experiences of working with Seeger: \"Hardly a day goes by when I don't think of Pete and how generous and supportive he was.", "If you could understand his politics and you got to know him, he really was some kind of modern day saint.\"" ], [ "Recording career", "===Early breakthrough===McLean recorded ''Tapestry'' in 1969 in Berkeley, California, during the student riots.", "After being rejected 72 times by labels, the album was released by Mediarts, a label that had not existed when he first started to look for one.", "He worked on the album for a couple of years before putting it out.", "It attracted good reviews but little notice outside the folk community, though on the Easy Listening chart \"Castles in the Air\" was a success, and in 1973 \"And I Love You So\" became a number 1 Adult Contemporary hit for Perry Como.McLean's major break came when Mediarts was taken over by United Artists Records, thus securing the promotion of a major label for his second album, ''American Pie.''", "The album launched two number one hits in the title song and \"Vincent\".", "''American Pie''s success made McLean an international star and piqued interest in his first album, which charted more than two years after its initial release.===\"American Pie\"===McLean's magnum opus, \"American Pie\", is a sprawling, impressionistic song inspired partly by the deaths of Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and J.P. Richardson (The Big Bopper) in a plane crash in 1959, and developments in American youth culture in the subsequent decade.", "The song popularized the expression \"The Day the Music Died\" in reference to the crash.The song was recorded on May 26, 1971, and a month later received its first radio airplay on New York's WNEW-FM and WPLJ-FM to mark the closing of Fillmore East, the famous New York concert hall.", "\"American Pie\" reached number one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 from January 15 to February 5, 1972, and remains McLean's most successful single release.", "The single also topped the ''Billboard'' Easy Listening chart.", "With a total running time of 8:36 encompassing both sides of the single, it was also the longest song to reach number one until Taylor Swift's \"All Too Well (Taylor's Version)\" broke the record in 2021.Some stations played only part one of the original split-sided single release.WCFL DJ Bob Dearborn unraveled the lyrics and first published his interpretation on January 7, 1972, four days after the song reached number 1 on rival station WLS, six days before it reached number 1 on WCFL, and eight days before it reached number 1 nationally (see \"Further reading\" under \"American Pie\").", "Numerous other interpretations, which together largely converged on Dearborn's interpretation, quickly followed.", "McLean declined to say anything definitive about the lyrics until 1978.Since then McLean has stated that the lyrics are also somewhat autobiographical and present an abstract story of his life from the mid-1950s until the time he wrote the song in the late 1960s.The original United Artists Records inner sleeve featured a free verse poem written by McLean about William Boyd, also known as Hopalong Cassidy, along with a picture of Boyd in full Hopalong regalia.", "This sleeve was removed within a year of the album's release.", "The words to this poem appear on a plaque at the hospital where Boyd died.", "The Boyd poem and picture tribute do appear on a special remastered 2003 CD.In 2001, \"American Pie\" was voted number 5 in a poll of the 365 Songs of the Century compiled by the Recording Industry Association of America and the National Endowment for the Arts.On April 7, 2015, McLean's original working manuscript for \"American Pie\" sold for $1,205,000 (£809,524/€1,109,182) at Christie's auction rooms, New York, making it the third highest auction price achieved for an American literary manuscript.In the sale catalogue notes, McLean finally revealed the meaning in the song's lyrics: \"Basically in American Pie things are heading in the wrong direction.", "...", "It life is becoming less idyllic.", "I don't know whether you consider that wrong or right but it is a morality song in a sense.\"", "The catalogue confirmed some of the better-known references in the song's lyrics, including mentions of Elvis Presley (\"the king\") and Bob Dylan (\"the jester\"), and confirmed that the song culminates with a description of the death of Meredith Hunter at the Altamont Free Concert, ten years after the plane crash that killed Holly, Valens, and Richardson, and that the song broadly depicts how the early rock innocence of the 1950s, and a bygone simpler age, had been lost; overtaken by events and changes, which themselves had been overtaken by further changes.Mike Mills of R.E.M.", "reflected on the song, that \"'American Pie' just made perfect sense to me as a song and that's what impressed me the most.", "I could say to people this is how to write songs.", "When you've written at least three songs that can be considered classic that is a very high batting average and if one of those songs happens to be something that a great many people think is one of the greatest songs ever written you've not only hit the top of the mountain but you've stayed high on the mountain for a long time.", "\"When asked about his record broken by Taylor Swift in a ''Billboard'' interview, Don McLean said, \"there is something to be said for a great song that has staying power.", "\"American Pie\" remained on top for 50 years and now Taylor Swift has unseated such a historic piece of artistry.", "Let's face it, nobody ever wants to lose that No.", "1 spot, but if I had to lose it to somebody, I sure am glad it was another great singer/songwriter such as Taylor.\"", "When Swift broke McLean's record, she sent him flowers and a handwritten note that read \"I will never forget that I'm standing on the shoulders of giants\".===\"Vincent (Starry Starry Night)\"===\"Vincent\" is a tribute to the 19th-century Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh.", "The inspiration came to McLean one morning while looking at a book about Van Gogh.", "As he studied a print of Van Gogh's painting ''The Starry Night'', he realized that a song could be written about the artist through the painting.", "The song argues that Van Gogh had a psychiatric illness, as opposed to being insane.", "It reached number 12 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 and it proved to be a huge hit worldwide, including reaching number 1 in the UK Singles Chart.", "Mike Mills of R.E.M.", "said \"You can't change a note in that song\".", "The song was performed by NOFX on their album ''45 or 46 Songs That Weren't Good Enough to Go on Our Other Records'' and appears on the Fat Wreck Chords compilation ''Survival of the Fattest''.", "\"Vincent\" was sung by Josh Groban on his 2001 debut album.", "In 2018, singer-songwriter Ellie Goulding recorded a new, stripped back, acoustic guitar-driven version of the song.===Subsequent recordings===McLean in a publicity photo, 1976Personnel from the ''American Pie'' album sessions were retained for his third album ''Don McLean'', including the producer, Ed Freeman, Rob Rothstein on bass, and Warren Bernhardt on piano.", "The song \"The Pride Parade\" provides an insight into McLean's immediate reaction to stardom.", "McLean told ''Melody Maker'' in 1973 that ''Tapestry'' was an album by someone previously concerned with external situations.", "''American Pie'' combines externals with internals, and the resultant success of that album makes the third one (''Don McLean'') entirely introspective.", "\"Other songs written by McLean for the album include \"Dreidel\" (number 21 on the Billboard chart) and \"If We Try\" (number 58), which was recorded by Olivia Newton-John.", "\"On the Amazon\" from the 1920s musical Mr. Cinders was an unusual choice but became an audience favorite in concerts and featured in ''Till Tomorrow'', a documentary film about McLean produced by Bob Elfstrom (Elfstrom held the role of Jesus Christ in Johnny and June Cash's ''Gospel Road)''.", "The film shows McLean in concert at Columbia University as he was interrupted by a bomb scare.", "He left the stage while the audience stood up and checked under their seats for anything that resembled a bomb.", "After the all-clear, McLean re-appeared and sang \"On the Amazon\" from exactly where he had left off.", "Don Heckman reported the bomb scare in his review for ''The New York Times'' titled \"Don McLean Survives Two Obstacles\".The fourth album ''Playin' Favorites'' was a top-40 hit in the UK in 1973 and included the Irish folk classic, \"Mountains of Mourne\" and Buddy Holly's \"Everyday\", a live rendition of which returned McLean to the UK Singles Chart.", "McLean said \"The last album (''Don McLean'') was a study in depression whereas the new one (''Playin' Favorites'') is almost the quintessence of optimism.", "\"The 1974 album ''Homeless Brother'', produced by Joel Dorn, was McLean's final studio recording for United Artists.", "The album featured fine New York session musicians, including Ralph McDonald on percussion, Hugh McCracken on guitar and a guest appearance by Yusef Lateef on flute.", "The Persuasions sang the background vocals on \"Crying in the Chapel\", and Cissy Houston provided a backing vocal on \"La La Love You\".", "The album's title song was inspired by Jack Kerouac's book ''Lonesome Traveler'', in which Kerouac tells the story of America's \"homeless brothers\" or hobos.", "The song features background vocals by Pete Seeger.The song \"The Legend of Andrew McCrew\" was based on an article published in ''The New York Times'' concerning a black Dallas hobo named Anderson McCrew who was killed when he leapt from a moving train.", "No one claimed him, so a carnival took his body, mummified it, and toured all over the South with him, calling him \"The Famous Mummy Man\".", "McLean's song inspired radio station WGN in Chicago to tell the story and give the song airplay in order to raise money for a headstone for McCrew's grave.", "Their campaign was successful, and McCrew's body was exhumed and buried in the Lincoln Cemetery in Dallas.Joel Dorn later collaborated on the McLean career retrospective ''Rearview Mirror'', released in 2005 on Dorn's label, Hyena Records.", "In 2006, Dorn reflected on working with McLean:Of the more than 200 studio albums I've produced in the past 40 plus years, there is a handful; maybe 15 or so that I can actually listen to from top to bottom.", "''Homeless Brother'' is one of them.", "It accomplished everything I set out to do.", "And it did so because it was a true collaboration.", "Don brought so much to the project that all I really had to do was capture what he did, and complement it properly when necessary.In 1977 a brief liaison with Arista Records that yielded the album ''Prime Time'', and in October 1978, the single \"It Doesn't Matter Anymore\".", "This was a track from the album ''Chain Lightning'' that should have been the second of four with Arista.", "McLean had started recording in Nashville, Tennessee, with Elvis Presley's backing singers, the Jordanaires, and many of Presley's musicians.", "However the Arista deal broke down following artistic disagreements between McLean and the Arista chief, Clive Davis.", "Consequently, McLean was left without a record contract in the United States, but through continuing deals, ''Chain Lightning'' was released by EMI in Europe and by Festival Records in Australia.In April 1980, the Roy Orbison song \"Crying\" from the album began picking up airplay on Dutch radio stations and McLean was called to Europe to appear on several important musical variety shows to plug the song and support its release as a single by EMI.", "The song achieved number 1 status in the Netherlands first, followed by the UK and then Australia.McLean's number 1 successes in Europe and Australia led to a new deal in the United States with Millennium Records, which issued ''Chain Lightning'' two and a half years after it had been recorded in Nashville and two years after its release in Europe.", "It charted on February 14, 1981, and reached number 28, and \"Crying\" climbed to number 5 on the pop singles chart.", "Orbison himself thought that McLean's version was the best interpretation he'd ever heard of one of his songs.", "Orbison thought McLean did a better job than he did and even went so far as to say that the voice of Don McLean is one of the great instruments of 20th-century America.", "According to Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys, \"McLean's voice could cut through steel - he is a very pure singer and he's up there with the best of them.", "He's a very talented singer and songwriter and he deserves his success.", "\"McLean had further chart successes in the United States in the early 1980s with \"Since I Don't Have You\", a new recording of \"Castles in the Air\" and \"It's Just the Sun\".", "In 1987, the release of the country-based album'' Love Tracks'' gave rise to the hit singles \"Love in My Heart\" (a top-10 in Australia), \"You Can't Blame the Train\" (U.S. country number 49), and \"Eventually\".", "The latter two songs were written by Terri Sharp.", "In 1991, EMI reissued \"American Pie\" as a single in the United Kingdom, and McLean performed on ''Top of the Pops''.", "In 1992, previously unreleased songs became available on ''Favorites and Rarities'', and ''Don McLean Classics'' featured new studio recordings of \"Vincent\" and \"American Pie\".McLean has continued to record new material, including ''River of Love'' in 1995 on Curb Records, and more recently, the albums ''You've Got to Share'', ''Don McLean Sings Marty Robbins'' and ''The Western Album'' for his own Don McLean Music label.", "''Addicted to Black'' was released in May 2009.===Other songs===McLean's other well-known songs include the following.", "\"And I Love You So\" featured on McLean's first album ''Tapestry'' first released in 1970.The song was later recorded by Elvis Presley, Helen Reddy, Shirley Bassey, Glen Campbell, Engelbert Humperdinck, Howard Keel, Claude François, and a 1973 hit for Perry Como.", "The song was performed at the Royal Wedding reception of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle in 2018.", "\"Castles in the Air\", which McLean recorded twice.", "His 1981 re-recording was a top-40 hit, reaching number 36 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in late 1981.", "\"Wonderful Baby\", a tribute to Fred Astaire that Astaire himself recorded.", "Primarily rejected by pop stations, it reached number 1 on the ''Billboard'' Easy Listening chart.The ''American Pie'' album features a version of Psalm 137, titled \"Babylon\".", "The song is based on a canon by Philip Hayes and was arranged by McLean and Lee Hays (of The Weavers).", "\"Babylon\" was performed in the ''Mad Men'' episode of the same name despite the fact that the song would not be released until 10 years after the time in which the episode is set.In 1981, McLean had an international number one hit with a version of the Roy Orbison classic \"Crying\".", "It was only after the record became a success overseas that it was released in the United States.", "The single hit reached number 5 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in 1981.Orbison himself once described McLean as \"the voice of the century\", and in a subsequent re-recording of the song, Orbison incorporated elements of McLean's version.For the 1982 animated cult movie ''The Flight of Dragons'', produced by Jules Bass and Arthur Rankin, Jr., McLean sang the opening theme.", "However, no soundtrack has ever been released.Another hit song associated with McLean (though never recorded by him) is \"Killing Me Softly with His Song\", which was inspired by Lori Lieberman after she, also a singer-songwriter, saw him singing his composition \"Empty Chairs\" in concert.", "Afterwards she shared it with her manager, Norman Gimbel, who had long been searching for a way to use a phrase he had copied from a novel translated from Spanish, \"killing me softly with his blues\".", "Gimbel passed the lyrics to his songwriting partner Charles Fox, who in turn composed the music to \"Killing Me Softly with His Song\".", "Lieberman recorded the song and released it in 1972.This initial version was heard by Roberta Flack, who recorded it with slight changes to create a number one hit.", "Two decades later it was recorded by the Fugees, who had another hit." ], [ "Concerts", "Don McLean performing in the C'Ya On the Flipside II benefit at the Grand Ole Opry in NashvilleMcLean's albums did not match the commercial success of ''American Pie'', but he became a major concert attraction in the United States and overseas.", "His repertoire included old concert hall numbers and the catalogues of singers such as Buddy Holly and Frank Sinatra.", "The years spent playing gigs in small clubs and coffee houses in the 1960s transformed into well-paced performances.", "McLean's first concerts at Carnegie Hall in New York and the Albert Hall in London in 1972 were critically acclaimed.In recent years, McLean continued to tour the United States, Canada and Europe (2011, 2012) and Australia (2013).", "In June 2011, McLean appeared at the Glastonbury Festival in Pilton, UK, and in 2014 at California's Stagecoach Country Music Festival.During 2018, McLean embarked on a world tour with concerts in North America, UK, Ireland, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Israel, Norway and Finland.", "His concert at the London Palladium was reviewed positively by ''The Times'':''The Jerusalem Post'' noted that \"McLean was the consummate professional in presenting his master class of the Great American Songbook\" in their review of his June 2018 Tel Aviv concert.In 2022, McLean was scheduled to perform a 35-date tour through Europe, starting in Wales and ending in Austria, for the 50th anniversary of \"American Pie\".In 2023, the 50th anniversary of \"American Pie\", McLean's Australian Tour concluded with 24 shows in Australia and New Zealand.", "'''Australian Tour 2023'''Don McLean at Fortitude Music HallHis concert at the Fortitude Music Hall was reviewed positively by Rolling Stone:" ], [ "The Day the Music Died", "Facets of his 1971 song \"American Pie\" have become part of American culture, spanning generations.McLean's lyrics retroactively influenced the perception of a major event in the early days of rock 'n roll.Particularly, the plane crash that killed musicians Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and \"The Big Bopper\" J. P. Richardson has become known as \"The Day the Music Died\", the expression by which McLean, a fan of Buddy Holly, dubbed it in the song.", "Holly's death for him symbolized the \"loss of innocence\" of the early rock-'n-roll generation.In a 2022 documentary, also titled ''The Day The Music Died'', McLean discussed for the first time in 50 years the meaning of the lyrics of his hit song." ], [ "Later work and honors", "McLean's alma mater, Iona College in New Rochelle, New York, conferred an honorary doctorate on him in 2001.McLean has since been vocal in his criticism of the college: \"Iona was, in my day, a college for the average student who wanted to go home after class.", "The educational experience was perfect for me.", "I loved the small Greek revival style campus buildings and I got to put on little shows in Doorley Hall auditorium.", "Since those days, the Irish Christian Brothers have been virtually destroyed by the disgusting behavior of many in their order as charges of mass child molestation have destroyed their ranks.", "No punishment is harsh enough when you think of trusting Catholic parents giving their children over to these cynical monsters.", "I am very disappointed in the Irish Christian Brothers and Iona College.", "\"McLean at the Royal Albert Hall in London, October 2012In February 2002, \"American Pie\" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.", "In 2004, McLean was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.The biography ''The Don McLean Story: Killing Us Softly With His Songs'' was published in 2007.Biographer Alan Howard conducted extensive interviews for this, the only book-length biography of the often reclusive McLean to date.In February 2012, McLean won the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards Life Time Achievement award.In March 2012, the PBS network broadcast a feature-length documentary about the life and music of McLean called ''Don McLean: American Troubadour'' produced by four-time Emmy Award-winning filmmaker Jim Brown.McLean is credited as a co-writer on Drake's song \"Doing It Wrong\", featuring Stevie Wonder.", "The song includes lyrics from two McLean compositions – \"The Wrong Thing to Do\" and \"When a Good Thing Goes Bad\" – both of which were featured on his 1977 album ''Prime Time''.In March 2017, McLean's single \"American Pie\" was designated an \"aural treasure\" by the Library of Congress, \"worthy of preservation\" in the National Recording Registry \"as part of America's patrimony\".", "In 1991, a re-issue of \"American Pie\" reached the UK top 20 singles chart and in July 2017, \"American Pie\" peaked at number 6 on the ''Billboard'' Rock Digital Songs Sales chart, nearly 50 years after its first release.In May 2019, the UCLA Student Alumni Association awarded McLean its George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Musical Achievement.", "However, the award was rescinded before it was formally bestowed because of McLean's conviction for domestic abuse.", "In response, McLean issued the following statement: \"UCLA awarded this lifetime achievement award and then took it back because you found out about my squabble with my ex-wife.", "This has been all over the Internet for three years.", "Are you people morons?", "This is settled law.", "Maybe I need to give you some bribe money to grease the college wheels?", "I am guilty of nothing to do with assault and you had better make that clear.", "We live in a dark age of accusation and not law.", "\"On November 7, 2019, McLean returned to New Rochelle to view a new mural depicting a likeness of his younger self, with lyrics from \"American Pie\", on the side of a building on the corner of 134 North Avenue and Bonnefoy Place, painted by artist Loic Ercolessi for a non-profit organization, Street Art for Mankind.", "The mural includes the likeness of singer/songwriter Alicia Keys, with lyrics to the song \"Empire State of Mind\", which she performed with Jay-Z.Don McLean being presented with a star on the Las Vegas Walk of StarsThroughout McLean's career artists including Garth Brooks, Madonna, Drake, Josh Groban and others have recorded his songs.", "At a ceremony in October 2019, plaques certified by the Recording Industry Association of America for gold, platinum, and multi-platinum sales in the United States as well as presentations from Australia, Austria, Belgium, France, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom were bestowed on McLean.", "He said: \"As a songwriter your songs are like your children, and you are hopeful everyone loves them as much as you do, but rarely is that the case.", "I am so grateful that songs I have written have touched so many lives and have been recorded by so many great artists.", "\"Alex Trebek asked McLean to sing for him and his Jeopardy family at his annual Christmas party in 2019.McLean was on his \"bucket list\".", "The event was held at an Italian restaurant near Trebek's home.Alex Trebek and Don McLean onstage at Trebek's annual Christmas PartyIn February 2021, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of \"American Pie\", McLean recorded an A cappella rendition with the band Home Free.", "He stars in the music video with the singers in a virtual collaboration.", "The video won three Telly Awards in 2021.Don McLean + Home Free Win Three Telly Awards For Special Collaboration Of \"American Pie\"McLean received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on August 16, 2021, in the Music Category at 6314 Hollywood Boulevard, in front of The Pie Hole restaurant (corner of Hollywood and Vine).", "Joining in the festivities was McLean's longtime friend \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, a fellow Hollywood Walk of Fame recipient.", "Yankovic had previously recorded a parody of \"American Pie\" titled \"The Saga Begins\", which recounts the story of the film ''Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace'' from the viewpoint of Obi-Wan Kenobi.", "The song appears on Yankovic's 1999 album ''Running with Scissors''.In February 2022, McLean recorded a performance of \"Vincent\" at the Immersive Van Gogh exhibit in Los Angeles in honor of Van Gogh's birthday and the 50th anniversary of the song.In April 2022, Tyson Fury teamed up with McLean to remake \"American Pie\".", "Don McLean won six Telly Awards For Fury/Whyte fight opening.Don McLean Wins Six Telly Awards For Fury-Whyte Fight OpeningIn June 2022, McLean published a children's book titled ''American Pie: A Fable''.", "The story follows the emotional journey of a newspaper delivery boy in the late 1950s who discovers the joy of friendship and music, eventually learning that when you recognize what truly makes you happy, you are never really alone.Children's Book American Pie: A FableIn July 2022 the documentary The Day The Music Died was released, in this documentary McLean discusses for the first time in 50 years the meaning of the lyrics in the hit song American Pie.McLean led a wave of dropouts from the NRA convention after the mass shooting in Uvalde, Texas, saying it would be \"disrespectful and hurtful\" to perform days after 19 children and two adults were killed in a mass shooting in the state.", "McLean was first among performers who announced they would no longer perform at the National Rifle Association's annual meeting in Houston.McLean at the Hollywood Walk of Fame in August 2021September 2022 Don McLean received a 50-million record sales plaque from the TV show Good Morning America.Don McLean receives a 50-million record sales plaque from the TV show Good Morning America.In October 2022, McLean called Kanye West an 'attention-seeking fool' over his antisemitic rants.", "The \"American Pie\" singer who briefly lived in Israel said he stands with his Jewish friends.", "\"Lately, a flood of antisemitic invective has been triggered by the ranting of a stupid attention-seeking fool we all know,\" McLean wrote in the statement that did not mention Ye by name.", "\"I want to say I stand with my Jewish friends and I stand with the state of Israel.", "When this kind of thing happens, we should realize why the state of Israel must be respected and protected.\"", "McLean lived in Israel on-and-off from 1978 to 1982 and he \"grew to love the country and the people.", "Living there changed my life forever.", "\"On November 22, 2022, McLean was inducted into the Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum in Nashville, Tennessee.Don McLean's Performance with Home Free at induction ceremony into the Nashville Musicians Hall of Fame.October 2023 Ritchie Valens’ sister, Connie Valens, traveled to Nashville to induct McLean into the Music City Walk of Fame.“I am so honored to represent the families of Buddy Holly, JP Richardson, and my brother Ritchie Valens,” she said.For years, she couldn't listen to her brother's music because “it hurt too much,” but she could listen to “American Pie.” Last year, she met McLean when she was invited to take part in the documentary “The Day The Music Died.” They gathered at the Surf Ballroom in Clear Lake, Iowa, where her brother (and Buddy Holly and the Big Bopper) had their last performance before the plane crash.“I thanked Don and told him he had immortalized my brother Ritchie, J.P, and Buddy.", "He’d taken a terrible tragedy and written rock and roll history.”She went on to say that.", "because of McLean, “the music didn’t die.”Don McLean inducted into the Music City Walk of Fame Don McLean with girlfriend Paris Dylan induction to at the Music City Walk of Fame" ], [ "Influence on other artists", "Lori Lieberman was inspired by a McLean performance in late 1971 to co-write \"Killing Me Softly with His Song\".In November 1971, Lieberman, then 20, went out with her friend Michele Willens to see Don McLean perform at the Troubadour nightclub in Los Angeles.McLean's hit song \"American Pie\" was rising in the charts, but Lieberman was strongly affected by McLean singing another song: \"Empty Chairs\".This song spurred her to write poetic notes on a paper napkin while he was performing the song.McLean said in 1973 that he was surprised to find out that the song described his singing.", "\"I'm absolutely amazed.", "I've heard both Lori's and Roberta's version and I must say I'm very humbled about the whole thing.", "You can't help but feel that way about a song written and performed as well as this one is.", "\"After decades of confirming Lieberman's contribution, Fox and Gimbel changed their story about the song's origins to downplay her role.", "Gimbel threatened McLean with a lawsuit in 2008, demanding he remove from his website an assertion that McLean was the inspiration for \"Killing Me Softly\", but McLean responded by showing Gimbel his own words confirming the inspiration, published in 1973.", "\"Vincent (Starry Starry Night)\" was rapper Tupac Shakur's favorite song.", "Shakur's girlfriend reportedly played the song for him when he was hospitalized and in a coma.", "Shakur's mother also insisted the song be included in a documentary about the rapper's life.President Joe Biden capped the official state visit of South Korean President Yoon Suk-Yeol with a state dinner on April 27, 2023, at the White House to celebrate the two nations' 70-year alliance.", "Following a round of musical performances, Yoon took to the microphone himself with a rendition of Don McLean's \"American Pie\".", "President Biden then presented Yoon with a guitar autographed by McLean." ], [ "Personal life", "McLean was raised in the Catholic faith of his mother, Elizabeth McLean; his father, Donald McLean, was a Protestant.", "His father died when McLean was 15.McLean has claimed that he grew up in a physically abusive household, and was abused by both his parents and his sister.", "Don McLean has been married twice, with both marriages ending in divorce.", "His first wife was Carol Sauvion, of Philadelphia, who went on to win an Emmy and Peabody Award for her PBS television series \"Craft in America\".", "They were married from 1969 to 1976 and had no children.His second marriage was to Patrisha Shnier McLean, of Montreal, Canada, from 1987 to 2016.They have two children, Jackie and Wyatt, and two grandchildren, Rosa and Mya.", "Their marriage ended after McLean was arrested and charged with misdemeanor domestic violence at their home in Camden, Maine, and Shnier McLean filed for divorce, citing \"adultery, cruel and abusive treatment, and irreconcilable differences.", "\"In 2018, McLean confirmed his romantic relationship with model and reality star Paris Dylan, who is 48 years his junior.McLean is an ambassador for Teen Cancer America and performed at the Teen Cancer America and UCLA Health fundraising Backyard Concert in 2018.During the show, McLean sang a duet of his song \"Vincent\" with Ed Sheeran.", "The Don McLean Foundation is a charity set up by McLean to be funded by all his income in perpetuity.", "Its headquarters is based at Lakeview, the Don McLean Maine residence, and it will serve as a center for fundraisers and conferences as well as a nature preserve.", "Organizations that support the needy in the State of Maine and throughout the United States will be beneficiaries.On January 18, 2016, McLean's then-wife Patrisha Shnier McLean alleged that after four hours of \"terrorizing\" her, McLean pinned her to a bed until she broke free and ran to the bathroom.", "Shnier McLean alleged that McLean attempted \"to shove open the locked bathroom door behind which I had barricaded myself.", "As it was splintering, I pushed the numbers 911.\"", "McLean was arrested on suspicion of domestic violence, and pled guilty to domestic violence assault, criminal restraint, criminal mischief and making domestic violence threats.", "McLean paid $3,660 in fines, and was not sentenced to any jail time.", "Under Maine's deferred disposition law, the State agreed to dismiss the domestic violence assault charge if McLean complied with the court's orders for one year, and the charge was expunged a year later.", "During this time, Shnier McLean filed for divorce, citing \"adultery, cruel and abusive treatment, and irreconcilable differences.\"", "McLean has denied that he physically abused Shnier McLean, and his lawyer released a statement claiming McLean agreed to the plea deal in the interest of privacy.", "In March 2017, a Maine court granted Shnier-McLean's request for a 10-year protection order against McLean.In 2021, McLean's daughter Jackie told ''Rolling Stone'' that her father was emotionally abusive and created a cult-like household through paralyzing verbal attacks, forced isolation, and threats to withhold love or financial support.", "The article asserted that \"texts, emails and recordings of calls between McLean and her father provided to ''Rolling Stone'' suggest a pattern of asserting control and manipulation over Jackie, her actions and memories, and a seeming drive by the elder McLean to maintain a certain public image.\"", "In one email, McLean wrote his daughter, \"unless you support me publicly and frequently you should not expect me to lift a finger for you nor will I give you another red cent.\"", "\"she remembers things that I don't.\"", "What he recalls is telling her after he read her Moby Dick: \"It was a man's world, I said, 'but the future is going to be a woman's world and you are going to be perfectly suited for that world.\"", "When interviewed for the article, McLean admitted to aspects of Jackie's account, but denied that his behavior constituted abuse.", "He also said that he himself had grown up in a physically abusive household." ], [ "Discography", " ''Tapestry'' (1970)* ''American Pie'' (1971)* ''Don McLean'' (1972)* ''Playin' Favorites'' (1973)* ''Homeless Brother'' (1974)* ''Prime Time'' (1977)* ''Chain Lightning'' (1978)* ''Believers'' (1981)* ''Love Tracks'' (1988)* ''For the Memories'' (1989)* ''Headroom'' (1991)* ''Christmas'' (1991)* ''The River of Love'' (1995)* ''Christmas Dreams'' (1997)* ''Sings Marty Robbins'' (2001)* ''You've Got to Share: Songs for Children'' (2003)* ''The Western Album'' (2003)* ''Rearview Mirror: An American Musical Journey'' (2005)* ''Addicted to Black'' (2009)* ''Botanical Gardens'' (2018)* ''Still Playin' Favorites'' (2020)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Allmusic Entry* Working with Chet Atkins: An Interview with Don McLean* Don McLean Interview at NAMM Oral History Collection (2016)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Defense" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Defense''' or '''defence''' may refer to:" ], [ "Tactical, martial, and political acts or groups", "* Defense (military), forces primarily intended for warfare* Civil defense, the organizing of civilians to deal with emergencies or enemy attacks* Defense industry, industry which manufactures and sells weapons and military technology* Self-defense, the use of force to defend oneself* Haganah (Hebrew for \"The Defence\"), a paramilitary organization in British Palestine* National security, security of a nation state, its citizens, economy, and institutions, as a duty of government Defence diplomacy, pursuit of foreign policy objectives through the peaceful employment of defence resources Ministry of defence or department of defense, a part of government which regulates the armed forces** Defence minister, a cabinet position in charge of a ministry of defense* International security, measures taken by states and international organizations to ensure mutual survival and safety" ], [ "Sports", "* Defense (sports), the action of preventing an opponent from scoring Defender (association football), an outfield player whose primary role is to prevent the opposing team from scoring goals Defenceman (ice hockey), a player, other than the goaltender, in a defensive position** Defensive batting, a method of avoiding being out in cricket" ], [ "Law", "* Defense (legal), an attempt to avoid criminal or civil liability* Defence of property, argument that a defendant should not be held liable for any loss caused while acting to protect their property* Right of self-defense, the right for people to use reasonable force to defend themselves" ], [ "Places", "* Defence, Karachi, a neighbourhood located within Clifton Cantonment of Karachi, Pakistan* La Défense, a business district near Paris** The Grande Arche, commonly known as Arche de la Défense, near Paris" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''The Defence'' (TV series), a 2018 Polish television series* Defense (chess), a chess opening by Black* ''Defence'' (ship), name of several ships** HMS ''Defence'', Royal Navy ships of this name* ''DeFence'', an art project* Thesis defense, oral examination required for certain advanced degrees* Defence mechanisms, unconscious psychological mechanisms that reduce anxiety" ], [ "See also", "* Defender (disambiguation)* Biological defense (disambiguation)* National defense (disambiguation)* Protection (disambiguation)* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "DirkJan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''DirkJan''' is a Dutch comic strip series, created in 1989 by Dutch author and artist Mark Retera.", "It is also the name of its main character.", "The series is a gag-a-day comic." ], [ "Description", "DirkJan is an underachiever who stumbles through life in mostly three-panel gag-a-day comic strips.", "He started out in 1989 as a student at the current Radboud University Nijmegen in the Netherlands, where he lived in a typical student house with all the stereotypical sidekicks, such as the frat boy, the beer drinker, the bossy girl who checks if everybody keeps to the house rules, and the tramps who use the heated shared hallway to stay the night.", "Early DirkJans contained many references to the student life of Nijmegen." ], [ "Publication", "DirkJan was first published in ''Critic'', the magazine for the local union of psychology students.", "It then moved on to monthly publication in the student magazine of Nijmegen (Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad, ANS).", "DirkJan became known nationally when the then only commercial comics magazine of the Netherlands SjoSji (now defunct) started publishing the strip.With the last move, the nature of the strip changed.", "Most of the student sidekicks got cancelled and DirkJan left university, first for jail (DJ is a notorious Kabouter abuser) and then to wander the globe and indeed space.As of May 2023, there are 28 DirkJan albums, tentatively named 'DirkJan 1' through 'DirkJan 22'.", "Several newspapers in the Netherlands publish the comic in their daily edition.", "There are 8 more albums outside the regular series.The amateur comics magazine Iris (1990–1995) republished a number of DirkJan comics, some of which were refused for publication in SjoSji." ], [ "Sources" ], [ "External links", "* Portfolio of Mark Retera* http://www.mooves.nl/ (two animated DirkJan strips, Flash-only site)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Duck Hunt" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1984 light gun shooter video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) video game console and the Nintendo VS. System arcade hardware.", "The game was first released in April 1984, in Japan for the Family Computer (Famicom) console and in North America as an arcade game.", "It became a launch game for the NES in North America in October 1985, and was re-released in Europe two years later.Players fire the NES Zapper at a CRT television, with three attempts per round to shoot ducks and clay pigeons.The game initially received a positive reception in the mid-1980s, but was later given mild praise in retrospective reviews.", "The game was inspired by Nintendo's previous ''Duck Hunt'' electro-mechanical arcade game which was based on the Laser Clay Shooting System released in 1976.Upon release as a video game, ''Duck Hunt'' became a major commercial success both for arcades and consoles in the 1980s, helping to popularize light gun video games with over 28 million copies sold worldwide.In 1986, the nationwide launch of the NES included the Deluxe Set bundle with pack-in games ''Duck Hunt'' and ''Gyromite''.", "The later Action Set has ''Duck Hunt'' and ''Super Mario Bros.'' on one cartridge.", "The final ''Duck Hunt'' bundle is the Power Set, with a multi-cart with ''World Class Track Meet'', ''Super Mario Bros.'', and ''Duck Hunt''.", "The game was released on Virtual Console for the Wii U in 2014." ], [ "Gameplay", "''Duck Hunt'' is a first-person shooter game with moving on-screen targets, firing the NES Zapper light gun at a CRT television screen.", "The player selects the game mode, one or two targets appear, and the player has three attempts to hit them before they disappear.", "Each round totals ten targets.The player must hit a minimum number of targets to advance to the next round or else get a game over.", "The difficulty progresses with faster targets of an increasing minimum number.", "The player receives points per target and bonus points for shooting all ten targets per round.", "The highest scores are tracked per session.", "''Duck Hunt'' has three optional game modes.", "In Game A and Game B, the targets are flying ducks, and in Game C the targets are clay pigeons that are launched into the distance.", "In Game A, one duck appears at a time and in Game B two ducks appear.", "Game A allows a second player to control the flying ducks with a NES controller.", "Completing Round 99 in Game A advances to Round 0, which is a kill screen where the game behaves erratically, such as haphazard or nonexistent targets, thus ending progress.===''Vs.", "Duck Hunt''===''Vs.", "Duck Hunt'' was released as a Nintendo VS. System arcade game in April 1984, and was later included in the PlayChoice-10 arcade console.", "The console supports two light guns, for alternate players.Gameplay consists of alternating rounds of Games B and C, with 12 targets per round instead of 10 and sometimes three targets at once instead of two.", "Every missed target costs one life until the game ends.After every second round, a bonus stage has ducks flying out of the grass with the hunting dog occasionally jumping into the line of fire as a distraction.", "If shot, the dog scolds the player and the bonus stage ends.", "According to Nintendo of America employee Jerry Momoda, the dog was made impossible to shoot on console releases to make the game more family friendly." ], [ "Development", "''Duck Hunt'' requires the NES Zapper and a CRT TV.", "''Duck Hunt'' was inspired by a 1976 electronic toy version titled ''Beam Gun: Duck Hunt'', part of the ''Beam Gun'' series, designed by Gunpei Yokoi and Masayuki Uemura for Nintendo.", "Nintendo Research & Development 1 developed both the NES Zapper and the NES version of ''Duck Hunt''.", "The game was supervised by Takehiro Izushi, and was produced by Gunpei Yokoi.", "The music was composed by Hirokazu Tanaka, who did music for several other Nintendo games at the time.", "The music was represented in the classic games medley on the Video Games Live concert tour.", "Designer Hiroji Kiyotake created the graphics and characters." ], [ "Release", "''Duck Hunt'' has been released alone and in several combination ROM cartridges.", "The Action Set bundle of the NES in the late 1980s has one cartridge containing ''Duck Hunt'' and ''Super Mario Bros.'' The Power Set bundle includes the Zapper, the Power Pad, and a 3-in-1 cartridge with ''Duck Hunt'', ''World Class Track Meet'', and ''Super Mario Bros.''''Duck Hunt'' was re-released on Virtual Console for the Wii U console in Japan on December 24, 2014, and internationally on December 25.This version was modified for the Wii Remote controller in place of the NES Zapper." ], [ "Reception", "In North America, ''Vs.", "Duck Hunt'' became the third top-grossing arcade game on the ''RePlay'' arcade charts in November 1985, below ''Vs.", "Hogan's Alley'' at number one.", "The two popularized light gun video games by 1985.It was bundled with the Nintendo Entertainment System console in 1985, with copies sold worldwide.Upon release in arcades, Eddie Adlum of ''RePlay'' magazine praised ''Duck Hunt'' and ''Hogan's Alley'' as the \"cream on the cake\" among Nintendo VS. System and for successfully capturing the experience of older electro-mechanical gun games into video game format.", "He said that ''Duck Hunt'' and ''Hogan's Alley'' \"sported simulated handguns on a wire cable and pop, pop, pop, you do your thing just like in the old days only at video targets\".AllGame called the game an \"attractive but repetitive target shooter\" and \"utterly mindless... the game is fun for a short time, but gets old after a few rounds of play\".", "Several communities have rated the game positively.", "''1UP.com'' users gave it an 8.7 out of 10, and the ''GameSpot'' community rated the multi-cartridge of ''Super Mario Bros.'' and ''Duck Hunt'' at 9.1 out of 10.It was rated the 150th best game on a Nintendo system in ''Nintendo Power''s Top 200 Games list.", "''IGN'' placed the game at number 77 on its \"Top 100 NES Games of All Time\" feature.", "The game was ranked 24th in ''GamesRadar'''s \"The best NES games of all time\".", "Jeremy Parish of ''USgamer'' stated that ''Duck Hunt'' paired with the NES Zapper \"made the NES memorable\" and was one of the key factors behind the success of the NES.", "Parish related ''Duck Hunt'' to the Wii Remote in that they made their respective consoles more approachable and reach a wider demographic." ], [ "Legacy", "''Duck Hunt'' nameless non-playable hunting dog has been referred to in media as the \"''Duck Hunt'' Dog\" or the \"Laughing Dog\", notorious for smugly laughing at the player for missing ducks.", "The dog is on ''GamesRadar''s list of \"the 12 most annoying sidekicks ever\", ''GameDaily'' list of characters \"we wish we could kill but can't\", ''GameSpy''s \"top 10 dogs in gaming\", and ''MTV''s award for the greatest video game canine.", "The dog makes a cameo appearance in the NES Zapper game ''Barker Bill's Trick Shooting'', where he can be shot.In ''Wii Play'' (2006) and its sequel ''Wii Play: Motion'' (2011), some elements from ''Duck Hunt'' and ''Hogan's Alley'' are in the mini-games \"Shooting Range\" and \"Trigger Twist\", in which some of the various targets are ducks and cans.The dog and a duck, collectively referred to as \"Duck Hunt\", appear as playable characters in ''Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U''.", "Masahiro Sakurai, the creator and director of the ''Super Smash Bros.'' series, said that ''Duck Hunt''s commercial success as \"the most-sold shooting game in the world\" was one of the primary reasons for its inclusion.", "In the games, the ''Duck Hunt'' team utilizes multiple attacks inspired by the light gun, including throwing clay pigeons, kicking an explosive version of the can from ''Hogan's Alley'', summoning the cast of ''Wild Gunman'' to fire at opponents with their guns, or comically dodging shots fired at opponents from the Zapper.", "The games feature an unlockable ''Duck Hunt''-themed stage.", "Both the ''Duck Hunt'' team and stage return in ''Super Smash Bros.", "Ultimate'', and the team is featured in the June 2019 trailer announcing Banjo and Kazooie as downloadable content.In the 2015 film ''Pixels'', the dog cameos as an achievement trophy by the aliens the ''Centipede'' creatures defeat, and the dog is adopted by an old woman.The premise for the psychological horror VR game ''Duck Season'' by Stress Level Zero is inspired by ''Duck Hunt''." ], [ "See also", "* Laser Clay Shooting System* ''Qwak!''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Duck Hunt'' at NinDB" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Das Boot" ], [ "Introduction", "The conning tower of the submarine, Bavaria Studios, Munich'''''' (, ''The Boat'') is a 1981 West German war film written and directed by Wolfgang Petersen, produced by Günter Rohrbach, and starring Jürgen Prochnow, Herbert Grönemeyer and Klaus Wennemann.", "It has been exhibited both as a theatrical release (1981) and a TV miniseries (1985).", "Also, several different home video versions, as well as a director's cut (1997) supervised by Petersen, have been released.An adaptation of Lothar-Günther Buchheim's 1973 German novel based on his experiences aboard , the film is set during World War II and follows ''U-96'' and her crew, as they set out on a hazardous patrol in the Battle of the Atlantic.", "It depicts both the excitement of battle and the tedium of the fruitless hunt, and shows the men serving aboard U-boats as ordinary individuals with a desire to do their best for their comrades and their country.Development began in 1979.Several American directors were considered three years earlier, before the film was shelved.", "During production, Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock, the captain of the real ''U-96'' during Buchheim's 1941 patrol and one of Germany's top U-boat \"tonnage aces\" during the war, and Hans-Joachim Krug, former first officer on , served as consultants.", "One of Petersen's goals was to guide the audience through \"a journey to the edge of the mind\" (the film's German tagline ), showing \"what war is all about\".Produced on a DM32 million budget (about $18.5 million, equivalent to € million ), the high production cost ranks it among the most expensive films in German cinema, but it was a commercial success, grossing nearly $85 million worldwide (equivalent to $220 million in 2020).", "Columbia Pictures issued both German-language and English-dubbed versions in the United States theatrically through their Triumph Classics label, earning $11 million.", "received positive reviews, and was nominated for six Academy Awards; two of these (Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay) went to Petersen himself.", "He was also nominated for a BAFTA Award and DGA Award." ], [ "Plot", "Lieutenant Werner is a war correspondent on the in October 1941.He is driven by her captain and chief engineer to a raucous French bordello, where he meets some of the crew.", "Thomsen, another captain, gives a crude drunken speech to celebrate his ''Ritterkreuz'' award, in which he mocks Adolf Hitler.The next morning, ''U-96'' sails out of the harbour of La Rochelle, and Werner is given a tour of the boat.", "As time passes, he observes ideological differences between the new crew members and the hardened veterans, particularly the captain, who is embittered and cynical about the war.", "The new men, including Werner, are mocked by the rest of the crew, who share a tight bond.", "One Nazi officer, ''1-WO'' (the first watch officer), is disliked by the others due to his pro-Nazi beliefs and meticulous grooming habits that hogs up the one bathroom that the entire crew has to share.", "After days of boredom, the crew is excited by another U-boat's spotting of an enemy convoy, but they are soon spotted by a British destroyer and bombarded with depth charges.", "They escape with only light damage.The next three weeks are spent enduring a relentless North Atlantic gale.", "Morale drops after a series of misfortunes, but the crew is cheered temporarily by a chance encounter with Thomsen's boat.", "Shortly after the storm ends, the boat encounters a British convoy and quickly launches three torpedoes, sinking two ships.", "They are spotted by a destroyer and have to dive below test depth, the submarine's rated limit.", "During the ensuing depth-charge attack, the chief machinist, Johann, panics and has to be restrained.", "The boat sustains heavy damage, but is eventually able to safely surface when night falls.", "A British tanker they torpedoed is still afloat and on fire, so they torpedo it again, only to learn sailors are still aboard.", "The crew watches in horror as the sailors leap overboard and swim towards them.", "Unwilling to accommodate prisoners, the captain orders the boat to back away.The worn-out U-boat crew looks forward to returning home to La Rochelle in time for Christmas, but the ship is ordered to La Spezia, Italy, which means passing through the Strait of Gibraltar—an area heavily defended by the Royal Navy.", "The U-boat makes a secret night rendezvous at the harbour of Vigo, in neutral although Axis-friendly Spain, with the SS ''Weser'', an interned German merchant ship that clandestinely provides U-boats with fuel, torpedoes, and other supplies.", "The filthy officers seem out of place at the opulent dinner prepared for them, but are warmly greeted by enthusiastic officers eager to hear their exploits.", "The captain learns from an envoy of the German consulate that his request for Werner and the chief engineer to be sent back to Germany has been denied.The crew finishes resupplying and departs for Italy.", "As they carefully approach the Strait of Gibraltar and are just about to dive, they are suddenly attacked and heavily damaged by a British fighter plane, wounding the navigator, Kriechbaum.", "The captain orders the boat directly south towards the North African coast at full speed, determined to save his crew even if he loses the boat.", "British warships begin shelling and they are forced to dive.", "When attempting to level off, the boat does not respond and continues to sink until, just before being crushed by the pressure, it lands on a sea shelf, at the depth of 280 metres.", "The crew works desperately to make numerous repairs before running out of oxygen.", "After over 16 hours, they are able to surface by blowing their ballast tanks, and limp back towards La Rochelle under cover of darkness.The crew is exhausted when they finally reach La Rochelle on Christmas Eve.", "Shortly after Kriechbaum is taken ashore to a waiting ambulance, British planes bomb and strafe the facilities, wounding or killing many of the crew.", "Ullmann, Johann, the second watch officer, and the are killed.", "Frenssen, Lamprecht, and Hinrich are wounded.", "After the raid, Werner leaves the U-boat bunker in which he had taken shelter and finds the captain, badly injured by shrapnel, watching his U-boat sink in the dock.", "Just after the boat disappears under the water, the captain collapses and dies.", "Werner rushes to his body, and surveys the grim scene with tears in his eyes." ], [ "Cast", "The ''U-96'' officers.", "From left to right: the II.", "WO (Semmelrogge), the Commander (Prochnow), Navigator Kriechbaum (Tauber), the I. WO (Bengsch), Lt. Werner (Grönemeyer), \"Little\" Benjamin (Hoffmann), Cadet Ullmann (May), and Pilgrim (Fedder).Johann (Leder) and the LI (Wennemann) inspecting the engine* Jürgen Prochnow as (abbr.", "\"\", ) and also called \"\" (\"the Old Man\") by his crew: A 30-year-old battle-hardened but good-hearted and sympathetic sea veteran, he complains to Werner that most of his crew members are boys.", "He is openly anti-Nazi, and embittered and cynical about the war, being openly critical about how the war is being handled.", "* Herbert Grönemeyer as (Ensign) Werner, war correspondent: Naive but honest, he has been sent out to sea with the crew to gather photographs of them in action and report on the voyage.", "Werner is mocked for his lack of experience, and soon learns the true horrors of service on a U-boat.", "* Klaus Wennemann as chief engineer ( or LI, Rank: ): A quiet and well-respected man.", "At age 27, the oldest crew member besides the Captain.", "Tormented by the uncertain fate of his wife, especially after hearing about a British air raid on Cologne.", "The second most important crewman, as he oversees diving operations and makes sure the systems are running correctly.", "* Hubertus Bengsch as first watch officer (I. WO, Rank: ): A young, by-the-book officer, he is an ardent Nazi and a staunch believer in the .", "He has a condescending attitude and is the only crewman who makes the effort to maintain his proper uniform and trim appearance, while all the others grow their beards in the traditional U-Bootwaffe fashion.", "He was raised in some wealth in Mexico by his stepparents, who owned a plantation.", "His German fiancée died in a British air raid.", "He spends his days writing his thoughts on military training and leadership for the High Command.", "When the boat is trapped underwater near Gibraltar, he becomes pessimistic and begins to let go of his adherence to Nazi ideas as he finally stops shaving every day and wearing his proper uniform all the time.", "* Martin Semmelrogge as second watch officer (II.", "WO, Rank: ): A vulgar, comedic officer.", "He is short, red-haired and speaks with a mild Berlin dialect.", "One of his duties is to decode messages from base, using the Enigma code machine.", "* Bernd Tauber as (\"Chief Helmsman\") Kriechbaum: The navigator and 3rd Watch Officer (III.", "WO).", "Always slightly skeptical of the Captain and without enthusiasm during the voyage, he shows no anger when a convoy is too far away to be attacked.", "Kriechbaum has four sons, with another on the way.", "* Erwin Leder as (\"Chief Mechanic\") Johann, also called \"\" (\"The Ghost\"): He is obsessed with a near-fetish love for ''U-96''s engines.", "Johann suffers a temporary mental breakdown during an attack by two destroyers.", "He is able to redeem himself by valiantly working to stop water leaks when the boat is trapped underwater near Gibraltar.", "Speaks a lower Austrian dialect.", "* Martin May as (Senior Cadet) Ullmann: A young officer candidate who has a pregnant French fiancée (which is considered treason by the French partisans) and worries about her safety.", "He is one of the few crew members with whom Werner is able to connect; Werner offers to deliver Ullmann's stack of love letters when Werner is ordered to leave the submarine.", "* Heinz Hoenig as (Petty Officer) Hinrich: The radioman, sonar controller and ship's combat medic.", "He gauges speed and direction of targets and enemy destroyers.", "Hinrich is one of the few crewmen that the Captain is able to relate to.", "* Uwe Ochsenknecht as (\"Boatswain\") Lamprecht: The severe chief petty officer who shows Werner around ''U-96'', and supervises the firing and reloading of the torpedo tubes.", "He gets upset after hearing on the radio that the football team most of the crew supports (FC Schalke 04) are losing a match, and they will \"never make the final now\".", "* Claude-Oliver Rudolph as Ario: The burly mechanic who tells everyone that Dufte is marrying an ugly woman, and throws pictures around of Dufte's fiancée in order to laugh at them both.", "Also has a disdainful relationship towards the Bibelforscher, as evidenced throughout the miniseries.", "* Jan Fedder as (Petty Officer) Pilgrim: Another sailor (watch officer and diving planes operator), gets almost swept off the submarine during a storm – a genuine accident during filming in which Fedder broke several ribs and was hospitalised for a while.", "* Ralf Richter as (Petty Officer) Frenssen: Pilgrim's best friend.", "Pilgrim and Frenssen love to trade dirty jokes and stories.", "* Joachim Bernhard as (\"Bible scholar\", also the contemporary German term for a member of Jehovah's Witnesses): A very young religious sailor who is constantly reading the Bible.", "He is punched by Ario when the submarine is trapped at the bottom of the Strait of Gibraltar for praying rather than repairing the boat.", "* Oliver Stritzel as Schwalle: A tall and well-built blond torpedoman.", "* Jean-Claude Hoffmann as Benjamin: A red haired sailor who serves as a diving plane operator.", "* Lutz Schnell as Dufte: The sailor who gets jeered at because of his upcoming marriage, and for a possible false airplane sighting.", "* Konrad Becker as Böckstiegel: the Viennese sailor who is first visited by Hinrich for crab lice.", "* Otto Sander as Philipp Thomsen: An alcoholic and shell-shocked U-boat commander, who is a member of \"The Old Guard\".", "When he is introduced, he is extremely drunk and briefly mocks Hitler on the stage of the French bordello.", "(In the \"Director's Cut\" DVD audio commentary, Petersen says that Sander was really drunk while they were shooting the scene.)", "Sometime after ''U-96'' departs, Thomsen is deployed once again and the two submarines meet randomly in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean being put off course by the storm.", "This upsets the Captain because it means that there is now a gap in the blockade chain.", "After failing to make contact later, it becomes apparent that Thomsen's boat is missing.", "When ''U-96'' intercepts the convoy and sees they are without escorts, the Captain makes the observation that they must be away chasing down another boat; this boat is probably Thomsen's.", "* Günter Lamprecht as the Captain of the ''Weser'': An enthusiastic officer aboard the resupply ship ''Weser''.", "He mistakes the 1st Watch Officer for the Captain as they enter the ship's elegant dining room.", "An ardent Nazi, he complains about the frustration of not being able to fight, but boasts about the food that has been prepared for the crew and the ship's \"specialities\".", "* Sky du Mont as an officer aboard the ''Weser'' (uncredited)." ], [ "Production", "In late 1941, war correspondent Lothar-Günther Buchheim joined for her 7th patrol, during the Battle of the Atlantic.", "His orders were to photograph and describe the U-boat in action.", "In 1973, Buchheim published a novel based on his wartime experiences, (The Boat), a fictionalised autobiographical account narrated by a \"Leutnant Werner\".", "It became the best-selling German fiction work on the war.", "The followup sequel by Buchheim was released in 1995.Production for this film originally began in 1976.Several American directors were considered, and the () was to be played by Robert Redford.", "Disagreements sprang up among various parties and the project was shelved.", "Another Hollywood production was attempted with other American directors in mind, this time with the to be portrayed by Paul Newman.", "This effort primarily failed due to technical concerns, for example, how to film the close encounter of the two German submarines at sea during a storm.Production of took two years (1979–1981) and was the most expensive German film at the time.", "Most of the filming was done in one year; to make the appearance of the actors as realistic as possible, scenes were filmed in sequence over the course of the year.", "This ensured natural growth of beards and hair, increasing skin pallor, and signs of strain on the actors, who had, just like real U-boat men, spent many months in a cramped, unhealthy atmosphere.The production included the construction of several models of different sizes, as well as a complete, detailed reconstruction of the interior of the , a Type VIIC-class U-boat.Hans-Joachim Krug, former first officer on ''U-219'', served as a consultant, as did Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock, the captain of the real ''U-96''.The film features both Standard German-speakers and dialect speakers.", "Petersen states in the DVD audio commentary that young men from throughout West Germany and Austria were recruited for the film, as he wanted faces and dialects that would accurately reflect the diversity of the Third Reich around 1941.All of the main actors are bilingual in German and English, and when the film was dubbed into English, each actor recorded his own part (with the exception of Martin Semmelrogge, who only dubbed his own role in the Director's Cut).", "The German version is dubbed as well, as the film was shot \"silent\", because the dialogue spoken on-set would have been drowned out by the gyroscopes in the special camera developed for filming.", "Unusually, the film's German version actually grossed much higher than the English-dubbed version at the United States box office.=== Sets and models ===U-boat pens at the harbor of La Rochelle (2007)''U-995'', a U-boat of the version VII-C/41, at its exhibition in Laboe in 2004Several different sets were used.", "Two full-size mock-ups of a Type VIIC boat were built, one representing the portion above water for use in outdoor scenes, and the other a cylindrical tube on a motion mount (hydraulic gimbal) for the interior scenes.", "The mock-ups were built according to U-boat plans from Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry.The outdoor mock-up was basically a shell propelled with a small engine, and stationed in La Rochelle, France, and has a history of its own.", "One morning the production crew walked out to where they kept it afloat and found it missing.", "Someone had forgotten to inform the crew that an American filmmaker had rented the mock-up for his own film shooting in the area.", "This filmmaker was Steven Spielberg and the film he was shooting was ''Raiders of the Lost Ark''.", "A few weeks later, during production, the mock-up cracked in a storm and sank, was recovered and patched to stand in for the final scenes.", "The full-sized mock-up was used during the Gibraltar surface scenes; the attacking aircraft (played by a North American T-6 Texan / Harvard) and rockets were real while the British ships were models.A mock-up of a conning tower was placed in a water tank at the Bavaria Studios in Munich for outdoor scenes not requiring a full view of the boat's exterior.", "When filming on the outdoor mockup or the conning tower, jets of cold water were hosed over the actors to simulate the breaking ocean waves.", "A half-sized full hull operating model was used for underwater shots and some surface running shots, in particular the meeting in stormy seas with another U-boat.", "The tank was also used for the shots of British sailors jumping from their ship; a small portion of the tanker hull was constructed for these shots.During the filming there was a scene where actor Jan Fedder (Pilgrim) fell off the bridge while the U-boat was surfaced.", "During the played rescue, Bernd Tauber (Chief Helmsmann Kriechbaum) really broke two ribs.", "This event is often purported as Jan Fedder breaking the ribs.File:Bavaria Filmstudio Das Boot 1.jpgFile:Bavaria Filmstudio Das Boot 4.jpgFile:Bavaria Filmstudio Das Boot 5.jpgFile:Bavaria Filmstudio Das Boot 6.jpgThe interior U-boat mock-up was mounted five metres off the floor and was shaken, rocked, and tilted up to 45 degrees by means of a hydraulic apparatus, and was vigorously shaken to simulate depth charge attacks.", "Petersen was admittedly obsessive about the structural detail of the U-boat set, remarking that \"every screw\" in the set was an authentic facsimile of the kind used in a World War II U-boat.", "In this he was considerably assisted by the numerous photographs Lothar-Günther Buchheim had taken during his own voyage on the historical ''U-96'', some of which had been published in his 1976 book, (\"U-Boat War\").Throughout the filming, the actors were forbidden to go out in sunlight, to create the pallor of men who seldom saw the sun during their missions.", "The actors went through intensive training to learn how to move quickly through the narrow confines of the vessel.=== Special camera ===Most of the interior shots were filmed using a hand-held Arriflex of cinematographer Jost Vacano's design to convey the claustrophobic atmosphere of the boat.", "It had two gyroscopes to provide stability, a different and smaller scale solution than the Steadicam, so that it could be carried throughout the interior of the mock-up." ], [ "Historical accuracy", "Scale model of Wolfgang Petersen created the film based on Buchheim's novel of the same name with several alterations to the plot and characters.As a in the autumn of 1941, Buchheim joined Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock and the crew of ''U-96'' on her seventh patrol in the Battle of the Atlantic.", "On 27 October 1941, ''U-96'' left for her seventh patrol and joined group Stoßtrupp three days later.", "The next day, 31 October, the group made contact with convoy OS 10.", "''U-96'' launched four torpedoes at a long range, one of which struck the Dutch SS ''Bennekom''.", "The ship went down half an hour after being hit, taking nine of her crew of 56 with her.Following the attack, the sloop arrived on the scene and forced ''U-96'' under water with gun fire.", "The U-boat escaped the barrage of 27 depth charges unscathed.", "The next day, ''U-96'' encountered two more of the escorts, and , but managed to escape again.The U-boat spent November patrolling the North Atlantic as part of groups Störtebecker and Benecke, until secretly entering the neutral port of Vigo, Spain, and being resupplied by the interned German on 27 November.", "After leaving Vigo, ''U-96'' made for the Straits of Gibraltar, with orders to enter the Mediterranean.", "However, late on 30 November the U-boat was spotted by a Fairey Swordfish of 812 Naval Air Squadron and heavily damaged by two bombs dropped by the aircraft.", "Unable to reach her destination, ''U-96'' made for the port of Saint Nazaire.", "On the way she encountered the Spanish SS ''Cabo De Hornos'', which returned from South America, after delivering a group of Jewish refugees to the Dutch colony of Curaçao, when Brazil denied them entry.", "When ''U-96''s torpedo missed, the ship was stopped and her papers checked.", "On 6 December 1941, after 41 days at sea, ''U-96'' returned to Saint Nazaire, having sunk one ship of .In the film, there is only one ardent Nazi in the crew of 40, namely the First Watch Officer (referred to comically in one scene as or \"Our Hitler Youth Leader\").", "The rest of the officers are either indifferent or openly anti-Nazi (the Captain).", "The enlisted sailors and NCO are portrayed as apolitical.", "In his book ''Iron Coffins'', former U-boat commander Herbert A. Werner states that the selection of naval personnel based on their loyalty to the party only occurred later in the war (from 1943 onward) when the U-boats were suffering high casualties and when morale was declining.", "Such a degree of skepticism may or may not have occurred.", "In support of on this subject, U-boat historian Michael Gannon maintains that the U-boat navy was one of the least pro-Nazi branches of the German armed forces.Both the novel and the film had a much darker ending than in reality, where the U-boat returns to port only to be destroyed during an air raid with many of her crew killed or wounded.", "In reality, ''U-96'' survived almost to the end of the war, the majority of her senior officers surviving as well.", "Similarly to its on-screen fate, it was sunk by Allied bombers at its berth in Wilhelmshaven in March 1945.Even though the beginning and the end of the film occur in the port of La Rochelle, it does not correspond historically.", "The submarine base in La Rochelle was not functional before November 1941, and at the time of the film the port was dried up.", "While Saint-Nazaire was the base used in the novel and where ''U-96'' was based at in late 1941, the film was changed to La Rochelle because its appearance had not changed to such a large degree in the years since World War II.", "Moreover, none of the British fighter-bombers of late 1941 to early 1942 had the range to bomb La Rochelle from bases in Great Britain." ], [ "Release", "The film opened 17 September 1981 and received the widest release ever in West Germany, opening in 220 theatres and grossing a record $5,176,000 in the first two weeks.The film opened in the United States on 10 February 1982." ], [ "{{anchor\|Versions}} Different versions and home media", "Petersen has overseen the creation of several different versions.", "The first to be released was the 149-minute theatrical cut.As the film received partial financing by West German television broadcasters WDR and the SDR, more footage was shot than was shown in the theatrical version.", "A version of six 50-minute episodes was transmitted on BBC2 in the United Kingdom in October 1984 and again during the 1999 Christmas season.", "In February 1985, a version of three 100-minute episodes was broadcast in West Germany.In 1997, Petersen edited a new theatrical release, a 209-minute version, entitled ''The Director's Cut'', combining the action sequences from the feature-length release with the character development scenes from the miniseries, also improving audio quality.", "In 1998, this cut was released on DVD as a single-disc edition including an audio commentary by Petersen, Prochnow and director's cut producer Ortwin Freyermuth; a 6-minute making-of featurette; and in most territories, the theatrical trailer.", "In 2003, it was also released as a \"Superbit\" edition with no extra features, but with a higher bit-rate and the film spread across two discs.From 2010 onwards, the \"Director's Cut\", along with various new extras, was released internationally on Blu-ray.", "The American 2-disc Collector's Set also uniquely included the original 149-minute theatrical cut, which is otherwise unreleased on DVD or Blu-ray.In 2014, the original 308-minute miniseries, also known as ''The Original Uncut Version'', was released on Blu-ray in Germany with optional English audio and subtitles.In November 2018, a \"Complete Edition\" was released as a collection of five Blu-ray discs and three CDs.", "It contains more than 30 hours of material: the Director's Cut (208 min.", "), the Original Cinema version (149 min.", "), the complete TV Series in 6 parts (\"The Original Uncut Version\", 308 min.", "), Bonus Material (202 min.", "+ various trailers), the Original Soundtrack by Klaus Doldinger (38:21 min.)", "and a German-language audiobook of the novel read by Dietmar Bär (910 min.", ").For the \"Director's Cut\", the Original Cinema version and \"The Original Uncut Version\" TV Series, new English language soundtracks were recorded featuring most of the original cast, who were bilingual.", "These soundtracks are included on various DVD and Blu-ray releases as an alternative language to the original German.", "* 1981 unreleased version (209 minutes)* 1981 original theatrical cut (149 minutes)* 1984 BBC miniseries (300 minutes)* 1997 \"Director's Cut\" (208 minutes)* 2004 \"The Original Uncut Version\" (293 minutes) – miniseries minus episode-opening flashback scenes" ], [ "Reception", "=== Critical response ===The film received highly positive reviews upon its release.", "Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' gave the film four out of four stars.Prior to the 55th Academy Awards on 11 April 1983 the movie received six nominations: Cinematography for Jost Vacano; Directing for Wolfgang Petersen; Film Editing for Hannes Nikel; Sound for Milan Bor, Trevor Pyke and Mike Le-Mare; Sound Effects Editing for Mike Le-Mare; and Writing (Screenplay based on material from another medium) for Wolfgang Petersen.Today, the film is seen as one of the greatest German films.", "On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 98% based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 9.10/10.The critical consensus states \"Taut, breathtakingly thrilling, and devastatingly intelligent, ''Das Boot'' is one of the greatest war films ever made.\"", "The film also has a score of 86 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 15 critics indicating \"universal acclaim\".", "For its unsurpassed authenticity in tension and realism, it is regarded internationally as pre-eminent among all submarine films.", "The film was ranked #25 in ''Empire'' magazine's \"The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema\" in 2010.In late 2007, there was an exhibition about the film ''Das Boot'', as well as about the real U-boat ''U-96'', at the Haus der Geschichte (House of German History) in Bonn.", "Over 100,000 people visited the exhibition during its four-month run.", ";Buchheim's views of the filmThough impressed by the technological accuracy of the film's set-design and port construction buildings, novelist Lothar-Günther Buchheim expressed great disappointment with Petersen's adaptation in a film review published in 1981, describing Petersen's film as converting his clearly anti-war novel into a blend of a \"cheap, shallow American action flick\" and a \"contemporary German propaganda newsreel from World War II\".=== Accolades ===''Das Boot'' kept the record for a German film with the most Academy Award nominations, until ''All Quiet on the Western Front'', which received nine nominations including Best Picture.", "Award Category Recipients Result Academy Awards Best Director Wolfgang Petersen Best Screenplay – Based on Material from Another Medium Best Cinematography Jost Vacano Best Film Editing Hannes Nikel Best Sound Milan Bor, Trevor Pyke and Mike Le Mare Best Sound Effects Editing Mike Le Mare Bavarian Film Awards Best Director Wolfgang Petersen Best Cinematography Jost Vacano British Academy Film Awards Best Film Not in the English Language Wolfgang Petersen Directors Guild of America Awards Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures Golden Camera Awards Jubilee Directing Wolfgang Petersen Cinematography Jost Vacano Music Klaus Doldinger German Film Awards Best Feature-Length Feature Film (Silver Award) Bavaria Film Best Sound/Mixing Milan Bor Golden Globe Awards Best Foreign Film Golden Reel Awards Best Sound Editing – Foreign Feature – Sound Effects Golden Screen Awards Japan Academy Film Prize Outstanding Foreign Language Film Mainichi Film Awards Best Young Actor Heinz Hoenig National Board of Review Awards Top Foreign Films Satellite Awards Best DVD Extras ''Das Boot: Two Disc Collector's Set'' Society of Camera Operators Awards Historical Shot Jost Vacano" ], [ "Soundtrack", "The characteristic lead melody of the soundtrack, composed and produced by Klaus Doldinger, took on a life of its own after German rave group U96 created a remixed \"techno version\" in 1991.The title theme \"Das Boot\" later became an international hit.The official soundtrack features only compositions by Doldinger, except for \"\" sung by Rina Ketty.", "The soundtrack (\"\") released following the release of ''The Director's Cut'' version omits \"\".Songs heard in the film, but not included on the album are \"La Paloma\" sung by Rosita Serrano, the \"\" (a popular military march), \"It's a Long Way to Tipperary\" performed by the Red Army Chorus, \"\" and the \"\"." ], [ "Sequel", "A sequel of the same name, in the form of a television series, was released in 2018, with different actors.", "It was set nine months after the end of the original film, and is split into two narratives, one based on land, the other set around another U-boat and its crew.", "Like the original film, the series is based on Lothar-Günther Buchheim's 1973 book ''Das Boot'', but with additions from Buchheim's 1995 follow-up sequel ." ], [ "See also", "* List of World War II films* Submarine films* Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945)* '''', 1941 propaganda film* '''', 1958 anti-war film* ''The Cruel Sea'', 1953 film about a Royal Navy escort during the Battle of the Atlantic* ''Sharks and Little Fish''* ''Greyhound'', A film about an American destroyer escort in the Battle of the Atlantic" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dynamic HTML" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dynamic HTML''', or '''DHTML''', is a term which was used by some browser vendors to describe the combination of HTML, style sheets and client-side scripts (JavaScript, VBScript, or any other supported scripts) that enabled the creation of interactive and animated documents.", "The application of DHTML was introduced by Microsoft with the release of Internet Explorer 4 in 1997.DHTML allows scripting languages to change variables in a web page's definition language, which in turn affect the look and function of otherwise \"static\" HTML page content after the page has been fully loaded and during the viewing process.", "Thus the dynamic characteristic of DHTML is the way it functions while a page is viewed, not in its ability to generate a unique page with each page load.By contrast, a dynamic web page is a broader concept, covering any web page generated differently for each user, load occurrence, or specific variable values.", "This includes pages created by client-side scripting and ones created by server-side scripting (such as PHP, Python, JSP or ASP.NET) where the web server generates content before sending it to the client.DHTML is the predecessor of Ajax and DHTML pages are still request/reload-based.", "Under the DHTML model, there may not be any interaction between the client and server after the page is loaded; all processing happens on the client side.", "By contrast, Ajax extends features of DHTML to allow the page to initiate network requests (or 'subrequest') to the server even after page load to perform additional actions.", "For example, if there are multiple tabs on a page, the pure DHTML approach would load the contents of all tabs and then dynamically display only the one that is active, while AJAX could load each tab only when it is really needed." ], [ "Uses", "DHTML allows authors to add effects to their pages that are otherwise difficult to achieve, by changing the Document Object Model (DOM) and page style.", "The combination of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript offers ways to:* Animate text and images in their document.", "* Embed a ticker or other dynamic display that automatically refreshes its content with the latest news, stock quotes, or other data.", "* Use a form to capture user input, and then process, verify and respond to that data without having to send data back to the server.", "* Include rollover buttons or drop-down menus.A less common use is to create browser-based action games.", "Although a number of games were created using DHTML during the late 1990s and early 2000s, differences between browsers made this difficult: many techniques had to be implemented in code to enable the games to work on multiple platforms.", "Browsers have since then converged toward web standards, which has made the design of DHTML games more viable.", "Those games can be played on all major browsers and in desktop and device applications that support embedded browser contexts.The term \"DHTML\" has fallen out of use in recent years as it was associated with practices and conventions that tended to not work well between various web browsers.DHTML support with extensive DOM access was introduced with Internet Explorer 4.0.Although there was a basic dynamic system with Netscape Navigator 4.0, not all HTML elements were represented in the DOM.", "When DHTML-style techniques became widespread, varying degrees of support among web browsers for the technologies involved made them difficult to develop and debug.", "Development became easier when Internet Explorer 5.0+, Mozilla Firefox 2.0+, and Opera 7.0+ adopted a shared DOM inherited from ECMAScript.Later, JavaScript libraries such as jQuery abstracted away many of the day-to-day difficulties in cross-browser DOM manipulation, though better standards compliance among browsers has reduced the need for this." ], [ "Structure of a web page", "Typically a web page using DHTML is set up in the following way: DHTML example function init() { let myObj = document.getElementById(\"navigation\"); // ... manipulate myObj } window.onload = init;" ], [ "Example: Displaying an additional block of text", "The following code illustrates an often-used function.", "An additional part of a web page will only be displayed if the user requests it.", "Using a DOM function a { background-color: #eee; } a:hover { background: #ff0; } #toggleMe { background: #cfc; display: none; margin: 30px 0; padding: 1em; } Using a DOM function Show paragraph This is the paragraph that is only displayed on request.", "The general flow of the document continues.", "function changeDisplayState(displayElement, textElement) { if (displayElement.style.display === \"none\" displayElement.style.display === \"\") { displayElement.style.display = \"block\"; textElement.innerHTML = \"Hide paragraph\"; } else { displayElement.style.display = \"none\"; textElement.innerHTML = \"Show paragraph\"; } } let displayElement = document.getElementById(\"toggle-me\"); let textElement = document.getElementById(\"showhide\"); textElement.addEventListener(\"click\", function (event) { event.preventDefault(); changeDisplayState(displayElement, textElement); });" ], [ "Document Object Model", "DHTML is not a technology in and of itself; rather, it is the product of three related and complementary technologies: HTML, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), and JavaScript.", "To allow scripts and components to access features of HTML and CSS, the contents of the document are represented as objects in a programming model known as the Document Object Model (DOM).The DOM API is the foundation of DHTML, providing a structured interface that allows access and manipulation of virtually anything in the document.", "The HTML elements in the document are available as a hierarchical tree of individual objects, making it possible to examine and modify an element and its attributes by reading and setting properties and by calling methods.", "The text between elements is also available through DOM properties and methods.The DOM also provides access to user actions such as pressing a key and clicking the mouse.", "It is possible to intercept and process these and other events by creating event handler functions and routines.", "The event handler receives control each time a given event occurs and can carry out any appropriate action, including using the DOM to change the document." ], [ "Dynamic styles", "Dynamic styles are a key feature of DHTML.", "By using CSS, one can quickly change the appearance and formatting of elements in a document without adding or removing elements.", "This helps keep documents small and the scripts that manipulate the document fast.The object model provides programmatic access to styles.", "This means you can change inline styles on individual elements and change style rules using simple JavaScript programming.Inline styles are CSS style assignments that have been applied to an element using the style attribute.", "You can examine and set these styles by retrieving the style object for an individual element.", "For example, to highlight the text in a heading when the user moves the mouse pointer over it, you can use the style object to enlarge the font and change its color, as shown in the following simple example.", "Dynamic Styles ul { display: none; } Welcome to Dynamic HTML Dynamic styles are a key feature of DHTML.", "Change the color, size, and typeface of text Show and hide text And much, much more We've only just begun!", "function showMe() { document.getElementById(\"first-header\").style.color = \"#990000\"; document.getElementById(\"unordered-list\").style.display = \"block\"; } document.getElementById(\"clickable-link\").addEventListener(\"click\", function (event) { event.preventDefault(); showMe(); });" ], [ "See also", "Dynamic web page" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " QuirksMode, a comprehensive site with test examples and instructions on how to write DHTML code that runs on several browsers.", "* Introductory DHTML Tutorial" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Distance education" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Distance education''', also known as '''distance learning''', is the education of students who may not always be physically present at school, or where the learner and the teacher are separated in both time and distance.", "Traditionally, this usually involved '''correspondence courses''' wherein the student corresponded with the school via mail.", "Distance education is a technology-mediated modality and has evolved with the evolution of technologies such as video conferencing, TV, and the Internet.", "Today, it usually involves '''online education''' and the learning is usually mediated by some form of technology.", "A distance learning program can either be completely a remote learning, or a combination of both online learning and traditional offline classroom instruction (called hybrid or blended).", "Other modalities include distance learning with complementary virtual environment or teaching in virtual environment (e-learning).Massive open online courses (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through the World Wide Web or other network technologies, are recent educational modes in distance education.", "A number of other terms (distributed learning, e-learning, m-learning, online learning, virtual classroom, etc.)", "are used roughly synonymously with distance education.", "E-learning has shown to be a useful educational tool.", "E-learning should be an interactive process with multiple learning modes for all learners at various levels of learning.", "The distance learning environment is an exciting place to learn new things, collaborate with others, and retain self-discipline." ], [ "History", "One of the earliest attempts at distance education was advertised in 1728.This was in the ''Boston Gazette'' for \"Caleb Philipps, Teacher of the new method of Short Hand\", who sought students who wanted to learn the skills through weekly mailed lessons.The first distance education course in the modern sense was provided by Sir Isaac Pitman in the 1840s who taught a system of shorthand by mailing texts transcribed into shorthand on postcards and receiving transcriptions from his students in return for correction.", "The element of student feedback was a crucial innovation in Pitman's system.", "This scheme was made possible by the introduction of uniform postage rates across England in 1840.This early beginning proved extremely successful and the Phonographic Correspondence Society was founded three years later to establish these courses on a more formal basis.", "The society paved the way for the later formation of Sir Isaac Pitman Colleges across the country.The first correspondence school in the United States was the Society to Encourage Studies at Home which was founded in 1873.Founded in 1894, Wolsey Hall, Oxford was the first distance-learning college in the UK.=== University correspondence courses =======United Kingdom====The University of London was the first university to offer distance learning degrees, establishing its External Program in 1858.The background to this innovation lay in the fact that the institution (later known as University College London) was non-denominational and the intense religious rivalries at the time led to an outcry against the \"godless\" university.", "The issue soon boiled down to which institutions had degree-granting powers and which did not.", "''The London University'' in 1827, drawn by Thomas Hosmer ShepherdThe compromise that emerged in 1836 stated that a new, officially recognized organization, the \"University of London\", would be given the sole authority to conduct the examinations leading to degrees, which would act as an examining body for the University of London colleges, originally University College London and King's College London, and award their students University of London degrees.", "As Sheldon Rothblatt states: \"Thus arose in nearly archetypal form the famous English distinction between teaching and examining, here embodied in separate institutions.", "\"With the state giving examining powers to a separate entity, the groundwork was laid for the creation of a program within the new university that would both administer examinations and award qualifications to students taking instruction at another institution or pursuing a course of self-directed study.", "Referred to as \"People's University\" by Charles Dickens because it provided access to higher education to students from less affluent backgrounds, the External Program was chartered by Queen Victoria in 1858, making the University of London the first university to offer distance learning degrees to students.", "Enrollment increased steadily during the late 19th century, and its example was widely copied elsewhere.", "This program is now known as the University of London International Programme and includes Postgraduate, Undergraduate, and Diploma degrees created by colleges such as the London School of Economics, Royal Holloway, and Goldsmiths.=====Australia and South Africa=====The vast distances made Australia especially active; the University of Queensland established its Department of Correspondence Studies in 1911.In South Africa, the University of South Africa, formerly an examining and certification body, started to present distance education tuition in 1946.William Rainey Harper encouraged the development of external university courses at the new University of Chicago in the 1890s.====United States====In the United States, only a third of the population lived in cities of 100,000 or more population in 1920; in order to reach the rest, correspondence techniques were adopted.", "William Rainey Harper, founder and first president of the University of Chicago, celebrated the concept of extended education, where a research university had satellite colleges elsewhere in the region.In 1892, Harper encouraged correspondence courses to further promote education, an idea that was put into practice by the University of Chicago, U. Wisconsin, Columbia U., and several dozen other universities by the 1920s.", "Enrollment in the largest private for-profit school based in Scranton, Pennsylvania, the International Correspondence Schools grew explosively in the 1890s.", "Founded in 1888 to provide training for immigrant coal miners aiming to become state mine inspectors or foremen, it enrolled 2500 new students in 1894 and matriculated 72,000 new students in 1895.By 1906 total enrollments reached 900,000.The growth was due to sending out complete textbooks instead of single lessons, and the use of 1200 aggressive in-person salesmen.", "There was a stark contrast in pedagogy:Education was a high priority in the Progressive Era, as American high schools and colleges expanded greatly.", "For men who were older or were too busy with family responsibilities, night schools were opened, such as the YMCA school in Boston that became Northeastern University.", "Private correspondence schools outside of the major cities provided a flexible, focused solution.", "Large corporations systematized their training programs for new employees.", "The National Association of Corporation Schools grew from 37 in 1913 to 146 in 1920.Private schools that provided specialized technical training to everyone who enrolled, not just employees of one company, began to open across the nation in the 1880s.", "Starting in Milwaukee in 1907, public schools began opening free vocational program.====International Conference====The International Conference for Correspondence Education held its first meeting in 1938.The goal was to provide individualized education for students, at low cost, by using a pedagogy of testing, recording, classification, and differentiation.", "Since then, the group has changed its name to the International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE), with its main office in Oslo, Norway.=== Open universities ===The Open University (OU) in the United Kingdom was founded by the then Labour government led by Harold Wilson.", "Based on the vision of Michael Young, planning commenced in 1965 under the Minister of State for Education, Jennie Lee, who established a model for the Open University as one of widening access to the highest standards of scholarship in higher education and setting up a planning committee consisting of university vice-chancellors, educationalists, and television broadcasters, chaired by Sir Peter Venables.", "The British Broadcasting Corporation's (BBC) Assistant Director of Engineering at the time, James Redmond, had obtained most of his qualifications at night school, and his natural enthusiasm for the project did much to overcome the technical difficulties of using television to broadcast teaching programs.Walton Hall, renovated in 1970 to act as the headquarters of the newly established Open University (artist: Hilary French)The Open University revolutionized the scope of the correspondence program and helped to create a respectable learning alternative to the traditional form of education.", "It has been at the forefront of developing new technologies to improve distance learning service as well as undertaking research in other disciplines.", "Walter Perry was appointed the OU's first vice-chancellor in January 1969, and its foundation secretary was Anastasios Christodoulou.", "The election of the new Conservative government under the leadership of Edward Heath, in 1970; led to budget cuts under Chancellor of the Exchequer Iain Macleod (who had earlier called the idea of an Open University \"blithering nonsense\").", "However, the OU accepted its first 25,000 students in 1971, adopting a radical open admissions policy.", "At the time, the total student population of conventional universities in the United Kingdom was around 130,000.Athabasca University, Canada's open university, was created in 1970 and followed a similar, though independently developed, pattern.", "The Open University inspired the creation of Spain's National University of Distance Education (1972) and Germany's FernUniversität in Hagen (1974).", "There are now many similar institutions around the world, often with the name \"Open University\" (in English or in the local language).The University of the Philippines Open University was established in 1995 as the fifth constituent University of the Philippines System and was the first distance education and online university in the Philippines.", "Its mandate is to provide educational opportunities to individuals aspiring for higher education and improved qualifications but were unable to take advantage of traditional modes of education because of personal and professional obligations.Most open universities use distance education technologies as delivery methods, though some require attendance at local study centers or at regional \"summer schools\".", "Some open universities have grown to become ''mega-universities''.===COVID-19 pandemic=== Filipino homeschooling students – blended (printed-digital modular) distance learning with self-learning materials during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic in San Miguel, BulacanThe COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the closure of the vast majority of schools worldwide for in-person learning.", "Many schools moved to online remote learning through platforms including—but not limited to—Zoom, Blackboard, Cisco Webex, Google Classroom, Google Meet, Microsoft Teams, D2L, and Edgenuity.", "Concerns arose over the impact of this transition on students without access to an internet-enabled device or a stable internet connection.", "Distanced education during the COVID-19 pandemic has interrupted synchronous learning for many students and teachers; where educators were no longer able to teach in real-time and could only switch to asynchronous instruction, this significantly and negatively affected their coping with the transition, and posed various legal issues, especially in terms of copyright.", "A recent study about the benefits and drawbacks of online learning found that students have had a harder time producing their own work.", "The study suggests teachers should cut back on the amount of information taught and incorporate more activities during the lesson, in order for students to create their own work.Though schools are slow to adapt to new technologies, COVID-19 required schools to adapt and learn how to use new digital and online learning tools.", "Web conferencing has become more popular since 2007.Researchers have found that people in online classes perform just as effectively as participants in conventional learning classes.", "The use of online learning is becoming a pathway for learners with sparse access to physical courses so they can complete their degrees.", "Furthermore, digital classroom technologies allow those living remotely to access learning, and it enables the student to fit learning into their schedule more easily." ], [ "Technologies", "Internet technology has enabled many forms of distance learning through open educational resources and facilities such as e-learning and MOOCs.", "Although the expansion of the Internet blurs the boundaries, distance education technologies are divided into two modes of delivery: synchronous learning and asynchronous learning.In synchronous learning, all participants are \"present\" at the same time in a virtual classroom, as in traditional classroom teaching.", "It requires a timetable.", "Web conferencing, videoconferencing, educational television, and instructional television are examples of synchronous technology, as are direct-broadcast satellite (DBS), internet radio, live streaming, telephone, and web-based VoIP.Web conferencing software helps to facilitate class meetings, and usually contains additional interaction tools such as text chat, polls, hand raising, emoticons etc.", "These tools also support asynchronous participation by students who can listen to recordings of synchronous sessions.", "Immersive environments (notably SecondLife) have also been used to enhance participant presence in distance education courses.", "Another form of synchronous learning using the classroom is the use of robot proxies including those that allow sick students to attend classes.Some universities have been starting to use robot proxies to enable more engaging synchronous hybrid classes where both remote and in-person students can be present and interact using telerobotics devices such as the Kubi Telepresence robot stand that looks around and the Double Robot that roams around.", "With these telepresence robots, the remote students have a seat at the table or desk instead of being on a screen on the wall.In asynchronous learning, participants access course materials flexibly on their schedules.", "Students are not required to be together at the same time.", "Mail correspondence, which is the oldest form of distance education, is an asynchronous delivery technology, as are message board forums, e-mail, video and audio recordings, print materials, voicemail, and fax.The two methods can be combined.", "Many courses offered by both open universities and an increasing number of campus-based institutions use periodic sessions of residential or day teaching to supplement the sessions delivered at a distance.", "This type of mixed distance and campus-based education has recently come to be called \"blended learning\" or less often \"hybrid learning\".", "Many open universities use a blend of technologies and a blend of learning modalities (face-to-face, distance, and hybrid) all under the rubric of \"distance learning\".Distance learning can also use interactive radio instruction (IRI), interactive audio instruction (IAI), online virtual worlds, digital games, webinars, and webcasts, all of which are referred to as e-Learning.=== Radio and television ===The rapid spread of film in the 1920s and radio in the 1930s led to proposals to use it for distance education.", "By 1938, at least 200 city school systems, 25 state boards of education, and many colleges and universities broadcast educational programs for public schools.", "One line of thought was to use radio as a master teacher.The first large-scale implementation of radio for distance education took place in 1937 in Chicago.", "During a three-week school closure implemented in response to a polio outbreak that the city was experiencing, superintendent of Chicago Public Schools William Johnson and assistant superintendent Minnie Fallon implemented a programs of distance learning that provided the city's elementary school students with instruction through radio broadcasts.A typical setup came in Kentucky in 1948 when John Wilkinson Taylor, president of the University of Louisville, teamed up with NBC to use radio as a medium for distance education.", "The chairman of the Federal Communications Commission endorsed the project and predicted that the \"college-by-radio\" would put \"American education 25 years ahead\".", "The university was owned by the city, and local residents would pay the low tuition rates, receive their study materials in the mail, and listen by radio to live classroom discussions that were held on campus.", "Physicist Daniel Q. Posin also was a pioneer in the field of distance education when he hosted a televised course through DePaul University.Charles Wedemeyer of the University of Wisconsin–Madison also promoted new methods.", "From 1964 to 1968, the Carnegie Foundation funded Wedemeyer's ''Articulated Instructional Media Project'' (AIM) which brought in a variety of communications technologies aimed at providing learning to an off-campus population.", "The radio courses faded away in the 1950s.", "Many efforts to use television along the same lines proved unsuccessful, despite heavy funding by the Ford Foundation.From 1970 to 1972 the Coordinating Commission for Higher Education in California funded Project Outreach to study the potential of tele-courses.", "The study included the University of California, California State University, and community colleges.", "This study led to coordinated instructional systems legislation allowing the use of public funds for non-classroom instruction and paved the way for the emergence of tele-courses as the precursor to the online courses and programs of today.", "The Coastline Community Colleges, The Dallas County Community College District, and Miami Dade Community College led the way.", "The ''Adult Learning Service'' of the US Public Broadcasting Service came into being and the \"wrapped\" series, and individually produced tele-course for credit became a significant part of the history of distance education and online learning.=== Internet ===The widespread use of computers and the Internet has made distance learning easier and faster, and today virtual schools and virtual universities deliver full curricula online.", "The capacity of the Internet to support voice, video, text, and immersion teaching methods made earlier distinct forms of telephone, videoconferencing, radio, television, and text-based education somewhat redundant.", "However, many of the techniques developed and lessons learned with earlier media are used in Internet delivery.The first online courses for graduate and undergraduate credit were offered in 1985 by Connected Education through The New School in New York City, with students earning the MA in Media Studies completely online via computer conferencing, with no in-person requirements.", "This was followed in 1986 by the University of Toronto through the Graduate School of Education (then called OISE: the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education), offering a course in \"Women and Computers in Education\", dealing with gender issues and educational computing.", "The first new and fully online university was founded in 1994 as the Open University of Catalonia, headquartered in Barcelona, Spain.", "In 1999 Jones International University was launched as the first fully online university accredited by a regional accrediting association in the US.Between 2000 and 2008, enrollment in distance education courses increased rapidly almost every country in both developed and developing countries.", "Many private, public, non-profit, and for-profit institutions worldwide now offer distance education courses from the most basic instruction through to the highest levels of degree and doctoral programs.", "New York University and International University Canada, for example, offer online degrees in engineering and management-related fields through NYU Tandon Online.", "Levels of accreditation vary: widely respected universities such as Stanford University and Harvard now deliver online courses—but other online schools receive little outside oversight, and some are fraudulent, i.e., diploma mills.", "In the US, the Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC) specializes in the accreditation of distance education institutions.In the United States in 2011, it was found that a third of all the students enrolled in postsecondary education had taken an accredited online course in a postsecondary institution.", "Growth continued.", "In 2013 the majority of public and private colleges offered full academic programs online.", "Programs included training in the mental health, occupational therapy, family therapy, art therapy, physical therapy, and rehabilitation counseling fields.By 2008, online learning programs were available in the United States in 44 states at the K-12 level.Internet forums, online discussion groups, and online learning community can contribute to a distance education experience.", "Research shows that socialization plays an important role in some forms of distance education.E-Courses are available from educational platforms such as Khan Academy and MasterClass on many topics and for students of all levels." ], [ "Paced and self-paced models", "Most distance education uses a paced format similar to traditional campus-based models in which learners commence and complete a course at the same time.", "Some institutions offer self-paced programs that allow for continuous enrollment, and the length of time to complete the course is set by the learner's time, skill, and commitment levels.", "Self-paced courses are almost always offered asynchronously.", "Each delivery method offers advantages and disadvantages for students, teachers, and institutions.Kaplan and Haenlein classify distance education into four groups according to \"Time dependency\" and \"Number of participants\": # MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses): Open-access online course (i.e., without specific participation restrictions) that allows for unlimited (massive) participation; # SPOCs (Small Private Online Courses): Online course that only offers a limited number of places and therefore requires some form of formal enrollment;# SMOCs (Synchronous Massive Online Courses): Open-access online course that allows for unlimited participation but requires students to be \"present\" at the same time (synchronously);# SSOCs (Synchronous Private Online Courses): Online course that only offers a limited number of places and requires students to be \"present\" at the same time (synchronously).Paced models are a familiar mode since they are used almost exclusively in campus-based schools.", "Institutes that offer both distance and campus programs usually use paced models so that teacher workload, student semester planning, tuition deadlines, exam schedules, and other administrative details can be synchronized with campus delivery.", "Student familiarity and the pressure of deadlines encourage students to readily adapt to and usually succeed in paced models.", "However, student freedom is sacrificed as a common pace is often too fast for some students and too slow for others.", "In additional life events, professional or family responsibilities can interfere with a student's capability to complete tasks to an external schedule.", "Finally, paced models allow students to readily form communities of inquiry and to engage in collaborative work.Self-paced courses maximize student freedom, as not only can students commence studies on any date, but they can complete a course in as little time as a few weeks or up to a year or longer.", "Students often enroll in self-paced study when they are under pressure to complete programs, have not been able to complete a scheduled course, need additional courses, or have pressure which precludes regular study for any length of time.", "The self-paced nature of the programming, though, is an unfamiliar model for many students and can lead to excessive procrastination, resulting in course incompletion.", "Assessment of learning can also be challenging as exams can be written on any day, making it possible for students to share examination questions with resulting loss of academic integrity.", "Finally, it is extremely challenging to organize collaborative work activities, though some schools are developing cooperative models based upon networked and connectivist pedagogies for use in self-paced programs." ], [ "Benefits", "Distance learning can expand access to education and training for both general populace and businesses since its flexible scheduling structure lessens the effects of the many time-constraints imposed by personal responsibilities and commitments.", "Devolving some activities off-site alleviates institutional capacity constraints arising from the traditional demand on institutional buildings and infrastructure.", "As a result, more classes can be offered and enable students to enroll in more of their required classes on time and prevent delayed graduation.", "Furthermore, there is the potential for increased access to more experts in the field and to other students from diverse geographical, social, cultural, economic, and experiential backgrounds.As the population at large becomes more involved in lifelong learning beyond the normal schooling age, institutions can benefit financially, and adult learning business courses may be particularly lucrative.", "Distance education programs can act as a catalyst for institutional innovation and are at least as effective as face-to-face learning programs, especially if the instructor is knowledgeable and skilled.Distance education can also provide a broader method of communication within the realm of education.", "With the many tools and programs that technological advancements have to offer, communication appears to increase in distance education amongst students and their professors, as well as students and their classmates.", "The distance educational increase in communication, particularly communication amongst students and their classmates, is an improvement that has been made to provide distance education students with as many of the opportunities as possible as they would receive in in-person education.", "The improvement being made in distance education is growing in tandem with the constant technological advancements.", "Present-day online communication allows students to associate with accredited schools and programs throughout the world that are out of reach for in-person learning.", "By having the opportunity to be involved in global institutions via distance education, a diverse array of thought is presented to students through communication with their classmates.", "This is beneficial because students have the opportunity to \"combine new opinions with their own, and develop a solid foundation for learning\".", "It has been shown through research that \"as learners become aware of the variations in interpretation and construction of meaning among a range of people they construct an individual meaning\", which can help students become knowledgeable of a wide array of viewpoints in education.", "To increase the likelihood that students will build effective ties with one another during the course, instructors should use similar assignments for students across different locations to overcome the influence of co-location on relationship building.The high cost of education affects students in higher education, and distance education may be an alternative in order to provide some relief.", "Distance education has been a more cost-effective form of learning, and can sometimes save students a significant amount of money as opposed to traditional education.", "Distance education may be able to help to save students a considerable amount financially by removing the cost of transportation.", "In addition, distance education may be able to save students from the economic burden of high-priced course textbooks.", "Many textbooks are now available as electronic textbooks, known as e-textbooks, which can offer digital textbooks for a reduced price in comparison to traditional textbooks.", "Also, the increasing improvements in technology have resulted in many school libraries having a partnership with digital publishers that offer course materials for free, which can help students significantly with educational costs.Within the class, students are able to learn in ways that traditional classrooms would not be able to provide.", "It is able to promote good learning experiences and therefore, allow students to obtain higher satisfaction with their online learning.", "For example, students can review their lessons more than once according to their needs.", "Students can then manipulate the coursework to fit their learning by focusing more on their weaker topics while breezing through concepts that they already have or can easily grasp.", "When course design and the learning environment are at their optimal conditions, distance education can lead students to higher satisfaction with their learning experiences.", "Studies have shown that high satisfaction correlates to increased learning.", "For those in a healthcare or mental health distance learning program, online-based interactions have the potential to foster deeper reflections and discussions of client issues as well as a quicker response to client issues, since supervision happens on a regular basis and is not limited to a weekly supervision meeting.", "This also may contribute to the students feeling a greater sense of support, since they have ongoing and regular access to their instructors and other students.Distance learning may enable students who are unable to attend a traditional school setting, due to disability or illness such as decreased mobility and immune system suppression, to get a good education.", "Children who are sick or are unable to attend classes are able to attend them in \"person\" through the use of robot proxies.", "This helps the students have experiences in the classroom and social interaction that they are unable to receive at home or the hospital, while still keeping them in a safe learning environment.", "Over the last few years more students are entering safely back into the classroom thanks to the help of robots.", "An article from the ''New York Times'', \"A Swiveling Proxy Will Even Wear a Tutu\", explains the positive impact of virtual learning in the classroom, and another explains how even a simple, stationary telepresence robot can help.Distance education may provide equal access regardless of socioeconomic status or income, area of residence, gender, race, age, or cost per student.", "Applying universal design strategies to distance learning courses as they are being developed (rather than instituting accommodations for specific students on an as-needed basis) can increase the accessibility of such courses to students with a range of abilities, disabilities, learning styles, and native languages.Distance education graduates, who would never have been associated with the school under a traditional system, may donate money to the school.Distance learning may also offer a final opportunity for adolescents that are no longer permitted in the general education population due to behavior disorders.", "Instead of these students having no other academic opportunities, they may continue their education from their homes and earn their diplomas, offering them another chance to be an integral part of society.Distance learning offers individuals a unique opportunity to benefit from the expertise and resources of the best universities currently available.", "Moreover, the online environment facilitates pedagogical innovation such as new program structures and formats.", "Students have the ability to collaborate, share, question, infer, and suggest new methods and techniques for continuous improvement of the content.", "The ability to complete a course at a pace that is appropriate for each individual is the most effective manner to learn given the personal demands on time and schedule.", "Self-paced distance learning on a mobile device, such as a smartphone, provides maximum flexibility and capability.Distance learning can also reduce the phenomenon of rural exodus by enabling students from remote regions to remain in their hometowns while pursuing higher education.", "Eliminating the distance barrier to higher education can also increase the number of alternatives open to students, and foster greater competition between institutions of higher learning regardless of geography." ], [ "Criticism", "Barriers to effective distance education include obstacles such as domestic distractions and unreliable technology, as well as students' program costs, adequate contact with teachers and support services, and a need for more experience.Some students attempt to participate in distance education without proper training with the tools needed to be successful in the program.", "Students must be provided with training opportunities (if needed) on each tool that is used throughout the program.", "The lack of advanced technology skills can lead to an unsuccessful experience.", "Schools have a responsibility to adopt a proactive policy for managing technology barriers.", "Time management skills and self-discipline in distance education is just as important as complete knowledge of the software and tools being used for learning.The results of a study of Washington state community college students showed that distance- learning students tended to drop out more often than their traditional counterparts due to difficulties in language, time management, and study skills.According to Pankaj Singhm, director of Nims University, \"distance learning benefits may outweigh the disadvantages for students in such a technology-driven society, however before indulging into the use of educational technology a few more disadvantages should be considered.\"", "He describes that over multiple years, \"all of the obstacles have been overcome and the world environment for distance education continues to improve.\"", "Pankaj Singhm also claims there is a debate to distance education stating, \"due to a lack of direct face-to-face social interaction.", "However, as more people become used to personal and social interaction online (for example dating, chat rooms, shopping, or blogging), it is becoming easier for learners to both project themselves and socializes with others.", "This is an obstacle that has dissipated.", "\"Not all courses required to complete a degree may be offered online.", "Health care profession programs in particular require some sort of patient interaction through field work before a student may graduate.", "Studies have also shown that students pursuing a medical professional graduate degree who are participating in distance education courses, favor a face to face communication over professor-mediated chat rooms and/or independent studies.", "However, this is little correlation between student performance when comparing the previous different distance learning strategies.There is a theoretical problem with the application of traditional teaching methods to online courses because online courses may have no upper size limit.", "Daniel Barwick noted that there is no evidence that large class size is always worse or that small class size is always better, although a negative link has been established between certain types of instruction in large classes and learning outcomes; he argued that higher education has not made a sufficient effort to experiment with a variety of instructional methods to determine whether the large class size is always negatively correlated with a reduction in learning outcomes.", "Early proponents of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) saw them as just the type of experiment that Barwick had pointed out was lacking in higher education, although Barwick himself has never advocated for MOOCs.There may also be institutional challenges.", "Distance learning is new enough that it may be a challenge to gain support for these programs in a traditional brick-and-mortar academic learning environment.", "Furthermore, it may be more difficult for the instructor to organize and plan a distance learning program, especially since many are new programs and their organizational needs are different from a traditional learning program.Additionally, though distance education offers industrial countries the opportunity to become globally informed, there are still negative sides to it.", "Hellman states that \"These include its cost and capital intensiveness, time constraints and other pressures on instructors, the isolation of students from instructors and their peers, instructors' enormous difficulty in adequately evaluating students they never meet face-to-face, and drop-out rates far higher than in classroom-based courses.", "\"A more complex challenge of distance education relates to cultural differences between students and teachers and among students.", "Distance programs tend to be more diverse as they could go beyond the geographical borders of regions, countries, and continents, and cross the cultural borders that may exist concerning race, gender, and religion.", "That requires a proper understanding and awareness of the norms, differences, preconceptions, and potential conflicting issues." ], [ "Educational technology", "The modern use of electronic educational technology (also called e-learning) facilitates distance learning and independent learning through the extensive use of information and communications technology (ICT), replacing traditional content delivery with postal correspondence.", "Instruction can be synchronous and asynchronous online communication in an interactive learning environment or virtual communities, in lieu of a physical classroom.", "\"The focus is shifted to the education transaction in the form of a virtual community of learners sustainable across time.", "\"One of the most significant issues encountered in the mainstream correspondence model of distance education is transactional distance, which results from the lack of appropriate communication between learner and teacher.", "This gap has been observed to become wider if there is no communication between the learner and teacher and has direct implications for the learning process and future endeavors in distance education.", "Distance education providers began to introduce various strategies, techniques, and procedures to increase the amount of interaction between learners and teachers.", "These measures e.g.", "more frequent face-to-face tutorials, and increased use of information and communication technologies including teleconferencing and the Internet, were designed to close the gap in transactional distance." ], [ "Credentials", "Online credentials for learning are digital credentials that are offered in place of traditional paper credentials for a skill or educational achievement.", "Directly linked to the accelerated development of internet communication technologies, the development of digital badges, electronic passports and massive open online courses (MOOCs) have a very direct bearing on our understanding of learning, recognition and levels as they pose a direct challenge to the status quo.", "It is useful to distinguish between three forms of online credentials: Test-based credentials, online badges, and online certificates." ], [ "See also", "* Autodidacticism* Digital divide* Educational technology* Low-residency program* Media psychology* New media* Online school* Qualifications frameworks for online learning* ''Sunrise Semester''* Videotelephony* Virtual education" ], [ "Sources" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Anderson, T. (2008).", "''Theory and Practice of Online Education'' (2nd ed) Anderson, T., & Dron, J.", "(2010).", "\"Three generations of distance education pedagogy\".", "''The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning'', 12(3), 80–97.", "* Bates, T. (2005).", "''Technology, e-learning and distance education'': RoutledgeFalmer.", "* Bender, Tisha.", "(2023) ''Discussion-based online teaching to enhance student learning: Theory, practice and assessment'' (Taylor & Francis).", "* Betts, Kristen, et al.", "(2021) \"Historical review of distance and online education from 1700s to 2021 in the United States: Instructional design and pivotal pedagogy in higher education.\"", "''Journal of Online Learning Research and Practice'' 8.1 (2021) pp 3-55 online.", "* Caruth, Gail D., and Donald L. Caruth.", "\"The impact of distance education on higher education: A case study of the United States.\"", "''Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education'' 14.4 (2013): 121-131.online* * Holmberg, Börje.", "(1995).", "''Theory and Practice of Distance Education'' (2nd ed) online Jacob, J.U., Ensign M. (2020).", "Transactional Radio Instruction: Improving Educational Outcomes for Children in Conflict Zones, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.", "DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32369-1.", "* Kett, Joseph F. (1994).", "''Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties: From Self-Improvement to Adult Education in America.''", "* Major, C. H. (2015).", "''Teaching online: A guide to theory, research, and practice'' (Johns Hopkins University Press).", " Moore, M. G. ed.", "(1990).", "''Contemporary issues in American distance education''* Picciano, Anthony G. (2021) \"Theories and frameworks for online education: Seeking an integrated model.\"", "in ''A guide to administering distance learning'' ( Brill, 2021) pp.", "79-103.", "* Saba, F. (2011).", "\"Distance Education in the United States: Past, Present, Future\" ''Educational Technology'', 51(6), 11.", "Stubblefield, Harold W., and Patrick Keane.", "(1994).", "''Adult Education in the American Experience: From the Colonial Period to the Present''.", " Sun, Anna, and Xiufang Chen.", "(2016) \"Online education and its effective practice: A research review.\"", "''Journal of Information Technology Education'' 15 online* Taylor, J. C. (2001).", "\"Fifth-generation distance education\" ''e-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology'' (e-JIST), 4(1), 1-14.", "* Terry Evans, M. H., David Murphy (Ed.).", "(2008).", "''International Handbook of Distance Education''.", "Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.", "* Vlachopoulos, Dimitrios, and Agoritsa Makri.", "(2019) \"Online communication and interaction in distance higher education: A framework study of good practice.\"", "''International Review of Education'' 65.4 (2019): 605-632.", "* Walsh, T. (2011).", "''Unlocking the Gates: How and Why Leading Universities Are Opening Up Access to Their Courses'' (Princeton University Press, 2011)" ], [ "External links", "* * \"Radio in education\" full-text books and articles online; from 1930s and 1940s* \"Issues in Distance Education book series from Athabasca University Press\" .", "A series of over 10 books related to distance education research.", "Available in print for sale or online as open access.", "* The Center on Accessible Distance Learning (AccessDL), DO-IT Center, University of Washington" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Death of a Hero" ], [ "Introduction", "Paul Nash'''''Death of a Hero''''' is a World War I novel by Richard Aldington.", "It was his first novel, published by Chatto & Windus in 1929, and thought to be partly autobiographical." ], [ "Plot summary", "''Death of a Hero'' is the story of a young English artist named George Winterbourne who enlists in the army at the beginning of World War I.", "The book is narrated by an unnamed first-person narrator who claims to have known and served with the main character.", "It is divided into three parts.===Book I===The first part details George's family history.", "His father, a middle-class man from England's countryside, marries a poor woman who falsely believes she is marrying into a monied family.", "After George's birth, his mother has a series of lovers.", "The portrait of George's parents is believed to be based on his own parents, whom he disliked.", "One critic called the characters \"parodic monsters\".George is brought up to be a proper and patriotic member of English society.", "He is encouraged to learn his father's insurance business, but fails to do so.", "After a disagreement with his parents, he relocates to London to become an artist and live a socialite lifestyle.===Book II===The second section of the book deals with George's London life.", "He ingrains himself in socialite society and engages a number of trendy philosophies.After he and his lover, Elizabeth, have a pregnancy scare, they decide to marry.", "Although they do not have a child, the marriage endures.", "They decide to leave their marriage open.", "George takes Elizabeth's close friend as a lover, however, and their marriage begins to fall apart.", "Just as the situation is becoming particularly heated, England declares war on Germany.", "George decides to enlist.Aldington's portrayal of society contains \"clumsily satirical portraits\" of T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound, both of whom were close personal acquaintances.===Book III===George trains for the army and is sent to France.", "(No particular location in France is mentioned.", "The town behind the front where George spends much of his time is referred to as M—.)", "He fights on the front for some time.", "When he returns home, he finds that he has been so affected by the war that he cannot relate to his friends, including his wife and lover.The casualty rate among officers is particularly high at the front.", "When a number of officers in George's unit are killed, he is promoted.", "Upon spending time with the other officers, he finds them to be cynical and utilitarian.", "He loses faith in the war quickly.The story ends with George standing up during a machine-gun barrage.", "He is killed.At the end of the book there is a poem written from the point of view of a veteran comparing World War I to the Trojan War." ], [ "Censorship", "Aldington, a veteran of World War I, claimed that his novel was accurate in terms of speech and style.", "It contained extensive colloquial speech, including profanity, discussion of sexuality and graphic descriptions of the war and of trench life.", "There was extensive censorship in England and many war novels had been banned or burned as a result.", "When Aldington first published his novel, he redacted a number of passages to ensure the publication of his book would not be challenged.", "He insisted that his publishers include a disclaimer in the original printing of the book with the following text:To my astonishment, my publisher informed me that certain words, phrases, sentences, and even passages, are at present taboo in England.", "I have recorded nothing which I have not observed in human life, said nothing I do not believe to be true.", "... At my request the publishers are removing what they believe would be considered objectionable, and are placing asterisks to show where omissions have been made.", "...", "In my opinion it is better for the book to appear mutilated than for me to say what I don't believe." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Degree Confluence Project" ], [ "Introduction", "A GPS unit at confluence 53N 0, in Lincolnshire, EnglandThe '''Degree Confluence Project''' is a World Wide Web-based, all-volunteer project which aims to have people visit each of the integer degree intersections of latitude and longitude on Earth, posting photographs and a narrative of each visit online.", "The project describes itself as \"an organized sampling of the world\"." ], [ "Requirements", "The precise location of each degree confluence uses the WGS 84 horizontal datum, and visitors to degree confluences almost always make use of GNSS receivers.", "For a ''successful visit'', the visitor must get within 100 metres of the confluence point, and post a narrative and several photographs to the project website.", "A visit, or attempted visit, which does not conform to these rules may still be recorded on the website as an ''incomplete visit''.", "The project encourages visits to degree confluences which have been visited previously, and many confluence points — especially in non-remote regions of developed nations – have been visited several times.The total number of degree confluences is 64,442, of which 21,543 are on land, 38,409 on water, and 4,490 on the Antarctic and Arctic ice caps.", "The project categorizes degree confluences as either ''primary'' or ''secondary''.", "A confluence is primary only if it is on land or within sight of land.", "In addition, at latitudes greater than 48o only some points are designated primary because confluences crowd together near the poles.", "Both primary and secondary confluences may be visited and recorded.In addition, visits to certain special geographical locations can also be reported (special visits).", "For example:* Middle of the World monument ( 0°, 78°27'08\"W )* Centers of continents* Royal Greenwich Observatory" ], [ "History", "The project was started by Alex Jarrett in February 1996 because he \"liked the idea of visiting a location represented by a round number such as 43°00'00\"N 72°00'00\"W. What would be there?", "Would other people have recognized this as a unique spot?", "\"As of February 2022, 6593 (40.33%) of 16,349 primary confluences have been visited, covering 195 countries and territories." ], [ "Milestones", "* First degree confluence visit posted to the website: in New Hampshire, USA by Alex Jarrett (project founder) and Peter Cline on February 20, 1996.", "(Note that some degree confluence visits that pre-date this visit have since been posted on the project's website.", ")* Highest confluence: in Kuba, Tibet, China at 19,143 feet (5,835 m), first visited by Greg Michaels and Robert Whitfield on May 29, 2005.", "* Lowest confluence: in Matrūh, Egypt at −255 feet (−78 m), first visited by Dave Morrison, Steve Price and Tony Carlisle on December 4, 2004." ], [ "See also", "* Geocaching* Geograph Britain and Ireland* Geo-wiki" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", " Degree Confluence Project website* Grist article on project 2 Oct. 2012* Westminster, Massachusetts Confluence Project" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Danny Kaye" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Danny Kaye''' (born '''David Daniel Kaminsky'''; ; January 18, 1911– March 3, 1987) was an American actor, comedian, singer, and dancer.", "His performances featured physical comedy, idiosyncratic pantomimes, and rapid-fire novelty songs.Kaye starred in 17 films, notably ''Wonder Man'' (1945), ''The Kid from Brooklyn'' (1946), ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty'' (1947), ''The Inspector General'' (1949), ''Hans Christian Andersen'' (1952), ''White Christmas'' (1954), and ''The Court Jester'' (1955).", "His films were popular, especially for his performances of patter songs and favorites such as \"Inchworm\" and \"The Ugly Duckling\".He was the first ambassador-at-large of UNICEF in 1954 and received the French Legion of Honour in 1986 for his years of work with the organization." ], [ "Early years", "David Daniel Kaminsky was born in Brooklyn, New York, on January 18, 1911 (though he would later say 1913), to Ukrainian–Jewish immigrants Jacob and Clara (''née'' Nemerovsky) Kaminsky.", "He was the youngest of three sons.", "His parents and older brothers Larry and Mac left Yekaterinoslav (then part of Novorossia, Russian Empire) two years before Danny's birth; he was their only son born in the United States.He attended Public School 149 in East New York, Brooklyn (eventually renamed to honor him)—where he began entertaining his classmates with songs and jokes.", "He attended Thomas Jefferson High School in Brooklyn, but he did not graduate.His mother died when he was in his early teens.", "Not long after, Kaye and his friend Louis ran away to Florida.", "Kaye sang while Louis played the guitar, and the pair eked out a living for a while.", "When Kaye returned to New York, his father did not pressure him to return to school or work, giving his son the chance to mature and discover his abilities.", "Kaye said that as a young boy, he had wanted to be a surgeon, but the family could not afford medical education.After leaving school, he held a succession of jobs as a soda jerk, auto insurance investigator, and office clerk.", "Most ended with him being fired.", "He lost the insurance job when he made an error that cost the insurance company $40,000 ($600,000 in 2019 adjusted for inflation).", "A dentist who hired him to look after his office over lunch and run errands fired him when he found Kaye using his dental drill on the office woodwork.", "In 1939, Kaye met the same dentist's daughter, Sylvia Fine, at an audition, and in 1940, they eloped.", "He learned his trade in his teenaged years in the Catskills as a tummler (M.C.)", "in the Borscht Belt.Kaye's first break came in 1933 when he joined the Three Terpsichoreans, a vaudeville dance act.", "They opened in Utica, New York, where he used the stage name Danny Kaye for the first time.", "The act toured the United States and in Asia with the show ''La Vie Paree''.", "The troupe left for a six-month tour of Asia on February 8, 1934.During its stay in Osaka, Japan, a typhoon hit the city.", "The troupe's hotel suffered heavy damage.", "The strong wind hurled a piece of the hotel's cornice into Kaye's room.", "By evening's performance time, the city was in the grip of the storm.", "With no power, the audience became restless and nervous.", "To calm them, Kaye went on stage holding a flashlight to illuminate his face and sang every song he could recall as loudly as he was able.The experience of trying to entertain audiences who did not speak English inspired him to do the pantomime gestures, songs, and facial expressions that eventually made his reputation.", "Sometimes, he found them necessary when ordering a meal.", "Kaye's daughter Dena relates a story her father told about being in a restaurant in China and trying to order chicken.", "Kaye flapped his arms and clucked, giving the waiter an imitation of a chicken.", "The waiter nodded in understanding, bringing Kaye two eggs.", "His interest in cooking began on the tour.Jobs were in short supply when Kaye returned to the United States, and he struggled for bookings.", "One job was working in a burlesque revue with fan dancer Sally Rand.", "After the dancer dropped a fan while trying to chase away a fly, Kaye was hired to watch the fans, so they were always held in front of her." ], [ "Career", "In 1937, Kaye's film debut came from a contract with New York-based Educational Pictures for a series of two-reel comedies.", "He usually played a manic, dark-haired, fast-talking Russian in these low-budget shorts, opposite young hopefuls June Allyson and Imogene Coca.", "The Kaye series ended abruptly when the studio shut down in 1938.He was working in the Catskills in 1937 under the name Danny Kolbin.His next venture was a short-lived Broadway show with Sylvia Fine as the pianist, lyricist, and composer.", "''The Straw Hat Revue'' opened on September 29, 1939, and closed after 10 weeks, but critics noticed Kaye's work.", "The reviews brought an offer for both Kaye and his bride Sylvia to work at La Martinique, a New York City nightclub.", "Kaye performed with Sylvia as his accompanist.", "At La Martinique, playwright Moss Hart saw Danny perform, and that led to Hart's casting him in his hit Broadway comedy ''Lady in the Dark''.In 1941, aged 30, Kaye scored a triumph playing Russell Paxton in ''Lady in the Dark'', starring Gertrude Lawrence.", "His show-stopping number was \"Tschaikowsky (and Other Russians)\" by Kurt Weill and Ira Gershwin in which he sang the names of a string of Russian composers at breakneck speed, seemingly without taking a breath.", "In the next Broadway season, he was the star of a show about a young man who is drafted called ''Let's Face It!", "''.His feature-film debut was in producer Samuel Goldwyn's Technicolor 1944 comedy ''Up in Arms'', a remake of Goldwyn's Eddie Cantor comedy ''Whoopee!''", "(1930).", "Rival producer Robert M. Savini cashed in by compiling three of Kaye's Educational Pictures shorts into a patchwork feature entitled ''The Birth of a Star'' (1945).", "Studio mogul Goldwyn wanted Kaye's prominent nose fixed to look less Jewish; Kaye refused, but he did allow his red hair to be dyed blond, apparently because it looked better in Technicolor.White Christmas'' trailerKaye starred in a radio program, ''The Danny Kaye Show'', on CBS from 1945 to 1946.The program's popularity rose quickly.", "Within a year, he tied with Jimmy Durante for fifth place in the ''Radio Daily'' popularity poll.", "Kaye was asked to participate in a USO tour following the end of World War II.", "It meant that he would be absent from his radio show for nearly two months at the beginning of the season.", "Kaye's friends filled in with a different guest host each week.", "Kaye was the first American actor to visit postwar Tokyo.", "He had toured there some ten years before with the vaudeville troupe.", "When Kaye asked to be released from his radio contract in mid-1946, he agreed not to accept a regular radio show for one year and only limited guest appearances on other radio programs.", "Many of the show's episodes survive today, notable for Kaye's opening signature patter (\"Git gat gittle, giddle-di-ap, giddle-de-tommy, riddle de biddle de roop, da-reep, fa-san, skeedle de woo-da, fiddle de wada, reep!", "\").Kaye starred in several movies with actress Virginia Mayo in the 1940s, and is known for films such as ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty'' (1947), ''The Inspector General'' (1949), ''On the Riviera'' (1951) co-starring Gene Tierney, ''Knock on Wood'' (1954), ''White Christmas'' (1954), ''The Court Jester'' (1956), and ''Merry Andrew'' (1958).", "Kaye starred in two pictures based on biographies, ''Hans Christian Andersen'' (1952) the Danish storyteller and ''The Five Pennies'' (1959) about jazz pioneer Red Nichols.", "His wife, writer/lyricist Sylvia Fine, wrote many tongue-twisting songs for which Kaye became famous.", "She was also an associate film producer.", "Some of Kaye's films included the theme of doubles, two people who look identical (both Danny Kaye) being mistaken for each other to comic effect.Danny Kaye on USO tour at Sasebo, Japan, October 25, 1945.Kaye and his friend, Dodgers manager Leo Durocher, made the trip.", "While his wife wrote most of Kaye's material, he created much of it himself, often while performing.", "Kaye had one character he never shared with the public; Kaplan, the owner of a rubber company, came to life only for family and friends.", "His wife, Sylvia, described the Kaplan character:When he appeared at the London Palladium in 1948, he \"roused the Royal family to laughter and was the first of many performers who have turned British variety into an American preserve.\"", "''Life'' described his reception as \"worshipful hysteria\" and noted that the royal family, for the first time, left the royal box to watch from the front row of the orchestra.", "He related that he had no idea of the familial connections when the Marquess of Milford Haven introduced himself after a show and said he would like his cousins to see Kaye perform.", "Kaye stated he never returned to the venue because no way existed to recreate the magic of that time.", "Kaye had an invitation to return to London for a ''Royal Variety Performance'' in November of the same year.", "When the invitation arrived, Kaye was busy with ''The Inspector General'' (which had a working title of ''Happy Times'').", "Warner Bros. stopped the film to allow their star to attend.", "When his Decca labelmates The Andrews Sisters began their engagement at the London Palladium on the heels of Kaye's successful 1948 appearance there, the trio was well received and David Lewin of the ''Daily Express'' declared: \"The audience gave the Andrews Sisters the Danny Kaye roar!", "\"He hosted the 24th Academy Awards in 1952.The program was broadcast on radio; telecasts of the Oscar ceremony came later.", "During the 1950s, Kaye visited Australia, where he played Buttons in a production of ''Cinderella'' in Sydney.", "In 1953, Kaye started a production company, Dena Pictures, named for his daughter.", "''Knock on Wood'' was the first film produced by his firm.", "The firm expanded into television in 1960 under the name Belmont Television.Kaye entered television in 1956, on the CBS show ''See It Now'' with Edward R. Murrow.", "''The Secret Life of Danny Kaye'' combined his 50,000-mile, ten-country tour as UNICEF ambassador with music and humor.", "His first solo effort was in 1960 with a one-hour special produced by Sylvia and sponsored by General Motors, with similar specials in 1961 and 1962.Kaye at Schiphol on October 5, 1955He hosted ''The Danny Kaye Show'' from 1963 to 1967; it won four Emmy awards and a Peabody award.", "His last cinematic starring role came in 1963's ''The Man from the Diners' Club''.Beginning in 1964, he acted as television host to the CBS telecasts of MGM's ''The Wizard of Oz''.", "Kaye did a stint as a ''What's My Line?''", "mystery guest on the Sunday-night CBS-TV quiz program.", "Kaye was later a guest panelist on that show.", "He also appeared on the interview program ''Here's Hollywood''.", "In the 1970s, Kaye tore a ligament in his leg during the run of the Richard Rodgers musical ''Two by Two'', but went on with the show, appearing with his leg in a cast and cavorting on stage in a wheelchair.", "He had done much the same on his television show in 1964, when his right leg and foot were burned from a cooking accident.", "Camera shots were planned so television viewers did not see Kaye in his wheelchair.In 1976, he played Geppetto in a television musical adaptation of ''Pinocchio'' with Sandy Duncan in the title role.", "Kaye portrayed Captain Hook opposite Mia Farrow in a musical version of ''Peter Pan'' featuring songs by Anthony Newley and Leslie Bricusse.", "He later guest-starred in episodes of ''The Muppet Show'' and ''The Cosby Show'', and in the 1980s revival ''The Twilight Zone''.In many films, as well as on stage, Kaye proved to be an able actor, singer, dancer, and comedian.", "He showed his serious side as ambassador for UNICEF and in his dramatic role in the memorable TV film ''Skokie'', when he played a Holocaust survivor.", "Before his death in 1987, Kaye conducted an orchestra during a comical series of concerts organized for UNICEF fundraising.", "Kaye received two Academy Awards - an Academy Honorary Award in 1955 and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award in 1982.That year, he received the Screen Actors Guild annual award.In 1980, Kaye hosted and sang in the 25th anniversary of Disneyland celebration and hosted the opening celebration for Epcot in 1982 (EPCOT Center at the time).", "Both were aired on primetime television in the U.S.===Career in music===Kaye during his visit to Israel, 1956, Boris Carmi, Meitar collection, National Library of IsraelWhile Kaye claimed he could not read music, he was said to have perfect pitch.", "A flamboyant performer with his own distinctive style, \"easily adapting from outrageous novelty songs to tender ballads\" (according to critic Jason Ankeny), in 1945, Kaye began hosting his own CBS radio program, in which he performed a number of hit songs, including \"Dinah\" and \"Minnie the Moocher\".In 1947, Kaye teamed up with The Andrews Sisters (Patty, Maxene, and LaVerne) on Decca Records, producing the number-three ''Billboard'' hit \"Civilization (Bongo, Bongo, Bongo)\".", "The success of the pairing prompted both acts to record through 1950, producing such rhythmically comical fare as \"The Woody Woodpecker Song\" (based on the bird from the Walter Lantz cartoons and a ''Billboard'' hit for the quartet), \"Put 'em in a Box, Tie 'em with a Ribbon (And Throw 'em in the Deep Blue Sea)\", \"The Big Brass Band from Brazil\", \"It's a Quiet Town (In Crossbone County)\", \"Amelia Cordelia McHugh (Mc Who?", ")\", \"Ching-a-ra-sa-sa\", and a duet by Danny and Patty Andrews of \"Orange Colored Sky\".", "The acts teamed for two yuletide favorites - a frantic, harmonic rendition of \"A Merry Christmas at Grandmother's House (Over the River and Through the Woods)\" and a duet by Danny and Patty, \"All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth\".Kaye's debut album, ''Columbia Presents Danny Kaye'', had been released in 1942 by Columbia Records with songs performed to the accompaniment of Maurice Abravanel and Johnny Green.", "The album was reissued as a Columbia LP in 1949 and is described by the critic Bruce Eder as \"a bit tamer than some of the stuff that Kaye hit with later in the '40s and in the '50s, and for reasons best understood by the public, doesn't attract nearly the interest of his kids' records and overt comedy routines\".In 1950, a Decca single, \"I've Got a Lovely Bunch of Coconuts\", was released, and became another chart hit for him.", "His second Columbia LP album ''Danny Kaye Entertains'' (1953, Columbia) included five songs recorded in 1941 from his Broadway musical ''Lady in the Dark'', most notably \"Tschaikowsky (and Other Russians)\".Following the success of the film ''Hans Christian Andersen'' (1952), two of its songs written by Frank Loesser and sung by Kaye, \"Thumbelina\" and \"Wonderful Copenhagen\", reached the charts; the former title became a minor US hit, and the latter reached number five on the UK Singles Chart.", "In 1953, Decca released ''Danny at the Palace'', a live recording made at the New York Palace Theater, followed by ''Knock On Wood'' (Decca, 1954) a set of songs from the movie of the same name sung by Kaye, accompanied by Victor Young and His Singing Strings.Nancy Wilson appearing on his show in 1965In 1956, Kaye signed a three-year recording contract with Capitol Records, which released his single \"Love Me Do\" in December of that year.", "The B-side, \"Ciu Ciu Bella\", with lyrics written by Sylvia Fine, was inspired by an episode in Rome when Kaye, on a mission for UNICEF, befriended a 7-year-old child with polio in a children's hospital, who sang this song for him in Italian.In 1958, Saul Chaplin and Johnny Mercer wrote songs for ''Merry Andrew'', a film starring Kaye as a British teacher attracted to the circus.", "The score added up to six numbers, all sung by Kaye; conductor Billy May's 1950 composition \"Bozo's Circus Band\" (renamed \"Music of the Big Top Circus Band\") was deposited on the second side of the ''Merry Andrew'' soundtrack, released in 1958.A year later, another soundtrack came out, for ''The Five Pennies'' (in which Kaye starred as 1920s cornet player Red Nichols), featuring Louis Armstrong.In the 1960s and 1970s, Kaye regularly conducted world-famous orchestras, although he had to learn the scores by ear.", "Kaye's style, even if accompanied by unpredictable antics (he once traded the baton for a flyswatter to conduct \"The Flight of the Bumblebee\") was praised by the likes of Zubin Mehta, who once stated that Kaye \"has a very efficient conducting style\".", "His ability with an orchestra was mentioned by Dimitri Mitropoulos, then conductor of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra.", "After Kaye's appearance, Mitropoulos remarked, \"Here is a man who is not musically trained, who cannot even read music and he gets more out of my orchestra than I have.\"", "Kaye was invited to conduct symphonies as charity fundraisers and was the conductor of the all-city marching band at the season opener of the Los Angeles Dodgers in 1984.Over his career, he raised over US$5 million in support of musician pension funds.===Imitations===Kaye was sufficiently popular to inspire imitations:* The 1946 Warner Bros. cartoon ''Book Revue'' had a sequence with Daffy Duck wearing a blond wig and impersonating Kaye.", "* Satirical songwriter Tom Lehrer's 1953 song \"Lobachevsky\" was based on a number that Kaye had done, about the Russian director Constantin Stanislavski, with the affected Russian accent.", "Lehrer mentioned Kaye in an opening monologue, citing him as an \"idol since childbirth\".", "* Superman creators Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster fashioned a short-lived superhero title, ''Funnyman'', taking inspiration from Kaye's persona." ], [ "Other endeavors", "===Cooking===In his later years, Kaye entertained at home as chef.", "He specialized in Chinese and Italian cooking.", "He had a custom-made Chinese restaurant installed at the rear of his house by its alley, then had a kitchen and dining area built around it.", "The stove that Kaye used for his Chinese dishes was fitted with metal rings for the burners to allow the heat to be highly concentrated, and a trough with circulating ice water cooled the area to keep the intense heat tolerable for those who were cooking.", "He learned \"at Johnny Kan's restaurant in San Francisco and with Cecilia Chang at her Mandarin restaurants in San Francisco and Los Angeles\".", "He taught Chinese cooking classes at a San Francisco Chinese restaurant in the 1970s.", "The theatre and demonstration kitchen under the library at the Hyde Park, New York, campus of the Culinary Institute of America is named for him.Kaye referred to his kitchen as \"Ying's Thing\".", "While filming ''The Madwoman of Chaillot'' in France, he phoned home to ask his family if they would like to eat at Ying's Thing that evening; Kaye flew home for dinner.", "Not all of his efforts in the kitchen went well.", "After flying to San Francisco for a recipe for sourdough bread, he came home and spent hours preparing loaves.", "When his daughter asked about the bread, Kaye hit the bread on the kitchen table; his bread was hard enough to chip it.", "Kaye approached kitchen work with enthusiasm, making sausages and other foods needed for his cuisine.", "Though it is often claimed that he was a Meilleur Ouvrier de France (MOF), this is not true, as the MOF is restricted to French professionals.", "Rather, he had cooked for several famous French chefs at his house (all of them MOFs), and they signed an \"honorary\" Meilleur Ouvrier de France diploma for him.===Flying===Kaye became an aviation enthusiast and pilot.", "His interest was sparked by his longtime friend, choreographer Michael Kidd, who at the time had recently earned his private pilot's license.", "Kaye was an enthusiastic and accomplished golfer, but reduced golf activities in favor of flying and started training for his license in 1959.The first plane Kaye owned was a Piper Aztec.", "After this, he became qualified for many types of aircraft, from single-engined light aircraft to multiengine jets.Kaye received a type rating in a Learjet, and he was named vice president of the Learjet Company by Bill Lear as an honorary title (he had no line responsibility at the company).", "He supported many flying projects.", "In 1968, he was honorary chairman of the Las Vegas International Exposition of Flight, a show that used many facets of the city's entertainment industry while presenting an air show.", "The operational show chairman was well-known aviation figure Lynn Garrison.", "Kaye flew a Learjet to 65 cities in five days on a mission to help UNICEF.===Business ventures===In 1958, Kaye and partner Lester Smith formed Kaye–Smith Enterprises.", "The company owned a chain of radio stations, mostly in the Pacific Northwest.", "Other Kaye–Smith divisions included a concert-promotion company, a video-production company, and a recording studio.", "===Baseball===A lifelong Dodgers fan, Kaye recorded a song called \"The D-O-D-G-E-R-S Song (Oh really?", "No, O'Malley!", ")\", describing a fictitious encounter with the San Francisco Giants, a hit during the real-life pennant chase of 1962.That song is included on ''Baseball's Greatest Hits'' compact discs.", "A good friend of Leo Durocher's, he often traveled with the team.", "He also possessed an encyclopedic knowledge of the game and was an accomplished second baseman.Kaye and his business partner Lester Smith also led an investment group, which was awarded the American League's 13th franchise, which became the Seattle Mariners for US$6.2 million on February 7, 1976.The ownership percentages of Kaye, Smith, and two other remaining original investors were reduced to 5% each when George Argyros purchased 80% of the Mariners for $10.4 million on January 30, 1981.Kaye sold all of his business interests to Smith's family in 1985.===Medicine===Kaye was an honorary member of the American College of Surgeons and the American Academy of Pediatrics.===Charity===Danny Kaye on a promotion tour for UNICEF in the Netherlands, 1955Working alongside UNICEF's Halloween fundraiser founder, Ward Simon Kimball Jr., the actor educated the public on impoverished children in deplorable living conditions overseas, and assisted in the distribution of donated goods and funds.", "His involvement with UNICEF came about in an unusual way.", "Kaye was flying home from London in 1949 when one of the plane's four engines lost its propeller and caught fire.", "The problem was initially thought serious enough that it might make an ocean landing; life jackets and life rafts were made ready.", "The plane was able to head back over 500 miles (804.67 km) to land at Shannon Airport, Ireland.", "On the way back to Shannon, the head of the Children's Fund, Maurice Pate, had the seat next to Danny Kaye and spoke at length about the need for recognition for the fund.", "Their discussion continued on the flight from Shannon to New York; it was the beginning of the actor's long association with UNICEF.", "\"For all of his success as a performer (...) his greatest legacy remains his tireless humanitarian work—so close were his ties to the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) that when the organization received the Nobel Peace Prize, Kaye was tapped to accept it\", according to music critic Jason Ankeny." ], [ "Personal life", "Sylvia and Danny Kaye, 1945Kaye and Sylvia Fine grew up in Brooklyn, living a few blocks apart, but they did not meet until they were working on an off-Broadway show in 1939.Sylvia was an audition pianist.Sylvia discovered that Danny had worked for her father Samuel Fine, a dentist.", "Kaye, working in Florida, proposed on the telephone; they were married in Fort Lauderdale on January 3, 1940.They were married for life, except for a separation in 1947 and 1948, when Kaye was involved with Eve Arden.The couple's only child, daughter Dena, was born on December 17, 1946.When she was very young, Dena did not like seeing her father perform because she did not understand that people were supposed to laugh at what he did.", "Kaye said in a 1954 interview, \"Whatever she wants to be she will be without interference from her mother nor from me.\"", "Dena grew up to become a journalist.Donald Spoto, the author of ''Laurence Olivier'' (HarperCollins), made an unsubstantiated claim that Kaye had a 10-year secret affair with Laurence Olivier.", "Despite media rumor since that book's publication, no evidence has been published.", "English journalist Terry Coleman, who spent four years studying Olivier's archive of letters and memorabilia, could not find evidence of such an affair between Kaye and Olivier.", "Coleman observed, \"I did check it and talked to a number of people.", "In this mountain of material in the archives, I could not find a hint of an affair with Danny Kaye.", "\"On January 18, 2013, during a 24-hour salute to Kaye on Turner Classic Movies in celebration of what TCM thought was his 100th birthday, Kaye's daughter Dena revealed to TCM host Ben Mankiewicz that Kaye's stated birth year of 1913 was incorrect, and that he was actually born in 1911.Kaye in 1986 by Allan WarrenA Democrat, he supported Adlai Stevenson's campaign during the 1952 presidential election.", "Kaye was the godfather of actress Mary Louise Weller.===Health and death===In 1983, Kaye had quadruple bypass heart surgery and contracted hepatitis C from a blood transfusion.", "He died at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in the early morning hours of March 3, 1987, aged 76, from complications of heart failure, internal bleeding, and hepatitis C." ], [ "Legacy", "Kaye’s body was cremated and his ashes were interred in the foundation of a bench in Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla, New York.", "His grave is adorned with a bench that contains friezes of a baseball and bat, an aircraft, a piano, a flowerpot, musical notes, and a chef's toque.", "His name and birth and death dates are inscribed on the toque.", "The United Nations held a memorial tribute to him at its New York headquarters on the evening of October 21, 1987.The Sylvia and Danny Kaye Playhouse at Hunter College in New York was opened in 1988, with a $1 million gift from Sylvia Kaye.David Koenig reflects, \"His legacy has dimmed with the passage of time.", "His greatest works (...) endure today only as memories in the minds of aging members of his audiences (...) much of his TV work has not aged particularly well.", "Whimsy was of another time.\"", "However, Koenig sees Kaye's film work in a different light, \"History has smiled on individual pictures — in particular the holiday staple of ''White Christmas'' and ''The Court Jester''... the medieval romp has steadily gained a reputation as one of the greatest comedies of all time.\"" ], [ "Honors", "rightrightright* Kaye was knighted by Queen Margrethe II of Denmark on November 10, 1983.He was awarded the cross of the Knight of the Dannebrog, 1st Class, for his work with UNICEF and longstanding ties with Denmark.", "Kaye portrayed Hans Christian Andersen in the 1952 film of the same name.", "* Chevalier of the French Legion of Honor on February 24, 1986, for his work for UNICEF.", "* On June 23, 1987, Kaye was posthumously presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Ronald Reagan.", "The award was received by his daughter Dena.", "* In 1988, Kaye was posthumously inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame.", "* UNICEF created the Danny Kaye International Children's Award in his honor, a children's European singing competition shown every year between 1988 and 1992 hosted by Audrey Hepburn and Roger Moore.===Awards and other recognition===* Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy in 1951, for ''On the Riviera''* Received an honorary Academy Award Oscar in 1955 \"for his unique talents, his service to the Academy, the motion picture industry, and the American people\".", "* Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy in 1958, for ''Me and the Colonel''* Lions Clubs International The first recipient of the Lions Clubs International Foundation's Humanitarian Award.", "(1973–74)* Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (1981)* Asteroid 6546 Kaye* Three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame; for his work in music, radio, and films* Kennedy Center Honor (1984)* Grand Marshal of the Tournament of Roses Parade (1984)* The song \"I Wish I Was Danny Kaye\" on Miracle Legion's 1996 album ''Portrait of a Damaged Family''* UNICEF's New York Visitor's Centre is named to honor Danny Kaye.", "* In December 1996, the PBS series ''American Masters'' aired a special on Kaye's life.", "* In San Antonio, Texas named a street in the neighborhood Oak Hills Terrace (located in the city's northwest) is named for Danny Kaye near streets bearing other familiar names from TV and movies.", "The neighborhood was established in the late 1960s.", "* The careers of Kaye and Fine are immortalized in The Danny Kaye and Sylvia Fine Collection at the Library of Congress.", "The materials preserved in the collection include manuscripts, scores, scripts, photographs, sound recordings, and video clips.", "* On June 9, 1986, Danny Kaye was crowned King of Brooklyn at the Back to Brooklyn Day Festival.", "Danny Kaye was there to accept his crown." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film===Title Year Role Director Co-stars Filmed in ''Dime a Dance'' 1937 Eddie Al Christie Imogene Coca, June Allyson Black and white short subjects for Educational Pictures ''Getting an Eyeful'' 1938 Russian Charles Kemper, Sally Starr ''Cupid Takes a Holiday'' Nikolai Nikolaevich William Watson Douglas Leavitt, Estelle Jayne ''Money on Your Life'' Nikolai Nikolaevich Charles Kemper, Sally Starr ''Up in Arms'' 1944 Danny Weems Elliott Nugent Dinah Shore, Dana Andrews Technicolor, for Samuel Goldwyn ''I Am an American'' Himself Crane Wilbur Humphrey Bogart, Gary Gray, Dick Haymes, Joan Leslie, Dennis Morgan, Knute Rockne, Jay Silverheels Black and white short subject for Warner Bros. ''Wonder Man'' 1945 Edwin Dingle/Buzzy Bellew H. Bruce Humberstone Virginia Mayo, Vera-Ellen, Steve Cochran Technicolor, for Samuel Goldwyn ''The Kid from Brooklyn'' 1946 Burleigh Hubert Sullivan Norman Z. McLeod Virginia Mayo, Vera-Ellen, Steve Cochran, Eve Arden ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty'' 1947 Walter Mitty Norman Z. McLeod Virginia Mayo, Boris Karloff, Fay Bainter, Ann Rutherford ''A Song Is Born'' 1948 Professor Hobart Frisbee Howard Hawks Virginia Mayo, Benny Goodman, Hugh Herbert, Steve Cochran ''It's a Great Feeling'' 1949 Himself David Butler Dennis Morgan, Doris Day, Jack Carson Technicolor, for Warner Bros. ''The Inspector General'' Georgi Henry Koster Walter Slezak, Barbara Bates, Elsa Lanchester, Gene Lockhart ''On the Riviera'' 1951 Jack Martin/Henri Duran Walter Lang Gene Tierney, Corinne Calvet Technicolor, for 20th Century-Fox ''Hans Christian Andersen'' 1952 Hans Christian Andersen Charles Vidor Farley Granger, Zizi Jeanmaire Technicolor, for Goldwyn ''Knock on Wood'' 1954 Jerry Morgan/Papa Morgan Norman PanamaMelvin Frank Mai Zetterling, Torin Thatcher Technicolor, for Paramount Pictures ''White Christmas'' Phil Davis Michael Curtiz Bing Crosby, Rosemary Clooney, Vera-Ellen, Dean Jagger VistaVision andTechnicolor, for Paramount ''The Court Jester'' 1956 Hubert Hawkins Norman PanamaMelvin Frank Glynis Johns, Basil Rathbone, Angela Lansbury ''Merry Andrew'' 1958 Andrew Larabee Michael Kidd Salvatore Baccaloni, Pier Angeli CinemaScopeand Metrocolor, for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer ''Me and the Colonel'' Samuel L. Jacobowsky Peter Glenville Curt Jürgens, Nicole Maurey, Françoise Rosay, Akim Tamiroff Black and white, for Columbia Pictures ''The Five Pennies'' 1959 Red Nichols Melville Shavelson Barbara Bel Geddes, Louis Armstrong, Tuesday Weld VistaVision andTechnicolor, for Paramount ''On the Double'' 1961 Private First Class Ernie Williams/General Sir Lawrence MacKenzie-Smith Melville Shavelson Dana Wynter, Margaret Rutherford, Diana Dors Panavision and Technicolor, for Paramount ''The Man from the Diners' Club'' 1963 Ernest Klenk Frank Tashlin Cara Williams, Martha Hyer Black and white, for Columbia ''The Madwoman of Chaillot'' 1969 The Ragpicker Bryan Forbes Katharine Hepburn, Charles Boyer Technicolor, for Warner Bros.===Television===* ''Autumn Laughter'' (1938) (experimental telecast)* ''The Secret Life of Danny Kaye'' (1956) (''See It Now'' special)* ''What's My Line?''", "(1960) (celebrity mystery guest)* ''An Hour With Danny Kaye'' (1960 and 1961) (specials)* ''The Danny Kaye Show with Lucille Ball'' (1962) (special)* ''The Danny Kaye Show'' (1963–1967) (series)* ''The Lucy Show'': \"Lucy Meets Danny Kaye\" (1964) (guest appearance)* Rowan And Martin's Laugh-In (1970)* ''Here Comes Peter Cottontail'' (1971) (voice)* ''The Dick Cavett Show'' (1971) (interview guest)* ''The Enchanted World of Danny Kaye: The Emperor's New Clothes'' (1972) (special)* ''An Evening with John Denver'' (1975) (special)* ''Pinocchio'' (1976) (CBS special); live action television musical adaptation starring Kaye as Gepetto and Sandy Duncan in the title role* ''Peter Pan'' (1976) (NBC special); live action television musical adaptation starring Mia Farrow in the title role, and Kaye as Captain Hook* ''The Muppet Show'' (1978) (guest appearance)* ''Disneyland's 25th Anniversary'' (1980) (special guest appearance)* ''An Evening with Danny Kaye'' (1981) (special)* ''Skokie'' (1981) (television movie)* \"Epcot Center: The Opening Celebration\" television special (1982) (host and conductor)* ''The Twilight Zone'': \"Paladin of the Lost Hour\" (1985) (guest appearance)* ''The Cosby Show'': \"The Dentist\" (1986) (guest appearance)" ], [ "Stage work", "* ''The Straw Hat Revue'' (1939)* ''Lady in the Dark'' (1941)* ''Let's Face It!''", "(1941)* ''Two by Two'' (1970)" ], [ "Selected discography", "===Studio albums===* ''Danny Kaye'' (Decca, 1949)* ''Gilbert And Sullivan And Danny Kaye'' (Decca, 1949)* ''Danny Kaye Entertains'' (Columbia, 1950)* ''Mommy, Gimme a Drinka Water'' (Orchestration by Gordon Jenkins) (Capitol, 1958)* ''The Five Pennies'' (with Louis Armstrong, London, 1959)===Soundtracks===* ''Hans Christian Andersen'' (1952)* ''Knock on Wood'' (Decca, 1954)* ''Court Jester'' (Brunswick, 1956)* ''Merry Andrew'' (1958)===Spoken word===* ''Danny Kaye for Children'' (Coral, 1959)* ''Danny Kaye Tells 6 Stories from Faraway Places'' (Golden, 1960)===Compilations===* ''Selections from Irving Berlin's White Christmas'' (1954)* ''The Best of Danny Kaye'' (Decca, 1965)* ''Two by Two'' (Columbia, 1970)* ''The Very Best of Danny Kaye (20 Golden Greats)'' (MCA, 1987)===Charting singles===* \"Bloop Bleep\" (With Orchestra Directed by Billy May, Decca) US No.", "21, 1947\"Civilization (Bongo, Bongo, Bongo)\" from the Broadway musical ''Angel in the Wings'' (Danny Kaye – Andrews Sisters, with Vic Schoen and His Orchestra, Decca) US No.", "3, 1947\"The Woody Woodpecker\" (Danny Kaye – Andrews Sisters, With The Harmonica Gentlemen, Decca) US No.", "18, 1948\"I've Got a Lovely Bunch of Coconuts\" (With The Harmonaires And Orchestra Directed By Vic Schoen, Decca) US No.", "26, 1950\"C'est Si Bon (It's So Good)\" (With Lee Gordon Singers And Vic Schoen And His Orchestra, Decca) US No.", "21, 1950\"Black Strap Molasses\" (Danny Kaye – Jimmy Durante – Jane Wyman – Groucho Marx with 4 Hits and A Miss and Orchestra Directed by Sonny Burke, Decca) US No.", "29, 1951\"Thumbelina\" (Danny Kaye and Gordon Jenkins and his Chorus and Orchestra, Decca) US No.", "28, 1952\"Wonderful Copenhagen\" (Danny Kaye and Gordon Jenkins and his Chorus and Orchestra, Decca) UK No.", "5, 1953 \"Little Child (Daddy Dear)\" with Dena Kaye (Decca, 1956) US Cash Box No.", "25* \"Ciu Ciu Bella\" (Capitol, 1956) US Music Vendor No.", "76* \"Lullaby in Ragtime\" with Eileen Wilson (Dot, 1959) US Music Vendor No.", "116* \"D-O-D-G-E-R-S Song (Oh, Really?", "No, O'Malley)\" (Reprise, 1962) US Cash Box No.", "113" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Remarks at the Presentation Ceremony for the Presidential Medal of Freedom , June 23, 1987; accessed March 9, 2015." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Royal Engineers Museum* Literature on Danny Kaye* * FBI Records: The Vault – Danny Kaye, fbi.gov; accessed June 4, 2017.", "* Danny Kaye and Sylvia Fine Collection and the Online Danny Kaye and Sylvia Fine Collection at the Library of Congress* Danny Kaye recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dan DeCarlo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Daniel S. DeCarlo''' (December 12, 1919 – December 18, 2001) was an American cartoonist best known for having developed the look of Archie Comics in the late 1950s and early 1960s, modernizing the characters to their contemporary appearance and establishing the publisher's house style up until his death.", "As well, he is the generally recognized co-creator of the characters Sabrina the Teenage Witch, Josie and the Pussycats (the title character of which was named for his wife), and Cheryl Blossom." ], [ "Early life and career", "Dan DeCarlo was born in New Rochelle, New York, the son of a gardener.", "He attended New Rochelle High School, followed by Manhattan's Art Students League from 1938 to 1941, when he was drafted into the U.S. Army.", "Stationed in Great Britain, he worked in the motor pool and as a draftsman, and painted company mascots on the noses of airplanes.", "He also drew a weekly military comic strip, ''418th Scandal Sheet''.", "He met his wife, French citizen Josie Dumont, on a blind date in Belgium not long after the Battle of the Bulge." ], [ "Atlas and Archie", "''Sherry the Showgirl'' #2 (Sept. 1956).", "Cover art by DeCarlo.DeCarlo was married, with a pregnant wife, and working as a laborer for his father when he began to pursue a professional art career.", "Circa 1947, answering an ad, he broke into the comic book industry at Timely Comics, the 1940s iteration of Marvel Comics.", "Under editor-in-chief Stan Lee, his first assignment was the teen-humor series ''Jeanie''.", "DeCarlo went uncredited, as was typical for most comic-book writers and artists of the era, and he recalled in 2001, \"I went on with her maybe ten books.", "They used to call me 'The Jeanie Machine' because that was all Stan used to give me, was ''Jeanie''.... Then he took me off ''Jeanie'' and he gave me ''Millie the Model''.", "That was a big break for me.", "It wasn't doing too well and somehow when I got on it became quite successful.", "\"He went on to an atypically long, 10-year run on that humor series, from issues #18–93 (June 1949 – Nov. 1959), most of them published by Marvel's 1950s predecessor, Atlas Comics.", "DeCarlo and Lee also took over the ''My Friend Irma'' comic strip, spun off from the hit Marie Wilson radio comedy.", "For a decade, DeCarlo wrote and drew the slapsticky adventures of Millie Collins, her redheaded friendly nemesis Chili Storm and the rest of the cast.", "He also contributed the short-lived ''Sherry the Showgirl'' and ''Showgirls'' for Atlas.", "In 1960, he and Atlas editor-in-chief Stan Lee co-created the short-lived syndicated comic strip ''Willie Lumpkin'', about a suburban mail carrier, for the Chicago-based Publishers Syndicate.", "A version of the character later appeared as a long-running minor supporting character in Lee's later co-creation, the Marvel Comics series ''Fantastic Four''.As well during this period, DeCarlo created and drew Standard Comics' futuristic teen-humor comic book ''Jetta of the 21st Century''.", "Running three issues, #5–7 (Dec. 1952 - April 1953), it featured red-haired Jetta Raye and her friends at Neutron High School.In addition to his comic-book work, DeCarlo drew freelance pieces for the magazines ''The Saturday Evening Post'' and ''Argosy'', as well as Timely/Atlas publisher Martin Goodman's Humorama line of pin-up girl cartoon digests.DeCarlo first freelanced for Archie Comics, the company with which he became most closely associated, in the late 1950s while still freelancing for Atlas.", "He said in 2001,DeCarlo is tentatively identified with Archie as early as the Jughead story \"The Big Shot\" in ''Archie Comics'' #48 (Feb. 1951), with his earliest confirmed credit the 3 3/4-page story \"No Picnic\" in ''Archie's Girls Betty and Veronica'' #4 (published in September 1951).", "His art soon established the publisher's house style.", "As well, he is the generally recognized creator of the teen-humor characters Sabrina the Teenage Witch, Josie and the Pussycats, and Cheryl Blossom.===Josie===DeCarlo created Josie on his own in the late 1950s; his wife, named Josie, said in an interview quoted in a DeCarlo obituary, \"We went on a Caribbean cruise, and I had a cat costume for the cruise, and that's the way it started.\"", "DeCarlo first tried to sell the character as a syndicated comic strip called ''Here's Josie'', recalling in 2001:Original art panels from \"The Reformer\" in ''Archie's Girls Betty and Veronica'' No.", "157 (Jan. 1969), featuring (l. to r.) Veronica Lodge and Archie Andrews.", "Penciled by DeCarlo, inked by Rudy Lapick.Josie was introduced in ''Archie's Pals 'n' Gals'' #23.The first issue of ''She's Josie'' followed, cover-dated February 1963.The series featured levelheaded, sweet-natured Josie, her blonde bombshell friend Melody, and bookwormish brunette Pepper.", "These early years also featured the characters of Josie and Pepper's boyfriends Albert and Sock (real name Socrates); Albert's rival Alexander Cabot III; and Alex's twin sister Alexandra.", "Occasionally Josie and her friends appeared in \"crossover\" issues with the main Archie characters.", "''She's Josie'' was renamed ''Josie'' with issue #17 (Dec. 1965), and again renamed, to ''Josie and the Pussycats'', with issue #45 (Dec. 1969), whereby Pepper was replaced by Valerie and Albert was replaced by Alan M. Under this title, the series finished its run with issue #106 (Oct. 1982).", "Josie and her gang also made irregular appearances in ''Pep Comics'' and ''Laugh Comics'' during the 1960s.1956 example of DeCarlo's cartoon work for men's magazines.", "\"Allan, are you trying to pull the wool over my eyes?", "\"When Universal Pictures was preparing the live-action movie adaptation ''Josie and the Pussycats'' in 2001, DeCarlo and Archie Comics became involved in a lawsuit over the character's creation, leading the publisher to terminate its 43-year relationship with him.", "A federal district court ruled in 2001 that Archie Comics owned the copyright to the Josie characters; this decision was affirmed by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals.", "On December 11, 2001, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected an appeal filed by DeCarlo's attorney, Whitney Seymour Jr., who had argued that the issue was a matter of state property law and not federal copyright law.DeCarlo was listed as a creator in the end credits of the film ''Josie and the Pussycats''.", "He received credit as co-creator of the live-action television show ''Sabrina the Teenage Witch''.Among DeCarlo's final works were a story for Paul Dini's independent comics series ''Jingle Belle'', and stories for Bongo Comics' ''The Simpsons'' TV tie-in comic, ''Bart Simpson''.===Death===DeCarlo died in New Rochelle, New York, of pneumonia.", "Comics creator Paul Dini said upon DeCarlo's death, \"It was tragic that when he was at an age when many cartoonists are revered as treasures by more beneficent publishers, Dan felt spurned and slighted by the owners of properties that prospered greatly from his contributions.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "His twin sons, Dan Jr. and James \"Jim\" DeCarlo (born January 27, 1948) were also prolific Archie artists, penciling and inking respectively.", "The two predeceased their father.", "Dan Jr. died in October 1990 of stomach cancer, and James died in August 1991 from complications from a stroke.", "Josie DeCarlo, the inspiration for singer-guitarist Josie McCoy of the 1970s Hanna-Barbera series ''Josie and the Pussycats'' and its successors, died in her sleep on March 14, 2012." ], [ "Josie DeCarlo", "'''Josette Marie \"Josie\" DeCarlo''' (née Dumont; September 8, 1923 – March 14, 2012) was a French-born model who became the inspiration and namesake for Josie McCoy of ''Josie and the Pussycats'' comics and the 1970 Hanna-Barbera Saturday morning cartoon series.She met future husband Dan DeCarlo on a blind date in Belgium in 1945, Shortly after the Battle of the Bulge.", "At the time, Dumont did not speak English, while DeCarlo, a member of the U.S. Army during World War II, spoke very little French.Unable to have a conversation due to their language barrier, the two communicated through his cartoons.", "She later explained, \"We communicated with drawing....", "He would draw things for me to make me understand what he had in mind.", "He was really so amusing.", "Instead of just using words, he would use cartoons to express himself.", "Right away, we knew that we were meant for each other.\"", "The couple married in 1946.She became the inspiration for ''Josie and the Pussycats'' while the couple were on a cruise.", "Josie DeCarlo wore a catsuit costume during the cruise, which became the basis for the fictional ''Josie and the Pussycats'' trademark outfits.Later, when she got a new hairdo, Dan DeCarlo incorporated it into the Josie character as well, \"The hairdo came after... One day, I came in with a new hairdo with a little bow in my hair, and he said, 'That's it!'\"", "Dan DeCarlo drew his wife with the cat costume as Josie McCoy and naming the starring character Josie.", "Josie first appeared in Archie Comics in 1962.The character was voiced by actress Janet Waldo in the television series.After her husband's death in 2001, Josie DeCarlo remained active in the comics and animation industries, promoting his work.Josie DeCarlo died in her sleep on March 14, 2012, aged 88.Her funeral was held in Scarsdale, New York." ], [ "Awards", "DeCarlo won the National Cartoonists Society Award for Best Comic Book in 2000 for ''Betty & Veronica''.", "He was nominated for the Academy of Comic Book Arts' Shazam Award for Best Penciller (Humor Division) in 1974." ], [ "Legacy", "''Love and Rockets'' co-creators Jaime Hernandez and Gilbert Hernandez cite DeCarlo as an artistic influence.Artist/animator Bruce Timm, best known for his contributions to the DC Animated Universe, has cited Dan DeCarlo as one of his influences." ], [ "Further reading", "* \"Jetta Raye\" in ''The Spectacular Sisterhood of Superwomen: Awesome Female Characters from Comic Book History'' by Hope Nicholson, Quirk Books (2017)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Archie at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.", "at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.", "October 31, 2011.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Debit card" ], [ "Introduction", "A Fidor Bank debit cardA '''debit card''', also known as a '''check card''' or '''bank card,''' is a payment card that can be used in place of cash to make purchases.", "The card usually consists of the bank's name, a card number, the cardholder's name, and an expiration date, on either the front or the back.", "Many of the new cards now have a chip on them, which allows people to use their card by touch (contactless), or by inserting the card and keying in a PIN as with swiping the magnetic stripe.", "These are similar to a credit card, but unlike a credit card, the money for the purchase must be in the cardholder's bank account at the time of the purchase and is immediately transferred directly from that account to the merchant's account to pay for the purchase.Some debit cards carry a stored value with which a payment is made (prepaid cards), but most relay a message to the cardholder's bank to withdraw funds from the cardholder's designated bank account.", "In some cases, the payment card number is assigned exclusively for use on the Internet, and there is no physical card.", "This is referred to as a virtual card.In many countries, the use of debit cards has become so widespread that they have overtaken checks in volume or have entirely replaced them; in some instances, debit cards have also largely replaced cash transactions.", "The development of debit cards, unlike credit cards and charge cards, has generally been country-specific, resulting in a number of different systems around the world that are often incompatible.", "Since the mid-2000s, a number of initiatives have allowed debit cards issued in one country to be used in other countries and allowed their use for internet and phone purchases.Debit cards usually also allow an instant withdrawal of cash, acting as an ATM card for this purpose.", "Merchants may also offer cashback facilities to customers so that they can withdraw cash along with their purchase.", "There are usually daily limits on the amount of cash that can be withdrawn.", "Most debit cards are plastic, but there are cards made of metal and, rarely, wood." ], [ "Types of debit card systems", "An example of the front of a typical debit card:An example of the reverse side of a typical debit card:There are currently three ways that debit card transactions are processed: '''EFTPOS''' (also known as ''online debit'' or ''PIN debit''), '''offline debit''' (also known as ''signature debit''), and the '''Electronic Purse Card System'''.", "One physical card can include the functions of all three types, so it can be used in a number of different circumstances.The five major debit card networks are UnionPay, American Express, Discover, Mastercard, and Visa.", "Other card networks are STAR, JCB, Pulse, etc.", "There are many types of debit cards, each accepted only within a particular country or region; for example, Switch (since merged with Maestro) and Solo in the United Kingdom; Interac in Canada; Carte Bleue in France; EC electronic cash (formerly Eurocheque) in Germany; Bancomat/PagoBancomat in Italy; UnionPay in China; RuPay in India; and EFTPOS cards in Australia and New Zealand.", "The need for cross-border compatibility and the advent of the euro recently led to many of these card networks (such as Switzerland's \"EC direkt\", Austria's \"Bankomatkasse\", and Switch in the United Kingdom) being re-branded with the internationally recognized Maestro logo, which is part of the Mastercard brand.", "Some debit cards are dual-branded with the logo of the (former) national card as well as Maestro (for example, EC cards in Germany, Switch and Solo in the UK, Pinpas cards in the Netherlands, Bancontact cards in Belgium, etc.).", "The use of a debit card system allows operators to package their products more effectively while monitoring customer spending.===Online debit system===Online debit cards require electronic authorization of every transaction, and the debits are reflected in the user's account immediately.", "The transaction may be additionally secured with the personal identification number (PIN) authentication system; some online cards require such authentication for every transaction, essentially becoming enhanced automatic teller machine (ATM) cards.One difficulty with using online debit cards is the necessity of an electronic authorization device at the point of sale (POS) and sometimes also a separate PINpad to enter the PIN, although this is becoming commonplace for all card transactions in many countries.Overall, the online debit card is generally viewed as superior to the offline debit card because of its more secure authentication system and live status, which alleviates problems with processing lag on transactions that may only issue online debit cards.", "Some online debit systems are using the normal authentication processes of Internet banking to provide real-time online debit transactions.===Offline debit system=== Offline debit cards have the logos of major credit cards (for example, Visa or Mastercard).", "These cards connect straight to a person's bank account, but there is a delay before the money is taken out.===Electronic purse card system===Smart-card-based electronic purse systems (in which value is stored on the card chip, not in an externally recorded account, so that machines accepting the card need no network connectivity) have been in use throughout Europe since the mid-1990s, most notably in Germany (Geldkarte), Austria (Quick Wertkarte), the Netherlands (Chipknip), Belgium (Proton), Switzerland (CASH), and France (Moneo, which is usually carried by a debit card).", "In Austria and Germany, almost all current bank cards now include electronic purses, whereas the electronic purse has been recently phased out in the Netherlands.===Prepaid debit cards=======Nomenclature====Prepaid debit cards are reloadable and can also be called reloadable debit cards.====Users====The primary market for prepaid debit cards has historically been unbanked people; that is, people who do not use banks or credit unions for their financial transactions.====Advantages====Advantages of prepaid debit cards include being safer than carrying cash, worldwide acceptance, not having to worry about paying a credit card bill or going into debt, the opportunity for anyone over the age of 18 to apply and be accepted without checks on creditworthiness, and the option to deposit paychecks and government benefits directly onto the card for free.", "A newer advantage is the use of EMV technology and even contactless functionality, which had previously been limited to bank debit cards and credit cards.====Risks====* If the card provider offers an insecure website for the cardholder to check the balance on the card, this could give an attacker access to the card information.", "* If the user loses the card and has not somehow registered it, they will likely lose the money.", "* If a provider has technical issues, the money might not be accessible when a user needs it.", "Some companies' payment systems do not appear to accept prepaid debit cards.====Types====Prepaid cards vary by the issuer company: key and niche financial players (sometimes collaborations between businesses); purpose of usage (transit card, beauty gift cards, travel card, health savings card, business, insurance, etc.", "); and regions.====Governments====As of 2013, several city governments (including Oakland, California, and Chicago, Illinois) are now offering prepaid debit cards, either as part of a municipal ID card (for people such as illegal immigrants who are unable to obtain a state driver's license or DMV ID card) in the case of Oakland or in conjunction with a prepaid transit pass (in Chicago).", "These cards have been heavily criticized for their higher-than-average fees, including some (such as a flat fee added onto every purchase made with the card) that similar products from other institutions.The U.S. federal government uses prepaid debit cards to make benefit payments to people who do not have bank accounts.In July 2013, the Association of Government Accountants released a report on government use of prepaid cards, concluding that such programs offer a number of advantages to governments and those who receive payments on a prepaid card rather than by check.", "The prepaid card programs benefit payments largely for the cost savings they offer and provide easier access to cash for recipients, as well as increased security.", "The report also advises that governments should consider replacing any remaining cheque-based payments with prepaid card programs in order to realize substantial savings for taxpayers as well as benefits for payees.====Impact of government-mandated fee-free bank accounts====In January 2016, the UK government introduced a requirement for banks to offer fee-free basic bank accounts for all, which had a significant impact on the prepaid industry, including the departure of a number of firms." ], [ "Consumer protection", "Consumer protections vary depending on the network used.", "Visa and MasterCard, for instance, prohibit minimum and maximum purchase sizes, surcharges, and arbitrary security procedures on the part of merchants.", "Merchants are usually charged higher transaction fees for credit transactions since debit network transactions are less likely to be fraudulent.", "This may lead them to \"steer\" customers toward debit transactions.", "Consumers disputing charges may find it easier to do so with a credit card since the money will not immediately leave their control.", "Fraudulent charges on a debit card can also cause problems with a checking account because the money is withdrawn immediately and may thus result in an overdraft or bounced checks.", "In some cases, debit card-issuing banks will promptly refund any disputed charges until the matter can be settled, and in some jurisdictions, the consumer's liability for unauthorized charges is the same for both debit and credit cards.In 2010, Bank of America announced that \"it was doing away with overdraft fees for debit card purchases.", "\"In some countries, such as India and Sweden, consumer protection is the same regardless of the network used.", "Some banks set minimum and maximum purchase sizes, mostly for online-only cards.", "However, this has nothing to do with the card networks but rather with the bank's judgment of the person's age and credit records.", "Any fees that the customers have to pay to the bank are the same regardless of whether the transaction is conducted as a credit or debit transaction, so there is no advantage for the customers to choose one transaction mode over another.", "Shops may add surcharges to the price of goods or services in accordance with laws allowing them to do so.", "Banks consider the purchases to have been made at the moment when the card was swiped, regardless of when the purchase settlement was made.", "Regardless of which transaction type was used, the purchase may result in an overdraft because the money is considered to have left the account at the moment of the card swipe.According to Singapore's local financial and banking laws and regulations, all Singapore-issued credit and debit cards with Visa or MasterCard swipe magnet strips are disabled by default if used outside of Singapore.", "The whole idea is to prevent fraudulent activities and protect the card holder.", "If customers want to use card swipe magnet strips aboard and internationally, they will have to activate and enable international card usage." ], [ "Financial access", "Debit cards and secured credit cards are popular among college students who have not yet established a credit history.", "Debit cards may also be used by expatriate workers to send money home to their families holding an affiliated debit card." ], [ "Issues with deferred posting of offline debit", "The consumer perceives a debit transaction as occurring in real time: the money is withdrawn from their account immediately after the authorization request from the merchant.", "In many countries, this is correct for online debit purchases.", "However, when a purchase is made using the \"credit\" (offline debit) option, the transaction merely places an authorization hold on the customer's account; funds are not actually withdrawn until the transaction is reconciled and hard-posted to the customer's account, usually a few days later.", "This is in contrast to a typical credit card transaction, in which, after a few days delay before the transaction is posted to the account, there is a further period of maybe a month before the consumer makes repayment.Because of this, in the case of an error by the merchant or issuer, a debit transaction may cause more serious problems (for example, overdraft/money not accessible/overdrawn account) than a credit card transaction (for example, credit not accessible due to being over one's credit limit).", "This is especially true in the United States, where check fraud is a crime in every state but exceeding one's credit limit is not." ], [ "Internet purchases", "Debit cards may also be used on the Internet, either with or without using a PIN.", "Internet transactions may be conducted in either online or offline mode.", "Shops accepting online-only cards are rare in some countries (such as Sweden), while they are common in other countries (such as the Netherlands).", "For a comparison, PayPal offers the customer to use an online-only Maestro card if the customer enters a Dutch address of residence, but not if the same customer enters a Swedish address of residence.Internet purchases can be authenticated by the consumer entering their PIN if the merchant has enabled a secure online PIN pad, in which case the transaction is conducted in debit mode.", "Otherwise, transactions may be conducted in either credit or debit mode (which is sometimes, but not always, indicated on the receipt), and this has nothing to do with whether the transaction was conducted in online or offline mode, since both credit and debit transactions may be conducted in both modes." ], [ "Debit cards around the world", "In some countries, banks tend to levy a small fee for each debit card transaction.", "In other countries (for example, the UK) the merchants bear all the costs and customers are not charged.", "There are many people who routinely use debit cards for all transactions, no matter how small.", "Some (small) retailers refuse to accept debit cards for small transactions, where paying the transaction fee would absorb the profit margin on the sale, making the transaction uneconomic for the retailer.Some businesses do not accept card payments at all, even in an era with declining use of cash.", "This still happens for a variety of reasons, tax avoidance by small business included.In 2019, £35,000 million in tax revenue was lost in the United Kingdom due to cash-only payments.", "Many businesses such as, barber shops, fish & chip shops, Chinese takeaways, the black market, and even some building sites are known for cash-in-hand payments in the UK, meaning high amounts of money can be unaccounted for.===Angola===The banks in Angola issue by official regulation only one brand of debit cards: Multicaixa, which is also the brand name of the one and only network of ATMs and POS terminals.===Armenia===ArCa (Armenian Card), a national system of debit (ArCa Debit and ArCa Classic) and credit (ArCa Gold, ArCa Business, ArCA Platinum, ArCa Affinity and ArCa Co-branded) cards popular in Armenia.", "Established in 2000 by 17 largest Armenian banks.===Australia===Debit cards in Australia are called different names depending on the issuing bank: Commonwealth Bank of Australia: Keycard; Westpac Banking Corporation: Handycard; National Australia Bank: FlexiCard; ANZ Bank: Access card; Bendigo Bank: Easy Money card.A payment in Australia using a debit card is commonly called EFTPOS, which is very popular and has been operating there since the 1980s.", "EFTPOS-enabled cards are accepted at almost all swipe terminals able to accept credit cards, regardless of the bank that issued the card, including Maestro cards issued by foreign banks and formerly issued by the Commonwealth Bank, with most businesses accepting them, with 450,000 point of sale terminals.EFTPOS cards can also be used to deposit and withdraw cash over the counter at Australia Post outlets participating in Giro Post and withdrawals without purchase from certain major retailers, just as if the transaction was conducted at a bank branch, even if the bank branch is closed.", "Electronic transactions in Australia are generally processed via the Telstra Argent and Optus Transact Plus network—which has recently superseded the old Transcend network in the last few years.", "Most early keycards were only usable for EFTPOS and at ATM or bank branches, whilst the new debit card system works in the same way as a credit card, except it will only use funds in the specified bank account.", "This means that, among other advantages, the new system is suitable for electronic purchases without a delay of two to four days for bank-to-bank money transfers.Australia operates both electronic credit card transaction authorization and traditional EFTPOS debit card authorization systems, the difference between the two being that EFTPOS transactions are authorized by a personal identification number (PIN) while credit card transactions can additionally be authorized using a contactless payment mechanism (requiring a PIN for purchases over $200).", "If the user fails to enter the correct pin three times, the consequences range from the card being locked out for a minimum 24-hour period, a phone call or trip to the branch to reactivate with a new PIN, the card being cut up by the merchant, or in the case of an ATM, being kept inside the machine, both of which require a new card to be ordered.Generally credit card transaction costs are borne by the merchant with no fee applied to the end user (although a direct consumer surcharge of 0.5–3% is not uncommon) while EFTPOS transactions cost the consumer an applicable withdrawal fee charged by their bank.The introduction of Visa and MasterCard debit cards along with regulation in the settlement fees charged by the operators of both EFTPOS and credit cards by the Reserve Bank has seen a continuation in the increasing ubiquity of credit card use among Australians and a general decline in the profile of EFTPOS.", "However, the regulation of settlement fees also removed the ability of banks, who typically provide merchant services to retailers on behalf of Visa or MasterCard, from stopping those retailers charging extra fees to take payment by credit card instead of cash or EFTPOS.===Bahrain===In Bahrain debit cards are under Benefit, the interbanking network for Bahrain.", "Benefit is also accepted in other countries though, mainly GCC, similar to the Saudi Payments Network and the Kuwaiti KNET.=== Vietnam ===In Vietnam, debit cards are issued by banks in collaboration with the National Payment Corporation of Vietnam, abbreviated as NAPAS.", "Most banks issue this type of card.", "Customers can simply go to the nearest branch to register or open a debit card online.", "VISA Debit and Mastercard Debit are the most widely issued cards in Vietnam.As of June 2023, there are over 94 million debit cards in circulation in Vietnam.", "The number of cards is growing at an average rate of 18% per year.", "The transaction value reached over 1,200 trillion VND per year.", "More than 80% of transactions are made at ATMs.===Bangladesh===Bangladesh launched its first domestic card scheme, \"Taka Pay\" on 1 November 2023.Until now banks were dependent on international card schemes such as Visa, Mastercard, UnionPay etc.", "From the launching day 3 banks are issuing \"Taka Pay\" card.", "Those banks are: Sonali Bank PLC, BRAC Bank PLC and The City Bank Limited.", "5 banks (Dutch Bangla Bank Limited, Estern Bank PLC, Islami Bank Bangladesh PLC, Mutual Trust Bank Limited and United Commercial Bank PLC) have joined the scheme and will start issuing cards soon.", "Bangladesh Bank is working to bring all Bank, Mobile financial service provider and other financial institutions into the scheme.===Belgium===In Belgium, debit cards are widely accepted in most businesses, as well as in most hotels and restaurants.", "Smaller restaurants or small retailers often accept either debit cards or Payconiq, but generally not credit cards.", "All Belgian banks provide debit cards when you open a bank account.", "Usually, it is free to use debit cards on national and EU ATMs even if they aren't owned by the issuing bank.", "Since 2019, a few banks charge a 50ct cost when using ATMs who are not owned by the issuing bank.", "The debit cards in Belgium are branded with the logo of the national Bancontact system and also with an international debit system, Maestro (for the moment there aren't any banks who issue the V-Pay or Visa Electron cards even if they are widely accepted), the Maestro system is used mostly for payments in other countries, but a few national card payment services use the Maestro system.", "Some banks also offer Visa and MasterCard debit cards but these are mostly online banks.=== Brazil ===In Brazil debit cards are called ''cartão de débito'' (singular) or cartões de débito (plural) and became popular in 2008.In 2013, the 100 millionth Brazilian debit card was issued.", "Debit cards replaced cheques, common until the first decade of the 2000s.Today, the majority of the financial transactions (like buying food at a supermarket), are made using debit cards (and this system is quickly replacing cash payments in Brazil).", "Nowadays, the majority of debit card payments are processed using a card + PIN combination, and almost every card comes with a smart chip to make transactions.The major debit card flags in Brazil are Visa (with Electron cards), Mastercard (with Maestro cards), and Elo.The tap to pay technology has been quite popular in Brazil, you won't need to insert your card with a smart chip and put your password, you just need to approximate the card at the credit card machine, it works for debit and credit cards.", "Some virtual wallets like Samsung Pay, Google Pay and Apple Pay can be used on time of purchase, you just need to approximate your mobile phone or watch at the credit card machine.", "Generally the amount you are allowed to pay without a pin is quite low for security, but is really useful for daily things that won't cost too much.", "Something that appeared recently is a virtual card by some banks (such as Itaú, Bradesco, Mercado Pago and Nubank) on your internet banking platform.", "They give you a card number, expiration date and the CVV code to be used online.", "They also have a temporary virtual card number that works just in 48 hours, the Itaú bank says that you can use it to buy on unknown websites for safety reasons, because in the case of a data leak, the credit card number that was leaked wouldn't work.=== Benin ====== Bulgaria ===In Bulgaria, debit cards are accepted in almost all stores and shops, as well as in most of the hotels and restaurants in the bigger cities.", "Smaller restaurants or small shops often accept cash only.", "All Bulgarian banks can provide debit cards when you open a bank account, for maintenance costs.", "The most common cards in Bulgaria are contactless (and Chip&PIN or Magnetic stripe and PIN) with the brands of Debit Mastercard and Visa Debit (the most common were Maestro and Visa Electron some years ago).", "All POS terminals and ATMs accept Visa, Visa Electron, Visa Debit, VPay, Mastercard, Debit Mastercard, Maestro and Bcard.", "Also some POS terminals and ATMs accept Discover, American Express, Diners Club, JCB and UnionPay.", "Almost all POS terminals in Bulgaria support contactless payments.", "Credit cards are also common in Bulgaria.", "Paying with smartphones/smartwatches at POS terminals is also getting common.=== Burkina Faso ======Canada===Canada has a nationwide EFTPOS system, called Interac Direct Payment (IDP).", "Since being introduced in 1994, IDP has become the most popular payment method in the country.", "Previously, debit cards have been in use for ABM usage since the late 1970s, with credit unions in Saskatchewan and Alberta introducing the first card-based, networked ATMs beginning in June 1977.Debit cards, which could be used anywhere a credit card was accepted, were first introduced in Canada by Saskatchewan Credit Unions in 1982.In the early 1990s, pilot projects were conducted among Canada's six largest banks to gauge security, accuracy and feasibility of the Interac system.", "Slowly in the later half of the 1990s, it was estimated that approximately 50% of retailers offered Interac as a source of payment.", "Retailers, many small transaction retailers like coffee shops, resisted offering IDP to promote faster service.", "In 2009, 99% of retailers offer IDP as an alternative payment form.In Canada, the debit card is sometimes referred to as a \"bank card\".", "It is a client card issued by a bank that provides access to funds and other bank account transactions, such as transferring funds, checking balances, paying bills, etc., as well as point of purchase transactions connected on the Interac network.", "Since its national launch in 1994, Interac Direct Payment has become so widespread that, as of 2001, more transactions in Canada were completed using debit cards than cash.", "This popularity may be partially attributable to two main factors: the convenience of not having to carry cash, and the availability of automated bank machines (ABMs) and direct payment merchants on the network.", "Debit cards may be considered similar to stored-value cards in that they represent a finite amount of money owed by the card issuer to the holder.", "They are different in that stored-value cards are generally anonymous and are only usable at the issuer, while debit cards are generally associated with an individual's bank account and can be used anywhere on the Interac network.In Canada, the bank cards can be used at POS and ATMs.", "Interac Online has also been introduced in recent years allowing clients of most major Canadian banks to use their debit cards for online payment with certain merchants as well.", "Certain financial institutions also allow their clients to use their debit cards in the United States on the NYCE network.", "Several Canadian financial institutions that primarily offer VISA credit cards, including CIBC, RBC, Scotiabank, and TD, also issue a Visa Debit card in addition to their Interac debit card, either through dual-network co-branded cards (CIBC, Scotia, and TD), or as a \"virtual\" card used alongside the customer's existing Interac debit card (RBC).", "This allows for customer to use Interlink for online, over-the-phone, and international transactions and Plus for international ATMs, since Interac isn't well supported in these situations.====Consumer protection in Canada====Consumers in Canada are protected under a voluntary code entered into by all providers of debit card services, The Canadian Code of Practice for Consumer Debit Card Services (sometimes called the \"Debit Card Code\").", "Adherence to the Code is overseen by the Financial Consumer Agency of Canada (FCAC), which investigates consumer complaints.According to the FCAC website, revisions to the code that came into effect in 2005 put the onus on the financial institution to prove that a consumer was responsible for a disputed transaction, and also place a limit on the number of days that an account can be frozen during the financial institution's investigation of a transaction.===Chile===Chile has an EFTPOS system called ''Redcompra'' (Purchase Network) which is currently used in at least 23,000 establishments throughout the country.", "Goods may be purchased using this system at most supermarkets, retail stores, pubs and restaurants in major urban centers.", "Chilean banks issue Maestro, Visa Electron and Visa Debit cards.=== Colombia ===Colombia has a system called Redeban-Multicolor and Credibanco Visa which are currently used in at least 23,000 establishments throughout the country.", "Goods may be purchased using this system at most supermarkets, retail stores, pubs and restaurants in major urban centers.", "Colombian debit cards are Maestro (pin), Visa Electron (pin), Visa Debit (as credit) and MasterCard-Debit (as credit).=== Côte d'Ivoire ======Denmark===The Danish debit card Dankort is ubiquitous in Denmark.", "It was introduced on 1 September 1983, and despite the initial transactions being paper-based, the Dankort quickly won widespread acceptance.", "By 1985 the first EFTPOS terminals were introduced, and 1985 was also the year when the number of Dankort transactions first exceeded 1 million.", "Today Dankort is primarily issued as a Multicard combining the national Dankort with the more internationally recognized Visa (denoted simply as a \"Visa/Dankort\" card).", "In September 2008, 4 million cards had been issued, of which three million cards were Visa/Dankort cards.", "It is also possible to get a Visa Electron debit card and MasterCard.", "* In 2007, PBS (now called Nets), the Danish operator of the Dankort system, processed a total of 737 million Dankort transactions.", "Of these, 4.5 million were processed on just a single day, 21 December.", "This remains the current record.", "* , there were 3.9 million Dankort cards in existence.", "* , more than 80,000 Danish shops had a Dankort terminal, and another 11,000 internet shops also accepted the Dankort.===Finland===Most daily customer transactions are carried out with debit cards or online giro/electronic bill payment, although credit cards and cash are accepted.", "Checks are no longer used.", "Prior to European standardization, Finland had a national standard (''pankkikortti'' = \"bank card\").", "Physically, a ''pankkikortti'' was the same as an international credit card, and the same card imprinters and slips were used for ''pankkikortti'' and credit cards, but the cards were not accepted abroad.", "This has now been replaced by the Visa and MasterCard debit card systems, and Finnish cards can be used elsewhere in the European Union and the world.An electronic purse system, with a chipped card, was introduced, but did not gain much traction.Signing a payment offline entails incurring debt, thus offline payment is not available to minors.", "However, online transactions are permitted, and since almost all stores have electronic terminals, today also minors can use debit cards.", "Previously, only cash withdrawal from ATMs was available to minors (''automaattikortti'' (ATM card) or Visa Electron).===France===Carte Bancaire (CB), the national payment scheme, in 2008, had 57.5 million cards carrying its logo and 7.76 billion transactions (POS and ATM) were processed through the e-rsb network (135 transactions per card mostly debit or deferred debit).", "In 2019, Carte Bancaire had 71.1 million cards carrying its logo and 13.76 billion transactions (POS and ATM) were processed through its network.", "Most CB cards are debit cards, either debit or deferred debit.", "Less than 10% of CB cards were credit cards.Banks in France usually charge annual fees for debit cards (despite card payments being very cost efficient for the banks), yet they do not charge personal customers for chequebooks or processing checks (despite cheques being very costly for the banks).", "This imbalance dates from the unilateral introduction in France of Chip and PIN debit cards in the early 1990s, when the cost of this technology was much higher than it is now.", "Credit cards of the type found in the United Kingdom and United States are unusual in France and the closest equivalent is the deferred debit card, which operates like a normal debit card, except that all purchase transactions are postponed until the end of the month, thereby giving the customer between 1 and 31 days of \"interest-free\" credit.", "Banks can charge more for a deferred debit card.Most France debit cards are branded with the CB logo, which assures acceptance throughout France.", "Most banks now issue Visa or MasterCard co-branded cards, so that the card is accepted on both the CB and the Visa or Mastercard networks.In France payment cards are commonly called Carte Bleue (\"blue card\") regardless of their actual brand.", "Carte Bleue was a card brand acquired in 2010 by Visa which is not used anymore.", "Until its purchase the main characteristic of Carte Bleue was to benefit from its alliance with Visa which allowed the use of the cards on both networks.Many smaller merchants in France refuse to accept debit cards for transactions under a certain amount because of the minimum fee charged by merchants' banks per transaction.", "But more and more merchants accept debit cards for small amounts, due to the increased use of debit cards.", "Merchants in France do not differentiate between debit and credit cards, and so both have equal acceptance.", "It is legal in France to set a minimum amount to transactions, but the merchants must display it clearly.In January 2016, 57.2% of all the debit cards in France also had a contactless payment chip.", "The maximum amount per transaction was originally set to €20 and the maximum amount of all contactless payments per day is between €50-100 depending on the bank.", "The per-transaction limit increased to €30 in October 2017.Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the per-transaction limit increased to €50 in May 2020 to comply with demands from the French government and the European Banking Authority.==== Liability and e-cards ====According to French law, banks are liable for any transaction made with a copy of the original card and for any transaction made without a card (on the phone or on the Internet), so banks have to pay back any fraudulent transaction to the card holder if the previous criteria are met.", "Fighting card fraud is therefore more interesting for banks.", "As a consequence, French banks websites usually propose an \"e-card\" service (\"electronic (bank) card\"), where a new virtual card is created and linked to a physical card.", "Such virtual card can be used only once and for the maximum amount given by the card holder.", "If the virtual card number is intercepted or used to try to get a higher amount than expected, the transaction is blocked.===Germany===Germany has a dedicated debit card payment system called girocard which is usually co-branded with V Pay or Maestro depending on the issuing bank.", "In recent years both Visa Debit and Mastercard Debit cards are increasingly more common as well.Historically, facilities already existed before EFTPOS became popular with the Eurocheque card, an authorization system initially developed for paper checks where, in addition to signing the actual check, customers also needed to show the card alongside the check as a security measure.", "Those cards could also be used at ATMs and for card-based electronic funds transfer with PIN entry.", "These are now the only functions of such cards: the Eurocheque system (along with the brand) was abandoned in 2002 during the transition from the Deutsche Mark to the euro.", "As of 2005, most stores and petrol outlets have EFTPOS facilities.", "Processing fees are paid by the businesses, which leads to some business owners refusing debit card payments for sales totalling less than a certain amount, usually 5 or 10 euro.To avoid the processing fees, many businesses resorted to using direct debit, which is then called ''electronic'' direct debit (, abbr.", "''ELV'').", "The point-of-sale terminal reads the bank sort code and account number from the card but instead of handling the transaction through the Girocard network it simply prints a form, which the customer signs to authorise the debit note.", "However, this method also avoids any verification or payment guarantee provided by the network.", "Further, customers can return debit notes by notifying their bank without giving a reason.", "This means that the beneficiary bears the risk of fraud and illiquidity.", "Some business mitigate the risk by consulting a proprietary blacklist or by switching to Girocard for higher transaction amounts.Around 2000, an Electronic Purse Card was introduced, dubbed Geldkarte (\"money card\").", "It makes use of the smart card chip on the front of the standard issue debit card.", "This chip can be charged with up to 200 euro, and is advertised as a means of making medium to very small payments, even down to several euros or cent payments.", "The key factor here is that no processing fees are deducted by banks.", "It did not gain the popularity its inventors had hoped for.", "As of 2020, several partners pulled out of accepting the Geldkarte which is no longer issued and set to be retired altogether in the near future.===Guinée Bissau===See \"UEMOA\".===Greece===Debit card usage surged in Greece after the introduction of Capital Controls in 2015.===Hong Kong===Most bank cards in Hong Kong for saving / current accounts are equipped with EPS and UnionPay, which function as a debit card and can be used at merchants for purchases, where funds are withdrawn from the associated account immediately.EPS is a Hong Kong only system and is widely accepted in merchants and government departments.", "However, as UnionPay cards are accepted more widely overseas, consumers can use the UnionPay functionality of the bank card to make purchases directly from the bank account.Visa debit cards are uncommon in Hong Kong.", "The British banking firm HSBC's subsidiary Hang Seng Bank's Enjoy card and American firm Citibank's ATM Visa are two of the Visa debit cards available in Hong Kong.Debit cards usage in Hong Kong is relatively low, as the credit card penetration rate is high in Hong Kong.", "In Q1 2017, there are near 20 million credit cards in circulation, about 3 times the adult population.", "There are 145,800 thousand transaction made by credit cards but only 34,001 thousand transactions made by debit cards.===Hungary===In Hungary debit cards are far more common and popular than credit cards.", "Many Hungarians even refer to their debit card (\"betéti kártya\") mistakenly using the word for credit card (\"hitelkártya\").", "The most commonly used phrase, however, is simply bank card (\"bankkártya\").===India===The picture shows an EasyPaisa (Pakistan) debit card powered by UnionPay.", "The card number and name are usually at the front.After the demonetization by current government in the December 2016, there has been a surge in cashless transactions, so nowadays you could find card acceptance in most places.", "The debit card was mostly used for ATM transactions.", "RBI has announced that fees are not justified so transactions have no processing fees.", "Almost half of Indian debit and credit card users use Rupay card.", "Some Indian banks issue Visa debit cards, though some banks (like SBI and Citibank India) also issue Maestro cards.", "The debit card transactions are routed through Rupay (mostly), Visa or MasterCard networks in India and overseas rather than directly via the issuing bank.The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) has launched a new card called RuPay.", "It is similar to Singapore's NETS and Mainland China's UnionPay.As the COVID cases in India are surging up, the banking institution has shifted its focus to contactless payment options such as contactless debit card, contactless credit card and contactless prepaid card.", "The payment methods are changing drastically in India because of social distancing norms and lockdown; people are using more of the digital transactions rather than cash.===Indonesia===Foreign-owned brands issuing Indonesian debit cards include Visa, Maestro, MasterCard, and MEPS.", "Domestically owned debit card networks operating in Indonesia include Debit BCA (and its Prima network's counterpart, Prima Debit) and Mandiri Debit.===Iraq===Iraq's two biggest state-owned banks, Rafidain Bank and Rasheed Bank, together with the ''Iraqi Electronic Payment System (IEPS)'' have established a company called International Smart Card, which has developed a national credit card called 'Qi Card', which they have issued since 2008.According to the company's website: 'after less than two years of the initial launch of the Qi card solution, we have hit 1.6 million cardholder with the potential to issue 2 million cards by the end of 2010, issuing about 100,000 card monthly is a testament to the huge success of the Qi card solution.", "Parallel to this will be the expansion into retail stores through a network of points of sales of about 30,000 units by 2015'.===Ireland======= Current system (as of December 2022) ====In Ireland, all debits cards are exclusively Chip and PIN.", "The market is dominated by Visa Debit cards - the \"Top 3\" banks in Ireland: Allied Irish Banks, Bank of Ireland and Permanent TSB all use Visa Debit, as well as the exiting bank Ulster Bank.", "Other financial institutions that maintain a minority stake such as EBS, An Post Money and some credit unions use Mastercard Debit cards, as well as the exiting bank KBC.", "Revolut, with over 2 million customers in Ireland, varies between Mastercard and Visa Debit cards.Irish debit cards are normally multi-functional and combine ATM card facilities.", "Some banks will provide ATM cards to vulnerable or elderly customers, but only on request.", "The practice is rare and it is on a case-by-case basis.For online purchases, the cards are used together with the bank's mobile app for Strong Customer Authentication as required by the EU's Payment Services Directive (PSD2).Most Irish debit cards are also enabled for contactless payment for purchases €50 or below, and display the contactless symbol.", "The limit was previously €30, but was increased to €50 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic to increase card usage in order to minimize the handling of cash.", "Some banks, such as AIB, do not provide contactless cards to certain account holders, such as those under 18.After 3-5 contactless transactions, the bank will ask the card user to enter their PIN through a Chip and PIN transaction for authentication.Apple Pay and Google Pay are also embraced as contactless payment methods with many retailers as they use the same contactless technology.", "However, due to the device's authentication of the user, there is no limit on the purchase amount.", "In some cases, there are limits of a large amount such as €500, however this may be imposed by the retailer due to technical constraints rather than for security purposes.The cards are usually processed online, but some cards can also be processed offline depending on the rules applied by the card issuer.A number of card issuers also provide prepaid debit card accounts primarily for use as gift cards / vouchers or for added security and anonymity online, e.g.", "CleverCards.", "These may be disposable or reloadable and are predominately MasterCard branded.", "One4All vouchers, a popular voucher given particularly to employees by companies at Christmas time, are another type of a prepaid debit card used.", "However, it is limited to retailers that specifically opt-in to using One4All cards as a payment method and are neither Visa nor Mastercard branded.==== Previous system (defunct since 28 February 2014) ====Laser was launched by the Irish banks in 1996 as an extension of the existing ATM and Cheque guarantee card systems that had existed for many years.", "When the service was added, it became possible to make payments with a multifunctional card that combined ATM, cheque and debit card and international ATM facilities through MasterCard Cirrus or Visa Plus and sometimes the British Link ATM system.", "Their functionality was similar to the British Switch card.The system first launched as a swipe & sign card and could be used in Ireland in much the same way as a credit card and were compatible standard card terminals (online or offline, although they were usually processed online).", "They could also be used in cardholder-not-present transactions over the phone, by mail or on the internet or for processing recurring payments.", "Laser also offered 'cash back' facilities where customers could ask retailers (where offered) for an amount of cash along with their transaction.", "This service allowed retailers to reduce volumes of cash in tills and allowed consumers to avoid having to use ATMs.", "Laser adopted EMV 'Chip and PIN' security in 2002 in common with other credit and debit cards right across Europe.", "In 2005, some banks issued customers with Lasers cards that were co-branded with Maestro.", "This allowed them to be used in POS terminals overseas, internet transactions were usually restricted to sites that specifically accepted Laser.Since 2006, Irish banks have progressively replaced Laser with international schemes, primarily Visa Debit and by 28 February 2014 the Laser Card system had been withdrawn entirely and is no longer accepted by retailers.===Israel===The Israel bank card system is somewhat confusing to newcomers, comprising a blend of features taken from different types of cards.", "What may be referred to as a credit card, is most likely to be a deferred debit card on an associated bank current account, the most common type of card in Israel, somewhat like the situation in France, though the term \"debit card\" is not in common usage.", "Cards are nearly universally called ''cartis ashrai'' (כרטיס אשראי), literally, \"credit card\", a term which may bely the card's characteristics.", "Its main feature may be a direct link to a connected bank account (through which they are mostly issued), with the total value of the transactions made on the card being debited from the bank account in full on a regular date once a month, without the option to carry the balance over; indeed certain types of transactions (such as online and/or foreign currency) may be debited directly from the connected bank account at the time of the transaction.", "Any such limited credit enjoyed is a result of the customer's assets and credibility with the bank, and not granted by the credit card company.", "The card usually enables immediate ATM cash withdrawals & balance inquiries (as debit cards do), instalment & deferred charge interest free transactions offered by merchants (also applicable in Brazil), interest bearing instalment plans/deferred charge/revolving credit which is transaction specific at the point of sale (though granted by the issuer, hence the interest), and a variety of automated/upon request types of credit schemes including loans, some of which revolve or resemble the extended payment options sometimes offered by charge cards.Thus the \"true\" debit card is not so common in Israel, though it has existed since 1994.It is offered by two credit companies in Israel: One is ICC, short for \"Israeli Credit Cards\" (referred to as \"CAL\", an acronym formed from its abbreviation in Hebrew), which issues it in the form of a Visa Electron card valid only in Israel.", "It is offered mainly through the Israel Post (post office) bank (which is not allowed, by regulation, to offer any type of credit) or through Israel Discount Bank, its main owner (where it is branded as \"Discount Money Key\" card).", "This branded Israel Discount Bank branded debit card also offered as valid worldwide card, either as Visa Electron or MasterCard Debit cards.", "The second & more common debit card is offered by the Isracard consortium to its affiliate banks and is branded \"Direct\".", "It is valid only in Israel, under its local private label brand, as \"Isracard Direct\" (which was known as \"Electro Cheque\" until 2002 and while the local brand Isracard is often viewed as a MasterCard for local use only).", "Since 2006, Isracard has also offered an international version, branded \"MasterCard Direct\", which is less common.", "These two debit card brands operate offline in Israel (meaning the transaction operates under the credit cards systems & debited officially from the cardholder account only few days later, after being processed—though reflected on the current account immediately).", "In 2014 the Isracard Direct card (a.k.a.", "the valid only in Israel version) was relaunched as Isracash, though the former subbrand still being marketed and replaced ICC Visa Electron as Israel Post bank debit card.Overall, banks routinely offer deferred debit cards to their new customers, with \"true\" debit cards usually offered only to those who cannot obtain credit.", "These latter cards are not attractive to the average customer since they attract both a monthly fee from the credit company and a bank account fee for each day's debits.", "Isracard Direct is by far more common than the ICC Visa Electron debit card.", "Banks who issue mainly Visa cards will rather offer electronic use, mandate authorized transaction only, unembossed version of Visa Electron deferred debit cards (branded as \"Visa Basic\" or \"Visa Classic\") to its customers—sometimes even in the form of revolving credit card.Credit/debit card transactions in Israel are not PIN based (other than at ATMs) and it is only in recent years that EMV chip smart cards have begun to be issued, with the Bank of Israel in 2013 ordering the banks and credit card companies to switch customers to credit cards with the EMV security standard within 3.5 years.===Italy===Debit cards are quite popular in Italy.", "There are both classic and prepaid cards.", "There are two Italian interbank networks, Bancomat and PagoBancomat: Bancomat is the commercial brand for the cash withdrawal circuit, while PagoBancomat is used for POS transactions.", "Nowadays many debit cards use Visa or Mastercard circuit, while the debit cards which use Bancomat/PagoBancomat circuits are co-badged with Maestro or V-Pay.There is another national circuit, Postamat, that is used by the debit and prepaid cards offered by the national post service, Poste Italiane, mainly for the cash withdrawal in the post-office ATM.===Japan===In Japan people usually use their , originally intended only for use with cash machines, as debit cards.", "The debit functionality of these cards is usually referred to as , and only cash cards from certain banks can be used.", "A cash card has the same size as a Visa/MasterCard.", "As identification, the user will have to enter their four-digit PIN when paying.", "J-Debit was started in Japan on 6 March 2000.However, J-Debit has not been that popular since then.Suruga Bank began service of Japan's first Visa Debit in 2006.Rakuten Bank, formally known as Ebank, offers a Visa debit card.Resona Bank and The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ bank also offer a Visa branded debit card.===Kuwait===In Kuwait, all banks provide a debit card to their account holders.", "This card is branded as KNET, which is the central switch in Kuwait.", "KNET card transactions are free for both customer and the merchant and therefore KNET debit cards are used for low valued transactions as well.", "KNET cards are mostly co-branded as Maestro or Visa Electron which makes it possible to use the same card outside Kuwait on any terminal supporting these payment schemes.===Malaysia===In Malaysia, the local debit card network is operated by the Malaysian Electronic Clearing Corporation (MyClear), which had taken over the scheme from MEPS in 2008.The new name for the local debit card in Malaysia is MyDebit, which was previously known as either bankcard or e-debit.", "Debit cards in Malaysia are now issued on a combo basis where the card has both the local debit card payment application as well as having that of an International scheme (Visa or MasterCard).", "All newly issued MyDebit combo cards with Visa or MasterCard have the contactless payment feature.", "The same card also acts as the ATM card for cash withdrawals.===Mali===See \"UEMOA\".===Mexico===In Mexico, many companies use a type of debit card called a payroll card (tarjeta de nómina), in which they deposit their employee's payrolls, instead of paying them in cash or through checks.", "This method is preferred in many places because it is a much safer and secure alternative compared to the more traditional forms of payment.===Netherlands===In the Netherlands using EFTPOS is known as ''pinnen'' (pinning), a term derived from the use of a personal identification number (PIN).", "PINs are also used for ATM transactions, and the term is used interchangeably by many people, although it was introduced as a marketing brand for EFTPOS.", "The system was launched in 1987, and in 2010 there were 258,585 terminals throughout the country, including mobile terminals used by delivery services and on markets.", "All banks offer a debit card suitable for EFTPOS with current accounts.PIN transactions are usually free to the customer, but the retailer is charged per-transaction and monthly fees.", "Equens, an association with all major banks as its members, runs the system, and until August 2005 also charged for it.", "Responding to allegations of monopoly abuse, it has handed over contractual responsibilities to its member banks through who now offer competing contracts.", "The system is organised through a special banking association Currence set up specifically to coordinate access to payment systems in The Netherlands.", "Interpay, a legal predecessor of Equens, was fined €47,000,000 in 2004, but the fine was later dropped, and a related fine for banks was lowered from €17 million to €14 million.", "Per-transaction fees are between 5–10 cts, depending on volume.Credit card use in the Netherlands is very low, and most credit cards cannot be used with EFTPOS, or charge very high fees to the customer.", "Debit cards can often, though not always, be used in the entire EU for EFTPOS.", "Most debit cards are Mastercard Maestro cards.", "Visa's V Pay cards are also accepted at most locations.In 2011, spending money using debit cards rose to €83,000,000,000 whilst cash spending dropped to €51,000,000,000 and credit card spending grew to €5,000,000,000.Electronic Purse Cards (called Chipknip) were introduced in 1996, but have never become very popular.", "The system was abolished at the end of 2014.===New Zealand===EFTPOS (electronic fund transfer at point of sale) in New Zealand is highly popular.", "In 2006, 70 percent of all retail transactions were made by EFTPOS, with an average of 306 EFTPOS transactions being made per person.", "At the same time, there were 125,000 EFTPOS terminals in operation (one for every 30 people), and 5.1 million EFTPOS cards in circulation (1.27 per capita).The system involves the merchant swiping (or inserting) the customer's card and entering the purchase amount.", "Point of sale systems with integrated EFTPOS often send the purchase total to the terminal and the customer swipes their own card.", "The customer then selects the account they wish to use: Current/Cheque (CHQ), Savings (SAV), or Credit Card (CRD), before entering in their PIN.", "After a short processing time in which the terminal contacts the EFTPOS network and the bank, the transaction is approved (or declined) and a receipt is printed.", "The EFTPOS system is used for credit cards as well, with a customer selecting Credit Card and entering their PIN, or for older credit cards without loaded PIN, pressing OK and signing their receipt with identification through matching signatures.", "Fixed EFTPOS terminals today use Internet connections to contact the EFTPOS network, but some businesses use the public switched telephone network, either via dedicated phone lines or sharing the merchant's voice line (especially in smaller businesses).Virtually all retail outlets have EFTPOS facilities, so much that retailers without EFTPOS have to advertise so.", "In addition, an increasing number of mobile operator, such as taxis, stall holders and pizza deliverers have mobile EFTPOS systems.", "The system is made up of two primary networks: EFTPOS NZ, which is owned by VeriFone and Paymark Limited (formerly Electronic Transaction Services Limited), which is owned by ANZ Bank New Zealand, ASB Bank, Westpac and the Bank of New Zealand.", "The two networks are intertwined and highly sophisticated and secure, able to handle huge volumes of transactions during busy periods such as the lead-up to Christmas: on 24 December 2012, the Paymark network alone recorded an average of 132 transactions per second between 12:00 and 13:00.Network failures are rare, but when they occur they cause massive disruption, resulting in major delays and loss of income for businesses.Depending on the user's bank, a fee may be charged for use of EFTPOS.", "Most youth accounts (the minimum age to obtain an EFTPOS card from most banks in New Zealand is 13 years) and an increasing number of 'electronic transaction accounts' do not attract fees for electronic transactions, meaning the use of Eftpos by younger generations has become ubiquitous and subsequently cash use has become rare.", "Typically merchants don't pay fees for transactions, most only having to pay for the equipment rental.One of the disadvantages of New Zealand's well-established EFTPOS system is that it is incompatible with overseas systems and non-face-to-face purchases.", "In response to this, many banks since 2005 have introduced international debit cards such as Maestro and Visa Debit which work online and overseas as well as on the New Zealand EFTPOS system.=== Nigeria ===Many Nigerians regard Debit cards as ATM cards because of its features to withdraw money directly from the ATM.According to the Central Bank of Nigeria, Debit Cards can be issued to customers having Savings /Current Accounts.", "There are three major types of Debit card in Nigeria: MasterCard, Verve, and Visa card.", "These Debit cards companies have other packages they offer in Nigeria like Naira MasterCard platinum, Visa Debit (Dual currency), GTCrea8 Card, SKS Teen Card, etc.", "All the packages depend on your Bank.===Philippines===In the Philippines, all three national ATM network consortia offer proprietary PIN debit.", "This was first offered by Express Payment System in 1987, followed by Megalink with Paylink in 1993 then BancNet with the Point-of-Sale in 1994.Express Payment System or EPS was the pioneer provider, having launched the service in 1987 on behalf of the Bank of the Philippine Islands.", "The EPS service has subsequently been extended in late 2005 to include the other Expressnet members: Banco de Oro and Land Bank of the Philippines.", "They currently operate 10,000 terminals for their cardholders.Megalink launched Paylink EFTPOS system in 1993.Terminal services are provided by Equitable Card Network on behalf of the consortium.", "Service is available in 2,000 terminals, mostly in Metro Manila.BancNet introduced their point of sale system in 1994 as the first consortium-operated EFTPOS service in the country.", "The service is available in over 1,400 locations throughout the Philippines, including second and third-class municipalities.", "In 2005, BancNet signed a Memorandum of Agreement to serve as the local gateway for China UnionPay, the sole ATM switch in China.", "This will allow the estimated 1.0 billion Chinese ATM cardholders to use the BancNet ATMs and the EFTPOS in all participating merchants.Visa debit cards are issued by Union Bank of the Philippines (e-Wallet & eon), Chinatrust, Equicom Savings Bank (Key Card & Cash Card), Banco de Oro, HSBC, HSBC Savings Bank, Sterling Bank of Asia (Visa ShopNPay prepaid and debit cards) and EastWest Bank.", "Union Bank of the Philippines cards, EastWest Visa Debit Card, Equicom Savings Bank & Sterling Bank of Asia EMV cards which can also be used for internet purchases.", "Sterling Bank of Asia has released its first line of prepaid and debit Visa cards with EMV chip.MasterCard debit cards are issued by Banco de Oro, Security Bank (Cashlink & Cash Card) and Smart Communications (Smart Money) tied up with Banco de Oro.", "MasterCard Electronic cards are issued by BPI (Express Cash) and Security Bank (CashLink Plus).Originally, all Visa and MasterCard based debit cards in the Philippines are non-embossed and are marked either for \"Electronic Use Only\" (Visa/MasterCard) or \"Valid only where MasterCard Electronic is Accepted\" (MasterCard Electronic).", "However, EastWest Bank started to offer embossed Visa Debit Cards without the for \"Electronic Use Only\" mark.", "Paypass Debit MasterCard from other banks also have embossed labels without the for \"Electronic Use Only\" mark.", "Unlike credit cards issued by some banks, these Visa and MasterCard-branded debit cards do not feature EMV chips, hence they can only be read by the machines through swiping.By 21 March 2016, BDO has started issuing sets of Debit MasterCards having the EMV chip and is the first Philippine bank to have it.", "This is a response to the BSP's monitor of the EMV shift progress in the country.", "By 2017, all Debit Cards in the country should have an EMV chip on it.===Poland===In Poland, the first system of electronic payments was operated by Orbis, which later was changed to PolCard in 1991 (which also issued its own cards) and then that system was bought by First Data Poland Holding SA.", "In the mid-1990s international brands such as Visa, MasterCard, and the unembossed Visa Electron or Maestro were introduced.Visa Electron and Maestro work as a standard debit cards: the transactions are debited instantly, although it may happen on some occasions that a transaction is processed with some delay (hours, up to one day).", "These cards do not possess the options that credit cards have.In the late 2000s, contactless cards started to be introduced.", "The first technology to be used was MasterCard PayPass, later joined by Visa's payWave.", "This payment method is now universal and accepted almost everywhere.", "In an everyday use this payment method is always called Paypass.Almost all businesses in Poland accept debit and credit cards.In the mid-2010s, Polish banks started to replace unembossed cards with embossed electronic cards such as Debit MasterCard and Visa Debit, allowing the customers to own a card that has all qualities of a credit card (given that credit cards are not popular in Poland).There are also some banks that do not possess an identification system to allow customers to order debit cards online.===Portugal===In Portugal, debit cards are accepted almost everywhere: ATMs, stores, and so on.", "The most commonly accepted are Visa and MasterCard, or the unembossed Visa Electron or Maestro.", "Regarding Internet payments debit cards cannot be used for transfers, due to its unsafeness, so banks recommend the use of 'MBnet', a pre-registered safe system that creates a virtual card with a pre-selected credit limit.", "All the card system is regulated by SIBS, the institution created by Portuguese banks to manage all the regulations and communication processes properly.", "SIBS' shareholders are all the 27 banks operating in Portugal.===Russia===In addition to Visa, MasterCard and American Express, there are some local payment systems based in general on smart card technology.", "* Sbercard.", "This payment system was created by Sberbank around 1995–1996.It uses BGS Smartcard Systems AG smart card technology that is, DUET.", "Sberbank was a single retail bank in the Soviet Union before 1990.De facto this is a payment system of the SberBank.", "* Zolotaya Korona.", "This card brand was created in 1994.Zolotaya Korona is based on CFT technology.", "* STB Card.", "This card uses the classic magnetic stripe technology.", "It almost fully collapsed after 1998 (GKO crisis) with STB bank failure.", "* Union Card.", "The card also uses the classic magnetic stripe technology.", "This card brand is on the decline.", "These accounts are being reissued as Visa or MasterCard accounts.Nearly every transaction, regardless of brand or system, is processed as an immediate debit transaction.", "Non-debit transactions within these systems have spending limits that are strictly limited when compared with typical Visa or MasterCard accounts.===Saudi Arabia===In Saudi Arabia, all debit card transactions are routed through Saudi Payments Network (mada), the only electronic payment system in the Kingdom and all banks are required by the Saudi Central Bank (SAMA) to issue cards fully compatible with the network.", "It connects all point of sale (POS) terminals throughout the country to a central payment switch which in turn re-routes the financial transactions to the card issuer, local bank, Visa, Amex or MasterCard.As well as its use for debit cards, the network is also used for ATM and credit card transactions.=== Senegal ======Serbia===All Serbian banks issue debit cards.", "Since August 2018, all owners of transactional accounts in Serbian dinars are automatically issued a debit card of the national brand ''DinaCard''.", "Other brands (VISA, MasterCard and Maestro) are more popular, better accepted and more secure, but must be requested specifically as additional cards.", "Debit cards are used for cash withdrawal at ATMs as well as store transactions.===Singapore===Singapore's debit service is managed by the Network for Electronic Transfers (NETS), founded by Singapore's leading banks and shareholders namely DBS, Keppel Bank, OCBC and its associates, OUB, IBS, POSB, Tat Lee Bank and UOB in 1985 as a result of a need for a centralised e-Payment operator.However, due to the banking restructuring and mergers, the local banks remaining were UOB, OCBC, DBS-POSB as the shareholders of NETS with Standard Chartered Bank to offer NETS to their customers.", "However, DBS and POSB customers can use their network ATMs on their own and not be shared with UOB, OCBC or SCB (StanChart).", "The mega failure of 5 July 2010 of POSB-DBS ATM Networks (about 97,000 machines) made the government to rethink the shared ATM system again as it affected the NETS system too.In 2010, in line with the mandatory EMV system, Local Singapore Banks started to reissue their Debit Visa/MasterCard branded debit cards with EMV Chip compliant ones to replace the magnetic stripe system.", "Banks involved included NETS Members of POSB-DBS, UOB-OCBC-SCB along with the SharedATM alliance (NON-NETS) of HSBC, Citibank, State Bank of India, and Maybank.", "Standard Chartered Bank (SCB) is also a SharedATM alliance member.", "Non branded cards of POSB and Maybank local ATM Cards are kept without a chip but have a Plus or Maestro sign which can be used to withdraw cash locally or overseas.Maybank Debit MasterCards can be used in Malaysia just like a normal ATM or Debit MEPS card.Singapore also uses the e-purse systems of NETS CASHCARD and the CEPAS wave system by EZ-Link and NETS.===South Korea===There are two kinds of debit cards are in South Korea; 'Debit card' Issued by bank, and 'Check card' Issued by card company.", "Debit cards are only accepted in debit networks such as Shinsegae and e-mart.", "Check cards are accepted in every stores accept credit cards.", "Korean debit cards do not accept offline Debit(credit) transactions domestically, so every transactions must made by real time.===Spain===Debit cards are accepted in a relatively large number of stores, both large and small, in Spain.", "Banks often offer debit cards for small fees in connection with a checking account.", "These cards are used more often than credit cards at ATMs because it is a cheaper alternative.===Sweden===Debit cards are common in Sweden as they are traditionally issued by your bank who in turn normally cooperates with either Visa Debit, Visa Electron, Debit MasterCard, or Mastercard Maestro.", "Thus, ATM's and stores in Sweden accept these debit cards if they accept card payments with only rare exceptions.===Taiwan===Most banks issue major-brand debit cards that can be used internationally such as Visa, MasterCard and JCB, often with contactless functionality.", "Payments at brick-and-mortar stores generally require a signature except for contactless payments.A separate, local debit system, known as Smart Pay, can be used by the majority of debit and ATM cards, even major-brand cards.", "This system is available only in Taiwan and a few locations in Japan as of 2016.Non-contactless payments require a PIN instead of a signature.", "Cards from a few banks support contactless payment with Smart Pay.=== Togo ====== Turkey ======UAE===Debit cards are widely accepted from different debit card issuers including the Network International local subsidiary of Emirates Bank.===United Kingdom===In the UK debit cards (an integrated EFTPOS system) are an established part of the retail market and are widely accepted by both physical and internet stores.", "The term EFTPOS is not widely used by the public; \"debit card\" is the generic term used.", "Debit cards issued are predominantly Visa Debit, with Debit Mastercard becoming increasingly common.", "Maestro, Visa Electron and UnionPay are also in circulation.", "Banks do not charge customers for EFTPOS transactions in the UK, but some retailers used to make small charges, particularly for small transaction amounts.", "However, the UK Government introduced legislation on 13 January 2018 banning all surcharges for card payments, including those made online and through services such as PayPal.", "The UK has converted all debit cards in circulation to Chip and PIN (except for Chip and Signature cards issued to people with certain disabilities and non-reloadable prepaid cards), based on the EMV standard, to increase transaction security; however, PINs are not required for Internet transactions (though some banks employ additional security measures for online transactions such as Verified by Visa and MasterCard Secure Code), nor for most contactless transactions.In the United Kingdom, banks started to issue debit cards in the mid-1980s to reduce the number of cheques being used at the point of sale, which are costly for the banks to process; the first bank to do so was Barclays with the ''Barclays Connect'' card.", "As in most countries, fees paid by merchants in the UK to accept credit cards are a percentage of the transaction amount, which funds cardholders' interest-free credit periods as well as incentive schemes such as points or cashback.", "For consumer credit cards issued within the EEA, the interchange fee is capped at 0.3%, with a cap of 0.2% for debit cards, although the merchant acquirers may charge the merchant a higher fee.", "Most debit cards in the UK lack the advantages offered to holders of UK-issued credit cards, such as free incentives (points, cashback etc.", "; the Tesco Bank debit card was one exception), interest-free credit and protection against defaulting merchants under Section 75 of the Consumer Credit Act 1974.Almost all establishments in the UK that accept credit cards also accept debit cards.", "Some merchants, for cost reasons, accept debit cards but not credit cards, and some smaller retailers only accept card payments for purchases above a certain value, typically £5 or £10.The 21st century has seen an increase in Challenger banks in the United Kingdom, with benefits including fee-free overseas spending.", "Notable challenger banks include Monzo, Revolut and Starling Bank.=== UEMOA ===It is the West Africa Economic and Monetary Union federating eight countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo.GIM-UEMOA is the regional switch federating more than 120 members (banks, microfinances, electronic money issuers, etc.).", "All interbank cards transactions between banks in the same country or between banks in two different countries UEMOA zone are routed and cleared by GIM-UEMOA.", "The settlement is done on Central Bank RTGS.GIM-UEMOA also provides some processing products and services to more than 50 banks in UEMOA zone and out of UEMOA zone.===United States===In the U.S., EFTPOS is universally referred to simply as ''debit''.", "The largest pre-paid debit card company is Green Dot Corporation, by market capitalization.", "The same interbank networks that operate the ATM network also operate the POS network.", "Most interbank networks, such as Pulse, NYCE, MAC, Tyme, SHAZAM, STAR, and so on, are regional and do not overlap, however, most ATM/POS networks have agreements to accept each other's cards.", "This means that cards issued by one network will typically work anywhere they accept ATM/POS cards for payment.", "For example, a NYCE card will work at a Pulse POS terminal or ATM, and vice versa.", "Debit cards in the United States are usually issued with a Visa, MasterCard, Discover or American Express logo allowing use of their signature-based networks.", "In 2018, there were 5.836 billion debit cards in circulation in the U.S., and 71.7% were prepaid cards.U.S.", "Federal law caps the liability of a U.S. debit card user in case of loss or theft at US$50 if the loss or theft is reported to the issuing bank in two business days after the customer notices the loss.", "Most banks will, however, set this limit to $0 for debit cards issued to their customers which are linked to their checking or savings account.", "Unlike credit cards, loss or theft reported more than two business days after being discovered is capped at $500 (vs. $50 for credit cards), and if reported more than 60 calendar days after the statement is sent all the money in the account may be lost.The fees charged to merchants for offline debit purchases vis-à-vis the lack of fees charged to merchants for processing online debit purchases and paper checks have prompted some major merchants in the U.S. to file lawsuits against debit-card transaction processors, such as Visa and MasterCard.", "In 2003, Visa and MasterCard agreed to settle the largest of these lawsuits for $2 billion and $1 billion, respectively.Some consumers prefer \"credit\" transactions because of the lack of a fee charged to the consumer/purchaser.", "A few debit cards in the U.S. offer rewards for using \"credit\".", "However, since \"credit\" transactions cost more for merchants, many terminals at PIN-accepting merchant locations now make the \"credit\" function more difficult to accessAs a result of the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, U.S. merchants can now set a minimum purchase amount for credit card transactions, as long as it does not exceed $10.====FSA, HRA, and HSA debit cards====In the United States, an FSA debit card only allow medical expenses.", "It is used by some banks for withdrawals from their healthcare FSAs (Flexible Savings Account) medical savings accounts (MSA), and health savings accounts (HSA) as well.", "They have Visa or MasterCard logos, but cannot be used as \"debit cards\", only as \"credit cards\".", "Furthermore, they are not accepted by all merchants that accept debit and credit cards, but only by those that specifically accept FSA debit cards.", "Merchant codes and product codes are used at the point of sale (required by law by certain merchants by certain states in the U.S.) to restrict sales if they do not qualify.", "Because of the extra checking and documenting that goes on, later, the statement can be used to substantiate these purchases for tax deductions.", "In the occasional instance that a qualifying purchase is rejected, another form of payment must be used (a check or payment from another account and a claim for reimbursement later).", "In the more likely case that non-qualifying items are accepted, the consumer is technically still responsible, and the discrepancy could be revealed during an audit.", "A small but growing segment of the debit card business in the U.S. involves access to tax-favored spending accounts such as FSAs, HRAs, and HSAs.", "Most of these debit cards are for medical expenses, though a few are also issued for dependent care and transportation expenses.Traditionally, FSAs (the oldest of these accounts) were accessed only through claims for reimbursement after incurring, and often paying, an out-of-pocket expense; this often happens after the funds have already been deducted from the employee's paycheck.", "(FSAs are usually funded by payroll deduction.)", "The only method permitted by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to avoid this \"double-dipping\" for medical FSAs and HRAs is through accurate and auditable reporting on the tax return.", "Statements on the debit card that say \"for medical uses only\" are invalid for several reasons: (1) The merchant and issuing banks have no way of quickly determining whether the entire purchase qualifies for the customer's type of tax benefit; (2) the customer also has no quick way of knowing; often has mixed purchases by necessity or convenience; and can easily make mistakes; (3) extra contractual clauses between the customer and issuing bank would cross-over into the payment processing standards, creating additional confusion (for example if a customer was penalized for accidentally purchasing a non-qualifying item, it would undercut the potential savings advantages of the account).", "Therefore, using the card exclusively for qualifying purchases may be convenient for the customer, but it has nothing to do with how the card can actually be used.", "If the bank rejects a transaction, for instance, because it is not at a recognized drug store, then it would be causing harm and confusion to the cardholder.", "In the United States, not all medical service or supply stores are capable of providing the correct information so an FSA debit card issuer can honor every transaction-if rejected or documentation is not deemed enough to satisfy regulations, cardholders may have to send in forms manually.One difference between FSAs and HSAs is the matter of yearend and rollovers: FSAs began as per calendar year, although by 2013 rollovers were introduced.===Uruguay===Debit cards are accepted in a relatively large number of stores, both large and small in Uruguay; but their use has so far remained low as compared to credit cards at ATMs.", "Since August 2014, with the Financial Inclusion Law coming into force, end consumers obtain a 4% VAT deduction for using debit cards in their purchases.===Venezuela===There has been a lack of cash due to the Venezuelan economic crisis and thus the demand for and use of debit cards has increased greatly in recent years.", "One reason why a noticeable percentage of businesses have closed is a lack of payment terminals.", "The most used brands are Maestro (debit card) and Visa Electron." ], [ "See also", "* Card (disambiguation)* ATM card* Cantaloupe, Inc.* Charge card* Credit card* Debit card cashback* Electronic funds transfer* Electronic Payment Services* EPAS* Interac* Inventory information approval system, a point-of-sale technology used with FSA debit cards* Payment card* Payments Council* Payoneer* Point-of-sale (POS)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dance Dance Revolution" ], [ "Introduction", " ('''''DDR''''') is a music video game series produced by Konami.", "Introduced in Japan in 1998 as part of the Bemani series, and released in North America and Europe in 1999, ''Dance Dance Revolution'' is the pioneering series of the rhythm and dance genre in video games.", "Players stand on a \"dance platform\" or stage and hit colored arrows laid out in a cross with their feet to musical and visual cues.", "Players are judged by how well they time their dance to the patterns presented to them and are allowed to choose more music to play to if they receive a passing score.", "''Dance Dance Revolution'' has been met with critical acclaim for its originality and stamina in the video game market, as well as popularizing the use of videogames as a medium for fitness and exercise.", "There have been dozens of arcade-based releases across several countries and hundreds of home video game console releases, promoting a music library of original songs produced by Konami's in-house artists and an eclectic set of licensed music from many different genres.", "The game is also known for its passionate fanbase, as well as its growing competitive tournament scene.", "The ''DDR'' series has also inspired similar games such as ''Pump it Up'' by Andamiro and ''In the Groove'' by Roxor Games.The series' current arcade version is ''Dance Dance Revolution A3'', released on March 17, 2022." ], [ "Gameplay", "Demonstration of the typical gameplay style and interface of games within the ''Dance Dance Revolution'' seriesThe core game involves the player stepping their feet to correspond with the arrows that appear on the screen and the beat of the song playing.", "During normal gameplay, arrows scroll upwards from the bottom of the screen and pass over a set of stationary arrows near the top (referred to as the \"guide arrows\" or \"receptors\", officially known as the Step Zone).", "When the scrolling arrows overlap the stationary ones, the player must step on the corresponding arrows on the dance platform, and the player has been given a judgment for their accuracy of every streaked note (From highest to lowest: Marvelous, Perfect, Great, Good, Almost, Miss).Additional arrow types were added in later mixes.", "''Freeze Arrows'', introduced in ''MAX'', are long green arrows that must be held down until they completely travel through the Step Zone.", "Each of these arrows awards an \"O.K.!\"", "if successfully pressed or an \"N.G.\"", "when the arrow is released too quickly.", "An \"N.G.\"", "decreases the life bar and, starting with ''X'', also breaks any existing combo.", "''X'' also introduced ''Shock Arrows'', walls of arrows with lightning effects that must be avoided, which will award an \"O.K.!\"", "if successfully avoided or an \"N.G.\"", "if any of the dancer's panels are stepped on.", "An \"N.G.\"", "for shock arrows has the same consequences found with freeze arrows, but hitting a shock arrow additionally hides future steps for a short period.Successfully hitting the arrows in time with the music fills the \"Dance Gauge\", or life bar, while failure to do so drains it.", "If the Dance Gauge is fully exhausted during gameplay, the player will fail the song, and the game will be over.", "Otherwise, the player is taken to the Results Screen, which rates the player's performance with a letter grade and a numerical score, among other statistics.", "The player may then be given a chance to play again, depending on the settings of the particular machine.", "The default limit is three songs, though operators can set the limit between one and five.Aside from play style Single, Dance Dance Revolution provides two other play styles: Versus, where two players can play Single simultaneously, and Double, where one player uses all eight panels.", "Before the 2013 release of ''Dance Dance Revolution'', some games offer additional modes, such as Course mode (players must play a set of songs back-to-back) and Battle mode (two players compete with a tug-of-war life bar by sending distracting modifiers to each other).", "Earlier versions also have Couple/Unison Mode, where two players must cooperate to play the song.", "Course Mode was reintroduced to the series starting with ''A20''.===Difficulty===Depending on the edition of the game, dance steps are broken into various levels of difficulty, often by color.", "The difficulty is separated into two to five categories, depending on the game: Game Difficulty Beginner Basic Difficult Expert Challenge ''SuperNOVA'' series 1–4 1–9 3–9 5–10 7–10 ''X'' and newer 1–9 2–13 4–16 7–18 6–19 ''Dance Dance Revolution Extreme'' and older also used these difficulties, but with different names and level ranges from game to game.", "Some difficulties are absent in some games.The first release of ''Dance Dance Revolution'' established two difficulties: '''Basic''' for Single and Double modes, and '''Another''' for Single mode only.", "Each chart is rated with a level from 1 to 7, and every release through ''3rdMix Plus'' also attributed a title to each level number.", "The ''Internet Ranking Version'' added Another for Double mode, and a new higher difficulty of '''Maniac''' for Single mode only, along with several level 8 charts, titled Exorbitant.", "''2ndMix Club Version 2'' introduced several level 9 charts, titled Catastrophic until ''3rdMix Plus'' and Evolutionary in ''X3 vs. 2ndMix''.", "The Maniac difficulty was renamed '''SSR''' and expanded to Double mode for new songs in ''3rdMix'', with the name reverting to Maniac in ''3rdMix Plus''.", "Beginning with ''4thMix'', all songs featured the Maniac difficulty in Single and Double mode.", "''4thMix Plus'' introduced new Maniac charts for 16 songs, while the original Maniac charts were labelled Maniac-S and Maniac-D in this game, with only the new charts remaining in ''5thMix''.", "''DDRMAX'' introduced the \"Groove Radar\", showing how difficult a particular sequence was in various categories, such as the maximum density of steps.", "This release removed the level numbers, and among the 42 songs, two (\"Flash in the Night\" and \"Follow Me\") have never received any level numbers due to being ''DDRMAX'' exclusives.", "Beginning with ''DDRMAX2'', level numbers were reintroduced, along with a level 10 for \"MAX 300\" and \"MAXX Unlimited\".", "Level 10 was titled Revolutionary in ''X3 vs. 2ndMix''.", "''DDRMAX2'' also introduced the '''Challenge''' difficulty with \"Kakumei\" (\"革命\") on One More Extra Stage, and in 19 Nonstop Challenge exclusive songs.", "''Dance Dance Revolution Extreme'' introduced the '''Beginner''' difficulty, which premiered in ''Dancing Stage EuroMix'', as the game's easiest difficulty.", "It is only available in Single mode, except in the ''Dance Dance Revolution Universe'' series for the Xbox 360, which offers Beginner difficulty in Single and Double modes.", "''Extreme'' features a total of 37 songs with the Challenge difficulty.On ''X'', the level numbers were overhauled, now ranking songs on a scale of 1–20, the first 10 represented by yellow bars, and the second 10 represented by additional red blocks shown in place of yellow bars.", "All songs from previous versions were re-rated on the new scale.", "The same system was carried over to ''X2'', although the difficulty bars were removed, replaced by simple difficulty numbers with the foot mark returning as the difficulty symbol for the first time since ''SuperNOVA''.", "There is currently no song that is officially rated maximum (20); the highest rating available in 19, shared between nine songs: \"POSSESSION\" on Double Challenge, and \"BREAKING THE FUTURE\" \"EGOISM 440\", \"ENDYMION\", , \"Lachryma《Re: Queen’M》\", \"MAX 360\", \"Over The \"Period\", \"PARANOiA Revolution\", and \"Valkyrie dimension\" on Single Challenge and Double Challenge.", "However, the game still allows players to rate their custom edit data up to the maximum.===Groove Radar===The foot-rating system was completely removed for the 6th Mix, and replaced by the ''Groove Radar''.", "The Groove Radar is a graphical representation of the difficulty of a song based in five different areas: Stream, Voltage, Air, Chaos, and Freeze.", "'' Stream'' – Indicates the overall density of the steps of the song.", "A high number of steps is a factor too, but not necessary for a high stream measurement.", "'' Voltage'' – Indicates the peak density of the steps (the highest density of arrows that ever appear on the screen at once).", "Songs with a high BPM (300 or more) usually have a high voltage measurement, since it allows more steps to appear in increasingly halved beats (8th step in a 300 BPM song equals to 4th beat step in a 150 BPM song, and so on), though songs with lower BPM can have a high voltage, even if the halved beats usually cap at 32nd beat (64th beat steps exist in very few songs).", "'' Chaos'' – Indicates \"off-beat\" steps; those that do not occur in 4th or 8th beats.", "'' Air'' – Indicates the number of double steps (i.e.", "jumps) and shock arrows within the song.", "'' Freeze'' – Indicates the number of freeze arrows within the songEach game usually has a song that maxes out a category within the radar.", "If a song in a following mix or update has a higher category measurement, then the groove radar is renewed so the new song can max out that category, while all previous songs are re-rated in respect to the new radar.As of ''DDR 2014'', the groove radar also employs a numerical measurement in addition to a graphical representation.", "Before the update, the radar did not disclose the number by default, though it could be shown by holding the SELECT button while heading to the song select screen.The Groove Radar was not very popular among seasoned DDR veterans.", "The foot-rating system was restored to work with the Groove Radar in the North American home version of the game and the next arcade version, ''MAX2'', and almost all future versions (except for versions based on the North American version of ''EXTREME'', which only used foot ratings).", "All of the ''MAX'' songs on ''MAX2'' received foot-ratings, excluding songs that were removed.", "''SuperNOVA 2'' featured special edits of songs specifically meant to max out specific categories on the radar, culminating with \"DEAD END (\"GROOVE RADAR\" Special)\", maxing out all five categories.", "While not related, ''SuperNOVA 2'' also featured a variation known as \"My Groove Radar\" as part of e-Amusement, which was also divided into five categories, though it was meant to measure the player's stats on songs rather than showing the song's difficulty.===Extra Stage system===The Extra Stage, originally introduced in ''1stMIX'' and reintroduced in ''MAX'', rewards a player for clearing three songs, either with a high enough grade on the final stage or by fulfilling specific play requirements.", "The player receives the opportunity to play a free extra song, which often defaults to a very difficult song with forced modifiers (such as 1.5x speed and Reverse) and LIFE4 since ''DDR X2'', a life bar identical to the battery bar similar to Challenge mode with 1–4 lives depending on their score in the final stage in ''SuperNOVA 2'' and ''X'', or a non-regaining life bar before ''SuperNOVA 2''.", "Beginning on ''SuperNOVA 2'', players may be able to access the modifier menu (LIFE GAUGE is disabled) and the forced modifiers (save for battery bar or LIFE4) are no longer used.", "However, the Replicant-D Action event in ''X2'' and since ''DDR 2014'' did not allow players to select modifiers for its Encore Extra Stage.Before ''EXTREME'', the Extra Stage song was predetermined.", "Afterward, any song can be played for the Extra Stage, although there is still a song designated as ''the'' Extra Stage (usually marked with red letters on the song wheel, or contained within the EXTRA EXCLUSIVE folder.", "In all cases (etc.", "in EXTRA EXCLUSIVE songs), they must be unlocked for regular play).", "A player who attains a grade of \"AA\" (or \"A\" in ''SuperNOVA'' or 950.000 Supernova 2 points in ''A'') on the Extra Stage is invited to play an additional stage, \"One More Extra Stage\" (OMES, or Encore Extra Stage post-''SuperNOVA''), with another special song option, played in RISKY, in which any combo-breaking step or missed freeze will cause an instant failure.", "Since ''X3 VS 2ndMIX'', some Encore Extra Stage songs are marked as \"ATTACK PERFECT FULL COMBO\", where any judgment less than Perfect will cause the player to fail the song.", "Unlike Extra Stages, the song for Encore Extra Stages remains predetermined, the only exceptions were ''SuperNOVA 2'' and ''X'', which allowed players to play any song for their Encore Extra Stage.", "Usually, if this final boss is beaten, a special credits sequence is played.With the implementation of e-Amusement in DDR, mixes after ''SuperNOVA'' have contained multiple songs as extra stages, often based on specific conditions, such as playing specific difficulties or songs.From ''MAX2'' onward, the BPM of Extra Stage songs is displayed as a random, changing number, instead of the song's true BPM to hide it from players, also when KAKUMEI was played as an Encore Extra Stage, its Groove Radar data is hidden by continually animating through random songs' ratings.", "The random BPM display is replaced with the normal BPM display in the next mix, and as of ''X'', after the said song has been unlocked for normal play." ], [ "Hardware", "A standard ''Dance Dance Revolution'' arcade machine consists of two parts, the cabinet and the dance platform.", "The cabinet has a wide bottom section, which houses large floor speakers and glowing neon lamps (led on X cabinets and hide lights on white cabinets).", "Above this sits a narrower section that contains the monitor, and on top is a lighted marquee graphic, with two small speakers and flashing lights on either side.", "Below the monitor are two sets of buttons (one for each player), each consisting of two triangular selection buttons (four on X and white cabinets) and a center rectangular button, used mainly to confirm a selection or start the game.The dance stage, divided into nine sections; four of them, in the cardinal directions, contain pressure sensors for the detection of steps.The dance stage is a raised metal platform divided into two sides.", "Each side houses a set of four acrylic glass pads arranged and pointing in the orthogonal directions (left, up, down and right), separated by metal squares.", "Each pad sits atop four pressure activated switches, one at each edge of each pad, and a software-controlled cold cathode lamp illuminating the translucent pad, not available on the white cabinet.", "A metal safety bar in the shape of an upside-down \"U\" is mounted to the dance stage behind each player.", "Some players make use of this safety bar to help maintain proper balance, and to relieve weight from the legs so that arrows can be pressed with greater speed and accuracy.Some DDR cabinets are equipped with Sony PlayStation memory card slots, allowing the player to insert a compatible memory card before starting a game and save their high scores to the card.", "Additionally, the equivalent home versions of DDR allow players to create and save custom step patterns (edits) to their memory card — the player can then play those steps on the arcade machine if the same song exists on that machine.", "This feature is supported in ''2ndMix'' through ''Extreme''.", "On the ''DDR X'' announce, these slots are replaced by USB slots and the players required create edits from Japanese PlayStation 2's ''DDR X'' and transferred onto the ''DDR X'' arcades onwards.", "''SuperNova'' series and white cabinets did not support memory card slots.", "However, it introduced Konami's internet based link system ''e-Amusement'' to the series, which can save stats and unlocks for individual players (but cannot store edits).", "This functionality however, could only be used in Japan.", "During the North American release of ''Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA 2'', an e-Amuse capable machine was made available at a Brunswick Zone Arcade in Naperville, Illinois.", "This machine was hosted on a different network than the Japanese version, and the only other machine on the network was located in Konami's American branch in El Segundo, California.", "e-Amusement functionality would later be made available in North America with the release of ''Dance Dance Revolution A''.The Solo arcade cabinet is smaller and contains only one dance pad, modified to include six arrow panels instead of four (the additional panels are \"upper-left\" and \"upper-right\").", "These pads generally do not come with a safety bar, but include the option for one to be installed at a later date.", "The Solo pad also lacks some of the metal plating that the standard pad has, which can make stepping difficult for players who are used to playing on standard machines.", "An upgrade was available for Solo machines called the \"Deluxe pad\", which was closer to the standard cabinet's pad.", "Additionally Solo machines only incorporate two sensors, located horizontally in the center of the arrow, instead of four sensors (one on each edge).On January 14, 2019, Konami revealed a new \"20th Anniversary Model\" cabinet redesign, featuring gold-colored plating, a larger screen, and updated dance pad LED lighting.", "Characteristics ===CRT-based arcade cabinets=== First Solo First (Refresh) Photo center center center Year released 1998 1999 2006 Thematic color Black Black ('''Fusion''')* Red ('''SuperNova''')* Blue ('''US SuperNova 2 only''') Initial system board System 573* Bemani Python ('''Fusion''')* Python 2 ('''SuperNova''' series) Screen CRT-based, 29\" at 240p or 480i CRT-based, 29\" at 480p Lighthing Front and panel lights Front lights only Front and panel lights Card reader Optional (PS1, e-Amusement and USB) Optional (e-Amusement and USB) Panel colors* Pink (vertical)* Baby blue (horizontal)* Black background* White text and arrow borders* Pink (vertical)* Baby Blue (horizontal)* Lime (Diagonal)* Black Background * White text and arrow Borders* Pink (vertical)* Baby Blue (horizontal)* Black Background* White text and arrow Borders Handle bar colors Red Purple (optional) Red First game included ''Dance Dance Revolution'' (1998) ''DDR Solo Bass Mix'' ''Dancing Stage Fusion'' (Europe)''DDR SuperNova'' (elsewhere) Final game included ''Dance Dance Revolution Extreme'' ''DDR Solo 4thMix Plus'' ''Dancing Stage SuperNova'' (Europe)''DDR SuperNova 2'' (elsewhere) Highest supported upgrade ''Dance Dance Revolution A3'' (Asia)''Dance Dance Revolution X2'' (intl.)", "''DDR Solo 4thMix Plus'' ''Dance Dance Revolution A3'' (Asia)''Dance Dance Revolution X2'' (intl.)", "Characteristics ===LCD-based arcade cabinets=== X White 20th Anniversary Photo center center center Year released 2008 2013 2019 Thematic color Black White (plus blue for intl.", "''DDR A'') Gold Initial system board Bemani PC type 4 Bemani PC type 4 (ADE-704A for ''DDR A'') Bemani PC ADE-6291 (ADE-704A for beta version of ''DDR A'') Screen LCD-based, 37\" operating at 720p LCD-based, 42\" operating at 720p LCD-based, 55\" operating at 720p Lighting Front and panel lights Front lights only Front and panel lights Card reader e-Amusement and USB Panel colors * Pink (vertical)* Baby blue (horizontal)* Black background and arrow borders* White arrows* Pink (vertical)* Baby Blue (horizontal)* White background and arrows* Pink (vertical leds)* Baby blue (horizontal leds)* Gold background and text* White arrow borders* Transparent arrows Handle bar colors Black Baby blue and pink Gold First game included ''Dance Dance Revolution X'' ''Dance Dance Revolution'' (2013) ''Dance Dance Revolution A20'' Final game included ''Dance Dance Revolution X3'' Currently produced Currently produced Highest supported upgrade''Dance Dance Revolution A3'' (Asia)''Dance Dance Revolution X2'' (intl.)", "''Dance Dance Revolution A3'' ''Dance Dance Revolution A3''''Dance Dance Revolution'' normally runs at 240p, up to and including ''Extreme''.", "''4thMix'' to ''Extreme'' use 480i when displaying menus.", "On CRT-based cabinets, card readers are optional.", "PlayStation memory cards are supported in Asia from ''2ndMix Link Edition'' to ''Extreme''.", "PlayStation 2 card support for ''SuperNova'' worldwide was announced, but cancelled.", "''SuperNova'' and newer support e-Amusement instead.", "''DDR X'' and its sequel also support USB drives.", "Unofficially, this cabinet can be upgraded to support newer mixes, such as ''DDR Extreme'' and ''SuperNova 2''.", "This cabinet was first demonstrated at a private JAEPO 2019 conference.", "It displayed a ''20th anniversary'' title screen, and gameplay was not allowed.", "During the 8th Konami Arcade Championship (KAC), the DDR finalists played on a gold cabinet running ''Dance Dance Revolution A''.", "''Dance Dance Revolution 2ndMix'' was updated after its initial release with a few new songs and the ability to connect to and play alongside Konami's DJ simulator games, Beatmania IIDX.", "While the official name of that version of DDR when alone was ''Dance Dance Revolution 2ndMix Link Version'', when connected to the two Beatmania IIDX cabinets it was compatible with it was referred to by two other unique names.===System boards===The first ''Dance Dance Revolution'' as well as its followup ''DDR 2ndMix'' uses Bemani System 573 Analog as its hardware.", "DDR 3rdMix replaces this with a Bemani System 573 Digital board, which would be used up to ''DDR Extreme''.", "Both of these are based on the PlayStation.Beginning with ''Dancing Stage Fusion'' in 2005, the hardware is replaced by Bemani Python, a PlayStation 2-based hardware.", "''DDR SuperNova'', released in 2006, utilised a Bemani Python 2 board, originally found in ''GuitarFreaks V'' and Drummania V''.", "Bemani Python 2 would also be used in the followup ''DDR SuperNova 2''.Along with the cabinet change, ''DDR X'' also changes its hardware to the PC-based Bemani PC Type 4.This more powerful hardware allows for high definition graphics and enhanced features.", "With ''DDR A'', Bemani PC Type 4 is replaced by ADE-704A (ADE-6291 for 20th Anniversary cabinets only), that is still used to this day." ], [ "Releases", "''Dance Dance Revolution'' has been released in many different countries on many different platforms.", "Originally released in Japan as an arcade game and then a PlayStation game, which was a bestseller.", "DDR was later released in North American, Europe, Korea, the whole of Asia, Australia, New Zealand, South America and Mexico on multiple platforms including the PlayStation 2, Xbox, Wii, and many others.", "Due to demand, Japanese versions of the game, which are usually different from the games released in other countries, are often imported or bootlegged.", "DDR fansites make an attempt to keep track of the locations of arcade machines throughout the major regions.===Home releases===The use of dedicated gamepads is only possible on home console versions.A bundled DDR plastic dance padDDR games have been released on various video game consoles, including the PlayStation, Dreamcast, Nintendo 64, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, GameCube, Wii, Xbox and Xbox 360, and even PCs.", "Home versions often contain new songs, songs from the arcade version, and additional features that take advantage of the capabilities of the console (e.g.", "; Xbox 360 versions such as the Dance Dance Revolution Universe series include support for online multiplayer and downloadable songs over Xbox Live, and high definition graphics).", "DDR has even reached Nintendo's Game Boy Color, with five versions of ''Dance Dance Revolution GB'' released in Japan; these included a series of three mainstream DDR games, a Disney Mix, and an Oha Star.", "The games come with a small thumb pad that fits over the Game Boy Color's controls to simulate the dance pad.Home versions are commonly bundled with soft plastic dance pads that are similar in appearance and function to the Nintendo Power Pad.", "Some third-party manufacturers produce hard metal pads at a higher price.Three versions of DDR were also produced for the PC, and the 1st was released in North America.", "It uses the interface of ''Dance Dance Revolution 4thMix'', and contains around 40 songs from the first six mainstream arcade releases.", "It has not been as well received as the console versions.A last PC version of DDR, called Dance Dance Revolution Grand Prix, was also produced in Japan.", "It uses the interface of ''Dance Dance Revolution A20 PLUS'', and contains 6 licences, 9 revival licences, and over 800 songs from all mainstream arcade releases.DDR has also seen a number of mobile game releases on Apple iOS and Android platforms, including ''Dance Dance Revolution S''.", "It was announced alongside several other adaptations of Konami franchises to the iOS platform in January 2009.A free preview version was also released, ''Dance Dance Revolution S Lite'', which features one song and served as a preview for the final version and as a demo.", "The final version was released in the Japanese App Store on February 27, 2009.", "''Dance Dance Revolution S+'', a sequel with in-app song purchasing, was released the same year.", "In 2019, three mobile games were announced by Konami during the Japan Amusement Expo, representing three Bemani series: ''Beatmania IIDX'', ''Dance Dance Revolution'', and ''Sound Voltex''.", "Only ''Beatmania IIDX Ultimate Mobile'' was released to the public, with Sound Voltex and Dance Dance Revolution Ultimate Mobile being cancelled shortly after location tests.Dedicated console manufacturer Zuiki announced a compact device called ''DanceDanceRevolution Classic Mini'' to be crowdfunded in 2023.The device includes songs from the original DDR to DDR 3rd Mix." ], [ "Similar games", "Gameplay screen in ''StepMania 4'', an open source ''DDR'' cloneDue to the success of the ''Dance Dance Revolution'' franchise, many other games with similar or identical gameplay have been created.Commercial competitors of ''DDR'' include the Korean series ''Pump It Up'' and the American series ''In the Groove'' by Roxor Games, as well as TechnoMotion by F2 Systems, ''EZ2Dancer'' by Amuseworld, and ''MC Groovz Dance Craze'' by Mad Catz.", "''In the Groove'' was met with legal action by Konami and resulted in Konami's acquisition of the game's intellectual property.A Christian version of ''DDR'', named ''Dance Praise'', has been made by Digital Praise.", "Ubisoft produced a dance game based on Disney's ''The Jungle Book'' titled ''The Jungle Book Groove Party''.Fan-made versions of ''DDR'' have also been created, many freely available to the public under open source licenses.", "The most popular of these is ''StepMania'', upon which the game ''In the Groove'' is based.", "These simulators allow for players to create and play their own songs to their own programmed steps.", "As a result, many ''DDR'' fans have held contests and released \"mixes\" of custom songs and steps for these simulators.", "Notably the Japanese ''Foonmix'' series and the DDR East Invasion Tournamix competitions.", "Other simulators include ''Dance with Intensity'' and ''pyDance'' for Windows, both of which are no longer developed, and ''Feet of Fury'', a homebrew game for the Sega Dreamcast.Besides direct clones, many other games have been released that center around rhythm and dance due to ''DDR''s popularity.", "''Dance!", "Online'' released by Acclaim combines dance pad play with an MMO element.", "ABC's ''Dancing With the Stars'' and Codemasters' ''Dance Factory'' are more recent examples of games that pay homage to ''DDR'' and the genre it created.", "Konami uses music from its other rhythm game series such as ''Beatmania'' and ''Beatmania IIDX'', ''Drummania'', ''GuitarFreaks'', and ''Pop'n Music'', as well as making references to ''DDR'' in its other games and vice versa." ], [ "''Dance Dance Revolution'' today", "Tournaments are held worldwide, with participants usually competing for higher scores or number of Perfect/Marvelous steps (referred to previously as \"Perfect Attack\" tournaments, now more commonly known as \"Marvelous Attack\" or \"MA tournaments\").", "Less common are \"freestyle\" tournaments, where players develop actual dance routines to perform while following the steps in the game.===Playing styles===Many ''DDR'' players, in order to get better scores by focusing on timing and pattern reading, will minimize any extraneous body movement during gameplay.", "These players are commonly referred to as \"technical\", \"tech\" or \"perfect attack\" (PA) players.", "These technical players usually play the most difficult songs on the highest difficulty levels in an attempt to perfect their scores, and the most elite players are able to get perfect or near perfect scores on all of the hardest songs in the game.", "The more \"technical\" a song gets the more the player must use minimalistic movements in order to hit all the arrows with perfection.", "These players perfect using their heels as well and often hold on to the bar to take weight off their feet enabling them to move faster and tire more slowly.", "This style of play is the focus of most competitions.Other ''DDR'' players choose to incorporate complex or flashy techniques into their play movements, and some of these \"freestyle\" players develop intricate dance routines to perform during a song.", "Freestyle players tend to choose songs on lower difficulty levels, so that the player is not restricted in their movements by large quantities of required steps.", "Some players can even dance facing away from the screen.Somewhere in the middle are the players which choose to do a little bit of both of the formers.", "There are criticisms of the In The Groove style of play which focuses on \"perfect attack\".", "More traditional players say it takes the fun away from the game the harder the step-charts get, which makes players use much less movement overall to conserve stamina.", "By doing this, it is no longer a dance game and many arrows do not fit perfectly with the beat because there are simply too many of them.", "The middle players enjoy moving to the beat and still trying to improve their scores without having to adopt the In the Groove style of play.A freestyling act can also involve performing other stunts while playing.", "On an episode of ABC's short-lived series ''Master of Champions'', Billy Matsumoto won the episode when he played 5th Mix's \"Can't Stop Fallin' In Love (Speed Mix)\" on Heavy mode while juggling three lit torches.===As an esport===In 2004, ''Dance Dance Revolution'' became an official sporting event in Norway.", "The first official club, DDR Oslo, was founded in 2004.The tournaments in Norway were divided into two parts.", "First there was a group play where the two or three best players from each group went to the final rounds.", "Elimination of the player with the lowest game score was used for each round in the finals.", "The scoring system used was based on people dancing to two or three songs.", "Some of the songs were selected randomly and had to be played by everyone.", "The others were player-chosen, which introduced some strategy into the game, as some songs had higher possible scoring than others.", "''Dancing Stage EuroMix 2'' was used for the Norwegian tournaments.In recent years, ''Dance Dance Revolution'' has been promoted by Konami as an esport, mainly through their own competitive tournament, the ''Konami Arcade Championship''.", "The tournament allows players in different regions around the world to sign up and play in specific online events to earn a spot in the grand finals, typically held in Tokyo, Japan.", "The first iterations of the tournament were limited only to competitors in Japan.", "In subsequent years, players from Korea, Taiwan, and other Asian countries were allowed to enter.", "The 6th Annual tournament, which concluded on February 11, 2017, was notable for being the first time that competitors from the United States were eligible to enter.", "The 7th Annual event, which concluded on February 10, 2018, added Indonesia and Canada as eligible competitor regions.The 9th Annual Konami Arcade Championship added eligibility for players in Australia and New Zealand.", "The finals took place on February 8, 2020, and resulted in Chris Chike winning the global tournament.Community-run ''DDR'' esports tournaments have gained traction since 2017, and have been growing in popularity and participation every year since, particularly in North America after the release of ''Dance Dance Revolution A''.", "Recently, ''DDR'' has been featured as part of the CEO game tournament event.", "''DDR'' is also the main event in the annual rhythm game tournament event, ''The Big Deal'', taking place in Dallas, Texas.", "The 2019 event was historic for being the largest in-person ''DDR'' tournament in the game's history.", "In March 2023, the first ever ''upbeat'' tournament was held at Round1 in Denver, Colorado, with a $10,000 prize pool, the largest in any ''DDR'' esports competition to date.", "''upbeat'' also set the record for the largest ever viewing audience on Twitch for any ''DDR'' tournament on the streaming platform.In 2022, Konami announced a big expansion to its official BEMANI esports organization, the ''BEMANI PRO LEAGUE''.", "It was confirmed that ''DDR'' would be included in the future as a tournament league.", "The league held a pre-season exhibition in February 2023, with announcements of sponsor teams and player drafts to commence in April 2023.Later on, the regular season took place in late Spring and Summer of 2023.===As exercise===Many news outlets have reported how playing ''DDR'' can be good aerobic exercise; some regular players have reported weight loss of 10–50 pounds (5–20 kg).", "In one example, a player found that including ''DDR'' in her day-to-day life resulted in a loss of .", "Some other examples would be Matthew Keene's account of losing upwards of and Yashar Esfandi's claim of losing in four months through incorporation of ''DDR''.", "Although the quantity of calories burned by playing ''DDR'' have not been scientifically measured, the amount of active movement required to play implies that ''DDR'' provides at least some degree of healthy exercise, and is an effective part of a balanced workout routine.Many home versions of the game have a function to estimate calories burned, given a player's weight.", "Additionally, players can use \"workout mode\" to make a diary of calories burned playing DDR and any self-reported changes in the player's weight.", "The latest arcade release, DanceDanceRevolution A3, tracks calories burned per song, as well as the total calories burned by the player for the day.", "Additionally, the game's interface showcases the equivalent food to the amount of burned calories (such as a banana, a bowl of rice, and spaghetti carbonara).===Use in schools===At the start of 2006, Konami announced that the ''DDR'' games would be used as part of a fitness program to be phased into West Virginia's 765 state schools, starting with its 103 middle schools, over the next two years.", "The program was conceived by a researcher at West Virginia University's Motor Development Center.California Institute of Technology allows its students to use ''DDR'' to fulfill part of its physical education requirement, as students may design their own fitness program.University of Kansas has a class for ''Dance Dance Revolution'' open for students to take as a 1 credit hour course.Cyber Coach has sold in excess of 600 systems in schools in the UK and features the ''DDR''-inspired game ''Disco Disco 2''." ], [ "Awards", "The success of the Dance Dance Revolution series has resulted in two Guinness World Records: \"Longest Dance Dance Revolution Marathon\", which is currently held by Alex Skudlarek at 16 hours, 18 minutes, and nine seconds, and \"Most Widely Used Video Game in Schools\"." ], [ "In popular culture", "Drew Barrymore and Hugh Grant are both seen playing the home version in the 2007 romantic comedy ''Music and Lyrics''.", "While Barrymore's character seems to do well in front of her niece and nephew, Grant's has a little trouble keeping pace and ends up teaching the kids his old band's trademark dance moves.The game is seen just inside Litwak's arcade in the 2012 animated film ''Wreck-It Ralph''.", "Early in the film, game character Yuni Verse watches Mr. Litwak leave for the night, so she alerts all other video game characters that the arcade is closed, and it's time for their after-hours lives.In the 2006 comedy film, \"Grandma's Boy (2006 film),\" a modified version of Dance Dance Revolution is prominently featured in a scene where the character Bobby challenges video game tester, J.P., to a dance off.", "The film humorously exaggerates the gameplay, showcasing the characters' over-the-top dance moves and intense competition, which highlights the cultural impact and recognizability of the game during the 2000s." ], [ "Film", "On October 2, 2018, Deadline reported that Cara Fano would be supervising the production of a film based on the series.", "The report states that the film \"will explore a world on the brink of destruction where the only hope is to unite through the universal language of dance.\"", "Stampede Ventures and Branded Pictures Entertainment have partnered to produce the film.", "Producers J. Todd Harris and Marc Marcum are also working with Konami on the project." ], [ "See also", "''Dance Evolution'', a Kinect game''Dance Revolution'', a television series inspired by ''Dance Dance Revolution''List of ''Dance Dance Revolution'' video gamesDance padExergamingList of ''Dance Dance Revolution'' songsChris ChikeCarrie Swidecki" ], [ "Notes", "''Dance Dance Revolution 2ndMix'' spin-offs include ''Dance Dance Revolution 2ndMix Link Version'', ''Dance Dance Revolution 2ndMix with Beatmania IIDX Club Version'' and ''Dance Dance Revolution 2ndMix and Beatmania IIDX Substream Club Version 2''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Konami: Dance Dance Revolution" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dual Alliance (1879)" ], [ "Introduction", "Germany in blue and Austria-Hungary in redThe '''Dual Alliance''' (, ) was a defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was created by treaty on October 7, 1879, as part of Germany's Otto von Bismarck's system of alliances to prevent or limit war.", "The two powers promised each other support in case of attack by Russia.", "Also, each state promised benevolent neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power (generally taken to be France, even more so after the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894).", "Bismarck saw the alliance as a way to prevent the isolation of the German Empire, which had just been founded a few years before, and to preserve peace, as Russia would not wage war against both empires." ], [ "Formation", "When Austria-Hungary and Germany formed an alliance in 1879, it was one of the more surprising alliances of its time.", "Though both shared the German language and a similar culture, Austria-Hungary and Germany were often driven apart, most notably during the recent Austro-Prussian War.", "Additionally, the Habsburg rulers believed that the promotion of nationalism, which was favoured by Germany, would destroy their multinational empire.", "However, their common distrust of Russia brought both empires together for a common cause." ], [ "Alliance against Russia", "After the formation of the German Empire in 1871, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck wanted to portray his nation as a peacemaker and preserver of the European status quo, to gain more power for the German Empire and to unify Germany.", "In 1878, the Russian Empire defeated the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War.", "The resulting Treaty of San Stefano gave Russia considerable influence in the Balkans, a development that outraged Austria-Hungary, Russia's chief rival in the Balkan region (despite being an ally of the Russians and the Germans in the League of the Three Emperors).", "Hence, in 1878, Bismarck called an international conference (the Congress of Berlin) to sort out the problem.", "The Treaty of Berlin that resulted from the conference reversed Russia's gains from the Treaty of San Stefano and provided the Austrians with compensation in the form of Bosnia.", "Despite Bismarck's attempts to play the role of an \"honest broker\" at the Congress of Berlin, Russo-German relations deteriorated following the conference.", "The Three Emperors' League was discontinued, and Germany and Austria-Hungary were free to ally against Russia." ], [ "Italy joins alliance", "In 1881, Italy lost in the competition with France to establish a colony in Tunis (now Tunisia).", "To enlist diplomatic support, Italy joined Germany and Austria-Hungary to form the Triple Alliance in 1882, which was the first formal alliance in Europe, the second being the Triple Entente, an informal alliance, formed in 1907.During World War I, however, Italy did not go to war immediately with its allies but stayed neutral.", "In 1915, it joined the Entente powers and declared war on Austria-Hungary and, in 1916, against Germany.", "The Dual Alliance persisted throughout the war, known as the Central Powers, and ended by their defeat in 1918." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Nicholas Der Bagdasarian, ''The Austro-German Rapprochement, 1872–1879: From the Battle of Sedan to the Dual Alliance'' (1976).", "online review.", "* Agatha Ramm.", "''Europe in the Nineteenth Century 1789–1905'' (1984) pp.", "330–341." ], [ "External links", "* - a translation* Translated text of the Dual Alliance" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Developmental psychology" ], [ "Introduction", "Special methods are used in the psychological study of infants.Conservation.", "One of the many experiments used for children.", "'''Developmental psychology''' is the scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt across the course of their lives.", "Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan.", "Developmental psychologists aim to explain how thinking, feeling, and behaviors change throughout life.", "This field examines change across three major dimensions, which are physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development.", "Within these three dimensions are a broad range of topics including motor skills, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self-concept, and identity formation.Developmental psychology examines the influences of nature ''and'' nurture on the process of human development, as well as processes of change in context across time.", "Many researchers are interested in the interactions among personal characteristics, the individual's behavior, and environmental factors.", "This includes the social context and the built environment.", "Ongoing debates in regards to developmental psychology include biological essentialism vs. neuroplasticity and stages of development vs. dynamic systems of development.", "Research in developmental psychology has some limitations but at the moment researchers are working to understand how transitioning through stages of life and biological factors may impact our behaviors and development''.", "''Developmental psychology involves a range of fields, such as educational psychology, child psychopathology, forensic developmental psychology, child development, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and cultural psychology.", "Influential developmental psychologists from the 20th century include Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, Jean Piaget, Barbara Rogoff, Esther Thelen, and Lev Vygotsky." ], [ "Historical antecedents", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John B. Watson are typically cited as providing the foundation for modern developmental psychology.", "In the mid-18th century, Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development: ''infants'' (infancy), ''puer'' (childhood) and ''adolescence'' in ''Emile: Or, On Education''.", "Rousseau's ideas were adopted and supported by educators at the time.Developmental psychology generally focuses on how and why certain changes (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) occur over time in the course of a human life.", "Many theorists have made a profound contribution to this area of psychology.", "One of them, Erik Erikson developed a model of eight stages of psychological development.", "He believed that humans developed in stages throughout their lifetimes and that this would affect their behaviors.Charles DarwinIn the late 19th century, psychologists familiar with the evolutionary theory of Darwin began seeking an evolutionary description of psychological development; prominent here was the pioneering psychologist G. Stanley Hall, who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with previous ages of humanity.", "James Mark Baldwin, who wrote essays on topics that included ''Imitation: A Chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness'' and ''Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes'', was significantly involved in the theory of developmental psychology.", "Sigmund Freud, whose concepts were developmental, significantly affected public perceptions." ], [ "Theories", "===Psychosexual development===Sigmund Freud developed a theory that suggested that humans behave as they do because they are constantly seeking pleasure.", "This process of seeking pleasure changes through stages because people evolve.", "Each period of seeking pleasure that a person experiences is represented by a stage of psychosexual development.", "These stages symbolize the process of arriving to become a maturing adult.The first is the ''oral stage'', which begins at birth and ends around a year and a half of age.", "During the oral stage, the child finds pleasure in behaviors like sucking or other behaviors with the mouth.", "The second is the ''anal stage'', from about a year or a year and a half to three years of age.", "During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus and is often fascinated with its defecation.", "This period of development often occurs during the time when the child is being toilet trained.", "The child becomes interested with feces and urine.", "Children begin to see themselves as independent from their parents.", "They begin to desire assertiveness and autonomy.The third is the ''phallic stage'', which occurs from three to five years of age (most of a person's personality forms by this age).", "During the phallic stage, the child becomes aware of its sexual organs.", "Pleasure comes from finding acceptance and love from the opposite sex.", "The fourth is the ''latency stage'', which occurs from age five until puberty.", "During the latency stage, the child's sexual interests are repressed.Stage five is the ''genital stage'', which takes place from puberty until adulthood.", "During the genital stage, puberty begins to occur.", "Children have now matured, and begin to think about other people instead of just themselves.", "Pleasure comes from feelings of affection from other people.Freud believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious because the conscious tries to hold back what the unconscious tries to express.", "To explain this, he developed three personality structures: id, ego, and superego.", "The id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the pleasure principle: seek pleasure and avoid pain.", "The superego plays the critical and moralizing role, while the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the superego.===Theories of cognitive development===Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through their interactions with their physical and social environments.", "He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials.", "In his interview techniques with children that formed an empirical basis for his theories, he used something similar to Socratic questioning to get children to reveal their thinking.", "He argued that a principal source of development was through the child's inevitable generation of contradictions through their interactions with their physical and social worlds.", "The child's resolution of these contradictions led to more integrated and advanced forms of interaction, a developmental process that he called, \"equilibration.\"", "Piaget argued that intellectual development takes place through a series of stages generated through the equilibration process.", "Each stage consists of steps the child must master before moving to the next step.", "He believed that these stages are not separate from one another, but rather that each stage builds on the previous one in a continuous learning process.", "He proposed four stages: ''sensorimotor'', ''pre-operational'', ''concrete operational'', and ''formal operational''.", "Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should take place.===Stages of moral development===Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages.", "Expanding on Piaget's work, Lawrence Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime.He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; pre-conventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and post-conventional moral reasoning.", "The pre-conventional moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action.", "Conventional moral reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning based on rules and conventions of society.", "Lastly, post-conventional moral reasoning is a stage during which the individual sees society's rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as authoritative.Kohlberg used the Heinz Dilemma to apply to his stages of moral development.", "The Heinz Dilemma involves Heinz's wife dying from cancer and Heinz having the dilemma to save his wife by stealing a drug.", "Preconventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality applies to Heinz's situation.===Stages of psychosocial development===German-American psychologist Erik Erikson and his collaborator and wife, Joan Erikson, posits eight stages of individual human development influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors throughout the lifespan.''''", "At each stage the person must resolve a challenge, or an existential dilemma.", "Successful resolution of the dilemma results in the person ingraining a positive virtue, but failure to resolve the fundamental challenge of that stage reinforces negative perceptions of the person or the world around them and the person's personal development is unable to progress.The first stage, \"Trust vs. Mistrust\", takes place in infancy.", "The positive virtue for the first stage is hope, in the infant learning whom to trust and having hope for a supportive group of people to be there for him/her.", "The second stage is \"Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt\" with the positive virtue being will.", "This takes place in early childhood when the child learns to become more independent by discovering what they are capable of whereas if the child is overly controlled, feelings of inadequacy are reinforced, which can lead to low self-esteem and doubt.The third stage is \"Initiative vs.", "Guilt\".", "The virtue of being gained is a sense of purpose.", "This takes place primarily via play.", "This is the stage where the child will be curious and have many interactions with other kids.", "They will ask many questions as their curiosity grows.", "If too much guilt is present, the child may have a slower and harder time interacting with their world and other children in it.The fourth stage is \"Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority\".", "The virtue for this stage is competency and is the result of the child's early experiences in school.", "This stage is when the child will try to win the approval of others and understand the value of their accomplishments.The fifth stage is \"Identity vs. Role Confusion\".", "The virtue gained is fidelity and it takes place in adolescence.", "This is when the child ideally starts to identify their place in society, particularly in terms of their gender role.The sixth stage is \"Intimacy vs.", "Isolation\", which happens in young adults and the virtue gained is love.", "This is when the person starts to share his/her life with someone else intimately and emotionally.", "Not doing so can reinforce feelings of isolation.The seventh stage is \"Generativity vs. Stagnation\".", "This happens in adulthood and the virtue gained is care.", "A person becomes stable and starts to give back by raising a family and becoming involved in the community.The eighth stage is \"Ego Integrity vs.", "Despair\".", "When one grows old, they look back on their life and contemplate their successes and failures.", "If they resolve this positively, the virtue of wisdom is gained.", "This is also the stage when one can gain a sense of closure and accept death without regret or fear.===Stages based on the model of hierarchical complexity===Michael Commons enhanced and simplified Bärbel Inhelder and Piaget's developmental theory and offers a standard method of examining the universal pattern of development.", "The Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC) is not based on the assessment of domain-specific information, It divides the Order of Hierarchical Complexity of tasks to be addressed from the Stage performance on those tasks.", "A stage is the order hierarchical complexity of the tasks the participant's successfully addresses.", "He expanded Piaget's original eight stage (counting the half stages) to seventeen stages.", "The stages are:# Calculatory# Automatic# Sensory & Motor# Circular sensory-motor# Sensory-motor# Nominal# Sentential# Preoperational# Primary# Concrete# Abstract# Formal# Systematic# Metasystematic# Paradigmatic# Cross-paradigmatic# Meta-Cross-paradigmaticThe order of hierarchical complexity of tasks predicts how difficult the performance is with an R ranging from 0.9 to 0.98.In the MHC, there are three main axioms for an order to meet in order for the higher order task to coordinate the next lower order task.", "Axioms are rules that are followed to determine how the MHC orders actions to form a hierarchy.", "These axioms are: a) defined in terms of tasks at the next lower order of hierarchical complexity task action; b) defined as the higher order task action that organizes two or more less complex actions; that is, the more complex action specifies the way in which the less complex actions combine; c) defined as the lower order task actions have to be carried out non-arbitrarily.===Ecological systems theory===Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner, specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems.", "The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem.", "Each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development.", "The microsystem is the direct environment in our lives such as our home and school.", "Mesosystem is how relationships connect to the microsystem.", "Exosystem is a larger social system where the child plays no role.", "Macrosystem refers to the cultural values, customs and laws of society.The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual (example: school or the home setting).", "The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and how they influence each other (example: sibling relationships at home vs. peer relationships at school).", "The exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings that are indirectly linked (example: a father's job requiring more overtime ends up influencing his daughter's performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework).", "The macrosystem is broader taking into account social economic status, culture, beliefs, customs and morals (example: a child from a wealthier family sees a peer from a less wealthy family as inferior for that reason).", "Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that support in her life).Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, ''The Ecology of Human Development'', has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments.", "As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood.===Zone of proximal development===Lev Vygotsky was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of their culture.", "Vygotsky believed that a child's development should be examined during problem-solving activities.", "Unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the \"zone of proximal development\") could help children learn new tasks.", "Zone of proximal development is a tool used to explain the learning of children and collaborating problem solving activities with an adult or peer.", "This adult role is often referred to as the skilled \"master\", whereas the child is considered the learning apprentice through an educational process often termed \"cognitive apprenticeship\" Martin Hill stated that \"The world of reality does not apply to the mind of a child.\"", "This technique is called \"scaffolding\", because it builds upon knowledge children already have with new knowledge that adults can help the child learn.", "Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development, arguing that development moves from the social level to the individual level.", "In other words, Vygotsky claimed that psychology should focus on the progress of human consciousness through the relationship of an individual and their environment.", "He felt that if scholars continued to disregard this connection, then this disregard would inhibit the full comprehension of the human consciousness.===Constructivism===Constructivism is a paradigm in psychology that characterizes learning as a process of actively constructing knowledge.", "Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating information with other knowledge, often in the context of social interactions.", "Constructivism can occur in two ways: individual and social.", "Individual constructivism is when a person constructs knowledge through cognitive processes of their own experiences rather than by memorizing facts provided by others.", "Social constructivism is when individuals construct knowledge through an interaction between the knowledge they bring to a situation and social or cultural exchanges within that content.", "A foundational concept of constructivism is that the purpose of cognition is to organize one's experiential world, instead of the ontological world around them.Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, proposed that learning is an active process because children learn through experience and make mistakes and solve problems.", "Piaget proposed that learning should be whole by helping students understand that meaning is constructed.===Evolutionary developmental psychology===Evolutionary developmental psychology is a research paradigm that applies the basic principles of Darwinian evolution, particularly natural selection, to understand the development of human behavior and cognition.", "It involves the study of both the genetic and environmental mechanisms that underlie the development of social and cognitive competencies, as well as the epigenetic (gene-environment interactions) processes that adapt these competencies to local conditions.EDP considers both the reliably developing, species-typical features of ontogeny (developmental adaptations), as well as individual differences in behavior, from an evolutionary perspective.", "While evolutionary views tend to regard most individual differences as the result of either random genetic noise (evolutionary byproducts) and/or idiosyncrasies (for example, peer groups, education, neighborhoods, and chance encounters) rather than products of natural selection, EDP asserts that natural selection can favor the emergence of individual differences via \"adaptive developmental plasticity\".", "From this perspective, human development follows alternative life-history strategies in response to environmental variability, rather than following one species-typical pattern of development.EDP is closely linked to the theoretical framework of evolutionary psychology (EP), but is also distinct from EP in several domains, including research emphasis (EDP focuses on adaptations of ontogeny, as opposed to adaptations of adulthood) and consideration of proximate ontogenetic and environmental factors (i.e., how development happens) in addition to more ultimate factors (i.e., why development happens), which are the focus of mainstream evolutionary psychology.===Attachment theory===Attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowlby, focuses on the importance of open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships.", "Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant.", "A threatened or stressed child will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional, and psychological safety for the individual.", "Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity.", "Later Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation protocol and the concept of the secure base.", "This tool has been found to help understand attachment, such as the Strange Situation Test and the Adult Attachment Interview.", "Both of which help determine factors to certain attachment styles.", "The Strange Situation Test helps find \"disturbances in attachment\" and whether certain attributes are found to contribute to a certain attachment issue.", "The Adult Attachment Interview is a tool that is similar to the Strange Situation Test but instead focuses attachment issues found in adults.", "Both tests have helped many researchers gain more information on the risks and how to identify them.Theorists have proposed four types of attachment styles: secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant, and disorganized.", "Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver.", "It is characterized by trust.", "Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver.", "This is characterized by the infant's indifference toward the caregiver.", "Anxious-resistant is an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver characterized by distress from the infant when separated and anger when reunited.", "Disorganized is an attachment style without a consistent pattern of responses upon return of the parent.A child can be hindered in its natural tendency to form attachments.", "Some babies are raised without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver or locked away under conditions of abuse or extreme neglect.", "The possible short-term effects of this deprivation are anger, despair, detachment, and temporary delay in intellectual development.", "Long-term effects include increased aggression, clinging behavior, detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and an increased risk of depression as an adult.\\According to the theory, attachment is established in early childhood and attachment continues into adulthood.", "As such, proponents posit that the attachment style that individuals form in childhood impacts the way they manage stressors in intimate relationships as an adult.===Nature vs nurture===A significant debate in developmental psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influence in regard to any particular aspect of development.", "This is often referred to as \"nature and nurture\" or nativism versus empiricism.", "A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism's genes.", "What makes a person who they are?", "Is it their environment or their genetics?", "This is the debate of nature vs nurture.An empiricist perspective would argue that those processes are acquired in interaction with the environment.", "Today developmental psychologists rarely take such polarized positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences.", "One of the ways this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of evolutionary developmental psychology.One area where this innateness debate has been prominently portrayed is in research on language acquisition.", "A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through learning.", "The empiricist position on the issue of language acquisition suggests that the language input provides the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of statistical learning.", "From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning.The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language.", "Linguist Noam Chomsky asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a universal grammar that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified.", "This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitive module suited for learning language, often called the language acquisition device.", "Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism generally.", "But Skinner's conception of \"Verbal Behavior\" has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications.Maybe there could be \"strong interactions of both nature and nurture\".===Continuity vs discontinuity===One of the major discussions in developmental psychology includes whether development is discontinuous or continuous.Continuous development is quantifiable and quantitative, whereas discontinuous development is qualitative.", "Quantitative estimations of development can be measuring the stature of a child, and measuring their memory or consideration span.", "\"Particularly dramatic examples of qualitative changes are metamorphoses, such as the emergence of a caterpillar into a butterfly.", "\"Those psychologists who bolster the continuous view of improvement propose that improvement includes slow and progressing changes all through the life span, with behavior within the prior stages of advancement giving the premise of abilities and capacities required for the other stages.", "\"To many, the concept of continuous, quantifiable measurement seems to be the essence of science\".Not all psychologists, be that as it may, concur that advancement could be a continuous process.", "A few see advancement as a discontinuous process.", "They accept advancement includes unmistakable and partitioned stages with diverse sorts of behavior happening in each organization.", "This proposes that the development of certain capacities in each arrange, such as particular feelings or ways of considering, have a definite beginning and finishing point.", "Be that as it may, there's no correct time at which a capacity abruptly shows up or disappears.", "Although some sorts of considering, feeling or carrying on could seem to seem abruptly, it is more than likely that this has been developing gradually for some time.Stage theories of development rest on the suspicion that development may be a discontinuous process including particular stages which are characterized by subjective contrasts in behavior.", "They moreover assume that the structure of the stages is not variable concurring to each person, in any case, the time of each arrangement may shift separately.", "Stage theories can be differentiated with ceaseless hypotheses, which set that development is an incremental process.===Stability vs change===This issue involves the degree to which one becomes older renditions of their early experience or whether they develop into something different from who they were at an earlier point in development.", "It considers the extent to which early experiences (especially infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of a person's development.", "Stability is defined as the consistent ordering of individual differences with respect to some attribute.", "Change is altering someone/something.Most '''''human development''''' lifespan developmentalists recognize that extreme positions are unwise.", "Therefore, the key to a comprehensive understanding of development at any stage requires the interaction of different factors and not only one.===Theory of mind===Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states to ourselves and others.", "It is a complex but vital process in which children begin to understand the emotions, motives, and feelings of not only themselves but also others.", "Theory of mind allows people to understand that others have unique beliefs and desires that are different from our own.", "This enables people to engage in daily social interactions as we explain the mental state around us.", "If a child does not fully develop theory of mind within this crucial 5-year period, they can suffer from communication barriers that follow them into adolescence and adulthood.", "Exposure to more people and the availability of stimuli that encourages social-cognitive growth is a factor that relies heavily on family." ], [ "Mathematical models", "Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes.", "Psychologists have attempted to better understand these factors by using models.", "A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place.", "This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the brain that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development.Mathematical modeling is useful in developmental psychology for implementing theory in a precise and easy-to-study manner, allowing generation, explanation, integration, and prediction of diverse phenomena.", "Several modeling techniques are applied to development: symbolic, connectionist (neural network), or dynamical systems models.Dynamic systems models illustrate how many different features of a complex system may interact to yield emergent behaviors and abilities.", "Nonlinear dynamics has been applied to human systems specifically to address issues that require attention to temporality such as life transitions, human development, and behavioral or emotional change over time.", "Nonlinear dynamic systems is currently being explored as a way to explain discrete phenomena of human development such as affect, second language acquisition, and locomotion." ], [ "Research areas", "===Neural Development===One critical aspect of developmental psychology is the study of neural development, which investigates how the brain changes and develops during different stages of life.", "Neural development focuses on how the brain changes and develops during different stages of life.", "Studies have shown that the human brain undergoes rapid changes during prenatal and early postnatal periods.", "These changes include the formation of neurons, the development of neural networks, and the establishment of synaptic connections.", "The formation of neurons and the establishment of basic neural circuits in the developing brain are crucial for laying the foundation of the brain's structure and function, and disruptions during this period can have long-term effects on cognitive and emotional development.Experiences and environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping neural development.", "Early sensory experiences, such as exposure to language and visual stimuli, can influence the development of neural pathways related to perception and language processing.Genetic factors play a huge roll in neural development.", "Genetic factors can influence the timing and pattern of neural development, as well as the susceptibility to certain developmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.Research finds that the adolescent brain undergoes significant changes in neural connectivity and plasticity.", "During this period, there is a pruning process where certain neural connections are strengthened while others are eliminated, resulting in more efficient neural networks and increased cognitive abilities, such as decision-making and impulse control.The study of neural development provides crucial insights into the complex interplay between genetics, environment, and experiences in shaping the developing brain.", "By understanding the neural processes underlying developmental changes, researchers gain a better understanding of cognitive, emotional, and social development in humans.===Cognitive development===Cognitive development is primarily concerned with the ways that infants and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental capabilities such as: problem-solving, memory, and language.", "Major topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills.", "Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities.", "His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood and that there is an end point or goal.Other accounts, such as that of Lev Vygotsky, have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structure and finality.", "Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously.", "Thus, development should be analyzed, instead of treated as a product to obtain.K.", "Warner Schaie has expanded the study of cognitive development into adulthood.", "Rather than being stable from adolescence, Schaie sees adults as progressing in the application of their cognitive abilities.Modern cognitive development has integrated the considerations of cognitive psychology and the psychology of individual differences into the interpretation and modeling of development.", "Specifically, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development showed that the successive levels or stages of cognitive development are associated with increasing processing efficiency and working memory capacity.", "These increases explain differences between stages, progression to higher stages, and individual differences of children who are the same-age and of the same grade-level.", "However, other theories have moved away from Piagetian stage theories, and are influenced by accounts of domain-specific information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate evolutionarily-specified and content-specific information processing mechanisms.===Social and emotional development===Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competencies.", "For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions, and how identity develops.", "Research in this area may involve study of the relationship between cognition or cognitive development and social behavior.Emotional regulation or ER refers to an individual's ability to modulate emotional responses across a variety of contexts.", "In young children, this modulation is in part controlled externally, by parents and other authority figures.", "As children develop, they take on more and more responsibility for their internal state.", "Studies have shown that the development of ER is affected by the emotional regulation children observe in parents and caretakers, the emotional climate in the home, and the reaction of parents and caretakers to the child's emotions.Music also has an influence on stimulating and enhancing the senses of a child through self-expression.A child's social and emotional development can be disrupted by motor coordination problems, evidenced by the environmental stress hypothesis.", "The environmental hypothesis explains how children with coordination problems and developmental coordination disorder are exposed to several psychosocial consequences which act as secondary stressors, leading to an increase in internalizing symptoms such as depression and anxiety.", "Motor coordination problems affect fine and gross motor movement as well as perceptual-motor skills.", "Secondary stressors commonly identified include the tendency for children with poor motor skills to be less likely to participate in organized play with other children and more likely to feel socially isolated.Social and emotional development focuses on five keys areas: Self-Awareness, Self Management, Social Awareness, Relationship Skills and Responsible Decision Making.===Physical development===Physical development concerns the physical maturation of an individual's body until it reaches the adult stature.", "Although physical growth is a highly regular process, all children differ tremendously in the timing of their growth spurts.", "Studies are being done to analyze how the differences in these timings affect and are related to other variables of developmental psychology such as information processing speed.", "Traditional measures of physical maturity using x-rays are less in practice nowadays, compared to simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, head circumference, and arm span.A few other studies and practices with physical developmental psychology are the phonological abilities of mature 5- to 11-year-olds, and the controversial hypotheses of left-handers being maturationally delayed compared to right-handers.", "A study by Eaton, Chipperfield, Ritchot, and Kostiuk in 1996 found in three different samples that there was no difference between right- and left-handers.===Memory development===Researchers interested in memory development look at the way our memory develops from childhood and onward.", "According to fuzzy-trace theory, a theory of cognition originally proposed by Valerie F. Reyna and Charles Brainerd, people have two separate memory processes: verbatim and gist.", "These two traces begin to develop at different times as well as at a different pace.", "Children as young as four years old have verbatim memory, memory for surface information, which increases up to early adulthood, at which point it begins to decline.", "On the other hand, our capacity for gist memory, memory for semantic information, increases up to early adulthood, at which point it is consistent through old age.", "Furthermore, one's reliance on gist memory traces increases as one ages." ], [ "Research methods and designs", "===Main research methods===Developmental psychology employs many of the research methods used in other areas of psychology.", "However, infants and children cannot be tested in the same ways as adults, so different methods are often used to study their development.Developmental psychologists have a number of methods to study changes in individuals over time.", "Common research methods include systematic observation, including naturalistic observation or structured observation; self-reports, which could be clinical interviews or structured interviews; clinical or case study method; and ethnography or participant observation.", "These methods differ in the extent of control researchers impose on study conditions, and how they construct ideas about which variables to study.", "Every developmental investigation can be characterized in terms of whether its underlying strategy involves the ''experimental'', ''correlational'', or ''case study'' approach.", "The experimental method involves \"actual manipulation of various treatments, circumstances, or events to which the participant or subject is exposed; the ''experimental design'' points to cause-and-effect relationships.", "This method allows for strong inferences to be made of causal relationships between the manipulation of one or more independent variables and subsequent behavior, as measured by the dependent variable.", "The advantage of using this research method is that it permits determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables.", "On the other hand, the limitation is that data obtained in an artificial environment may lack generalizability.", "The correlational method explores the relationship between two or more events by gathering information about these variables without researcher intervention.", "The advantage of using a correlational design is that it estimates the strength and direction of relationships among variables in the natural environment; however, the limitation is that it does not permit determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables.", "The case study approach allows investigations to obtain an in-depth understanding of an individual participant by collecting data based on interviews, structured questionnaires, observations, and test scores.", "Each of these methods have its strengths and weaknesses but the experimental method when appropriate is the preferred method of developmental scientists because it provides a controlled situation and conclusions to be drawn about cause-and-effect relationships.===Research designs===Most developmental studies, regardless of whether they employ the experimental, correlational, or case study method, can also be constructed using research designs.", "Research designs are logical frameworks used to make key comparisons within research studies such as:* cross-sectional design* longitudinal design* sequential design* microgenetic designIn a longitudinal study, a researcher observes many individuals born at or around the same time (a cohort) and carries out new observations as members of the cohort age.", "This method can be used to draw conclusions about which types of development are universal (or normative) and occur in most members of a cohort.", "As an example a longitudinal study of early literacy development examined in detail the early literacy experiences of one child in each of 30 families.Researchers may also observe ways that development varies between individuals, and hypothesize about the causes of variation in their data.", "Longitudinal studies often require large amounts of time and funding, making them unfeasible in some situations.", "Also, because members of a cohort all experience historical events unique to their generation, apparently normative developmental trends may, in fact, be universal only to their cohort.In a cross-sectional study, a researcher observes differences between individuals of different ages at the same time.", "This generally requires fewer resources than the longitudinal method, and because the individuals come from different cohorts, shared historical events are not so much of a confounding factor.", "By the same token, however, cross-sectional research may not be the most effective way to study differences between participants, as these differences may result not from their different ages but from their exposure to ''different'' historical events.A third study design, the sequential design, combines both methodologies.", "Here, a researcher observes members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, charting changes in the groups.", "While much more resource-intensive, the format aids in a clearer distinction between what changes can be attributed to an individual or historical environment from those that are truly universal.Because every method has some weaknesses, developmental psychologists rarely rely on one study or even one method to reach conclusions by finding consistent evidence from as many converging sources as possible." ], [ "Life stages of psychological development", "===Prenatal development===Prenatal development is of interest to psychologists investigating the context of early psychological development.", "The whole prenatal development involves three main stages: germinal stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage.", "Germinal stage begins at conception until 2 weeks; embryonic stage means the development from 2 weeks to 8 weeks; fetal stage represents 9 weeks until birth of the baby.", "The senses develop in the womb itself: a fetus can both see and hear by the second trimester (13 to 24 weeks of age).", "The sense of touch develops in the embryonic stage (5 to 8 weeks).", "Most of the brain's billions of neurons also are developed by the second trimester.", "Babies are hence born with some odor, taste and sound preferences, largely related to the mother's environment.Some primitive reflexes too arise before birth and are still present in newborns.", "One hypothesis is that these reflexes are vestigial and have limited use in early human life.", "Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggested that some early reflexes are building blocks for infant sensorimotor development.", "For example, the tonic neck reflex may help development by bringing objects into the infant's field of view.Other reflexes, such as the walking reflex, appear to be replaced by more sophisticated voluntary control later in infancy.", "This may be because the infant gains too much weight after birth to be strong enough to use the reflex, or because the reflex and subsequent development are functionally different.", "It has also been suggested that some reflexes (for example the moro and walking reflexes) are predominantly adaptations to life in the womb with little connection to early infant development.", "Primitive reflexes reappear in adults under certain conditions, such as neurological conditions like dementia or traumatic lesions.Ultrasounds have shown that infants are capable of a range of movements in the womb, many of which appear to be more than simple reflexes.", "By the time they are born, infants can recognize and have a preference for their mother's voice suggesting some prenatal development of auditory perception.", "Prenatal development and birth complications may also be connected to neurodevelopmental disorders, for example in schizophrenia.", "With the advent of cognitive neuroscience, embryology and the neuroscience of prenatal development is of increasing interest to developmental psychology research.Several environmental agents—teratogens—can cause damage during the prenatal period.", "These include prescription and nonprescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, environmental pollutants, infectious disease agents such as the rubella virus and the toxoplasmosis parasite, maternal malnutrition, maternal emotional stress, and Rh factor blood incompatibility between mother and child.", "There are many statistics which prove the effects of the aforementioned substances.", "A leading example of this would be that at least 100,000 \"cocaine babies\" were born in the United States annually in the late 1980s.", "\"Cocaine babies\" are proven to have quite severe and lasting difficulties which persist throughout infancy and right throughout childhood.", "The drug also encourages behavioural problems in the affected children and defects of various vital organs.===Infancy===From birth until the first year, children are referred to as infants.", "Each child will have their own way of responding to their environment as they grow up.", "Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it.The majority of a newborn infant's time is spent sleeping.", "At first, their sleep cycles are evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become diurnal.", "In human or rodent infants, there is always the observation of a diurnal cortisol rhythm, which is sometimes entrained with a maternal substance.", "Nevertheless the circadian rhythm starts to take shape, and a 24-hour rhythm is observed in just some few months after birth.Infants can be seen to have six states, grouped into pairs:* quiet sleep and active sleep (dreaming, when REM sleep occurs).", "Generally, there are various reasons as to why infants dream.", "Some argue that it is just a psychotherapy, which usually occurs normally in the brain.", "Dreaming is a form of processing and consolidating information that has been obtained during the day.", "Freud argues that dreams are a way of representing unconscious desires.", "* quiet waking, and active waking* fussing and crying.", "In a normal set up, infants have different reasons as to why they cry.", "Mostly, infants cry due to physical discomfort, hunger, or to receive attention or stimulation from their caregiver.====Infant perception====Infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch.", "These five features are considered as the \"five senses\".", "Because of these different senses, infants respond to stimuli differently.", "* Vision is significantly worse in infants than in older children.", "Infant sight tends to be blurry in early stages but improves over time.", "Color perception, similar to that seen in adults, has been demonstrated in infants as young as four months using habituation methods.", "Infants attain adult-like vision at about six months.", "* Hearing is well-developed prior to birth.", "Newborns prefer complex sounds to pure tones, human speech to other sounds, mother's voice to other voices, and the native language to other languages.", "Scientist believe these features are probably learned in the womb.", "Infants are fairly good at detecting the direction a sound comes from, and by 18 months their hearing ability is approximately equal to an adult's.", "* Smell and taste are present, with infants showing different expressions of disgust or pleasure when presented with pleasant odors (honey, milk, etc.)", "or unpleasant odors (rotten egg) and tastes (e.g.", "sour taste).", "Newborns are born with odor and taste preferences acquired in the womb from the smell and taste of amniotic fluid, in turn influenced by what the mother eats.", "Both breast- and bottle-fed babies around three days old prefer the smell of human milk to that of formula, indicating an innate preference.", "Older infants also prefer the smell of their mother to that of others.", "* Touch and feel is one of the better-developed senses at birth as it is one of the first senses to develop inside the womb.", "This is evidenced by the primitive reflexes described above, and the relatively advanced development of the somatosensory cortex.", "* Pain: Infants feel pain similarly, if not more strongly than older children, but pain relief in infants has not received so much attention as an area of research.", "Glucose is known to relieve pain in newborns.====Language====Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human languages.", "Infants of around six months can differentiate between phonemes in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language.", "Notably, infants are able to differentiate between various durations and sound levels and can easily differentiate all the languages they have encountered, hence easy for infants to understand a certain language compared to an adult.At this stage infants also start to babble, whereby they start making vowel consonant sound as they try to understand the true meaning of language and copy whatever they are hearing in their surrounding producing their own phonemes.===Infant cognition: the Piagetian era===Piaget suggested that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile and motor representations of objects.", "According to this theory, infants develop object permanence through touching and handling objects.", "Infants start to understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight.Piaget's sensorimotor stage comprised six sub-stages (see sensorimotor stages for more detail).", "In the early stages, development arises out of movements caused by primitive reflexes.", "Discovery of new behaviors results from classical and operant conditioning, and the formation of habits.", "From eight months the infant is able to uncover a hidden object but will persevere when the object is moved.Piaget concluded that infants lacked object permanence before 18 months when infants' before this age failed to look for an object where it had last been seen.", "Instead, infants continued to look for an object where it was first seen, committing the \"A-not-B error\".", "Some researchers have suggested that before the age of 8-9 months, infants' inability to understand object permanence extends to people, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are gone (\"Out of sight, out of mind\").====Recent findings in infant cognition====In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers developed new methods of assessing infants' understanding of the world with far more precision and subtlety than Piaget was able to do in his time.", "Since then, many studies based on these methods suggest that young infants understand far more about the world than first thought.Based on recent findings, some researchers (such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renee Baillargeon) have proposed that an understanding of object permanence is not learned at all, but rather comprises part of the innate cognitive capacities of our species.Other research has suggested that young infants in their first six months of life may possess an understanding of numerous aspects of the world around them, including:* an early numerical cognition, that is, an ability to represent number and even compute the outcomes of addition and subtraction operations;* an ability to infer the goals of people in their environment;* an ability to engage in simple causal reasoning.===Critical periods of development===There are critical periods in infancy and childhood during which development of certain perceptual, sensorimotor, social and language systems depends crucially on environmental stimulation.", "Feral children such as Genie, deprived of adequate stimulation, fail to acquire important skills and are unable to learn in later childhood.", "In this case, Genie is used to represent the case of a feral child because she was socially neglected and abused while she was just a young girl.", "She underwent abnormal child psychology which involved problems with her linguistics.", "This happened because she was neglected while she was very young with no one to care about her and had less human contact.", "The concept of critical periods is also well-established in neurophysiology, from the work of Hubel and Wiesel among others.", "Neurophysiology in infants generally provides correlating details that exists between neurophysiological details and clinical features and also focuses on vital information on rare and common neurological disorders that affect infants'''''.'''''", "====Developmental delays====Studies have been done to look at the differences in children who have developmental delays versus typical development.", "Normally when being compared to one another, mental age (MA) is not taken into consideration.", "There still may be differences in developmentally delayed (DD) children vs. typical development (TD) behavioral, emotional and other mental disorders.", "When compared to MA children there is a bigger difference between normal developmental behaviors overall.", "DDs can cause lower MA, so comparing DDs with TDs may not be as accurate.", "Pairing DDs specifically with TD children at similar MA can be more accurate.", "There are levels of behavioral differences that are considered as normal at certain ages.", "When evaluating DDs and MA in children, consider whether those with DDs have a larger amount of behavior that is not typical for their MA group.", "Developmental delays tend to contribute to other disorders or difficulties than their TD counterparts.===Toddlerhood===Infants shift between ages of one and two to a developmental stage known as toddlerhood.", "In this stage, an infant's transition into toddlerhood is highlighted through self-awareness, developing maturity in language use, and presence of memory and imagination.During toddlerhood, babies begin learning how to walk, talk, and make decisions for themselves.", "An important characteristic of this age period is the development of language, where children are learning how to communicate and express their emotions and desires through the use of vocal sounds, babbling, and eventually words.", "Self-control also begins to develop.", "At this age, children take initiative to explore, experiment and learn from making mistakes.", "Caretakers who encourage toddlers to try new things and test their limits, help the child become autonomous, self-reliant, and confident.", "If the caretaker is overprotective or disapproving of independent actions, the toddler may begin to doubt their abilities and feel ashamed of the desire for independence.", "The child's autonomic development is inhibited, leaving them less prepared to deal with the world in the future.", "Toddlers also begin to identify themselves in gender roles, acting according to their perception of what a man or woman should do.Socially, the period of toddler-hood is commonly called the \"terrible twos\".", "Toddlers often use their new-found language abilities to voice their desires, but are often misunderstood by parents due to their language skills just beginning to develop.", "A person at this stage testing their independence is another reason behind the stage's infamous label.", "Tantrums in a fit of frustration are also common.===Childhood===Erik Erikson divides childhood into four stages, each with its distinct social crisis::* Stage 1: Infancy (0 to 1½) in which the psychosocial crisis is Trust vs. Mistrust:* Stage 2: Early childhood (2½ to 3) in which the psychosocial crisis is Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt:* Stage 3: Play age (3 to 5) in which the psychosocial crisis is Initiative vs.", "Guilt.", "(This stage is also called the \"pre-school age\", \"exploratory age\" and \"toy age\".", "):* Stage 4: School age (5 to 12) in which the psychosocial crisis is Industry vs. Inferiority'''Play (or preschool) ages 3–5.", "'''In the earliest years, children are \"completely dependent on the care of others\".", "Therefore, they develop a \"social relationship\" with their care givers and, later, with family members.", "During their preschool years (3-5), they \"enlarge their social horizons\" to include people outside the family.Preoperational and then operational thinking develops, which means actions are reversible, and egocentric thought diminishes.The motor skills of preschoolers increase so they can do more things for themselves.", "They become more independent.", "No longer completely dependent on the care of others, the world of this age group expands.", "More people have a role in shaping their individual personalities.", "Preschoolers explore and question their world.", "For Jean Piaget, the child is \"''a little scientist'' exploring and reflecting on these explorations to increase competence\" and this is done in \"a very independent way\".Play is a major activity for ages 3–5.For Piaget, through play \"a child reaches higher levels of cognitive development.", "\"In their expanded world, children in the 3–5 age group attempt to find their own way.", "If this is done in a socially acceptable way, the child develops the initiative.", "If not, the child develops guilt.", "Children who develop \"guilt\" rather than \"initiative\" have failed Erikson's psychosocial crisis for the 3–5 age group.", "'''Middle and Late childhood ages 6–12.", "'''For Erik Erikson, the psychosocial crisis during middle childhood is Industry vs. Inferiority which, if successfully met, instills a sense of Competency in the child.In all cultures, middle childhood is a time for developing \"skills that will be needed in their society.\"", "School offers an arena in which children can gain a view of themselves as \"industrious (and worthy)\".", "They are \"graded for their school work and often for their industry\".", "They can also develop industry outside of school in sports, games, and doing volunteer work.", "Children who achieve \"success in school or games might develop a feeling of competence.", "\"The \"peril during this period is that feelings of inadequacy and inferiority will develop.", "Parents and teachers can \"undermine\" a child's development by failing to recognize accomplishments or being overly critical of a child's efforts.Children who are \"encouraged and praised\" develop a belief in their competence.", "Lack of encouragement or ability to excel lead to \"feelings of inadequacy and inferiority\".The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) divides Middle Childhood into two stages, 6–8 years and 9–11 years, and gives \"developmental milestones for each stage\".", "''Middle Childhood (6–8).", "''Entering elementary school, children in this age group begin to thinks about the future and their \"place in the world\".", "Working with other students and wanting their friendship and acceptance become more important.", "This leads to \"more independence from parents and family\".", "As students, they develop the mental and verbal skills \"to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings\".", "They become less self-centered and show \"more concern for others\".", "''Late Childhood (9–12).", "''For children ages 9–11 \"friendships and peer relationships\" increase in strength, complexity, and importance.", "This results in greater \"peer pressure\".", "They grow even less dependent on their families and they are challenged academically.", "To meet this challenge, they increase their attention span and learn to see other points of view.===Adolescence===Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and the full commitment to an adult social role, such as worker, parent, and/or citizen.", "It is the period known for the formation of personal and social identity (see Erik Erikson) and the discovery of moral purpose (see William Damon).", "Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts and formal reasoning.", "A return to egocentric thought often occurs early in the period.", "Only 35% develop the capacity to reason formally during adolescence or adulthood.", "(Huitt, W. and Hummel, J. January 1998)It is divided into three parts, namely:# Early Adolescence: 9 to 13 years # Mid Adolescence: 13 to 15 years and# Late Adolescence: 15 to 18 yearsThe adolescent unconsciously explores questions such as \"Who am I?", "Who do I want to be?\"", "Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self.", "Different roles, behaviors and ideologies must be tried out to select an identity.", "Role confusion and inability to choose vocation can result from a failure to achieve a sense of identity through, for example, friends.===Early adulthood===Early adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 18 to 39, and according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a stage where development is mainly focused on maintaining relationships.", "Examples include creating bond of intimacy, sustaining friendships, and starting a family.", "Some theorists state that development of intimacy skills rely on the resolution of previous developmental stages.", "A sense of identity gained in the previous stages is also necessary for intimacy to develop.", "If this skill is not learned the alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others.A related framework for studying this part of the lifespan is that of emerging adulthood.", "Scholars of emerging adulthood, such as Jeffrey Arnett, are not necessarily interested in relationship development.", "Instead, this concept suggests that people transition after their teenage years into a period not characterized as relationship building and an overall sense of constancy with life, but with years of living with parents, phases of self-discovery, and experimentation.===Middle adulthood===Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 40 to 64.During this period, middle-aged adults experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation.", "They may either feel a sense of contributing to society, the next generation, or their immediate community; or develop a sense of purposelessness.Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output.", "Also, women experience menopause at an average age of 48.8 and a sharp drop in the hormone estrogen.", "Men experience an equivalent endocrine system event to menopause.", "Andropause in males is a hormone fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in menopausal females.", "As men age lowered testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and a decline in sperm count.", "Sexual responsiveness can also be affected, including delays in erection and longer periods of penile stimulation required to achieve ejaculation.The important influence of biological and social changes experienced by women and men in middle adulthood is reflected in the fact that depression is highest at age 48.5 around the world.===Old age===The World Health Organization finds \"no general agreement on the age at which a person becomes old.\"", "Most \"developed countries\" set the age as 65 or 70.However, in developing countries inability to make \"active contribution\" to society, not chronological age, marks the beginning of old age.", "According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, old age is the stage in which individuals assess the quality of their lives.", "In reflecting on their lives, people in this age group develop a feeling of integrity if deciding that their lives were successful or a feeling of despair if evaluation of one's life indicates a failure to achieve goals.Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell.", "They also are more susceptible to diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system.", "Programs aimed at balance, muscle strength, and mobility have been shown to reduce disability among mildly (but not more severely) disabled elderly.Sexual expression depends in large part upon the emotional and physical health of the individual.", "Many older adults continue to be sexually active and satisfied with their sexual activity.Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to dementia or ailments such as Alzheimer's disease.", "The average age of onset for dementia in males is 78.8 and 81.9 for women.", "It is generally believed that crystallized intelligence increases up to old age, while fluid intelligence decreases with age.", "Whether or not normal intelligence increases or decreases with age depends on the measure and study.", "Longitudinal studies show that perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, and spatial orientation decline.", "An article on adult cognitive development reports that cross-sectional studies show that \"some abilities remained stable into early old age\"." ], [ "Parenting", "Parenting variables alone have typically accounted for 20 to 50 percent of the variance in child outcomes.All parents have their own parenting styles.", "Parenting styles, according to Kimberly Kopko, are \"based upon two aspects of parenting behavior; control and warmth.", "Parental control refers to the degree to which parents manage their children's behavior.", "Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents are accepting and responsive to their children's behavior.", "\"===Parenting styles===The following parenting styles have been described in the child development literature:* Authoritative parenting is characterized as parents who have high parental warmth, responsiveness, and demandingness, but rate low in negativity and conflict.", "These parents are assertive but not intrusive or overly restrictive.", "This method of parenting is associated with more positive social and academic outcomes.", "The beneficial outcomes of authoritative parenting are not necessarily universal.", "Among African American adolescents, authoritative parenting is not associated with academic achievement without peer support for achievement.", "Children who are raised by authoritative parents are \"more likely to become independent, self-reliant, socially accepted, academically successful, and well-behaved.", "They are less likely to report depression and anxiety, and less likely to engage in antisocial behavior like delinquency and drug use.", "\"* Authoritarian parenting is characterized by low levels of warmth and responsiveness with high levels of demandingness and firm control.", "These parents focus on obedience and they monitor their children regularly.", "In general, this style of parenting is associated with maladaptive outcomes.", "The outcomes are more harmful for middle-class boys than girls, preschool white girls than preschool black girls, and for white boys than Hispanic boys.", "* Permissive parenting is characterized by high levels of responsiveness combined with low levels of demandingness.", "These parents are lenient and do not necessarily require mature behavior.", "They allow for a high degree of self-regulation and typically avoid confrontation.", "Compared to children raised using the authoritative style, preschool girls raised in permissive families are less assertive.", "Additionally, preschool children of both sexes are less cognitively competent than those children raised under authoritative parenting styles.", "* Rejecting or neglectful parenting is the final category.", "This is characterized by low levels of demandingness and responsiveness.", "These parents are typically disengaged in their child's lives, lacking structure in their parenting styles and are unsupportive.", "Children in this category are typically the least competent of all the categories.===Mother and father factors===Parenting roles in child development have typically focused on the role of the mother.", "Recent literature, however, has looked toward the father as having an important role in child development.", "Affirming a role for fathers, studies have shown that children as young as 15 months benefit significantly from substantial engagement with their father.", "In particular, a study in the U.S. and New Zealand found the presence of the natural father was the most significant factor in reducing rates of early sexual activity and rates of teenage pregnancy in girls.", "Furthermore, another argument is that neither a mother nor a father is actually essential in successful parenting, and that single parents as well as homosexual couples can support positive child outcomes.", "According to this set of research, children need at least one consistently responsible adult with whom the child can have a positive emotional connection.", "Having more than one of these figures contributes to a higher likelihood of positive child outcomes.===Divorce===Another parental factor often debated in terms of its effects on child development is divorce.", "Divorce in itself is not a determining factor of negative child outcomes.", "In fact, the majority of children from divorcing families fall into the normal range on measures of psychological and cognitive functioning.", "A number of mediating factors play a role in determining the effects divorce has on a child, for example, divorcing families with young children often face harsher consequences in terms of demographic, social, and economic changes than do families with older children.", "Positive coparenting after divorce is part of a pattern associated with positive child coping, while hostile parenting behaviors lead to a destructive pattern leaving children at risk.", "Additionally, direct parental relationship with the child also affects the development of a child after a divorce.", "Overall, protective factors facilitating positive child development after a divorce are maternal warmth, positive father-child relationship, and cooperation between parents." ], [ "Cross-cultural", "A way to improve developmental psychology is a representation of cross-cultural studies.", "The psychology field in general assumes that \"basic\" human developments are represented in any population, specifically the Western-Educated-Industrialized-Rich and Democratic (W.E.I.R.D.)", "subjects that are relied on for a majority of their studies.", "Previous research generalizes the findings done with W.E.I.R.D.", "samples because many in the Psychological field assume certain aspects of development are exempted from or are not affected by life experiences.", "However, many of the assumptions have been proven incorrect or are not supported by empirical research.", "For example, according to Kohlberg, moral reasoning is dependent on cognitive abilities.", "While both analytical and holistic cognitive systems do have the potential to develop in any adult, the West is still on the extreme end of analytical thinking, and the non-West tend to use holistic processes.", "Furthermore, moral reasoning in the West only considers aspects that support autonomy and the individual, whereas non-Western adults emphasize moral behaviors supporting the community and maintaining an image of holiness or divinity.", "Not all aspects of human development are universal and we can learn a lot from observing different regions and subjects.", "=== Indian Model of Human Development ===An example of a non-West model for development stages is the Indian model, focusing a large amount of its psychological research on morality and interpersonal progress.", "The developmental stages in Indian models are founded by Hinduism, which primarily teaches stages of life in the process of someone discovering their fate or Dharma.", "This cross-cultural model can add another perspective to psychological development in which the West behavioral sciences have not emphasized kinship, ethnicity, or religion.Indian psychologists study the relevance of attentive families during the early stages of life.", "The early life stages conceptualize a different parenting style from the West because it does not try to rush children out of dependency.", "The family is meant to help the child grow into the next developmental stage at a particular age.", "This way, when children finally integrate into society, they are interconnected with those around them and reach renunciation when they are older.", "Children are raised in joint families so that in early childhood (ages 6 months to 2 years) the other family members help gradually wean the child from its mother.", "During ages 2 to 5, the parents do not rush toilet training.", "Instead of training the child to perform this behavior, the child learns to do it as they mature at their own pace.", "This model of early human development encourages dependency, unlike Western models that value autonomy and independence.", "By being attentive and not forcing the child to become independent, they are confident and have a sense of belonging by late childhood and adolescence.", "This stage in life (5-15 years) is also when children start education and increase their knowledge of Dharma.", "It is within early and middle adulthood that we see moral development progress.", "Early, middle, and late adulthood are all concerned with caring for others and fulfilling Dharma.", "The main distinction between early adulthood to middle or late adulthood is how far their influence reaches.", "Early adulthood emphasizes the importance of fulfilling the immediate family needs, until later adulthood when they broaden their responsibilities to the general public.", "The old-age life stage development reaches renunciation or a complete understanding of Dharma.The current mainstream views in the psychological field are against the Indian model for human development.", "The criticism against such models is that the parenting style is overly protective and encourages too much dependency.", "It focuses on interpersonal instead of individual goals.", "Also, there are some overlaps and similarities between Erikson's stages of human development and the Indian model but both of them still have major differences.", "The West prefers Erickson's ideas over the Indian model because they are supported by scientific studies.", "The life cycles based on Hinduism are not as favored, because it is not supported with research and it focuses on the ideal human development." ], [ "See also", "===Journals===* Autism Research* Child Development* Development and Psychopathology* Developmental Neuropsychology* Developmental Psychology* Developmental Review* Developmental Science* Human Development (journal)* Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology* Journal of Adolescent Health* Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders* Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry* Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology* Journal of Pediatric Psychology* Journal of Research on Adolescence* Journal of Youth and Adolescence* Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry* Psychology and Aging* Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", "* The Society for Research in Child Development* The British Psychological Society, Developmental Psychology Section * Developmental Psychology: lessons for teaching and learning developmental psychology* GMU's On-Line Resources for Developmental Psychology: a web directory of developmental psychology organizations* Home Economics Archive: Research, Tradition, History (HEARTH)An e-book collection of over 1,000 books spanning 1850 to 1950, created by Cornell University's Mann Library.", "Includes several hundred works on human development, child raising, and family studies itemized in a specific bibliography.", "* Developmental psychology Subject Area page at PLOS" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "DNA replication" ], [ "Introduction", "DNA replication: The double helix is un'zipped' and unwound, then each separated strand (turquoise) acts as a template for replicating a new partner strand (green).", "Nucleotides (bases) are matched to synthesize the new partner strands into two new double helices.", "In molecular biology, '''DNA replication''' is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule.", "DNA replication occurs in all living organisms acting as the most essential part of biological inheritance.", "This is essential for cell division during growth and repair of damaged tissues, while it also ensures that each of the new cells receives its own copy of the DNA.", "The cell possesses the distinctive property of division, which makes replication of DNA essential.DNA is made up of a double helix of two complementary strands.", "The double helix describes the appearance of a double-stranded DNA which is thus composed of two linear strands that run opposite to each other and twist together to form.", "During replication, these strands are separated.", "Each strand of the original DNA molecule then serves as a template for the production of its counterpart, a process referred to as semiconservative replication.", "As a result of semi-conservative replication, the new helix will be composed of an original DNA strand as well as a newly synthesized strand.", "Cellular proofreading and error-checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication.In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations, or origins of replication, in the genome which contains the genetic material of an organism.", "Unwinding of DNA at the origin and synthesis of new strands, accommodated by an enzyme known as helicase, results in replication forks growing bi-directionally from the origin.", "A number of proteins are associated with the replication fork to help in the initiation and continuation of DNA synthesis.", "Most prominently, DNA polymerase synthesizes the new strands by adding nucleotides that complement each (template) strand.", "DNA replication occurs during the S-stage of interphase.DNA replication (DNA amplification) can also be performed ''in vitro'' (artificially, outside a cell).", "DNA polymerases isolated from cells and artificial DNA primers can be used to start DNA synthesis at known sequences in a template DNA molecule.", "Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), ligase chain reaction (LCR), and transcription-mediated amplification (TMA) are examples.", "In March 2021, researchers reported evidence suggesting that a preliminary form of transfer RNA, a necessary component of translation, the biological synthesis of new proteins in accordance with the genetic code, could have been a replicator molecule itself in the very early development of life, or abiogenesis." ], [ "DNA structure", "The structure of the DNA double helix (type B-DNA).", "The atoms in the structure are colour-coded by element and the detailed structures of two base pairs are shown in the bottom right.DNA exists as a double-stranded structure, with both strands coiled together to form the characteristic double helix.", "Each single strand of DNA is a chain of four types of nucleotides.", "Nucleotides in DNA contain a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nucleobase.", "The four types of nucleotide correspond to the four nucleobases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, commonly abbreviated as A, C, G, and T. Adenine and guanine are purine bases, while cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines.", "These nucleotides form phosphodiester bonds, creating the phosphate-deoxyribose backbone of the DNA double helix with the nucleobases pointing inward (i.e., toward the opposing strand).", "Nucleobases are matched between strands through hydrogen bonds to form base pairs.", "Adenine pairs with thymine (two hydrogen bonds), and guanine pairs with cytosine (three hydrogen bonds).DNA strands have a directionality, and the different ends of a single strand are called the \"3′ (three-prime) end\" and the \"5′ (five-prime) end\".", "By convention, if the base sequence of a single strand of DNA is given, the left end of the sequence is the 5′ end, while the right end of the sequence is the 3′ end.", "The strands of the double helix are anti-parallel, with one being 5′ to 3′, and the opposite strand 3′ to 5′.", "These terms refer to the carbon atom in deoxyribose to which the next phosphate in the chain attaches.", "Directionality has consequences in DNA synthesis, because DNA polymerase can synthesize DNA in only one direction by adding nucleotides to the 3′ end of a DNA strand.The pairing of complementary bases in DNA (through hydrogen bonding) means that the information contained within each strand is redundant.", "Phosphodiester (intra-strand) bonds are stronger than hydrogen (inter-strand) bonds.", "The actual job of the phosphodiester bonds is where in DNA polymers connect the 5' carbon atom of one nucleotide to the 3' carbon atom of another nucleotide, while the hydrogen bonds stabilize DNA double helices across the helix axis but not in the direction of the axis.", "This makes it possible to separate the strands from one another.", "The nucleotides on a single strand can therefore be used to reconstruct nucleotides on a newly synthesized partner strand." ], [ "DNA polymerase", " DNA polymerases adds nucleotides to the 3′ end of a strand of DNA.", "If a mismatch is accidentally incorporated, the polymerase is inhibited from further extension.", "Proofreading removes the mismatched nucleotide and extension continues.DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication.", "DNA polymerases in general cannot initiate synthesis of new strands but can only extend an existing DNA or RNA strand paired with a template strand.", "To begin synthesis, a short fragment of RNA, called a primer, must be created and paired with the template DNA strand.DNA polymerase adds a new strand of DNA by extending the 3′ end of an existing nucleotide chain, adding new nucleotides matched to the template strand, one at a time, via the creation of phosphodiester bonds.", "The energy for this process of DNA polymerization comes from hydrolysis of the high-energy phosphate (phosphoanhydride) bonds between the three phosphates attached to each unincorporated base.", "Free bases with their attached phosphate groups are called nucleotides; in particular, bases with three attached phosphate groups are called nucleoside triphosphates.", "When a nucleotide is being added to a growing DNA strand, the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the proximal phosphate of the nucleotide to the growing chain is accompanied by hydrolysis of a high-energy phosphate bond with release of the two distal phosphate groups as a pyrophosphate.", "Enzymatic hydrolysis of the resulting pyrophosphate into inorganic phosphate consumes a second high-energy phosphate bond and renders the reaction effectively irreversible.In general, DNA polymerases are highly accurate, with an intrinsic error rate of less than one mistake for every 107 nucleotides added.", "Some DNA polymerases can also delete nucleotides from the end of a developing strand in order to fix mismatched bases.", "This is known as proofreading.", "Finally, post-replication mismatch repair mechanisms monitor the DNA for errors, being capable of distinguishing mismatches in the newly synthesized DNA Strand from the original strand sequence.", "Together, these three discrimination steps enable replication fidelity of less than one mistake for every 109 nucleotides added.The rate of DNA replication in a living cell was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage-infected ''E.", "coli''.", "During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 °C, the rate was 749 nucleotides per second.", "The mutation rate per base pair per replication during phage T4 DNA synthesis is 1.7 per 108." ], [ "Replication process", "Overview of the steps in DNA replicationSteps in DNA synthesisDNA replication, like all biological polymerization processes, proceeds in three enzymatically catalyzed and coordinated steps: initiation, elongation and termination.=== Initiation ===Role of initiators for initiation of DNA replicationFormation of pre-replication complexFor a cell to divide, it must first replicate its DNA.", "DNA replication is an all-or-none process; once replication begins, it proceeds to completion.", "Once replication is complete, it does not occur again in the same cell cycle.", "This is made possible by the division of initiation of the pre-replication complex.=== Pre-replication complex ===In late mitosis and early G1 phase, a large complex of initiator proteins assembles into the pre-replication complex at particular points in the DNA, known as \"origins\".", "In ''E.", "coli'' the primary initiator protein is Dna A; in yeast, this is the origin recognition complex.", "Sequences used by initiator proteins tend to be \"AT-rich\" (rich in adenine and thymine bases), because A-T base pairs have two hydrogen bonds (rather than the three formed in a C-G pair) and thus are easier to strand-separate.", "In eukaryotes, the origin recognition complex catalyzes the assembly of initiator proteins into the pre-replication complex.", "In addition, a recent report suggests that budding yeast ORC dimerizes in a cell cycle dependent manner to control licensing.", "In turn, the process of ORC dimerization is mediated by a cell cycle-dependent Noc3p dimerization cycle in vivo, and this role of Noc3p is separable from its role in ribosome biogenesis.", "An essential Noc3p dimerization cycle mediates ORC double-hexamer formation in replication licensing ORC and Noc3p are continuously bound to the chromatin throughout the cell cycle.", "Cdc6 and Cdt1 then associate with the bound origin recognition complex at the origin in order to form a larger complex necessary to load the Mcm complex onto the DNA.", "In eukaryotes, the Mcm complex is the helicase that will split the DNA helix at the replication forks and origins.", "The Mcm complex is recruited at late G1 phase and loaded by the ORC-Cdc6-Cdt1 complex onto the DNA via ATP-dependent protein remodeling.", "The loading of the Mcm complex onto the origin DNA marks the completion of pre-replication complex formation.If environmental conditions are right in late G1 phase, the G1 and G1/S cyclin-Cdk complexes are activated, which stimulate expression of genes that encode components of the DNA synthetic machinery.", "G1/S-Cdk activation also promotes the expression and activation of S-Cdk complexes, which may play a role in activating replication origins depending on species and cell type.", "Control of these Cdks vary depending on cell type and stage of development.", "This regulation is best understood in budding yeast, where the S cyclins Clb5 and Clb6 are primarily responsible for DNA replication.", "Clb5,6-Cdk1 complexes directly trigger the activation of replication origins and are therefore required throughout S phase to directly activate each origin.In a similar manner, Cdc7 is also required through S phase to activate replication origins.", "Cdc7 is not active throughout the cell cycle, and its activation is strictly timed to avoid premature initiation of DNA replication.", "In late G1, Cdc7 activity rises abruptly as a result of association with the regulatory subunit DBF4, which binds Cdc7 directly and promotes its protein kinase activity.", "Cdc7 has been found to be a rate-limiting regulator of origin activity.", "Together, the G1/S-Cdks and/or S-Cdks and Cdc7 collaborate to directly activate the replication origins, leading to initiation of DNA synthesis.=== Preinitiation complex ===In early S phase, S-Cdk and Cdc7 activation lead to the assembly of the preinitiation complex, a massive protein complex formed at the origin.", "Formation of the preinitiation complex displaces Cdc6 and Cdt1 from the origin replication complex, inactivating and disassembling the pre-replication complex.", "Loading the preinitiation complex onto the origin activates the Mcm helicase, causing unwinding of the DNA helix.", "The preinitiation complex also loads α-primase and other DNA polymerases onto the DNA.After α-primase synthesizes the first primers, the primer-template junctions interact with the clamp loader, which loads the sliding clamp onto the DNA to begin DNA synthesis.", "The components of the preinitiation complex remain associated with replication forks as they move out from the origin.=== Elongation ===DNA polymerase has 5′–3′ activity.All known DNA replication systems require a free 3′ hydroxyl group before synthesis can be initiated (note: the DNA template is read in 3′ to 5′ direction whereas a new strand is synthesized in the 5′ to 3′ direction—this is often confused).", "Four distinct mechanisms for DNA synthesis are recognized:# All cellular life forms and many DNA viruses, phages and plasmids use a primase to synthesize a short RNA primer with a free 3′ OH group which is subsequently elongated by a DNA polymerase.# The retroelements (including retroviruses) employ a transfer RNA that primes DNA replication by providing a free 3′ OH that is used for elongation by the reverse transcriptase.# In the adenoviruses and the φ29 family of bacteriophages, the 3′ OH group is provided by the side chain of an amino acid of the genome attached protein (the terminal protein) to which nucleotides are added by the DNA polymerase to form a new strand.# In the single stranded DNA viruses—a group that includes the circoviruses, the geminiviruses, the parvoviruses and others—and also the many phages and plasmids that use the rolling circle replication (RCR) mechanism, the RCR endonuclease creates a nick in the genome strand (single stranded viruses) or one of the DNA strands (plasmids).", "The 5′ end of the nicked strand is transferred to a tyrosine residue on the nuclease and the free 3′ OH group is then used by the DNA polymerase to synthesize the new strand.Cellular organisms use the first of these pathways since it is the most well-known.", "In this mechanism, once the two strands are separated, primase adds RNA primers to the template strands.", "The leading strand receives one RNA primer while the lagging strand receives several.", "The leading strand is continuously extended from the primer by a DNA polymerase with high processivity, while the lagging strand is extended discontinuously from each primer forming Okazaki fragments.", "RNase removes the primer RNA fragments, and a low processivity DNA polymerase distinct from the replicative polymerase enters to fill the gaps.", "When this is complete, a single nick on the leading strand and several nicks on the lagging strand can be found.", "Ligase works to fill these nicks in, thus completing the newly replicated DNA molecule.The primase used in this process differs significantly between bacteria and archaea/eukaryotes.", "Bacteria use a primase belonging to the DnaG protein superfamily which contains a catalytic domain of the TOPRIM fold type.", "The TOPRIM fold contains an α/β core with four conserved strands in a Rossmann-like topology.", "This structure is also found in the catalytic domains of topoisomerase Ia, topoisomerase II, the OLD-family nucleases and DNA repair proteins related to the RecR protein.The primase used by archaea and eukaryotes, in contrast, contains a highly derived version of the RNA recognition motif (RRM).", "This primase is structurally similar to many viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, reverse transcriptases, cyclic nucleotide generating cyclases and DNA polymerases of the A/B/Y families that are involved in DNA replication and repair.", "In eukaryotic replication, the primase forms a complex with Pol α.Multiple DNA polymerases take on different roles in the DNA replication process.", "In ''E.", "coli'', DNA Pol III is the polymerase enzyme primarily responsible for DNA replication.", "It assembles into a replication complex at the replication fork that exhibits extremely high processivity, remaining intact for the entire replication cycle.", "In contrast, DNA Pol I is the enzyme responsible for replacing RNA primers with DNA.", "DNA Pol I has a 5′ to 3′ exonuclease activity in addition to its polymerase activity, and uses its exonuclease activity to degrade the RNA primers ahead of it as it extends the DNA strand behind it, in a process called nick translation.", "Pol I is much less processive than Pol III because its primary function in DNA replication is to create many short DNA regions rather than a few very long regions.In eukaryotes, the low-processivity enzyme, Pol α, helps to initiate replication because it forms a complex with primase.", "In eukaryotes, leading strand synthesis is thought to be conducted by Pol ε; however, this view has recently been challenged, suggesting a role for Pol δ. Primer removal is completed Pol δ while repair of DNA during replication is completed by Pol ε.As DNA synthesis continues, the original DNA strands continue to unwind on each side of the bubble, forming a replication fork with two prongs.", "In bacteria, which have a single origin of replication on their circular chromosome, this process creates a \"theta structure\" (resembling the Greek letter theta: θ).", "In contrast, eukaryotes have longer linear chromosomes and initiate replication at multiple origins within these.=== Replication fork ===Scheme of the replication fork.a: template, b: leading strand, c: lagging strand, d: replication fork, e: primer, f: Okazaki fragmentsMany enzymes are involved in the DNA replication fork.The replication fork is a structure that forms within the long helical DNA during DNA replication.", "It is produced by enzymes called helicases that break the hydrogen bonds that hold the DNA strands together in a helix.", "The resulting structure has two branching \"prongs\", each one made up of a single strand of DNA.", "These two strands serve as the template for the leading and lagging strands, which will be created as DNA polymerase matches complementary nucleotides to the templates; the templates may be properly referred to as the leading strand template and the lagging strand template.", "'''DNA is read by DNA polymerase in the 3′ to 5′ direction, meaning the new strand is synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction.'''", "Since the leading and lagging strand templates are oriented in opposite directions at the replication fork, a major issue is how to achieve synthesis of new lagging strand DNA, whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork.==== Leading strand ====The leading strand is the strand of new DNA which is synthesized in the same direction as the growing replication fork.", "This sort of DNA replication is continuous.==== Lagging strand ====The lagging strand is the strand of new DNA whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork.", "Because of its orientation, replication of the lagging strand is more complicated as compared to that of the leading strand.", "As a consequence, the DNA polymerase on this strand is seen to \"lag behind\" the other strand.The lagging strand is synthesized in short, separated segments.", "On the lagging strand ''template'', a primase \"reads\" the template DNA and initiates synthesis of a short complementary RNA primer.", "A DNA polymerase extends the primed segments, forming Okazaki fragments.", "The RNA primers are then removed and replaced with DNA, and the fragments of DNA are joined by DNA ligase.==== Dynamics at the replication fork ====trimer of the protein PCNAIn all cases the helicase is composed of six polypeptides that wrap around only one strand of the DNA being replicated.", "The two polymerases are bound to the helicase heximer.", "In eukaryotes the helicase wraps around the leading strand, and in prokaryotes it wraps around the lagging strand.As helicase unwinds DNA at the replication fork, the DNA ahead is forced to rotate.", "This process results in a build-up of twists in the DNA ahead.", "This build-up creates a torsional load that would eventually stop the replication fork.", "Topoisomerases are enzymes that temporarily break the strands of DNA, relieving the tension caused by unwinding the two strands of the DNA helix; topoisomerases (including DNA gyrase) achieve this by adding negative supercoils to the DNA helix.Bare single-stranded DNA tends to fold back on itself forming secondary structures; these structures can interfere with the movement of DNA polymerase.", "To prevent this, single-strand binding proteins bind to the DNA until a second strand is synthesized, preventing secondary structure formation.Double-stranded DNA is coiled around histones that play an important role in regulating gene expression so the replicated DNA must be coiled around histones at the same places as the original DNA.", "To ensure this, histone chaperones disassemble the chromatin before it is replicated and replace the histones in the correct place.", "Some steps in this reassembly are somewhat speculative.Clamp proteins act as a sliding clamp on DNA, allowing the DNA polymerase to bind to its template and aid in processivity.", "The inner face of the clamp enables DNA to be threaded through it.", "Once the polymerase reaches the end of the template or detects double-stranded DNA, the sliding clamp undergoes a conformational change that releases the DNA polymerase.", "Clamp-loading proteins are used to initially load the clamp, recognizing the junction between template and RNA primers.", ":274-5=== DNA replication proteins ===At the replication fork, many replication enzymes assemble on the DNA into a complex molecular machine called the replisome.", "The following is a list of major DNA replication enzymes that participate in the replisome: Enzyme Function in DNA replication DNA helicase Also known as helix destabilizing enzyme.", "Helicase separates the two strands of DNA at the Replication Fork behind the topoisomerase.", "DNA polymerase The enzyme responsible for catalyzing the addition of nucleotide substrates to DNA in the 5′ to 3′ direction during DNA replication.", "Also performs proof-reading and error correction.", "There exist many different types of DNA Polymerase, each of which perform different functions in different types of cells.", "DNA clamp A protein which prevents elongating DNA polymerases from dissociating from the DNA parent strand.", "Single-strand DNA-binding protein Bind to ssDNA and prevent the DNA double helix from re-annealing after DNA helicase unwinds it, thus maintaining the strand separation, and facilitating the synthesis of the new strand.", "Topoisomerase Relaxes the DNA from its super-coiled nature.", "DNA gyrase Relieves strain of unwinding by DNA helicase; this is a specific type of topoisomerase DNA ligase Re-anneals the semi-conservative strands and joins Okazaki Fragments of the lagging strand.", "Primase Provides a starting point of RNA (or DNA) for DNA polymerase to begin synthesis of the new DNA strand.", "Telomerase Lengthens telomeric DNA by adding repetitive nucleotide sequences to the ends of '''eukaryotic chromosomes'''.", "This allows germ cells and stem cells to avoid the Hayflick limit on cell division.", "''In vitro'' single-molecule experiments (using optical tweezers and magnetic tweezers) have found synergetic interactions between the replisome enzymes (helicase, polymerase, and Single-strand DNA-binding protein) and with the DNA replication fork enhancing DNA-unwinding and DNA-replication.", "These results lead to the developement of kinetic models accounting for the synergetic interactions and their stability.=== Replication machinery ===E.", "coli Replisome.", "Notably, the DNA on lagging strand forms a loop.", "The exact structure of replisome is not well understood.", "'''Replication machineries''' consist of factors involved in DNA replication and appearing on template ssDNAs.", "Replication machineries include primosotors are replication enzymes; DNA polymerase, DNA helicases, DNA clamps and DNA topoisomerases, and replication proteins; e.g.", "single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSB).", "In the replication machineries these components coordinate.", "In most of the bacteria, all of the factors involved in DNA replication are located on replication forks and the complexes stay on the forks during DNA replication.", "Replication machineries are also referred to as replisomes, or DNA replication systems.", "These terms are generic terms for proteins located on replication forks.", "In eukaryotic and some bacterial cells the replisomes are not formed.Since replication machineries do not move relatively to template DNAs such as factories, they are called a '''replication factory'''.", "In an alternative figure, DNA factories are similar to projectors and DNAs are like as cinematic films passing constantly into the projectors.", "In the replication factory model, after both DNA helicases for leading strands and lagging strands are loaded on the template DNAs, the helicases run along the DNAs into each other.", "The helicases remain associated for the remainder of replication process.", "Peter Meister et al.", "observed directly replication sites in budding yeast by monitoring green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged DNA polymerases α.", "They detected DNA replication of pairs of the tagged loci spaced apart symmetrically from a replication origin and found that the distance between the pairs decreased markedly by time.", "This finding suggests that the mechanism of DNA replication goes with DNA factories.", "That is, couples of replication factories are loaded on replication origins and the factories associated with each other.", "Also, template DNAs move into the factories, which bring extrusion of the template ssDNAs and new DNAs.", "Meister's finding is the first direct evidence of replication factory model.", "Subsequent research has shown that DNA helicases form dimers in many eukaryotic cells and bacterial replication machineries stay in single intranuclear location during DNA synthesis.Replication Factories Disentangle Sister Chromatids.", "The disentanglement is essential for distributing the chromatids into daughter cells after DNA replication.", "Because sister chromatids after DNA replication hold each other by '''Cohesin''' rings, there is the only chance for the disentanglement in DNA replication.", "Fixing of replication machineries as replication factories can improve the success rate of DNA replication.", "If replication forks move freely in chromosomes, catenation of nuclei is aggravated and impedes mitotic segregation.=== Termination ===Eukaryotes initiate DNA replication at multiple points in the chromosome, so replication forks meet and terminate at many points in the chromosome.", "Because eukaryotes have linear chromosomes, DNA replication is unable to reach the very end of the chromosomes.", "Due to this problem, DNA is lost in each replication cycle from the end of the chromosome.", "Telomeres are regions of repetitive DNA close to the ends and help prevent loss of genes due to this shortening.", "Shortening of the telomeres is a normal process in somatic cells.", "This shortens the telomeres of the daughter DNA chromosome.", "As a result, cells can only divide a certain number of times before the DNA loss prevents further division.", "(This is known as the Hayflick limit.)", "Within the germ cell line, which passes DNA to the next generation, telomerase extends the repetitive sequences of the telomere region to prevent degradation.", "Telomerase can become mistakenly active in somatic cells, sometimes leading to cancer formation.", "Increased telomerase activity is one of the hallmarks of cancer.Termination requires that the progress of the DNA replication fork must stop or be blocked.", "Termination at a specific locus, when it occurs, involves the interaction between two components: (1) a termination site sequence in the DNA, and (2) a protein which binds to this sequence to physically stop DNA replication.", "In various bacterial species, this is named the DNA replication terminus site-binding protein, or Ter protein.Because bacteria have circular chromosomes, termination of replication occurs when the two replication forks meet each other on the opposite end of the parental chromosome.", "''E.", "coli'' regulates this process through the use of termination sequences that, when bound by the Tus protein, enable only one direction of replication fork to pass through.", "As a result, the replication forks are constrained to always meet within the termination region of the chromosome." ], [ "Regulation", "The cell cycle of eukaryotic cells=== Eukaryotes ===Within eukaryotes, DNA replication is controlled within the context of the cell cycle.", "As the cell grows and divides, it progresses through stages in the cell cycle; DNA replication takes place during the S phase (synthesis phase).", "The progress of the eukaryotic cell through the cycle is controlled by cell cycle checkpoints.", "Progression through checkpoints is controlled through complex interactions between various proteins, including cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases.", "Unlike bacteria, eukaryotic DNA replicates in the confines of the nucleus.The G1/S checkpoint (or restriction checkpoint) regulates whether eukaryotic cells enter the process of DNA replication and subsequent division.", "Cells that do not proceed through this checkpoint remain in the G0 stage and do not replicate their DNA.Once the DNA has gone through the \"G1/S\" test, it can only be copied once in every cell cycle.", "When the Mcm complex moves away from the origin, the pre-replication complex is dismantled.", "Because a new Mcm complex cannot be loaded at an origin until the pre-replication subunits are reactivated, one origin of replication can not be used twice in the same cell cycle.Activation of S-Cdks in early S phase promotes the destruction or inhibition of individual pre-replication complex components, preventing immediate reassembly.", "S and M-Cdks continue to block pre-replication complex assembly even after S phase is complete, ensuring that assembly cannot occur again until all Cdk activity is reduced in late mitosis.In budding yeast, inhibition of assembly is caused by Cdk-dependent phosphorylation of pre-replication complex components.", "At the onset of S phase, phosphorylation of Cdc6 by Cdk1 causes the binding of Cdc6 to the SCF ubiquitin protein ligase, which causes proteolytic destruction of Cdc6.Cdk-dependent phosphorylation of Mcm proteins promotes their export out of the nucleus along with Cdt1 during S phase, preventing the loading of new Mcm complexes at origins during a single cell cycle.", "Cdk phosphorylation of the origin replication complex also inhibits pre-replication complex assembly.", "The individual presence of any of these three mechanisms is sufficient to inhibit pre-replication complex assembly.", "However, mutations of all three proteins in the same cell does trigger reinitiation at many origins of replication within one cell cycle.In animal cells, the protein geminin is a key inhibitor of pre-replication complex assembly.", "Geminin binds Cdt1, preventing its binding to the origin recognition complex.", "In G1, levels of geminin are kept low by the APC, which ubiquitinates geminin to target it for degradation.", "When geminin is destroyed, Cdt1 is released, allowing it to function in pre-replication complex assembly.", "At the end of G1, the APC is inactivated, allowing geminin to accumulate and bind Cdt1.Replication of chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes occurs independently of the cell cycle, through the process of D-loop replication.==== Replication focus ====In vertebrate cells, replication sites concentrate into positions called '''replication foci'''.", "Replication sites can be detected by immunostaining daughter strands and replication enzymes and monitoring GFP-tagged replication factors.", "By these methods it is found that replication foci of varying size and positions appear in S phase of cell division and their number per nucleus is far smaller than the number of genomic replication forks.'''P.", "Heun et al.", "''',(2001) tracked GFP-tagged replication foci in budding yeast cells and revealed that replication origins move constantly in G1 and S phase and the dynamics decreased significantly in S phase.", "Traditionally, replication sites were fixed on spatial structure of chromosomes by nuclear matrix or lamins.", "The Heun's results denied the traditional concepts, budding yeasts do not have lamins, and support that replication origins self-assemble and form replication foci.By firing of replication origins, controlled spatially and temporally, the formation of replication foci is regulated.", "D. A. Jackson et al.", "(1998) revealed that neighboring origins fire simultaneously in mammalian cells.", "Spatial juxtaposition of replication sites brings '''clustering''' of replication forks.", "The clustering do '''rescue of stalled replication forks''' and favors normal progress of replication forks.", "Progress of replication forks is inhibited by many factors; collision with proteins or with complexes binding strongly on DNA, deficiency of dNTPs, nicks on template DNAs and so on.", "If replication forks get stuck and the rest of the sequences from the stuck forks are not copied, then the daughter strands get nick nick unreplicated sites.", "The un-replicated sites on one parent's strand hold the other strand together but not daughter strands.", "Therefore, the resulting sister chromatids cannot separate from each other and cannot divide into 2 daughter cells.", "When neighboring origins fire and a fork from one origin is stalled, fork from other origin access on an opposite direction of the stalled fork and duplicate the un-replicated sites.", "As other mechanism of the rescue there is application of '''dormant replication origins''' that excess origins do not fire in normal DNA replication.=== Bacteria ===Dam methylates adenine of GATC sites after replicationMost bacteria do not go through a well-defined cell cycle but instead continuously copy their DNA; during rapid growth, this can result in the concurrent occurrence of multiple rounds of replication.", "In ''E.", "coli'', the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein DnaA.", "All these control the binding of initiator proteins to the origin sequences.Because ''E.", "coli'' methylates GATC DNA sequences, DNA synthesis results in hemimethylated sequences.", "This hemimethylated DNA is recognized by the protein SeqA, which binds and sequesters the origin sequence; in addition, DnaA (required for initiation of replication) binds less well to hemimethylated DNA.", "As a result, newly replicated origins are prevented from immediately initiating another round of DNA replication.ATP builds up when the cell is in a rich medium, triggering DNA replication once the cell has reached a specific size.", "ATP competes with ADP to bind to DnaA, and the DnaA-ATP complex is able to initiate replication.", "A certain number of DnaA proteins are also required for DNA replication — each time the origin is copied, the number of binding sites for DnaA doubles, requiring the synthesis of more DnaA to enable another initiation of replication.In fast-growing bacteria, such as ''E.", "coli'', chromosome replication takes more time than dividing the cell.", "The bacteria solve this by initiating a new round of replication before the previous one has been terminated.", "The new round of replication will form the chromosome of the cell that is born two generations after the dividing cell.", "This mechanism creates overlapping replication cycles." ], [ "Problems with DNA replication", "Replication fork restarts by homologous recombination following replication stressEpigenetic consequences of nucleosome reassembly defects at stalled replication forksThere are many events that contribute to replication stress, including:* Misincorporation of ribonucleotides* Unusual DNA structures* Conflicts between replication and transcription* Insufficiency of essential replication factors* Common fragile sites* Overexpression or constitutive activation of oncogenes* Chromatin inaccessibility" ], [ "Polymerase chain reaction", "Researchers commonly replicate DNA ''in vitro'' using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).", "PCR uses a pair of primers to span a target region in template DNA, and then polymerizes partner strands in each direction from these primers using a thermostable DNA polymerase.", "Repeating this process through multiple cycles amplifies the targeted DNA region.", "At the start of each cycle, the mixture of template and primers is heated, separating the newly synthesized molecule and template.", "Then, as the mixture cools, both of these become templates for annealing of new primers, and the polymerase extends from these.", "As a result, the number of copies of the target region doubles each round, increasing exponentially." ], [ "See also", "* Autopoiesis* Cell (biology)* Cell division* Chromosome segregation* Data storage device* Gene* Gene expression* Epigenetics* Genome* Hachimoji DNA* Life* Replication (computing)* Self-replication" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dravidian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dravidian''', '''Dravidan''', or '''Dravida''' may refer to:" ], [ "Language and culture", "Dravidian languages, a family of languages spoken mainly in South India and northeastern Sri LankaProto-Dravidian language, a model of the common ancestor of the Dravidian languagesDravidian University, a university situated in Andhra PradeshSouth Indian culture, modern Dravidian culture" ], [ "Geography", "Dravida Nadu, a proposed country for the southern Dravidian languagesSouth India, the region which is called Dravida in the Indian anthemDravida Kingdom, an ancient region mentioned in the ''Mahabharata''" ], [ "Ethnicity", "Dravidian peoples, ethnic groups primarily in South India.", "Homo Dravida, a historically defined race, propagated also by Devaneya PavanarAdi Dravida, natives of Southern India" ], [ "Religion", "Dravidian folk religion" ], [ "Others", "Dravidan (1989 film), a 1989 Tamil filmDravida Sangha" ], [ "See also", " Dravid (surname)* Davidian (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Daisy Duck" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Daisy Duck''' is a cartoon character created by The Walt Disney Company.", "As the girlfriend of Donald Duck, she is an anthropomorphic white duck that has large eyelashes and ruffled tail feathers around her lowest region to suggest a skirt.", "She is often seen wearing a hair bow, blouse, and heeled shoes.", "Daisy was introduced in the short film ''Mr.", "Duck Steps Out'' (1940) and was incorporated into Donald's comic stories several months later.", "Carl Barks, the screenwriter and lead storyboard artist for the film, was inspired by the 1937 short, ''Don Donald'', that featured a Latin character named Donna Duck, to revive the concept of a female counterpart for Donald.Daisy appeared in 11 short films between 1940 and 1954, and far later in ''Mickey's Christmas Carol'' (1983) and ''Fantasia 2000'' (1999).", "In these roles, Daisy was always a supporting character, with the exception of ''Donald's Dilemma'' (1947).", "Daisy has received considerably more screen time in television, making regular appearances in ''Quack Pack'' (1996), ''Mickey Mouse Works'' (1999–2000), ''House of Mouse'' (2001–2003), ''Mickey Mouse Clubhouse'' (2006–2016), ''Mickey Mouse'' (2013–2019), ''Mickey Mouse Mixed-Up Adventures'' (2017–2021), ''The Wonderful World of Mickey Mouse'' (2020–2023) and ''Mickey Mouse Funhouse'' (2021–present).", "Daisy has also appeared in several direct-to-video films such as ''Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas'' (1999), ''The Three Musketeers'' (2004), and ''Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas'' (2004).Daisy is a close friend of Clarabelle Cow and Clara Cluck in the comics and Minnie Mouse's best friend.", "Daisy usually shows a strong affinity towards Donald, although she is often characterized as being more sophisticated than him.", "Particularly in the comics, because of this, Daisy regularly becomes frustrated with Donald's immaturity, and on those occasions she will often go out on dates with Donald's cousin and rival Gladstone Gander instead.", "Daisy is the aunt of April, May, and June, three young girl ducks who bear resemblance to Huey, Dewey, and Louie." ], [ "Characterization", "Since her early appearances, Daisy is attracted to Donald and devoted to him in the same way he is often devoted to her.", "This is most clearly seen in ''Donald's Dilemma'' as Daisy is almost to the point of suicide after Donald forgets her.", "Despite this, she is shown to have her boyfriend wrapped around her finger and is often shown to keep him in line whenever his anger starts to boil.Besides her love for Donald, Daisy is also shown to be more sophisticated and intelligent than him.", "This causes her to frequently be frustrated with his immaturity, and their relationship occasionally has an off-again, on-again nature as a result, particularly in the comic books.", "In comics, when Daisy is fighting with Donald or temporarily breaks up with him, she goes on dates with Donald's cousin Gladstone Gander instead.", "In ''Cured Duck'' Daisy even gives Donald an ultimatum regarding his temper but later reforms in ''Donald's Dilemma''.", "Daisy herself sometimes exhibits a temper, but she has much greater self-control than Donald.In the ''Mouse Works''/''House of Mouse'' cartoons, she was sometimes portrayed as intrusive and overly talkative.", "She would invite herself in without asking and would tag along on trips where she was not wanted.", "In ''House of Mouse'', Daisy was often waiting for her ″Big Break″, taking any and every opportunity to perform a number of talent acts on stage.", "Daisy was separated from Donald in that her quest for fame was not as prominent, and relied less on jealousy than eagerness." ], [ "Appearance", "Daisy is a white duck with an orange bill and legs.", "She usually has indigo eyeshadow, long distinct eyelashes and ruffled feathers around her lowest region to suggest a skirt.She is usually seen sporting a blouse with puffed short sleeves and a v-neckline.", "She also wears a matching bow, heeled shoes and a single bangle on her wrist.", "The colors of her clothes change very often, but her signature colors are usually purple and pink.The creators of the television series ''Quack Pack'', in keeping with their modernization theme, reworked Daisy's character into a career-oriented woman and thus gave her a different appearance to match.", "While keeping with the purple and pink motif, Daisy usually wore long dresses with high-heeled shoes and instead of wearing her trademark hair bow, the feathers atop her head got the same treatment as her tail feathers had before; the animators arranged them in such a manner to appear as if Daisy was sporting a more modern short hairstyle.", "''House of Mouse'' got her a blue and purple employee uniform, with a blue bow, earrings, and a long ponytail.", "In ''Mickey Mouse Clubhouse'', Daisy regained her purple blouse with a purple bow and shoes.", "She also wears a gold bangle and has a short ponytail, similar to the longer one seen in House of Mouse." ], [ "Voice", "Daisy Duck has been voiced by several different voice actors over the years, yet by far the most extensive work has been done by Tress MacNeille, who took on the role in 1999.Clarence Nash voiced Daisy in her debut in ''Mr.", "Duck Steps Out''.", "In the short, Nash voiced Daisy in a similar 'duck-like' voice as Donald's.", "Starting with ''Donald's Crime'' (1945), Ruth Clifford, best known as the voice of Minnie Mouse in the late 1940s and early 1950s, took over vocal duties on the character, giving her a more \"normal\" female human voice.", "Clifford would voice Daisy in a further four shorts between 1945 and 1948, with her last being ''Donald's Dream Voice'' (1948).", "For ''Donald's Dilemma'' (1947), actress Gloria Blondell voiced Daisy.", "Clifford returned to the role one final time in ''Crazy Over Daisy'' (1950).", "Vivi Janiss voiced the character in ''Donald's Diary'' (1954), while renowned voice actress June Foray (Rocky the Flying Squirrel) voiced her in her final classic shorts appearance, the educational Donald Duck short ''How to Have an Accident at Work'' (1959).Voice actress Janet Waldo, best known as the voice of Judy Jetson, voiced Daisy in the Disneyland Records album ''An Adaptation of Dickens' Christmas Carol, Performed by The Walt Disney Players'' (1974).In 1983, Daisy was voiced by Patricia Parris in ''Mickey's Christmas Carol''.", "Tony Anselmo voiced Daisy in ''Down and Out with Donald Duck'' (1987).", "Daisy was then voiced by Kath Soucie throughout her first regular television series ''Quack Pack'' (1996).", "From 1997 to 1999, Daisy was voiced by Diane Michelle in the anthology film ''The Spirit of Mickey'', the first season of ''Mickey Mouse Works'', and other media and games at the time.", "Michelle alternated in the role with Tress MacNeille for ''Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas''.", "In 1999, MacNeille took over as Daisy's full-time voice starting with the second season of ''Mickey Mouse Works''.", "MacNeille has voiced Daisy in the television series ''House of Mouse'', ''Mickey Mouse Clubhouse'', ''Mickey Mouse'', ''Mickey Mouse Mixed-Up Adventures'', ''Legend of the Three Caballeros'', ''DuckTales'', and ''The Wonderful World of Mickey Mouse''.", "MacNeille has also voiced Daisy in television specials, movies, and video games.", "Daisy was voiced by Russi Taylor in ''Fantasia 2000'', although she has no lines other than a scream.", "In the second season of ''Mickey Mouse Funhouse'', MacNeille was replaced by Debra Wilson as MacNeille was uninterested in continuing the series.", "Wilson, the first African-American performer of Daisy, also voiced the character in the holiday special ''Mickey Saves Christmas''." ], [ "Donna Duck<!--'Donna Duck' redirects here-->", "'''Donna Duck''' made her sole animated appearance in the short film ''Don Donald'' (1937), directed by Ben Sharpsteen.", "It was the first installment of the ''Donald Duck'' film series and was also the first time Donald was shown with a love interest.", "In the story, Donald travels to Mexico to court a duck who is largely a female version of himself.", "She is portrayed with the same feisty temperament and as such was also voiced by Clarence Nash.", "At the end of the story, she spitefully abandons Donald in the desert after his car breaks down.While Donna was not reused in film after her only appearance, she became an inspiration for the creation of Daisy.", "Donna appeared in early British Disney comics and was introduced in the American comic strip in 1951, as Daisy's unwitting rival for Donald's affections.Other Disney characters, such as Goofy, were introduced under various names (Dippy Dawg) and appearances, leading some historians to conclude that Donna and Daisy are the same character.", "However, in these other instances, changes usually developed over time, during which the character remained in use.", "Donna, on the other hand, appeared only once, and it was several years before a new female love interest for Donald was designed.", "There were many significant differences between the two characters all-at-once, in personality, nationality, name and attire.According to The Encyclopedia of Animated Disney Shorts and the Big Cartoon DataBase, ''Don Donald'' is considered Daisy's debut.", "''Don Donald'' is included on the Disney-produced DVD ''Best Pals: Donald and Daisy''.", "In 1999, The Walt Disney Company released a collector's pin as part of their ''Countdown to the Millennium'' pin series, which reads \"Daisy Duck debuts as Donna Duck 1937.\"" ], [ "History", "Daisy debuted in theatrical animation and has appeared in a total of 15 films.", "She appeared in 12 ''Donald Duck'' short films.", "These are, in order of release, ''Mr.", "Duck Steps Out'' (1940), ''Donald's Crime'' (1945), ''Cured Duck'' (1945), ''Donald's Double Trouble'' (1946), ''Dumb Bell of the Yukon'', ''Sleepy Time Donald'' (1947), ''Donald's Dilemma'', ''Donald's Dream Voice'' (1948), ''Crazy Over Daisy'' (1950), ''Donald's Diary'' (1954) & ''How to Have an Accident at Work'' (1959) as Donald's unnamed wife.", "She also made a brief cameo in the ''Mickey Mouse'' short film ''The Nifty Nineties'' (1941).", "After the classic shorts era, Daisy appeared in ''Mickey's Christmas Carol'' (1983) and ''Fantasia 2000'' (1999) with another cameo in ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'' (1988).===First appearance===A still of scene where Daisy makes her entrance in ''Mr.", "Duck Steps Out'' (1940) (animated by Eddie Strickland).Daisy Duck in her familiar name and design first appeared in ''Mr.", "Duck Steps Out'' (June 7, 1940).", "The short was directed by Jack King and scripted by Carl Barks.", "There Donald visits the house of his new romantic interest for their first known date.", "At first, Daisy acts shy and has her back turned to her visitor.", "But Donald soon notices her tail-feathers taking the form of a hand and signaling for him to come closer.", "But their time alone is soon interrupted by Huey, Dewey, and Louie who have followed their uncle and clearly compete with him for the attention of Daisy.", "Uncle and nephews take turns dancing the jitterbug with her while trying to get rid of each other.", "In their final effort, the three younger Ducks feed their uncle maize (corn) in the process of becoming popcorn.", "The process is completed within Donald himself who continues to move spastically around the house while maintaining the appearance of dancing.", "The short ends with an impressed Daisy showering her new boyfriend with kisses.", "Like her precursor, she was initially voiced by Clarence Nash, but later had a more ladylike voice.The short stands out among other Donald shorts of the period for its use of modern music and surreal situations throughout.===Disney shorts: 1941–1947===One year following her introduction in ''Mr.", "Duck Steps Out'', Daisy, along with Donald and the nephews, made a brief cameo in the ''Mickey Mouse'' short ''The Nifty Nineties'', cementing her position as a recurring character.Daisy's speaking role again came 4 years later in ''Donald's Crime''.", "While Daisy has a relatively small role in the film, her date with Donald is central to the plot and shows Donald's infatuation for her.", "Finding himself broke before the date; Donald steals money from his nephews, but afterward feels guilty.", "Donald imagines what Daisy might think of him knowing he stole money, and this leads him to reform in the end.", "Daisy was voiced in the film by actress Gloria Blondell, marking the first time Daisy had a \"normal\".", "The film also marked the first time Daisy appeared in an Academy Award nominated film (Best Animated Short).Later that same year Daisy appeared again in ''Cured Duck'' (October 26, 1945).", "The short starts simply enough.", "Donald visits Daisy at her house.", "She asks him to open a window.", "He keeps trying to pull it open and eventually goes into a rage.", "By the time Daisy returns to the room, Donald has wrecked it.", "She demonstrates that the locking mechanism was on and criticizes his temper.", "She refuses to date Donald again until he learns to manage his anger.", "She claims Donald does not see her losing her own temper.", "Donald agrees to her terms and follows the surreal method of mail ordering an \"insult machine\", a device constantly hurling verbal and physical insults at him.", "He endures the whole process until feeling able to stay calm throughout it.", "He visits Daisy again and this time calmly opens the window.", "But when Daisy shows her boyfriend her new hat, his reaction is uncontrollable laughter.", "Daisy goes into a rage of her own and the short ends by pointing out that Donald is not the only Duck in need of anger management training.", "There is a continuation regarding her temper in the Mickey Mouse Works short \"Donald's Dinner Date\" where she and Donald have a date in a restaurant wherein they both end up with a bad temper thanks to Goofy.Their relationship problems were also focused on in ''Donald's Double Trouble'' (June 28, 1946).", "This time Daisy criticizes his poor command of the English language and his less-than-refined manners.", "Unwilling to lose Daisy, Donald has to find an answer to the problem.", "But his solution involves his own look-alike who happens to have all the desired qualities.", "His unnamed look-alike happens to be unemployed at the moment and agrees to this plan.", "Donald provides the money for his dates with Daisy but soon comes to realize the look-alike serves as a rival suitor.", "The rest of the short focuses on his increasing jealousy and efforts to replace the look-alike during the next date.", "A failed attempt at a tunnel of love results in the two male Ducks exiting the tunnel in each other's hands by mistake.", "Daisy walks out completely drenched.", "She jumps up and down and sounds like a record played too fast as Donald and his look-alike run away.In ''Dumb Bell of the Yukon'', Daisy is the motivation behind Donald's hunting trip after he reads a letter from her saying she likes fur coats.", "Daisy briefly appears in a non-speaking role in Donald's daydream, imagining how pleased she will be.Her next appearance in ''Sleepy Time Donald'' (May 9, 1947) involved Daisy attempting to rescue a sleepwalking Donald from wandering into danger.", "Donald is loose in an urban environment and the humor results from the problems Daisy herself suffers while trying to keep him safe.===First starring role===Daisy was the protagonist of ''Donald's Dilemma'' (July 11, 1947).", "In the short, Donald and Daisy are out on a date when a flower pot falls on his head.", "He regains consciousness soon enough but with some marked differences.", "Both his speaking and singing voices have been improved to the point of being able to enter a new career as a professional singer.", "He also acts more refined than usual.", "Most importantly Donald suffers from partial amnesia and has no memory of Daisy.", "Donald goes on becoming a well-known crooner and his rendition of When You Wish upon a Star becomes a hit.", "He is surrounded by female fans in his every step.", "Meanwhile, Daisy cannot even approach her former lover and her loss results in a number of psychological symptoms.", "Various scenes feature her suffering from anorexia, insomnia, and self-described insanity.", "An often censored scene features her losing her will to live and contemplating various methods of suicide.", "She narrates her story to a psychologist who determines that Donald would regain his memory with another flower pot falling on his head but warns that his improved voice may also be lost along with his singing career.", "He offers Daisy a dilemma.", "Either the world has its singer, but Daisy loses him, or Daisy regains her Donald, but the world loses him.", "Posed with the question \"her or the world\", Daisy answers with a resounding and possessive scream of \"Me, Me, Me\".", "Soon Donald has returned to his old self and has forgotten about his career.", "His fans forget about him.", "But Daisy has regained her lover.", "This is considered a darkly humorous look at their relationship.===Final ''Donald Duck'' shorts: 1948–1954===Daisy also appears in ''Donald's Dream Voice'' (1948), where she encourages Donald to have faith in himself.1950's ''Crazy Over Daisy'' features Donald going to Daisy's house for a date, and getting distracted by a fight with Chip 'n Dale.", "The short introduced Daisy's theme song \"Crazy over Daisy,\" and in later appearances, Donald can be heard whistling the tune, such as in \"Out on a Limb\" and \"Donald the Dude Duck.", "\"Daisy's final appearance in the Golden Age of American animation was in ''Donald's Diary'' (1954).", "There she played the role of a beautiful lady who manages to start a long-term relationship with Donald.", "But after having a nightmare about the anxieties that would come from married life, Donald runs out on her and joins the French Foreign Legion.", "Several scenes of the short imply that Daisy has had several previous relationships with men.", "Donald carves their names on a tree.", "Not noticing than the opposing side of the tree features her name alongside that of several other boyfriends.", "The marriage scene in Donald's dream featured a group of sailors waving goodbye to Daisy and mourning the loss of their apparent lover.", "The story bore little continuity with the \"real\" Donald and Daisy as Huey, Dewey, and Louie appeared as Daisy's younger brothers.", "It was the only time in which Daisy's parents are seen.===Later theatrical appearances===Daisy (right) with Donald in ''Fantasia 2000''In 1959, Daisy made a cameo in ''Donald in Mathmagic Land''.", "When the Spirit finds Donald's mind to be too cluttered with \"Antiquated Ideas\", \"Bungling\", \"False Concepts\", \"Superstitions\", and \"Confusion\" there is a picture of her in the background that is signed \"Love, Daisy.", "\"Daisy appeared in ''Mickey's Christmas Carol'' in 1983, playing the character Isabelle, the neglected love interest of a young Ebenezer Scrooge, played by Scrooge McDuck.", "The film was Daisy's first theatrical appearance in almost 30 years and was also the first time she appeared apart from Donald, although the nature of the film was that of Disney characters \"playing\" other characters and was not part of any story continuity.", "Daisy was voiced by Patricia Parris in the film.In 1988, Daisy made a cameo appearance in the finale of ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'' along with many other Disney characters.Daisy's most recent theatrical appearance was ''Fantasia 2000'', released in late 1999.Like the original ''Fantasia'', the film constituted various musical segments.", "Donald and Daisy appeared in non-speaking roles for the seventh of eight segments, set to the ''Pomp and Circumstance'' marches.", "The segment is a retelling of Noah's Ark with the ducks acting as Noah's assistants.", "Donald and Daisy become separated in the chaos of the flood and each presumes the other to have drowned until they discover each other towards the near end afterwards.", "Daisy kisses Donald in happiness and joy when they are reunited and the duck couple walk out of the ark hand-in-hand admiring their new home.===Non-theatrical appearances===Daisy appeared in the direct-to-video films ''Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas'', ''Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas'', and ''Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers''." ], [ "In comics", "According to the unofficial timeline of Don Rosa, Daisy was born in 1920.According to Rosa, Daisy is Donald's sister-in-law – Daisy's brother had married Donald's twin sister, Della Duck, and together, the two became the parents of Huey, Dewey, and Louie Duck.", "This is his explanation of why the triplets tend to call her \"Aunt Daisy\" while no such courtesy is given to Gladstone Gander for example.", "Don Rosa has said that he considers Donald and Daisy to be nonrelated and that Duck simply is the Duckburg universe equal to Smith, being a common surname.Donna Duck served as a precursor for Daisy in both animation and comics.", "She first appeared in a one-page illustration titled \"Don Donald\" and published in ''Good Housekeeping'' #3701 (January 1937).", "The page was illustrated by Thomas \"Tom\" Wood (1870s – October 4, 1940) who was head of the Walt Disney Studios' publicity department from 1933 until his death.", "She made a brief appearance in the \"Donald and Donna\" comic strip published in ''Mickey Mouse Weekly'' from May 15 to August 21, 1937.The ''Weekly'' was a United Kingdom publication and the strip was illustrated at the time by William A. Ward.Daisy made her first comics appearance on November 4, 1940.She was introduced as the new neighbor of Donald and his potential love interest.", "The Donald Duck comic strip was at the time scripted by Bob Karp and illustrated by Al Taliaferro.", "She was seemingly soft-spoken but had a fiery temper and Donald often found himself a victim to her rage.", "For example, one strip had Daisy waiting for Donald to carve their names and their love for each other on a tree, only to discover the male Duck had carved \"Daisy loves Donald\" with her name hardly visible and his name in prominent bold letters, resulting in her breaking her umbrella on his head and dismissing him as a \"conceited little pup\".Her first original comic book appearance was a cameo in the story \"The Mighty Trapper\" by Carl Barks, first published in ''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories'' No.", "36 (September 1943), wherein Huey, Dewey, and Louie ask her to lend them an old fur coat.", "Barks did not use the character again until \"Donald Tames His Temper\" (January 1946) when Daisy demands that Donald learns to manage his anger as a New Year's resolution.", "Donald has to agree but points early on that Daisy herself has the temper of a \"wild-eyed wildcat\".Her next appearance by Barks in \"Biceps Blues\" (June 1946) introduced a key concept to their relationship.", "When Daisy seems impressed by a certain type of male, Donald is forced to emulate that type, no matter how unsuited Donald is for emulating it successfully.", "In this early case, Daisy envies her \"old school chum\" Susy Swan for dating a notable weightlifter.", "Donald at first protests that she seems too impressed by a \"gorilla\" just because the \"muscle-bound buffalo\" can lift 300 pounds.", "But when Daisy simply ignores him and daydreams about dating Hercules, Donald decides to start weightlifting.", "The rest of the story focuses on his ineptitude at exercising and the eventual efforts of Huey, Dewey, and Louie to cheer him up by various tricks pointing to Donald becoming stronger.", "But when Donald arranges a demonstration for Daisy, Susy, and her boyfriend, their tricks are not able to save him from ridicule.", "Daisy then chases Donald in anger (Donald, in turn, chases Huey, Dewey, and Louie in anger) while Susy boasts about her luck in men to her weightlifter boyfriend, who simply grunts and nods and fails to understand her words.", "Daisy failed to see that Susy's boyfriend is strong but otherwise not too gifted, whereas Donald is one who would go great lengths for her.Daisy continued to make frequent appearances in stories by Barks but the next important one for her development was \"Wintertime Wager\" (January 1948).", "There she first attempts to act as the voice of reason between competing cousins Donald Duck and Gladstone Gander and in fact manages to prevent Donald losing his house to Gladstone because of a wager.", "This story established that both of them wanted to be in her good graces.", "Their next joined meeting in \"Gladstone Returns\" (August 1948) has Donald and Gladstone competing in raising enough money for her charity effort.Their rivalry increased when \"Donald's Love Letters\" (December 1949) revealed that both cousins were romantically interested in Daisy.", "From then on many stories by both Barks and others would develop around this love triangle.", "Daisy in turns dates both of them but this fact does not prevent the two competing suitors from attempting to earn more of her affection or trying to embarrass each other in front of her.", "Daisy can be counted on to be making regular appearances alongside either of them for several years to come.", "Often it would appear as if Gladstone had the upper hand in winning Daisy due to his luck, only to find fate thwarts his plans, such as a contest where the man who hunts the most turkeys gets to have dinner with Daisy, who has won a beauty contest.", "Gladstone wins the turkey hunt but finds himself having dinner with an ugly woman who is the runner-up queen, as Daisy is incapacitated, and Donald is the one nursing her.Similarly, Daisy's precursor Donna and Daisy herself were featured together as rivals for Donald's affection in a newspaper strip published on August 7, 1951.In her last appearance, on August 11, 1951, Donna had a fiancé, a caricature of Disney cartoonist Manuel Gonzales, establishing a distinction between her character and Daisy.In the comics, Daisy is also a member of a local gossip group called the \"Chit-Chat Society\", which plays bridge and sponsors charity fund-raisers.", "The core membership includes Clarabelle Cow and Clara Cluck, though occasionally some other unnamed characters appear.In later years, Carl Barks 'modernized' Daisy in two stories: 'The not-so-ancient mariner' and 'Hall of the mermaid queen'.", "In the first story, Daisy is wearing a lot of different wigs and outfits.", "Gladstone Gander is also seen wearing a wig and a new wardrobe in the story.", "In the second story, Daisy has short, curly hair and a bow that is much smaller than usual.In the 1950s, Disney launched a series of stories titled \"Daisy Duck's Diary\", where Daisy was given more of a leading role.", "This series, originally by such cartoonists as Dick Moores, Jack Bradbury, Tony Strobl and Carl Barks, have continued to the present day in Italy, Denmark and the Netherlands.Since 1999 Daisy, like Donald Duck has her own magazine in the Netherlands.", "She had one in Brazil between 1986 and 1997, and a short-lived series in 2004 with republications of old stories.===Super Daisy===Daisy as PaperinikaSince the early 1970s, Daisy has been featured as a superhero crime fighter in Italian Disney comics.", "Daisy's alter ego as '''Super Daisy''' ('''Paperinika''' in Italian) was designed by writer Guido Martina and artist Giorgio Cavazzano as a female counterpart to the \"Duck Avenger\" (\"Paperinik\" in Italian).", "While Donald's superhero persona was originally created to place Donald into situations where he was finally a \"winner\" (versus his usual portrayal as a \"loser\"), when Super Daisy appeared in the same story as the Duck Avenger, she then became the \"winner\" and Donald was once more relegated to the role of \"loser\".", "This upset some children, who complained to the comics' editors, which resulted in the Italian comics ceasing to depict Daisy as a superhero, although Super Daisy continued to be featured in the Disney comics in Brazil.As Super Daisy, Daisy has no superpowers but instead uses devices created by high society fashion designer Genialina Edy Son.", "Genialina personally designed Daisy's costume, as well as supplying her with crime-fighting gear such as sleeping pills and a James Bond-esque sports car.", "Frequently, Super Daisy both fights alongside and against the Duck Avenger.", "In the Brazilian stories, Super Daisy often teams up with other Disney comic superheroes, such as Super Goof (Goofy), Super Gilly (\"Gilbert\"), and the Red Bat (Fethry Duck).While the Duck Avenger's main goal is enforcing justice in Duckburg, and proving himself better than Donald's usual, unlucky self, Super Daisy acts mostly on an extreme, somewhat warped form of feminism, donning her alternate identity to prove that women are better than men at whatever they do, openly antagonizing the Duck Avenger to prove her point.", "Later stories, such as the \"Hero Club\" inspired Italian story \"Ultraheroes\", show Super Daisy and the Duck Avenger at the center of a weird love triangle: Super Daisy, despite their bickering eventually warms to the Duck Avenger, feeling drawn to his righteous persona.", "They both feel unable to pursue their relationship, as they feel themselves cheating their non-superhero selves, as they do not realize each others' identity as companions in everyday life." ], [ "Name in other languages", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Disney parks", "At the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts and on the Disney Cruise Line ships, Daisy is a character for meet-and-greets, parades, and shows.", "Her semi-elusiveness has made her extra popular to an extent, adding to the fact that Daisy is a member of the Sensational Six, therefore making Daisy merchandise even more appealing to collectors.", "After Disney World expanded Fantasyland in 2012, Daisy became available for meet-and-greets at Pete's Silly Sideshow.", "At Epcot, where she appears at the main entrance.", "She has also appeared in restaurants such as the Tusker House and Minnie's Springtime Diner at Hollywood & Vine.Daisy appears in an MMORPG game called Toontown Online, based on the theme parks, where she walks around Daisy Gardens leaving comments about passing toons." ], [ "Television", "Daisy in ''Quack Pack'' (1996)In the 1996 television series ''Quack Pack'', Daisy was presented as a much more liberated (and patient) woman than in her previous appearances, where she was employed as a television station reporter, with Donald as her cameraman.", "The couple also seem to have a better and steadier relationship compared to the other series.", "In ''Quack Pack'', Daisy had a pet iguana named Knuckles.Daisy also appeared in the later television series ''Mickey Mouse Works'' and ''House of Mouse'' as a regular character.", "She is also part of the main characters in ''Mickey Mouse Clubhouse'' and its spin-offs ''Minnie's Bow-Toons'', ''Mickey Mouse Mixed-Up Adventures'' and ''Mickey Mouse Funhouse''.Daisy made her first appearance in the 2017 incarnation of ''DuckTales'' in \"Louie's Eleven\", with MacNeille once again providing her voice.", "In this version, Daisy and Donald meet for the first time, and her appearance is similar to the theatrical short, ''Donald's Diary'' (1954).", "She is depicted as having a temper like Donald and is an assistant to Duckburg trendsetter, Emma Glamour.", "After Donald attempts to infiltrate one of Glamour's parties to help his band, the Three Caballeros, he and Daisy end up trapped in an elevator and develop a mutual attraction to each other.", "As of the episode \"New Gods on the Block!", "\", they became a couple.", "and \"The Last Adventure!", "\"." ], [ "Video games", "In the ''Kingdom Hearts'' video game series, appears as a countess in Disney Castle.", "In ''Kingdom Hearts II'', she scolds Donald for being gone too long.", "She makes a cameo appearance in ''Kingdom Hearts Birth By Sleep'' and ''Kingdom Hearts III''.Daisy is a playable character in the video game ''Disney Think Fast'' and a playable race driver in the Nintendo 64 and Game Boy Color racing game ''Mickey's Speedway USA''.", "She is also a playable character in Disney Golf for the PlayStation 2 and in Disney's Party for the GameCube and Game Boy Advance.For the Wii: In ''Epic Mickey'', a robot version of Daisy appears in the game, and in ''Dance Dance Revolution Disney Grooves'', Daisy appears as one of the random backup dancers.Daisy runs the Daisy Gardens neighborhood in ''Disney's Toontown Online''." ], [ "See also", " Duck family (Disney) / Donald Duck / Huey, Dewey, and Louie* Donald Duck universe / Donald Duck in comics / Disney comics" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Daisy Duck on IMDb" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dot-com bubble" ], [ "Introduction", "The NASDAQ Composite index spiked in 2000 and then fell sharply as a result of the dot-com bubble.Quarterly U.S. venture capital investments, 1995–2017The '''dot-com bubble''' (or '''dot-com boom''') was a stock market bubble that ballooned during the late-1990s and peaked on Friday, March 10, 2000.This period of market growth coincided with the widespread adoption of the World Wide Web and the Internet, resulting in a dispensation of available venture capital and the rapid growth of valuations in new dot-com startups.", "Between 1995 and its peak in March 2000, investments in the NASDAQ composite stock market index rose 800%, only to fall 78% from its peak by October 2002, giving up all its gains during the bubble.During the '''dot-com crash''', many online shopping companies, notably Pets.com, Webvan, and Boo.com, as well as several communication companies, such as Worldcom, NorthPoint Communications, and Global Crossing, failed and shut down.", "Others, like Lastminute.com, MP3.com and PeopleSound remained through its sale and buyers acquisition.", "Larger companies like Amazon and Cisco Systems lost large portions of their market capitalization, with Cisco losing 80% of its stock value." ], [ "Background", "Historically, the dot-com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology-inspired booms of the past including railroads in the 1840s, automobiles in the early 20th century, radio in the 1920s, television in the 1940s, transistor electronics in the 1950s, computer time-sharing in the 1960s, and home computers and biotechnology in the 1980s." ], [ "Overview", "Low interest rates in 1998–99 facilitated an increase in start-up companies.", "Although a number of these new entrepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability, most of them lacked these characteristics but were able to sell their ideas to investors because of the novelty of the dot-com concept.In 2000, the dot-com bubble burst, and many dot-com startups went out of business after burning through their venture capital and failing to become profitable.", "However, many others, particularly online retailers like eBay and Amazon, blossomed and became highly profitable.", "More conventional retailers found online merchandising to be a profitable additional source of revenue.", "While some online entertainment and news outlets failed when their seed capital ran out, others persisted and eventually became economically self-sufficient.", "Traditional media outlets (newspaper publishers, broadcasters and cablecasters in particular) also found the Web to be a useful and profitable additional channel for content distribution, and an additional means to generate advertising revenue.", "The sites that survived and eventually prospered after the bubble burst had two things in common: a sound business plan, and a niche in the marketplace that was, if not unique, particularly well-defined and well-served.In the aftermath of the dot-com bubble, telecommunications companies had a great deal of overcapacity as many Internet business clients went bust.", "That, plus ongoing investment in local cell infrastructure kept connectivity charges low, and helped to make high-speed Internet connectivity more affordable.", "During this time, a handful of companies found success developing business models that helped make the World Wide Web a more compelling experience.", "These include airline booking sites, Google's search engine and its profitable approach to keyword-based advertising, as well as eBay's auction site and Amazon.com's online department store.", "The low price of reaching millions worldwide, and the possibility of selling to or hearing from those people at the same moment when they were reached, promised to overturn established business dogma in advertising, mail-order sales, customer relationship management, and many more areas.", "The web was a new killer app—it could bring together unrelated buyers and sellers in seamless and low-cost ways.", "Entrepreneurs around the world developed new business models, and ran to their nearest venture capitalist.", "While some of the new entrepreneurs had experience in business and economics, the majority were simply people with ideas, and did not manage the capital influx prudently.", "Additionally, many dot-com business plans were predicated on the assumption that by using the Internet, they would bypass the distribution channels of existing businesses and therefore not have to compete with them; when the established businesses with strong existing brands developed their own Internet presence, these hopes were shattered, and the newcomers were left attempting to break into markets dominated by larger, more established businesses.The dot-com bubble burst in March 2000, with the technology heavy NASDAQ Composite index peaking at 5,048.62 on March 10 (5,132.52 intraday), more than double its value just a year before.", "By 2001, the bubble's deflation was running full speed.", "A majority of the dot-coms had ceased trading, after having burnt through their venture capital and IPO capital, often without ever making a profit.", "But despite this, the Internet continues to grow, driven by commerce, ever greater amounts of online information, knowledge, social networking and access by mobile devices." ], [ "Prelude to the bubble", "The 1993 release of Mosaic and subsequent web browsers during the following years gave computer users access to the World Wide Web, popularizing use of the Internet.", "Internet use increased as a result of the reduction of the \"digital divide\" and advances in connectivity, uses of the Internet, and computer education.", "Between 1990 and 1997, the percentage of households in the United States owning computers increased from 15% to 35% as computer ownership progressed from a luxury to a necessity.", "This marked the shift to the Information Age, an economy based on information technology, and many new companies were founded.At the same time, a decline in interest rates increased the availability of capital.", "The Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997, which lowered the top marginal capital gains tax in the United States, also made people more willing to make more speculative investments.", "Alan Greenspan, then-Chair of the Federal Reserve, allegedly fueled investments in the stock market by putting a positive spin on stock valuations.", "The Telecommunications Act of 1996 was expected to result in many new technologies from which many people wanted to profit." ], [ "The bubble", "As a result of these factors, many investors were eager to invest, at any valuation, in any dot-com company, especially if it had one of the Internet-related prefixes or a \".com\" suffix in its name.", "Venture capital was easy to raise.", "Investment banks, which profited significantly from initial public offerings (IPO), fueled speculation and encouraged investment in technology.", "A combination of rapidly increasing stock prices in the quaternary sector of the economy and confidence that the companies would turn future profits created an environment in which many investors were willing to overlook traditional metrics, such as the price–earnings ratio, and base confidence on technological advancements, leading to a stock market bubble.", "Between 1995 and 2000, the Nasdaq Composite stock market index rose 400%.", "It reached a price–earnings ratio of 200, dwarfing the peak price–earnings ratio of 80 for the Japanese Nikkei 225 during the Japanese asset price bubble of 1991.In 1999, shares of Qualcomm rose in value by 2,619%, 12 other large-cap stocks each rose over 1,000% in value, and seven additional large-cap stocks each rose over 900% in value.", "Even though the Nasdaq Composite rose 85.6% and the S&P 500 rose 19.5% in 1999, more stocks fell in value than rose in value as investors sold stocks in slower growing companies to invest in Internet stocks.An unprecedented amount of personal investing occurred during the boom and stories of people quitting their jobs to trade on the financial market were common.", "The news media took advantage of the public's desire to invest in the stock market; an article in ''The Wall Street Journal'' suggested that investors \"re-think\" the \"quaint idea\" of profits, and CNBC reported on the stock market with the same level of suspense as many networks provided to the broadcasting of sports events.At the height of the boom, it was possible for a promising dot-com company to become a public company via an IPO and raise a substantial amount of money even if it had never made a profit—or, in some cases, realized any material revenue.", "People who received employee stock options became instant paper millionaires when their companies executed IPOs; however, most employees were barred from selling shares immediately due to lock-up periods.", "The most successful entrepreneurs, such as Mark Cuban, sold their shares or entered into hedges to protect their gains.", "Sir John Templeton successfully shorted many dot-com stocks at the peak of the bubble during what he called \"temporary insanity\" and a \"once-in-a-lifetime opportunity\".", "He shorted stocks just before the expiration of lockup periods ending six months after initial public offerings, correctly anticipating many dot-com company executives would sell shares as soon as possible, and that large-scale selling would force down share prices.===Spending tendencies of dot-com companies===Most dot-com companies incurred net operating losses as they spent heavily on advertising and promotions to harness network effects to build market share or mind share as fast as possible, using the mottos \"get big fast\" and \"get large or get lost\".", "These companies offered their services or products for free or at a discount with the expectation that they could build enough brand awareness to charge profitable rates for their services in the future.The \"growth over profits\" mentality and the aura of \"new economy\" invincibility led some companies to engage in lavish spending on elaborate business facilities and luxury vacations for employees.", "Upon the launch of a new product or website, a company would organize an expensive event called a dot-com party.===Bubble in telecom===In the five years after the American Telecommunications Act of 1996 went into effect, telecommunications equipment companies invested more than $500 billion, mostly financed with debt, into laying fiber optic cable, adding new switches, and building wireless networks.", "In many areas, such as the Dulles Technology Corridor in Virginia, governments funded technology infrastructure and created favorable business and tax law to encourage companies to expand.", "The growth in capacity vastly outstripped the growth in demand.", "Spectrum auctions for 3G in the United Kingdom in April 2000, led by Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown, raised £22.5 billion.", "In Germany, in August 2000, the auctions raised £30 billion.", "A 3G spectrum auction in the United States in 1999 had to be re-run when the winners defaulted on their bids of $4 billion.", "The re-auction netted 10% of the original sales prices.", "When financing became hard to find as the bubble burst, the high debt ratios of these companies led to bankruptcy.", "Bond investors recovered just over 20% of their investments.", "However, several telecom executives sold stock before the crash including Philip Anschutz, who reaped $1.9 billion, Joseph Nacchio, who reaped $248 million, and Gary Winnick, who sold $748 million worth of shares." ], [ "Bursting the bubble", "Historical government interest rates in the United StatesNearing the turn of the 2000s, spending on technology was volatile as companies prepared for the Year 2000 problem.", "There were concerns that computer systems would have trouble changing their clock and calendar systems from 1999 to 2000 which might trigger wider social or economic problems, but there was virtually no impact or disruption due to adequate preparation.", "Spending on marketing also reached new heights for the sector: Two dot-com companies purchased ad spots for Super Bowl XXXIII, and 17 dot-com companies bought ad spots the following year for Super Bowl XXXIV.On January 10, 2000, America Online, led by Steve Case and Ted Leonsis, announced a merger with Time Warner, led by Gerald M. Levin.", "The merger was the largest to date and was questioned by many analysts.", "Then, on January 30, 2000, 12 ads of the 61 ads for Super Bowl XXXIV were purchased by dot-coms (sources state ranges from 12 up to 19 companies depending on the definition of ''dot-com company'').", "At that time, the cost for a 30-second commercial was between $1.9 million and $2.2 million.Meanwhile, Alan Greenspan, then Chair of the Federal Reserve, raised interest rates several times; these actions were believed by many to have caused the bursting of the dot-com bubble.", "According to Paul Krugman, however, \"he didn't raise interest rates to curb the market's enthusiasm; he didn't even seek to impose margin requirements on stock market investors.", "Instead, it is alleged he waited until the bubble burst, as it did in 2000, then tried to clean up the mess afterward\".", "Finance author and commentator E. Ray Canterbery agreed with Krugman's criticism.On Friday March 10, 2000, the NASDAQ Composite stock market index peaked at 5,048.62.However, on March 13, 2000, news that Japan had once again entered a recession triggered a global sell off that disproportionately affected technology stocks.", "Soon after, Yahoo!", "and eBay ended merger talks and the Nasdaq fell 2.6%, but the S&P 500 rose 2.4% as investors shifted from strong performing technology stocks to poor performing established stocks.On March 20, 2000, ''Barron's'' featured a cover article titled \"Burning Up; Warning: Internet companies are running out of cash—fast\", which predicted the imminent bankruptcy of many Internet companies.", "This led many people to rethink their investments.", "That same day, MicroStrategy announced a revenue restatement due to aggressive accounting practices.", "Its stock price, which had risen from $7 per share to as high as $333 per share in a year, fell $140 per share, or 62%, in a day.", "The next day, the Federal Reserve raised interest rates, leading to an inverted yield curve, although stocks rallied temporarily.Tangentially to all of speculation, Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson issued his conclusions of law in the case of ''United States v. Microsoft Corp.'' (2001) and ruled that Microsoft was guilty of monopolization and tying in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act.", "This led to a one-day 15% decline in the value of shares in Microsoft and a 350-point, or 8%, drop in the value of the Nasdaq.", "Many people saw the legal actions as bad for technology in general.", "That same day, Bloomberg News published a widely read article that stated: \"It's time, at last, to pay attention to the numbers\".On Friday, April 14, 2000, the Nasdaq Composite index fell 9%, ending a week in which it fell 25%.", "Investors were forced to sell stocks ahead of Tax Day, the due date to pay taxes on gains realized in the previous year.", "By June 2000, dot-com companies were forced to reevaluate their spending on advertising campaigns.", "On November 9, 2000, Pets.com, a much-hyped company that had backing from Amazon.com, went out of business only nine months after completing its IPO.", "By that time, most Internet stocks had declined in value by 75% from their highs, wiping out $1.755 trillion in value.", "In January 2001, just three dot-com companies bought advertising spots during Super Bowl XXXV.", "The September 11 attacks accelerated the stock-market drop.", "Investor confidence was further eroded by several accounting scandals and the resulting bankruptcies, including the Enron scandal in October 2001, the WorldCom scandal in June 2002, and the Adelphia Communications Corporation scandal in July 2002.By the end of the stock market downturn of 2002, stocks had lost $5 trillion in market capitalization since the peak.", "At its trough on October 9, 2002, the NASDAQ-100 had dropped to 1,114, down 78% from its peak." ], [ "Aftermath", "After venture capital was no longer available, the operational mentality of executives and investors completely changed.", "A dot-com company's lifespan was measured by its burn rate, the rate at which it spent its existing capital.", "Many dot-com companies ran out of capital and went through liquidation.", "Supporting industries, such as advertising and shipping, scaled back their operations as demand for services fell.", "However, many companies were able to endure the crash; 48% of dot-com companies survived through 2004, albeit at lower valuations.Several companies and their executives, including Bernard Ebbers, Jeffrey Skilling, and Kenneth Lay, were accused or convicted of fraud for misusing shareholders' money, and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission levied large fines against investment firms including Citigroup and Merrill Lynch for misleading investors.After suffering losses, retail investors transitioned their investment portfolios to more cautious positions.", "Popular Internet forums that focused on high tech stocks, such as Silicon Investor, Yahoo!", "Finance, and The Motley Fool declined in use significantly.===Job market and office equipment glut===Layoffs of programmers resulted in a general glut in the job market.", "University enrollment for computer-related degrees dropped noticeably.", "Aeron chairs, which retailed for $1,100 each, were liquidated en masse.===Legacy===As growth in the technology sector stabilized, companies consolidated; some, such as Amazon.com, eBay, and Google gained market share and came to dominate their respective fields.", "The most valuable public companies are now generally in the technology sector.In a 2015 book, venture capitalist Fred Wilson, who funded many dot-com companies and lost 90% of his net worth when the bubble burst, said about the dot-com bubble:" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * ." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Discounted cash flow" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''discounted cash flow''' ('''DCF''') analysis, in financial analysis, is a method used to value a security, project, company, or asset, that incorporates the time value of money.", "Discounted cash flow analysis is widely used in investment finance, real estate development, corporate financial management, and patent valuation.", "Used in industry as early as the 1700s or 1800s, it was widely discussed in financial economics in the 1960s, and U.S. courts began employing the concept in the 1980s and 1990s." ], [ "Application", " Main ElementsOn a very high level, the main elements in valuing a corporate by Discounted Cash Flow are as follows; see Valuation using discounted cash flows, and graphics below, for detail:* '''Free Cash Flow Projections:''' Projections of the amount of Cash produced by a company's business operations after paying for operating expenses and capital expenditures.", "* '''Discount Rate:''' The cost of capital (Debt and Equity) for the business.", "This rate, which acts like an interest rate on future Cash inflows, is used to convert them into current dollar equivalents.", "* '''Terminal Value:''' The value of a business at the end of the projection period (typical for a DCF analysis is either a 5-year projection period or, occasionally, a 10-year projection period).Flowchart for a typical DCF valuation, with each step detailed in the text (click on image to see at full size)Here, a spreadsheet valuation, uses Free cash flows to estimate stock's Fair Value and measure the sensitivity of WACC and Perpetual growth In '''discount cash flow analysis''', all future cash flows are estimated and discounted by using cost of capital to give their present values (PVs).", "The sum of all future cash flows, both incoming and outgoing, is the net present value (NPV), which is taken as the value of the cash flows in question;see aside.For further context see ; and for the mechanics see valuation using discounted cash flows, which includes modifications typical for startups, private equity and venture capital, corporate finance \"projects\", and mergers and acquisitions.Using DCF analysis to compute the NPV takes as input cash flows and a discount rate and gives as output a present value.", "The opposite process takes cash flows and a price (present value) as inputs, and provides as output the discount rate; this is used in bond markets to obtain the yield." ], [ "History", "Discounted cash flow calculations have been used in some form since money was first lent at interest in ancient times.", "Studies of ancient Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics suggest that they used techniques similar to discounting future cash flows.", "Modern discounted cash flow analysis has been used since at least the early 1700s in the UK coal industry.Discounted cash flow valuation is differentiated from the accounting book value, which is based on the amount paid for the asset.", "Following the stock market crash of 1929, discounted cash flow analysis gained popularity as a valuation method for stocks.", "Irving Fisher in his 1930 book ''The Theory of Interest'' and John Burr Williams's 1938 text ''The Theory of Investment Value'' first formally expressed the DCF method in modern economic terms." ], [ "Mathematics", "===Discounted cash flows===The discounted cash flow formula is derived from the present value formula for calculating the time value of money:and compounding returns::.Thus the discounted present value (for one cash flow in one future period) is expressed as::where* ''DPV'' is the discounted present value of the future cash flow (''FV''), or ''FV'' adjusted for the delay in receipt;* ''FV'' is the nominal value of a cash flow amount in a future period (see Mid-year adjustment);* ''r'' is the interest rate or discount rate, which reflects the cost of tying up capital and may also allow for the risk that the payment may not be received in full;* ''n'' is the time in years before the future cash flow occurs.Where multiple cash flows in multiple time periods are discounted, it is necessary to sum them as follows::for each future cash flow (''FV'') at any time period (''t'') in years from the present time, summed over all time periods.", "The sum can then be used as a net present value figure.", "If the amount to be paid at time 0 (now) for all the future cash flows is known, then that amount can be substituted for ''DPV'' and the equation can be solved for ''r'', that is the internal rate of return.All the above assumes that the interest rate remains constant throughout the whole period.If the cash flow stream is assumed to continue indefinitely, the finite forecast is usually combined with the assumption of constant cash flow growth beyond the discrete projection period.", "The total value of such cash flow stream is the sum of the finite discounted cash flow forecast and the Terminal value (finance).===Continuous cash flows===For continuous cash flows, the summation in the above formula is replaced by an integration::where is now the ''rate'' of cash flow, and ." ], [ "Discount rate", "The act of discounting future cash flows asks \"how much money would have to be invested currently, at a given rate of return, to yield the forecast cash flow, at its future date?\"", "In other words, discounting returns the present value of future cash flows, where the rate used is the cost of capital that ''appropriately'' reflects the risk, and timing, of the cash flows.This \"'''required return'''\" thus incorporates:# Time value of money (risk-free rate) – according to the theory of time preference, investors would rather have cash immediately than having to wait and must therefore be compensated by paying for the delay.# Risk premium – reflects the extra return investors demand because they want to be compensated for the risk that the cash flow might not materialize after all.", "For the latter, various models have been developed, where the premium is (typically) calculated as a function of the asset's performance with reference to some macroeconomic variable - for example, the CAPM compares the asset's historical returns to the \"overall market's\"; see and .An alternate, although less common approach, is to apply a \"fundamental valuation\" method, such as the \"T-model\", which instead relies on accounting information.Other methods of discounting, such as hyperbolic discounting, are studied in academia and said to reflect intuitive decision-making, but are not generally used in industry.", "In this context the above is referred to as \"exponential discounting\".The terminology \"expected return\", although formally the mathematical expected value, is often used interchangeably with the above, where \"expected\" means \"required\" or \"demanded\" by investors.The method may also be modified by industry, for example various formulae have been proposed when choosing a discount rate in a healthcare setting;similarly in a mining setting, where risk-characteristics can differ (dramatically) by property." ], [ "Methods of appraisal of a company or project", "For these valuation purposes, a number of different DCF methods are distinguished today, some of which are outlined below.", "The details are likely to vary depending on the capital structure of the company.", "However the assumptions used in the appraisal (especially the equity discount rate and the projection of the cash flows to be achieved) are likely to be at least as important as the precise model used.", "Both the income stream selected and the associated cost of capital model determine the valuation result obtained with each method.", "(This is one reason these valuation methods are formally referred to as the Discounted Future Economic Income methods.)", "The below is offered as a high-level treatment; for the components / steps of business modeling here, see .===Equity-approach===* Flows to equity approach (FTE)Discount the cash flows available to the holders of equity capital, after allowing for cost of servicing debt capitalAdvantages: Makes explicit allowance for the cost of debt capital*Disadvantages: Requires judgement on choice of discount rate===Entity-approach=== Adjusted present value approach (APV) Discount the cash flows before allowing for the debt capital (but allowing for the tax relief obtained on the debt capital) Advantages: Simpler to apply if a specific project is being valued which does not have earmarked debt capital finance** Disadvantages: Requires judgement on choice of discount rate; no explicit allowance for cost of debt capital, which may be much higher than a risk-free rate* Weighted average cost of capital approach (WACC) Derive a weighted cost of the capital obtained from the various sources and use that discount rate to discount the unlevered free cash flows from the project Advantages: Overcomes the requirement for debt capital finance to be earmarked to particular projects** Disadvantages: Care must be exercised in the selection of the appropriate income stream.", "The net cash flow to total invested capital is the generally accepted choice.", "* Total cash flow approach (TCF) This distinction illustrates that the Discounted Cash Flow method can be used to determine the value of various business ownership interests.", "These can include equity or debt holders.", " Alternatively, the method can be used to value the company based on the value of total invested capital.", "In each case, the differences lie in the choice of the income stream and discount rate.", "For example, the net cash flow to total invested capital and WACC are appropriate when valuing a company based on the market value of all invested capital." ], [ "Shortcomings", "The following difficulties are identified with the application of DCF in valuation:# '''Forecast reliability''': Traditional DCF models assume we can accurately forecast revenue and earnings 3–5 years into the future.", "But studies have shown that growth is neither predictable nor persistent.", "(See Stock valuation#Growth rate and Sustainable growth rate#From a financial perspective.)", "In other terms, using DCF models is problematic due to the problem of induction, i.e.", "presupposing that a sequence of events in the future will occur as it always has in the past.", "Colloquially, in the world of finance, the problem of induction is often simplified with the common phrase: past returns are not indicative of future results.", "In fact, the SEC demands that all mutual funds use this sentence to warn their investors.This observation has led some to conclude that DCF models should only be used to value companies with steady cash flows.", "For example, DCF models are widely used to value mature companies in stable industry sectors, such as utilities.", "For industries that are especially unpredictable and thus harder to forecast, DCF models can prove especially challenging.", "Industry Examples:#* Real Estate: Investors use DCF models to value commercial real estate development projects.", "This practice has two main shortcomings.", "First, the discount rate assumption relies on the market for competing investments at the time of the analysis, which may not persist into the future.", "Second, assumptions about ten-year income increases are usually based on historic increases in the market rent.", "Yet the cyclical nature of most real estate markets is not factored in.", "Most real estate loans are made during boom real estate markets and these markets usually last fewer than ten years.", "In this case, due to the problem of induction, using a DCF model to value commercial real estate during any but the early years of a boom market can lead to overvaluation.#* Early-stage Technology Companies: In valuing startups, the DCF method can be applied a number of times, with differing assumptions, to assess a range of possible future outcomes—such as the best, worst and mostly likely case scenarios.", "Even so, the lack of historical company data and uncertainty about factors that can affect the company's development make DCF models especially difficult for valuing startups.", "There is a lack of credibility regarding future cash flows, future cost of capital, and the company's growth rate.", "By forecasting limited data into an unpredictable future, the problem of induction is especially pronounced.# '''Discount rate estimation''': Traditionally, DCF models assume that the capital asset pricing model can be used to assess the riskiness of an investment and set an appropriate discount rate.", "Some economists, however, suggest that the capital asset pricing model has been empirically invalidated.", "various other models are proposed (see asset pricing), although all are subject to some theoretical or empirical criticism.# '''Input-output problem''': DCF is merely a mechanical valuation tool, which makes it subject to the principle \"garbage in, garbage out.\"", "Small changes in inputs can result in large changes in the value of a company.", "This is especially the case with terminal values, which make up a large proportion of the Discounted Cash Flow's final value.# '''Missing variables''': Traditional DCF calculations only consider the financial costs and benefits of a decision.", "They do not include the environmental, social and governance performance of an organization.", "This criticism, true for all valuation techniques, is addressed through an approach called \"IntFV\" discussed below." ], [ "Integrated future value", "To address the lack of integration of the short and long term importance, value and risks associated with natural and social capital into the traditional DCF calculation, companies are valuing their environmental, social and governance (ESG) performance through an Integrated Management approach to reporting, that expands DCF or Net Present Value to Integrated Future Value (IntFV).This allows companies to value their investments not just for their financial return but also the long term environmental and social return of their investments.", "By highlighting environmental, social and governance performance in reporting, decision makers have the opportunity to identify new areas for value creation that are not revealed through traditional financial reporting.As an example, the social cost of carbon is one value that can be incorporated into Integrated Future Value calculations to encompass the damage to society from greenhouse gas emissions that result from an investment.This is an integrated approach to reporting that supports Integrated Bottom Line (IBL) decision making, which takes triple bottom line (TBL) a step further and combines financial, environmental and social performance reporting into one balance sheet.", "This approach provides decision makers with the insight to identify opportunities for value creation that promote growth and change within an organization." ], [ "See also", "Adjusted present valueCapital asset pricing modelCapital budgetingCost of capitalDebt ratioEconomic value addedEnterprise valueFinancial reportingFlows to equityForecast period (finance)Free cash flowInternal rate of returnMarket value addedNet present valueOwner earningsPatent valuationPresent value of growth opportunitiesResidual income valuationTerminal value (finance)Time value of moneyValuation using discounted cash flowsWeighted average cost of capital" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*****" ], [ "External links", " Calculating Intrinsic Value Using the DCF Model, wealthyeducation.com* Calculating Terminal Value Using the DCF Model, wealthyeducation.com* Continuous compounding/cash flows, ocw.mit.edu* Getting Started With Discounted Cash Flows.", "''The Street''." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dachau, Bavaria" ], [ "Introduction", "Church of St Jakob, Dachau'''Dachau''' () is a town in the Upper Bavaria district of Bavaria, a state in the southern part of Germany.", "It is a major district town—a ''Große Kreisstadt''—of the administrative region of Upper Bavaria, about north-west of Munich.", "It is now a popular residential area for people working in Munich, with roughly 45,000 inhabitants.", "The historic centre of town with its 18th-century castle is situated on an elevation and visible over a great distance.Dachau was founded in the 9th century.", "It was home to many artists during the late 19th and early 20th centuries; well-known author and editor Ludwig Thoma lived here for two years.", "The town is known for its proximity to the Dachau concentration camp, operated by Nazi Germany between 1933 and 1945, in which tens of thousands of prisoners died." ], [ "Etymology", "The origin of the name is not known.", "It may have originated with the Celts who lived there before the Germans came.", "An alternative idea is that it comes from the Old High German word '''daha''' meaning clay, and '''ouwe''', water overflown land." ], [ "History", "===Prehistoric times and Early Middle Ages===As the Amper River would divert into backwaters in several places, there were many fords making it possible to cross the river.", "The oldest findings of human presence here date back to the Stone Age.", "The most noteworthy findings were discovered near Feldgeding in the adjoining municipality Bergkirchen.Around 1000 B.C.", "the Celts arrived in this area and settled.", "The name “Dachau” originated in the Celtic ''Dahauua'', which roughly translates to “loamy meadow” and also alludes to the loamy soil of the surrounding hills.", "Some theories assume the name “Amper” river may derive from the Celtic word for “water”.", "Approximately at the turn of the first millennium the Romans conquered the area and incorporated it into the province of Rhaetia.", "A Roman trade road between Salzburg and today's Augsburg is said to have run through Dachau.", "Remains of this old route are found along the Amper marshlands.===Middle-Ages===The first known documentation of Dachau occurs in a medieval deed issued by the Noble Erchana of Dahauua to the prince-bishop of Freising, both descendants of the lineage of the Aribonids.", "With this deed, dated to August 15, 805 A.D. (''the Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary''), she donated her entire property in Dachau, including five so-called ''Colonenhöfe'' and some serfs and bondsman, to devolve to the Bishop of the Diocese of Freising after her death.During much of the 12th century, Dachau was the primary residence of a smaller branch from the House of Wittelsbach led by Otto I, Count of Scheyern-Dauchau.", "When Conrad III died in 1182, Duke Otto I of Bavaria purchased the land and granted it market rights, that were then affirmed between 1270 and 1280 by Duke Ludwig II der Strenge (the Strict).In 1467 Sigismund, Duke of Bavaria resigned and then kept only Bavaria-Dachau as his domain until his death in 1501.===From the 16th century to modern times===Between 1546 and 1577, the House of Wittelsbach had the Dachau Palace erected in the Renaissance style.", "From June 1715 to Autumn 1717, Joseph Effner remodeled the palace to suit the contemporary taste in style.At the beginning of the 19th century, the castle's north-, east- and south-wing had to be demolished due to their state of disrepair.", "The west-wing housing the dance hall with a superb view of the enchanting gardens, still remains today.", "On the first floor the original renaissance wood carved, coffered ceiling can be admired by visitors.During the second half of the 19th century, the town began to attract landscape artists.", "The Dachau art colony, which flourished between 1890 and 1914, brought the town recognition as one of the most important artist's colonies in Germany beside Worpswede.===Nazi era===In 1933, the Dachau concentration camp was built east of the city by the SS of Nazi Germany and operated until 1945.It was the first of what became many Nazi concentration camps.", "14,100 prisoners were killed in the camp by the Nazis and almost another 10,000 in its sub-camps." ], [ "Geography", "===Geographical location===Dachau is northwest of Munich.", "It is 483 meters above sea level by the river Amper, with a boundary demarcated by lateral moraines formed during the last ice age and the Amper glacial valley.", "It is also close to a large marshy area called Dachauer Moos.", "Highest elevation of the district is the so-called \"Schlossberg\", the lowest point is near the neighborhood of Prittlbach, at the border to the next community of Hebertshausen.", "The bordering communities are Bergkirchen to the west, Schwabhausen to the northwest, Röhrmoos to the north, Hebertshausen to the northeast, and Karlsfeld to the south.", "To the east the greater district Dachau borders on the greater district of Munich with the community of Oberschleißheim." ], [ "Local administrative divisions", "===Populated places===The city is divided into 3 zones:* Historic Center: Dachau Old Town, Mitterndorf, Udlding, Etzenhausen, Unterer Markt, Webling* Dachau-East: Oberaugustenfeld, Unteraugustenfeld, Polln, Obergrashof, parts of Prittlbach* Dachau-South: Himmelreich, Holzgarten, parts of Gröbenried===Annexations===Since 1972, the former municipality of Pellheim, along with the communities of Pellheim proper, Pullhausen, Assenhausen, Lohfeld, and Viehgarten, have been incorporated into Dachau." ], [ "Bodies of water", "Running from the west, the river Amper runs south of Dachau's old town, changes its direction at the former paper milling plant to the northeast and continues through Prittlbach into Hebertshausen.Coming from Karlsfeld, the Würm crosses Dachau-East and merges into the river Amper just outside the district limit of Hebertshausen.The Gröbenbach, which has its source south of Puchheim, runs through town coming from the south and merges into the Amper river at several locations near the festival grounds.The Mühlbach, a man made canal, is diverted from the river Amper at the electrical power plant and runs parallel and flows back into it after passing the paper mill.", "The name derives from the frequent mills in former times along the canal which took advantage of the decline between Mühlbach and Amper.", "West of the so-called Festwiese runs another canal, called Lodererbach.In town there are still parts of the Schleißheimer canal remaining today.", "This canal was built in the mid-eighteenth century as part of the northern Munich canal system to which the Nymphenburger Canal belongs as well.", "It functioned as a transportation route between Dachau and Schleißheim.", "The building material recovered from the demolition of three wings of the Dachau castle was transported to Schleißheim this way.By allowing it to run to seed and through deliberate cultivation by the town of Dachau the canal is only still recognizable as such between Frühlingstraße and the Pollnbach.", "Outside the city limit the original canal continues on to Schloss Schleißheim.Within the city boundaries, in Dachau Süd (South), there is also a small lake called Stadtweiher." ], [ "Transport", "Dachau Train and Bus StationThe city is served by Munich S-Bahn (S2) and Deutsche Bahn via Dachau railway station located in the South of the town.", "The station is also annexed to the central bus terminal.", "In Dachau the line S2 is split in two directions: Petershausen and Altomünster.", "Both lines are named S2 but with different direction names.", "The offshoot to Altomünster is also served by Dachau Stadt Railway Station which is much smaller than the main railway station.", "There are five bus lines which are operated by Stadtwerke Dachau: 719, 720, 722, 724 and 726.There is no tramway transport.Dachau has a well-developed road infrastructure for regional transportation.", "The city is connected to Bundesautobahn 8 (via Fürstenfeldbruck) with Munich-Pasing southbound, and westbound terminating in Karlsruhe.", "Dachau is connected to Bundesautobahn 92 via Oberschleißheim connector which is located east of Dachau.", "Bundesautobahn 99 is connected with Dachau via Karlsfeld which is located south of Dachau.", "Bundesstraße No.", "471 (via Rothschwaige) connects eastbound towns such as the neighboring city Fürstenfeldbruck and westbound towns such as Oberschleißheim.", "Bundesstraße No.", "304 starts in the south of the city and connects southbound towns until the German-Austrian border.", "Additionally, several Staatsstraßen connect Dachau with surrounding towns and villages." ], [ "Sights", "Dachau in fall 2002* Old town including the Town HallChurch of St. Jakob (St. James) -- Dachau 1978* Church of St. Jakob (St. James), built in the 17th century (Stadtpfarrkirche).", "* Church of St. Nicolas and St. Mary, Mitterndorf (1496)* Dachau Palace and Palace Garden: A medieval castle which became the favorite residence of the Bavarian dukes in the 16th century.", "It was once renovated into an enormous four-wing complex.", "Only one wing still exists today.", "* Dachau Concentration Camp memorial Site: Dachau is best known for its proximity to the relatively well-preserved site of the infamous Dachau concentration camp, the first large-scale German concentration camp, converted from an old gunpowder factory by the Nazi regime in 1933.", "* Dachauer Moos: a wetland area City of Dachau" ], [ "Twin-towns – sister-cities", "Dachau is twinned with:* Fondi, Italy* Klagenfurt, Austria===Cooperation===Dachau also cooperates with:* Léognan, France; future twin town* Renkum, Netherlands; cultural cooperation* Tervuren, Belgium; cultural cooperation* Areguá, Paraguay; friendship" ], [ "Notable people", "* Hans-Jürgen Bäumler (born 1942), figure-skater and actor* Efkan Bekiroğlu (born 1995), soccer-player* Tony Binder (1868–1944), landscape painter* Lovis Corinth (1858–1925), artist* Heimito von Doderer (1896–1966), Austrian writer* Joseph Effner (1687–1745), architect, landscape-architect, and decorator* Anton Fink (born 1987), soccer-player* Aloys Fleischmann Sr. (1880–1964), composer and choirmaster* Josef Goller (1868–1947), glass painter and print-maker* Thomas Guggeis (born 1993), German conductor* Christiane Herzog (1936–2000), wife of Roman Herzog* Roman Herzog (1934–2017), politician (CDU)* Adolf Hölzel (1853–1934), painter* Leonhard von Hohenhausen (1788–1872), military and war minister* Patrick Lindner (born 1960), Volksmusik singer* Jesse Martin (born 1981), sailor* Walter Maurer (born 1942), artist, designer and racing driver* Christian Morgenstern (1871–1914), author and poet* Sigmund Rascher (1909–1945), concentration-camp-doctor* Carl Spitzweg (1808–1885), painter* Ludwig Thoma (1867–1921), author and publisher* Wilhelm von Thoma (1891–1948), General of the Armored Forces in World War II* Ernst Toller (1893–1939), playwright* Egon Zill (1906–1974), Nazi SS concentration camp commandant" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Hans-Günther Richardi: ''Dachauer Zeitgeschichtsführer''.", "Stadt Dachau, Dachau 1998." ], [ "External links", " Town Web site https://web.archive.org/web/20061006020304/http://www.dachau.info/cont/index.php?LANG=EN An American Adventure Trailer Jimmy Gentry" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Drosophila" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Drosophila''''' () is a genus of flies, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called \"small fruit flies\" or (less frequently) pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many species to linger around overripe or rotting fruit.", "They should not be confused with the Tephritidae, a related family, which are also called fruit flies (sometimes referred to as \"true fruit flies\"); tephritids feed primarily on unripe or ripe fruit, with many species being regarded as destructive agricultural pests, especially the Mediterranean fruit fly.One species of ''Drosophila'' in particular, ''D.", "melanogaster'', has been heavily used in research in genetics and is a common model organism in developmental biology.", "The terms \"fruit fly\" and \"''Drosophila''\" are often used synonymously with ''D.", "melanogaster'' in modern biological literature.", "The entire genus, however, contains more than 1,500 species and is very diverse in appearance, behavior, and breeding habitat." ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"''Drosophila''\", meaning \"dew-loving\", is a modern scientific Latin adaptation from Greek words , '''', \"dew\", and , '''', \"lover\"." ], [ "Morphology", "''Drosophila'' species are small flies, typically pale yellow to reddish brown to black, with red eyes.", "When the eyes (essentially a film of lenses) are removed, the brain is revealed.", "''Drosophila'' brain structure and function develop and age significantly from larval to adult stage.", "Developing brain structures make these flies a prime candidate for neuro-genetic research.", "Many species, including the noted Hawaiian picture-wings, have distinct black patterns on the wings.", "The plumose (feathery) arista, bristling of the head and thorax, and wing venation are characters used to diagnose the family.", "Most are small, about long, but some, especially many of the Hawaiian species, are larger than a house fly." ], [ "Evolution", "===Detoxification mechanisms===Environmental challenge by natural toxins helped to prepare ''Drosophila''e to detox DDT, by shaping the glutathione ''S''-transferase mechanism that metabolizes both.===Selection===The ''Drosophila'' genome is subject to a high degree of selection, especially unusually widespread negative selection compared to other taxa.", "A majority of the genome is under selection of some sort, and a supermajority of this is occurring in non-coding DNA.Effective population size has been credibly suggested to positively correlate with the effect size of both negative and positive selection.", "Recombination is likely to be a significant source of diversity.", "There is evidence that crossover is positively correlated with polymorphism in ''D.''", "populations." ], [ "Biology", "===Habitat===''Drosophila'' species are found all around the world, with more species in the tropical regions.", "''Drosophila'' made their way to the Hawaiian Islands and radiated into over 800 species.", "They can be found in deserts, tropical rainforest, cities, swamps, and alpine zones.", "Some northern species hibernate.", "The northern species ''D.", "montana'' is the best cold-adapted, and is primarily found at high altitudes.", "Most species breed in various kinds of decaying plant and fungal material, including fruit, bark, slime fluxes, flowers, and mushrooms.", "''Drosophila'' species that are fruit-breeding are attracted to various products of fermentation, especially ethanol and methanol.", "Fruits exploited by ''Drosophila'' species include those with a high pectin concentration, which is an indicator of how much alcohol will be produced during fermentation.", "Citrus, morinda, apples, pears, plums, and apricots belong into this category.The larvae of at least one species, ''D.", "suzukii'', can also feed in fresh fruit and can sometimes be a pest.", "A few species have switched to being parasites or predators.", "Many species can be attracted to baits of fermented bananas or mushrooms, but others are not attracted to any kind of baits.", "Males may congregate at patches of suitable breeding substrate to compete for the females, or form leks, conducting courtship in an area separate from breeding sites.Several ''Drosophila'' species, including ''Drosophila melanogaster'', ''D.", "immigrans'', and ''D.", "simulans'', are closely associated with humans, and are often referred to as domestic species.", "These and other species (''D.", "subobscura'', and from a related genus ''Zaprionus indianus'') have been accidentally introduced around the world by human activities such as fruit transports.Side view of head showing characteristic bristles above the eye===Reproduction===Males of this genus are known to have the longest sperm cells of any studied organism on Earth, including one species, ''Drosophila bifurca'', that has sperm cells that are long.", "The cells mostly consist of a long, thread-like tail, and are delivered to the females in tangled coils.", "The other members of the genus ''Drosophila'' also make relatively few giant sperm cells, with that of ''D.", "bifurca'' being the longest.", "''D.", "melanogaster'' sperm cells are a more modest 1.8 mm long, although this is still about 35 times longer than a human sperm.", "Several species in the ''D.", "melanogaster'' species group are known to mate by traumatic insemination.", "''Drosophila'' species vary widely in their reproductive capacity.", "Those such as ''D.", "melanogaster'' that breed in large, relatively rare resources have ovaries that mature 10–20 eggs at a time, so that they can be laid together on one site.", "Others that breed in more-abundant but less nutritious substrates, such as leaves, may only lay one egg per day.", "The eggs have one or more respiratory filaments near the anterior end; the tips of these extend above the surface and allow oxygen to reach the embryo.", "Larvae feed not on the vegetable matter itself, but on the yeasts and microorganisms present on the decaying breeding substrate.", "Development time varies widely between species (between 7 and more than 60 days) and depends on the environmental factors such as temperature, breeding substrate, and crowding.Fruit flies lay eggs in response to environmental cycles.", "Eggs laid at a time (e.g., night) during which likelihood of survival is greater than in eggs laid at other times (e.g., day) yield more larvae than eggs that were laid at those times.", "''Ceteris paribus'', the habit of laying eggs at this 'advantageous' time would yield more surviving offspring, and more grandchildren, than the habit of laying eggs during other times.", "This differential reproductive success would cause ''D.", "melanogaster'' to adapt to environmental cycles, because this behavior has a major reproductive advantage.Their median lifespan is 35–45 days.=== Mating systems ======= Courtship behavior ====The following section is based on the following ''Drosophila'' species: ''Drosophila simulans'' and ''Drosophila melanogaster''.", "Courtship behavior of male ''Drosophila'' is an attractive behaviour.", "Females respond via their perception of the behavior portrayed by the male.", "Male and female ''Drosophila'' use a variety of sensory cues to initiate and assess courtship readiness of a potential mate.", "The cues include the following behaviours: positioning, pheromone secretion, following females, making tapping sounds with legs, singing, wing spreading, creating wing vibrations, genitalia licking, bending the stomach, attempt to copulate, and the copulatory act itself.", "The songs of ''Drosophila melanogaster'' and ''Drosophila simulans'' have been studied extensively.", "These luring songs are sinusoidal in nature and varies within and between species.The courtship behavior of ''Drosophila melanogaster'' has also been assessed for sex-related genes, which have been implicated in courtship behavior in both the male and female.", "Recent experiments explore the role of fruitless (''fru'') and doublesex (''dsx''), a group of sex-behaviour linked genes.The fruitless (''fru'') gene in ''Drosophila'' helps regulate the network for male courtship behavior; when a mutation to this gene occurs altered same sex sexual behavior in males is observed.", "Male ''Drosophila'' with the ''fru'' mutation direct their courtship towards other males as opposed to typical courtship, which would be directed towards females.", "Loss of the ''fru'' mutation leads back to the typical courtship behavior.====Pheromones====A novel class of pheromones was found to be conserved across the subgenus ''Drosophila'' in 11 desert dwelling species.", "These pheromones are triacylglycerides that are secreted exclusively by males from their ejaculatory bulb and transferred to females during mating.", "The function of the pheromones is to make the females unattractive to subsequent suitors and thus inhibit courtship by other males.====Polyandry====The following section is based on the following ''Drosophila'' species: ''Drosophila serrata'', ''Drosophila pseudoobscura'', ''Drosophila melanogaster'', and ''Drosophila neotestacea''.", "Polyandry is a prominent mating system among ''Drosophila''.", "Females mating with multiple sex partners has been a beneficial mating strategy for ''Drosophila''.", "The benefits include both pre and post copulatory mating.", "Pre-copulatory strategies are the behaviours associated with mate choice and the genetic contributions, such as production of gametes, that are exhibited by both male and female ''Drosophila'' regarding mate choice.", "Post copulatory strategies include sperm competition, mating frequency, and sex-ratio meiotic drive.These lists are not inclusive.", "Polyandry among the ''Drosophila pseudoobscura'' in North America vary in their number of mating partners.", "There is a connection between the number of time females choose to mate and chromosomal variants of the third chromosome.", "It is believed that the presence of the inverted polymorphism is why re-mating by females occurs.", "The stability of these polymorphisms may be related to the sex-ratio meiotic drive.However, for ''Drosophila subobscura,'' the main mating system is monandry, not normally seen in ''Drosophila.", "''====Sperm competition====The following section is based on the following ''Drosophila'' species: ''Drosophila melanogaster'', ''Drosophila simulans'', and ''Drosophila mauritiana''.", "Sperm competition is a process that polyandrous ''Drosophila'' females use to increase the fitness of their offspring.", "The female ''Drosophila'' has two sperm storage organs, the spermathecae and seminal receptacle, that allows her to choose the sperm that will be used to inseminate her eggs.", "However, some species of ''Drosophila'' have evolved to only use one or the other.", "Females have little control when it comes to cryptic female choice.", "Female ''Drosophila'' through cryptic choice, one of several post-copulatory mechanisms, which allows for the detection and expelling of sperm that reduces inbreeding possibilities.", "Manier et al.", "2013 has categorized the post copulatory sexual selection of ''Drosophila melanogaster'', ''Drosophila simulans'', and ''Drosophila mauritiana'' into the following three stages: insemination, sperm storage, and fertilizable sperm.", "Among the preceding species there are variations at each stage that play a role in the natural selection process.", "This sperm competition has been found to be a driving force in the establishment of reproductive isolation during speciation.==== Parthenogenesis and gynogenesis ====Parthenogenesis does not occur in ''D.", "melanogaster'', but in the ''gyn-f9'' mutant, gynogenesis occurs at low frequency.", "The natural populations of ''D.", "mangebeirai'' are entirely female, making it the only obligate parthenogenetic species of Drosophila.", "Parthenogenesis is facultative in ''parthenogenetica'' and ''mercatorum''.===Laboratory-cultured animals===''D.", "melanogaster'' is a popular experimental animal because it is easily cultured en masse out of the wild, has a short generation time, and mutant animals are readily obtainable.", "In 1906, Thomas Hunt Morgan began his work on ''D.", "melanogaster'' and reported his first finding of a white eyed mutant in 1910 to the academic community.", "He was in search of a model organism to study genetic heredity and required a species that could randomly acquire genetic mutation that would visibly manifest as morphological changes in the adult animal.", "His work on ''Drosophila'' earned him the 1933 Nobel Prize in Medicine for identifying chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes.", "This and other ''Drosophila'' species are widely used in studies of genetics, embryogenesis, chronobiology, speciation, neurobiology, and other areas.However, some species of ''Drosophila'' are difficult to culture in the laboratory, often because they breed on a single specific host in the wild.", "For some, it can be done with particular recipes for rearing media, or by introducing chemicals such as sterols that are found in the natural host; for others, it is (so far) impossible.", "In some cases, the larvae can develop on normal ''Drosophila'' lab medium, but the female will not lay eggs; for these it is often simply a matter of putting in a small piece of the natural host to receive the eggs.The Drosophila Species Stock Center located at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, maintains cultures of hundreds of species for researchers.=== Use in genetic research ===''Drosophila'' is considered one of the most valuable genetic model organisms; both adults and embryos are experimental models.", "''Drosophila'' is a prime candidate for genetic research because the relationship between human and fruit fly genes is very close.", "Human and fruit fly genes are so similar, that disease-producing genes in humans can be linked to those in flies.", "The fly has approximately 15,500 genes on its four chromosomes, whereas humans have about 22,000 genes among their 23 chromosomes.", "Thus the density of genes per chromosome in ''Drosophila'' is higher than the human genome.", "Low and manageable number of chromosomes make ''Drosophila'' species easier to study.", "These flies also carry genetic information and pass down traits throughout generations, much like their human counterparts.", "The traits can then be studied through different ''Drosophila'' lineages and the findings can be applied to deduce genetic trends in humans.", "Research conducted on ''Drosophila'' help determine the ground rules for transmission of genes in many organisms.", "''Drosophila'' is a useful in vivo tool to analyze Alzheimer's disease.", "Rhomboid proteases were first detected in ''Drosophila'' but then found to be highly conserved across eukaryotes, mitochondria, and bacteria.", "Melanin's ability to protect DNA against ionizing radiation has been most extensively demonstrated in ''Drosophila'', including in the formative study by Hopwood et al 1985.===Microbiome===Like other animals, ''Drosophila'' is associated with various bacteria in its gut.", "The fly gut microbiota or microbiome seems to have a central influence on ''Drosophila'' fitness and life history characteristics.", "The microbiota in the gut of ''Drosophila'' represents an active current research field.", "''Drosophila'' species also harbour vertically transmitted endosymbionts, such as ''Wolbachia'' and ''Spiroplasma''.", "These endosymbionts can act as reproductive manipulators, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility induced by ''Wolbachia'' or male-killing induced by the ''D.", "melanogaster Spiroplasma poulsonii'' (named MSRO).", "The male-killing factor of the ''D.", "melanogaster'' MSRO strain was discovered in 2018, solving a decades-old mystery of the cause of male-killing.", "This represents the first bacterial factor that affects eukaryotic cells in a sex-specific fashion, and is the first mechanism identified for male-killing phenotypes.", "* Alternatively, they may protect theirs hosts from infection.", "''Drosophila Wolbachia'' can reduce viral loads upon infection, and is explored as a mechanism of controlling viral diseases (''e.g.''", "Dengue fever) by transferring these ''Wolbachia'' to disease-vector mosquitoes.", "The ''S.", "poulsonii'' strain of ''Drosophila neotestacea'' protects its host from parasitic wasps and nematodes using toxins that preferentially attack the parasites instead of the host.Since the ''Drosophila'' species is one of the most used model organisms, it was vastly used in genetics.", "However, the effect abiotic factors, such as temperature, has on the microbiome on Drosophila species has recently been of great interest.", "Certain variations in temperature have an impact on the microbiome.", "It was observed that higher temperatures (31 °C) lead to an increase of ''Acetobacter'' populations in the gut microbiome of ''Drosophila melanogaster'' as compared to lower temperatures (13 °C).", "In low temperatures (13 °C), the flies were more cold resistant and also had the highest concentration of ''Wolbachia.", "''The microbiome in the gut can also be transplanted among organisms.", "It was found that ''Drosophila melanogaster'' became more cold-tolerant when the gut microbiota from ''Drosophila melanogaster'' that were reared at low temperatures.", "This depicted that the gut microbiome is correlated to physiological processes.Moreover, the microbiome plays a role in aggression, immunity, egg-laying preferences, locomotion and metabolism.", "As for aggression, it plays a role to a certain degree during courtship.", "It was observed that germ-free flies were not as competitive compared to the wild-type males.", "Microbiome of the ''Drosophila'' species is also known to promote aggression by octopamine OA signalling.", "The microbiome has been shown to impact these fruit flies' social interactions, specifically aggressive behaviour that is seen during courtship and mating.===Predators===''Drosophila'' species are prey for many generalist predators, such as robber flies.", "In Hawaii, the introduction of yellowjackets from mainland United States has led to the decline of many of the larger species.", "The larvae are preyed on by other fly larvae, staphylinid beetles, and ants.===Neurochemistry===As with many Eukaryotes, this genus is known to express SNAREs, and as with several others the components of the SNARE complex are known to be somewhat substitutable: Although the loss of SNAP-25 - a component of neuronal SNAREs - is lethal, SNAP-24 can fully replace it.", "For another example, an R-SNARE not normally found in synapses can substitute for synaptobrevin.===Immunity===The Spätzle protein is a ligand of Toll.", "In addition to melanin's more commonly known roles in the endoskeleton and in neurochemistry, melanization is one step in the immune responses to some pathogens.", "Dudzic et al 2019 additionally find a large number of shared serine protease messengers between Spätzle/Toll and melanization and a large amount of crosstalk between these pathways." ], [ "Systematics", "D. setosimentum'', a species of Hawaiian picture-wing flyThe genus ''Drosophila'' as currently defined is paraphyletic (see below) and contains 1,450 described species, while the total number of species is estimated at thousands.", "The majority of the species are members of two subgenera: ''Drosophila'' (about 1,100 species) and ''Sophophora'' (including ''D.", "(S.) melanogaster''; around 330 species).The Hawaiian species of ''Drosophila'' (estimated to be more than 500, with roughly 380 species described) are sometimes recognized as a separate genus or subgenus, ''Idiomyia'', but this is not widely accepted.", "About 250 species are part of the genus ''Scaptomyza'', which arose from the Hawaiian ''Drosophila'' and later recolonized continental areas.Evidence from phylogenetic studies suggests these genera arose from within the genus ''Drosophila'':''Liodrosophila'' Duda, 1922''Mycodrosophila'' Oldenburg, 1914''Samoaia'' Malloch, 1934''Scaptomyza'' Hardy, 1849''Zaprionus'' Coquillett, 1901''Zygothrica'' Wiedemann, 1830''Hirtodrosophila'' Duda, 1923 (position uncertain)Several of the subgeneric and generic names are based on anagrams of ''Drosophila'', including ''Dorsilopha'', ''Lordiphosa'', ''Siphlodora'', ''Phloridosa'', and ''Psilodorha''." ], [ "Genetics", "''Drosophila'' species are extensively used as model organisms in genetics (including population genetics), cell biology, biochemistry, and especially developmental biology.", "Therefore, extensive efforts are made to sequence drosphilid genomes.", "The genomes of these species have been fully sequenced:''Drosophila (Sophophora) melanogaster''''Drosophila (Sophophora) simulans''''Drosophila (Sophophora) sechellia''''Drosophila (Sophophora) yakuba''''Drosophila (Sophophora) erecta''''Drosophila (Sophophora) ananassae''''Drosophila (Sophophora) pseudoobscura''''Drosophila (Sophophora) persimilis''''Drosophila (Sophophora) willistoni''''Drosophila (Drosophila) mojavensis''''Drosophila (Drosophila) virilis''''Drosophila (Drosophila) grimshawi''The data have been used for many purposes, including evolutionary genome comparisons.", "''D.", "simulans'' and ''D.", "sechellia'' are sister species, and provide viable offspring when crossed, while ''D.", "melanogaster'' and ''D.", "simulans'' produce infertile hybrid offspring.", "The ''Drosophila'' genome is often compared with the genomes of more distantly related species such as the honeybee ''Apis mellifera'' or the mosquito ''Anopheles gambiae''.The modEncode consortium is currently sequencing eight more ''Drosophila'' genomes, and even more genomes are being sequenced by the i5K consortium.Curated data are available at FlyBase.The led by Andrew G. Clark, Michael Eisen, Douglas Smith, Casey Bergman, Brian Oliver, Therese Ann Markow, Thomas Kaufman, Manolis Kellis, William Gelbart, Venky Iyer, Daniel Pollard, Timothy Sackton, Amanda Larracuente, Nadia Singh, and including Wojciech Makalowski, Mohamed Noor, Temple F. Smith, Craig Venter, Peter Keightley, and Leonid Boguslavsky among its contributors presents ten new genomes and combines those with previously released genomes for ''D.", "melanogaster'' and ''D.", "pseudoobscura'' to analyse the evolutionary history and common genomic structure of the genus.", "This includes the discovery of transposable elements and illumination of their evolutionary history.", "Bartolomé et al 2009 find at least of the TEs in ''D.", "melanogaster'', ''D.", "simulans'' and ''D.", "yakuba'' have been acquired by horizontal transfer.", "They find an average of .", "Bartolomé also finds HT TEs follow other relatedness metrics, with ''D.", "melanogaster''⇔''D.", "simulans'' events being twice as common as either of them ⇔ ''D.", "yakuba''." ], [ "See also", "Drosophila hybrid sterilityLaboratory experiments of speciationList of ''Drosophila'' species''Caenorhabditis'' 'Drosophilae' species supergroup, a group of species generally found on rotten fruits and transported by ''Drosophila'' flies" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " FlyBase is a comprehensive database for information on the genetics and molecular biology of ''Drosophila''.", "It includes data from the ''Drosophila'' Genome Projects and data curated from the literature.", "* is an integrated database of genomic, expression and protein data for ''Drosophila''* University of California, Santa Cruz breeds hundreds of species and supplies them to researchers* Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory * * * is library of ''Drosophila'' on the web* * – In India microinjection service for the generation of transgenic lines, Screening Platforms, ''Drosophila'' strain development" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dictatorship" ], [ "Introduction", "Propaganda poster of the former North Korean dictator, Kim Jong IlA '''dictatorship''' is an autocratic form of government which is characterized by a leader, or a group of leaders, who hold governmental powers with few to no limitations.", "Politics in a dictatorship are controlled by a dictator, and they are facilitated through an inner circle of elites that includes advisers, generals, and other high-ranking officials.", "The dictator maintains control by influencing and appeasing the inner circle and repressing any opposition, which may include rival political parties, armed resistance, or disloyal members of the dictator's inner circle.", "Dictatorships can be formed by a military coup that overthrows the previous government through force or they can be formed by a self-coup in which elected leaders make their rule permanent.", "Dictatorships are authoritarian or totalitarian, and they can be classified as military dictatorships, one-party dictatorships, personalist dictatorships, or absolute monarchies.The use of the term \"dictatorship\" emerged in the Roman Republic, referring to \"a temporary grant of absolute power to a leader to handle some emergency.\"", "The earliest military dictatorships developed in the post-classical era, particularly in Shogun-era Japan and in England under Cromwell.", "Modern dictatorships first developed in the 19th century, which included Bonapartism in Europe and ''caudillos'' in Latin America.", "The 20th century saw the rise of fascist and communist dictatorships in Europe; fascism was eradicated in the aftermath of World War II in 1945, while communism spread to other continents, maintaining prominence until the end of the Cold War in 1991.The 20th century also saw the rise of personalist dictatorships in Africa and military dictatorships in Latin America, both of which became prominent in the 1960s and 1970s.The period following the collapse of the Soviet Union witnessed a sporadic rise in democracies across the world, despite several dictatorships persisting into the 21st century, particularly in Africa and Asia.", "During the early 21st century, democratic governments came to outnumber authoritarian states by 98 to 80.The second decade was marked by a democratic recession, following the 2008 global financial crisis which drastically reduced the appeal of the Western model across the world.", "By 2019, the number of authoritarian governments had again surmounted that of democracies by 92 to 87.Dictatorships often attempt to portray a democratic facade, frequently holding elections in order to establish their legitimacy or provide incentives to members of the ruling party, but these elections are not competitive for the opposition.", "Stability in a dictatorship is maintained through coercion and political repression, which involves the restriction of access to information, the tracking of the political opposition, and acts of violence.", "Dictatorships that fail to repress the opposition are susceptible to collapse through a coup or a revolution." ], [ "Structure", "The power structures of dictatorships vary, and different definitions of dictatorship consider different elements of this structure.", "Political scientists such as Juan José Linz and Samuel P. Huntington identify key attributes that define the power structure of a dictatorship, including a single leader or a small group of leaders, the exercise of power with few limitations, limited political pluralism, and limited mass mobilization.The dictator exercises most or total power over the government and society, but sometimes elites are necessary to carry out the dictator's rule.", "They form an inner circle, making up a class of elites that hold a degree of power within the dictatorship and receive benefits in exchange for their support.", "They may be military officers, party members, or friends or family of the dictator.", "Elites are also the primary political threats of a dictator, as they can leverage their power to influence or overthrow the dictatorship.", "The inner circle's support is necessary for a dictator's orders to be carried out, causing elites to serve as a check on the dictator's power.", "To enact policy, a dictator must either appease the regime's elites or attempt to replace them.", "Elites must also compete to wield more power than one another, but the amount of power held by elites also depends on their unity.", "Factions or divisions among the elites will mitigate their ability to bargain with the dictator, resulting in the dictator having more unrestrained power.", "A unified inner circle has the capacity to overthrow a dictator, and the dictator must make greater concessions to the inner circle to stay in power.", "This is particularly true when the inner circle is made up of military officers that have the resources to carry out a military coup.The opposition to a dictatorship represents all of the factions that are not part of the dictatorship and anyone that does not support the regime.", "Organized opposition is a threat to the stability of a dictatorship, as it seeks to undermine public support for the dictator and calls for regime change.", "A dictator may address the opposition by repressing it through force, modifying laws to restrict its power, or appeasing it with limited benefits.", "The opposition can be an external group, or it can also include current and former members of the dictator's inner circle.Totalitarianism is a variation of dictatorship characterized by the presence of a single political party and more specifically, by a powerful leader who imposes personal and political prominence.", "Power is enforced through a steadfast collaboration between the government and a highly developed ideology.", "A totalitarian government has \"total control of mass communications and social and economic organizations\".", "Political philosopher Hannah Arendt describes totalitarianism as a new and extreme form of dictatorship composed of \"atomized, isolated individuals\" in which ideology plays a leading role in defining how the entire society should be organized.", "Political scientist Juan José Linz identifies a spectrum of political systems with democracies and totalitarian regimes separated by authoritarian regimes with varied classifications of hybrid systems.", "He describes totalitarian regimes as exercising control over politics and political mobilization rather than merely suppressing it." ], [ "Formation", "Benito Mussolini in the March on Rome that installed him as dictator in ItalyA dictatorship is formed when a specific group seizes power, with the composition of this group affecting how power is seized and how the eventual dictatorship will rule.", "The group may be military or political, it may be organized or disorganized, and it may disproportionately represent a certain demographic.", "After power is seized, the group must determine what positions its members will hold in the new government and how this government will operate, sometimes resulting in disagreements that split the group.", "Members of the group will typically make up the elites in a dictator's inner circle at the beginning of a new dictatorship, though the dictator may remove them as a means to gain additional power.Unless they have undertaken a self-coup, those seizing power typically have little governmental experience and do not have a detailed policy plan in advance.", "If the dictator has not seized power through a political party, then a party may be formed as a mechanism to reward supporters and to concentrate power in the hands of political allies instead of militant allies.", "Parties formed after the seizure of power often have little influence and only exist to serve the dictator.Most dictatorships are formed through military means or through a political party.", "Nearly half of dictatorships start as a military coup, though others have been started by foreign intervention, elected officials ending competitive elections, insurgent takeovers, popular uprisings by citizens, or legal maneuvering by autocratic elites to take power within their government.", "Between 1946 and 2010, 42% of dictatorships began by overthrowing a different dictatorship, and 26% began after achieving independence from a foreign government.", "Many others developed following a period of warlordism." ], [ "Types of dictatorships", "A classification of dictatorships, which began with political scientist Barbara Geddes in 1999, focuses on where power lies.", "Under this system, there are three types of dictatorships.", "Military dictatorships are controlled by military officers, one-party dictatorships are controlled by the leadership of a political party, and personalist dictatorships are controlled by a single individual.", "In some circumstances, monarchies are also considered dictatorships if the monarchs hold a significant amount of political power.", "Hybrid dictatorships are regimes that have a combination of these classifications.=== Military ===Soldiers occupy Seoul, South Korea as part of the May 16 coup that placed General Park Chung Hee in powerMilitary dictatorships are regimes in which military officers hold power, determine who will lead the country, and exercise influence over policy.", "They are most common in developing nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.", "They are often unstable, and the average duration of a military dictatorship is only five years, but they are often followed by additional military coups and military dictatorships.", "While common in the 20th century, the prominence of military dictatorships declined in the 1970s and 1980s.Military dictatorships are typically formed by a military coup in which senior officers use the military to overthrow the government.", "In democracies, the threat of a military coup is associated with the period immediately after a democracy's creation but prior to large-scale military reforms.", "In oligarchies, the threat of a military coup comes from the strength of the military weighed against the concessions made to the military.", "Other factors associated with military coups include extensive natural resources, limited use of the military internationally, and use of the military as an oppressive force domestically.", "Military coups do not necessarily result in military dictatorships, as power may then be passed to an individual or the military may allow democratic elections to take place.Military dictatorships often have traits in common due to the shared background of military dictators.", "These dictators may view themselves as impartial in their oversight of a country due to their nonpartisan status, and they may view themselves as \"guardians of the state\".", "The predominance of violent force in military training manifests in an acceptance of violence as a political tool and the ability to organize violence on a large scale.", "Military dictators may also be less trusting or diplomatic and underestimate the use of bargaining and compromise in politics.=== One-party ===An assembly at the Kremlin Palace of Congresses in Moscow, Soviet UnionOne-party dictatorships are governments in which a single political party dominates politics.", "Single-party dictatorships are one-party states in which only the party in power is legalized, sometimes along with minor allied parties, and all opposition parties are banned.", "Dominant-party dictatorships or electoral authoritarian dictatorships are one-party dictatorships in which opposition parties are nominally legal but cannot meaningfully influence government.", "Single-party dictatorships were most common during the Cold War, with dominant-party dictatorships becoming more common after the fall of the Soviet Union.", "Ruling parties in one-party dictatorships are distinct from political parties that were created to serve a dictator in that the ruling party in a one-party dictatorship permeates every level of society.One-party dictatorships are more stable than other forms of authoritarian rule, as they are less susceptible to insurgency and see higher economic growth.", "Ruling parties allow a dictatorship to more broadly influence the populace and facilitate political agreement between party elites.", "Between 1950 and 2016, one-party dictatorships made up 57% of authoritarian regimes in the world, and one-party dictatorships have continued to expand more quickly than other forms of dictatorship in the latter half of the 20th century.", "Due to the structure of their leadership, one-party dictatorships are significantly less likely to face civil conflict, insurgency, or terrorism than other forms of dictatorship.", "The use of ruling parties also provides more legitimacy to its leadership and elites than other forms of dictatorship and facilitates a peaceful transfer of power at the end of a dictator's rule.One-party dictatorships became prominent in Asia and Eastern Europe during the Cold War as communist governments were installed in several countries.", "One-party rule also developed in several countries in Africa during decolonization in the 1960s and 1970s, some of which produced authoritarian regimes.", "A ruling party in a one-party dictatorship may rule under any ideology or it may have no guiding ideology.", "Marxist one-party states are sometimes distinguished from other one-party states, but they function similarly.", "When a one-party dictatorship develops gradually through legal means, it can result in conflict between the party organization and the state apparatus and civil service, as the party rules in parallel and increasingly appoints its own members to positions of power.", "Parties that take power through violence are often able to implement larger changes in a shorter period of time.=== Personalist ===Citizens of North Korea bow to statues of former dictators Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il in 2012.Personalist dictatorships are regimes in which all of the power lies in the hands of a single individual.", "They differ from other forms of dictatorships in that the dictator has greater access to key political positions and the government's treasury, and they are more commonly subject to the discretion of the dictator.", "Personalist dictators may be members of the military or leaders of a political party, but neither the military nor the party exercises power independently from the dictator.", "In personalist dictatorships, the elite corps are usually made up of close friends or family members of the dictator, who typically handpicks these individuals to serve their posts.", "These dictatorships often emerge either from loosely organized seizures of power, giving the leader opportunity to consolidate power, or from democratically elected leaders in countries with weak institutions, giving the leader opportunity to change the constitution.", "Personalist dictatorships are more common in Sub-Saharan Africa due to less established institutions in the region.Personalist dictators typically favor loyalty over competence in their governments and have a general distrust of intelligentsia.", "Elites in personalist dictatorships often do not have a professional political career and are unqualified for positions they are given.", "A personalist dictator will manage these appointees by segmenting the government so that they cannot collaborate.", "The result is that such regimes have no internal checks and balances, and are thus unrestrained when exerting repression on their people, making radical shifts in foreign policy, or starting wars with other countries.", "Due to the lack of accountability and the smaller group of elites, personalist dictatorships are more prone to corruption than other forms of dictatorship, and they are more repressive than other forms of dictatorship.", "Personalist dictatorships often collapse with the death of the dictator.", "They are more likely to end in violence and less likely to democratize than other forms of dictatorship.Personalist dictatorships fit the exact classic stereotype of authoritarian rule.", "Within a personalist regime an issue called \"The dictator's dilemma\" arises.", "This idea references the heavy reliance on repression of the public in order to stay in power, which creates incentives for all constituents to falsify their preferences, which does not allow for dictators to know the genuine popular beliefs or their realistic measure of societal support.", "As a result of authoritarian politics, a series of major issues may ensue.", "Preference falsification, Internal politics, data scarcity, and restriction of media are just a few examples of the dangers of a personalistic authoritarian regime.", "Although, when it comes to polling and elections a dictator could use their power to override private preferences.", "Many personalist regimes will install open ballots to protect their regimes and implement heavy security measures and censorship for those whose personal preferences do not align with the values of the leader.The shift in the power relation between the dictator and their inner circle has severe consequences for the behavior of such regimes as a whole.", "Personalist regimes diverge from other regimes when it comes to their longevity, methods of breakdown, levels of corruption, and proneness to conflicts.", "On average, they last twice as long as military dictatorships, but not as long as one-party dictatorships.", "Personalist dictatorships also experience growth differently, as they often lack the institutions or qualified leadership to sustain an economy.=== Absolute monarchy ===King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia with two of his sonsAn absolute monarchy is a monarchy in which the monarch rules without legal limitations.", "This makes it distinct from constitutional monarchy and ceremonial monarchy.", "In an absolute monarchy, power is limited to the royal family, and legitimacy is established by historical factors.", "Monarchies may be dynastic, in which the royal family serves as a ruling institution similar to a political party in a one-party state, or they may be non-dynastic, in which the monarch rules independently of the royal family as a personalist dictator.", "Monarchies allow for strict rules of succession that produce a peaceful transfer of power on the monarch's death, but this can also result in succession disputes if multiple members of the royal family claim a right to succeed.", "In the modern era, absolute monarchies are most common in the Middle East." ], [ "History", "=== Early dictatorships ===Military dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna wearing a Mexican military uniformDictatorship is historically associated with the Ancient Greek concept of tyranny, and several ancient Greek rulers have been described as \"tyrants\" that are comparable to modern dictators.", "The concept of \"dictator\" was first developed during the Roman Republic.", "A Roman dictator was a special magistrate that was temporarily appointed by the consul during times of crisis and granted total executive authority.", "The role of dictator was created for instances when a single leader was needed to command and restore stability.", "At least 85 such dictators were chosen over the course of the Roman Republic, the last of which was chosen to wage the Second Punic War.", "The dictatorship was revived 120 years later by Sulla after his crushing of a populist movement, and 33 years after that by Julius Caesar.", "Caesar subverted the tradition of temporary dictatorships when he was made , or a dictator for life, which led to the creation of the Roman Empire.", "The rule of a dictator was not necessarily considered tyrannical in Ancient Rome, though it has been described in some accounts as a \"temporary tyranny\" or an \"elective tyranny\".Asia saw several military dictatorships during the post-classical era.", "Korea experienced military dictatorships under the rule of Yeon Gaesomun in the 7th century and under the rule of the Goryeo military regime in the 12th and 13th centuries.", "Shoguns were ''de facto'' military dictators in Japan beginning in 1185 and continuing for over six hundred years.", "During the Lê dynasty of Vietnam between the 16th and 18th centuries, the country was under ''de facto'' military rule by two rival military families: the Trịnh lords in the north and the Nguyễn lords in the south.", "In Europe, the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell, formed in 1649 after the Second English Civil War, has been described as a military dictatorship by its contemporary opponents and by some modern academics.", "Maximilien Robespierre has been similarly described as a dictator while he controlled the National Convention in France and carried out the Reign of Terror in 1793 and 1794.Dictatorship developed as a major form of government in the 19th century, though the concept was not universally seen pejoratively at the time, with both a tyrannical concept and a quasi-constitutional concept of dictatorship understood to exist.", "In Europe it was often thought of in terms of Bonapartism and Caesarism, with the former describing the military rule of Napoleon and the latter describing the imperial rule of Napoleon III in the vein of Julius Caesar.", "The Spanish American wars of independence took place in the early-19th century, creating many new Latin American governments.", "Many of these governments fell under the control of ''caudillos'', or personalist dictators.", "Most caudillos came from a military background, and their rule was typically associated with pageantry and glamor.", "Caudillos were often nominally constrained by a constitution, but the caudillo had the power to draft a new constitution as he wished.", "Many are noted for their cruelty, while others are honored as national heroes.=== Interwar dictatorships and World War II ======= Europe ====The Nuremberg rallies celebrated fascism and the rule of Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany.In the time between World War I and World War II, several dictatorships were established in Europe through coups which were carried out by far-left and far-right movements.", "The aftermath of World War I resulted in a major shift in European politics, establishing new governments, facilitating internal change in older governments, and redrawing the boundaries between countries, allowing opportunities for these movements to seize power.", "The societal upheaval caused by World War I and the unstable peace it produced further contributed to instability that benefited extremist movements and rallied support for their causes.", "Far-left and far-right dictatorships used similar methods to maintain power, including cult of personality, concentration camps, forced labour, mass murder, and genocide.The first communist state was created by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks with the establishment of Soviet Russia during the Russian Revolution in 1917.The government was described as a dictatorship of the proletariat in which power was exercised by soviets.", "The Bolsheviks consolidated power by 1922, forming the Soviet Union.", "Lenin was followed by Joseph Stalin in 1924, who consolidated total power and implemented totalitarian rule by 1929.The Russian Revolution inspired a wave of left-wing revolutionary movements in Europe between 1917 and 1923, but none saw the same level of success.At the same time, nationalist movements grew throughout Europe.", "These movements were a response to what they perceived as decadence and societal decay due to the changing social norms and race relations brought about by liberalism.", "Fascism developed in Europe as a rejection of liberalism, socialism, and modernism, and the first fascist political parties formed in the 1920s.", "Italian dictator Benito Mussolini seized power in 1922, and began implementing reforms in 1925 to create the first fascist dictatorship.", "These reforms incorporated totalitarianism, fealty to the state, expansionism, corporatism, and anti-communism.Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party created a second fascist dictatorship in Germany in 1933, obtaining absolute power through a combination of electoral victory, violence, and emergency powers.", "Other nationalist movements in Europe established dictatorships based on the fascist model.", "During World War II, Italy and Germany occupied several countries in Europe, imposing fascist puppet states upon many of the countries that they invaded.", "After being defeated in World War II, the far-right dictatorships of Europe collapsed, with the exceptions of Spain and Portugal.", "The Soviet Union occupied nationalist dictatorships in the east and replaced them with communist dictatorships, while others established liberal democratic governments in the Western Bloc.==== Latin America ====Dictatorships in Latin America were developed late into the 19th century and persisted into the 20th century like the Porfiriato of Mexico, and further military coups established new regimes, often in the name of nationalism.", "After a brief period of democratization, Latin America underwent a rapid transition toward dictatorship in the 1930s.", "Populist movements were strengthened following the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, producing populist dictatorships in several Latin American countries.", "European fascism was imported to Latin America as well, and the Vargas Era of Brazil was heavily influenced by the corporatism practiced in fascist Italy.=== Cold War dictatorships ======= Africa ====A communist rally in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, during the country's period of Marxist dictatorship, the People's Democratic Republic of EthiopiaThe decolonisation of Africa prompted the creation of new governments, many of which became dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Early African dictatorships were primarily personalist socialist dictatorships, in which a single socialist would take power instead of a ruling party.", "As the Cold War went on, the Soviet Union increased its influence in Africa, and Marxist–Leninist dictatorships developed in several African countries.", "Military coups were also a common occurrence after decolonisation, with 14 African countries experiencing at least three successful military coups between 1959 and 2001.These new African governments were marked by severe instability, which provided opportunities for regime change and made fair elections a rare occurrence on the continent.", "This instability in turn required rulers to become increasingly authoritarian to stay in power, further propagating dictatorship in Africa.==== Asia ====The Chinese Civil War ended in 1949, splitting the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek and the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong.", "Mao established the People's Republic of China as a one-party communist state under his governing ideology of Maoism.", "While the People's Republic of China was initially aligned with the Soviet Union, relations between the two countries deteriorated as the Soviet Union underwent de-Stalinization in the late-1950s.", "Mao consolidated his control of the People's Republic of China with the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s, which involved the destruction of all elements of capitalism and traditionalism in China.", "Deng Xiaoping took power as the ''de facto'' leader of China after Mao's death and implemented reforms to restore stability following the Cultural Revolution and reestablish free market economics.", "Chiang Kai-shek continued to rule as dictator of the National government's rump state in Taiwan until his death in 1975.Nicolae Ceaușescu (left) attending a stage event with Hafiz al-Assad (right), during his state visit to Ba'athist dictatorship of Syria Marxist and nationalist movements became popular in Southeast Asia as a response to colonial control and the subsequent Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia, with both ideologies facilitating the creation of dictatorships after World War II.", "Communist dictatorships in the region aligned with China following the latter's establishment as a communist state.", "A similar phenomenon took place in Korea, where Kim Il Sung created a Soviet-backed communist dictatorship in North Korea and Syngman Rhee created a US-backed nationalist dictatorship in South Korea.The Middle East was decolonized during the Cold War, and many nationalist movements gained strength post-independence.", "These nationalist movements supported non-alignment, keeping most Middle Eastern dictatorships out of the American and Soviet spheres of influence.", "These movements supported pan-Arab Nasserism during most of the Cold War, but they were largely replaced by Islamic nationalism by the 1980s.", "Several Middle Eastern countries were the subject of military coups in the 1950s and 1960s, including Iraq, Syria, North Yemen, and South Yemen.", "A 1953 coup overseen by the American and British governments restored Mohammad Reza Pahlavi as the absolute monarch of Iran, who in turn was overthrown during the Iranian Revolution of 1979 that established Ruhollah Khomeini as the Supreme Leader of Iran under an Islamist government.==== Europe ====During World War II, many countries of Central and Eastern Europe had been occupied by the Soviet Union.", "When the war ended, these countries were incorporated into the Soviet sphere of influence, and the Soviet Union exercised control over their governments.", "Josip Broz Tito declared a communist government in Yugoslavia during World War II, which was initially aligned with the Soviet Union.", "The relations between the countries were strained by Soviet attempts to influence Yugoslavia, leading to the Tito–Stalin split in 1948.Albania was established as a communist dictatorship under Enver Hoxha in 1944.It was initially aligned with Yugoslavia, but its alignment shifted throughout the Cold War between Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union, and China.", "The stability of the Soviet Union weakened in the 1980s.", "The Soviet economy became unsustainable, and communist governments lost the support of intellectuals and their population in general.", "In 1989, the Soviet Union was dissolved, and communism was abandoned by the countries of Central and Eastern Europe through a series of revolutions.==== Latin America ====Military dictatorships remained prominent in Latin America during the Cold War, though the number of coups declined starting in the 1980s.", "Between 1967 and 1991, 12 Latin American countries underwent at least one military coup, with Haiti and Honduras experiencing three and Bolivia experiencing eight.", "A one-party communist dictatorship was formed in Cuba when the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista, weakened by an American arms embargo against his regime, was overthrown in the Cuban Revolution, creating the only Soviet-backed dictatorship in the western hemisphere.", "To maintain power, Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet organized Operation Condor with other South American dictators to facilitate cooperation between their respective intelligence agencies and secret police organizations.=== 21st century dictatorships ===The nature of dictatorship changed in much of the world at the onset of the 21st century.", "Between the 1990s and the 2000s, most dictators moved away from being \"larger-than-life figures\" that controlled the populace through terror and isolated themselves from the global community.", "This was replaced by a trend of developing a positive public image to maintain support among the populace and moderating rhetoric to integrate with the global community.", "In contrast to the overtly repressive nature of 20th century dictatorships, authoritarian strongmen of the 21st century are sometimes labelled \"spin dictators\", rulers who attempt to monopolise power by authoritarian upgrading, appealing to democratic sentiments and covertly pursue repressive measures; such as embracing modern technology, manipulation of information content, regulation of cyberspace, slandering dissidents, etc.", "On the other hand, a handful of dictators like Bashar al-Assad and Kim Jong Un rule with deadly repression, violence and state-terrorism to establish extensive securitization through fear, in line with many 20th century dictatorships.Syrian dictator Bashar al-Assad and Belarusian autocrat Alexander Lukashenko in 2003The development of the internet and digital communication in the 21st century have prompted dictatorships to shift from traditional means of control to digital ones, including the use of artificial intelligence to analyze mass communications, internet censorship to restrict the flow of information, and troll farms to manipulate public opinion.", "21st century dictatorships regularly hold sham elections with massive approval ratings, for seeking public legitimacy and maintaining the autocrat's image as a popular figure loved by the masses.", "The manipulated election results are often weaponized as propaganda tools in information warfare, to galvanize supporters of the dictatorships against dissidents as well as to manufacture compliance of the masses by publicising falsified data figures.", "Another objective is to portray the dictator as the guardian figure who unifies the country, without whom its security disintegrates and chaos ensues.", "North Korea is the only country in East Asia to be ruled by the Kim family after the death of Kim Il-sung and hands over to his son Kim Jong-il in 1994 and grandson Kim Jong-un in 2011, as of today in the 21st century.Dictatorship in Europe largely ended after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, and the liberalization of most communist states.", "Belarus under the rule of Alexander Lukashenko has been described as \"the last European dictatorship\", though the rule of Vladimir Putin in Russia has also been described as a dictatorship.", "Latin America saw a period of liberalization similar to that of Europe at the end of the Cold War, with Cuba being the only Latin American country that did not experience any degree of liberalization between 1992 and 2010.The countries of Central Asia did not liberalize after the fall of the Soviet Union, instead forming as dictatorships led by former elites of the Communist Party and then later by successive dictators.", "These countries maintain parliaments and human rights organizations, but these remain under the control of the countries' respective dictators.The Middle East and Northern Africa did not undergo liberalization during the third wave of democratisation, and most countries in this region remain dictatorships in the 21st century.", "Dictatorships in the Middle East and Northern Africa are either illiberal republics in which a president holds power through unfair elections, or they are absolute monarchies in which power is inherited.", "Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, and Palestine are the only democratic nations in the region, with Israel being the only nation in this region that affords broad political liberties to its citizens." ], [ "Economics", "Most dictatorships exist in countries with high levels of poverty.", "Poverty has a destabilizing effect on government, causing democracy to fail and regimes to fall more often.", "The form of government does not correlate with the amount of economic growth, and dictatorships on average grow at the same rate as democracies, though dictatorships have been found to have larger fluctuations.", "Dictators are more likely to implement long-term investments into the country's economy if they feel secure in their power.", "Exceptions to the pattern of poverty in dictatorships include oil-rich Middle Eastern dictatorships and the East Asian Tigers during their periods of dictatorship.The type of economy in a dictatorship can affect how it functions.", "Economies based on natural resources allow dictators more power, as they can easily extract rents without strengthening or cooperating with other institutions.", "More complex economies require additional cooperation between the dictator and other groups.", "The economic focus of a dictatorship often depends on the strength of the opposition, as a weaker opposition allows a dictator to extract additional wealth from the economy through corruption." ], [ "Legitimacy and stability", "Several factors determine the stability of a dictatorship, and they must maintain some degree of popular support to prevent resistance groups from growing.", "This may be ensured through incentives, such as distribution of financial resources or promises of security, or it may be through repression, in which failing to support the regime is punished.", "Stability can be weakened when opposition groups grow and unify or when elites are not loyal to the regime.", "One-party dictatorships are generally more stable and last longer than military or personalist dictatorships.A dictatorship may fall because of a military coup, foreign intervention, negotiation, or popular revolution.", "A military coup is often carried out when a regime is threatening the country's stability or during periods of societal unrest.", "Foreign intervention takes place when another country seeks to topple a regime by invading the country or supporting the opposition.", "A dictator may negotiate the end of a regime if it has lost legitimacy or if a violent removal seems likely.", "Revolution takes place when the opposition group grows large enough that elites in the regime cannot suppress it or choose not to.", "Negotiated removals are more likely to end in democracy, while removals by force are more likely to result in a new dictatorial regime.", "A dictator that has concentrated significant power is more likely to be exiled, imprisoned, or killed after ouster, and accordingly they are more likely to refuse negotiation and cling to power.Dictatorships are typically more aggressive than democracy when in conflict with other nations, as dictators do not have to fear electoral costs of war.", "Military dictatorships are more prone to conflict due to the inherent military strength associated with such a regime, and personalist dictatorships are more prone to conflict due to the weaker institutions to check the dictator's power.", "In the 21st century, dictatorships have moved toward greater integration with the global community and increasingly attempt to present themselves as democratic.", "Dictatorships are often recipients of foreign aid on the condition that they make advances toward democratization.", "A study found that dictatorships that engage in oil drilling are more likely to remain in power, with 70.63% of the dictators who engage in oil drilling still being in power after five years of dictatorship, while only 59.92% of the non-oil producing dictators survive the first five years.=== Elections ===1936 German parliamentary election.", "Adolf Hitler and his inner circle are the only option.Most dictatorships hold elections to maintain legitimacy and stability, but these elections are typically uncompetitive and the opposition is not permitted to win.", "Elections allow a dictatorship to exercise some control over the opposition by setting the terms under which the opposition challenges the regime.", "Elections are also used to control elites within the dictatorship by requiring them to compete with one another and incentivizing them to build support with the populace, allowing the most popular and most competent elites to be promoted in the regime.", "Elections also support the legitimacy of a dictatorship by presenting the image of a democracy, establishing plausible deniability of its status as a dictatorship for both the populace and foreign governments.", "Should a dictatorship fail, elections also permit dictators and elites to accept defeat without fearing violent recourse.", "Dictatorships may influence the results of an election through electoral fraud, intimidation or bribing of candidates and voters, use of state resources such as media control, manipulation of electoral laws, restricting who may run as a candidate, or disenfranchising demographics that may oppose the dictatorship.In the 20th century, most dictatorships held elections in which voters could only choose to support the dictatorship, with only one-quarter of partisan dictatorships permitting opposition candidates to participate.", "Since the end of the Cold War, more dictatorships have established \"semi-competitive\" elections in which opposition is allowed to participate in elections but is not allowed to win, with approximately two-thirds of dictatorships permitting opposition candidates in 2018.Opposition parties in dictatorships may be restricted by preventing them from campaigning, banning more popular opposition parties, preventing opposition members from forming a party, or requiring that candidates be a member of the ruling party.", "Dictatorships may hold semi-competitive elections to qualify for foreign aid, to demonstrate a dictator's control over the government, or to incentivize the party to expand its information-gathering capacity, particularly at the local level.", "Semi-competitive elections also have the effect of incentivizing members of the ruling party to provide better treatment of citizens so they will be chosen as party nominees due to their popularity.=== Violence ===In a dictatorship, violence is used to coerce or repress all opposition to the dictator's rule, and the strength of a dictatorship depends on its use of violence.", "This violence is frequently exercised through institutions such as military or police forces.", "The use of violence by a dictator is frequently most severe during the first few years of a dictatorship, because the regime has not yet solidified its rule and more detailed information for targeted coercion is not yet available.", "As the dictatorship becomes more established, it moves away from violence by resorting to the use of other coercive measures, such as restricting people's access to information and tracking the political opposition.", "Dictators are incentivized to avoid the use of violence once a reputation of violence is established, as it damages the dictatorship's other institutions and poses a threat to the dictator's rule should government forces become disloyal.Institutions that coerce the opposition through the use of violence may serve different roles or they may be used to counterbalance one another in order to prevent one institution from becoming too powerful.", "Secret police are used to gather information about specific political opponents and carry out targeted acts of violence against them, paramilitary forces defend the regime from coups, and formal militaries defend the dictatorship during foreign invasions and major civil conflicts.Terrorism is less common in dictatorships.", "Allowing the opposition to have representation in the regime, such as through a legislature, further reduces the likelihood of terrorist attacks in a dictatorship.", "Military and one-party dictatorships are more likely to experience terrorism than personalist dictatorships, as these regimes are under more pressure to undergo institutional change in response to terrorism." ], [ "See also", "* Benevolent dictatorship* Communism* Constitutional dictatorship* Despotism* Elective dictatorship* Generalissimo* Hoxhaism* Juche* Leninism* List of cults of personality* List of titles used by dictators* List of totalitarian regimes* Maximum Leader* Mobutism* Fascism* Nazism* People's democratic dictatorship* Putinism* Ruscism* Selectorate theory* Stalinism* Strongman* Supreme leader" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * ** scholarly analysis of Mussolini, Hitler, Stalin and Mao, as well as Kim Il Sung of North Korea; François Duvalier, or Papa Doc, of Haiti; Nicolae Ceaușescu of Romania; and Mengistu Haile Mariam of Ethiopia.", "online review; also excerpt* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Django Reinhardt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jean Reinhardt''' (23 January 1910 – 16 May 1953), known by his Romani nickname '''Django''' ( or ), was a Romani-Belgian jazz guitarist and composer.", "He was one of the first major jazz talents to emerge in Europe and has been hailed as one of its most significant exponents.With violinist Stéphane Grappelli, Reinhardt formed the Paris-based Quintette du Hot Club de France in 1934.The group was among the first to play jazz that featured the guitar as a lead instrument.", "Reinhardt recorded in France with many visiting American musicians, including Coleman Hawkins and Benny Carter, and briefly toured the United States with Duke Ellington's orchestra in 1946.He died suddenly of a stroke in 1953 at the age of 43.Reinhardt's most popular compositions have become standards within gypsy jazz, including \"Minor Swing\", \"Daphne\", \"Belleville\", \"Djangology\", \"Swing '42\", and \"Nuages\".", "Jazz guitarist Frank Vignola says that nearly every major popular-music guitarist in the world has been influenced by Reinhardt.", "Over the last few decades, annual Django festivals have been held throughout Europe and the U.S., and a biography has been written about his life.", "In February 2017, the Berlin International Film Festival held the world premiere of the French film ''Django''." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life ===Reinhardt was born on 23 January 1910 in Liberchies, Pont-à-Celles, Belgium, into a French/Belgian family of Manouche Romani descent.", "His French, Alsacian father, Jean Eugene Weiss, domiciled in Paris with his wife, went by Jean-Baptiste Reinhardt, his wife's surname, to avoid French military conscription.", "His mother, Laurence Reinhardt, was a dancer.", "The birth certificate refers to \"Jean Reinhart, son of Jean Baptiste Reinhart, artist, and Laurence Reinhart, housewife, domiciled in Paris\".A number of authors have repeated the claim that Reinhardt's nickname, Django, is Romani for \"I awake\"; however, it may also simply have been a diminutive, or local Walloon version, of \"Jean\".", "Reinhardt spent most of his youth in Romani encampments close to Paris, where he started playing the violin, banjo and guitar.", "He became adept at stealing chickens.", "His father reportedly played music in a family band comprising himself and seven brothers; a surviving photograph shows this band including his father on piano.Reinhardt was attracted to music at an early age, first playing the violin.", "At the age of 12, he received a banjo-guitar as a gift.", "He quickly taught himself to play, mimicking the fingerings of musicians he watched, who would have included local virtuoso players of the day such as Jean \"Poulette\" Castro and Auguste \"Gusti\" Malha, as well as from his uncle Guiligou, who played violin, banjo and guitar.", "Reinhardt was able to make a living playing music by the time he was 15, busking in cafés, often with his brother Joseph.", "At this time, he had not started playing jazz, although he had probably heard and had been intrigued by the version of jazz played by American expatriate bands like Billy Arnold's.He received little formal education and acquired the rudiments of literacy only in adult life.=== Marriage and injury ===At the age of 17, Reinhardt married Florine \"Bella\" Mayer, a girl from the same Romani settlement, according to Romani custom (although not an official marriage under French law).", "The following year he recorded for the first time.", "On these recordings, made in 1928, Reinhardt plays the \"banjo\" (actually the banjo-guitar) accompanying the accordionists Maurice Alexander, Jean Vaissade and Victor Marceau, and the singer Maurice Chaumel.", "His name was now drawing international attention, such as from British bandleader Jack Hylton, who came to France just to hear him play.", "Hylton offered him a job on the spot, and Reinhardt accepted.Before he had a chance to start with the band, however, Reinhardt nearly died.", "On the night of 2 November 1928, Reinhardt was going to bed in the wagon that he and his wife shared in the caravan.", "He knocked over a candle, which ignited the extremely flammable celluloid that his wife used to make artificial flowers.", "The wagon was quickly engulfed in flames.", "The couple escaped, but Reinhardt suffered extensive burns over half his body.", "During his 18-month hospitalization, doctors recommended amputation of his badly damaged right leg.", "Reinhardt refused the surgery and was eventually able to walk with the aid of a cane.More crucial to his music, the fourth finger (ring finger) and fifth finger (little) of Reinhardt's left hand were badly burned.", "Doctors believed that he would never play guitar again.", "During many months of recuperation, Reinhardt taught himself to play again using primarily the index and third fingers of his left hand by making use of a new six-string steel-strung acoustic guitar that was bought for him by his brother, Joseph Reinhardt, who was also an accomplished guitarist.", "While he never regained the use of those two fingers, Reinhardt regained his musical mastery by focusing on his left index and middle fingers, using the two injured fingers only for chord work.Within a year of the fire, in 1929, Bella Mayer gave birth to their son, Henri \"Lousson\" Reinhardt.", "Soon thereafter, the couple split up.", "The son eventually took the surname of his mother's new husband.", "As Lousson Baumgartner, the son himself became an accomplished musician who went on to record with his biological father.=== Discovery of jazz ===After parting from his wife and son, Reinhardt traveled throughout France, getting occasional jobs playing music at small clubs.", "He had no specific goals, living a hand-to-mouth existence, spending his earnings as quickly as he made them.", "Accompanying him on his travels was his new girlfriend, Sophie Ziegler.", "Nicknamed \"Naguine,\" she was a distant cousin.In the years after the fire, Reinhardt was rehabilitating and experimenting on the guitar that his brother had given him.", "After having played a broad spectrum of music, he was introduced to American jazz by an acquaintance, Émile Savitry, whose record collection included such musical luminaries as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Joe Venuti, Eddie Lang, and Lonnie Johnson.", "(The swinging sound of Venuti's jazz violin and Eddie Lang's virtuoso guitar-playing anticipated the more famous sound of Reinhardt and Grappelli's later ensemble.)", "Hearing their music triggered in Reinhardt a vision and goal of becoming a jazz professional.While developing his interest in jazz, Reinhardt met Stéphane Grappelli, a young violinist with similar musical interests.", "In 1928, Grappelli had been a member of the orchestra at the Ambassador Hotel while bandleader Paul Whiteman and Joe Venuti were performing there.", "In early 1934 both Reinhardt and Grappelli were members of Louis Vola's band.=== Formation of the quintet ===From 1934 until the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Reinhardt and Grappelli worked together as the principal soloists of their newly formed quintet, the Quintette du Hot Club de France, in Paris.", "It became the most accomplished and innovative European jazz group of the period.Reinhardt's brother Joseph and Roger Chaput also played on guitar, and Louis Vola was on bass.", "The Quintette was one of the few well-known jazz ensembles composed only of stringed instruments.In Paris on 14 March 1933, Reinhardt recorded two takes each of \"Parce que je vous aime\" and \"Si, j'aime Suzy\", vocal numbers with lots of guitar fills and guitar support.", "He used three guitarists along with an accordion lead, violin, and bass.", "In August 1934, he made other recordings with more than one guitar (Joseph Reinhardt, Roger Chaput, and Reinhardt), including the first recording by the Quintette.", "In both years the great majority of their recordings featured a wide variety of horns, often in multiples, piano, and other instruments, but the all-string instrumentation is the one most often adopted by emulators of the Hot Club sound.Decca Records in the United States released three records of Quintette tunes with Reinhardt on guitar, and one other, credited to \"Stephane Grappelli & His Hot 4 with Django Reinhardt\", in 1935.Reinhardt also played and recorded with many American jazz musicians, such as Adelaide Hall, Coleman Hawkins, Benny Carter, and Rex Stewart (who later stayed in Paris).", "He participated in a jam session and radio performance with Louis Armstrong.", "Later in his career, Reinhardt played with Dizzy Gillespie in France.", "Also in the neighborhood was the artistic salon R-26, at which Reinhardt and Grappelli performed regularly as they developed their unique musical style.In 1938, Reinhardt's quintet played to thousands at an all-star show held in London's Kilburn State auditorium.", "While playing, he noticed American film actor Eddie Cantor in the front row.", "When their set ended, Cantor rose to his feet, then went up on stage and kissed Reinhardt's hand, paying no concern to the audience.", "A few weeks later the quintet played at the London Palladium.=== Second World War ===Reinhardt in 1944, photographed at Studio HarcourtWhen World War II broke out, the original quintet was on tour in the United Kingdom.", "Reinhardt returned to Paris at once, leaving his wife in the UK.", "Grappelli remained in the United Kingdom for the duration of the war.", "Reinhardt re-formed the quintet, with Hubert Rostaing on clarinet replacing Grappelli.While he tried to continue with his music, war with the Nazis presented Reinhardt with a potentially catastrophic obstacle, as he was a Romani jazz musician.", "Beginning in 1933, all German Romani were barred from living in cities, herded into settlement camps, and routinely sterilized.", "Romani men were required to wear a brown Gypsy ID triangle sewn on their chest, similar to the pink triangle that homosexuals wore, and much like the yellow Star of David that Jews had to subsequently wear.", "During the war, Romani were systematically killed in concentration camps.", "In France, they were used as slave labour on farms and in factories.", "During the Holocaust an estimated 600,000 to 1.5 million Romani throughout Europe were killed.Hitler and Joseph Goebbels viewed jazz as un-German counterculture.", "Nonetheless, Goebbels stopped short of a complete ban on jazz, which now had many fans in Germany and elsewhere.", "Official policy towards jazz was much less strict in occupied France, according to author Andy Fry, with jazz music frequently played on both Radio France, the official station of Vichy France, and Radio Paris, which was controlled by the Germans.", "A new generation of French jazz enthusiasts, the Zazous, had arisen and swollen the ranks of the Hot Club.", "In addition to the increased interest, many American musicians based in Paris during the thirties had returned to the US at the beginning of the war, leaving more work for French musicians.", "Reinhardt was the most famous jazz musician in Europe at the time, working steadily during the early war years and earning a great deal of money, yet always under threat.Reinhardt expanded his musical horizons during this period.", "Using an early amplification system, he was able to work in more of a big-band format, in large ensembles with horn sections.", "He also experimented with classical composition, writing a Mass for the Gypsies and a symphony.", "Since he did not read music, Reinhardt worked with an assistant to notate what he was improvising.", "His modernist piece \"Rythme Futur\" was also intended to be acceptable to the Nazis.In 1943, Reinhardt married his long-term partner Sophie \"Naguine\" Ziegler in Salbris.", "They had a son, Babik Reinhardt, who became a respected guitarist.In 1943 the tide of war turned against the Germans, with a considerable darkening of the situation in Paris.", "Severe rationing was in place, and members of Reinhardt's circle were being captured by the Nazis or joining the resistance.Reinhardt's first attempt at escape from Occupied France led to capture.", "Fortunately for him, a jazz-loving German, Luftwaffe officer , allowed him to return to Paris.", "Reinhardt made a second attempt a few days later, but was stopped in the middle of the night by Swiss border guards, who forced him to return to Paris again.One of his tunes, 1940's \"Nuages\", became an unofficial anthem in Paris to signify hope for liberation.", "During a concert at the Salle Pleyel, the popularity of the tune was such that the crowd made him replay it three times in a row.", "The single sold over 100,000 copies.Unlike the estimated 600,000 Romani people who were interned and killed in the Porajmos, the Romani Holocaust, Reinhardt survived the war.=== United States tour ===Reinhardt and Duke Ellington at the Aquarium in New York, c.November 1946After the war, Reinhardt rejoined Grappelli in the UK.", "In the autumn of 1946, he made his first tour in the United States, debuting at Cleveland Music Hall as a special guest soloist with Duke Ellington and His Orchestra.", "He played with many musicians and composers, such as Maury Deutsch.", "At the end of the tour, Reinhardt played two nights at Carnegie Hall in New York City; he received a great ovation and took six curtain calls on the first night.Despite his pride in touring with Ellington (one of two letters to Grappelli relates his excitement), he was not fully integrated into the band.", "He played a few tunes at the end of the show, backed by Ellington, with no special arrangements written for him.", "After the tour, Reinhardt secured an engagement at Café Society Uptown, where he played four solos a day, backed by the resident band.", "These performances drew large audiences.", "Having failed to bring his usual Selmer Modèle Jazz, he played on a borrowed electric guitar, which he felt hampered the delicacy of his style.", "He had been promised jobs in California, but they failed to develop.", "Tired of waiting, Reinhardt returned to France in February 1947.=== After the quintet ===After his return, Reinhardt appeared to find it difficult to adjust.", "He sometimes showed up for scheduled concerts without a guitar or amplifier, or wandered off to the park or beach.", "On a few occasions he refused to get out of bed.", "Reinhardt developed a reputation among his band, fans, and managers as extremely unreliable.", "He skipped sold-out concerts to \"walk to the beach\" or \"smell the dew.\"", "During this period he continued to attend the R-26 artistic salon in Montmartre, improvising with his devoted collaborator, Stéphane Grappelli.In Rome in 1949, Reinhardt recruited three Italian jazz players (on bass, piano, and snare drum) and recorded over 60 tunes in an Italian studio.", "He united with Grappelli, and used his acoustic Selmer-Maccaferri.", "The recording was issued for the first time in the late 1950s.Back in Paris, in June 1950, Reinhardt was invited to join an entourage to welcome the return of Benny Goodman.", "He also attended a reception for Goodman, who, after the war ended, had asked Reinhardt to join him in the U.S. Goodman repeated his invitation and, out of politeness, Reinhardt accepted.", "However, Reinhardt later had second thoughts about what role he could play alongside Goodman, who was the \"King of Swing\", and remained in France.=== Final years ===Plaque commemorating Reinhardt at Samois-sur-SeineIn 1951, Reinhardt retired to Samois-sur-Seine, near Fontainebleau, where he lived until his death.", "He continued to play in Paris jazz clubs and began playing electric guitar.", "(He often used a Selmer fitted with an electric pickup, despite his initial hesitation about the instrument.)", "In his final recordings, made with his Nouvelle Quintette in the last few months of his life, he had begun moving in a new musical direction, in which he assimilated the vocabulary of bebop and fused it with his own melodic style.On 16 May 1953, while walking home from Fontainebleau–Avon station after playing in a Paris club, he collapsed outside his house from a brain hemorrhage.It was a Saturday, and it took a full day for a doctor to arrive.", "Reinhardt was declared dead on arrival at the hospital in Fontainebleau, at the age of 43." ], [ "Technique and musical approach", "Reinhardt developed his initial musical approach via tutoring by relatives and exposure to other gypsy guitar players of the day, then playing the banjo-guitar alongside accordionists in the world of the Paris .", "He played mainly with a plectrum for maximum volume and attack (particularly in the 1920s-early 30s when amplification in venues was minimal or non-existent), although he could also play fingerstyle on occasion, as evidenced by some recorded introductions and solos.", "Following his accident in 1928 in which his left hand was severely burned, he was left with the use of only his first two fingers.", "As a result, he developed a completely new left hand technique and started performing on guitar accompanying popular singers of the day, before discovering jazz and presenting his new hybrid style of gypsy approach plus jazz to the outside world via the Quintette du Hot Club de France.Despite his left hand handicap, Reinhardt was able to recapture (in modified form) and then surpass his previous level of proficiency on the guitar (by now his main instrument), not only as a lead instrumental voice but also as a driving and harmonically interesting rhythm player; his virtuosity, incorporating many gypsy-derived influences, was also matched with a superb sense of melodic invention as well as general musicality in terms of choice of notes, timing, dynamics, and utilizing the maximum tonal range from an instrument previously thought of by many critics as potentially limited in expression.", "Playing completely by ear (he could neither read nor write music), he roamed freely across the full range of the fretboard giving full flight to his musical imagination and could play with ease in any key.", "Guitarists, particularly in Britain and the United States, could scarcely believe what they heard on the records that the Quintette was making; guitarist, gypsy jazz enthusiast and educator Ian Cruickshank writes:Because of his damaged left hand (his ring and pinky fingers helped little in his playing) Reinhardt had to modify both his chordal and melodic approach extensively.", "For chords he developed a novel system based largely around 3-note chords, each of which could serve as the equivalent of several conventional chords in different inversions; for the treble notes he could employ his ring and little fingers to fret the relevant high strings even though he could not articulate these fingers independently, while in some chords he also employed his left hand thumb on the lowest string.", "Within his rapid melodic runs he frequently incorporated arpeggios, which could be played using two notes per string (played with his two \"good\" fingers, being his index and middle fingers) while shifting up or down the fingerboard, as opposed to the more conventional \"box\" approach of moving across strings within a single fretboard position (location).", "He also produced some of his characteristic \"effects\" by moving a fixed shape (such as a diminished chord) rapidly up and down the fretboard, resulting in what one writer has called \"intervallic cycling of melodic motifs and chords\".", "For an unsurpassed insight into these techniques in use, interested persons should not miss viewing the only known synchronised (sound and vision) footage of Reinhardt in performance, playing on an instrumental version of the song \"J'Attendrai\" for the short jazz film ''Le Jazz Hot'' in 1938–39 (copies available on YouTube and elsewhere).Hugues Panassié, in his 1942 book ''The Real Jazz'', wrote:Writing in 1945, Billy Neil and E. Gates stated thatDjango-style enthusiast John Jorgenson has been quoted as saying:In his later style ( onwards) Reinhardt began to incorporate more bebop influences in his compositions and improvisations, also fitting a Stimer electric pickup to his acoustic guitar.", "With the addition of amplification, his playing became more linear and \"horn like\", with the greater facility of the amplified instrument for longer sustain and to be heard in quiet passages, and in general less reliance on his gypsy \"bag of tricks\" as developed for his acoustic guitar style (also, in some of his late recordings, with a very different supporting group context from his \"classic\", pre-war Quintette sound).", "These \"electric period\" Reinhardt recordings have in general received less popular re-release and critical analysis than his pre-war releases (the latter also extending to the period from 1940 to 1945 when Grappelli was absent, which included some of his most famous compositions such as \"Nuages\"), but are also a fascinating area of Reinhardt's work to study, and have begun to be revived by players such as the Rosenberg Trio (with their 2010 release \"Djangologists\") and Biréli Lagrène.", "Wayne Jefferies, in his article \"Django's Forgotten Era\", writes:" ], [ "Family", "Reinhardt's first son, Lousson (a.k.a.", "Henri Baumgartner), played jazz in a mostly bebop style in the 1950s and 1960s.", "He followed the Romani lifestyle and was relatively little recorded.", "Reinhardt's second son, Babik, became a guitarist in a more contemporary jazz style, and recorded a number of albums before his death in 2001.After Reinhardt died, his younger brother Joseph at first swore to abandon music, but he was persuaded to perform and record again.", "Joseph's son Markus Reinhardt is a violinist in the Romani style.A third generation of direct descendants has developed as musicians: David Reinhardt, Reinhardt's grandson (by his son Babik), leads his own trio.", "Dallas Baumgartner, a great-grandson by Lousson, is a guitarist who travels with the Romani and keeps a low public profile.", "A distant relative, violinist Schnuckenack Reinhardt, became known in Germany as a performer of gypsy music and gypsy jazz up to his death in 2006, and assisted in keeping Reinhardt's legacy alive through the period following Django's death." ], [ "Legacy", "Reinhardt is regarded as one of the greatest guitar players of all time, and the first important European jazz musician to make a major contribution with jazz guitar.", "During his career he wrote nearly 100 songs, according to jazz guitarist Frank Vignola.Using a Selmer guitar in the mid-1930s, his style took on new volume and expressiveness.", "Because of his physical disability, he played mainly using his index and middle fingers, and invented a distinctive style of jazz guitar.For about a decade after Reinhardt's death, interest in his musical style was minimal.", "In the fifties, bebop superseded swing in jazz, rock and roll took off, and electric instruments became dominant in popular music.", "Since the mid-sixties, there has been a revival of interest in Reinhardt's music, a revival that has extended into the 21st century, with annual festivals and periodic tribute concerts.", "His devotees included classical guitarist Julian Bream and country guitarist Chet Atkins, who considered him one of the ten greatest guitarists of the twentieth century.Jazz guitarists in the U.S., such as Charlie Byrd and Wes Montgomery, were influenced by his style.", "In fact, Byrd, who lived from 1925 to 1999, said that Reinhardt was his primary influence.", "Guitarist Mike Peters notes that \"the word 'genius' is bantered about too much.", "But in jazz, Louis Armstrong was a genius, Duke Ellington was another one, and Reinhardt was also.\"", "David Grisman adds, \"As far as I'm concerned, no one since has come anywhere close to Django Reinhardt as an improviser or technician.", "\"Festival Django Reinhardt in FranceThe popularity of gypsy jazz has generated an increasing number of festivals, such as the Festival Django Reinhardt held every last weekend of June since 1983 in Samois-sur-Seine (France), and since 2017 in nearby Fontainebleau; the various DjangoFests held throughout Europe and the US; and \"Django in June\", an annual camp for Gypsy jazz musicians and aficionados held at Smith College in Massachusetts.Woody Allen's film ''Sweet and Lowdown'' (1999), the story of a Django Reinhardt-like character, mentions Reinhardt and includes actual recordings in the film.=== Tributes ===In February 2017, the Berlin International Film Festival held the world premiere of ''Django'', a French film directed by Etienne Comar.", "The movie covers Django's escape from Nazi-occupied Paris in 1943 and the fact that even under \"constant danger, flight and the atrocities committed against his family\", he continued composing and performing.", "Reinhardt's music was re-recorded for the film by the Dutch jazz band Rosenberg Trio with lead guitarist Stochelo Rosenberg.The documentary film, ''Djangomania!''", "was released in 2005.The hour-long film was directed and written by Jamie Kastner, who traveled throughout the world to show the influence of Django's music in various countries.In 1984 the Kool Jazz Festival, held in Carnegie Hall and Avery Fisher Hall, was dedicated entirely to Reinhardt.", "Performers included Grappelli, Benny Carter, and Mike Peters with his group of seven musicians.", "The festival was organized by George Wein.", "Reinhardt is celebrated annually in the village of Liberchies, his birthplace.Numerous musicians have written and recorded tributes to Reinhardt.", "The jazz standard \"Django\" (1954) was composed by John Lewis of the Modern Jazz Quartet in honour of Reinhardt.", "The Allman Brothers Band song \"Jessica\" was written by Dickey Betts in tribute to Reinhardt.", "American country music artists Willie Nelson and Merle Haggard named their sixth and final collaborative studio album \"Django and Jimmie\".", "It was released on 2 June 2015, by Legacy Recordings.", "The album contains the song \"Django and Jimmie\" which is a tribute to musicians Django Reinhardt and Jimmie Rodgers.Ramelton, Co. Donegal, Ireland, each year hosts a festival in tribute to Django called \"Django sur Lennon\" or \"Django on the Lennon\" the Lennon being the name of the local river that runs through the village.In coincidence with the 110th anniversary in 2020 of Django's birth, a graphic novel depicting his youth years was published under the title ''Django Main de Feu'', by writer Salva Rubio and artist Efa through Belgian publisher Dupuis.On 23 January 2010, Google Doodle celebrated Django Reinhard’s 100th Birthday." ], [ "Influence", "Many guitar players and other musicians have expressed admiration for Reinhardt or have cited him as a major influence.", "Jeff Beck described Reinhardt as \"by far the most astonishing guitar player ever\" and \"quite superhuman\".Grateful Dead's Jerry Garcia and Black Sabbath's Tony Iommi, both of whom lost fingers in accidents, were inspired by Reinhardt's example of becoming an accomplished guitar player despite his injuries.", "Garcia was quoted in June 1985 in ''Frets Magazine'':Denny Laine and Jimmy McCulloch, members of Paul McCartney's band Wings, have mentioned him as an inspiration.Andrew Latimer, of the band Camel, has stated that he was influenced by Reinhardt.Willie Nelson has been a lifelong Reinhardt fan, stating in his memoir, \"This was a man who changed my musical life by giving me a whole new perspective on the guitar and, on an even more profound level, on my relationship with sound...During my formative years, as I listened to Django's records, especially songs like 'Nuages' that I would play for the rest of my life, I studied his technique.", "Even more, I studied his gentleness.", "I love the human sound he gave his acoustic guitar.", "\"Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin: \"Django Reinhardt was fantastic.", "He must have been playing all the time to be that good.\"" ], [ "Reinhardt in popular culture", "* In 1982's \"Tanta til Beate\" (\"Beate's Aunt\"), by the Norwegian singer-songwriter and folk musician Lillebjørn Nilsen, Reinhardt is hailed several times.", "* His legacy is referred to in Woody Allen's 1999 ''Sweet and Lowdown''.", "This fictional biopic features an imaginary American guitarist, Emmet Ray, who is obsessed with Reinhardt, with a soundtrack featuring Howard Alden.", "* Reinhardt's music appears in the 2002 video game ''Mafia: The City of Lost Heaven''.", "One of the songs featured in the game, \"Belleville\", would later appear again in its 2010 sequel ''Mafia II''.", "* The 2003 animated film ''The Triplets of Belleville'' begins with a flashback showing The Triplets of Belleville, a trio of singers, performing on stage in the 1920s, dancing alongside other celebrities, including Josephine Baker and Django Reinhardt.", "* The 2004 film ''Head in the Clouds'' features guitarist ''John Jorgenson'' as Django Reinhardt in a cameo role.", "* The Django web framework is named after Reinhardt, as is version 3.1 of the blog software WordPress.", "* Various Reinhardt songs, including his rendition of \"La Mer\", are included in the 2007 video game ''BioShock.", "''* The Belgian government issued a commemorative coin in 92.5% sterling silver in 2010 coinciding with the 100th anniversary of his birth.", "It is a silver 10-Euro coin with a color image of Reinhardt on the reverse side.", "* Emil Lager portrayed Reinhardt playing guitar in a French cafe in the 2011 film ''Hugo''.", "* Reinhardt appears as a character in the fiction novel ''The Magic Strings of Frankie Presto'' (2015) by American author Mitch Albom.", "* The film ''Django'', by the French filmmaker Étienne Comar, depicting Reinhardt's life during wartime was released in 2017, with the French actor Reda Kateb performing the role of Reinhardt.", "It opened the 67th Berlin International Film Festival." ], [ "Discography", "=== Releases in his lifetime ===Reinhardt recorded over 900 sides in his recording career, from 1928 to 1953, the majority as sides of the then-prevalent 78-RPM records, with the remainder as acetates, transcription discs, private and off-air recordings (of radio broadcasts), and part of a film soundtrack.", "Only one session (eight tracks) from March 1953 was ever recorded specifically for album release by Norman Granz in the then-new LP format, but Reinhardt died before the album could be released.", "In his earliest recordings Reinhardt played banjo (or, more accurately, banjo-guitar) accompanying accordionists and singers on dances and popular tunes of the day, with no jazz content, whereas in the last recordings before his death he played amplified guitar in the bebop idiom with a pool of younger, more modern French musicians.A full chronological listing of his lifetime recorded output is available from the source cited here, and an index of individual tunes is available from the source cited here.", "A few fragments of film performance (without original sound) also survive, as does one complete performance with sound, of the tune \"J'Attendrai\" performed with the Quintet in 1938 for the short film ''Le Jazz Hot''.=== Posthumous compilations ===Since his death, Reinhardt's music has been released on many compilations.", "''Intégrale Django Reinhardt'', volumes 1–20 (40 CDs), released by the French company Frémeaux from 2002 to 2005, tried to include every known track on which he played.", "* ''The Great Artistry of Django Reinhardt'' (Clef, 1954)* ''Parisian Swing'' (GNP Crescendo, 1965)* ''Quintet of the Hot Club of France'' (GNP Crescendo, 1965)* ''Paris 1945'' with Glenn Miller All-Stars (French Columbia, 1973)* ''Django Reinhardt: The Versatile Giant'' (Inner City Records, 1978)* ''At Club St. Germain'' (Honeysuckle, 1983)* ''Swing Guitar'' (Jass, 1991)* ''Djano Reinhardt in Brussels'' (Verve, 1992)* ''Django Reinhardt & Stephane Grappelli'' (GNP Crescendo, 1990)* ''Peche à La Mouche: The Great Blue Star Sessions 1947–1953'' (Verve, 1992)* ''Django's Music'' (Hep, 1994)* ''Brussels and Paris'' (DRG, 1996)* ''Quintet of the Hot Club of France'' (Original Jazz Classics, 1997)* ''Django with His American Friends'' (DRG, 1998)* ''The Complete Django Reinhardt HMV Sessions'' (1998)* ''The Classic Early Recordings in Chronological Order'' (2000)* ''Djangology'' (Bluebird, 2002)* ''Intégrale Django Reinhardt'' (Frémeaux, 2002)* ''Jazz in Paris: Nuages'' (2003)* ''Vol.", "2: 1938–1939'' (Naxos, 2001)* ''Swing Guitars Vol.", "3 1936–1937'' (Naxos, 2003)* ''Nuages Vol.", "6 1940'' (Naxos, 2004)* ''Django on the Radio'' (2008)* ''Djangology: Solo and Duet Recordings'' (2019)===Sideman work===* Coleman Hawkins ''The Coleman Hawkins Collection 1927-1956'' (2014)* Charles Trenet ''Intégrale Charles Trénet: 1933-1947'' (2004)=== Unrecorded compositions ===A small number of waltzes composed by Reinhardt in his youth were never recorded by the composer, but were retained in the repertoire of his associates and several are still played today.", "They came to light via recordings by Matelo Ferret in 1960 (the waltzes \"Montagne Sainte-Genevieve\", \"Gagoug\", \"Chez Jacquet\" and \"Choti\"; Disques Vogue (F)EPL7740) and 1961 (\"Djalamichto\" and \"En Verdine\"; Disques Vogue (F)EPL7829).", "The first four are now available on Matelo's CD ''Tziganskaïa and Other Rare Recordings'', released by Hot Club Records (subsequently reissued as ''Tziganskaïa: The Django Reinhardt Waltzes''); \"Chez Jacquet\" was also recorded by Baro Ferret in 1966.The names \"Gagoug\" and \"Choti\" were reportedly conferred by Reinhardt's widow Naguine on request from Matelo, who had learned the tunes without names.", "Reinhardt also worked on composing a Mass for use by the gypsies, which was not completed although an 8-minute extract exists, played by the organist Léo Chauliac for Reinhardt's benefit, via a 1944 radio broadcast; this can be found on the CD release \"Gipsy Jazz School\" and also on volume 12 of the \"Intégrale Django Reinhardt\" CD compilation." ], [ "See also", "Oscar AlemánDjango à Liberchies festivalDjangodOr (Golden Django)Festivals de jazz Django Reinhardt, a French list of worldwide festivals dedicated to the guitaristList of Belgian bands and artistsList of Belgian musicians and singersList of compositions by Django ReinhardtList of Romani peopleR-26 (salon)Jean SablonSintiVernon StoryGábor Szabó" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", " Ayeroff, Stan (1978).", "''Jazz Masters: Django Reinhardt''.", "Consolidated Music Publishers.", "* Cruickshank, Ian (1982).", "''The Guitar Style of Django Reinhardt''.", "Self published.", "Reprinted as ''The Guitar Styles of Django Reinhardt and the Gypsies'', Music Sales America, 1992, * Cruickshank, Ian (1994).", "''Django's Gypsies – The Mystique of Django Reinhardt and His People''.", "Ashley Mark Publishing.", ", * Delaunay, Charles (1961).", "''Django Reinhardt''.", "Da Capo Press.", "* Dregni, Michael (2004).", "''Django: The Life and Music of a Gypsy Legend''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Dregni, Michael (2006).", "''Django Reinhardt and the Illustrated History of Gypsy Jazz''.", "Speck Press.", "* Dregni, Michael (2008).", "''Gypsy Jazz: In Search of Django Reinhardt and the Soul of Gypsy Swing''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Gelly, Dave & Fogg, Rod (2005).", "''Django Reinhardt: Know the Man, Play the Music''.", "Hal Leonard Corp. * Givan, Benjamin (2010).", "''The Music of Django Reinhardt''.", "University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.", "* Harrison, Max (1999).", "''Django Reinhardt''.", "In Alexander, Charles (ed.", "): ''Masters of Jazz Guitar''.", "Balafon Books.", "* Jorgenson, John (2004).", "''Intro to Gypsy Jazz Guitar''.", "High View Publications / Flatpicking Guitar Magazine.", "* Mongan, Norman (1983).", "''The History of the Guitar in Jazz: Chapter 4: A Gypsy Genius''.", "Oak Publications.", "* Neill, Billy & Gates, E. (compilers) (c. 1945).", "''Discography of the Recorded Works of Django Reinhardt and the Quintette de Hot Club de France''.", "Clifford Essex Music Co. Ltd.* * Vernon, Paul (2003).", "''Jean 'Django' Reinhardt: A Contextual Bio-Discography 1910–1953''.", "Ashgate Publishing; reprinted Routledge, 2016." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Clip of J'Attendrai from the 1938 short promo film Le Jazz Hot* Complete Works for Classical Guitar from Classical Guitar Library Sheet Music" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Digit" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Digit''' may refer to:" ], [ "Mathematics and science", "* Numerical digit, as used in mathematics or computer science** Hindu-Arabic numerals, the most common modern representation of numerical digits* Digit (anatomy), the most distal part of a limb, such as a finger or toe* Digit (unit), an ancient measurement unit* Hartley (unit) or decimal digit, a unit of information entropy" ], [ "Personalities", "* Digit, a gorilla studied by Dian Fossey, killed by poachers and buried near Fossey's grave** Digit Fund, now the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, founded by Fossey to raise money for anti-poaching patrols" ], [ "Arts and media", "* Digit (''Cyberchase''), a character in the TV series ''Cyberchase''* ''Digit'' (EP), by Echobelly, 2000* ''Digit'' (magazine), an Indian information technology magazine* Liquid and digits, a type of gestural, interpretive, rave and urban street dance" ], [ "See also", "Dig It (disambiguation)Digital (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dana Plato" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dana Michelle Plato''' (née '''Strain'''; November 7, 1964 – May 8, 1999) was an American actress.", "An influential teen idol of the late 1970s and early 1980s, she was best known for playing the role of Kimberly Drummond on the NBC/ABC sitcom ''Diff'rent Strokes'' (1978–1986).Plato was born to a teen mother and was adopted as an infant.", "She was raised in the San Fernando Valley and was an accomplished figure skater before acting.", "Her acting career began with numerous commercial appearances, and her television debut came at the age of 10 with a brief appearance on the television series ''The Six Million Dollar Man'' (1975).", "Plato subsequently appeared in the horror films ''Exorcist II: The Heretic'' (1977) and ''Return to Boggy Creek'' (1977).Plato's breakthrough feature was the Academy Award–winning film ''California Suite'' (1978), in which she played Jenny Warren.", "She earned widespread recognition and acclaim for playing Kimberly Drummond on ''Diff'rent Strokes''.", "The role also earned Plato nominations for a Young Artist Award for Best Young Actress in a Comedy Series and two TV Land Awards for Best Quintessential Non-Traditional Family.", "Following ''Diff'rent Strokes'', she worked sporadically in independent films and B movies.", "Plato was married twice; she had a child in 1984 during her marriage to guitarist Lanny Lambert.Plato struggled with substance abuse for most of her life.", "She was arrested in 1991 for robbing a video store, and again the following year for forging a drug prescription.", "On May 8, 1999, at age 34, Plato was found dead in her motor home from an overdose of prescription drugs.", "Her death was initially considered accidental, but later ruled a suicide.", "Her personal life, in retrospect, has been described as a \"tragedy\"." ], [ "Early life", "Dana Plato was born Dana Michelle Strain on November 7, 1964, in Maywood, California, to Linda Strain, a teenager who was already caring for an 18-month-old child.", "In June 1965, the seven-month-old Dana was adopted by Dean Plato, who owned a trucking company, and his wife Florine \"Kay\" Plato.", "She was raised in the San Fernando Valley.", "When she was three, her adoptive parents divorced and she lived with her mother.At a very young age, Plato began attending auditions with her mother, and by seven years old had appeared in over 100 television commercials.", "Plato was also an accomplished figure skater.", "During her years on ''Diff'rent Strokes'', Plato struggled with drug and alcohol problems; she admitted to drinking alcohol, using cannabis and cocaine, and suffering an overdose of diazepam when she was aged 14.In 1995, during an appearance on ''The Marilyn Kagen Show'' alongside co-star Todd Bridges, she spoke of her childhood with her mother, stating: \"My mother made sure that I was normal.", "The only thing that she did, the mistake she made, was that she kept me in a plastic bubble.", "So, I didn't learn about reality and life skills.\"", "Kagen suggested that Plato may have been used for a free meal ticket, which Plato denied, explaining that her mother's ways were so that she would not become a prima donna." ], [ "Career", "Plato made her television acting debut at the age of 10, making a brief appearance on the ABC television show ''The Six Million Dollar Man''.", "She then starred in the 1975 made-for-television film ''Beyond the Bermuda Triangle''.", "Plato made her film debut at the age of 13 in the uncredited role of Sandra Phalor in the horror film ''Exorcist II: The Heretic'' (1977).", "She starred as Evie Joe in the horror film ''Return to Boggy Creek'' in the same year.", "both films were received negatively by critics.", "Better received was the family-comedy film ''California Suite'' (1978), in which Plato played Jenny Warren; the film was also a commercial success, and earned accolades from the Academy Awards and the Golden Globe Awards.", "The cast of ''Diff'rent Strokes'' with guest star left When Plato made a brief appearance on ''The Gong Show'', she was spotted by a producer who helped cast her as Kimberly Drummond, the older sister of adopted brothers Arnold and Willis Jackson, on the NBC sitcom ''Diff'rent Strokes''.", "The series debuted in 1978 and became an immediate hit.", "Plato appeared regularly on the show throughout its run, notably top-billed for four years.", "She was nominated for a Young Artist Award for her work on the program, and also was part of two TV Land Award nominations given to its cast.", "In 1984, following the birth of her son Tyler, Plato was dismissed from her starring role due to both her pregnancy and struggles in her personal life, which producers felt would negatively impact their \"wholesome family comedy\".", "She made a one episode appearance on season 8 episode 12 of \"The Love Boat\".", "Thereafter, Plato appeared recurringly on ''Diff'rent Strokes'' from 1985 to 1986, the show's end; in season 8, the episode which aired on January 17, 1986, was Plato's final appearance on the show, which showed her character suffering from bulimia.", "CBC News described her performance in the episode as a \"series highpoint\".In 1981, Plato appeared in the television special ''A Step in Time'', which earned her a second Young Artist Award nomination.", "In 1983, she starred in the television film ''High School U.S.A.'' as Cara Ames, alongside ''Diff'rent Strokes'' co-star Todd Bridges, who played Otto Lipton.", "In spite of the film being met with a mixed response from critics and viewers alike, it gained popularity at the time of its premiere, particularly for its cast.", "Plato attempted to establish herself as a serious actress, but found it difficult to achieve success.", "She had breast implants and modeled for a June 1989 ''Playboy'' pictorial.", "She also started taking roles in such B movies as ''Bikini Beach Race'' (1989) and ''Lethal Cowboy'' (1992).", "In 1990 she made a brief attempt at a musical career, sponsored by producer Howie Rice.", "She recorded six tracks with songwriter/producer Daniel Liston Keller at Paramount Studios in Hollywood, California, but the recordings were shelved and not released.In 1992, Plato starred in the video game ''Night Trap'', becoming one of the first celebrities to appear in a video game.", "She was eager to work on the project, and Rob Fulop, one of the designers of ''Night Trap'', said that he and Plato had enjoyed working together.", "She made little effort to hide the fact that the project was a step-down compared to her previous career ventures.", "The game was a moderate success, and is considered a pioneering title because it was the first to use live actors.", "''Night Trap'' received mixed to negative reviews upon release, and in retrospective has continued to polarize critics and audiences.", "It is best remembered for the controversy it created over the violence and sexuality that, along with that surrounding ''Mortal Kombat'', eventually led to the creation of the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB).Toward the end of her career, Plato chose roles that were erotic; she appeared nude in ''Prime Suspect'' (1989) and ''Compelling Evidence'' (1995), and in the softcore erotic drama ''Different Strokes: The Story of Jack and Jill...and Jill'' (1998), the title of which was changed after filming in order to tie it to Plato's past.", "In the same year, following her appearance in the film, Plato appeared in a cover story of the lesbian lifestyle-magazine ''Girlfriends''.Plato's last works include ''Desperation Boulevard'' (1998), in which she appears as herself and which appears to be based on her life; ''Silent Scream'' (1999), in which she appears as Emma Jones; and ''Pacino Is Missing'' (2002), which was released after her death, in which she appears as an attorney." ], [ "Personal life", "In December 1983, Plato moved in with her boyfriend, rock guitarist Lanny Lambert.", "The couple married on April 24, 1984, and their only child, Tyler Edward Lambert, was born on July 2, 1984.When it was revealed that she was pregnant, she was written out of ''Diff'rent Strokes''.", "Her co-star Conrad Bain revealed that she was happy about her baby, stating in an interview with ''People'' magazine: \"She deliberately got pregnant while doing the series, when I spoke to her about it, she was enthusiastic about having done that... saying that 'When I get the baby, I will never be alone again.", "'\"Plato separated from Lambert in January 1988, the same week her mother died of scleroderma.", "In desperation, she signed over power of attorney to an accountant who disappeared with the majority of her money, leaving her with less than $150,000.She claimed the accountant was never found nor prosecuted despite an exhaustive search, and that he had also stolen more than $11 million from other clients.", "In her March 1990 divorce, Plato lost custody of her son to Lambert and was given visitation rights.", "She then became engaged to Fred Potts, a filmmaker, but the romance ended.", "She was later married to actor and producer Scott Atkins (Scotty Gelt) in Vancouver for one month, but the marriage was annulled.", "Before her death, Plato was engaged to her manager Robert Menchaca, six years her junior, with whom she lived in a motor home in Navarre, Florida.On February 28, 1991, Plato entered a Las Vegas video store, produced a pellet gun, and demanded the money in the cash register.", "After she left with the money, the clerk called 9-1-1 and said, \"I've just been robbed by the girl who played Kimberly on ''Diff'rent Strokes''.\"", "Approximately fifteen minutes after the robbery, Plato returned to the scene and was immediately arrested.", "She had stolen $164.Entertainer Wayne Newton posted her $13,000 bail, and Plato was given five years' probation.", "She subsequently became a subject of the national debate surrounding troubled child stars, particularly given the difficulties of her ''Diff'rent Strokes'' co-stars Todd Bridges and Gary Coleman.In January 1992 Plato was arrested a second time, for forging a prescription for diazepam.", "She served thirty days in jail for violating the terms of her probation and immediately entered a drug rehabilitation program.", "Plato later moved to Las Vegas, where she struggled with poverty and unemployment.", "At one point she worked at a dry-cleaning store, where customers reported being impressed by her lack of airs.On May 7, 1999, the day before she died, Plato appeared on ''The Howard Stern Show''.", "She spoke about her life, discussing her financial problems and past run-ins with the law.", "She admitted to being a recovering alcoholic and drug addict, but claimed she had been sober for more than ten years and was not using any drugs, with the exception of prescribed painkillers due to the recent extraction of her wisdom teeth.", "Many callers to the show insulted Plato and questioned her sobriety, which angered and provoked her, and she defiantly offered to take a drug test on the air.", "Some callers, as well as host Howard Stern, came to Plato's defense, though Stern also referred to himself as \"an enabler\" and sarcastically offered Plato drugs.", "Although she allowed a hair to be cut for the test, Stern later claimed she asked for it back after the interview." ], [ "Death", "Plato's official death certificateOn May 8, 1999, Plato and Menchaca were returning to California and stopped at Menchaca's mother's home in Moore, Oklahoma, for a Mother's Day visit.", "Later on in the visit, Plato said that she felt unwell and took a few doses of a hydrocodone / acetaminophen painkiller (Lortab), along with the muscle-relaxant carisoprodol (Soma), and went to lie down with Menchaca inside her Winnebago motor home, which was parked outside the house.", "Upon waking up, Menchaca and the family discovered that Plato had died in her sleep.", "It was initially assumed to be an accidental overdose but was later ruled a suicide based on Plato's long history of substance abuse.", "Some of Plato's friends, including her former ''Diff'rent Strokes'' costar Todd Bridges, have publicly disagreed with the ruling.", "Plato's body was cremated and her ashes were scattered over the Pacific Ocean.In 2000, Fox broadcast a television movie based on Plato, titled ''After Diff'rent Strokes: When the Laughter Stopped''.", "The film was focused on her life and work after the show, including her death.", "It featured actors who at the time were unknown, as well as Bridges, who made a cameo appearance.", "In 2006, NBC aired the television film ''Behind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Diff'rent Strokes'', which was based on the lives of the child stars who had worked on the show.", "Bridges and Coleman appear at the end of the film standing near Plato's grave.On May 6, 2010, two days before the eleventh anniversary of Plato's death, her son Tyler committed suicide with a gunshot wound to the head.", "He was 25 years old.On November 7, 2019, on what would have been Plato's 55th birthday, Bridges commented on Twitter about their friendship, leaving a tribute to Plato:" ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film === Year Title Role Notes 1977 ''Exorcist II: The Heretic'' Sandra Phalor Uncredited role 1977 ''Return to Boggy Creek'' Evie Joe 1978 ''California Suite'' Jenny Warren 1989 ''Prime Suspect'' Diana Masters 1992 ''Bikini Beach Race'' J.D.", "1992 ''The Sounds of Silence'' Deborah Nichols 1995 ''Compelling Evidence'' Dana Fields 1995 ''Lethal Cowboy'' Elizabeth 1995 ''Millennium Day'' 1997 ''Tiger'' Andrea Baker 1997 ''Blade Boxer'' Rita Direct-to-video film 1997 ''Different Strokes: The Story of Jack and Jill...and Jill'' Jill Martin 1998 ''Desperation Boulevard'' Herself 1999 ''Silent Scream'' Emma Jones 2002 ''Pacino Is Missing'' Prosecuting Attorney Posthumous release=== Television === Year Title Role Notes 1975 ''The Six Million Dollar Man'' Girl Episode: \"The Bionic Woman\" 1975 ''Beyond the Bermuda Triangle'' Wendy Television film 1976 ''Family'' Mary Beth Sanders Episode: \"Home Movie\" 1978 ''What Really Happened to the Class of '65?''", "Episode: \"The Most Likely to Succeed\"1978''The Gong Show''HerselfGame show 1978–86 ''Diff'rent Strokes'' Kimberly Drummond 140 episodes Main cast (seasons 1–6); recurring role (seasons 7–8) 1979 ''Hello, Larry'' 3 episodes Guest star (season 1–2) 1979 ''The Facts of Life'' Episode: \"Rough Housing\" 1979–80 ''CHiPs'' Dana Plato 2 episodes Guest star (season 3) 1980 ''Family'' Debbie Episode: \"Letting Go\" 1980 ''ABC Afterschool Specials'' Daisy Dallenger Episode: \"Schoolboy Father\" 1981 ''A Step in Time'' Herself Television film 1982 ''The Family Life'' Naomi Episode \"The Kids are Moving In\" 1982 ''Walt Disney World's 10th Anniversary'' Daughter Television special 1983 ''High School U.S.A.'' Cara Ames Television film 1984 ''The Love Boat'' Patty Springer Episode: \"Paying the Piper/Baby Sister/Help Wanted\" 1985 ''Growing Pains'' Lisa Episode: \"Mike's Madonna Story\"=== Video games === Year Title Role Notes 1992 ''Night Trap'' Kelli Medd Lead role" ], [ "Accolades", " Year Award Category Work ResultRef.", "1981 Young Artist Awards Best Young Actress in a Television Special ''A Step in Time'' 1983 Young Artist Awards Best Young Actress in a Comedy Series''Diff'rent Strokes'' 2003 TV Land Awards Quintessential Non-Traditional Family (shared with cast) 2004 TV Land Awards Quintessential Non-Traditional Family" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Dana Plato on The Biography Channel first aired on December 29, 2007*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Drop kick" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''drop kick''' is a type of kick in various codes of football.", "It involves a player intentionally dropping the ball and then kicking it either (different sports have different definitions) 'as it rises from the first bounce' (rugby) or 'as, or immediately after, it touches the ground' (gridiron football).Drop kicks are used as a method of restarting play and scoring points in rugby union and rugby league.", "Also, association football goalkeepers often return the ball to play with drop kicks.", "The kick was once in wide use in both Australian rules football and gridiron football, but is rarely used anymore by either sport." ], [ "Rugby", "Pat O'Dea=== Drop kick technique ===The drop kick technique in rugby codes is usually to hold the ball with one end pointing downwards in two hands above the kicking leg.", "The ball is dropped onto the ground in front of the kicking foot, which makes contact at the moment or fractionally after the ball touches the ground, called the ''half-volley''.", "The kicking foot usually makes contact with the ball slightly on the instep.In a rugby union kick-off, or drop out, the kicker usually aims to kick the ball high but not a great distance, and so usually strikes the ball after it has started to bounce off the ground, so the contact is made close to the bottom of the ball.=== Rugby league ===In rugby league, drop kicks are mandatory to restart play from the goal line (called a goal line drop-out) after the defending team is tackled or knocks on in the in-goal area or the defending team causes the ball to go dead or into touch-in-goal.", "Drop kicks are also mandatory to restart play from the 20 metre line after an unsuccessful penalty goal attempt goes dead or into touch-in-goal and to score a drop goal (sometimes known as a field goal) in open play, which is worth one point.Drop kicks are optional for a penalty kick to score a penalty goal (this being done rarely, as place kicks are generally used) and when kicking for touch (the sideline) from a penalty, although the option of a punt kick is usually taken instead.=== Rugby union ===In rugby union, a drop kick is used for the kick-off and restarts and to score a drop goal (sometimes called a field goal).", "Originally, it was one of only two ways to score points, along with the place kick.Drop kicks are mandatory from the centre spot to start a half (a kick-off), from the centre spot to restart the game after points have been scored, to restart play from the 22-metre line (called a drop-out) after the ball is touched down or made dead in the in-goal area by the defending team when the attacking team kicked or took the ball into the in-goal area, and to score a drop goal (sometimes called a field goal) in open play, which is worth three points.Drop kicks are optional for a conversion kick after a try has been scored.=== Rugby sevens ===The usage of drop kicks in rugby sevens is the same as in rugby union, except that drop kicks are used for all conversion attempts and for penalty kicks, both of which must be taken within 40 seconds of the try being scored or the award of the penalty." ], [ "Gridiron football", "In both American and Canadian football, one method of scoring a field goal, fair-catch kick (American only), or extra point is by drop-kicking the football through the goal, although the technique is very rarely used in modern play.Zach Curlin drop kickingIt contrasts with the punt, wherein the player kicks the ball without letting it hit the ground first, and the place kick, wherein the player kicks a stationary ball off the ground: \"from placement\".", "A drop kick is significantly more difficult; as Jim Thorpe once explained, \"I regard the place kick as almost two to one safer than the drop kick in attempting a goal from the field.", "\"Charles Brickley's drop kick, the sole score as Harvard defeats Dartmouth 3–0 in 1912The drop kick was often used in early football as a surprise tactic.", "The ball was snapped or lateraled to a back, who faked a run or pass, then drop-kicked a field goal attempt.", "This method of scoring worked well in the 1920s and early 1930s, when the ball was rounder at the ends, similar to a modern rugby ball.Early football stars Thorpe, Charles Brickley, Frank Hudson, Paddy Driscoll, and Al Bloodgood were skilled drop-kickers; Driscoll in and Bloodgood in hold a tied NFL record of four drop kicked field goals in a single game.", "Driscoll's 55-yard drop kick in stood as the unofficial record for field goal range until Bert Rechichar kicked a 56-yard field goal (by placekick) in .The ball was made more pointed at the ends in ; its creation is generally credited to Shorty Ray, a college football official at the time, and later the NFL's head of officiating.", "This made passing the ball easier, as was its intent, but made the drop kick obsolete, as the more pointed ball did not bounce up from the ground reliably.", "The drop kick was supplanted by the place kick, which cannot be attempted out of a formation generally used as a running or passing set.", "While it remains in the rules, the drop kick is seldom seen, and as explained below, is rarely effective when attempted.In Canadian football, there are no formal restrictions on the circumstances under which a drop or a place kick can be attempted.=== NFL ===Eddie Mahan preparing to drop kickTo date, the only successful drop kick in the NFL since 1941 was by Doug Flutie, the backup quarterback of the New England Patriots, against the Miami Dolphins on January 1, 2006, for an extra point after a touchdown.", "Flutie had estimated \"an 80 percent chance\" of making the drop kick, which was called to give Flutie, 43 at the time, the opportunity to make a historic kick in his final NFL game; the drop kick was his last play in the NFL.The last successful drop kick before 2006 in the NFL was executed 64 years earlier in , on an extra point by Ray McLean of the Chicago Bears, coming late in their 37–9 victory over the New York Giants in the NFL Championship Game at Chicago's Wrigley Field on December 21.It was the final point of the game, with the outcome already decided, and followed a fumble recovery and run for the final touchdown with under two minutes remaining.", "The last drop kick for a field goal in the NFL was more than four years earlier, a nine-yarder by player-coach Dutch Clark of the Detroit Lions in .", "It was the initial score in a 16–7 home win over the Chicago Cardinals on September 19.Though it was not part of the NFL at the time, the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) saw its last successful drop kick in 1948, when Joe Vetrano of the San Francisco 49ers drop kicked an extra point after a muffed snap in a 31–28 home loss to the undefeated Cleveland Browns on November 28.Dallas Cowboys punter Mat McBriar attempted a maneuver similar to a drop kick during the 2010 Thanksgiving Day game after a botched punt attempt, but the ball bounced several times before the kick and the sequence of events is officially recorded as a fumble, followed by an illegal kick, with the fumble being recovered by the New Orleans Saints 29 yards downfield from the spot of the kick.", "The Saints declined the illegal kick penalty.Patriots kicker Stephen Gostkowski attempted an onside drop kick on a free kick after a safety against the Pittsburgh Steelers on October 30, ; it went out of bounds.Saints quarterback Drew Brees, a former teammate of Flutie's, attempted a drop kick on an extra point late in the fourth quarter of the 2012 Pro Bowl, but it fell short.", "On December 20, , Buffalo Bills punter Colton Schmidt executed what is believed to be an unintentional drop kick after a botched punt against the Washington Redskins; because the Redskins recovered the kick, it was treated as a punt (and not as a field goal attempt, which would have pushed the ball back to the spot of the kick).Seattle Seahawks punter Michael Dickson drop kicked a kickoff from the 50-yard-line on September 17, , against the Bears.", "The kick landed inside the five-yard-line and was returned to a spot less far out than a touchback would have been automatically returned to, making it a successful strategy.", "Dickson made an onside drop kick attempt at the end of the same game, which was unsuccessful (recovered by the Bears).", "Seahawks head coach Pete Carroll noted that he considered Dickson the team's backup kicker and would kick field goals and extra point attempts with the drop kick should there be an injury to placekicker Sebastian Janikowski.", "Following an injury to Janikowski, Dickson attempted several drop kickoffs on January 5, 2019, against the Dallas Cowboys, including an onside kick which was received normally as a fair catch.The drop kick came under controversy in , after Justin Tucker of the Baltimore Ravens used the maneuver on a kickoff late in a game against the Kansas City Chiefs.", "The drop kick was intended to force the Chiefs to fair catch the ball, preventing them from running out the clock.", "As 2:01 was showing on the game clock and a fair-caught kickoff does not run any time off the clock, it would force the Chiefs to run a play before the two-minute warning.", "Several weeks after the kick, league offices claimed the maneuver was illegal.", "Ravens head coach John Harbaugh disputed this, noting that they had cleared it with the NFL before using the drop kick and were not penalized by the in-game officials.", "The NFL's statement claimed that the ball was not kicked immediately after the bounce.", "Tucker made his approach and dropped the ball to the ground.", "He did not like the bounce and picked the ball up, retreating back for a second approach and dropped the ball a second time before kicking it.", "The NFL's statement suggested a false start should have been called on Tucker for not kicking the ball on the first drop.", "An article on CBS Sports stated that the NFL had made a midseason rule change banning the drop kick, but no statement from the NFL has ever confirmed this.", "It was later clarified that Tucker's drop kick action was illegal because he did not kick the ball \"immediately\" after the ball touched the ground.", "Rather, Tucker threw the ball upwards, allowed it to drop to the ground, then kicked the ball as it was falling from its apex after bouncing.San Francisco 49ers' kicker Robbie Gould attempted an onside drop kick against the Philadelphia Eagles on October 4, ; the recovery was unsuccessful.", "Five weeks later, the Bears also attempted an unsuccessful onside drop kick against the Tennessee Titans on November 8.=== NCAA ===The last successful drop kick extra point in the NCAA was by Jason Millgan of Hartwick College on December 11, 1998, St. Lawrence University.", "Frosty Peters of Montana State College made 17 drop kicks in one game in 1924.On December 30, 2023, the Auburn Tigers' punter Oscar Chapman attempted a dropkicked onside kick, which was recovered by the Maryland Terrapins.=== Canadian football ===In the Canadian game, the drop kick can be attempted at any time by either team.", "Any player on the kicking team behind the kicker, and including the kicker, can recover the kick.", "When a drop kick goes out of bounds, possession on the next scrimmage goes to the non-kicking team.On September 8, 1974, Tom Wilkinson, quarterback for the Edmonton Eskimos, unsuccessfully attempted a drop kick field goal in the final seconds of a 24–2 romp over the Winnipeg Blue Bombers.In an exhibition game on June 10, 1983, the Toronto Argonauts' quarterback Condredge Holloway had scored a touchdown against Hamilton.", "There was a bad snap on the convert, and the holder, Jan Carinci, managed to dropkick the ball through the uprights for the one point conversion.During one game in 1993, Hamilton Tiger-Cats wide receiver Earl Winfield was unable to field a punt properly; in frustration, he kicked the ball out of bounds.", "The kick was considered a drop kick and led to a change of possession, with the punting team, Winnipeg, regaining possession of the ball.=== Arena football ===In the former AFL (North American Arena Football League), a drop-kicked extra point was worth two points, rather than one point, while a drop-kicked field goal counted for four points rather than three.", "The most recent conversion of a drop kick was by Geoff Boyer of the Pittsburgh Power on June 16, 2012; it was the first successful conversion in the AFL since 1997.In 2018, Maine Mammoths kicker Henry Nell converted a drop kick as a PAT against the Massachusetts Pirates in the National Arena League.In 2022, Salina Liberty kicker Jimmy Allen successfully converted 3 drop kick PAT attempts against the Topeka Tropics in a Champions Indoor Football game.", "Jimmy also converted a drop kick PAT playing for the Iowa Barnstormers in the IFL during a game against the Colorado Crush during a 2016 game." ], [ "Australian rules football", "Once the preferred method of conveying the ball over long distances, the drop kick has been superseded by the drop punt as a more accurate means of delivering the ball to a fellow player.", "Drop kicks were last regularly used in the 1970s, and by that time mostly for kicking in after a behind and very rarely in general play.", "AFL historian and statistician Col Hutchison believes that Sam Newman was the last player to kick a set-shot goal with a drop kick, in 1980, although goals in general play from a drop kick do occur on rare occasions, including subsequent goals by players such as Alastair Lynch and Darren Bewick.", "Hutchison says drop kicks were phased out of the game by Norm Smith in defence due to their risky nature; Ron Barassi, a player Smith coached, took this onboard for his own coaching career, banning it for all but Barry Cable, who, according to Hutchison, was a \"magnificent disposer of the ball\"." ], [ "See also", "* Drop goal* Grubber kick* Bomb kick* Glossary of American football* Dropped-ball" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diaeresis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Diaeresis''' (dieresis, diæresis, diëresis) may refer to:* Diaeresis (prosody), pronunciation of vowels in a diphthong separately, or the division made in a line of poetry when the end of a foot coincides with the end of a word* Diaeresis (linguistics), or hiatus, the separation of adjacent vowels into syllables, not separated by a consonant or pause and not merged into a diphthong* Diaeresis (diacritic), a diacritic consisting of two side-by-side dots that marks disyllabicity* Diaeresis (computing), the name used by the Unicode Consortium for the \"two-dots above\" diacritic" ], [ "See also", "* Two dots (diacritic), the \"two side-by-side dots\" diacritic, often called a \"Diaeresis\", despite its having further linguistic uses, such as umlaut and schwa.", "* Diairesis, a term in Platonic and Stoic philosophy, the division of a genus into its partssv:Trema#Avskiljande funktion: dieresis" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Derry" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Derry''', officially '''Londonderry''', is the largest city in County Londonderry, the second-largest in Northern Ireland and the fifth-largest on the island of Ireland.", "The old walled city lies on the west bank of the River Foyle, which is spanned by two road bridges and one footbridge.", "The city now covers both banks (Cityside on the west and Waterside on the east).The population of the city was 85,279 at the 2021 census, while the Derry Urban Area had a population of 105,066 in 2011.The district administered by Derry City and Strabane District Council contains both Londonderry Port and City of Derry Airport.", "Derry is close to the border with County Donegal, with which it has had a close link for many centuries.", "The person traditionally seen as the founder of the original Derry is Saint , a holy man from , the old name for almost all of modern County Donegal, of which the west bank of the Foyle was a part before 1610.In 2013, Derry was the inaugural UK City of Culture, having been awarded the title in 2010." ], [ "Name", "Road sign in Northern Ireland with the reference to ''London'' obscuredRoad signs in the Republic of Ireland use ''Derry'' and the Irish .Despite the official name, the city is also commonly known as ''Derry'', which is an anglicisation of the Irish or , and translates as 'oak-grove/oak-wood'.", "The name derives from the settlement's earliest references, ('oak-grove of Calgach').", "The name was changed from Derry in 1613 during the Plantation of Ulster to reflect the establishment of the city by the London guilds.", "''Derry'' has been used in the names of the local government district and council since 1984, when the council changed its name from ''Londonderry City Council'' to ''Derry City Council''.", "This also changed the name of the district, which had been created in 1973 and included both the city and surrounding rural areas.", "In the 2015 local government reform, the district was merged with the Strabane district to form the Derry City and Strabane district, with the councils likewise merged.According to the city's Royal Charter of 10 April 1662, the official name is ''Londonderry''.", "This was reaffirmed in a High Court decision in 2007.The 2007 court case arose because Derry City Council wanted clarification on whether the 1984 name change of the council and district had changed the official name of the city and what the procedure would be to effect a name change.", "The court clarified that Londonderry remained the official name and that the correct procedure to change the name would be via a petition to the Privy Council.", "Derry City Council afterward began this process, and was involved in conducting an equality impact assessment report (EQIA).", "Firstly it held an opinion poll of district residents in 2009, which reported that 75% of Catholics and 77% of Nationalists found the proposed change acceptable, compared to 6% of Protestants and 8% of Unionists.", "The EQIA then held two consultative forums, and solicited comments from the general public on whether or not the city should have its name changed to Derry.", "A total of 12,136 comments were received, of which 3,108 were broadly in favour of the proposal, and 9,028 opposed it.", "On 23 July 2015, the council voted in favour of a motion to change the official name of the city to Derry and to write to Mark H. Durkan, the Northern Irish Minister for the Environment, to ask how the change could be effected.The name ''Derry'' is preferred by nationalists and it is broadly used throughout Northern Ireland's Catholic community, as well as that of the Republic of Ireland, whereas many unionists prefer ''Londonderry''; however, in everyday conversation ''Derry'' is used by most Protestant residents of the city.", "Linguist Kevin McCafferty argues that \"It is not, strictly speaking, correct that Northern Ireland Catholics call it Derry, while Protestants use the Londonderry form, although this pattern has become more common locally since the mid-1980s, when the city council changed its name by dropping the prefix\".", "In McCafferty's survey of language use in the city, \"only very few interviewees—all Protestants—use the official form\".Unionist graffiti showing the short version of the name.Apart from the name of the local council, the city is usually known as ''Londonderry'' in official use within the UK.", "In the Republic of Ireland, the city and county are almost always referred to as ''Derry'', on maps, in the media and in conversation.", "In April 2009, however, the Republic of Ireland's Minister for Foreign Affairs, Micheál Martin, announced that Irish passport holders who were born there could record either ''Derry'' or ''Londonderry'' as their place of birth.", "Whereas official road signs in the Republic use the name ''Derry'', those in Northern Ireland bear ''Londonderry'' (sometimes abbreviated to ''L'derry''), although some of these have been defaced with the reference to London obscured.", "Usage varies among local organisations, with both names being used.", "Examples are City of Derry Airport, City of Derry Rugby Club, Derry City FC and the Protestant Apprentice Boys of Derry, as opposed to Londonderry Port, Londonderry YMCA Rugby Club and Londonderry Chamber of Commerce.", "The bishopric has always remained that of Derry, both in the (Protestant, formerly-established) Church of Ireland (now combined with the bishopric of Raphoe), and in the Roman Catholic Church.", "Most companies within the city choose local area names such as Pennyburn, Rosemount or ''Foyle'' from the River Foyle to avoid alienating the other community.", "Derry~Londonderry railway station is often referred to as Waterside railway station within the city, but is called Derry/Londonderry at other stations.", "The council changed the name of the local government district covering the city to Derry on 7 May 1984, consequently renaming itself Derry City Council.", "This did not change the name of the city, although the city is coterminous with the district, and in law, the city council is also the ''Corporation of Londonderry'' or, more formally, the ''Mayor, Aldermen and Citizens of the City of Londonderry''.", "The form ''Londonderry'' is used for the post town by the Royal Mail; however, use of ''Derry'' will still ensure delivery.The city is also nicknamed \"the Maiden City\" by virtue of the fact that its walls were never breached despite being besieged on three separate occasions in the 17th century, the most notable being the Siege of Derry of 1688–1689.It was also nicknamed \"Stroke City\" by local broadcaster Gerry Anderson, owing to the politically correct use by some of the dual name ''Derry/Londonderry'' (which has itself been used by BBC Television).", "A later addition to the landscape has been the erection of several large stone columns on main roads into the city welcoming drivers, euphemistically, to 'the Walled City'.", "''Derry'' is a common place name in Ireland, with at least six towns bearing that name and at least a further 79 places.", "The word ''Derry'' often forms part of the place name, for example, Derrybeg, Derryboy, Derrylea and Derrymore.Londonderry, Yorkshire, near the Yorkshire Dales, was named for the Marquesses of Londonderry, as is Londonderry Island off Tierra del Fuego in Chile.", "In the United States, twin towns in New Hampshire called Derry and Londonderry lie not far from Londonderry, Vermont, with additional namesakes in Derry, Pennsylvania, Londonderry, Ohio, and in Canada Londonderry, Nova Scotia and Londonderry, Edmonton, Alberta.", "There is also Londonderry, New South Wales and the associated Londonderry electorate." ], [ "City walls", "A portion of the city walls of DerryBishops Street GateDerry is the only remaining completely intact walled city in Ireland, and one of the finest examples of a walled city in Europe.", "The walls constitute the largest monument in State care in Northern Ireland and, as part of the last walled city to be built in Europe, stand as the most complete and spectacular.The Walls were built in 1613–1619 by The Honourable The Irish Society as defences for early 17th-century settlers from England and Scotland.", "The Walls, which are approximately in circumference and which vary in height and width between , are completely intact and form a walkway around the inner city.", "They provide a unique promenade to view the layout of the original town which still preserves its Renaissance-style street plan.", "The four original gates to the Walled City are Bishop's Gate, Ferryquay Gate, Butcher Gate and Shipquay Gate.", "Three further gates were added later, Magazine Gate, Castle Gate and New Gate, making seven gates in total.", "The architect was Peter Benson, a London-born builder, who was rewarded with several grants of land.It is one of the few cities in Europe that never saw its fortifications breached, withstanding several sieges, including the famous Siege of Derry in 1689 which lasted 105 days; hence the city's nickname, ''The Maiden City''." ], [ "History", "St Columb's Cathedral===Early history===Derry is one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in Ireland.", "The earliest historical references date to the 6th century when a monastery was founded there by St Columba or Colmcille, a famous saint from what is now County Donegal, but for thousands of years before that people had been living in the vicinity.Before leaving Ireland to spread Christianity elsewhere, Colmcille founded a monastery at Derry (which was then called ), on the west bank of the Foyle.", "According to oral and documented history, the site was granted to Colmcille by a local king.", "The monastery then remained in the hands of the federation of Columban churches who regarded Colmcille as their spiritual mentor.", "The year 546 is often referred to as the date that the original settlement was founded.", "However, it is now accepted by historians that this was an erroneous date assigned by medieval chroniclers.", "It is accepted that between the 6th century and the 11th century, Derry was known primarily as a monastic settlement.The town became strategically more significant during the Tudor conquest of Ireland and came under frequent attack.", "During O'Doherty's Rebellion in 1608 it was attacked by Sir Cahir O'Doherty, Irish chieftain of Inishowen, who burnt much of the town and killed the governor George Paulet.", "The soldier and statesman Sir Henry Docwra made vigorous efforts to develop the town, earning the reputation of being \"the founder of Derry\"; but he was accused of failing to prevent the O'Doherty attack, and returned to England.===Plantation===What became the City of Derry was part of the relatively new County Donegal up until 1610.In that year, the west bank of the future city was transferred by the English Crown to The Honourable The Irish Society and was combined with County Coleraine, part of County Antrim and a large portion of County Tyrone to form County Londonderry.", "Planters organised by London livery companies through The Honourable The Irish Society arrived in the 17th century as part of the Plantation of Ulster, and rebuilt the town with high walls to defend it from Irish insurgents who opposed the plantation.", "The aim was to settle Ulster with a population supportive of the Crown.", "It was then renamed \"Londonderry\".This city was the first planned city in Ireland: it was begun in 1613, with the walls being completed in 1619, at a cost of £10,757.The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was thought to be a good design for defence.", "The grid pattern chosen was subsequently much copied in the colonies of British North America.", "The charter initially defined the city as extending three Irish miles (about 6.1 km) from the centre.The modern city preserves the 17th-century layout of four main streets radiating from a central Diamond to four gateways – Bishop's Gate, Ferryquay Gate, Shipquay Gate and Butcher's Gate.", "The city's oldest surviving building was also constructed at this time: the 1633 Plantation Gothic cathedral of St Columb.", "In the porch of the cathedral is a stone that records completion with the inscription: \"If stones could speake, then London's prayse should sound, Who built this church and cittie from the grounde.", "\"===17th-century upheavals===During the 1640s, the city suffered in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which began with the Irish Rebellion of 1641, when the Gaelic Irish insurgents made a failed attack on the city.", "In 1649 the city and its garrison, which supported the republican Parliament in London, were besieged by Scottish Presbyterian forces loyal to King Charles I.", "The Parliamentarians besieged in Derry were relieved by a strange alliance of Roundhead troops under George Monck and the Irish Catholic general Owen Roe O'Neill.", "These temporary allies were soon fighting each other again however, after the landing in Ireland of the New Model Army in 1649.The war in Ulster was finally brought to an end when the Parliamentarians crushed the Irish Catholic Ulster army at the Battle of Scarrifholis, near Letterkenny in nearby County Donegal, in 1650.During the Glorious Revolution, only Derry and nearby Enniskillen had a Protestant garrison by November 1688.An army of around 1,200 men, mostly \"''Redshanks''\" (Highlanders), under Alexander MacDonnell, 3rd Earl of Antrim, was slowly organised (they set out on the week William of Orange landed in England).", "When they arrived on 7 December 1688 the gates were closed against them and the Siege of Derry began.", "In April 1689, King James came to the city and summoned it to surrender.", "The King was rebuffed and the siege lasted until the end of July with the arrival of a relief ship.===18th and 19th centuries===Map of County Londonderry, 1837The city was rebuilt in the 18th century with many of its fine Georgian style houses still surviving.", "The city's first bridge across the River Foyle was built in 1790.During the 18th and 19th centuries, the port became an important embarkation point for Irish emigrants setting out for North America.Also during the 19th century, it became a destination for migrants fleeing areas more severely affected by the Great Famine.", "One of the most notable shipping lines was the McCorkell Line operated by Wm.", "McCorkell & Co. Ltd. from 1778.The McCorkell's most famous ship was the ''Minnehaha'', which was known as the \"Green Yacht from Derry\".===Early 20th century=======World War I====During World War I, the city contributed over 5,000 men to the British Army from Catholic and Protestant families.====Partition====The war memorial in The Diamond, erected 1927During the Irish War of Independence, the area was rocked by sectarian violence, partly prompted by the guerilla war raging between the Irish Republican Army and British forces, but also influenced by economic and social pressures.", "By mid-1920 there was severe sectarian rioting in the city.", "Many people died and in addition, many Catholics and Protestants were expelled from their homes during this communal unrest.", "After a week's violence, a truce was negotiated by local politicians on both unionist and republican sides.In 1921, following the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the Partition of Ireland, it unexpectedly became a 'border city', separated from much of its traditional economic hinterland in County Donegal.====World War II====During World War II, the city played an important part in the Battle of the Atlantic.", "Ships from the Royal Navy, the Royal Canadian Navy, and other Allied navies were stationed in the city and the United States military established a base.", "Over 20,000 Royal Navy, 10,000 Royal Canadian Navy, and 6,000 United States Navy personnel were stationed in the city during the war.The establishment of the American presence in the city was the result of a secret agreement between the Americans and the British before the Americans entered the war.", "It was the first American naval base in Europe and the terminal for American convoys en route to Europe.The reason for such a high degree of military and naval activity was self-evident: Derry was the United Kingdom's westernmost port; indeed, the city was the westernmost Allied port in Europe: thus, Derry was a crucial jumping-off point, together with Glasgow and Liverpool, for the shipping convoys that ran between Europe and North America.", "The large numbers of military personnel in Derry substantially altered the character of the city, bringing in some outside colour to the local area, as well as some cosmopolitan and economic buoyancy during these years.", "Several airfields were built in the outlying regions of the city at this time, Maydown, Eglinton and Ballykelly.", "RAF Eglinton went on to become City of Derry Airport.The city contributed a significant number of men to the war effort throughout the services, most notably the 500 men in the 9th (Londonderry) Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, known as the 'Derry Boys'.", "This regiment served in North Africa, the Sudan, Italy and mainland UK.", "Many others served in the Merchant Navy taking part in the convoys that supplied the UK and Russia during the war.The border location of the city, and the influx of trade from the military convoys allowed for significant smuggling operations to develop in the city.At the conclusion of the Second World War, eventually some 60 U-boats of the German Kriegsmarine ended in the city's harbour at Lisahally after their surrender.", "The initial surrender was attended by Admiral Sir Max Horton, Commander-in-Chief of the Western Approaches, and Sir Basil Brooke, third Prime Minister of Northern Ireland.===Late 20th century=======1950s and 1960s====The city languished after the second world war, with unemployment and development stagnating.", "A large campaign, led by the University for Derry Committee, to have Northern Ireland's second university located in the city, ended in failure.====The civil rights movement====Derry was a focal point for the nascent civil rights movement in Northern Ireland.Bogside area viewed from the wallsCatholics were discriminated against under Unionist government in Northern Ireland, both politically and economically.", "In the late 1960s the city became the flashpoint of disputes about institutional gerrymandering.", "Political scientist John Whyte explains that:A civil rights demonstration in 1968 led by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association was banned by the Government and blocked using force by the Royal Ulster Constabulary.", "The events that followed the August 1969 Apprentice Boys parade resulted in the Battle of the Bogside, when Catholic rioters fought the police, leading to widespread civil disorder in Northern Ireland and is often dated as the starting point of the Troubles.On Sunday 30 January 1972, 13 unarmed civilians were shot dead by British paratroopers during a civil rights march in the Bogside area.", "Another 13 were wounded and one further man later died of his wounds.", "This event came to be known as Bloody Sunday.===The Troubles===\"Free Derry Corner\" at the corner of Lecky Road and Fahan Street in the Bogside.", "The slogan was first painted in January 1969 by John Casey.The conflict which became known as the Troubles is widely regarded as having started in Derry with the Battle of the Bogside.", "The Civil Rights Movement had also been very active in the city.", "In the early 1970s, the city was heavily militarised and there was widespread civil unrest.", "Several districts in the city constructed barricades to control access and prevent the forces of the state from entering.Violence eased towards the end of the Troubles in the late 1980s and early 1990s.", "Irish journalist Ed Maloney claims in ''The Secret History of the IRA'' that republican leaders there negotiated a ''de facto'' ceasefire in the city as early as 1991.Whether this is true or not, the city did see less bloodshed by this time than Belfast or other localities.The city was visited by an orca in November 1977 at the height of the Troubles; it was dubbed Dopey Dick by the thousands who came from miles around to see him." ], [ "Governance", "From 1613 the city was governed by the Londonderry Corporation.", "In 1898 this became Londonderry County Borough Council, until 1969 when administration passed to the unelected Londonderry Development Commission.", "In 1973 a new district council with boundaries extending to the rural south-west was established under the name Londonderry City Council, renamed in 1984 to Derry City Council, consisting of five electoral areas: Cityside, Northland, Rural, Shantallow and Waterside.", "The council of 30 members was re-elected every four years.", "The council merged with Strabane District Council in April 2015 under local government reorganisation to become Derry and Strabane District Council.The councillors elected in 2019 for the city are: NameParty Angela Dobbins Brian Tierney Rory Farrell Shauna Cusack Mary Durkan Sinéad McLaughlin Martin Reilly Sandra Duffy Aileen Mellon Mickey Cooper Tina Burke Patricia Logue Christopher Jackson Sean Carr Gary Donnelly Hilary McClintock David Ramsey Shaun Harkin Eamonn McCann Darren Guy Philip McKinney Anne McCloskey ===Coat of arms and motto===Derry's arms on an old fire stationThe devices on the city's arms are a skeleton and a three-towered castle on a black field, with the \"chief\" or top third of the shield showing the arms of the City of London: a red cross and sword on white.", "In the centre of the cross is a gold harp.", "In unofficial use the harp sometimes appears above the arms as a crest.The arms were confirmed by Daniel Molyneux, the Ulster King of Arms, in 1613, following the town's incorporation.", "Molyneux's notes state that the original arms of Derry were \"the picture of death (or a skeleton) sitting on a mossie ston and in the dexter point a castle\".", "To this design he added, at the request of the new mayor, \"a chief, the armes of London\".", "Molyneux goes on to state that the skeleton is symbolic of Derry's ruin at the hands of the Irish rebel Cahir O'Doherty, and that the silver castle represents its renewal through the efforts of the London guilds: \"Derry hath since bene (as it were) raysed from the dead by the worthy undertakinge of the Ho'ble Cittie of London, in memorie whereof it is hence forth called and knowen by the name of London Derrie.", "\"Local legend offers different theories as to the origin of the skeleton.", "One identifies it as Walter de Burgh, who was starved to death in the Earl of Ulster's dungeons in 1332.Another identifies it as Cahir O'Doherty himself, who was killed in a skirmish near Kilmacrennan in 1608 (but was popularly believed to have wasted away while sequestered in his castle at Buncrana).", "In the days of gerrymandering and anti-Catholic discrimination, Derry's Catholics often claimed in dark wit that the skeleton was a Catholic waiting for a job and a council house.", "However, a report commissioned by the city council in 1979 established that there was no basis for any of the popular theories, and that the skeleton \"is purely symbolic and does not refer to any identifiable person\".The 1613 arms depicted a harp in the centre of the cross, but this was omitted from later depictions of the city arms, and in the 1952 letters patent confirming the arms to the Londonderry Corporation.", "In 2002 Derry City Council applied to the College of Arms to have the harp restored, and Garter and Norroy & Ulster Kings of Arms issued letters patent to that effect in 2003, having accepted the 17th-century evidence.The motto attached to the coat of arms reads in Latin, \"Vita, Veritas, Victoria\".", "This translates into English as \"Life, Truth, Victory\"." ], [ "Geography", "Derry map provided by OpenStreetMapThe Craigavon BridgeDerry is characterised by its distinctively hilly topography.", "The River Foyle forms a deep valley as it flows through the city, making Derry a place of very steep streets and sudden, startling views.", "The original walled city of Londonderry lies on a hill on the west bank of the River Foyle.", "In the past, the river branched and enclosed this wooded hill as an island; over the centuries, however, the western branch of the river dried up and became a low-lying and boggy district that is now called the Bogside.Today, modern Derry extends considerably north and west of the city walls and east of the river.", "The half of the city on the west of the Foyle is known as the Cityside and the area east is called the Waterside.", "The Cityside and Waterside are connected by the Craigavon Bridge and Foyle Bridge, and by a footbridge in the centre of the city called Peace Bridge.", "The district also extends into rural areas to the southeast of the city.This much larger city, however, remains characterised by the often extremely steep hills that form much of its terrain on both sides of the river.", "A notable exception to this lies on the northeastern edge of the city, on the shores of Lough Foyle, where large expanses of sea and mudflats were reclaimed in the middle of the 19th century.", "Today, these sloblands are protected from the sea by miles of sea walls and dikes.", "The area is an internationally important bird sanctuary, ranked among the top 30 wetland sites in the UK.Other important nature reserves lie at Ness Country Park, east of Derry; and at Prehen Wood, within the city's south-eastern suburbs.===Climate===Derry has, like most of Ireland, a temperate maritime climate (Cfb) according to the Köppen climate classification system.", "The nearest official Met Office Weather Station for which climate data is available is Carmoney, just west of City of Derry Airport and about northeast of the city centre.", "However, observations ceased in 2004 and the nearest Weather Station is currently Ballykelly, due east-northeast.", "Typically, 27 nights of the year will report an air frost at Ballykelly, and at least 1 mm of precipitation will be reported on 170 days (1981–2010 averages).The lowest temperature recorded at Carmoney was on 27 December 1995." ], [ "Demography", "Ebrington SquareDerry Urban Area (DUA), including the city and the neighbouring settlements of Culmore, Newbuildings and Strathfoyle, is classified as a city by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) since its population exceeds 75,000.The mid-2006 population estimate for the wider Derry City Council area was 107,300.Population growth in 2005/06 was driven by natural change, with net out-migration of approximately 100 people.The city was one of the few in Ireland to experience an increase in population during the Great Famine as migrants came to it from other, more heavily affected areas.===2011 Census===On census day (27 March 2011) there were 105,066 people living in Derry Urban Area.", "Of these, 27% were aged under 16 years and 14% were aged 60 and over; 49% of the population were male and 51% were female; 75% were from a Roman Catholic background and 23% (up three per cent from 2001) were from a Protestant background.===2021 Census===On census day (21 March 2021) there were 85,279 people living in Derry City and of these 77.88% (66,413) were from a Catholic background, 16.98% (14,481) were from Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related) background, 1.24% had another religious background and 3.9% had no religion.", "60.73% of individuals identify as Irish only, 13.18% identify as British only, 16.12% identify as Northern Irish only.===Protestant minority===\"No Surrender\" mural outside city wall, taken in 2004Concerns have been raised by both communities over the increasingly divided nature of the city.", "There were about 17,000 Protestants on the west bank of the River Foyle in 1971.The proportion rapidly declined during the 1970s; the 2011 census recorded 3,169 Protestants on the west bank, compared to 54,976 Catholics, and it is feared that the city could become permanently divided.However, concerted efforts have been made by the local community, church and political leaders from both traditions to redress the problem.", "A conference to bring together key actors and promote tolerance was held in October 2006.Ken Good, the Church of Ireland Bishop of Derry and Raphoe, said he was happy living on the cityside.", "\"I feel part of it.", "It is my city and I want to encourage other Protestants to feel exactly the same\", he said.Support for Protestants in the district has been strong from the SDLP politician Helen Quigley, who formerly served as the mayor of Derry.", "She made inclusion and tolerance key themes of her mayoralty.", "Cllr.", "Quigley said it was time for \"everyone to take a stand to stop the scourge of sectarian and other assaults in the city.\"" ], [ "Economy", "Du Pont facility at Maydown===History===The economy of the district was based significantly on the textile industry until relatively recently.", "For many years women were commonly the sole wage earners working in the shirt factories while the men in comparison had high levels of unemployment.", "This led to significant male emigration.", "The history of shirt making in the city dates to 1831, said to have been started by William Scott and his family who first exported shirts to Glasgow.", "Within 50 years, shirt making in the city was the most prolific in the UK with garments being exported all over the world.", "It was known so well that the industry received a mention in ''Das Kapital'' by Karl Marx, when discussing the factory system:The industry reached its peak in the 1920s employing around 18,000 people.", "In modern times, however, the textile industry declined due largely to lower Asian wages.A long-term foreign employer in the area is Du Pont, which has been based at Maydown since 1958, its first European production facility.", "Originally Neoprene was manufactured at Maydown and subsequently followed by Hypalon.", "More recently Lycra and Kevlar production units were active.", "Thanks to a worldwide demand for Kevlar, which is made at the plant, the facility undertook a £40 million upgrade to expand its global Kevlar production.===Inward investment===Seagate production facilityAs of 2002, the three largest private-sector employers were American firms.", "Economic successes have included call centres and a large investment by Seagate, which has operated a factory in the Springtown Industrial Estate since 1993.As of 2019, Seagate was employing approximately 1,400 people in Derry.A controversial new employer in the area was Raytheon Systems Limited, a software division of the American defence contractor, which was set up in Derry in 1999.Although some of the local people welcomed the jobs boost, others in the area objected to the jobs being provided by a firm involved heavily in the arms trade.", "Following four years of protest by the Foyle Ethical Investment Campaign, in 2004 Derry City Council passed a motion declaring the district \"a 'no – go' area for the arms trade\", and in 2006 its offices were briefly occupied by anti-war protestors who became known as the Raytheon 9.In 2009, the company announced that it was not renewing its lease when it expired in 2010 and was looking for a new location for its operations.Other significant multinational employers in the region include Firstsource of India, INVISTA, Stream International, Perfecseal, NTL, Northbrook Technology of the United States, Arntz Belting and Invision Software of Germany, and Homeloan Management of the UK.", "Major local business employers include Desmonds, Northern Ireland's largest privately owned company, manufacturing and sourcing garments, E&I Engineering, St. Brendan's Irish Cream Liqueur and McCambridge Duffy, one of the largest insolvency practices in the UK.Even though the city provides cheap labour by standards in Western Europe, critics have noted that the grants offered by the Northern Ireland Industrial Development Board have helped land jobs for the area that only last as long as the funding lasts.", "This was reflected in questions to the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Richard Needham, in 1990.It was noted that it cost £30,000 to create one job in an American firm in Northern Ireland.Critics of investment decisions affecting the district often point to the decision to build a new university building in nearby (predominantly Protestant) Coleraine rather than developing the Ulster University Magee Campus.", "Another major government decision affecting the city was the decision to create the new town of Craigavon outside Belfast, which again was detrimental to the development of the city.", "Even in October 2005, there was perceived bias against the comparatively impoverished North West of the province, with a major civil service job contract going to Belfast.", "Mark Durkan, the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) leader and Member of Parliament (MP) for Foyle was quoted in the ''Belfast Telegraph'' as saying:In July 2005, the Irish Minister for Finance, Brian Cowen, called for a joint task force to drive economic growth in the cross-border region.", "This would have implications for Counties Londonderry, Tyrone, and Donegal across the border.===Shopping===Austins department storeThe city is the north west's foremost shopping district, housing two large shopping centres along with numerous shop-packed streets serving much of the greater county, as well as Tyrone and Donegal.The city centre has two main shopping centres; the Foyleside Shopping Centre which has 45 stores and 1,430 parking spaces, and the Richmond Centre, which has 39 retail units.", "The Quayside Shopping Centre also serves the city side and there is also Lisnagelvin Shopping Centre on the Waterside.", "These centres, as well as local-run businesses, feature numerous national and international stores.", "Crescent Link Retail Park, located in the Waterside, has several chain stores and has become the second largest retail park in Northern Ireland (second only to Sprucefield in Lisburn).", "Plans have also been approved for Derry's first Asda store, which will be located at the retail park sharing a unit with Homebase.", "Sainsbury's also applied for planning permission for a store at Crescent Link, but Environment Minister Alex Attwood turned it down.Until the store's closure in March 2016, the city was also home to the world's oldest independent department store, Austins.", "Established in 1830, Austins predates Jenners of Edinburgh by 5 years, Harrods of London by 15 years and Macy's of New York by 25 years.", "The store's five-story Edwardian building is located within the walled city in the area known as The Diamond." ], [ "Landmarks", "St Eugene's CathedralBishop Street CourthouseLong Tower ChurchDerry GuildhallDerry is renowned for its architecture.", "This can be primarily ascribed to the formal planning of the historic walled city of Derry at the core of the modern city.", "This is centred on the Diamond with a collection of late Georgian, Victorian and Edwardian buildings maintaining the gridlines of the main thoroughfares (Shipquay Street, Ferryquay Street, Butcher Street and Bishop Street) to the City Gates.", "St Columb's Cathedral does not follow the grid pattern reinforcing its civic status.", "This Church of Ireland Cathedral was the first post-Reformation Cathedral built for an Anglican church.", "The construction of the Roman Catholic St Eugene's Cathedral in the Bogside in the 19th century was another major architectural addition to the city.", "The Townscape Heritage Initiative has funded restoration works to key listed buildings and other older structures.In the three centuries since their construction, the city walls have been adapted to meet the needs of a changing city.", "The best example of this adaptation is the insertion of three additional gates – Castle Gate, New Gate and Magazine Gate – into the walls in the course of the 19th century.", "Today, the fortifications form a continuous promenade around the city centre, complete with cannon, avenues of mature trees and views across Derry.", "Historic buildings within the city walls include St Augustine's Church, which sits on the city walls close to the site of the original monastic settlement; the copper-domed Austin's department store, which claims to be the oldest such store in the world; and the imposing Greek Revival Courthouse on Bishop Street.", "The red-brick late-Victorian Guildhall, also crowned by a copper dome, stands just beyond Shipquay Gate and close to the riverfront.There are many museums and sites of interest in and around the city, including the Foyle Valley Railway Centre, the Amelia Earhart Centre And Wildlife Sanctuary, the Apprentice Boys Memorial Hall, Ballyoan Cemetery, The Bogside, numerous murals by the Bogside Artists, Derry Craft Village, Free Derry Corner, O'Doherty Tower (now home to part of the Tower Museum), the Harbour Museum, the Museum of Free Derry, Chapter House Museum, the Workhouse Museum, the Nerve Centre, St. Columb's Park and Leisure Centre, Creggan Country Park, Brooke Park, The Millennium Forum, the Void Gallery, and the Foyle and Craigavon bridges.Attractions include museums, a vibrant shopping centre and trips to the Giant's Causeway, which is approximately away, though poorly connected by public transport.", "Lonely Planet called Derry the fourth best city in the world to see in 2013.On 25 June 2011, the Peace Bridge opened.", "It is a cycle and footbridge that begins from the Guild Hall in the city centre of Derry City to Ebrington Square and St Columb's Park on the far side of the River Foyle.", "It was funded jointly by the Department for Social Development (NI), the Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government along with matching funding, totalling £14 million, from the SEUPB Peace III programme.Future projects include the Walled City Signature Project, which intends to ensure that the city's walls become a world-class tourist experience.Peace Bridge in Derry" ], [ "Transport", "The Foyle Bridge showing Derry-to-Belfast rail linkThe transport network is built out of a complex array of old and modern roads and railways throughout the city and county.", "The city's road network also makes use of two bridges to cross the River Foyle, the Craigavon Bridge and the Foyle Bridge, the longest bridge in Ireland.", "Derry also serves as a major transport hub for travel throughout nearby County Donegal.In spite of it being the second city of Northern Ireland (and it being the second-largest city in all of Ulster), road and rail links to other cities are below par for its standing.", "Many business leaders claim that government investment in the city and infrastructure has been badly lacking.", "Some have stated that this is due to its outlying border location whilst others have cited a sectarian bias against the region west of the River Bann due to its high proportion of Catholics.", "There is no direct motorway link with Dublin or Belfast.", "The rail link to Belfast has been downgraded over the years so that, presently, it is not a viable alternative to the roads for industry to rely on.", "As of 2008, there were plans for £1 billion worth of transport infrastructure investment in and around the district.", "Planned upgrades to the A5 Dublin road agreed as part of the Good Friday Agreement and St Andrews Talks fell through when the government of the Republic of Ireland reneged on its funding citing the post-2008 economic downturn.===Buses===Most public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by the subsidiaries of Translink.", "Originally the city's internal bus network was run by Ulsterbus, which still provides the city's connections with other towns in Northern Ireland.", "The city's buses are now run by Ulsterbus Foyle, just as Translink Metro now provides the bus service in Belfast.", "The Ulsterbus Foyle network offers 13 routes across the city into the suburban areas, excluding an Easibus link which connects to the Waterside and Drumahoe, and a free Rail Link Bus runs from the Waterside Railway Station to the city centre.", "All buses leave from the Foyle Street Bus Station in the city centre.Long-distance buses depart from Foyle Street Bus Station to destinations throughout Ireland.", "Buses are operated by both Ulsterbus and Bus Éireann on cross-border routes.", "Lough Swilly formerly operated buses to County Donegal, but the company entered liquidation and is no longer in operation.", "There is a half-hourly service to Belfast every day, called the Maiden City Flyer, which is the Goldline Express flagship route.", "There are hourly services to Strabane, Omagh, Coleraine, Letterkenny and Buncrana, and up to twelve services a day to bring people to Dublin.", "There is a daily service to Sligo, Galway, Shannon Airport and Limerick.TFI Local Link provides additional cross-border public transport routes, with route '''244''' (Moville/Derry), '''245''' (Greencastle/Derry), '''288''' (Ballybofey/Derry), '''952''' (Carndonagh/Derry), '''957''' (Shrove/Derry, via Moville),'''1426''' (Stranorlar/Derry) all servicing the city.Private coach operator, Patrick Gallagher Coaches, also runs 2 routes during the week that service the city.", "The first goes from Crolly in County Donegal to Belfast (to the Leonardo Hotel in Belfast city centre, ''formerly Jurys Inn''), and another that runs from County Donegal to the city.===Air===City of Derry Airport, the council-owned airport near Eglinton, has grown during the early 21st century, with new investment in extending the runway and plans to redevelop the terminal.The A2 (a dual carriageway) from Maydown to Eglinton, serves the airport.", "City of Derry airport is the main regional airport for County Donegal, County Londonderry and west County Tyrone as well as Derry City itself.The airport is served by Loganair and Ryanair with scheduled flights to Glasgow Airport, Edinburgh Airport, Manchester Airport, Liverpool John Lennon Airport and London Stansted all year round with a summer schedule to Mallorca with TUI Airways===Railways===The city is served by a single rail link terminating at Derry ~ Londonderry railway station in Waterside that is subsidised, alongside much of Northern Ireland's railways, by Northern Ireland Railways (N.I.R.).", "The link primarily provides passenger services from the city to Belfast, via several stops that include , , and , and connections to links with other parts of Northern Ireland.", "The route itself is the only remaining rail link used by trains; most of the lines developed in the mid-19th century fell into decline towards the mid-20th century from competition by new road networks.", "The original rail network that served the city included four different railways that, between them, linked the city with much of the province of Ulster, plus a harbour railway network that linked the other four lines, and a tramway on the City side of the Foyle.", "Usage of the rail link between Derry and Belfast remains questionable for commuters, due to the journey time of over two hours making it slower centre-to-centre than the 100-minute Ulsterbus Goldline Express service.====Railway history=========19th century – early 20th century growth=====Ireland's railway network in 1906Several railways began operation around the city of Derry within the middle of the 19th century.", "The companies that set up links helped to provide key links for the city towards other towns and cities across Ireland, for the transportation of passengers and freight.", "The lines that were constructed featured a mixture of Irish gauge and narrow gauge railways, and companies that operated them included:* The Londonderry and Enniskillen Railway (L&ER) – The rail company constructed Derry's first railway in 1845 with Irish gauge () track.", "The line operated from a temporary station at Cow Market on the City side of the Foyle, reaching Strabane in 1847, before being extended from Cow Market to its permanent terminus at Foyle Road in 1850.The L&ER reached Omagh in 1852 and Enniskillen in 1854, and was absorbed into the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) in 1883.", "* The Londonderry and Coleraine Railway (L&CR) – The rail company constructed an Irish gauge line to the city in 1852, opening a terminus at Waterside.", "The Belfast and Northern Counties Railway leased the line from 1861, before taking it over in 1871.", "* The Londonderry and Lough Swilly Railway (L&LSR) – The rail company opened a line between Farland Point on Lough Swilly and a temporary terminus at Pennyburn in 1863, before extending the line in 1866 to a more permanent terminus at Graving Dock.", "The L&LSR was conceived to operate on Irish gauge track when it was constructed, but was converted in 1885 to narrow gauge to link it with the Letterkenny Railway.", "* The Londonderry Port and Harbour Commissioners (LPHC) – The rail company established a line that linked Graving Dock and Foyle Road stations through Middle Quay in 1867, before extending the line to create a rail connection with Waterside station, via the newly constructed Carlisle Bridge, in 1868.When the bridge was replaced in 1933 with the double-deck Craigavon Bridge, the LPHC was assigned to operate on the lower deck.In 1900, the gauge Donegal Railway was extended to the city from Strabane, with construction establishing the Londonderry Victoria Road railway terminus and creating a junction with the LPHC railway.", "The LPHC line was altered to dual gauge which allowed gauge traffic between the Donegal Railway and L&LSR as well as Irish gauge traffic between the GNR and B&NCR.", "By 1905, the government of the United Kingdom offered subsidies to both the L&LSR and the Donegal Railway to build extensions to their railway networks into remote parts of County Donegal, which soon developed Derry (alongside Strabane) into becoming a key rail hub by 1905 for the county and surrounding regions.", "In 1906 the Northern Counties Committee (NCC, successor to the B&NCR) and the GNR jointly took over the Donegal Railway, making it the County Donegal Railways Joint Committee (CDRJC).Alongside the railways, the city was served by a standard gauge () tramway, the City of Derry Tramways.", "The tramway was opened in 1897 and consisted of horse trams that operated along a single line, long, which ran along the City side of the Foyle parallel to the LPHC's line on that side of the river.", "The line never converted to electrically operated trams, and was closed in 1919.=====20th century decline=====In 1922, the partition of Ireland dramatically caused disruptions to the city's rail links, except for the NNC route to .", "The creation of an international frontier with County Donegal changed trade patterns to the detriment of the railways affected by the partition, placing border posts on every line to and from Derry, causing great delays to trains and disrupting timekeeping from custom inspections - the L&LSR faced inspections between Pennyburn and Bridge End; the CDRJC faced inspections beyond Strabane; and the GNR line faced inspections between Derry and Strabane.", "Custom agreements negotiated over the next few years between Britain and Ireland enabled GNR trains to travel to and from Derry - such trains would be allowed to pass without inspection through the Free State, unless they served local stations on the west bank of the Foyle - while goods transported by all railways between different parts of the Free State would be allowed to pass through Northern Ireland under customs bond.", "Despite these agreements, local passenger and goods traffic continued to be delayed by customs examinations.The decline of most of Derry's rail links took place after the Second World War, due to increasing competition by road links.", "The L&LSR closed its line in 1953, followed by the CDRJC in 1954.The Ulster Transport Authority, who took over the NCC in 1949 and the GNR's lines in Northern Ireland in 1958, took control of the LPHC railway before closing it in 1962, before eventually shutting down the former GNR line to Derry in 1965, after the submission of The Benson Report to the Northern Ireland Government two years prior to the closure.", "This left the former L&CR line to Coleraine as the sole railway link for the city, providing a passenger service to Belfast, alongside CIÉ freight services to Donegal.", "By the 1990s, the service began to deteriorate.=====21st century regeneration=====In 2008, the Department for Regional Development announced plans to relay the track between Derry and Coleraine - the plan, aimed at being completed by 2013, included adding a passing loop to increase traffic capacity, and increasing the number of trains with two additional diesel multiple units.", "Additional phases of the plan also included improvements to existing stations along the line, and the restoration of the former Victoria Road terminus building to prepare for the relocation of the city's current terminus station to the site, all for completion by late 2019.Costing around £86 million, the improvements were aimed at reducing the journey time to Belfast by 30 minutes and allowing commuter trains to arrive before 9 a.m. for the first time.===Road network===The largest road investment in the north west's history took place during 2010, with the building of the 'A2 Broadbridge Maydown to City of Derry Airport dualling' project and announcement of the 'A6 Londonderry to Dungiven Dualling Scheme' with the intention to reduce the travel time to Belfast.", "The latter project brings a dual-carriageway link between Northern Ireland's two largest cities one step closer.", "The project is costing £320 million and is expected to be completed in 2016.In October 2006 the Government of Ireland announced that it was to invest €1 billion in Northern Ireland; with the planned projects including 'the A5 Western Transport Corridor', the complete upgrade of the A5 Derry – Omagh – Aughnacloy (– Dublin) road, around long, to dual carriageway standard.In June 2008 Conor Murphy, Minister for Regional Development, announced that there will be a study into the feasibility of connecting the A5 and A6.Should it proceed, the scheme would most likely run from Drumahoe to south of Prehen along the south east of the city.===Sea===A mass of surrendered German U-boats at their mooring at LisahallyLondonderry Port at Lisahally is the United Kingdom's most westerly port and has capacity for 30,000-ton vessels.", "The Londonderry Port and Harbour Commissioners (LPHC) announced record turnover, record profits and record tonnage figures for the year ended March 2008.The figures are the result of a significant capital expenditure programme for the period 2000 to 2007 of about £22 million.", "Tonnage handled by LPHC increased by almost 65% between 2000 and 2007.The port gave vital Allied service in the longest-running campaign of the Second World War, the Battle of the Atlantic, and saw the surrender of the German U-boat fleet at Lisahally on 8 May 1945.===Inland waterways===The tidal River Foyle is navigable from the coast at Derry to approximately inland.", "In 1796, the Strabane Canal was opened, continuing the navigation a further southwards to Strabane.", "The canal was closed in 1962." ], [ "Education", "Magee College became a campus of Ulster University in 1969.Derry is home to the Magee Campus of Ulster University, formerly Magee College.", "However, Lockwood's 1960s decision to locate Northern Ireland's second university in Coleraine rather than Derry helped contribute to the formation of the civil rights movement that ultimately led to The Troubles.", "Derry was the town more closely associated with higher learning, with Magee College already more than a century old by that time.", "In the mid-1980s an attempt was made at address this by forming Magee College as a campus of the Ulster University, but this failed to stifle calls for the establishment of an independent University in Derry.", "As of 2021, the Magee campus reportedly accommodated approximately 4,400 students, out of a total Ulster University student population of approximately 24,000, of which 15,000 are in the Belfast campus.The North West Regional College is also based in the city, and accommodates over 10,000 student enrolments annually.One of the two oldest secondary schools in Northern Ireland, Foyle College, is located in Derry.", "It was founded in 1616 by the Merchant Taylors.", "Other secondary schools include St. Columb's College, Oakgrove Integrated College, St Cecilia's College, St Mary's College, St. Joseph's Boys' School, Lisneal College, Thornhill College, Lumen Christi College and St. Brigid's College.", "There are also numerous primary schools." ], [ "Sports", "The Derry GAA team ahead of the 2009 National League finalThe city is home to sports clubs and teams.", "Both association football and Gaelic football are popular in the area.===Association football===In association football, the city's most prominent clubs include Derry City who play in the national league of the Republic of Ireland; Institute of the NIFL Championship as well as Maiden City and Trojans, both of the Northern Ireland Intermediate League.In addition to these clubs, which all play in national leagues, other clubs are based in the city.", "The local football league governed by the IFA is the North-West Junior League, which contains many clubs from the city, such as BBOB (Boys Brigade Old Boys) and Lincoln Courts.", "The city's other junior league is the Derry and District League and teams from the city and surrounding areas participate, including Don Boscos and Creggan Swifts.", "The Foyle Cup youth soccer tournament is held annually in the city.", "It has attracted many notable teams in the past, including Werder Bremen, IFK Göteborg and Ferencváros.===Gaelic football===In Gaelic football Derry GAA are the county team and play in the Gaelic Athletic Association's National Football League, Ulster Senior Football Championship and All-Ireland Senior Football Championship.", "They also field hurling teams in the equivalent tournaments.", "There are many Gaelic games clubs in and around the city, for example Na Magha CLG, Steelstown GAC, Doire Colmcille CLG, Seán Dolans GAC, Na Piarsaigh CLG Doire Trasna and Slaughtmanus GAC.===Boxing===There are many boxing clubs, the most well-known being the Ring Amateur Boxing Club, which is based on the City side, and associated with boxers Charlie Nash and John Duddy.", "Rochester's Amateur Boxing club is a club in the city's Waterside area.===Rugby union===Rugby union is also quite popular in the city, with the City of Derry Rugby Club situated not far from the city centre.", "City of Derry won both the Ulster Towns Cup and the Ulster Junior Cup in 2009.Londonderry YMCA RFC is another rugby club and is based in the village of Drumahoe which is on the outskirts of the city.===Basketball===The city's only basketball club is North Star Basketball Club which has teams in the Basketball Northern Ireland senior and junior Leagues.===Cricket===Cricket is also played in the city, particularly in the Waterside.", "The city is home to two cricket clubs, Brigade Cricket Club and Glendermott Cricket Club, both of whom play in the North West Senior League.===Golf===There are two golf clubs situated in the city, City of Derry Golf Club and Foyle International Golf Centre." ], [ "Culture", "''Hands Across the Divide'' sculpture, by Maurice HarronArtists and writers associated with the city and surrounding countryside include the Nobel Prize-winning poet Seamus Heaney, poet Seamus Deane, playwright Brian Friel, writer and music critic Nik Cohn, artist Willie Doherty, socio-political commentator and activist Eamonn McCann and bands such as The Undertones.", "The large political gable-wall murals of Bogside Artists, Free Derry Corner, the Foyle Film Festival, the Derry Walls, St Eugene's and St Columb's Cathedrals and the annual Halloween street carnival are popular tourist attractions.", "In 2010, Derry was named the UK's tenth 'most musical' city by PRS for Music.Peace Flame Monument, unveiled in May 2013In May 2013 a perpetual Peace Flame Monument was unveiled by Martin Luther King III and Presbyterian minister Rev.", "David Latimer.", "The flame was lit by children from both traditions in the city and is one of only 15 such flames across the world.===Media===The local newspapers, the ''Derry Journal'' (known as the ''Londonderry Journal'' until 1880) and the ''Londonderry Sentinel'', reflect the divided history of the city: the ''Journal'' was founded in 1772 and is Ireland's second oldest newspaper; the ''Sentinel'' newspaper was formed in 1829 when new owners of the ''Journal'' embraced Catholic emancipation, and the editor left the paper to set up the ''Sentinel''.There are numerous radio stations receivable: the largest stations based in the city are BBC Radio Foyle and the commercial station Q102.9.There was a locally based television station, C9TV, one of only two local or 'restricted' television services in Northern Ireland, which ceased broadcasts in 2007.===Nightlife===The city's nightlife is mainly focused on the weekends, with several bars and clubs providing \"student nights\" during the weekdays.", "Waterloo Street and Strand Road provide the main venues.", "Waterloo Street, a steep street lined with both Irish traditional and modern pubs, frequently has live rock and traditional music at night.===Events===* In 2013, Derry became the first city to be designated UK City of Culture, having been awarded the title in July 2010.", "* Also in 2013 the city hosted Radio 1's Big Weekend and the Lumiere festival.", "* The \"Banks of the Foyle Hallowe'en Carnival\" (known in Irish as Féile na Samhna) in Derry is a huge tourism boost for the city.", "The carnival is promoted as being the first and longest-running Halloween carnival in the whole of Ireland, It is called the largest street party in Ireland by the Derry Visitor and Convention Bureau with more than 30,000 ghoulish revellers taking to the streets annually.", "* In March, the city hosts the Big Tickle Comedy Festival, which in 2006 featured Dara Ó Briain and Colin Murphy.", "In April the city plays host to the City of Derry Jazz and Big Band Festival and in November the Foyle Film Festival, the biggest film festival in Northern Ireland.", "* The Siege of Derry is commemorated annually by the fraternal organisation the Apprentice Boys of Derry in the week-long Maiden City Festival.", "* The Instinct Festival is an annual youth festival celebrating the Arts.", "It is held around Easter and has proven a success in recent years.", "* Celtronic is a major annual electronic dance festival held at venues all around the city.", "The 2007 Festival featured the DJ, Erol Alkan.", "* The Millennium Forum is the main theatre in the city; it holds numerous shows weekly.", "* On 9 December 2007 Derry entered the Guinness Book of Records when 13,000 Santas gathered to break the world record, beating previous records held by Liverpool and Las Vegas.", "* Winner of the 2005 Britain in Bloom competition (City category).", "Runner-up 2009.===References in popular music===" ], [ "Notable people", "Millennium Forum, Newmarket StreetNotable people who were born or have lived in Derry include:* Raphael Armattoe (1913–1953), scientist* James Burke, science historian and broadcaster* Amanda Burton (born 1956), actress* William C. Campbell (born 1930), scientist and Nobel laureate* Joyce Cary (1888–1957), novelist* Nadine Coyle (born 1985), singer* Clare Crockett (1982–2016), nun* Dana (born 1950), singer and politician* Seamus Deane (1940–2021), poet, novelist* Roma Downey (born 1960), actress* Shane Duffy (born 1992), footballer* George Farquhar (1677–1707), dramatist* William Thomas Gaul (1850–1927), Bishop of Mashonaland* Darron Gibson (born 1987), footballer* Daryl Gurney (born 1986), darts player* Neil Hannon (born 1970), singer* Seamus Heaney (1939–2013), poet and Nobel laureate* Frederick Hervey (1730–1803), Lord Bishop of Derry* John Hume (1937–2020), politician and Nobel laureate* Jennifer Johnston (born 1930), novelist* Edward Leach (1847-1913), recipient of the Victoria Cross* Nell McCafferty (born 1944), journalist, playwright* James McClean (born 1989), footballer* Aaron McEneff (born 1995), footballer* Damian McGinty (born 1992), singer* Martin McGuinness (1950–2017), politician* Tom McGuinness (born 1949), Gaelic footballer* Jimmy McShane (1957–1995), singer* Aileen Morrison (born 1982), triathlete* Martin O'Neill (born 1952), footballer, manager* John Park (1835–1863), recipient of the Victoria Cross* Miles Ryan (1826–1887), recipient of the Victoria Cross* William Sampson (1764–1836), American abolitionist and jurist* Feargal Sharkey (born 1958), lead singer of The Undertones* Leah Totton (born 1989), doctor and 2013 winner of The Apprentice" ], [ "Freedom of the City", "The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Derry.===Individuals===* General Duke of Schomberg : 1690.", "* William Pitt the Younger: 1786.", "* Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington: 1807.", "* Sir Robert Peel: 1817.", "* President Ulysses S. Grant: 1879.", "* Duke of York: 1924.", "* Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery: 1945.", "* Sir Winston Churchill: 16 December 1955.", "* John Hume: 1 May 2000.", "* Edward Daly: 24 March 2015.", "* James Mehaffey: 24 March 2015.", "* James McLaughlin: 30 May 2019.", "* Daniel Quigley: 26 November 2021.", "* Philip Coulter: 5 April 2022.", "* Lisa McGee: 5 December 2022.", "* Jon McCourt: 26 July 2023." ], [ "See also", "* Ballynagalliagh* Derry Girls* List of abbeys and priories in County Londonderry* List of towns and villages in Northern Ireland* Scouting in Northern Ireland" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Derry visitor information* Londonderry Chamber of Commerce" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European influence in Afghanistan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''European influence in Afghanistan''' has been present in the country since the Victorian era, when the competing imperial powers of Britain and Russia contested for control over Afghanistan as part of the Great Game." ], [ "Rise of Dost Mohammad Khan", "King Dost Mohammad Khan with one of his sons.After the decline of the Durrani dynasty in 1823, Dost Mohammad Khan established the Barakzai dynasty.", "Dost Mohammad achieved prominence among his brothers through clever use of the support of his mother's Qizilbash tribesmen and his own youthful apprenticeship under his brother, Fateh Khan.", "However, in the same year, the Afghans lost their former stronghold of Peshawar to the Sikh Khalsa Army of Ranjit Singh at the Battle of Nowshera.", "The Afghan forces in the battle were supported by Azim Khan, half-brother of Dost Mohammad.In 1834 Dost Mohammad defeated an invasion by the former ruler, Shuja Shah Durrani, but his absence from Kabul gave the Sikhs the opportunity to expand westward.", "Ranjit Singh's forces moved from Peshawar into territory ruled directly by Kabul.", "In 1836 Dost Mohammad's forces, under the command of his son Akbar Khan, defeated the Sikhs at the Battle of Jamrud, a post fifteen kilometres west of Peshawar.", "This was a pyrrhic victory and they failed to fully dislodge the Sikhs from Jamrud.", "The Afghan leader did not follow up this triumph by retaking Peshawar, however, but instead contacted Lord Auckland, the new British governor-general in British India, for help in dealing with the Sikhs.", "The letter marked the beginning of British influence in Afghanistan, and the subsequent Anglo-Russian struggle known as the Great Game." ], [ "The Great Game", "Ghazni in early 1800s.The British became the major European power in the Indian subcontinent after the 1763 Treaty of Paris and began to show interest in Afghanistan as early as their 1809 treaty with Shuja Shah Durrani.", "It was the threat of the expanding Russian Empire beginning to push for an advantage in the Afghanistan region that placed pressure on British India, in what became known as the Great Game.", "The Great Game set in motion the confrontation of the British and Russian empires, whose spheres of influence moved steadily closer to one another until they met in Afghanistan.", "It also involved repeated attempts by the British to establish a puppet government in Kabul.", "The remainder of the 19th century saw greater European involvement in Afghanistan and her surrounding territories and heightened conflict among the ambitious local rulers as Afghanistan's fate played out globally.The débâcle of the Afghan civil war left a vacuum in the Hindu Kush area that concerned the British, who were well aware of the many times in history it had been employed as an invasion route to South Asia.", "In the early decades of the 19th century, it became clear to the British that the major threat to their interests in India would not come from the fragmented Afghan empire, the Iranians, or the French, but from the Russians, who had already begun a steady advance southward from the Caucasus winning decisive wars against the Ottomans and Persians.At the same time, the Russians feared the possibility a permanent British foothold in Central Asia as the British expanded northward, incorporating the Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir into their empire; later to become Pakistan.", "The British viewed Russia's absorption of the Caucasus, the Kyrgyz and Turkmen lands, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Emirate of Bukhara with equal suspicion as a threat to their interests in the Indian subcontinent.Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mohammad Khan.In addition to this rivalry between Britain and Russia, there were two specific reasons for British concern over Russia's intentions.", "First was the Russian influence at the Iranian court, which prompted the Russians to support Iran in its attempt to take Herat, historically the western gateway to Afghanistan and northern India.", "In 1837 Iran advanced on Herat with the support and advice of Russian officers.", "The second immediate reason was the presence in Kabul in 1837 of a Russian agent, Yan Vitkevich, who was ostensibly there, as was the British agent Alexander Burnes, for commercial discussions.The British demanded that Dost Mohammad sever all contact with the Iranians and Russians, remove Vitkevich from Kabul, surrender all claims to Peshawar, and respect Peshawar's independence as well as that of Kandahar, which was under the control of his brothers at the time.", "In return, the British government intimated that it would ask Ranjit Singh to reconcile with the Afghans.", "When Auckland refused to put the agreement in writing, Dost Mohammad suspended negotiations the British and began negotiations with Vitkevich.In 1838 Auckland, Ranjit Singh, and Shuja signed an agreement stating that Shuja would regain control of Kabul and Kandahar with the help of the British and Sikhs; he would accept Sikh rule of the former Afghan provinces already controlled by Ranjit Singh, and that Herat would remain independent.", "In practice, the plan replaced Dost Mohammad with a British figurehead whose autonomy would be similar to the princes who ruled over the princely states in British India.It soon became apparent to the British that Sikh participation, advancing toward Kabul through the Khyber Pass while Shuja and the British advanced through Kandahar, would not be forthcoming.", "Auckland's plan in the spring of 1838 was for the Sikhs to place Shuja on the Afghan throne, with British support.", "By the end of the summer however, the plan had changed; now the British alone would impose the pliant Shuja Shah." ], [ "First Anglo-Afghan War, 1838–1842", "Shah Shujah became the last Durrani ruler, who first reigned between 1803 and 1809, and again from 1839 to 1842.As a prelude to his invasion plans, the Governor-General of India Lord Auckland issued the Simla Manifesto in October 1838, setting forth the necessary reasons for British intervention in Afghanistan.", "The manifesto stated that in order to ensure the welfare of India, the British must have a trustworthy ally on India's western frontier.", "The British claim that their troops were merely supporting Shah Shujah's small army in retaking what was once his throne fooled no one.", "Although the Simla Manifesto stated that British troops would be withdrawn as soon as Shuja was installed in Kabul, Shuja's rule depended entirely on British support to suppress rebellion and on British funds to buy the support of tribal chiefs.", "The British denied that they were invading Afghanistan, instead claiming they were supporting its legitimate Shuja government \"against foreign interference and factious opposition\".Battle of GhazniIn November 1841 insurrection and massacre flared up in Kabul.", "The British vacillated and disagreed and were beleaguered in their inadequate cantonments.", "The British negotiated with the most influential sirdars, cut off as they were by winter and insurgent tribes from any hope of relief.", "Mohammad Akbar Khan, son of the captive Dost Mohammad, arrived in Kabul and became effective leader of the sirdars.", "At a conference with them Sir William MacNaghten was killed, but in spite of this, the sirdars' demands were agreed to by the British and they withdrew.", "During the withdrawal they were attacked by Ghilzai tribesmen and in running battles through the snowbound passes nearly the entire column of 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers were killed.", "Of the British only one, Dr. William Brydon, reached Jalalabad, while a few others were captured.Afghan forces loyal to Akbar Khan besieged the remaining British contingents at Kandahar, Ghazni and Jalalabad.", "Ghazni fell, but the other garrisons held out, and with the help of reinforcements from India their besiegers were defeated.", "While preparations were under way for a renewed advance on Kabul, the new Governor-General Lord Ellenborough ordered British forces to leave Afghanistan after securing the release of the prisoners from Kabul and taking reprisals.", "The forces from Kandahar and Jalalabad again defeated Akbar Khan, retook and sacked Ghazni and Kabul, rescuing the prisoners before withdrawing through the Khyber Pass." ], [ "Mid-nineteenth century", "King Sher Ali Khan with CD Charles Chamberlain and Sir Richard F. Pollock in 1869.After months of chaos in Kabul, Mohammad Akbar Khan secured local control and in April 1843 his father Dost Mohammad, who had been released by the British, returned to the throne in Afghanistan.", "In the following decade, Dost Mohammad concentrated his efforts on reconquering Mazari Sharif, Konduz, Badakhshan, and Kandahar.", "Mohammad Akbar Khan died in 1845.During the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49), Dost Mohammad's last effort to take Peshawar failed.By 1854 the British wanted to resume relations with Dost Mohammad, whom they had essentially ignored in the intervening twelve years.", "The 1855 Treaty of Peshawar reopened diplomatic relations, proclaimed respect for each side's territorial integrity, and pledged both sides as friends of each other's friends and enemies of each other's enemies.In 1857 an addendum to the 1855 treaty permitted a British military mission to become a presence in Kandahar (but not Kabul) during a conflict with the Persians, who had attacked Herat in 1856.During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, some British officials suggested restoring Peshawar to Dost Mohammad, in return for his support against the rebellious sepoys of the Bengal Army, but this view was rejected by British political officers on the North West frontier, who believed that Dost Mohammad would see this as a sign of weakness and turn against the British.In 1863 Dost Mohammad retook Herat with British acquiescence.", "A few months later, he died.", "Sher Ali Khan, his third son, and proclaimed successor, failed to recapture Kabul from his older brother, Mohammad Afzal (whose troops were led by his son, Abdur Rahman) until 1868, after which Abdur Rahman retreated across the Amu Darya and bided his time.In the years immediately following the First Anglo-Afghan War, and especially after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British in India, Liberal Party governments in London took a political view of Afghanistan as a buffer state.", "By the time Sher Ali had established control in Kabul in 1868, he found the British ready to support his regime with arms and funds, but nothing more.", "Over the next ten years, relations between the Afghan ruler and Britain deteriorated steadily.", "The Afghan ruler was worried about the southward encroachment of Russia, which by 1873 had taken over the lands of the khan, or ruler, of Khiva.", "Sher Ali sent an envoy seeking British advice and support.", "The previous year the British had signed an agreement with the Russians in which the latter agreed to respect the northern boundaries of Afghanistan and to view the territories of the Afghan Emir as outside their sphere of influence.", "The British, however, refused to give any assurances to the disappointed Sher Ali." ], [ "Second Anglo-Afghan War, 1878–1880", "King Mohammad Yaqub Khan with Britain's Sir Pierre Cavagnari on 26 May 1879, when the Treaty of Gandamak was signed.After tension between Russia and Britain in Europe ended with the June 1878 Congress of Berlin, Russia turned its attention to Central Asia.", "That same summer, Russia sent an uninvited diplomatic mission to Kabul.", "Sher Ali tried, but failed, to keep them out.", "Russian envoys arrived in Kabul on 22 July 1878 and on 14 August, the British demanded that Sher Ali accept a British mission too.Durban Maidan of Sherpur Cantonment in 1879 near Kabul.allied forces at Kandahar after the 1880 Battle of Kandahar.The amir not only refused to receive a British mission but threatened to stop it if it were dispatched.", "Lord Lytton, the viceroy, ordered a diplomatic mission to set out for Kabul in September 1878 but the mission was turned back as it approached the eastern entrance of the Khyber Pass, triggering the Second Anglo-Afghan War.", "A British force of about 40,000 fighting men was distributed into military columns which penetrated Afghanistan at three different points.", "An alarmed Sher Ali attempted to appeal in person to the Tsar for assistance, but unable to do so, he returned to Mazari Sharif, where he died on 21 February 1879.With British forces occupying much of the country, Sher Ali's son and successor, Mohammad Yaqub Khan, signed the Treaty of Gandamak in May 1879 in order to put a quick end to the conflict.", "According to this agreement and in return for an annual subsidy and vague assurances of assistance in case of foreign aggression, Yaqub relinquished control of Afghan foreign affairs to the British.", "British representatives were installed in Kabul and other locations, British control was extended to the Khyber and Michni Passes, and Afghanistan ceded various frontier areas and Quetta to Britain.", "The British forces then withdrew.", "Soon afterwards, an uprising in Kabul led to the killings of Britain's Resident in Kabul, Sir Pierre Cavagnari and his guards and staff on 3 September 1879, provoking the second phase of the Second Afghan War.", "Major General Sir Frederick Roberts led the Kabul Field Force over the Shutargardan Pass into central Afghanistan, defeated the Afghan Army at Char Asiab on 6 October 1879 and occupied Kabul.", "Ghazi Mohammad Jan Khan Wardak staged an uprising and attacked British forces near Kabul in the Siege of the Sherpur Cantonment in December 1879, but his defeat there resulted in the collapse of this rebellion.Yaqub Khan, suspected of complicity in the killings of Cavagnari and his staff, was obliged to abdicate.", "The British considered a number of possible political settlements, including partitioning Afghanistan between multiple rulers or placing Yaqub's brother Ayub Khan on the throne, but ultimately decided to install his cousin Abdur Rahman Khan as emir instead.", "Ayub Khan, who had been serving as governor of Herat, rose in revolt, defeated a British detachment at the Battle of Maiwand in July 1880 and besieged Kandahar.", "Roberts then led the main British force from Kabul and decisively defeated Ayub Khan in September at the Battle of Kandahar, bringing his rebellion to an end.", "Abdur Rahman had confirmed the Treaty of Gandamak, leaving the British in control of the territories ceded by Yaqub Khan and ensuring British control of Afghanistan's foreign policy in exchange for protection and a subsidy.", "Abandoning the provocative policy of maintaining a British resident in Kabul, but having achieved all their other objectives, the British withdrew." ], [ "The Iron Amir, 1880–1901", "Amir Abdur Rahman Khan (''The Iron Amir'') in 1897.As far as British interests were concerned, Abdur Rahman answered their prayers: a forceful, intelligent leader capable of welding his divided people into a state; and he was willing to accept limitations to his power imposed by British control of his country's foreign affairs and the British buffer state policy.", "His twenty-one-year reign was marked by efforts to modernize and establish control of the kingdom, whose boundaries were delineated by the two empires bordering it.", "Abdur Rahman turned his considerable energies to what evolved into the creation of the modern state of Afghanistan.He achieved this consolidation of Afghanistan in three ways.", "He suppressed various rebellions and followed up his victories with harsh punishment, execution, and deportation.", "He broke the stronghold of Pashtun tribes by forcibly transplanting them.", "He transplanted his most powerful Pashtun enemies, the Ghilzai, and other tribes from southern and south-central Afghanistan to areas north of the Hindu Kush with predominantly non-Pashtun populations.", "The last non-Muslim Afghans of Kafiristan north of Kabul were forcefully converted to Islam.", "Finally, he created a system of provincial governorates different from old tribal boundaries.", "Provincial governors had a great deal of power in local matters, and an army was placed at their disposal to enforce tax collection and suppress dissent.", "Abdur Rahman kept a close eye on these governors, however, by creating an effective intelligence system.", "During his reign, tribal organization began to be eroded as provincial government officials allowed land to change hands outside the traditional clan and tribal limits.The Pashtuns battled and conquered the Uzbeks and forced them into the status of ruled people who were discriminated against.", "Out of anti-Russian strategic interests, the British assisted the Afghan conquest of the Uzbek Khanates, giving weapons to the Afghans and supporting the Afghan government's colonization of northern Afghanistan by Pashtuns, which involved sending massive amounts of Pashtun colonists onto Uzbek land.In addition to forging a nation from the splintered regions making up Afghanistan, Abdur Rahman tried to modernize his kingdom by forging a regular army and the first institutionalized bureaucracy.", "Despite his distinctly authoritarian personality, Abdur Rahman called for a loya jirga, an assemblage of royal princes, important notables, and religious leaders.", "According to his autobiography, Abdur Rahman had three goals: subjugating the tribes, extending government control through a strong, visible army, and reinforcing the power of the ruler and the royal family.Maps showing the boundary of Afghanistan before the 1893 Durand Line Treaty.During his visit to Rawalpindi in 1885, the Amir requested the Viceroy of India to depute a Muslim Envoy to Kabul who was noble birth and of ruling family background.", "Mirza Atta Ullah Khan, Sardar Bahadur s/o Khan Bahadur Mirza Fakir Ullah Khan (Saman Burj Wazirabad), a direct descendant of Jarral Rajput Rajas of Rajauri, was selected and approved by the Amir to be the British Envoy to Kabul.Abdur Rahman also paid attention to technological advance.", "He brought foreign physicians, engineers (especially for mining), geologists, and printers to Afghanistan.", "He imported European machinery and encouraged the establishment of small factories to manufacture soap, candles, and leather goods.", "He sought European technical advice on communications, transport, and irrigation.", "Local Afghan tribes strongly resisted this modernization.", "Workmen making roads had to be protected by the army against local warriors.", "Nonetheless, despite these sweeping internal policies, Abdur Rahman's foreign policy was completely in foreign hands.The first important frontier dispute was the Panjdeh crisis of 1885, precipitated by Russian encroachment into Central Asia.", "Having seized the Merv (now Mary) Oasis by 1884, Russian forces were directly adjacent to Afghanistan.", "Claims to the Panjdeh Oasis were in debate, with the Russians keen to take over all the region's Turkoman domains.", "After battling Afghan forces in the spring of 1885, the Russians seized the oasis.", "Russian and British troops were quickly alerted, but the two powers reached a compromise; Russia was in possession of the oasis, and Britain believed it could keep the Russians from advancing any farther.", "Without an Afghan say in the matter, the Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed that the Russians would relinquish the farthest territory captured in their advance but retain Panjdeh.", "This agreement on these border sections delineated for Afghanistan a permanent northern frontier at the Amu Darya, but also involved the loss of much territory, especially around Panjdeh.The second section of Afghan border demarcated during Abdur Rahman's reign was in the Wakhan.", "The British insisted that Abdur Rahman accept sovereignty over this remote region, where unruly Kyrgyz held sway; he had no choice but to accept Britain's compromise.", "In 1895 and 1896, another Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed on the frontier boundary to the far northeast of Afghanistan, which bordered Chinese territory (although the Chinese did not formally accept this as a boundary between the two countries until 1964.", ")For Abdur Rahman, delineating the boundary with India (through the Pashtun area) was far more significant, and it was during his reign that the Durand Line was drawn.", "Under pressure, Abdur Rahman agreed in 1893 to accept a mission headed by the British Indian foreign secretary, Sir Mortimer Durand, to define the limits of British and Afghan control in the Pashtun territories.", "Boundary limits were agreed on by Durand and Abdur Rahman before the end of 1893, but there is some question about the degree to which Abdur Rahman willingly ceded certain regions.", "There were indications that he regarded the Durand Line as a delimitation of separate areas of political responsibility, not a permanent international frontier, and that he did not explicitly cede control over certain parts (such as Kurram and Chitral) that were already in British control under the Treaty of Gandamak.The Durand Line cut through tribes and bore little relation to the realities of demography or military strategy.", "The line laid the foundation not for peace between the border regions, but for heated disagreement between the governments of Afghanistan and British India, and later, Afghanistan and Pakistan over what came to be known as the issue of Pashtunistan or 'Land of the Pashtuns'.", "(See Siege of Malakand).The clearest manifestation that Abdur Rahman had established control in Afghanistan was the peaceful succession of his eldest son, Habibullah Khan, to the throne on his father's death in October 1901.Although Abdur Rahman had fathered many children, he groomed Habibullah to succeed him, and he made it difficult for his other sons to contest the succession by keeping power from them and sequestering them in Kabul under his control." ], [ "Habibullah Khan, 1901–1919", "Habibullah Khan, eldest son of Abur Rahman Khan, in 1893.Habibullah Khan, Abdur Rahman Khan's eldest son and child of a slave mother, kept a close watch on the palace intrigues revolving around his father's more distinguished wife (a granddaughter of Dost Mohammad), who sought the throne for her own son.", "Although made secure in his position as ruler by virtue of support from the army which was created by his father, Habibullah was not as domineering as Abdur Rahman.", "Consequently, the influence of religious leaders as well as that of Mahmud Tarzi, a cousin of the king, increased during his reign.King Habibullah Khan in 1907Mahmud Tarzi, a highly educated, well-traveled poet and journalist, founded an Afghan nationalist newspaper with Habibullah's agreement, and until 1919 he used the newspaper as a platform for rebutting clerical criticism of Western-influenced changes in government and society, for espousing full Afghan independence, and for other reforms.", "Tarzi's passionate Afghan nationalism influenced a future generation of Asian reformers.The boundary with Iran was firmly delineated in 1904, replacing the ambiguous line made by a British commission in 1872.Agreement could not be reached, however, on sharing the waters of the Helmand River.Like all foreign policy developments of this period affecting Afghanistan, the conclusion of the \"Great Game\" between Russia and Britain occurred without the Afghan ruler's participation.", "The 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention (the Convention of St. Petersburg) not only divided the region into separate areas of Russian and British influence but also established foundations for Afghan neutrality.", "The convention provided for Russian acquiescence that Afghanistan was now outside this sphere of influence, and for Russia to consult directly with Britain on matters relating to Russian-Afghan relations.", "Britain, for its part, would not occupy or annex Afghan territory, or interfere in Afghanistan's internal affairs.During World War I, Afghanistan remained neutral despite pressure to support Turkey when its sultan proclaimed his nation's participation in what it considered a holy war.", "Habibullah did, however, entertain an Indo-German–Turkish mission in Kabul in 1915 that had as its titular head the Indian nationalist Mahendra Pratap and was led by Oskar Niedermayer and the German legate Werner Otto von Hentig.", "After much procrastination, he won an agreement from the Central Powers for a huge payment and arms provision in exchange for attacking British India.", "But the crafty Afghan ruler clearly viewed the war as an opportunity to play one side off against the other, for he also offered the British to resist a Central Powers attack on India in exchange for an end to British control of Afghan foreign policy.==Third Anglo-Afghan War and Independence==Amanullah's ten years of reign initiated a period of dramatic change in Afghanistan in both foreign and domestic politics.", "Amanullah declared full independence and sparked the Third Anglo-Afghan War.", "Amanullah altered foreign policy in his new relations with external powers and transformed domestic politics with his social, political, and economic reforms.", "Although his reign ended abruptly, he achieved some notable successes, and his efforts failed as much due to the centrifugal forces of tribal Afghanistan and the machinations of Russia and Britain as to any political folly on his part.Amanullah came to power just as the entente between Russia and Britain broke down following the Russian Revolution of 1917.Once again Afghanistan provided a stage on which the great powers played out their schemes against one another.", "Keen to modernise his country and remove all foreign influence, Amanullah, sought to shore up his powerbase.", "Amidst intrigue in the Afghan court, and political and civil unrest in India, he sought to divert attention from the internal divisions of Afghanistan and unite all faction behind him by attacking the British.Using the civil unrest in India as an excuse to move troops to the Durand Line, Afghan troops crossed the border at the western end of the Khyber Pass on 3 May 1919 and occupied the village of Bagh, the scene of an earlier uprising in April.", "In response, the Indian government ordered a full mobilisation and on 6 May 1919 declared war.", "For the British it had come at a time when they were still recovering from the First World War.", "The troops that were stationed in India were mainly reserves and Territorials, who were awaiting demobilisation and keen to return to Britain, whilst the few regular regiments that were available were tired and depleted from five years of fighting.Afghan forces achieved success in the initial days of the war, taking the British and Indians by surprise in two main thrusts as the Afghan regular army was joined by large numbers of Pashtun tribesmen from both sides of the border.", "A series of skirmishes then followed as the British and Indians recovered from their initial surprise.", "As a counterbalance to deficiencies in manpower and morale, the British had a considerable advantage in terms of equipment, possessing machine guns, armoured cars, motor transport, wireless communications and aircraft and it was the latter that would prove decisive.British forces deployed air forces for the first time in the region, and the King's home was directly targeted in what is the first case of aerial bombardment in Afghanistan's history.", "The attacks played a key role in forcing an armistice but brought an angry rebuke from King Amanullah.", "He wrote: \"It is a matter of great regret that the throwing of bombs by zeppelins on London was denounced as a most savage act and the bombardment of places of worship and sacred spots was considered a most abominable operation.", "While we now see with our own eyes that such operations were a habit which is prevalent among all civilized people of the west\".The fighting concluded in August 1919 and Britain virtually dictated the terms of the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919, a temporary armistice that provided, on one somewhat ambiguous interpretation, for Afghan self-determination in foreign affairs.", "Before final negotiations were concluded in 1921, however, Afghanistan had already begun to establish its own foreign policy without repercussions anyway, including diplomatic relations with the new government in the Soviet Union in 1919.During the 1920s, Afghanistan established diplomatic relations with most major countries." ], [ "Amanullah Khan, 1919–1929", "King Amanullah, third son of Habibullah Khan.On 20 February 1919, Habibullah Khan was assassinated on a hunting trip.", "He had not declared a succession, but left his third son, Amanullah Khan, in charge in Kabul.", "Amanullah did have an older brother, Nasrullah Khan.", "But, because Amanullah controlled both the national treasury and the army, Amanullah was well situated to seize power.", "The army's support allowed Amanullah to suppress other claims and imprison those relatives who would not swear loyalty to him.", "Within a few months, the new amir had gained the allegiance of most tribal leaders and established control over the cities.Family life of Afghan politicians in 1927.King Amanullah in 1928, the scope of the European tour with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Turkey.Amanullah Khan's reforms were heavily influenced by Europe.", "This came through the influence of Mahmud Tarzi, who was both Amanullah Khan's father-in-law and Foreign Minister.", "Mahmud Tarzi, a highly educated, well-traveled poet, journalist, and diplomat, was a key figure that brought Western dress and etiquette to Afghanistan.", "He also fought for progressive reforms such as woman's rights, educational rights, and freedom of press.", "All of these influences, brought by Tarzi and others, were welcomed by Amanullah Khan.In 1926, Amanullah ended the Emirate of Afghanistan and proclaimed the Kingdom of Afghanistan with himself as king.", "In 1927 and 1928, King Amanullah Khan and his wife Soraya Tarzi visited Europe.", "On this trip they were honored and feted.", "In fact, in 1928 the King and Queen of Afghanistan received honorary degrees from the University of Oxford.", "This was an era when other Muslim nations, like Turkey and Egypt were also on the path to modernization.", "King Amanullah was so impressed with the social progress of Europe that he tried to implement them right away, this met with heavy resistance from the conservative society and eventually led to his demise.Amanullah enjoyed early popularity within Afghanistan and he used his power to modernize the country.", "Amanullah created new cosmopolitan schools for both boys and girls in the region and overturned centuries-old traditions such as strict dress codes for women.", "He created a new capital city and increased trade with Europe and Asia.", "He also advanced a modernist constitution that incorporated equal rights and individual freedoms.", "This rapid modernization though, created a backlash, and a reactionary uprising known as the ''Khost rebellion'' which was suppressed in 1925.After Amanullah travelled to Europe in late 1927, opposition to his rule increased.", "An uprising in Jalalabad culminated in a march to the capital, and much of the army deserted rather than resist.", "On 14 January 1929, Amanullah abdicated in favor of his brother, King Inayatullah Khan.", "On 17 January, Inayatullah abdicated and Habibullah Kalakani became the next ruler of Afghanistan and restored the emirate.", "However, his rule was short lived and, on 17 October 1929, Habibullah Kalakani was overthrown and replaced by King Nadir Khan.After his abdication in 1929, Amanullah went into temporary exile in India.", "When he attempted to return to Afghanistan, he had little support from the people.", "From India, the ex-king traveled to Europe and settled in Italy, and later in Switzerland.", "Meanwhile, Nadir Khan made sure his return to Afghanistan was impossible by engaging in a propaganda war.", "Nadir Khan accused Amanullah Khan of kufr with his pro western policies." ], [ "Mohammed Zahir Shah, 1933–1973", "In 1933, after the assassination of Nadir Khan, Mohammed Zahir Shah became king.A 1950s or 1960s record store in Afghanistan, showing the increasing Western influence at the time, particularly in Kabul.", "In 1940, the Afghan legation in Berlin asked that if Germany won the Second World War would the ''Reich'' give all of British India up to the Indus river to Afghanistan.", "Ernst von Weizsacker, the State Secretary at the ''Auswärtiges Amt'' wrote to the German minister in Kabul on 3 October 1940: \"The Afghan minister called on me on September 30 and conveyed greetings from his minister president, as well as their good wishes for a favourable outcome of the war.", "He inquired whether German aims in Asia coincided with Afghan hopes; he alluded to the oppression of Arab countries and referred to the 15m Afghans (Pashtuns, mainly in the North West Frontier province) who were forced to suffer on Indian territory.My statement that Germany's goal was the liberation of the peoples of the region referred to, who were under the British yoke was received with satisfaction by the Afghan minister.", "He stated that justice for Afghanistan would be created only when the country's frontier had been extended to the Indus; this would also apply if India should secede from Britain.", "The Afghan remarked that Afghanistan had given proof of her loyal attitude by vigorously resisting English pressure to break off relations with Germany.\"", "No Afghan government ever accepted the Durand Line which divided the ethnically Pashtun population into the North-West Frontier Province of the British Indian Empire (modern north-western Pakistan) and Afghanistan, and it was the hope of Kabul that if Germany won the war, then all of the Pashtun people might be united into one realm." ], [ "See also", "Western imperialism in AsiaReforms of Amanullah Khan and civil warAurora Nilsson" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===Barthorp, Michael.", "2002.", "''Afghan Wars and the North-West Frontier 1839–1947''.", "Cassell.", "London.", "Singer, André.", "1984.", "\"Lords of the Kyber, the story of the North-West Frontier\".", "Faber & Faber.", "Wilkinson-Latham, Robert & McBride, Angus.", "1977.", "''North-West Frontier 1837–1947''.", "Men-at-Arms Series # 72.Osprey Publishing.", "London." ], [ "Further reading", "Vogelsang, Willem.", "2002.", "''The Afghans'', pp.", "245–334.Blackwell Publishers.", "Oxford.", "" ], [ "External links", "* Encyclopædia Britannica – Anglo Afghan Wars* The Afghan Wars 1839–42 and 1878–80 by Archibald Forbes, from Project Gutenberg* Library of Congress – Country Study of Afghanistan* U.S. Department of State Background Note on Afghanistan* Chronological History of Afghanistan** HISTORY: For Ages, Afghanistan Is Not Easily Conquered, New York Times, 9/18/2001" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dementia praecox" ], [ "Introduction", "A monograph by Eugen Bleuler on ''dementia praecox'' (1911)'''Dementia praecox''' (meaning a \"premature dementia\" or \"precocious madness\") is a disused psychiatric diagnosis that originally designated a chronic, deteriorating psychotic disorder characterized by rapid cognitive disintegration, usually beginning in the late teens or early adulthood.", "Over the years, the term ''dementia praecox'' was gradually replaced by the term ''schizophrenia'', which initially had a meaning that included what is today considered the autism spectrum.The term ''dementia praecox'' was first used by German psychiatrist Heinrich Schüle in 1880.It was also used in 1891 by Arnold Pick (1851–1924), a professor of psychiatry at Charles University in Prague.", "In a brief clinical report, he described a person with a psychotic disorder resembling \"hebephrenia\" (an adolescent-onset psychotic condition).German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) popularised the term ''dementia praecox'' in his first detailed textbook descriptions of a condition that eventually became a different disease concept later relabeled as ''schizophrenia''.", "Kraepelin reduced the complex psychiatric taxonomies of the nineteenth century by dividing them into two classes: manic-depressive psychosis and dementia praecox.", "This division, commonly referred to as the Kraepelinian dichotomy, had a fundamental impact on twentieth-century psychiatry, though it has also been questioned.The primary disturbance in dementia praecox was seen to be a disruption in cognitive or mental functioning in attention, memory, and goal-directed behaviour.", "Kraepelin contrasted this with manic-depressive psychosis, now termed bipolar disorder, and also with other forms of mood disorder, including major depressive disorder.", "He eventually concluded that it was not possible to distinguish his categories on the basis of cross-sectional symptoms.Kraepelin viewed dementia praecox as a progressively deteriorating disease from which no one recovered.", "However, by 1913, and more explicitly by 1920, Kraepelin admitted that while there may be a residual cognitive defect in most cases, the prognosis was not as uniformly dire as he had stated in the 1890s.", "Still, he regarded it as a specific disease concept that implied incurable, inexplicable madness." ], [ "History", "===First use of the term===Benedict Augustin Morel (1809–1873)''Dementia'' is an ancient term which has been in use since at least the time of Lucretius in 50 BC where it meant \"being out of one's mind\".", "Until the seventeenth century, dementia referred to states of cognitive and behavioural deterioration leading to psychosocial incompetence.", "This condition could be innate or acquired, and the concept had no reference to a necessarily irreversible condition.", "It is the concept in this popular notion of psychosocial incapacity that forms the basis for the idea of legal incapacity.", "By the eighteenth century, at the period when the term entered into European medical discourse, clinical concepts were added to the vernacular understanding such that dementia was now associated with intellectual deficits arising from any cause and at any age.", "By the end of the nineteenth century, the modern 'cognitive paradigm' of dementia was taking root.", "This holds that dementia is understood in terms of criteria relating to aetiology, age and course which excludes former members of the family of the demented such as adults with acquired head trauma or children with cognitive deficits.", "Moreover, it was now understood as an irreversible condition and a particular emphasis was placed on memory loss in regard to the deterioration of intellectual functions.The term was used in passing to describe the characteristics of a subset of young mental patients by the French physician Bénédict Augustin Morel in 1852 in the first volume of his .", "and the term is used more frequently in his textbook which was published in 1860.Morel, whose name will be forever associated with religiously inspired concept of degeneration theory in psychiatry, used the term in a descriptive sense and not to define a specific and novel diagnostic category.", "It was applied as a means of setting apart a group of young men and women with \"stupor\".", "As such their condition was characterised by a certain torpor, enervation, and disorder of the will and was related to the diagnostic category of melancholia.", "He did not conceptualise their state as irreversible and thus his use of the term dementia was equivalent to that formed in the eighteenth century as outlined above.While some have sought to interpret, if in a qualified fashion, the use by Morel of the term as amounting to the discovery of schizophrenia, others have argued convincingly that Morel's descriptive use of the term should not be considered in any sense as a precursor to Kraepelin's dementia praecox disease concept.", "This is due to the fact that their concepts of dementia differed significantly from each other, with Kraepelin employing the more modern sense of the word and that Morel was not describing a diagnostic category.", "Indeed, until the advent of Pick and Kraepelin, Morel's term had vanished without a trace and there is little evidence to suggest that either Pick or indeed Kraepelin were even aware of Morel's use of the term until long after they had published their own disease concepts bearing the same name.", "As Eugène Minkowski stated, \"An abyss separates Morel's from that of Kraepelin.", "\"Morel described several psychotic disorders that ended in dementia, and as a result he may be regarded as the first alienist or psychiatrist to develop a diagnostic system based on presumed outcome rather than on the current presentation of signs and symptoms.", "Morel, however, did not conduct any long-term or quantitative research on the course and outcome of dementia praecox (Kraepelin would be the first in history to do that) so this prognosis was based on speculation.", "It is impossible to discern whether the condition briefly described by Morel was equivalent to the disorder later called dementia praecox by Pick and Kraepelin.===Time component===Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (1828–1899)Psychiatric nosology in the nineteenth-century was chaotic and characterised by a conflicting mosaic of contradictory systems.", "Psychiatric disease categories were based upon short-term and cross-sectional observations of patients from which were derived the putative characteristic signs and symptoms of a given disease concept.", "The dominant psychiatric paradigms which gave a semblance of order to this fragmentary picture were Morelian degeneration theory and the concept of \"unitary psychosis\" ().", "This latter notion, derived from the Belgian psychiatrist Joseph Guislain (1797–1860), held that the variety of symptoms attributed to mental illness were manifestations of a single underlying disease process.", "While these approaches had a diachronic aspect they lacked a conception of mental illness that encompassed a coherent notion of change over time in terms of the natural course of the illness and based upon an empirical observation of changing symptomatology.In 1863, the Danzig-based psychiatrist Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (1828–1899) published his text on psychiatric nosology (''The Classification of Psychiatric Diseases'').", "Although with the passage of time this work would prove profoundly influential, when it was published it was almost completely ignored by German academia despite the sophisticated and intelligent disease classification system which it proposed.", "In this book Kahlbaum categorized certain typical forms of psychosis () as a single coherent type based upon their shared progressive nature which betrayed, he argued, an ongoing degenerative disease process.", "For Kahlbaum the disease process of was distinguished by the passage of the patient through clearly defined disease phases: a melancholic stage; a manic stage; a confusional stage; and finally a demented stage.In 1866, Kahlbaum became the director of a private psychiatric clinic in Görlitz (Prussia, today Saxony, a small town near Dresden).", "He was accompanied by his younger assistant, Ewald Hecker (1843–1909), and during a ten-year collaboration they conducted a series of research studies on young psychotic patients that would become a major influence on the development of modern psychiatry.Together Kahlbaum and Hecker were the first to describe and name such syndromes as dysthymia, cyclothymia, paranoia, catatonia, and hebephrenia.", "Perhaps their most lasting contribution to psychiatry was the introduction of the \"clinical method\" from medicine to the study of mental diseases, a method which is now known as psychopathology.When the element of time was added to the concept of diagnosis, a diagnosis became more than just a description of a collection of symptoms: diagnosis now also defined by prognosis (course and outcome).", "An additional feature of the clinical method was that the characteristic symptoms that define syndromes should be described without any prior assumption of brain pathology (although such links would be made later as scientific knowledge progressed).", "Karl Kahlbaum made an appeal for the adoption of the clinical method in psychiatry in his 1874 book on catatonia.", "Without Kahlbaum and Hecker there would be no dementia praecox.Upon his appointment to a full professorship in psychiatry at the University of Dorpat (now Tartu, Estonia) in 1886, Kraepelin gave an inaugural address to the faculty outlining his research programme for the years ahead.", "Attacking the \"brain mythology\" of Meynert and the positions of Griesinger and Gudden, Kraepelin advocated that the ideas of Kahlbaum, who was then a marginal and little known figure in psychiatry, should be followed.", "Therefore, he argued, a research programme into the nature of psychiatric illness should look at a large number of patients over time to discover the course which mental disease could take.", "It has also been suggested that Kraepelin's decision to accept the Dorpat post was informed by the fact that there he could hope to gain experience with chronic patients and this, it was presumed, would facilitate the longitudinal study of mental illness.===Quantitative component===Understanding that objective diagnostic methods must be based on scientific practice, Kraepelin had been conducting psychological and drug experiments on patients and normal subjects for some time when, in 1891, he left Dorpat and took up a position as professor and director of the psychiatric clinic at Heidelberg University.", "There he established a research program based on Kahlbaum's proposal for a more exact qualitative clinical approach, and his own innovation: a quantitative approach involving meticulous collection of data over time on each new patient admitted to the clinic (rather than only the interesting cases, as had been the habit until then).Kraepelin believed that by thoroughly describing all of the clinic's new patients on index cards, which he had been using since 1887, researcher bias could be eliminated from the investigation process.", "He described the method in his posthumously published memoir:The fourth edition of his textbook, , published in 1893, two years after his arrival at Heidelberg, contained some impressions of the patterns Kraepelin had begun to find in his index cards.", "Prognosis (course and outcome) began to feature alongside signs and symptoms in the description of syndromes, and he added a class of psychotic disorders designated \"psychic degenerative processes\", three of which were borrowed from Kahlbaum and Hecker: ''dementia paranoides'' (a degenerative type of Kahlbaum's paranoia, with sudden onset), ''catatonia'' (per Kahlbaum, 1874) and ''dementia praecox'', (Hecker's hebephrenia of 1871).", "Kraepelin continued to equate dementia praecox with hebephrenia for the next six years.In the March 1896 fifth edition of , Kraepelin expressed confidence that his clinical method, involving analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data derived from long term observation of patients, would produce reliable diagnoses including prognosis:In this edition dementia praecox is still essentially hebephrenia, and it, dementia paranoides and catatonia are described as distinct psychotic disorders among the \"metabolic disorders leading to dementia\"." ], [ "Kraepelin's influence on the next century", "Emil Kraepelin In the 1899 (6th) edition of , Kraepelin established a paradigm for psychiatry that would dominate the following century, sorting most of the recognized forms of insanity into two major categories: dementia praecox and manic-depressive illness.", "Dementia praecox was characterized by disordered intellectual functioning, whereas manic-depressive illness was principally a disorder of affect or mood; and the former featured constant deterioration, virtually no recoveries and a poor outcome, while the latter featured periods of exacerbation followed by periods of remission, and many complete recoveries.", "The class, dementia praecox, comprised the paranoid, catatonic and hebephrenic psychotic disorders, and these forms were found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders until the fifth edition was released, in May 2013.These terms, however, are still found in general psychiatric nomenclature.===Change in prognosis===In the seventh, 1904, edition of , Kraepelin accepted the possibility that a small number of patients may recover from dementia praecox.", "Eugen Bleuler reported in 1908 that in many cases there was no inevitable progressive decline, there was temporary remission in some cases, and there were even cases of near recovery with the retention of some residual defect.", "In the eighth edition of Kraepelin's textbook, published in four volumes between 1909 and 1915, he described eleven forms of dementia, and dementia praecox was classed as one of the \"endogenous dementias\".", "Modifying his previous more gloomy prognosis in line with Bleuler's observations, Kraepelin reported that about 26% of his patients experienced partial remission of symptoms.", "Kraepelin died while working on the ninth edition of with Johannes Lange (1891–1938), who finished it and brought it to publication in 1927.===Cause===Though his work and that of his research associates had revealed a role for heredity, Kraepelin realized nothing could be said with certainty about the aetiology of dementia praecox, and he left out speculation regarding brain disease or neuropathology in his diagnostic descriptions.", "Nevertheless, from the 1896 edition onwards Kraepelin made clear his belief that poisoning of the brain, \"auto-intoxication,\" probably by sex hormones, may underlie dementia praecox – a theory also entertained by Eugen Bleuler.", "Both theorists insisted dementia praecox is a biological disorder, not the product of psychological trauma.", "Thus, rather than a disease of hereditary degeneration or of structural brain pathology, Kraepelin believed dementia praecox was due to a systemic or \"whole body\" disease process, probably metabolic, which gradually affected many of the tissues and organs of the body before affecting the brain in a final, decisive cascade.", "Kraepelin, recognizing dementia praecox in Chinese, Japanese, Tamil and Malay patients, suggested in the eighth edition of that, \"we must therefore seek the real cause of dementia praecox in conditions which are spread all over the world, which thus do not lie in race or in climate, in food or in any other general circumstance of life...\"===Treatment===Kraepelin had experimented with hypnosis but found it wanting, and disapproved of Freud's and Jung's introduction, based on no evidence, of psychogenic assumptions to the interpretation and treatment of mental illness.", "He argued that, without knowing the underlying cause of dementia praecox or manic-depressive illness, there could be no disease-specific treatment, and recommended the use of long baths and the occasional use of drugs such as opiates and barbiturates for the amelioration of distress, as well as occupational activities, where suitable, for all institutionalized patients.", "Based on his theory that dementia praecox is the product of autointoxication emanating from the sex glands, Kraepelin experimented, without success, with injections of thyroid, gonad and other glandular extracts.===Use of term spreads===a famous contemporary political painting (Below).The political painting (\"People of Europe, defend your sacred treasures!", "\")Kraepelin noted the dissemination of his new disease concept when in 1899 he enumerated the term's appearance in almost twenty articles in the German-language medical press.", "In the early years of the twentieth century the twin pillars of the Kraepelinian dichotomy, dementia praecox and manic depressive psychosis, were assiduously adopted in clinical and research contexts among the Germanic psychiatric community.", "German-language psychiatric concepts were always introduced much faster in America (than, say, Britain) where émigré German, Swiss and Austrian physicians essentially created American psychiatry.", "Swiss-émigré Adolf Meyer (1866–1950), arguably the most influential psychiatrist in America for the first half of the 20th century, published the first critique of dementia praecox in an 1896 book review of the 5th edition of Kraepelin's textbook.", "But it was not until 1900 and 1901 that the first three American publications regarding dementia praecox appeared, one of which was a translation of a few sections of Kraepelin's 6th edition of 1899 on dementia praecox.Adolf Meyer was the first to apply the new diagnostic term in America.", "He used it at the Worcester Lunatic Hospital in Massachusetts in the fall of 1896.He was also the first to apply Eugen Bleuler's term \"schizophrenia\" (in the form of \"schizophrenic reaction\") in 1913 at the Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic of the Johns Hopkins Hospital.The dissemination of Kraepelin's disease concept to the Anglophone world was facilitated in 1902 when Ross Diefendorf, a lecturer in psychiatry at Yale, published an adapted version of the sixth edition of the .", "This was republished in 1904 and with a new version, based on the seventh edition of Kraepelin's appearing in 1907 and reissued in 1912.Both dementia praecox (in its three classic forms) and \"manic-depressive psychosis\" gained wider popularity in the larger institutions in the eastern United States after being included in the official nomenclature of diseases and conditions for record-keeping at Bellevue Hospital in New York City in 1903.The term lived on due to its promotion in the publications of the National Committee on Mental Hygiene (founded in 1909) and the Eugenics Records Office (1910).", "But perhaps the most important reason for the longevity of Kraepelin's term was its inclusion in 1918 as an official diagnostic category in the uniform system adopted for comparative statistical record-keeping in all American mental institutions, ''The Statistical Manual for the Use of Institutions for the Insane''.", "Its many revisions served as the official diagnostic classification scheme in America until 1952 when the first edition of the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual: Mental Disorders'', or DSM-I, appeared.", "Dementia praecox disappeared from official psychiatry with the publication of DSM-I, replaced by the Bleuler/Meyer hybridization, \"schizophrenic reaction\".Schizophrenia was mentioned as an alternate term for dementia praecox in the 1918 ''Statistical Manual''.", "In both clinical work as well as research, between 1918 and 1952 five different terms were used interchangeably: dementia praecox, schizophrenia, dementia praecox (schizophrenia), schizophrenia (dementia praecox) and schizophrenic reaction.", "This made the psychiatric literature of the time confusing since, in a strict sense, Kraepelin's disease was not Bleuler's disease.", "They were defined differently, had different population parameters, and different concepts of prognosis.The reception of dementia praecox as an accepted diagnosis in British psychiatry came more slowly, perhaps only taking hold around the time of World War I.", "There was substantial opposition to the use of the term \"dementia\" as misleading, partly due to findings of remission and recovery.", "Some argued that existing diagnoses such as \"delusional insanity\" or \"adolescent insanity\" were better or more clearly defined.", "In France a psychiatric tradition regarding the psychotic disorders predated Kraepelin, and the French never fully adopted Kraepelin's classification system.", "Instead the French maintained an independent classification system throughout the 20th century.", "From 1980, when DSM-III totally reshaped psychiatric diagnosis, French psychiatry began to finally alter its views of diagnosis to converge with the North American system.", "Kraepelin thus finally conquered France via America." ], [ "From dementia praecox to schizophrenia", "Due to the influence of alienists such as Adolf Meyer, August Hoch, George Kirby, Charles Macphie Campbell, Smith Ely Jelliffe and William Alanson White, psychogenic theories of dementia praecox dominated the American scene by 1911.In 1925 Bleuler's schizophrenia rose in prominence as an alternative to Kraepelin's dementia praecox.", "When Freudian perspectives became influential in American psychiatry in the 1920s schizophrenia became an attractive alternative concept.", "Bleuler corresponded with Freud and was connected to Freud's psychoanalytic movement, and the inclusion of Freudian interpretations of the symptoms of schizophrenia in his publications on the subject, as well as those of C.G.", "Jung, eased the adoption of his broader version of dementia praecox (schizophrenia) in America over Kraepelin's narrower and prognostically more negative one.The term \"schizophrenia\" was first applied by American alienists and neurologists in private practice by 1909 and officially in institutional settings in 1913, but it took many years to catch on.", "It is first mentioned in ''The New York Times'' in 1925.Until 1952 the terms dementia praecox and schizophrenia were used interchangeably in American psychiatry, with occasional use of the hybrid terms \"dementia praecox (schizophrenia)\" or \"schizophrenia (dementia praecox)\"." ], [ "Diagnostic manuals", "Editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders since the first in 1952 had reflected views of schizophrenia as \"reactions\" or \"psychogenic\" (DSM-I), or as manifesting Freudian notions of \"defense mechanisms\" (as in DSM-II of 1969 in which the symptoms of schizophrenia were interpreted as \"psychologically self-protected\").", "The diagnostic criteria were vague, minimal and wide, including either concepts that no longer exist or that are now labeled as personality disorders (for example, schizotypal personality disorder).", "There was also no mention of the dire prognosis Kraepelin had made.", "Schizophrenia seemed to be more prevalent and more psychogenic and more treatable than either Kraepelin or Bleuler would have allowed." ], [ "Conclusions", "As a direct result of the effort to construct Research Diagnostic Criteria in the 1970s that were independent of any clinical diagnostic manual, Kraepelin's idea that categories of mental disorder should reflect discrete and specific disease entities with a biological basis began to return to prominence.", "Vague dimensional approaches based on symptoms—so highly favored by the Meyerians and psychoanalysts—were overthrown.", "For research purposes, the definition of schizophrenia returned to the narrow range allowed by Kraepelin's dementia praecox concept.", "Furthermore, after 1980 the disorder was a progressively deteriorating one once again, with the notion that recovery, if it happened at all, was rare.", "This revision of schizophrenia became the basis of the diagnostic criteria in DSM-III (1980).", "Some of the psychiatrists who worked to bring about this revision referred to themselves as the \"neo-Kraepelinians\"." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Bibliography of scholarly histories on schizophrenia and dementia praecox, part 1 (2000 – mid 2007).", "* Burgmair, Wolfgang & Eric J. Engstrom & Matthias Weber, et al., eds.", "''Emil Kraepelin''.", "8 vols.", "Munich: Belleville, 2000–2013.", " Vol.", "VIII.", "Kraepelin in München, Teil III: 1921–1926 (2013), .", " Vol.", "VII: Kraepelin in München, Teil II: 1914–1926 (2008).", " Vol.", "VI: Kraepelin in München, Teil I: 1903–1914 (2006), Vol.", "V: Kraepelin in Heidelberg, 1891–1903 (2005), Vol.", "IV: Kraepelin in Dorpat, 1886–1891 (2003), Vol.", "III: Briefe I, 1868–1886 (2002), Vol.", "II: Kriminologische und forensische Schriften: Werke und Briefe (2001), Vol.", "I: Persönliches, Selbstzeugnisse (2000), * Engels, Huub (2006).", "''Emil Kraepelins Traumsprache'' 1908–1926.annotated edition of Kraepelin's dream speech in the mentioned period.", ".", "* Kraepelin, Emil.", "''Psychiatrie: Ein kurzes Lehrbuch fur Studirende und Aerzte.", "Vierte, vollständig umgearbeitete Auflage.''", "Leipzig: Abel Verlag, 1893.", "* Kraepelin, Emil.", "''Psychiatrie: Ein Lehrbuch fur Studirende und Aerzte.", "Fünfte, vollständig umgearbeitete Auflage.''", "Leipzig: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1896.", "* Kraepelin, Emil.", "''Psychiatrie: Ein Lehrbuch fur Studirende und Aerzte.", "Sechste, vollständig umgearbeitete Auflage.''", "Leipzig: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1899.", "* Pick, Arnold.", "Ueber primare chronische Demenz (so.", "Dementia praecox) im jugendlichen Alter.", "''Prager medicinische Wochenschrift'', 1891, 16: 312–315." ], [ "See also", "Daniel Paul Schreber, a famous case of dementia praecox." ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dolphin" ], [ "Introduction", "A common bottlenose dolphin (''Tursiops truncatus'')A '''dolphin''' is an aquatic mammal within the infraorder Cetacea.", "Dolphin species belong to the families Delphinidae (the oceanic dolphins), Platanistidae (the Indian river dolphins), Iniidae (the New World river dolphins), Pontoporiidae (the brackish dolphins), and possibly extinct Lipotidae (baiji or Chinese river dolphin).", "There are 40 extant species named as dolphins.Dolphins range in size from the and Maui's dolphin to the and orca.", "Various species of dolphins exhibit sexual dimorphism where the males are larger than females.", "They have streamlined bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers.", "Though not quite as flexible as seals, they are faster; some dolphins can briefly travel at speeds of or leap about .", "Dolphins use their conical teeth to capture fast-moving prey.", "They have well-developed hearing which is adapted for both air and water.", "It is so well developed that some can survive even if they are blind.", "Some species are well adapted for diving to great depths.", "They have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin to keep warm in the cold water.Dolphins are widespread.", "Most species prefer the warm waters of the tropic zones, but some, such as the right whale dolphin, prefer colder climates.", "Dolphins feed largely on fish and squid, but a few, such as the orca, feed on large mammals such as seals.", "Male dolphins typically mate with multiple females every year, but females only mate every two to three years.", "Calves are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear all the responsibility for raising them.", "Mothers of some species fast and nurse their young for a relatively long period of time.", "Dolphins produce a variety of vocalizations, usually in the form of clicks and whistles.Dolphins are sometimes hunted in places such as Japan, in an activity known as dolphin drive hunting.", "Besides drive hunting, they also face threats from bycatch, habitat loss, and marine pollution.", "Dolphins have been depicted in various cultures worldwide.", "Dolphins are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to perform tricks.", "The most common dolphin species in captivity is the bottlenose dolphin, while there are around 60 orcas in captivity." ], [ "Etymology", "The name is originally from Greek (''delphís''), \"dolphin\", which was related to the Greek (''delphus''), \"womb\".", "The animal's name can therefore be interpreted as meaning \"a 'fish' with a womb\".", "The name was transmitted via the Latin ''delphinus'' (the romanization of the later Greek δελφῖνος – ''delphinos''), which in Medieval Latin became and in Old French ''daulphin'', which reintroduced the ''ph'' into the word ''dolphin''.", "The term ''mereswine'' (\"sea pig\") has also historically been used.The term ''dolphin'' can be used to refer to most species in the family Delphinidae (oceanic dolphins) and the river dolphin families of Iniidae (South American river dolphins), Pontoporiidae (La Plata dolphin), Lipotidae (Yangtze river dolphin) and Platanistidae (Ganges river dolphin and Indus river dolphin).", "Meanwhile, the mahi-mahi fish is called the dolphinfish.", "In common usage, the term ''whale'' is used only for the larger cetacean species, while the smaller ones with a beaked or longer nose are considered dolphins.", "The name ''dolphin'' is used casually as a synonym for bottlenose dolphin, the most common and familiar species of dolphin.", "There are six species of dolphins commonly thought of as whales, collectively known as blackfish: the orca, the melon-headed whale, the pygmy killer whale, the false killer whale, and the two species of pilot whales, all of which are classified under the family Delphinidae and qualify as dolphins.", "Although the terms ''dolphin'' and ''porpoise'' are sometimes used interchangeably, ''porpoise'' usually refers to the Phocoenidae family, which have a shorter beak and spade-shaped teeth and differ in their behavior.A group of dolphins is called a ''school'' or a ''pod''.", "Male dolphins are called ''bulls'', females are called ''cows'' and young dolphins are called ''calves''." ], [ "Hybridization", "In 1933, three hybrid dolphins beached off the Irish coast; they were hybrids between Risso's and bottlenose dolphins.", "This mating was later repeated in captivity, producing a hybrid calf.", "In captivity, a bottlenose and a rough-toothed dolphin produced hybrid offspring.", "A common-bottlenose hybrid lives at SeaWorld California.", "Other dolphin hybrids live in captivity around the world or have been reported in the wild, such as a bottlenose-Atlantic spotted hybrid.", "The best known hybrid is the wholphin, a false killer whale-bottlenose dolphin hybrid.", "The wolphin is a fertile hybrid.", "Two wolphins currently live at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii; the first was born in 1985 from a male false killer whale and a female bottlenose.", "Wolphins have also been observed in the wild." ], [ "Evolution{{anchor\|Evolution and anatomy}}", "Dolphins display convergent evolution with fish and aquatic reptiles.Dolphins are descendants of land-dwelling mammals of the artiodactyl order (even-toed ungulates).", "They are related to the ''Indohyus'', an extinct chevrotain-like ungulate, from which they split approximately 48 million years ago.The primitive cetaceans, or archaeocetes, first took to the sea approximately 49 million years ago and became fully aquatic by 5–10 million years later.Archaeoceti is a parvorder comprising ancient whales.", "These ancient whales are the predecessors of modern whales, stretching back to their first ancestor that spent their lives near (rarely in) the water.", "Likewise, the archaeocetes can be anywhere from near fully terrestrial, to semi-aquatic to fully aquatic, but what defines an archaeocete is the presence of visible legs or asymmetrical teeth.", "Their features became adapted for living in the marine environment.", "Major anatomical changes include the hearing set-up that channeled vibrations from the jaw to the earbone which occurred with ''Ambulocetus'' 49 million years ago, a streamlining of the body and the growth of flukes on the tail which occurred around 43 million years ago with ''Protocetus'', the migration of the nasal openings toward the top of the cranium and the modification of the forelimbs into flippers which occurred with ''Basilosaurus'' 35 million years ago, and the shrinking and eventual disappearance of the hind limbs which took place with the first odontocetes and mysticetes 34 million years ago.", "The modern dolphin skeleton has two small, rod-shaped pelvic bones thought to be vestigial hind limbs.", "In October 2006, an unusual bottlenose dolphin was captured in Japan; it had small fins on each side of its genital slit, which scientists believe to be an unusually pronounced development of these vestigial hind limbs.Today, the closest living relatives of cetaceans are the hippopotamuses; these share a semi-aquatic ancestor that branched off from other artiodactyls some 60 million years ago.", "Around 40 million years ago, a common ancestor between the two branched off into cetacea and anthracotheres; anthracotheres became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene two-and-a-half million years ago, eventually leaving only one surviving lineage: the two species of hippo." ], [ "Anatomy", "The anatomy of a dolphin showing its skeleton, major organs, tail and body shape.Dolphins have torpedo-shaped bodies with generally non-flexible necks, limbs modified into flippers, a tail fin, and bulbous heads.", "Dolphin skulls have small eye orbits, long snouts, and eyes placed on the sides of its head; they lack external ear flaps.", "Dolphins range in size from the long and Maui's dolphin to the and orca.", "Overall, they tend to be dwarfed by other Cetartiodactyls.", "Several species have female-biased sexual dimorphism, with the females being larger than the males.Dolphins have conical teeth, as opposed to porpoises' spade-shaped teeth.", "These conical teeth are used to catch swift prey such as fish, squid or large mammals, such as seals.Breathing involves expelling stale air from their blowhole, in an upward blast, which may be visible in cold air, followed by inhaling fresh air into the lungs.", "Dolphins have rather small, unidentifiable spouts.All dolphins have a thick layer of blubber, thickness varying on climate.", "This blubber can help with buoyancy, protection to some extent as predators would have a hard time getting through a thick layer of fat, and energy for leaner times; the primary usage for blubber is insulation from the harsh climate.", "Calves, generally, are born with a thin layer of blubber, which develops at different paces depending on the habitat.Dolphins have a two-chambered stomach that is similar in structure to terrestrial carnivores.", "They have fundic and pyloric chambers.Dolphins' reproductive organs are located inside the body, with genital slits on the ventral (belly) side.", "Males have two slits, one concealing the penis and one further behind for the anus.", "Females have one genital slit, housing the vagina and the anus, with a mammary slit on either side.=== Integumentary system ===The integumentary system is an organ system mostly consisted of skin, hair, nails and endocrine glands.", "The skin of dolphins is very important as it is specialized to satisfy specific requirements.", "Some of these requirements include protection, fat storage, heat regulation, and sensory perception.", "The skin of a dolphin is made up of two parts: the epidermis and the blubber, which consists of two layers including the dermis and subcutis.The dolphin's skin is known to have a smooth rubber texture and is without hair and glands, except mammary glands.", "At birth, a newborn dolphin has hairs lined up in a single band on both sides of the rostrum, which is their jaw, and usually has a total length of 16–17 cm .Dolphins are a part of the species Cetacea.", "The epidermis of this species is characterized by the lack of keratin and by a prominent intertwine of epidermal rete pegs and long dermal papillae.", "The epidermal rete pegs are the epithelial extensions that project into the underlying connective tissue in both skin and mucous membranes.", "The dermal papillae are finger-like projections that help adhesion between the epidermal and dermal layers, as well as providing a larger surface area to nourish the epidermal layer.", "The thickness of a dolphin's epidermis varies, depending on species and age.==== Blubber ====Blubber is found within the dermis and subcutis layer.", "The dermis blends gradually with the adipose layer, which is known as fat, because the fat may extend up to the epidermis border and collagen fiber bundles extend throughout the whole subcutaneous blubber which is fat found under the skin.", "The thickness of the subcutaneous blubber or fat depends on the dolphin's health, development, location, reproductive state, and how well it feeds.", "This fat is thickest on the dolphin's back and belly.", "Most of the dolphin's body fat is accumulated in a thick layer of blubber.", "Blubber differs from fat in that, in addition to fat cells, it contains a fibrous network of connective tissue.The blubber functions to streamline the body and to form specialized locomotor structures such as the dorsal fin, propulsive fluke blades and caudal keels.", "There are many nerve endings that resemble small, onion-like configurations that are present in the superficial portion of the dermis.", "Mechanoreceptors are found within the interlocks of the epidermis with dermal ridges.", "There are nerve fibers in the dermis that extend to the epidermis.", "These nerve endings are known to be highly proprioceptive, which explains sensory perception.", "Proprioception, which is also known as kinesthesia, is the body's ability to sense its location, movements and actions.", "Dolphins are sensitive to vibrations and small pressure changes.Blood vessels and nerve endings can be found within the dermis.", "There is a plexus of parallel running arteries and veins in the dorsal fin, fluke, and flippers.", "The blubber manipulates the blood vessels to help the dolphin stay warm.", "When the temperature drops, the blubber constricts the blood vessels to reduce blood flow in the dolphin.", "This allows the dolphin to spend less energy heating its own body, ultimately keeping the animal warmer without burning energy as quick.", "In order to release heat, the heat must pass the blubber layer.", "There are thermal windows that lack blubber, are not fully insulated and are somewhat thin and highly vascularized, including the dorsal fin, flukes, and flippers.", "These thermal windows are a good way for dolphins to get rid of excess heat if overheating.", "Additionally in order to conserve heat, dolphins use countercurrent heat exchange.", "Blood flows in different directions in order for heat to transfer across membranes.", "Heat from warm blood leaving the heart will heat up the cold blood that is headed back to the heart from the extremities, meaning that the heart always has warm blood and it decreases the heat lost to the water in those thermal windows.===Locomotion===Dolphins have two pectoral flippers, containing four digits, a boneless dorsal fin for stability, and a tail fin for propulsion.", "Although dolphins do not possess external hind limbs, some possess discrete rudimentary appendages, which may contain feet and digits.", "Dolphins are fast swimmers in comparison to seals which typically cruise at ; the orca, in comparison, can travel at speeds up to .", "The fusing of the neck vertebrae, while increasing stability when swimming at high speeds, decreases flexibility, which means they are unable to turn their heads.", "River dolphins have non-fused neck vertebrae and can turn their heads up to 90°.", "Dolphins swim by moving their tail fin and rear body vertically, while their flippers are mainly used for steering.", "Some species log out of the water, which may allow them to travel faster.", "Their skeletal anatomy allows them to be fast swimmers.", "All species have a dorsal fin to prevent themselves from involuntarily spinning in the water.Some dolphins are adapted for diving to great depths.", "In addition to their streamlined bodies, some can selectively slow their heart rate to conserve oxygen.", "Some can also re-route blood from tissue tolerant of water pressure to the heart, brain and other organs.", "Their hemoglobin and myoglobin store oxygen in body tissues, and they have twice as much myoglobin as hemoglobin.===Senses===Biosonar by cetaceans.Diagram illustrating sound generation, propagation, and reception in a toothed whale.", "Outgoing sounds are in cyan and incoming ones are in greenA dolphin ear has specific adaptations to the marine environment.", "In humans, the middle ear works as an impedance equalizer between the outside air's low impedance and the cochlear fluid's high impedance.", "In dolphins, and other marine mammals, there is no great difference between the outer and inner environments.", "Instead of sound passing through the outer ear to the middle ear, dolphins receive sound through the throat, from which it passes through a low-impedance fat-filled cavity to the inner ear.", "The ear is acoustically isolated from the skull by air-filled sinus pockets, which allow for greater directional hearing underwater.", "Dolphins send out high frequency clicks from an organ known as a melon.", "This melon consists of fat, and the skull of any such creature containing a melon will have a large depression.", "This allows dolphins to use echolocation for orientation.", "Though most dolphins do not have hair, they do have hair follicles that may perform some sensory function.", "Beyond locating an object, echolocation also provides the animal with an idea on an object's shape and size, though how exactly this works is not yet understood.", "The small hairs on the rostrum of the boto (river dolphins of South America) are believed to function as a tactile sense, possibly to compensate for the boto's poor eyesight.A dolphin eye is relatively small for its size, yet they do retain a good degree of eyesight.", "As well as this, the eyes of a dolphin are placed on the sides of its head, so their vision consists of two fields, rather than a binocular view like humans have.", "When dolphins surface, their lens and cornea correct the nearsightedness that results from the water's refraction of light.", "Their eyes contain both rod and cone cells, meaning they can see in both dim and bright light, but they have far more rod cells than they do cone cells.", "They lack short wavelength sensitive visual pigments in their cone cells, indicating a more limited capacity for color vision than most mammals.", "Most dolphins have slightly flattened eyeballs, enlarged pupils (which shrink as they surface to prevent damage), slightly flattened corneas and a ''tapetum lucidum'' (eye tissue behind the retina); these adaptations allow for large amounts of light to pass through the eye and, therefore, a very clear image of the surrounding area.", "They also have glands on the eyelids and outer corneal layer that act as protection for the cornea.The olfactory lobes and nerve are absent in dolphins, suggesting that they have no sense of smell.Dolphins are not thought to have a good sense of taste, as their taste buds are atrophied or missing altogether.", "Some have preferences for different kinds of fish, indicating some ability to taste." ], [ "Intelligence", "The face of a common bottlenose dolphinDolphins are known to teach, learn, cooperate, scheme, and grieve.", "The neocortex of many species is home to elongated spindle neurons that, prior to 2007, were known only in hominids.", "In humans, these cells are involved in social conduct, emotions, judgment, and theory of mind.", "Cetacean spindle neurons are found in areas of the brain that are analogous to where they are found in humans, suggesting that they perform a similar function.Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal.", "Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks.", "Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately the ⅔ or ¾ exponent of the body mass.", "Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalization quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence.", "Orcas have the second largest brain mass of any animal on earth, next to the sperm whale.", "The brain to body mass ratio in some is second only to humans.Self-awareness is seen, by some, to be a sign of highly developed, abstract thinking.", "Self-awareness, though not well-defined scientifically, is believed to be the precursor to more advanced processes like meta-cognitive reasoning (thinking about thinking) that are typical of humans.", "Research in this field has suggested that cetaceans, among others, possess self-awareness.The most widely used test for self-awareness in animals is the mirror test in which a mirror is introduced to an animal, and the animal is then marked with a temporary dye.", "If the animal then goes to the mirror in order to view the mark, it has exhibited strong evidence of self-awareness.Some disagree with these findings, arguing that the results of these tests are open to human interpretation and susceptible to the Clever Hans effect.", "This test is much less definitive than when used for primates, because primates can touch the mark or the mirror, while cetaceans cannot, making their alleged self-recognition behavior less certain.", "Skeptics argue that behaviors that are said to identify self-awareness resemble existing social behaviors, and so researchers could be misinterpreting self-awareness for social responses to another individual.", "The researchers counter-argue that the behaviors shown are evidence of self-awareness, as they are very different from normal responses to another individual.", "Whereas apes can merely touch the mark on themselves with their fingers, cetaceans show less definitive behavior of self-awareness; they can only twist and turn themselves to observe the mark.In 1995, Marten and Psarakos used television to test dolphin self-awareness.", "They showed dolphins real-time video of themselves, video of another dolphin and recorded footage.", "They concluded that their evidence suggested self-awareness rather than social behavior.", "While this particular study has not been repeated since then, dolphins have since passed the mirror test.", "Some researchers have argued that evidence for self-awareness has not been convincingly demonstrated." ], [ "Behavior", "A pod of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins in the Red Sea===Socialization===Dolphins surfing at Snapper Rocks, Queensland, AustraliaDolphins are highly social animals, often living in pods of up to a dozen individuals, though pod sizes and structures vary greatly between species and locations.", "In places with a high abundance of food, pods can merge temporarily, forming a ''superpod''; such groupings may exceed 1,000 dolphins.", "Membership in pods is not rigid; interchange is common.", "They establish strong social bonds, and will stay with injured or ill members, helping them to breathe by bringing them to the surface if needed.", "This altruism does not appear to be limited to their own species.", "The dolphin ''Moko'' in New Zealand has been observed guiding a female pygmy sperm whale together with her calf out of shallow water where they had stranded several times.", "They have also been seen protecting swimmers from sharks by swimming circles around the swimmers or charging the sharks to make them go away.Dolphins communicate using a variety of clicks, whistle-like sounds and other vocalizations.", "Dolphins also use nonverbal communication by means of touch and posturing.Dolphins also display culture, something long believed to be unique to humans (and possibly other primate species).", "In May 2005, a discovery in Australia found Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (''Tursiops aduncus'') teaching their young to use tools.", "They cover their snouts with sponges to protect them while foraging.", "This knowledge is mostly transferred by mothers to daughters, unlike simian primates, where knowledge is generally passed on to both sexes.", "Using sponges as mouth protection is a learned behavior.", "Another learned behavior was discovered among river dolphins in Brazil, where some male dolphins use weeds and sticks as part of a sexual display.Forms of care-giving between fellows and even for members of different species(see Moko (dolphin)) are recorded in various species – such as trying to save weakened fellows or female pilot whales holding up dead calves for long periods.Dolphins engage in acts of aggression towards each other.", "The older a male dolphin is, the more likely his body is to be covered with bite scars.", "Male dolphins can get into disputes over companions and females.", "Acts of aggression can become so intense that targeted dolphins sometimes go into exile after losing a fight.Male bottlenose dolphins have been known to engage in infanticide.", "Dolphins have also been known to kill porpoises (porpicide) for reasons which are not fully understood, as porpoises generally do not share the same diet as dolphins and are therefore not competitors for food supplies.", "The Cornwall Wildlife Trust records about one such death a year.", "Possible explanations include misdirected infanticide, misdirected sexual aggression or play behaviour.===Reproduction and sexuality===A skin-skeletal preparation.Dolphin copulation happens belly to belly; though many species engage in lengthy foreplay, the actual act is usually brief, but may be repeated several times within a short timespan.", "The gestation period varies with species; for the small tucuxi dolphin, this period is around 11 to 12 months, while for the orca, the gestation period is around 17 months.", "Typically dolphins give birth to a single calf, which is, unlike most other mammals, born tail first in most cases.", "They usually become sexually active at a young age, even before reaching sexual maturity.", "The age of sexual maturity varies by species and sex.Dolphins are known to display non-reproductive sexual behavior, engaging in masturbation, stimulation of the genital area of other individuals using the rostrum or flippers, and homosexual contact.Various species of dolphin have been known to engage in sexual behavior including copulation with dolphins of other species, and occasionally exhibit sexual behavior towards other animals, including humans.", "Sexual encounters may be violent, with male bottlenose dolphins sometimes showing aggressive behavior towards both females and other males.", "Male dolphins may also work together and attempt to herd females in estrus, keeping the females by their side by means of both physical aggression and intimidation, to increase their chances of reproductive success.===Sleeping===Sleeping dolphin in captivity: a tail kick reflex keeps the dolphin's blowhole above the water.Generally, dolphins sleep with only one brain hemisphere in slow-wave sleep at a time, thus maintaining enough consciousness to breathe and to watch for possible predators and other threats.", "Sleep stages earlier in sleep can occur simultaneously in both hemispheres.In captivity, dolphins seemingly enter a fully asleep state where both eyes are closed and there is no response to mild external stimuli.", "In this case, respiration is automatic; a tail kick reflex keeps the blowhole above the water if necessary.", "Anesthetized dolphins initially show a tail kick reflex.", "Though a similar state has been observed with wild sperm whales, it is not known if dolphins in the wild reach this state.", "The Indus river dolphin has a sleep method that is different from that of other dolphin species.", "Living in water with strong currents and potentially dangerous floating debris, it must swim continuously to avoid injury.", "As a result, this species sleeps in very short bursts which last between 4 and 60 seconds.===Feeding===There are various feeding methods among and within species, some apparently exclusive to a single population.", "Fish and squid are the main food, but the false killer whale and the orca also feed on other marine mammals.", "Orcas on occasion also hunt whale species larger than themselves.", "Different breeds of dolphins vary widely in the number of teeth they possess.", "The orca usually carries 40–56 teeth while the popular bottlenose dolphin has anywhere from 72 to 116 conical teeth and its smaller cousin the common dolphin has 188–268 teeth: the number of teeth that an individual carries varies widely between within a single species.", "Hybrids between common and bottlenose bred in captivity had a number of teeth intermediate between that of their parents.One common feeding method is herding, where a pod squeezes a school of fish into a small volume, known as a bait ball.", "Individual members then take turns plowing through the ball, feeding on the stunned fish.", "Corralling is a method where dolphins chase fish into shallow water to catch them more easily.", "Orcas and bottlenose dolphins have also been known to drive their prey onto a beach to feed on it, a behaviour known as beach or strand feeding.", "Some species also whack fish with their flukes, stunning them and sometimes knocking them out of the water.Reports of cooperative human-dolphin fishing date back to the ancient Roman author and natural philosopher Pliny the Elder.", "A modern human-dolphin partnership currently operates in Laguna, Santa Catarina, Brazil.", "Here, dolphins drive fish towards fishermen waiting along the shore and signal the men to cast their nets.", "The dolphins' reward is the fish that escape the nets.In Shark Bay, Australia, dolphins catch fish by trapping them in huge conch shells.", "In \"shelling\", a dolphin brings the shell to the surface and shakes it, so that fish sheltering within fall into the dolphin's mouth.", "From 2007 to 2018, in 5,278 encounters with dolphins, researchers observed 19 dolphins shelling 42 times.", "The behavior spreads mainly within generations, rather than being passed from mother to offspring.===Vocalization===Spectrogram of dolphin vocalizations.", "Whistles, whines, and clicks are visible as upside down V's, horizontal striations, and vertical lines, respectively.Dolphins are capable of making a broad range of sounds using nasal airsacs located just below the blowhole.", "Roughly three categories of sounds can be identified: frequency modulated whistles, burst-pulsed sounds, and clicks.", "Dolphins communicate with whistle-like sounds produced by vibrating connective tissue, similar to the way human vocal cords function, and through burst-pulsed sounds, though the nature and extent of that ability is not known.", "The clicks are directional and are for echolocation, often occurring in a short series called a click train.", "The click rate increases when approaching an object of interest.", "Dolphin echolocation clicks are amongst the loudest sounds made by marine animals.Bottlenose dolphins have been found to have signature whistles, a whistle that is unique to a specific individual.", "These whistles are used in order for dolphins to communicate with one another by identifying an individual.", "It can be seen as the dolphin equivalent of a name for humans.", "These signature whistles are developed during a dolphin's first year; it continues to maintain the same sound throughout its lifetime.", "In order to obtain each individual whistle sound, dolphins undergo vocal production learning.", "This consists of an experience with other dolphins that modifies the signal structure of an existing whistle sound.", "An auditory experience influences the whistle development of each dolphin.", "Dolphins are able to communicate to one another by addressing another dolphin through mimicking their whistle.", "The signature whistle of a male bottlenose dolphin tends to be similar to that of his mother, while the signature whistle of a female bottlenose dolphin tends to be more distinguishing.", "Bottlenose dolphins have a strong memory when it comes to these signature whistles, as they are able to relate to a signature whistle of an individual they have not encountered for over twenty years.", "Research done on signature whistle usage by other dolphin species is relatively limited.", "The research on other species done so far has yielded varied outcomes and inconclusive results.Because dolphins are generally associated in groups, communication is necessary.", "Signal masking is when other similar sounds (conspecific sounds) interfere with the original acoustic sound.", "In larger groups, individual whistle sounds are less prominent.", "Dolphins tend to travel in pods, upon which there are groups of dolphins that range from a few to many.", "Although they are traveling in these pods, the dolphins do not necessarily swim right next to each other.", "Rather, they swim within the same general vicinity.", "In order to prevent losing one of their pod members, there are higher whistle rates.", "Because their group members were spread out, this was done in order to continue traveling together.===Jumping and playing===Pacific white-sided dolphins porpoising.Dolphins frequently leap above the water surface, this being done for various reasons.", "When travelling, jumping can save the dolphin energy as there is less friction while in the air.", "This type of travel is known as porpoising.", "Other reasons include orientation, social displays, fighting, non-verbal communication, entertainment and attempting to dislodge parasites.Dolphins show various types of playful behavior, often including objects, self-made bubble rings, other dolphins or other animals.", "When playing with objects or small animals, common behavior includes carrying the object or animal along using various parts of the body, passing it along to other members of the group or taking it from another member, or throwing it out of the water.", "Dolphins have also been observed harassing animals in other ways, for example by dragging birds underwater without showing any intent to eat them.", "Playful behaviour that involves another animal species with active participation of the other animal has also been observed.", "Playful dolphin interactions with humans are the most obvious examples, followed by those with humpback whales and dogs.Juvenile dolphins off the coast of Western Australia have been observed chasing, capturing, and chewing on blowfish.", "While some reports state that the dolphins are becoming intoxicated on the tetrodotoxin in the fishes' skin, other reports have characterized this behavior as the normal curiosity and exploration of their environment in which dolphins engage.===Tail-walking===Although this behaviour is highly unusual in wild dolphins, several Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (''Tursiops aduncus'') of the Port River, north of Adelaide, South Australia, have been seen to have exhibit \"tail-walking\".", "This activity mimicks a standing posture, using the tail to run backwards along the water.", "To perform this movement, the dolphin \"forces the majority of its body vertically out of the water and maintains the position by vigorously pumping its tail\".This started in 1988 when a female named Billie was rescued after becoming trapped in a polluted marina, and spent two weeks recuperating with captive dolphins.", "Billie had previously been observed swimming and frolicking with racehorses exercising in the Port River in the 1980s.", "After becoming trapped in a reedy estuary further down the coast, she was rescued and placed with several captive dolphins at a marine park to recuperate.", "There she observed the captive dolphins performing tail-walking.", "After being returned to the Port River, she continued to perform this trick, and another dolphin, Wave, copied her.", "Wave, a very active tail-walker, passed on the skill to her daughters, Ripple and Tallula.After Billie's premature death, Wave started tail-walking much more frequently, and other dolphins in the group were observed also performing the behaviour.", "In 2011, up to 12 dolphins were observed tail-walking, but only females appeared to learn the skill.", "In October 2021, a dolphin was observed tail-walking over a number of hours.Scientists have found the spread of this behaviour, through up to two generations, surprising, as it brings no apparent advantage, and is very energy-consuming.", "A 2018 study by Mike Rossley et al.", "suggested:" ], [ "Threats", "dorsal fin of a bottlenose dolphin caused by lobomycosis, a fungal infection of the skin.Dolphins have few marine enemies.", "Some species or specific populations have none, making them apex predators.", "For most of the smaller species of dolphins, only a few of the larger sharks, such as the bull shark, dusky shark, tiger shark and great white shark, are a potential risk, especially for calves.", "Some of the larger dolphin species, especially orcas, may also prey on smaller dolphins, but this seems rare.", "Dolphins also suffer from a wide variety of diseases and parasites.", "The Cetacean morbillivirus in particular has been known to cause regional epizootics often leaving hundreds of animals of various species dead.", "Symptoms of infection are often a severe combination of pneumonia, encephalitis and damage to the immune system, which greatly impair the cetacean's ability to swim and stay afloat unassisted.", "A study at the U.S. National Marine Mammal Foundation revealed that dolphins, like humans, develop a natural form of type 2 diabetes which may lead to a better understanding of the disease and new treatments for both humans and dolphins.Dolphins can tolerate and recover from extreme injuries such as shark bites although the exact methods used to achieve this are not known.", "The healing process is rapid and even very deep wounds do not cause dolphins to hemorrhage to death.", "Furthermore, even gaping wounds restore in such a way that the animal's body shape is restored, and infection of such large wounds seems rare.A study published in the journal ''Marine Mammal Science'' suggests that at least some dolphins survive shark attacks using everything from sophisticated combat moves to teaming up against the shark.===Humans===Dead Atlantic white-sided dolphins in Hvalba on the Faroe Islands, killed in a drive hunt.\|alt=Rows of dead dolphin lying on concreteSome dolphin species are at risk of extinction, especially some river dolphin species such as the Amazon river dolphin, and the Ganges and Yangtze river dolphin, which are critically or seriously endangered.", "A 2006 survey found no individuals of the Yangtze river dolphin.", "The species now appears to be functionally extinct.Pesticides, heavy metals, plastics, and other industrial and agricultural pollutants that do not disintegrate rapidly in the environment concentrate in predators such as dolphins.", "Injuries or deaths due to collisions with boats, especially their propellers, are also common.Various fishing methods, most notably purse seine fishing for tuna and the use of drift and gill nets, unintentionally kill many dolphins.", "Accidental by-catch in gill nets and incidental captures in antipredator nets that protect marine fish farms are common and pose a risk for mainly local dolphin populations.", "In some parts of the world, such as Taiji in Japan and the Faroe Islands, dolphins are traditionally considered food and are killed in harpoon or drive hunts.", "Dolphin meat is high in mercury and may thus pose a health danger to humans when consumed.Queensland's shark culling program, which has killed roughly 50,000 sharks since 1962, has also killed thousands of dolphins as bycatch.", "\"Shark control\" programs in both Queensland and New South Wales use shark nets and drum lines, which entangle and kill dolphins.", "Queensland's \"shark control\" program has killed more than 1,000 dolphins in recent years, and at least 32 dolphins have been killed in Queensland since 2014.A shark culling program in KwaZulu-Natal has killed at least 2,310 dolphins.Dolphin safe labels attempt to reassure consumers that fish and other marine products have been caught in a dolphin-friendly way.", "The earliest campaigns with \"dolphin safe\" labels were initiated in the 1980s as a result of cooperation between marine activists and the major tuna companies, and involved decreasing incidental dolphin kills by up to 50% by changing the type of nets used to catch tuna.", "The dolphins are netted only while fishermen are in pursuit of smaller tuna.", "Albacore are not netted this way, making albacore the only truly dolphin-safe tuna.Loud underwater noises, such as those resulting from naval sonar use, live firing exercises, and certain offshore construction projects such as wind farms, may be harmful to dolphins, increasing stress, damaging hearing, and causing decompression sickness by forcing them to surface too quickly to escape the noise.Dolphins and other smaller cetaceans are also hunted in an activity known as dolphin drive hunting.", "This is accomplished by driving a pod together with boats and usually into a bay or onto a beach.", "Their escape is prevented by closing off the route to the ocean with other boats or nets.", "Dolphins are hunted this way in several places around the world, including the Solomon Islands, the Faroe Islands, Peru, and Japan, the most well-known practitioner of this method.", "By numbers, dolphins are mostly hunted for their meat, though some end up in dolphinariums.", "Despite the controversial nature of the hunt resulting in international criticism, and the possible health risk that the often polluted meat causes, thousands of dolphins are caught in drive hunts each year.=== Impacts of climate change ===Dolphins are marine mammals with broad geographic extent, making them susceptible to climate change in various ways.", "The most common effect of climate change on dolphins is the increasing water temperatures across the globe.", "This has caused a large variety of dolphin species to experience range shifts, in which the species move from their typical geographic region to cooler waters.", "Another side effect of increasing water temperatures is the increase in harmful algae blooms, which has caused a mass die-off of bottlenose dolphins.In California, the 1982–83 El Niño warming event caused the near-bottom spawning market squid to leave southern California, which caused their predator, the pilot whale, to also leave.", "As the market squid returned six years later, Risso's dolphins came to feed on the squid.", "Bottlenose dolphins expanded their range from southern to central California, and stayed even after the warming event subsided.", "The Pacific white-sided dolphin has had a decline in population in the southwest Gulf of California, the southern boundary of their distribution.", "In the 1980s they were abundant with group sizes up to 200 across the entire cool season.", "Then, in the 2000s, only two groups were recorded with sizes of 20 and 30, and only across the central cool season.", "This decline was not related to a decline of other marine mammals or prey, so it was concluded to have been caused by climate change as it occurred during a period of warming.", "Additionally, the Pacific white-sided dolphin had an increase in occurrence on the west coast of Canada from 1984 to 1998.In the Mediterranean, sea surface temperatures have increased, as well as salinity, upwelling intensity, and sea levels.", "Because of this, prey resources have been reduced causing a steep decline in the short-beaked common dolphin Mediterranean subpopulation, which was deemed endangered in 2003.This species now only exists in the Alboran Sea, due to its high productivity, distinct ecosystem, and differing conditions from the rest of the Mediterranean.In northwest Europe, many dolphin species have experienced range shifts from the region's typically colder waters.", "Warm water dolphins, like the short-beaked common dolphin and striped dolphin, have expanded north of western Britain and into the northern North Sea, even in the winter, which may displace the white-beaked and Atlantic white-sided dolphin that are in that region.", "The white-beaked dolphin has shown an increase in the southern North Sea since the 1960s because of this.", "The rough-toothed dolphin and Atlantic spotted dolphin may move to northwest Europe.", "In northwest Scotland, white-beaked dolphins (local to the colder waters of the North Atlantic) have decreased while common dolphins (local to warmer waters) have increased from 1992 to 2003.Additionally, Fraser's dolphin, found in tropical waters, was recorded in the UK for the first time in 1996.River dolphins are highly affected by climate change as high evaporation rates, increased water temperatures, decreased precipitation, and increased acidification occur.", "River dolphins typically have a higher densities when rivers have a lox index of freshwater degradation and better water quality.", "Specifically looking at the Ganges river dolphin, the high evaporation rates and increased flooding on the plains may lead to more human river regulation, decreasing the dolphin population.As warmer waters lead to a decrease in dolphin prey, this led to other causes of dolphin population decrease.", "In the case of bottlenose dolphins, mullet populations decrease due to increasing water temperatures, which leads to a decrease in the dolphins' health and thus their population.", "At the Shark Bay World Heritage Area in Western Australia, the local Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin population had a significant decline after a marine heatwave in 2011.This heatwave caused a decrease in prey, which led to a decline in dolphin reproductive rates as female dolphins could not get enough nutrients to sustain a calf.", "The resultant decrease in fish population due to warming waters has also influenced humans to see dolphins as fishing competitors or even bait.", "Humans use dusky dolphins as bait or are killed off because they consume the same fish humans eat and sell for profit.", "In the central Brazilian Amazon alone, approximately 600 pink river dolphins are killed each year to be used as bait." ], [ "Relationships with humans", "===In history and religion===Fresco of dolphins, c. 1600 BC, from Knossos, CreteTarentum c. 290 BC showing Phalanthos riding a dolphin on one side and a rider with a shield decorated with a dolphin on the other sideVessel in form of orca, Nazca culture, circa 200 AD.", "American Museum of Natural History collections.Dolphins have long played a role in human culture.In Greek myths, dolphins were seen invariably as helpers of humankind.", "Dolphins also seem to have been important to the Minoans, judging by artistic evidence from the ruined palace at Knossos.", "During the 2009 excavations of a major Mycenaean city at Iklaina, a striking fragment of a wall-paintings came to light, depicting a ship with three human figures and dolphins.", "Dolphins are common in Greek mythology, and many coins from ancient Greece have been found which feature a man, a boy or a deity riding on the back of a dolphin.", "The Ancient Greeks welcomed dolphins; spotting dolphins riding in a ship's wake was considered a good omen.", "In both ancient and later art, Cupid is often shown riding a dolphin.", "A dolphin rescued the poet Arion from drowning and carried him safe to land, at Cape Matapan, a promontory forming the southernmost point of the Peloponnesus.", "There was a temple to Poseidon and a statue of Arion riding the dolphin.The Greeks reimagined the Phoenician god Melqart as Melikertês (Melicertes) and made him the son of Athamas and Ino.", "He drowned but was transfigured as the marine deity Palaemon, while his mother became Leucothea.", "(''cf'' Ino.)", "At Corinth, he was so closely connected with the cult of Poseidon that the Isthmian Games, originally instituted in Poseidon's honor, came to be looked upon as the funeral games of Melicertes.", "Phalanthus was another legendary character brought safely to shore (in Italy) on the back of a dolphin, according to Pausanias.Dionysus was once captured by Etruscan pirates who mistook him for a wealthy prince they could ransom.", "After the ship set sail Dionysus invoked his divine powers, causing vines to overgrow the ship where the mast and sails had been.", "He turned the oars into serpents, so terrifying the sailors that they jumped overboard, but Dionysus took pity on them and transformed them into dolphins so that they would spend their lives providing help for those in need.", "Dolphins were also the messengers of Poseidon and sometimes did errands for him as well.", "Dolphins were sacred to both Aphrodite and Apollo.", "\"Dolfin\" was the name of an aristocratic family in the maritime Republic of Venice, whose most prominent member was the 13th-century Doge Giovanni Dolfin.In Hindu mythology the Ganges river dolphin is associated with Ganga, the deity of the Ganges river.", "The dolphin is said to be among the creatures which heralded the goddess' descent from the heavens and her mount, the Makara, is sometimes depicted as a dolphin.The Boto, a species of river dolphin that resides in the Amazon River, are believed to be shapeshifters, or ''encantados'', who are capable of having children with human women.There are comparatively few surviving myths of dolphins in Polynesian cultures, in spite of their maritime traditions and reverence of other marine animals such as sharks and seabirds; unlike these, they are more often perceived as food than as totemic symbols.", "Dolphins are most clearly represented in Rapa Nui Rongorongo, and in the traditions of the Caroline Islands they are depicted similarly to the Boto, being sexually active shapeshifters.====Heraldry====Coat of arms of the Dauphiné, France, featuring a stylised heraldic dolphinDolphins are also used as symbols, for instance in heraldry.", "When heraldry developed in the Middle Ages, little was known about the biology of the dolphin and it was often depicted as a sort of fish.", "The stylised heraldic dolphin still conventionally follows this tradition, sometimes showing the dolphin skin covered with fish scales.A well-known historical example was the coat of arms of the former province of the Dauphiné in southern France, from which were derived the arms and the title of the Dauphin of France, the heir to the former throne of France (the title literally meaning \"The Dolphin of France\").Dolphins are present in the coat of arms of Anguilla and the coat of arms of Romania, and the coat of arms of Barbados has a dolphin supporter.The coat of arms of the town of Poole, Dorset, England, first recorded in 1563, includes a dolphin, which was historically depicted in stylised heraldic form, but which since 1976 has been depicted naturalistically.===In captivity=======Species====SeaWorld show featuring bottlenose dolphins and pilot whales.The renewed popularity of dolphins in the 1960s resulted in the appearance of many dolphinaria around the world, making dolphins accessible to the public.", "Criticism and animal welfare laws forced many to close, although hundreds still exist around the world.", "In the United States, the best known are the SeaWorld marine mammal parks.In the Middle East the best known are Dolphin Bay at Atlantis, The Palm and the Dubai Dolphinarium.SeaWorld San Diego pilot whale with trainers.Various species of dolphins are kept in captivity.", "These small cetaceans are more often than not kept in theme parks, such as SeaWorld, commonly known as a dolphinarium.", "Bottlenose dolphins are the most common species of dolphin kept in dolphinariums as they are relatively easy to train, have a long lifespan in captivity and have a friendly appearance.", "Hundreds if not thousands of bottlenose dolphins live in captivity across the world, though exact numbers are hard to determine.", "Other species kept in captivity are spotted dolphins, false killer whales and common dolphins, Commerson's dolphins, as well as rough-toothed dolphins, but all in much lower numbers than the bottlenose dolphin.", "There are also fewer than ten pilot whales, Amazon river dolphins, Risso's dolphins, spinner dolphins, or tucuxi in captivity.", "An unusual and very rare hybrid dolphin, known as a wolphin, is kept at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii, which is a cross between a bottlenose dolphin and a false killer whale.The number of orcas kept in captivity is very small, especially when compared to the number of bottlenose dolphins, with 60 captive orcas being held in aquaria .", "The orca's intelligence, trainability, striking appearance, playfulness in captivity and sheer size have made it a popular exhibit at aquaria and aquatic theme parks.", "From 1976 to 1997, 55 whales were taken from the wild in Iceland, 19 from Japan, and three from Argentina.", "These figures exclude animals that died during capture.", "Live captures fell dramatically in the 1990s, and by 1999, about 40% of the 48 animals on display in the world were captive-born.Organizations such as the Mote Marine Laboratory rescue and rehabilitate sick, wounded, stranded or orphaned dolphins while others, such as the Whale and Dolphin Conservation and Hong Kong Dolphin Conservation Society, work on dolphin conservation and welfare.", "India has declared the dolphin as its national aquatic animal in an attempt to protect the endangered Ganges river dolphin.", "The Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary has been created in the Ganges river for the protection of the animals.====Controversy====Shamu in 2009, with a collapsed dorsal fin.There is debate over the welfare of cetaceans in captivity, and often welfare can vary greatly dependent on the levels of care being provided at a particular facility.", "In the United States, facilities are regularly inspected by federal agencies to ensure that a high standard of welfare is maintained.", "Additionally, facilities can apply to become accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), which (for accreditation) requires \"the highest standards of animal care and welfare in the world\" to be achieved.", "Facilities such as SeaWorld and the Georgia Aquarium are accredited by the AZA.", "Organizations such as World Animal Protection and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation campaign against the practice of keeping them in captivity.", "In captivity, they often develop pathologies, such as the dorsal fin collapse seen in 60–90% of male orca.", "Captives have vastly reduced life expectancies, on average only living into their 20s, although there are examples of orcas living longer, including several over 30 years old, and two captive orcas, Corky II and Lolita, are in their mid-40s.", "In the wild, females who survive infancy live 46 years on average, and up to 70–80 years in rare cases.", "Wild males who survive infancy live 31 years on average, and up to 50–60 years.", "Captivity usually bears little resemblance to wild habitat, and captive whales' social groups are foreign to those found in the wild.", "Critics claim captive life is stressful due to these factors and the requirement to perform circus tricks that are not part of wild orca behavior.", "Wild orcas may travel up to in a day, and critics say the animals are too big and intelligent to be suitable for captivity.", "Captives occasionally act aggressively towards themselves, their tankmates, or humans, which critics say is a result of stress.Although dolphins generally interact well with humans, some attacks have occurred, most of them resulting in small injuries.", "Orcas, the largest species of dolphin, have been involved in fatal attacks on humans in captivity.", "The record-holder of documented orca fatal attacks is a male named Tilikum, who lived at SeaWorld from 1992 until his death in 2017.Tilikum has played a role in the death of three people in three different incidents (1991, 1999 and 2010).", "Tilikum's behaviour sparked the production of the documentary ''Blackfish'', which focuses on the consequences of keeping orcas in captivity.", "There are documented incidents in the wild, too, but none of them fatal.Fatal attacks from other species are less common, but there is a registered occurrence off the coast of Brazil in 1994, when a man died after being attacked by a bottlenose dolphin named Tião.", "Tião had suffered harassment by human visitors, including attempts to stick ice cream sticks down his blowhole.", "Non-fatal incidents occur more frequently, both in the wild and in captivity.While dolphin attacks occur far less frequently than attacks by other sea animals, such as sharks, some scientists are worried about the careless programs of human-dolphin interaction.", "Dr. Andrew J.", "Read, a biologist at the Duke University Marine Laboratory who studies dolphin attacks, points out that dolphins are large and wild predators, so people should be more careful when they interact with them.Several scientists who have researched dolphin behaviour have proposed that dolphins' unusually high intelligence in comparison to other animals means that dolphins should be seen as non-human persons who should have their own specific rights and that it is morally unacceptable to keep them captive for entertainment purposes or to kill them either intentionally for consumption or unintentionally as by-catch.", "Four countries – Chile, Costa Rica, Hungary, and India – have declared dolphins to be \"non-human persons\" and have banned the capture and import of live dolphins for entertainment.====Military====A military dolphinA number of militaries have employed dolphins for various purposes from finding mines to rescuing lost or trapped humans.", "The military use of dolphins drew scrutiny during the Vietnam War, when rumors circulated that the United States Navy was training dolphins to kill Vietnamese divers.", "The United States Navy denies that at any point dolphins were trained for combat.", "Dolphins are still being trained by the United States Navy for other tasks as part of the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program.", "The Russian military is believed to have closed its marine mammal program in the early 1990s.", "In 2000 the press reported that dolphins trained to kill by the Soviet Navy had been sold to Iran.The military is also interested in disguising underwater communications as artificial dolphin clicks.====Therapy====Dolphins are an increasingly popular choice of animal-assisted therapy for psychological problems and developmental disabilities.", "For example, a 2005 study found dolphins an effective treatment for mild to moderate depression.", "This study was criticized on several grounds, including a lack of knowledge on whether dolphins are more effective than common pets.", "Reviews of this and other published dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT) studies have found important methodological flaws and have concluded that there is no compelling scientific evidence that DAT is a legitimate therapy or that it affords more than fleeting mood improvement.===Consumption=======Cuisine====Plate of dolphin sashimiIn some parts of the world, such as Taiji, Japan and the Faroe Islands, dolphins are traditionally considered as food, and are killed in harpoon or drive hunts.Dolphin meat is consumed in a small number of countries worldwide, which include Japan and Peru (where it is referred to as ''chancho marino'', or \"sea pork\").", "While Japan may be the best-known and most controversial example, only a very small minority of the population has ever sampled it.Dolphin meat is dense and such a dark shade of red as to appear black.", "Fat is located in a layer of blubber between the meat and the skin.", "When dolphin meat is eaten in Japan, it is often cut into thin strips and eaten raw as ''sashimi'', garnished with onion and either horseradish or grated garlic, much as with ''sashimi'' of whale or horse meat (''basashi'').", "When cooked, dolphin meat is cut into bite-size cubes and then batter-fried or simmered in a ''miso'' sauce with vegetables.", "Cooked dolphin meat has a flavor very similar to beef liver.====Health concerns====There have been human health concerns associated with the consumption of dolphin meat in Japan after tests showed that dolphin meat contained high levels of mercury.", "There are no known cases of mercury poisoning as a result of consuming dolphin meat, though the government continues to monitor people in areas where dolphin meat consumption is high.", "The Japanese government recommends that children and pregnant women avoid eating dolphin meat on a regular basis.Similar concerns exist with the consumption of dolphin meat in the Faroe Islands, where prenatal exposure to methylmercury and PCBs primarily from the consumption of pilot whale meat has resulted in neuropsychological deficits amongst children." ], [ "See also", "* List of individual cetaceans" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Carwardine, M., ''Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises'', Dorling Kindersley, 2000..* Williams, Heathcote, ''Whale Nation'', New York, Harmony Books, 1988.." ], [ "External links", "'''Conservation, research and news:'''* De Rohan, Anuschka.", "\"Why dolphins are deep thinkers\", ''The Guardian'', July 3, 2003.", "* The Dolphin Institute* The Oceania Project, Caring for Whales and Dolphins* Tursiops.org: Current Cetacean-related news'''Photos:'''* PBS NOVA: Dolphins: Close Encounters" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Division ring" ], [ "Introduction", " In algebra, a '''division ring''', also called a '''skew field''', is a nontrivial ring in which division by nonzero elements is defined.", "Specifically, it is a nontrivial ring in which every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse, that is, an element usually denoted , such that .", "So, (right) ''division'' may be defined as , but this notation is avoided, as one may have .A commutative division ring is a field.", "Wedderburn's little theorem asserts that all finite division rings are commutative and therefore finite fields.", "Historically, division rings were sometimes referred to as fields, while fields were called \"commutative fields\".", "In some languages, such as French, the word equivalent to \"field\" (\"corps\") is used for both commutative and noncommutative cases, and the distinction between the two cases is made by adding qualificatives such as \"corps commutatif\" (commutative field) or \"corps gauche\" (skew field).All division rings are simple.", "That is, they have no two-sided ideal besides the zero ideal and itself." ], [ "Relation to fields and linear algebra", "All fields are division rings, and every non-field division ring is noncommutative.", "The best known example is the ring of quaternions.", "If one allows only rational instead of real coefficients in the constructions of the quaternions, one obtains another division ring.", "In general, if is a ring and is a simple module over , then, by Schur's lemma, the endomorphism ring of is a division ring; every division ring arises in this fashion from some simple module.Much of linear algebra may be formulated, and remains correct, for modules over a division ring instead of vector spaces over a field.", "Doing so, one must specify whether one is considering right or left modules, and some care is needed in properly distinguishing left and right in formulas.", "In particular, every module has a basis, and Gaussian elimination can be used.", "So, everything that can be defined with these tools works on division algebras.", "Matrices and their products are defined similarly.", "However, a matrix that is left invertible need not to be right invertible, and if it is, its right inverse can differ from its left inverse.", "(See ''''.", ")Determinants are not defined over noncommutative division algebras, and everything that requires this concept cannot be generalized to noncommutative division algebras.", "Working in coordinates, elements of a finite-dimensional right module can be represented by column vectors, which can be multiplied on the right by scalars, and on the left by matrices (representing linear maps); for elements of a finite-dimensional left module, row vectors must be used, which can be multiplied on the left by scalars, and on the right by matrices.", "The dual of a right module is a left module, and vice versa.", "The transpose of a matrix must be viewed as a matrix over the opposite division ring in order for the rule to remain valid.Every module over a division ring is free; that is, it has a basis, and all bases of a module have the same number of elements.", "Linear maps between finite-dimensional modules over a division ring can be described by matrices; the fact that linear maps by definition commute with scalar multiplication is most conveniently represented in notation by writing them on the ''opposite'' side of vectors as scalars are.", "The Gaussian elimination algorithm remains applicable.", "The column rank of a matrix is the dimension of the right module generated by the columns, and the row rank is the dimension of the left module generated by the rows; the same proof as for the vector space case can be used to show that these ranks are the same and define the rank of a matrix.Division rings are the only rings over which every module is free: a ring is a division ring if and only if every -module is free.The center of a division ring is commutative and therefore a field.", "Every division ring is therefore a division algebra over its center.", "Division rings can be roughly classified according to whether or not they are finite dimensional or infinite dimensional over their centers.", "The former are called ''centrally finite'' and the latter ''centrally infinite''.", "Every field is one dimensional over its center.", "The ring of Hamiltonian quaternions forms a four-dimensional algebra over its center, which is isomorphic to the real numbers." ], [ "Examples", "* As noted above, all fields are division rings.", "* The quaternions form a noncommutative division ring.", "* The subset of the quaternions , such that , , , and belong to a fixed subfield of the real numbers, is a noncommutative division ring.", "When this subfield is the field of rational numbers, this is the division ring of ''rational quaternions''.", "* Let be an automorphism of the field Let denote the ring of formal Laurent series with complex coefficients, wherein multiplication is defined as follows: instead of simply allowing coefficients to commute directly with the indeterminate for define for each index If is a non-trivial automorphism of complex numbers (such as the conjugation), then the resulting ring of Laurent series is a noncommutative division ring known as a ''skew Laurent series ring''; if then it features the standard multiplication of formal series.", "This concept can be generalized to the ring of Laurent series over any fixed field given a nontrivial" ], [ "Main theorems", "'''Wedderburn's little theorem''': All finite division rings are commutative and therefore finite fields.", "(Ernst Witt gave a simple proof.", ")'''Frobenius theorem''': The only finite-dimensional associative division algebras over the reals are the reals themselves, the complex numbers, and the quaternions." ], [ "Related notions", "Division rings ''used to be'' called \"fields\" in an older usage.", "In many languages, a word meaning \"body\" is used for division rings, in some languages designating either commutative or noncommutative division rings, while in others specifically designating commutative division rings (what we now call fields in English).", "A more complete comparison is found in the article on fields.The name \"skew field\" has an interesting semantic feature: a modifier (here \"skew\") ''widens'' the scope of the base term (here \"field\").", "Thus a field is a particular type of skew field, and not all skew fields are fields.While division rings and algebras as discussed here are assumed to have associative multiplication, nonassociative division algebras such as the octonions are also of interest.A near-field is an algebraic structure similar to a division ring, except that it has only one of the two distributive laws." ], [ "See also", "* Hua's identity" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* Proof of Wedderburn's Theorem at Planet Math* Grillet's Abstract Algebra, section VIII.5's characterization of division rings via their free modules." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dia (software)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dia''' ()is free and open source general-purpose diagramming software, developed originally by Alexander Larsson.", "It uses a controlled single document interface (SDI) similar to GIMP and Inkscape." ], [ "Features", "Dia has a modular design with several shape packages available for different needs: flowchart, network diagrams, circuit diagrams, and more.", "It does not restrict symbols and connectors from various categories from being placed together.Dia has special objects to help draw entity-relationship models, Unified Modeling Language (UML) diagrams, flowcharts, network diagrams, and simple electrical circuits.", "It is also possible to add support for new shapes by writing simple XML files, using a subset of Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) to draw the shape.Dia loads and saves diagrams in a custom XML format which is, by default, gzipped to save space.", "It can print large diagrams spanning multiple pages and can also be scripted using the Python programming language." ], [ "Exports", "Dia can export diagrams to various formats, including:* EPS (Encapsulated PostScript)* SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics)* DXF (Autocad's Drawing Interchange format)* CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile, defined by ISO standard 8632)* WMF (Windows Meta File)* PNG (Portable Network Graphics)* JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)* VDX (Microsoft's XML for Visio Drawing)" ], [ "Development", "Dia was originally created by Alexander Larsson but he moved on to work on GNOME and other projects.", "James Henstridge took over as lead developer, but he also moved on to other projects.", "He was followed by Cyrille Chepelov, then Lars Ræder Clausen.Dia is currently maintained by Hans Breuer, Steffen Macke and Sameer Sahasrabuddhe.It is written in C, and has an extension system which also supports writing extensions in Python." ], [ "See also", "* ATLAS Transformation Language – Dia diagrams may be generated by ATL model transformations* Diagrams.net* List of UML tools* List of vector graphics editors" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dia Project Homepage* Dia for Windows" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deep Space 1" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Deep Space 1''''' ('''DS1''') was a NASA technology demonstration spacecraft which flew by an asteroid and a comet.", "It was part of the New Millennium Program, dedicated to testing advanced technologies.Launched on 24 October 1998, the ''Deep Space 1'' spacecraft carried out a flyby of asteroid 9969 Braille, which was its primary science target.", "The mission was extended twice to include an encounter with comet 19P/Borrelly and further engineering testing.", "Problems during its initial stages and with its star tracker led to repeated changes in mission configuration.", "While the flyby of the asteroid was only a partial success, the encounter with the comet retrieved valuable information.The Deep Space series was continued by the ''Deep Space 2'' probes, which were launched in January 1999 piggybacked on the Mars Polar Lander and were intended to strike the surface of Mars (though contact was lost and the mission failed).", "''Deep Space 1'' was the first NASA spacecraft to use ion propulsion rather than the traditional chemical-powered rockets." ], [ "Technologies", "The purpose of ''Deep Space 1'' was technology development and validation for future missions; 12 technologies were tested:#Solar Electric Propulsion#Solar Concentrator Arrays#Multi-functional Structure#Miniature Integrated Camera and Imaging Spectrometer#Ion and Electron Spectrometer#Small Deep Space Transponder#Ka-Band Solid State Power Amplifier#Beacon Monitor Operations#Autonomous Remote Agent#Low Power Electronics#Power Actuation and Switching Module#Autonomous Navigation===Autonav===The Autonav system, developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, takes images of known bright asteroids.", "The asteroids in the inner Solar System move in relation to other bodies at a noticeable, predictable speed.", "Thus a spacecraft can determine its relative position by tracking such asteroids across the star background, which appears fixed over such timescales.", "Two or more asteroids let the spacecraft triangulate its position; two or more positions in time let the spacecraft determine its trajectory.", "Existing spacecraft are tracked by their interactions with the transmitters of the NASA Deep Space Network (DSN), in effect an inverse GPS.", "However, DSN tracking requires many skilled operators, and the DSN is overburdened by its use as a communications network.", "The use of Autonav reduces mission cost and DSN demands.The Autonav system can also be used in reverse, tracking the position of bodies relative to the spacecraft.", "This is used to acquire targets for the scientific instruments.", "The spacecraft is programmed with the target's coarse location.", "After initial acquisition, Autonav keeps the subject in frame, even commandeering the spacecraft's attitude control.", "The next spacecraft to use Autonav was ''Deep Impact''.===SCARLET concentrating solar array===Primary power for the mission was produced by a new solar array technology, the Solar Concentrator Array with Refractive Linear Element Technology (SCARLET), which uses linear Fresnel lenses made of silicone to concentrate sunlight onto solar cells.", "ABLE Engineering developed the concentrator technology and built the solar array for DS1, with Entech Inc, who supplied the Fresnel optics, and the NASA Glenn Research Center.", "The activity was sponsored by the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, developed originally for the SSI - Conestoga 1620 payload, METEOR.", "The concentrating lens technology was combined with dual-junction solar cells, which had considerably better performance than the GaAs solar cells that were the state of the art at the time of the mission launch.The SCARLET arrays generated 2.5 kilowatts at 1 AU, with less size and weight than conventional arrays.===NSTAR ion engine===Although ion engines had been developed at NASA since the late 1950s, with the exception of the SERT missions in the 1960s, the technology had not been demonstrated in flight on United States spacecraft, though hundreds of Hall-effect engines had been used on Soviet and Russian spacecraft.", "This lack of a performance history in space meant that despite the potential savings in propellant mass, the technology was considered too experimental to be used for high-cost missions.", "Furthermore, unforeseen side effects of ion propulsion might in some way interfere with typical scientific experiments, such as fields and particle measurements.", "Therefore, it was a primary mission of the ''Deep Space 1'' demonstration to show long-duration use of an ion thruster on a scientific mission.The NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness (NSTAR) electrostatic ion thruster, developed at NASA Glenn, achieves a specific impulse of 1000–3000 seconds.", "This is an order of magnitude higher than traditional space propulsion methods, resulting in a mass savings of approximately half.", "This leads to much cheaper launch vehicles.", "Although the engine produces just thrust at maximal power (2,100 W on DS1), the craft achieved high speeds because ion engines thrust continuously for long periods.The next spacecraft to use NSTAR engines was ''Dawn'', with three redundant units.===Remote Agent===Remote Agent (RAX), remote intelligent self-repair software developed at NASA's Ames Research Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, was the first artificial-intelligence control system to control a spacecraft without human supervision.", "Remote Agent successfully demonstrated the ability to plan onboard activities and correctly diagnose and respond to simulated faults in spacecraft components through its built-in REPL environment.", "Autonomous control will enable future spacecraft to operate at greater distances from Earth and to carry out more sophisticated science-gathering activities in deep space.", "Components of the Remote Agent software have been used to support other NASA missions.", "Major components of Remote Agent were a robust planner (EUROPA), a plan-execution system (EXEC) and a model-based diagnostic system (Livingstone).", "EUROPA was used as a ground-based planner for the Mars Exploration Rovers.", "EUROPA II was used to support the ''Phoenix'' Mars lander and the Mars Science Laboratory.", "Livingstone2 was flown as an experiment aboard Earth Observing-1 and on an F/A-18 Hornet at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center.===Beacon Monitor===Another method for reducing DSN burdens is the Beacon Monitor experiment.", "During the long cruise periods of the mission, spacecraft operations are essentially suspended.", "Instead of data, Deep Space 1 transmitted a carrier signal on a predetermined frequency.", "Without data decoding, the carrier could be detected by much simpler ground antennas and receivers.", "If DS1 detected an anomaly, it changed the carrier between four tones, based on urgency.", "Ground receivers then signal operators to divert DSN resources.", "This prevented skilled operators and expensive hardware from babysitting an unburdened mission operating nominally.", "A similar system was used on the ''New Horizons'' Pluto probe to keep costs down during its ten-year cruise from Jupiter to Pluto.===SDST===A Small Deep Space TransponderThe Small Deep Space Transponder (SDST) is a compact and lightweight radio-communications system.", "Aside from using miniaturized components, the SDST is capable of communicating over the Ka band.", "Because this band is higher in frequency than bands currently in use by deep-space missions, the same amount of data can be sent by smaller equipment in space and on the ground.", "Conversely, existing DSN antennas can split time among more missions.", "At the time of launch, the DSN had a small number of Ka receivers installed on an experimental basis; Ka operations and missions are increasing.The SDST was later used on other space missions such as the Mars Science Laboratory (the Mars rover ''Curiosity'').===PEPE===Once at a target, DS1 senses the particle environment with the PEPE (Plasma Experiment for Planetary Exploration) instrument.", "This instrument measured the flux of ions and electrons as a function of their energy and direction.", "The composition of the ions was determined by using a time-of-flight mass spectrometer.===MICAS===The MICAS (Miniature Integrated Camera And Spectrometer) instrument combined visible light imaging with infrared and ultraviolet spectroscopy to determine chemical composition.", "All channels share a telescope, which uses a silicon carbide mirror.Both PEPE and MICAS were similar in capabilities to larger instruments or suites of instruments on other spacecraft.", "They were designed to be smaller and require lower power than those used on previous missions." ], [ "Mission overview", "Prior to launch, ''Deep Space 1'' was intended to visit comet 76P/West–Kohoutek–Ikemura and asteroid 3352 McAuliffe.", "Because of the delayed launch, the targets were changed to asteroid 9969 Braille (at the time called 1992 KD) and comet 19P/Borrelly, with comet 107P/Wilson–Harrington being added following the early success of the mission.", "It achieved an impaired flyby of Braille and, due to problems with the star tracker, abandoned targeting Wilson–Harrington in order to maintain its flyby of comet 19P/Borrelly, which was successful.", "An August 2002 flyby of asteroid as another extended mission was considered, but ultimately was not advanced due to cost concerns.", "During the mission, high quality infrared spectra of Mars were also taken.===Results and achievements===Deep Space-1 as seen from Hale Telescope while at distance of The ion propulsion engine initially failed after 4.5 minutes of operation.", "However, it was later restored to action and performed excellently.", "Early in the mission, material ejected during launch vehicle separation caused the closely spaced ion extraction grids to short-circuit.", "The contamination was eventually cleared, as the material was eroded by electrical arcing, sublimed by outgassing, or simply allowed to drift out.", "This was achieved by repeatedly restarting the engine in an engine repair mode, arcing across trapped material.It was thought that the ion engine exhaust might interfere with other spacecraft systems, such as radio communications or the science instruments.", "The PEPE detectors had a secondary function to monitor such effects from the engine.", "No interference was found although the flux of ions from the thruster prevented PEPE from observing ions below approximately 20 eV.Another failure was the loss of the star tracker.", "The star tracker determines spacecraft orientation by comparing the star field to its internal charts.", "The mission was saved when the MICAS camera was reprogrammed to substitute for the star tracker.", "Although MICAS is more sensitive, its field-of-view is an order of magnitude smaller, creating a greater information processing burden.", "Ironically, the star tracker was an off-the-shelf component, expected to be highly reliable.Without a working star tracker, ion thrusting was temporarily suspended.", "The loss of thrust time forced the cancellation of a flyby past comet 107P/Wilson–Harrington.The Autonav system required occasional manual corrections.", "Most problems were in identifying objects that were too dim, or were difficult to identify because of brighter objects causing diffraction spikes and reflections in the camera, causing Autonav to misidentify targets.The Remote Agent system was presented with three simulated failures on the spacecraft and correctly handled each event.# a failed electronics unit, which Remote Agent fixed by reactivating the unit.# a failed sensor providing false information, which Remote Agent recognized as unreliable and therefore correctly ignored.# an attitude control thruster (a small engine for controlling the spacecraft's orientation) stuck in the \"off\" position, which Remote Agent detected and compensated for by switching to a mode that did not rely on that thruster.Overall this constituted a successful demonstration of fully autonomous planning, diagnosis, and recovery.The MICAS instrument was a design success, but the ultraviolet channel failed due to an electrical fault.", "Later in the mission, after the star tracker failure, MICAS assumed this duty as well.", "This caused continual interruptions in its scientific use during the remaining mission, including the Comet Borrelly encounter.The flyby of the asteroid 9969 Braille was only a partial success.", "''Deep Space 1'' was intended to perform the flyby at at only from the asteroid.", "Due to technical difficulties, including a software crash shortly before approach, the craft instead passed Braille at a distance of .", "This, plus Braille's lower albedo, meant that the asteroid was not bright enough for the Autonav to focus the camera in the right direction, and the picture shoot was delayed by almost an hour.", "The resulting pictures were disappointingly indistinct.However, the flyby of Comet Borrelly was a great success and returned extremely detailed images of the comet's surface.", "Such images were of higher resolution than the only previous pictures of a comet -- Halley's Comet, taken by the ''Giotto'' spacecraft.", "The PEPE instrument reported that the comet's solar wind interaction was offset from the nucleus.", "This is believed to be due to emission of jets, which were not distributed evenly across the comet's surface.Despite having no debris shields, the spacecraft survived the comet passage intact.", "Once again, the sparse comet jets did not appear to point towards the spacecraft.", "''Deep Space 1'' then entered its second extended mission phase, focused on retesting the spacecraft's hardware technologies.", "The focus of this mission phase was on the ion engine systems.", "The spacecraft eventually ran out of hydrazine fuel for its attitude control thrusters.", "The highly efficient ion thruster had a sufficient amount of propellant left to perform attitude control in addition to main propulsion, thus allowing the mission to continue.During late October and early November 1999, during the spacecraft's post-Braille encounter coast phase, ''Deep Space 1'' observed Mars with its MICAS instrument.", "Although this was a very distant flyby, the instrument did succeed in taking multiple infrared spectra of the planet.===Current status===''Deep Space 1'' succeeded in its primary and secondary objectives, returning valuable science data and images.", "DS1's ion engines were shut down on 18 December 2001 at approximately 20:00:00 UTC, signaling the end of the mission.", "On-board communications were set to remain in active mode in case the craft should be needed in the future.", "However, attempts to resume contact in March 2002 were unsuccessful.", "It remains within the Solar System, in orbit around the Sun." ], [ "Statistics", "* Launch mass: * Dry mass: * Fuel: of hydrazine for attitude control thrusters; of xenon for the NSTAR ion engine* Power: 2,500 watts, of which 2,100 watts powers the ion engine* Prime contractor: Spectrum Astro, later acquired by General Dynamics, and later sold to Orbital Sciences Corporation* Launch vehicle: Boeing Delta II 7326* Launch site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17A* Total cost: * Development cost: * Personnel: Project manager: David Lehman Mission manager: Philip Varghese Chief mission engineer and deputy mission manager: Marc Rayman Project scientist: Robert Nelson" ], [ "See also", "Solar panels on spacecraftList of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ''Deep Space 1'' website by NASAJet Propulsion Laboratory* ''Deep Space 1'' website by NASANew Millennium Program* ''Deep Space 1'' by Encyclopedia Astronautica* ''Deep Space 1 Mission Archive'' at the NASA Planetary Data System, Small Bodies Node" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "King David (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David''' was the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah.", "'''King David''' may also refer to:" ], [ "People", "* David I (disambiguation)* David II (disambiguation)* David III of Tao* David IV of Georgia (1073–1125)* David V of Georgia (died 1155)* David VI of Georgia (1225–1293)* David VII of Georgia (1215–1270)* David VIII of Georgia (1273–1311)* David IX of Georgia (died 1360)* David X of Kartli (1482–1526)* Capleton (born 1967), Jamaican reggae artist also known as King David* Kalākaua (1836–1891), born David Laʻamea Kamanakapuʻu Māhinulani Nālaʻiaʻehuokalani Lumialani Kalākaua, the penultimate Hawaiian monarch* David Barksdale (1947–1974), Chicago gang leader" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''King David'' (film), 1985 biographical film starring Richard Gere* ''King David'' (musical), 1997 musical created by Tim Rice and Alan Menken* ''Le roi David'', composition by Arthur Honegger* The King David Hotel in Jerusalem* Nickname for David Hartley, Cragg Vale coiner" ], [ "See also", "* David King (disambiguation)* King David School (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jacques-Louis David" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacques-Louis David''' (; 30 August 1748 – 29 December 1825) was a French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era.", "In the 1780s, his cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in taste away from Rococo frivolity toward classical austerity, severity, and heightened feeling, which harmonized with the moral climate of the final years of the Ancien Régime.David later became an active supporter of the French Revolution and friend of Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794), and was effectively a dictator of the arts under the French Republic.", "Imprisoned after Robespierre's fall from power, he aligned himself with yet another political regime upon his release: that of Napoleon, the First Consul of France.", "At this time he developed his Empire style, notable for its use of warm Venetian colours.", "After Napoleon's fall from Imperial power and the Bourbon revival, David exiled himself to Brussels, then in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, where he remained until his death.", "David had many pupils, making him the strongest influence in French art of the early 19th century, especially academic Salon painting." ], [ "Early life", "Portrait of David as a youth, , by his tutor Joseph-Marie VienJacques-Louis David was born into a prosperous French family in Paris on 30 August 1748.When he was about nine his father was killed in a duel and his mother left him with his well-off architect uncles.", "They saw to it that he received an excellent education at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris, but he was never a good student—he had a facial tumor that impeded his speech, and he was always preoccupied with drawing.", "He covered his notebooks with drawings, and he once said, \"I was always hiding behind the instructor's chair, drawing for the duration of the class\".", "Soon, he desired to be a painter, but his uncles and mother wanted him to be an architect.", "He overcame the opposition, and went to learn from François Boucher (1703–1770), the leading painter of the time, who was also a distant relative.", "Boucher was a Rococo painter, but tastes were changing, and the fashion for Rococo was giving way to a more classical style.", "Boucher decided that instead of taking over David's tutelage, he would send David to his friend, Joseph-Marie Vien (1716–1809), a painter who embraced the classical reaction to Rococo.", "There, David attended the Royal Academy, based in what is now the Louvre.", "''Mademoiselle Guimard as Terpsichore'', 1774–1775, an early workEach year the Academy awarded an outstanding student the prestigious , which funded a 3- to 5-year stay in Rome.", "Since artists were now revisiting classical styles, the trip provided its winners the opportunity to study the remains of classical antiquity and the works of the Italian Renaissance masters at first hand.", "Called ''pensionnaire'' they were housed in the French Academy's Rome outpost, which from the years 1737 to 1793 was the Palazzo Mancini in the Via del Corso.", "David made three consecutive attempts to win the annual prize, (with ''Minerva Fighting Mars'', ''Diana and Apollo Killing Niobe's Children'' and ''The Death of Seneca'') with each failure allegedly contributing to his lifelong grudge against the institution.", "After his second loss in 1772, David went on a hunger strike, which lasted two and a half days before the faculty encouraged him to continue painting.", "Confident he now had the support and backing needed to win the prize, he resumed his studies with great zeal—only to fail to win the again the following year.", "Finally, in 1774, David was awarded the on the strength of his painting of ''Erasistratus Discovering the Cause of Antiochus' Disease'', a subject set by the judges.", "In October 1775 he made the journey to Italy with his mentor, Joseph-Marie Vien, who had just been appointed director of the French Academy at Rome.While in Italy, David mostly studied the works of 17th-century masters such as Poussin, Caravaggio, and the Carracci.", "Although he declared, \"the Antique will not seduce me, it lacks animation, it does not move\", David filled twelve sketchbooks with drawings that he and his studio used as model books for the rest of his life.", "He was introduced to the painter Raphael Mengs (1728–1779), who opposed the Rococo tendency to sweeten and trivialize ancient subjects, advocating instead the rigorous study of classical sources and close adherence to ancient models.", "Mengs' principled, historicizing approach to the representation of classical subjects profoundly influenced David's pre-revolutionary painting, such as ''The Vestal Virgin'', probably from the 1780s.", "Mengs also introduced David to the theoretical writings on ancient sculpture by Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768), the German scholar held to be the founder of modern art history.", "As part of the , David toured the newly excavated ruins of Pompeii in 1779, which deepened his belief that the persistence of classical culture was an index of its eternal conceptual and formal power.", "During the trip David also assiduously studied the High Renaissance painters, Raphael making a profound and lasting impression on the young French artist." ], [ "Early work", "Equestrian portrait of Stanisław Kostka Potocki'' (1781)Although David's fellow students at the academy found him difficult to get along with, they recognized his genius.", "David's stay at the French Academy in Rome was extended by a year.", "In July 1780, he returned to Paris.", "There, he found people ready to use their influence for him, and he was made an official member of the Royal Academy.", "He sent the Academy two paintings, and both were included in the Salon of 1781, a high honor.", "He was praised by his famous contemporary painters, but the administration of the Royal Academy was very hostile to this young upstart.", "After the Salon, the King granted David lodging in the Louvre, an ancient and much desired privilege of great artists.", "When the contractor of the King's buildings, M. Pécoul, was arranging with David, he asked the artist to marry his daughter, Marguerite Charlotte.", "This marriage brought him money and eventually four children.", "David had about 50 of his own pupils and was commissioned by the government to paint \"''Horace defended by his Father''\", but he soon decided, \"''Only in Rome can I paint Romans.''\"", "His father-in-law provided the money he needed for the trip, and David headed for Rome with his wife, Charlotte, and three of his students, one of whom, Jean-Germain Drouais (1763–1788), was the winner of that year.", "''Oath of the Horatii'' (1784)In Rome, David painted his famous ''Oath of the Horatii'', 1784.In this piece, the artist references Enlightenment values while alluding to Rousseau's social contract.", "The republican ideal of the general became the central focus of the painting with all three sons positioned in compliance with the father.", "The Oath between the characters can be read as an act of unification of men to the binding of the state.", "The issue of gender roles also becomes apparent in this piece, as the women in Horatii greatly contrast the group of brothers.", "David depicts the father with his back to the women, shutting them out of the oath.", "They also appear to be smaller in scale and physically isolated from the male figures.", "The masculine virility and discipline displayed by the men's rigid and confident stances is also severely contrasted to the slouching, swooning female softness created in the other half of the composition.", "Here we see the clear division of male-female attributes that confined the sexes to specific roles under Rousseau's popularized doctrine of \"separate spheres\".These revolutionary ideals are also apparent in the ''Distribution of Eagles''.", "While ''Oath of the Horatii'' and ''The Tennis Court Oath'' stress the importance of masculine self-sacrifice for one's country and patriotism, the ''Distribution of Eagles'' would ask for self-sacrifice for one's Emperor (Napoleon) and the importance of battlefield glory.", "''The Death of Socrates'' (1787)In 1787, David did not become the Director of the French Academy in Rome, which was a position he wanted dearly.", "The Count in charge of the appointments said David was too young, but said he would support him in 6 to 12 years.", "This situation would be one of many that would cause him to lash out at the Academy in years to come.For the Salon of 1787, David exhibited his famous ''Death of Socrates''.", "\"Condemned to death, Socrates, strong, calm and at peace, discusses the immortality of the soul.", "Surrounded by Crito, his grieving friends and students, he is teaching, philosophizing, and in fact, thanking the God of Health, Asclepius, for the hemlock brew which will ensure a peaceful death...", "The wife of Socrates can be seen grieving alone outside the chamber, dismissed for her weakness.", "Plato is depicted as an old man seated at the end of the bed.\"", "Critics compared the Socrates with Michelangelo's Sistine Ceiling and Raphael's Stanze, and one, after ten visits to the Salon, described it as \"in every sense perfect\".", "Denis Diderot said it looked as if he copied it from some ancient bas-relief.", "The painting was very much in tune with the political climate at the time.", "For this painting, David was not honored by a royal \"works of encouragement\".", "''The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons'' (1789)For his next painting, David created ''The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons''.", "The work had tremendous appeal for the time.", "Before the opening of the Salon, the French Revolution had begun.", "The National Assembly had been established, and the Bastille had fallen.", "The royal court did not want propaganda agitating the people, so all paintings had to be checked before being hung.", "David's portrait of Lavoisier, who was a chemist and physicist as well as an active member of the Jacobin party, was banned by the authorities for such reasons.", "When the newspapers reported that the government had not allowed the showing of ''The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons'', the people were outraged, and the royals were forced to give in.", "The painting was hung in the exhibition, protected by art students.", "The painting depicts Lucius Junius Brutus, the Roman leader, grieving for his sons.", "Brutus's sons had attempted to overthrow the government and restore the monarchy, so the father ordered their death to maintain the republic.", "Brutus was the heroic defender of the republic, sacrificing his own family for the good of the republic.", "On the right, the mother holds her two daughters, and the nurse is seen on the far right, in anguish.", "Brutus sits on the left, alone, brooding, seemingly dismissing the dead bodies of his sons.", "Knowing what he did was best for his country, but the tense posture of his feet and toes reveals his inner turmoil.", "The whole painting was a Republican symbol, and obviously had immense meaning during these times in France.", "It exemplified civic virtue, a value highly regarded during the Revolution." ], [ "The French Revolution", "In the beginning, David was a supporter of the Revolution, a friend of Robespierre, and a member of the Jacobin Club.", "While others were leaving the country for new and greater opportunities, David stayed behind to help destroy the old order; he was a regicide who voted in the National Convention for the Execution of Louis XVI.", "It is uncertain why he did this, as there were many more opportunities for him under the King than the new order; some people suggest David's love for the classical made him embrace everything about that period, including a republican government.", "Others believed that they found the key to the artist's revolutionary career in his personality.", "Undoubtedly, David's artistic sensibility, mercurial temperament, volatile emotions, ardent enthusiasm, and fierce independence might have been expected to help turn him against the established order but they did not fully explain his devotion to the republican regime.", "Nor did the vague statements of those who insisted upon his \"powerful ambition...and unusual energy of will\" actually account for his revolutionary connections.", "Those who knew him maintained that \"generous ardor\", high-minded idealism and well-meaning though sometimes fanatical enthusiasm, rather than opportunism and jealousy, motivated his activities during this period.Soon, David turned his critical sights on the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture.", "This attack was probably caused primarily by the hypocrisy of the organization and their personal opposition to his work, as seen in previous episodes in David's life.", "The Royal Academy was controlled by royalists, who opposed David's attempts at reform; so the National Assembly finally ordered it to make changes to conform to the new constitution.David then began work on something that would later hound him: propaganda for the new republic.", "David's painting of Brutus was shown during the play ''Brutus'' by Voltaire.In 1789, Jacques-Louis David attempted to leave his artistic mark on the historical beginnings of the French Revolution with his painting of ''The Oath of the Tennis Court''.", "David undertook this task not out of personal political conviction but rather because he was commissioned to do so.", "The painting was meant to commemorate the event of the same name but was never completed.", "A meeting of the Estates General was convened in May to address reforms of the monarchy.", "Dissent arose over whether the three estates would meet separately, as had been tradition, or as one body.", "The King's acquiescence in the demands of the upper orders led to the deputies of the Third Estate renaming themselves as the National Assembly on 17 June.", "They were locked out of the meeting hall three days later when they attempted to meet, and forced to reconvene to the royal indoor tennis court.", "Presided over by Jean-Sylvain Bailly, they made a 'solemn oath never to separate' until a national constitution had been created.", "In 1789 this event was seen as a symbol of the national unity against the ''ancien regime''.", "Rejecting the current conditions, the oath signified a new transition in human history and ideology.", "David was enlisted by the Society of Friends of the Constitution, the body that would eventually form the Jacobins, to enshrine this symbolic event.This instance is notable in more ways than one because it eventually led David to finally become involved in politics as he joined the Jacobins.", "The picture was meant to be massive in scale; the figures in the foreground were to be life-sized portraits of the counterparts, including Jean-Sylvain Bailly, the President of the Constituent Assembly.", "Seeking additional funding, David turned to the Society of Friends of the Constitution.", "The funding for the project was to come from over three thousand subscribers hoping to receive a print of the image.", "However, when the funding was insufficient, the state ended up financing the project.David set out in 1790 to transform the contemporary event into a major historical picture which would appear at the Salon of 1791 as a large pen-and-ink drawing.", "As in the ''Oath of the Horatii'', David represents the unity of men in the service of a patriotic ideal.", "The outstretched arms which are prominent in both works betray David's deeply held belief that acts of republican virtue akin to those of the Romans were being played out in France.", "In what was essentially an act of intellect and reason, David creates an air of drama in this work.", "The very power of the people appears to be \"blowing\" through the scene with the stormy weather, in a sense alluding to the storm that would be the revolution.Symbolism in this work of art closely represents the revolutionary events taking place at the time.", "The figure in the middle is raising his right arm making the oath that they will never disband until they have reached their goal of creating a \"constitution of the realm fixed upon solid foundations\".", "The importance of this symbol is highlighted by the fact that the crowd's arms are angled to his hand forming a triangular shape.", "Additionally, the open space in the top half contrasted to the commotion in the lower half serves to emphasize the magnitude of the Tennis Court Oath.Drawing by Jacques-Louis David of the Tennis Court Oath.", "David later became a deputy in the National Convention in 1792 In his attempt to depict political events of the Revolution in \"real time\", David was venturing down a new and untrodden path in the art world.", "However, Thomas Crow argues that this path \"proved to be less a way forward than a cul-de-sac for history painting\".", "Essentially, the history of the demise of David's ''The Tennis Court Oath'' illustrates the difficulty of creating works of art that portray current and controversial political occurrences.", "Political circumstances in France proved too volatile to allow the completion of the painting.", "The unity that was to be symbolized in ''The Tennis Court Oath'' no longer existed in radicalized 1792.The National Assembly had split between conservatives and radical Jacobins, both vying for political power.", "By 1792 there was no longer consensus that all the revolutionaries at the tennis court were \"heroes\".", "A sizeable number of the heroes of 1789 had become the villains of 1792.In this unstable political climate David's work remained unfinished.", "With only a few nude figures sketched onto the massive canvas, David abandoned ''The Oath of the Tennis Court''.", "To have completed it would have been politically unsound.", "After this incident, when David attempted to make a political statement in his paintings, he returned to the less politically charged use of metaphor to convey his message.When Voltaire died in 1778, the church denied him a church burial, and his body was interred near a monastery.", "A year later, Voltaire's old friends began a campaign to have his body buried in the Panthéon, as church property had been confiscated by the French Government.", "In 1791, David was appointed to head the organizing committee for the ceremony, a parade through the streets of Paris to the Panthéon.", "Despite rain and opposition from conservatives due to the amount of money spent, the procession went ahead.", "Up to 100,000 people watched the \"Father of the Revolution\" being carried to his resting place.", "This was the first of many large festivals organized by David for the republic.", "He went on to organize festivals for martyrs that died fighting royalists.", "These funerals echoed the religious festivals of the pagan Greeks and Romans and are seen by many as Saturnalian.Denon.David incorporated many revolutionary symbols into these theatrical performances and orchestrated ceremonial rituals, in effect radicalizing the applied arts themselves.", "The most popular symbol for which David was responsible as propaganda minister was drawn from classical Greek images; changing and transforming them with contemporary politics.", "In an elaborate festival held on the anniversary of the revolt that brought the monarchy to its knees, David's Hercules figure was revealed in a procession following the Goddess of Liberty (Marianne).", "Liberty, the symbol of Enlightenment ideals was here being overturned by the Hercules symbol; that of strength and passion for the protection of the Republic against disunity and factionalism.", "In his speech during the procession, David \"explicitly emphasized the opposition between people and monarchy; Hercules was chosen, after all, to make this opposition more evident\".", "The ideals that David linked to his Hercules single-handedly transformed the figure from a sign of the old regime into a powerful new symbol of revolution.", "\"David turned him into the representation of a collective, popular power.", "He took one of the favorite signs of monarchy and reproduced, elevated, and monumentalized it into the sign of its opposite.\"", "Hercules, the image, became to the revolutionaries, something to rally around.In June 1791, the King made an ill-fated attempt to flee the country, but was apprehended short of his goal on the Austrian Netherlands border and was forced to return under guard to Paris.", "Louis XVI had made secret requests to Emperor Leopold II of Austria, Marie-Antoinette's brother, to restore him to his throne.", "This was granted and Austria threatened France if the royal couple were hurt.", "In reaction, the people arrested the King.", "This led to an Invasion after the trials and execution of Louis and Marie-Antoinette.", "The Bourbon monarchy was destroyed by the French people in 1792—it would be restored after Napoleon, then destroyed again with the Restoration of the House of Bonaparte.", "When the new National Convention held its first meeting, David was sitting with his friends Jean-Paul Marat and Robespierre.", "In the convention, David soon earned the nickname \"ferocious terrorist\".", "Robespierre's agents discovered a secret vault containing the King's correspondence which proved he was trying to overthrow the government, and demanded his execution.", "The National Convention held the trial of Louis XVI; David voted for the death of the King, causing his wife, Marguerite Charlotte, a royalist, to divorce him.When Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793, another man had already died as well—Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau.", "Le Peletier was killed on the preceding day by a royal bodyguard in revenge for having voted for the death of the King.", "David was called upon to organize a funeral, and he painted ''Le Peletier Assassinated''.", "In it, the assassin's sword was seen hanging by a single strand of horsehair above Le Peletier's body, a concept inspired by the proverbial ancient tale of the sword of Damocles, which illustrated the insecurity of power and position.", "This underscored the courage displayed by Le Peletier and his companions in routing an oppressive king.", "The sword pierces a piece of paper on which is written \"I vote the death of the tyrant\", and as a tribute at the bottom right of the picture David placed the inscription \"David to Le Peletier.", "20 January 1793\".", "The painting was later destroyed by Le Peletier's royalist daughter, and is known by only a drawing, an engraving, and contemporary accounts.", "Nevertheless, this work was important in David's career because it was the first completed painting of the French Revolution, made in less than three months, and a work through which he initiated the regeneration process that would continue with ''The Death of Marat'', David's masterpiece.''", "The Death of Marat'' (1793)On 13 July 1793, David's friend Marat was assassinated by Charlotte Corday with a knife she had hidden in her clothing.", "She gained entrance to Marat's house on the pretense of presenting him a list of people who should be executed as enemies of France.", "Marat thanked her and said that they would be guillotined next week upon which Corday immediately fatally stabbed him.", "She was guillotined shortly thereafter.", "Corday was of an opposing political party, whose name can be seen in the note Marat holds in David's subsequent painting, ''The Death of Marat''.", "Marat, a member of the National Convention and a journalist, had a skin disease that caused him to itch horribly.", "The only relief he could get was in his bath over which he improvised a desk to write his list of suspect counter-revolutionaries who were to be quickly tried and, if convicted, guillotined.", "David once again organized a spectacular funeral, and Marat was buried in the Panthéon.", "Marat's body was to be placed upon a Roman bed, his wound displayed and his right arm extended holding the pen which he had used to defend the Republic and its people.", "This concept was to be complicated by the fact that the corpse had begun to putrefy.", "Marat's body had to be periodically sprinkled with water and vinegar as the public crowded to see his corpse prior to the funeral on 15 and 16 July.", "The stench became so bad however that the funeral had to be brought forward to the evening of 16 July.", "''The Death of Marat'', perhaps David's most famous painting, has been called the Pietà of the revolution.", "Upon presenting the painting to the convention, he said \"Citizens, the people were again calling for their friend; their desolate voice was heard: David, take up your brushes..., avenge Marat...", "I heard the voice of the people.", "I obeyed.", "\"''The Death of Marat'', 1793, became the leading image of the Terror and immortalized both Marat and David in the world of the revolution.", "This piece stands today as \"a moving testimony to what can be achieved when an artist's political convictions are directly manifested in his work\".", "A political martyr was instantly created as David portrayed Marat with all the marks of the real murder, in a fashion which greatly resembles that of Christ or his disciples.", "The subject although realistically depicted remains lifeless in a rather supernatural composition.", "With the surrogate tombstone placed in front of him and the almost holy light cast upon the whole scene; alluding to an out of this world existence.", "\"Atheists though they were, David and Marat, like so many other fervent social reformers of the modern world, seem to have created a new kind of religion.\"", "At the very center of these beliefs, there stood the republic.Marie Antoinette on the Way to the Guillotine, 16 October 1793.Sketched from a window in the rue Sainte-Honoré while the cart went past.After the King's execution, war broke out between the new Republic and virtually every major power in Europe.", "David, as a member of the Committee of General Security, contributed directly to the Reign of Terror.", "David organized his last festival: the festival of the Supreme Being.", "Robespierre had realized what a tremendous propaganda tool these festivals were, and he decided to create a new religion, mixing moral ideas with the Republic and based on the ideas of Rousseau.", "This process had already begun by confiscating church lands and requiring priests to take an oath to the state.", "The festivals, called fêtes, would be the method of indoctrination.", "On the appointed day, 20 Prairial by the revolutionary calendar, Robespierre spoke, descended steps, and with a torch presented to him by David, incinerated a cardboard image symbolizing atheism, revealing an image of wisdom underneath.Soon, the war began to go well; French troops marched across the southern half of the Netherlands (which would later become Belgium), and the emergency that had placed the Committee of Public Safety in control was no more.", "Then plotters seized Robespierre at the National Convention and he was later guillotined, in effect ending the Reign of Terror.", "As Robespierre was arrested, David yelled to his friend \"if you drink hemlock, I shall drink it with you.\"", "After this, he supposedly fell ill, and did not attend the evening session because of \"stomach pain\", which saved him from being guillotined along with Robespierre.", "David was arrested and placed in prison twice, first from 2 August to 28 December 1794 and then from 29 May to 3 August 1795.Most of the time he served his sentence in the not uncomfortable Palais du Luxembourg in Paris.", "There he painted his own portrait, showing him much younger than he actually was, as well as that of his jailer." ], [ "Post-revolution", "''The Intervention of the Sabine Women'' (1799)After David's wife visited him in jail, he conceived the idea of telling the story of The rape of the Sabine women.", "''The Sabine Women Enforcing Peace by Running between the Combatants'', also called ''The Intervention of the Sabine Women'' is said to have been painted to honor his wife, with the theme being love prevailing over conflict.", "The painting was also seen as a plea for the people to reunite after the bloodshed of the revolution.David conceived a new style for this painting, one which he called the \"Pure Greek Style\", as opposed to the \"Roman style\" of his earlier historical paintings.", "The new style was influenced heavily by the work of art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann.", "In David's words, \"the most prominent general characteristics of the Greek masterpieces are a noble simplicity and silent greatness in pose as well as in expression.\"", "Instead of the muscularity and angularity of the figures of his past works, these were smoother, more feminine, and painterly.This work also brought him to the attention of Napoleon.", "The story for the painting is as follows: \"The Romans have abducted the daughters of their neighbors, the Sabines.", "To avenge this abduction, the Sabines attacked Rome, although not immediately—since Hersilia, the daughter of Tatius, the leader of the Sabines, had been married to Romulus, the Roman leader, and then had two children by him in the interim.", "Here we see Hersilia between her father and husband as she adjures the warriors on both sides not to take wives away from their husbands or mothers away from their children.", "The other Sabine Women join in her exhortations.\"", "During this time, the martyrs of the Revolution were taken from the Pantheon and buried in common ground, and revolutionary statues were destroyed.", "When David was finally released to the country, France had changed.", "His wife managed to get him released from prison, and he wrote letters to his former wife, and told her he never ceased loving her.", "He remarried her in 1796.Finally, wholly restored to his position, he retreated to his studio, took pupils and for the most part, retired from politics.In August 1796, David and many other artists signed a petition orchestrated by Quatremère de Quincy which questioned the wisdom of the planned seizure of works of art from Rome.", "The Director Barras believed that David was \"tricked\" into signing, although one of David's students recalled that in 1798 his master lamented the fact that masterpieces had been imported from Italy." ], [ "Napoleon", "''Napoleon at the Saint-Bernard Pass'' (1801) David's close association with the Committee of Public Safety during the Terror resulted in his signing of the death warrant for Alexandre de Beauharnais, a minor noble.", "Beauharnais's widow, Joséphine, went on to marry Napoleon Bonaparte and became his empress; David himself depicted their coronation in the ''Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine, 2 December 1804''.", "''Historical painter encouraged by the government'', 1814 caricature, Bodleian Library.David had been an admirer of Napoleon from their first meeting, struck by Bonaparte's classical features.", "Requesting a sitting from the busy and impatient general, David was able to sketch Napoleon in 1797.David recorded the face of the conqueror of Italy, but the full composition of Napoleon holding the peace treaty with Austria remains unfinished.", "This was likely a decision by Napoleon himself after considering the current political situation.", "He may have considered the publicity the portrait would bring about to be ill-timed.", "Bonaparte had high esteem for David, and asked him to accompany him to Egypt in 1798, but David refused, seemingly unwilling to give up the material comfort, safety, and peace of mind he had obtained through the years.", "Draftsman and engraver Dominique Vivant Denon went to Egypt instead, providing mostly documentary and archaeological work.After Napoleon's successful coup d'état in 1799, as First Consul he commissioned David to commemorate his daring crossing of the Alps.", "The crossing of the St. Bernard Pass had allowed the French to surprise the Austrian army and win victory at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June 1800.Although Napoleon had crossed the Alps on a mule, he requested that he be portrayed \"calm upon a fiery steed\".", "David complied with ''Napoleon Crossing the Saint-Bernard.''", "After the proclamation of the Empire in 1804, David became the official court painter of the regime.", "During this period he took students, one of whom was the Belgian painter Pieter van Hanselaere.", "''The Coronation of Napoleon'' (1806)One of the works David was commissioned for was ''The Coronation of Napoleon'' (1805-1807).", "David was permitted to watch the event.", "He had plans of Notre Dame delivered and participants in the coronation came to his studio to pose individually, though never the Emperor.", "(The only time David obtained a sitting from Napoleon had been in 1797.)", "David did manage to get a private sitting with the Empress Joséphine and Napoleon's sister, Caroline Murat, through the intervention of erstwhile art patron Marshal Joachim Murat, the Emperor's brother-in-law.", "For his background, David had the choir of Notre Dame act as his fill-in characters.", "Pope Pius VII came to sit for the painting, and actually blessed David.", "Napoleon came to see the painter, stared at the canvas for an hour and said \"David, I salute you.\"", "David had to redo several parts of the painting because of Napoleon's various whims, and for this painting, he received twenty-four thousand Francs.David was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur in 1803.He was promoted to an Officier in 1808.And, in 1815, he was promoted to a Commandant (now Commandeur) de la Légion d'honneur." ], [ "Exile and death", "David during his exile, in 1817, painted by his pupil François-Joseph Navez''Comte Henri-Amédée-Mercure de Turenne-d'Aynac'', 1816, oil on canvas.", "Clark Art Institute; painted while both the Comte and David were in exileOn the Bourbons returning to power, David figured in the list of proscribed former revolutionaries and Bonapartists for having voted execution for the deposed King Louis XVI; and for participating in the death of Louis XVII, the deposed king's son who was mistreated, starved and forced into a false confession of incest with his mother, Queen Marie-Antoinette, which contributed to her death sentence.", "The newly restored Bourbon King, Louis XVIII, however, granted amnesty to David and even offered him the position of court painter.", "David refused, preferring self-exile in Brussels.", "There, he trained and influenced Brussels artists such as François-Joseph Navez and Ignace Brice, painted ''Cupid and Psyche'' and quietly lived the remainder of his life with his wife (whom he had remarried).", "In that time, he painted smaller-scale mythological scenes, and portraits of citizens of Brussels and Napoleonic émigrés, such as the Baron Gerard.David created his last great work, ''Mars Being Disarmed by Venus and the Three Graces'', from 1822 to 1824.In December 1823, he wrote: \"This is the last picture I want to paint, but I want to surpass myself in it.", "I will put the date of my seventy-five years on it and afterwards I will never again pick up my brush.\"", "The finished painting—evoking painted porcelain because of its limpid coloration—was exhibited first in Brussels, then in Paris, where his former students flocked to view it.Mars Being Disarmed by Venus and the Three Graces'', David's last great work (1824) The exhibition was profitable—13,000 francs, after deducting operating costs, thus, more than 10,000 people visited and viewed the painting.", "In his later years, David remained in full command of his artistic faculties, even after a stroke in the spring of 1825 disfigured his face and slurred his speech.", "In June 1825, he resolved to embark on an improved version of his ''The Anger of Achilles'' (also known as the ''Sacrifice of Iphigenie''); the earlier version was completed in 1819 and is now in the collection of the Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas.", "David remarked to his friends who visited his studio \"this painting is what is killing me\" such was his determination to complete the work, but by October it must have already been well advanced, as his former pupil Gros wrote to congratulate him, having heard reports of the painting's merits.", "By the time David died, the painting had been completed and the commissioner Ambroise Firmin-Didot brought it back to Paris to include it in the exhibition \"Pour les grecs\" that he had organised and which opened in Paris in April 1826.David's death mask (1825)When David was leaving a theater, the driver of a carriage struck him, and he later died, on 29 December 1825.At his death, some portraits were auctioned in Paris, they sold for little; the famous ''Death of Marat'' was exhibited in a secluded room, to avoid outraging public sensibilities.", "Disallowed return to France for burial, for having been a regicide of King Louis XVI, the body of the painter Jacques-Louis David was buried in Brussels and moved in 1882 to Brussels Cemetery, while some say his heart was buried with his wife at Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris." ], [ "Freemasonry", "The theme of the oath found in several works such as ''The Oath of the Tennis Court'', ''The Distribution of the Eagles'', and ''Leonidas at Thermopylae'', was perhaps inspired by the rituals of Freemasonry.", "In 1989 during the \"David against David\" conference Albert Boime presented evidence, a document dated in 1787, showing the painter's membership in the \"La Moderation\" Masonic Lodge." ], [ "Medical analysis of David's face", "Jacques-Louis David's facial abnormalities were traditionally reported to be a consequence of a deep facial sword wound after a fencing incident.", "These left him with a noticeable asymmetry during facial expression and resulted in his difficulty in eating or speaking.", "(He could not pronounce some consonants such as the letter 'r'.)", "A sword scar wound on the left side of his face is present in his self-portrait and sculptures and corresponds to some of the buccal branches of the facial nerve.", "An injury to this nerve and its branches are likely to have resulted in the difficulties with his left facial movement.Furthermore, as a result of this injury, he suffered from a growth on his face that biographers and art historians have defined as a benign tumor.", "These, however, may have been a granuloma, or even a post-traumatic neuroma.", "As historian Simon Schama has pointed out, witty banter and public speaking ability were key aspects of the social culture of 18th-century France, so David's tumor could have been a heavy obstacle in his social life.", "David was sometimes referred to as \"David of the Tumor\"." ], [ "Portraiture", "In addition to his history paintings, David completed a number of privately commissioned portraits.", "Warren Roberts, among others, has pointed out the contrast between David's \"public style\" of painting, as shown in his history paintings, and his \"private style\", as shown in his portraits.", "His portraits were characterized by a sense of truth and realism.", "He focused on defining his subjects' features and characters without idealizing them.", "This is different from the style seen in his historical paintings, in which he idealizes his figures' features and bodies to align with Greek and Roman ideals of beauty.", "He puts a great deal of detail into his portraits, defining smaller features such as hands and fabric.", "The compositions of his portraits remain simple with blank backgrounds that allow the viewer to focus on the details of the subject.The portrait he did of his wife (1813) is an example of his typical portrait style.", "The background is dark and simple without any clues as to the setting, which forces the viewer to focus entirely on her.", "Her features are un-idealized and truthful to her appearance.", "There is a great amount of detail that can be seen in his attention to portraying the satin material of the dress she wears, the drapery of the scarf around her, and her hands which rest in her lap.", "''Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès'', 1817In the painting of Brutus (1789), the man and his wife are separated, both morally and physically.", "Paintings such as these, depicting the great strength of patriotic sacrifice, made David a popular hero of the revolution.In the ''Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and his wife'' (1788), the man and his wife are tied together in an intimate pose.", "She leans on his shoulder while he pauses from his work to look up at her.", "David casts them in a soft light, not in the sharp contrast of Brutus or of the Horatii.", "Also of interest—Lavoisier was a tax collector, as well as a famous chemist.", "Though he spent some of his money trying to clean up swamps and eradicate malaria, he was nonetheless sent to the guillotine during the Reign of Terror as an enemy of the people.", "David, then a powerful member of the National Assembly, stood idly by and watched.Other portraits include paintings of his sister-in-law and her husband, Madame and Monsieur Seriziat.", "The picture of Monsieur Seriziat depicts a man of wealth, sitting comfortably with his horse-riding equipment.", "The picture of the Madame shows her wearing an unadorned white dress, holding her young child's hand as they lean against a bed.", "David painted these portraits of Madame and Monsieur Seriziat out of gratitude for letting him stay with them after he was in jail.Towards the end of David's life, he painted a portrait of his old friend ''Abbé Sieyès''.", "Both had been involved in the Revolution, both had survived the purging of political radicals that followed the reign of terror." ], [ "Shift in attitude", "The shift in David's perspective played an important role in the paintings of David's later life, including this one of Sieyès.", "During the height of The Terror, David was an ardent supporter of radicals such as Robespierre and Marat, and twice offered up his life in their defense.", "He organized revolutionary festivals and painted portraits of martyrs of the revolution, such as Lepeletier, who was assassinated for voting for the death of the king.", "David was an impassioned speaker at times in the National Assembly.", "In speaking to the Assembly about the young boy named Bara, another martyr of the revolution, David said, \"O Bara!", "O Viala!", "The blood that you have spread still smokes; it rises toward Heaven and cries for vengeance.", "\"After Robespierre was sent to the guillotine, however, David was imprisoned and changed the attitude of his rhetoric.", "During his imprisonment he wrote many letters, pleading his innocence.", "In one he wrote, \"I am prevented from returning to my atelier, which, alas, I should never have left.", "I believed that in accepting the most honorable position, but very difficult to fill, that of legislator, that a righteous heart would suffice, but I lacked the second quality, understanding.", "\"Later, while explaining his developing \"Grecian style\" for paintings such as ''The Intervention of the Sabine Women'', David further commented on a shift in attitude: \"In all human activity the violent and transitory develops first; repose and profundity appear last.", "The recognition of these latter qualities requires time; only great masters have them, while their pupils have access only to violent passions.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Seventy-five years after his death, David is painted by the painter Emmanuel Van Den Büssche, (Musée de la Révolution française)Jacques-Louis David was, in his time, regarded as the leading painter in France, and arguably all of Western Europe; many of the painters honored by the restored Bourbons following the French Revolution had been David's pupils.", "David's student Antoine-Jean Gros for example, was made a Baron and honored by Napoleon Bonaparte's court.", "Another pupil of David's, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres became the most important artist of the restored Royal Academy and the figurehead of the Neoclassical school of art, engaging the increasingly popular Romantic school of art that was beginning to challenge Neoclassicism.", "David invested in the formation of young artists for the Rome Prize, which was also a way to pursue his old rivalry with other contemporary painters such as Joseph-Benoît Suvée, who had also started teaching classes.", "To be one of David's students was considered prestigious and earned his students a lifetime reputation.", "He called on the more advanced students, such as Jérôme-Martin Langlois, to help him paint his large canvases.", "Musician and artist Therese Emilie Henriette Winkel; and painter Jean Baptiste Vermay also studied with David.Despite David's reputation, he was more fiercely criticized right after his death than at any point during his life.", "His style came under the most serious criticism for being static, rigid, and uniform throughout all his work.", "David's art was also attacked for being cold and lacking warmth.", "David, however, made his career precisely by challenging what he saw as the earlier rigidity and conformity of the French Royal Academy's approach to art.", "David's later works also reflect his growth in the development of the Empire style, notable for its dynamism and warm colors.", "It is likely that much of the criticism of David following his death came from David's opponents; during his lifetime David made a great many enemies with his competitive and arrogant personality as well as his role in the Terror.", "David sent many people to the guillotine and personally signed the death warrants for King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.", "One significant episode in David's political career that earned him a great deal of contempt was the execution of Emilie Chalgrin.", "A fellow painter Carle Vernet had approached David, who was on the Committee of Public Safety, requesting him to intervene on behalf of his sister, Chalgrin.", "She had been accused of crimes against the Republic, most notably possessing stolen items.", "David refused to intervene in her favor, and she was executed.", "Vernet blamed David for her death, and the episode followed him for the rest of his life and after.In the last 50 years David has enjoyed a revival in popular favor and in 1948 his two-hundredth birthday was celebrated with an exhibition at the Musée de l'Orangerie in Paris and at Versailles showing his life's works.", "Following World War II, Jacques-Louis David was increasingly regarded as a symbol of French national pride and identity, as well as a vital force in the development of European and French art in the modern era.", "The birth of Romanticism is traditionally credited to the paintings of eighteenth-century French artists such as Jacques-Louis David.There are streets named after David in the French cities of Carcassonne and Montpellier.center" ], [ "Filmography", "''Danton'' (Andrzej Wajda, France, 1982) – Historical drama.", "Many scenes include David as a silent character watching and drawing.", "The film focuses on the period of the Terror." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Jacques-Louis David - Jupiter et Antiope.jpg\|''Jupiter et Antiope'' (1768), an early work showing the influence of GreuzeNiobe JacquesLouisDavid 1772 Dallas Museum of Art.jpg\|''Diana and Apollo Piercing Niobe's Children with their Arrows'' (1772), Dallas Museum of ArtFile:Jacques-Louis David - Antiochus and Stratonica - WGA06042.jpg\|''Antiochus and Stratonica'' (1774), École nationale supérieure des Beaux-ArtsFile:Jacques-Louis David - Patroclus - WGA06044.jpg\|''Patroclus'', study (1780), Musée Thomas-HenryFile:Le corps d'Hector - Hector's body - El cuerpo de Héctor.jpg\| ''Hector's body'' (1778)David - Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and His Wife.jpg\|''Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and his wife'' (1788), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkHelene Paris David.jpg\|''Paris and Helen'' (1788), Musée du Louvre, Paris (detail)David98.jpg\|''Portrait of Anne-Marie-Louise Thélusson, Comtesse de Sorcy'' (1790), Neue Pinakothek, Munich File:Seriziat.jpg\| ''Portrait of Pierre Sériziat'', (1795), Louvre MuseumPortrait de madame de Verninac by David Louvre RF1942-16 n2.jpg\|''Portrait of Madame de Verninac'' (1798–1799), born Henriette Delacroix, elder sister of Eugène Delacroix, Musée du Louvre, ParisMadame Récamier by Jacques-Louis David.jpg\|''Madame Récamier'' (1800), Musée du Louvre, ParisFile:Jacques-Louis David - Suzanne Le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Suzanne Le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau'' (1804), The J. Paul Getty MuseumJacques-Louis_David_018.jpg\|''Portrait of Pope Pius VII'' (1805), Musée du Louvre, ParisMadame David by Jacques-Louis David, 1813, oil on canvas - National Gallery of Art, Washington - DSC09988.JPG\|''Marguerite-Charlotte David'' (1813), National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.David_Etienne_Maurice_Gerard.jpg\|''Étienne-Maurice Gérard'' (1816), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkDavid Vilain.jpg\|''The Comtesse Vilain XIIII and Her Daughter'' (1816), National Gallery, LondonFile:Jacques-Louis David - Portrait of the Comte de Turenne - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Portrait of the Comte de Turenne'' (1816), Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, CopenhagenClevelandart 1962.37.jpg\|''Cupid and Psyche'' (1817), Cleveland Museum of ArtFile:Jacques-Louis David - The Farewell of Telemachus and Eucharis - Google Art Project.jpg\|''The Farewell of Telemachus and Eucharis'' (1818), J. Paul Getty MuseumJacques-Louis David - The Anger of Achilles - Google Art Project.jpg\|''The Anger of Achilles'' (1819), Kimbell Art Museum" ], [ "See also", "* Legacy and memory of Napoleon* Neoclassicism in France" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "**Brookner, Anita, ''Jacques-Louis David'', Chatto & Windus (1980)Chodorow, Stanley, et al.", "The Mainstream of Civilization.", "New York: The Harcourt Press (1994) pg.", "594**Delécluze, E., ''Louis David, son école et son temps'', Paris, (1855) re-edition Macula (1983)Dowd, ''David, Pageant-Master of the Republic'', Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, (1948)*Humbert, Agnès, ''Louis David, peintre et conventionnel: essai de critique marxiste'', Paris, Editions sociales internationales (1936) Humbert, Agnès, ''Louis David'', collection des Maîtres, 60 illustrations, Paris, Braun (1940)**Johnson, Dorothy, ''Jacques-Louis David.", "New Perspectives'', Newark (2006)Lajer-Burcharth, Ewa, ''Necklines.", "The art of Jacques-Louis David after the Terror'', ed.", "Yale University Press, New Haven London (1999)Lee, Simon, ''David'', Phaidon, London (1999).", "Lévêque, Jean-Jacques, ''Jacques-Louis David'' édition Acr Paris (1989)Leymarie, Jean, ''French Painting, the 19th century'', Cleveland (1962)Lindsay, Jack, ''Death of the Hero'', London, Studio Books (1960)Malvone, Laura, ''L'Évènement politique en peinture.", "A propos du Marat de David'' in ''Mélanges de l'École française de Rome, Italie et Méditerranée'' 106, 1 (1994)Michel, R. (ed), ''David contre David'', actes du colloque au Louvre du 6-10 décembre 1989, Paris (1993)Monneret, Sophie Monneret, ''David et le néoclassicisme'', ed.", "Terrail, Paris (1998)Noël, Bernard, ''David'', éd.", "Flammarion, Paris (1989)**Rosenberg, Pierre, Prat, Louis-Antoine, ''Jacques-Louis David 1748-1825.Catalogue raisonné des dessins'', 2 volumes, éd.", "Leonardo Arte, Milan (2002)Rosenberg, Pierre, Peronnet, Benjamin, ''Un album inédit de David'' in ''Revue de l'art'', n°142 (2003–04), pp.", "45–83 (complete the previous reference)* Sahut, Marie-Catherine & Michel, Régis, ''David, l'art et le politique'', coll.", "\"Découvertes Gallimard\" (nº 46), série Peinture.", "Éditions Gallimard et RMN Paris (1988)Sainte-Fare Garnot, N., ''Jacques-Louis David 1748-1825'', Paris, Ed.", "Chaudun (2005)Schnapper, Antoine, ''David témoin de son temps'', Office du Livre, Fribourg, (1980)Thévoz, Michel, ''Le théâtre du crime.", "Essai sur la peinture de David'', éd.", "de Minuit, Paris (1989)Vanden Berghe, Marc, Plesca, Ioana, ''Nouvelles perspectives sur la Mort de Marat: entre modèle jésuite et références mythologiques'', Bruxelles (2004) / ''New Perspectives on David's Death of Marat'', Brussels (2004) - online on www.art-chitecture.net/publications.php Vanden Berghe, Marc, Plesca, Ioana, ''Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau sur son lit de mort par Jacques-Louis David: saint Sébastien révolutionnaire, miroir multiréférencé de Rome'', Brussels (2005) - online on www.art-chitecture.net/publications.php Vaughan, William and Weston, Helen (eds),''Jacques-Louis David's Marat'', Cambridge (2000) ''The Death of Socrates''.", "Retrieved 29 June 2005.New York Med.", "* Jacques-Louis David, on An Abridged History of Europe.", "Retrieved 29 June 2005* J.L.", "David on CGFA.", "Retrieved 29 June 2005" ], [ "Further reading", "* (see index)" ], [ "External links", "* A Closer Look at David's ''Consecration of Napoleon'' multimedia feature; Louvre museum official website* ''The Intervention of the Sabines'' (Louvre museum)* Web Gallery of Art* www.jacqueslouisdavid.org 101 paintings by Jacques-Louis David* Jacques-Louis David at Olga's Gallery* Jacques-Louis David in the \"History of Art\" * smARThistory: ''Death of Socrates'' * Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute 2005 exhibition, ''Jacques-Louis David: Empire to Exile'' * ''The equestrian portrait of Stanislaw Kostka Potocki'' at the Wilanow Palace Museum" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Design Science License" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Design Science License''' ('''DSL''') is a copyleft license for any type of free content such as text, images, music.", "Unlike other open source licenses, the DSL was intended to be used on any type of copyrightable work, including documentation and source code.", "It was the first “generalized copyleft” license.", "The DSL was written by Michael Stutz.The DSL came out in the 1990s, before the formation of the Creative Commons.", "Once the Creative Commons arrived, Stutz considered the DSL experiment \"over\" and no longer recommended its use." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Copy of the Design Science License" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Drum kit" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''drum kit''' (also called a '''drum set''', '''trap set''', or simply '''drums''') is a collection of drums, cymbals, and sometimes other auxiliary percussion instruments set up to be played by one person.", "The drummer typically holds a pair of matching drumsticks, and uses their feet to operate hi-hat and bass drum pedals.", "A standard kit usually consists of:* A snare drum, mounted on a stand* A bass drum, played with a beater moved by a foot-operated pedal* One or more tom-toms, including rack toms and/or floor toms * One or more cymbals, including a ride cymbal and crash cymbal* Hi-hat cymbals, a pair of cymbals that can be played with a foot-operated pedalThe drum kit is a part of the standard rhythm section and is used in many types of popular and traditional music styles, ranging from rock and pop to blues and jazz.Yoshiki's drum riser at Madison Square Garden__TOC__" ], [ "History", "===Early development===Before the development of the classic drum kit, drums and cymbals used in military and orchestral music settings were played separately by different percussionists.", "In the 1840s, percussionists began to experiment with foot pedals as a way to enable them to play more than one instrument, but these devices would not be mass-produced for another 75 years.", "By the 1860s, percussionists started combining multiple drums into a kit.", "The bass drum, snare drum, cymbals, and other percussion instruments were all struck with hand-held drumsticks.", "Drummers in musical theater appeared in stage shows, where the budget for pit orchestras was often limited due to an insufficient amount of money able to purchase a full percussionist team.", "This contributed to the creation of the drum kit by developing techniques and devices that would enable one person to replace multiple percussionists.Double-drumming was developed to enable one person to play both bass and snare drums with sticks, while the cymbals could be played by tapping the foot on a \"low-boy\".", "With this approach, the bass drum was usually played on beats one and three (in time).", "While the music was first designed to accompany marching soldiers, this simple and straightforward drumming approach led to the birth of ragtime music, when the simple marching beats became more syncopated.", "This resulted in a greater swing and dance feel.", "The drum kit was initially referred to as a \"trap set\", and from the late 1800s to the 1930s, drummers were referred to as \"trap drummers\".", "By the 1870s, drummers were using an overhang pedal.", "Most drummers in the 1870s preferred to do double-drumming without any pedal to play multiple drums, rather than use an overhang pedal.", "Companies patented their pedal systems, such as that of drummer Edward \"Dee Dee\" Chandler of New Orleans in 1904 or 1905.This led to the bass drum being played by percussionists standing and using their feet, hence the term \"kick drum\".", "William F. Ludwig Sr. and his brother Theobald founded Ludwig & Ludwig Co. in 1909 and patented the first commercially successful bass drum pedal system.", "In 1912, drummers replaced sticks with wire brushes and, later, metal fly swatters as the louder sounds made by using drumsticks could overpower other instruments.===20th century===By World War I, drum kits were often marching-band-style bass drums with many percussion items around them and suspended from them.", "Drum kits became a central part of jazz, especially Dixieland.", "The modern drum kit was developed in the vaudeville era, during the 1920s, in New Orleans.Drummers such as Baby Dodds, Zutty Singleton, and Ray Bauduc took the idea of marching rhythms and combined the bass drum, snare drum, and \"traps\"a term used to refer to the percussion instruments associated with immigrant groups, which included miniature cymbals, tom toms, cowbells, and woodblocks.", "They started incorporating these elements into ragtime, which had been popular for a few decades, creating an approach that evolved into a jazz drumming style.Budget constraints and space considerations in musical theater pit orchestras led bandleaders to pressure percussionists to cover more percussion parts.", "Metal consoles were developed to hold Chinese tom-toms, with swing-out stands for snare drums and cymbals.", "On top of the console was a \"contraption\" tray (shortened to \"trap\"), used to hold items like whistles, klaxons, and cowbells.", "These kits were dubbed \"trap kits\".", "Hi-hat stands became available around 1926.In 1918, Baby Dodds, playing on Mississippi River riverboats with Louis Armstrong, modified the military marching setup, experimenting with playing the drum rims instead of woodblocks, hitting cymbals with sticks (which was not yet common), and adding a side cymbal above the bass drum, which became known as the ride cymbal.", "William Ludwig developed the \"sock\" or early low-mounted hi-hat after observing Dodds' drumming.", "Dodds asked Ludwig to raise the newly produced low-hat cymbal nine inches to make them easier to play, thus creating the modern hi-hat cymbal.", "Dodds was one of the first drummers to play the broken-triplet beat that became the standard rhythm of modern ride cymbal playing.", "He also popularized the use of Chinese cymbals.", "Recording technology was crude, which meant loud sounds could distort the recording.", "To get around this, Dodds used woodblocks and drum rims as quieter alternatives to cymbals and drum skins.In the 1920s, freelance drummers were hired to play at shows, concerts, theaters, and clubs to support dancers and musicians of various genres.", "Orchestras were hired to accompany silent films, and the drummer was responsible for providing the sound effects.", "Sheet music from the 1920s shows that the drummer's sets were starting to evolve in size to support the various acts.", "However, by 1930, films with audio were more popular, and many were accompanied by pre-recorded soundtracks.", "This technological breakthrough put thousands of drummers who served as sound effects specialists out of work, with some drummers obtaining work as foley artists for those motion-picture sound tracks." ], [ "Playing", "===Grooves===Kit drumming, whether accompanying voices and other instruments or performing a drum solo, consists of two elements:* A groove that sets the basic time-feel and provides a rhythmic framework for the song (examples include a backbeat or shuffle).", "Grooves can set the mood of the song.", "* Drum fills and other ornaments and variations that provide variety and add interest to the drum sound.", "Fills could include a sting at the end of a musical section or act as a drum showpiece.===Fills===A fill is a departure from the repetitive rhythm pattern in a song.", "A drum fill can be used to \"fill in\" the space between the end of one verse and the beginning of another verse or chorus.", "Fills vary from a simple few strokes on a tom or snare to a distinctive rhythm played on the hi-hat, to sequences several bars long that are short virtuosic drum solos.", "As well as adding interest and variation to the music, fills serve an important function in indicating significant changes of sections in songs as well as linking them together.", "A ''vocal cue'' is a short drum fill that introduces a singer's entrance into the piece.", "A fill ending with a cymbal crash on beat one is often used to lead into a chorus or verse.===Drum solos===A drum solo is an instrumental section that highlights the drums.", "While other instrument solos are typically accompanied by the other rhythm section instruments (e.g., bass guitar and electric guitar), for most drum solos, the band members stop playing so that all focus will be on the drummer.", "In some drum solos, the other rhythm section instrumentalists may play \"punches\" at certain pointssudden, loud chords of short duration.", "Drum solos are common in jazz but are also used in several rock genres, such as heavy metal and progressive rock.", "During drum solos, drummers have a degree of creative freedom, allowing them to use complex polyrhythms that would otherwise be unsuitable with an ensemble.", "In live concerts, drummers may be given extended drum solos, even in genres where drum solos are rare on recordings.===Grip===A pair of drumsticks held in traditional grip.Most drummers hold the drumsticks in one of two types of grip:# The traditional grip, originally developed for playing side drum in marching ensembles where the sticks are most commonly held with an overhand grip for the right hand and an underhand grip for the left# The matched grip, in which both sticks are held the same way" ], [ "Components", "===Drums=======Bass drum====The bass drum (also known as the \"kick drum\") is the lowest-pitched drum and usually provides the beat or timing element with basic pulse patterns.", "Some drummers may use two or more bass drums or a double pedal on a single bass drum, which enables a drummer to play a double-bass-drum style with only one drum.", "This saves space in recording/performance areas and reduces time and effort during set-up, taking down, and transportation.", "Double bass drumming is a technique used in certain genres, including heavy metal and progressive rock.====Snare drum====Snare drum on a modern light-duty snare drum standThe snare drum provides the backbeat.", "When applied in this fashion, it supplies strong regular accents played by the non-dominant hand and is the backbone for many fills.", "Its distinctive sound can be attributed to the bed of stiff metal wires held under tension against the bottom head (known as the snare head).", "When the top head (known as the batter head) is struck with a drumstick, the snare wires vibrate, creating a snappy, staccato buzzing sound, along with the sound of the stick striking the batter head.====Toms====Keith Moon of The Who with a mixture of concert toms and conventional toms, 1975Tom-tom drums, or toms for short, are drums without snares and played with sticks (or whatever tools the music style requires) and are the most numerous drums in most kits.", "They provide the bulk of most drum fills and solos.They include:* Traditional double-headed rack toms of varying diameters and depths* Floor toms (generally the widest and largest toms, which also makes them the lowest-pitched toms)* Single-headed concert toms* RototomsThe smallest and largest drums without snares (octobans and gong drums, respectively) are sometimes considered toms.", "The naming of common configurations (four-piece, five-piece, etc.)", "is largely a reflection of the number of toms, as conventionally only the drums are counted, and these configurations all contain one snare and one or more bass drums, (though not regularly any standardized use of two bass/kick drums) the balance usually being made up by toms.====Other drums====Anders Johansson with an array of octobansOctobans are smaller toms designed for use in a drum kit, extending the tom range upwards in pitch, primarily by their great depth and small diameter.", "They are also called rocket toms and tube toms.Timbales are tuned much higher than a tom of the same diameter, typically have drum shells made of metal, and are normally played with very light, thin, non-tapered sticks.", "Timbales are more common in Latin music.", "They have thin heads and a very different tone than a tom but are used by some drummers/percussionists to extend the tom range upwards.", "Alternatively, they can be fitted with tom heads and tuned as shallow concert toms.Attack timbales and mini timbales are reduced-diameter timbales designed for drum kit usage, the smaller diameter allowing for thicker heads providing the same pitch and head tension.", "They are recognizable in genres of the 2010s and more traditional forms of Latin, reggae, and numerous other styles.Gong drums are a rare extension of a drum kit.", "This single-headed mountable drum appears similar to a bass drum (around 20–24 inches in diameter) but is played with sticks rather than a foot-operated pedal and therefore has the same purpose as a floor tom.Most hand drums cannot be played with drumsticks without risking damage to the head and bearing edge, which is not protected by a metal drum rim.", "For use in a drum kit, they may be fitted with a metal drum head and played with sticks with care, or played by hand.===Cymbals===Mike Portnoy, drummer of Dream Theater, with a multitude of cymbals.", "Rio de Janeiro, 7 March 2008In most drum kits and drum/percussion kits, cymbals are as prominent as the drums themselves.", "The oldest idiophones in music are cymbals, a version of which were used throughout the ancient Near East very early in the Bronze Age period.", "Cymbals are mostly associated with Turkey and Turkish craftsmanship, where Zildjian has made them since 1623.While most drummers purchase cymbals individually, beginner cymbal packs were brought to market to provide entry-level cymbals for the novice drummer.", "The kits normally contain four cymbals: one ride, one crash, and a pair of hi-hats.", "Some contain only three cymbals, using a crash/ride instead of the separate ride and crash.", "The sizes closely follow those given in Common configurations below.", "Most drummers extend the normal configuration by adding another crash, a splash, and/or a china/effects cymbal.====Ride cymbal====The ride cymbal is most often used for keeping a constant rhythm pattern, every beat or more often, as the music requires.", "Development of this ride technique is generally credited to jazz drummer Baby Dodds.Most drummers have a single main ride, located near their dominant handwithin easy playing reach, as it is used regularlyoften a 20\"–22\" in diameter, but diameters of 16\"–26\" are not uncommon.", "It is usually a medium-heavy- to heavy-weight cymbal whose sound that cuts through other instrumental sounds.", "Some drummers use a swish cymbal, sizzle cymbal, or other exotic or lighter metal rides, as the main or only ride in their kit, particularly for jazz, gospel, or ballad/folk sounds.", "In the 1960s, Ringo Starr of the Beatles used a sizzle cymbal as a second ride, particularly during guitar solos.====Hi-hats====Two hi-hat cymbals mounted in a pedal-operated stand, which allows the drummer to close or open the cymbals.Hi-hat cymbals (nicknamed \"hats\") consist of two cymbals mounted, one upside down, with their bottoms facing each other, on a hollow metal support cylinder with folding support legs that keep the support cylinder vertical.", "Like the bass drum, the hi-hat has a foot pedal.", "The bottom cymbal is fixed in place.", "The top cymbal is mounted on a thin rod, which is inserted into the hollow cymbal stand.", "The thin rod is connected to a foot pedal.", "When the foot pedal is pressed down, it causes the thin rod to move down, causing the upper cymbal to move and strike the lower.", "When the foot is lifted off the pedal, the upper cymbal rises, due to the pedal's spring-loaded mechanism.", "The hi-hats can be sounded by striking the cymbals with one or two sticks or just by closing and opening the cymbals with the foot pedal.", "The ability to create rhythms on the hi-hats with the foot alone expands the drummer's ability to create sounds, as the hands are freed up to play on the drums or other cymbals.", "Different sounds can be created by striking \"open hi-hats\" (without the pedal depressed, which creates a noisy sound nicknamed \"sloppy hats\") or a crisp \"closed hi-hats\" sound (with the pedal pressed down).", "High hats can also be struck with the pedal partially depressed.A unique effect can be created by striking an open hi-hat (where the two cymbals are apart) and then closing the cymbals with the foot pedal.", "This effect is widely used in disco and funk.", "The hi-hat has a similar function to the ride cymbal; the two are rarely played consistently for long periods at the same time, but one or the other is often used to keep what is known as the \"ride rhythm\" (e.g., eighth or sixteenth notes) in a song.", "The hi-hats are played by the right stick of a right-handed drummer.", "Changing between ride and hi-hat, or between either and a \"leaner\" sound with neither, is often used to mark a change from one song section to another.====Crashes====Crash cymbals are usually the strongest accent markers within the kit, marking crescendos and climaxes, vocal entries, and major changes of mood, swells, and effects.", "A crash cymbal is often accompanied by a strong kick on the bass drum pedal, both for musical effect and to support the stroke.", "It provides a fuller sound and is a commonly taught technique.In jazz, using the smallest kits and at very high volumes, ride cymbals may be played with the technique and sound of a crash cymbal.", "Some hi-hats will also give a useful crash, particularly thinner hats or those with a severe taper.", "Alternatively, specialized crash/ride and ride/crash cymbals are designed to combine both functions.====Other cymbals=========Effects cymbals=====All cymbals, other than rides, hi-hats, and crashes/splashes, are usually called effects cymbals when used in a drum kit, though this is a non-classical or colloquial designation that has become standardized.", "Most extended kits include one or more splash cymbals and at least one china cymbal.", "Major cymbal makers produce cymbal extension packs consisting of one splash and one china, or more rarely a second crash, a splash, and a china, to match some of their starter packs of ride, crash, and hi-hats.", "However, any combination of options can be found in the marketplace.Sabian O-zone \"vented\" crash cymbalSome cymbals may be considered effects in some kits but \"basic\" in another set of components.", "Likewise, Ozone crashes have the same purpose as a standard crash cymbal, but are considered to be effects cymbals due to their rarity, and the holes cut into them, which provide a darker, more resonant attack.=====Accent cymbals=====Cymbals, of any type, used to provide an accent, rather than a regular pattern or groove, are known as accent cymbals.", "While any cymbal can be used to provide an accent, the term is more narrowly applied to cymbals for which the main purpose is to provide an accent.", "Accent cymbals include chime cymbals, small-bell domed cymbals, and those cymbals with a clear sonorous/oriental chime to them, such as specialized crash, splash, and china cymbals.=====Low-volume cymbals=====Low-volume cymbals are a specialty type of cymbal, made to produce about 80% less volume than a typical cymbal.", "The entire surface of the cymbal is perforated by holes.", "Drummers use low-volume cymbals to play in small venues or as a way to practice without disturbing others.===Other acoustic instruments===Günter Sommer with bodhrán and bongo drums in his kitOther instruments that have regularly been incorporated into drum kits include:* Wood block and cowbell, especially in classic rock and other genres.", "* Tambourine, particularly mounted on the hi-hat stand above the cymbals; an ordinary tambourine can be used, or a tambourine produced specially for drum kit use.", "* Timbales can be used to extend the range of tom-toms, particularly when the drummer owns them for other musical settings; a traditional timbale is tuned far higher than a tom of the same diameter, so the result is not always the most ideal.", "* Keyboard percussion instruments, such as tubular bells or a glockenspiel.", "* Gongs.", "* Triangles.", "* Found objects, including spanners, brake drums, buckets, cardboard boxes, washboards, oil barrels, and jam and kerosene tins (anything ordinary that can be struck to produce sounds, patterns, and grooves).See also Extended kits below.===Electronic drums===Triggers sensors in use, here they are red and mounted on the rims of the snare drum, bass drum and hanging toms.", "The larger box in the same color of red is the \"brain\" to which they are connected.A Korg trigger padPat Mastelotto playing a kit with both acoustic and electronic drums, 2005Drum controllers, such as the Roland V-Drums, are often built in the form of an acoustic drum kit.", "The unit's sound module is mounted to the left.Electronic drums are used for many reasons.", "Some drummers use electronic drums for playing in small venues, such as coffeehouses or church services, where a very low volume for the band is desired.", "Since fully electronic drums do not create any acoustic sound (apart from the quiet sound of the stick hitting the sensor pads), all of the drum sounds come from a keyboard amplifier or PA system; as such, the volume of electronic drums can be much lower than an acoustic kit.", "Some use electronic drums as practice instruments because they can be listened to with headphones, which enable a drummer to practice without disturbing others.", "Others use electronic drums to take advantage of the huge range of sounds that modern drum modules can produce, which range from sampled sounds of real drums, cymbals, and percussion instruments such as gongs or tubular bells that would be impractical to take to a small gig, to electronic and synthesized sounds, including non-instrument sounds such as ocean waves.A fully electronic kit is easier to soundcheck than acoustic drums, assuming that the electronic drum module has levels that the drummer has preset in their practice room; in contrast, when an acoustic kit is sound checked, most drums and cymbals need to be mic'd and each mic needs to be tested by the drummer so its level and tone equalization can be adjusted by the sound engineer.", "Also, even after all the individual drum and cymbal mics are sound checked, the engineer needs to listen to the drummer play a standard groove, to check that the balance between the kit instruments is right.", "Finally, the engineer needs to set up the monitor mix for the drummer, which the drummer uses to hear their instruments and the instruments and vocals of the rest of the band.", "With a fully electronic kit, many of these steps can be eliminated.Drummers' usage of electronic drum equipment can range from adding a single electronic pad to an entire drum kit (e.g., to have access to an instrument that might otherwise be impractical, such as a large gong), to using a mix of acoustic drums/cymbals and electronic pads, to using an acoustic kit in which the drums and cymbals have triggers, which can be used to sound electronic drums and other sounds, to having an exclusively electronic kit, which is often set up with the rubber or mesh drum pads and rubber \"cymbals\" in the usual drum kit locations.", "A fully electronic kit weighs much less and takes up less space to transport than an acoustic kit and it can be set up more quickly.", "One of the disadvantages of a fully electronic kit is that it may not have the same \"feel\" as an acoustic kit, and the drum sounds, even if they are high-quality samples, may not sound the same as acoustic drums.Electronic drum pads are the second most widely used type of MIDI performance controllers, after electronic keyboards.", "Drum controllers may be built into drum machines, they may be standalone control surfaces (e.g., rubber drum pads), or they may emulate the look and feel of acoustic percussion instruments.", "The pads built into drum machines are typically too small and fragile to be played with sticks, so they are usually played with fingers.", "Dedicated drum pads such as the Roland Octapad or the DrumKAT are playable with hands or sticks and are often built to resemble the general form of acoustic drums.", "There are also percussion controllers such as the vibraphone-style MalletKAT, and Don Buchla's Marimba Lumina.MIDI triggers can also be installed into acoustic drum and percussion instruments.", "Pads that trigger a MIDI device can be homemade from a piezoelectric sensor and a practice pad or other piece of foam rubber, which is possible in two ways:* Triggers are sensors that can be attached to acoustic drum kit components.", "In this way, an electronic drum sound will be produced when the instrument is played/struck, as well as the original acoustic sound, if so desired.", "* Trigger pads can be mounted alongside other kit components.", "These pads make no significant acoustic sound themselves (if not modified to do otherwise), but are used purely to trigger the electronic sounds from the \"drum brain\".", "They are played with the same drum sticks as are used on other drum kit components.In either case, an electronic control unit (sound module/\"brain\") with suitable sampled/modeled or synthesized drum sounds, amplification equipment (a PA system, keyboard amp, etc.", "), and stage monitor speakers are required to hear the electronically produced sounds.", "See Triggered drum kit.A trigger pad could contain up to four independent sensors, each of them capable of sending information describing the timing and dynamic intensity of a stroke to the drum module/brain.", "A circular drum pad may have only one sensor for triggering, but a 2016-era cymbal-shaped rubber pad/cymbal will often contain two; one for the body and one for the bell at the center of the cymbal, and perhaps a cymbal choke trigger, to allow drummers to produce this effect.Trigger sensors are most commonly used to replace the acoustic drum sounds, but they can also be used effectively with an acoustic kit to augment or supplement an instrument's sound for the needs of the session or show.", "For example, in a live performance in a difficult acoustical space, a trigger may be placed on each drum or cymbal and used to trigger a similar sound on a drum module.", "These sounds are then amplified through a PA system so the audience can hear them, and they can be amplified to any level without the risks of audio feedback or bleed problems associated with microphones and PAs in certain settings.The sound of electronic drums and cymbals themselves is heard by the drummer and possibly other musicians in close proximity, but, even so, the foldback (audio monitor) system is usually fed from the electronic sounds rather than the live acoustic sounds.", "The drums can be heavily dampened (made to resonate less or have the sound subdued), and their tuning and quality is less critical in the latter scenario.", "In this way, much of the atmosphere of the live performance is retained in a large venue, but without some of the problems associated with purely microphone-amplified drums.", "Triggers and sensors can also be used in conjunction with conventional or built-in microphones.", "If some components of a kit prove more difficult to mic than others (e.g., an excessively \"boomy\" low tom), triggers may be used on only the more difficult instruments, balancing out a drummer's/band's sound in the mix.Trigger pads and drums, on the other hand, when deployed in a conventional set-up, are most commonly used to produce sounds not possible with an acoustic kit, or at least not with what is available.", "Any sound that can be sampled/recorded can be played when the pad is struck, by assigning the recorded sounds to specific triggers.", "Recordings or samples of barking dogs, sirens, breaking glass, and stereo recordings of aircraft taking off and landing have all been used.", "Along with the more obvious electronically generated drums, there are other sounds that (depending on the device used) can also be played/triggered by electronic drums.====Virtual drums====Virtual drums are a type of audio software that simulates the sound of a drum kit using synthesized drum kit sounds or digital samples of acoustic drum sounds.", "Different drum software products offer a recording function, the ability to select from several acoustically distinctive drum kits (e.g., jazz, rock, metal), as well as the option to incorporate different songs into the session.", "Some computer software can turn any hard surface into a virtual drum kit using only one microphone.===Hardware===Hardware is the name given to the metal stands that support the drums, cymbals, and other percussion instruments.", "Generally, the term also includes the hi-hat pedal and clutch, and bass drum pedal or pedals, and the drum stool.Hardware is carried along with sticks and other accessories in the traps case, and includes:* Cymbal stands* Hi-hat stand* Floor tom legs* Tom-tom drum brackets or arms* Snare drum stand* Bass drum pedal or pedals* Drum key* Assorted accessories such as spare washers, cymbal sleeves, wire snare cords, washers for tension rods, etc.Many or even all of the stands may be replaced by a drum rack, which is particularly useful for large drum kits.Drummers often set up their own drum hardware onstage and adjust it to their comfort level.", "Major bands on tour will often have a drum tech who knows how to set up the drummer's hardware and instruments in the desired location and with the desired configuration." ], [ "Common configurations", "A two-piece kit in actionDrum kits are traditionally categorized by the number of drums, ignoring cymbals and other instruments.", "Snare, tom-tom, and bass drums are always counted; other drums, such as octobans, may or may not be counted.Traditionally, in America and the United Kingdom, drum sizes are expressed as ''depth x diameter'', both measured in inches.", "Many drum kit manufacturers have recently been expressing sizes as ''diameter x depth'', still in inches.", "For example, a hanging tom 12 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep would be described by Tama as 8 inches × 12 inches, but by Pearl as 12 inches × 8 inches, and a standard diameter Ludwig snare drum 5 inches deep is a 5-inch × 14-inch instrument, while the UK's Premier Manufacturer offers the same dimensions as a 14-inch × 5-inch snare.", "The sizes of drums and cymbals given below are typical.", "Many instruments differ slightly or radically from them.", "Where no size is given, it is because there is too much variety to give a typical size.===Three-piece===A three-piece drum set is the most basic set.", "A conventional three-piece kit consists of a bass drum, a 14\"-diameter snare drum, 12\"–14\" hi-hats, a single 12\"-diameter hanging tom, 8\"–9\" in depth, and a suspended 14\"–18\" cymbal, the latter two mounted on the bass drum.", "These kits were common in the 1950s and 1960s and are still used.", "It is a common configuration of kits sold through mail order, and, with smaller sized drums and cymbals, of kits for children.===Four-piece===Mitch Mitchell playing a classic four-piece kit in the Jimi Hendrix ExperienceA four-piece kit extends the three-piece by adding one tom, either a second hanging tom mounted on the bass drum (a notable user is Chris Frantz of Talking Heads) and often displacing the cymbal, or by adding a floor tom.", "Normally another cymbal is added as well, so there are separate ride and crash cymbals, either on two stands, or the ride cymbal mounted on the bass drum to the player's right and the crash cymbal on a separate stand.", "The standard cymbal sizes are 16\" for the crash, and 18\"–20\", ride, with the 20\" ride cymbal the most common.====Four piece with floor tom====When a floor tom is added to make a four-piece kit, the floor tom is usually 14\" for jazz, and 16\" otherwise.", "This configuration is common in jazz and rock.", "Notable users include Ringo Starr of The Beatles, Mitch Mitchell of the Jimi Hendrix Experience, John Barbata of the Turtles, and various jazz drummers throughout the 20th century, including Art Blakey, Buddy Rich, and Jo Jones.", "For jazz, which normally emphasizes the use of a ride cymbal for swing patterns, the lack of second hanging tom in a four-piece kit allows the cymbal to be positioned closer to the drummer, making it easier to play.If a second hanging tom is used, it is 10\" diameter and 8\" deep for fusion, or 13\" diameter and one inch deeper than for the 12\" diameter tom.", "Otherwise, a 14\" diameter hanging tom is added to the 12\", both being 8\" deep.", "In any case, both toms are most often mounted on the bass drum with the smaller of the two next to the hi-hats (which are to the left for a right-handed drummer).", "These kits are particularly useful for smaller venues, where space is limited, such as coffeehouses, cafés, hotel lounges, and small pubs.===Five-piece===A basic five-piece kit, with one crash cymbal and no effects cymbals, complete with throne and sticksThe five-piece kit is the full-size kit and is the most common configuration used across various genres and styles.", "It adds a third tom to the four-piece kit, making for three toms in all.", "A fusion kit will normally add a 14\" tom, either a floor tom or a hanging tom on a stand to the right of the bass drum; in either case, making the tom lineup 10\", 12\" and 14\".", "Having three toms enables drummers to have high-, middle-, and low-pitched toms, which gives them more options for fills and solos.Other kits will normally have 12\" and 13\" hanging toms and either a 14\" hanging tom on a stand, a 14\" floor tom, or a 16\" floor tom.", "It is common to have 10\" and 12\" hanging toms, with a 16\" floor tom.", "This configuration is often called a hybrid setup.", "The bass drum is most commonly 22\" in diameter, but rock kits may use 24\", fusion 20\", jazz 18\", and, in larger bands, up to 26\".", "A second crash cymbal is common, typically an inch or two larger or smaller than the 16\" one, with the larger of the two to the right for a right-handed drummer.", "A big band drummer may use crashes up to 20\" and a ride up to 24\" or, very rarely, 26\".", "A rock kit may also substitute a larger ride cymbal or larger hi-hats, typically 22\" for the ride and 15\" for the hats.Most five-piece kits, except for entry-level, also have one or more effects cymbals.", "Adding cymbals beyond the basic ride, hi-hats, and one-crash configuration requires more stands, in addition to the standard drum hardware packs.", "Because of this, many higher-cost kits for professionals are sold with little or no hardware, to allow the drummer to choose the stands and bass drum pedal they prefer.", "At the other extreme, many inexpensive, entry-level kits are sold as a five-piece kit complete with two cymbal stands, most often one straight and one boom, and some even with a standard cymbal pack, a stool, and a pair of 5A drum sticks.", "In the 2010s, digital kits were often offered in a five-piece kit, usually with one plastic crash cymbal trigger and one ride cymbal trigger.", "Fully electronic drums do not produce any acoustic sound beyond the quiet tapping of sticks on the plastic or rubber heads.", "Their trigger-pads are wired up to a synth module or sampler.===Small kits===Slim Jim Phantom playing a two-piece kit while standingIf the toms are omitted completely, or the bass drum is replaced by a pedal-operated beater on the bottom skin of a floor tom and the hanging toms omitted, the result is a two-piece cocktail drum kit, originally developed for cocktail lounge acts.", "Such kits are particularly favored in musical genres such as trad jazz, bebop, rockabilly, and jump blues.", "Some rockabilly kits and beginner kits for very young players omit the hi-hat stand.", "In rockabilly, this allows the drummer to play standing rather than seated.", "A very simple jazz kit for informal or amateur jam sessions consists of a bass drum, snare drum, and hi-hat, often with only a single cymbal (normally a ride, with or without sizzlers).Although these kits may be small with respect to the number of drums used, the drums themselves are most often of normal size, or even larger in the case of the bass drum.", "Kits using smaller drums, in both smaller and larger configurations, are for particular uses, such as boutique kits designed to reduce the visual impact of a large kit, kits that need to fit into small spaces in coffeehouses, traveling kits to reduce luggage volume, and junior kits for very young players.", "Smaller drums also tend to be quieter, again suiting smaller venues, and many of these kits extend this with extra muffling, which allows for quiet or even silent practice.===Extended kits===heavy metal, jazz fusion, and progressive rock, consisting of double bass drums, two-floor toms, and an extended set of cymbals (three crashes with splash and China-type).A very large kit played by Terry BozzioCommon extensions beyond the standard configurations include:* Effects cymbals, particularly splash cymbals and china cymbals* Double bass drums or a double bass pedal are standard for some genres, particularly heavy metal music* Extra hanging or rack toms* Extra crash cymbals* A crash/ride cymbal, in addition to the main ride cymbal* A second floor tom, either larger or smaller than the first* One or more octobans, or a pair of timbales* A second pair of hi-hats mounted as cable hats or x-hats* Cymbal stacks* Different types of gongs* Multiple ride cymbals; a sizzle cymbal, thinner and larger than the main ride, was once common as a second ride or crash/ride, even in a four-piece kit, but is now less so (jazz drummers, however, may still have two or more ride cymbals, even as part of a small kit).", "* An additional electronic sound module or sequencerSee also other acoustic instruments above.", "Another versatile extension becoming increasingly common is the use of some electronic drums in a mainly acoustic kit.Less common extensions found particularly, but not exclusively, in very large kits, include:* Multiple snare drums, usually in the form of side snares.", "A side snare is usually positioned to the left of the drummer (opposite the floor toms and to the left of the hi hat).", "Side snares are used, similarly to effects cymbals, when an additional and different sound is required.", "Generally only one side snare is used in a kit, if any at all.", "* Multiple bass drums beyond the double bass drum setup* Gong drums (single-headed bass drums, played with sticks or mallets)* Sets of gongs, tuned or untuned* Sound effects such as a thunder sheet* One or more crotales* Instruments \"borrowed\" from orchestral percussion, such as timpani* Instruments \"borrowed\" from marching band percussion, such as the tuned bass drums used in the drumline" ], [ "Accessories", "===Sticks===Tools of the trade: 7N, 5B, \"double bummer\", and side drum No.", "3 sticks, standard 19 cane rutes, sheathed 7 cane rutes, nylon brushes, steel brushes, and cartwheelsSticks are traditionally made from wood (particularly maple, hickory, and oak), but more recently, metal, carbon fiber, and other materials have been used for sticks.", "The prototypical wooden drum stick was primarily designed for use with the snare drum, and optimized for playing snare rudiments.", "Sticks come in a variety of weights and tip designs; 7N is a common jazz stick with a nylon tip, while a 5B is a common wood tipped stick, heavier than a 7N but with a similar profile, and a common standard for beginners.", "Numbers range from 1 (heaviest) to 10 (lightest).The meanings of both numbers and letters vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, and some sticks are not described using this system at all, just being known as ''Smooth Jazz'' (typically a 7N or 9N) or ''Speed Rock'' (typically a 2B or 3B) for example.", "Many famous drummers endorse sticks made to their particular preference and sold under their signature.Besides drumsticks, drummers will also use brushes and Rutes in jazz and similar soft music.", "More rarely, other beaters such as cartwheel mallets (known to kit drummers as \"soft sticks\") may be used.", "It is not uncommon for rock drummers to use the \"wrong\" (butt) end of a stick for a heavier sound; some makers produce tipless sticks with two butt ends.A stick bag is the standard way for a drummer to bring drumsticks to a live performance.", "For easy access, the stick bag is commonly mounted on the side of the floor tom, just within reach of the drummer's right hand, for a right-handed drummer.===Muffles===Mylar muffle ring on snareDrum muffles are types of mutes that can reduce the ring, boomy overtone frequencies, or overall volume on a snare, bass, or tom.", "Controlling the ring is useful in studio or live settings when unwanted frequencies can clash with other instruments in the mix.", "There are internal and external muffling devices which rest on the inside or outside of the drumhead, respectively.", "Common types of mufflers include muffling rings, gels and duct tape, and improvised methods, such as placing a wallet near the edge of the head.", "Some drummers muffle the sound of a drum by putting a cloth over the drumhead.", "'''Snare drum and tom-tom'''Typical ways to muffle a snare or tom include placing an object on the outer edge of the drumhead.", "A piece of cloth, a wallet, gel, or fitted rings made of mylar are common objects.", "Also used are external clip-on muffles.", "Internal mufflers that lie on the inside of the drumhead are often built into a drum, but are generally considered less effective than external muffles, as they stifle the initial tone, rather than simply reducing its sustain.", "'''Bass drum'''Muffling the bass can be achieved with the same muffling techniques as for the snare, but bass drums in a drum kit are more commonly muffled by adding pillows, a sleeping bag, or other soft filling inside the drum, between the heads.", "Cutting a small hole in the resonant head can also produce a more muffled tone, and allows the manipulation of internally placed muffling.", "The Evans EQ pad places a pad against the batterhead and, when struck, the pad moves off the head momentarily, then returns to rest against the head, thus reducing the sustain without choking the tone.", "'''Silencers/mutes'''Another type of drum muffler is a piece of rubber that fits over the entire drumhead or cymbal.", "It interrupts contact between the stick and the head, which dampens the sound.", "They are typically used in practice settings.", "'''Cymbals''' are usually muted with the fingers or hand, to reduce the length or volume of ringing (e.g., the cymbal choke technique which is a key part of heavy metal drumming).", "Cymbals can also be muted with special rubber rings or duct tape.", "'''Historical uses'''Muffled drums are often associated with funeral ceremonies as well, such as the funerals of Queen Victoria and John F. Kennedy.", "The use of muffled drums has been written about by such poets as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Mayne, and Theodore O'Hara.", "Drums have also been used for therapy and learning purposes, such as when an experienced player will sit with a number of students and by the end of the session have all of them relaxed and playing complex rhythms.===Stick holder===There are various types of stick holder accessories, including bags that can be attached to a drum and angled sheath-style stick holders, which can hold a single pair of sticks.===Sizzlers===Paiste 2002 18\" medium cymbal fitted with a chain sizzlerA sizzler is a metal chain, or combination of chains, that is hung across a cymbal, creating a distinctive metallic sound when the cymbal is struck, similar to that of a sizzle cymbal.", "Using a sizzler is the non-destructive alternative to drilling holes in a cymbal and putting metal rivets in the holes.", "Another benefit of using a \"sizzler\" chain is that the chain is removable, with the cymbal being easily returned to its normal sound.Some sizzlers feature pivoting arms that allow the chains to be quickly lowered onto, or raised from, the cymbal, allowing the effect to be used for some songs and removed for others.===Cases===From left: traps case, floor tom case, snare case (front), twin hanging toms case, cymbal case, bass drum case (rear)Three types of protective covers are common for kit drums:* Drum bags are made from robust cloth such as cordura or from cloth-backed vinyl.", "They give minimal protection from bumps and impacts, but they do protect drums and cymbals from precipitation.", "They are adequate for drums transported in private vehicles to local gigs and sessions.", "They are often the only option for young drummers who are just starting out.", "* Mid-price hard cases are of similar construction to suitcases, commonly made of fiber composite.", "The offer more protection from bumps than cloth bags.", "* Flight cases or road cases are standard for professional touring drummers.As with all musical instruments, the best protection is provided by a combination of a hard-shelled case with interior padding, such as foam, next to the drums and cymbals.===Microphones===Carl Palmer with rim-mounted tom micsMicrophones (\"mics\") are used with drum kits to pick up the sound of the drums and cymbals for a sound recording and/or to pick up the sound of the drum kit so that it can be amplified through a PA system or sound reinforcement system.", "While most drummers use microphones and amplification in live shows, so that the sound engineer can adjust the levels of the drums and cymbals, some bands that play quieter genres of music and in small venues, such as coffeehouses, play acoustically, without mics or PA amplification.", "Small jazz groups, such as jazz quartets or organ trios that are playing in a small bar, will often just use acoustic drums.", "Of course, if the same small jazz groups play on the mainstage of a big jazz festival, the drums will be miced so that they can be adjusted in the sound system mix.", "A middle-ground approach is used by some bands that play in small venues: they do not mic every drum and cymbal, but only the instruments that the sound engineer wants to be able to control in the mix, such as the bass drum and the snare.In miking a drum kit, dynamic microphones, which can handle high sound-pressure levels, are usually used to close-mic drums, which is predominantly the way to mic drums for live shows.", "Condenser microphones are used for overheads and room mics, an approach which is more common with sound recording applications.", "Close miking of drums may be done using stands or by mounting the microphones on the rims of the drums, or even using microphones built into the drum itself, which eliminates the need for stands for such microphones, reducing both clutter and set-up time, as well as better isolating them.For some styles of music, drummers use electronic effects on drums, such as individual noise gates that mute the attached microphone when the signal is below a threshold volume.", "This allows the sound engineer to use a higher overall volume for the drum kit by reducing the number of \"active\" mics which could produce unwanted feedback at any one time.", "When a drum kit is entirely miked and amplified through the sound reinforcement system, the drummer or the sound engineer can add other electronic effects to the drum sound, such as reverb or digital delay.Some drummers arrive at the venue with their drum kit and use the mics and mic stands provided by the venue's sound engineer.", "Other drummers bring all their own mics, or selected mics (e.g., good-quality snare and bass drum mics), to ensure that they have good quality mics on hand.", "In bars and nightclubs, the microphones supplied by the venue can sometimes be in substandard condition, due to the heavy use they experience.===Monitors===Drummers using electronic drums, drum machines, or hybrid acoustic-electric kits (which blend traditional acoustic drums and cymbals with electronic pads) typically use a monitor speaker, keyboard amplifier, or even a small PA system to hear the electronic drum sounds.", "Even a drummer playing entirely acoustic drums may use a monitor speaker to hear the drums, especially if playing in a loud rock or metal band, where there is substantial onstage volume from large, powerful guitar stacks.", "Drummers are often given a large speaker cabinet with a 15\" subwoofer to help them monitor their bass drum sound (along with a full-range monitor speaker to hear the rest of their kit).", "Some sound engineers and drummers prefer to use an electronic vibration system, colloquially known as a \"butt shaker\" or \"throne thumper\" to monitor the bass drum, because this lowers the stage volume.", "With a \"butt shaker\", the \"thump\" of each bass drum strike causes a vibration in the drum stool; this way the drummer ''feels'' their beat on the posterior, rather than hears it.In-Ear Monitors are also popular among drummers since they also work as earplugs.===Bass drum gear===A number of accessories are designed for the bass drum.", "The bass drum can take advantage of the bass reflex speaker design, in which a tuned port (a hole and a carefully measured tube) are put in a speaker enclosure to improve the bass response at the lowest frequencies.", "Bass drumhead patches protect the drumhead from the impact of the felt beater.", "Bass drum pillows are fabric bags with filling or stuffing that can be used to alter the tone or resonance of the bass drum.", "A less expensive alternative to using a specialized bass drum pillow is to use an old sleeping bag.===Gloves===Some drummers wear special drummer's gloves to improve their grip on the sticks when they play.", "Drumming gloves often have a textured grip surface made of a synthetic or rubber material and mesh or vents on the parts of the glove not used to hold sticks, to ventilate perspiration.", "Some drummers wear gloves to prevent blisters.===Drum screen===In some styles or settings—such as country music clubs or churches, small venues, or when a live recording is being made—the drummer may use a transparent Perspex or Plexiglas ''drum screen'' (also known as a ''drum shield'') to dampen the onstage volume of the drums.", "A screen that completely surrounds the drum kit is known as a ''drum booth''.", "In live sound applications, drum shields are used so that the audio engineer can have more control over the volume of drums that the audience hears through the PA system mix, or to reduce the overall volume of the drums, as a way to reduce the overall volume of the band.", "In some recording studios, foam and fabric baffles are used in addition to, or in place of, clear panels.", "The drawback with foam/cloth baffle panels is that the drummer cannot see well other performers, the record producer, or the audio engineer.===Carpets===Drummers often bring a carpet, mats, or rugs to venues to prevent the bass drum and hi-hat stand from \"crawling\" (moving away) on a slippery surface, which can be caused by the drum head striking the bass drum.", "The carpet also reduces short reverberations (which is generally but not always an advantage), and helps to prevent damage to the flooring or floor coverings.", "In shows where multiple drummers will bring their kits onstage over the night, it is common for drummers to mark the location of their stands and pedals with tape, to allow for quicker positioning of a kit to a drummer's accustomed position.", "Bass drums and hi-hat stands commonly have retractable spikes, to help them grip surfaces such as carpet, or rubber feet, to remain stationary on hard surfaces.===Practice equipment===Drummers use a variety of accessories when practicing.", "Metronomes and beat counters are used to develop a sense of a steady beat.", "Drum muffling pads may be used to lessen the volume of drums during practicing.", "A practice pad, held on the lap, on a leg, or mounted on a stand, is used for near-silent practice with drumsticks.", "A set of practice pads mounted to simulate an entire drum kit is known as a practice kit.", "In the 2010s, these have largely been superseded by electronic drums, which can be listened to with headphones for quiet practice and by kits with non-sounding mesh heads.===Tuning equipment===An Arno drum keyDrummers use a drum key for tuning their drums and adjusting some drum hardware.", "Besides the basic type of drum key (a T-handled wrench) there are various tuning wrenches and tools.", "Basic drum keys are divided into three types which allows for tuning of three types of tuning screws on drums: square (most used), slotted, and hexagonal.", "Ratchet-type wrenches allow high-tension drums to be tuned easily.", "Spin keys (utilizing a ball joint) allow for rapid head changing.", "Torque-wrench keys are available, graphically revealing the torque given to each lug.", "Also, tension gauges, or meters, which are set on the head, aid drummers to achieve a consistent tuning.", "Drummers can tune drums \"by ear\" or use a digital drum tuner, which \"measures tympanic pressure\" on the drumhead to provide accurate tuning.===Notation and improvisation===Drum kit music is either written in music notation (called \"drum parts\"), learned and played by ear, improvised, or some combination of any of all three of these methods.", "Professional session musician drummers and big-band drummers are often required to read drum parts.", "Drum parts are most commonly written on a standard five-line staff.", "As of 2016, a special ''percussion clef'' is used, while previously the bass clef was used.", "However, even if the bass, or no, clef is used, each line and space is assigned an instrument in the kit, rather than a pitch.", "In jazz, traditional music, folk music, rock music, and pop music, drummers are expected to be able to learn songs by ear (from a recording or from another musician who is playing or singing the song) and improvise.", "The degree of improvisation differs among different styles.", "Jazz and jazz fusion drummers may have lengthy improvised solos in every song.", "In rock music and blues, there are also drum solos in some songs, although they tend to be shorter than those in jazz.", "Drummers in all popular music and traditional music styles are expected to be able to improvise accompaniment parts to songs, once they are told the genre or style (e.g., shuffle, ballad, blues).===Recording===On early recording media (until 1925), such as wax cylinders and discs carved with an engraving needle, sound balancing meant that musicians had to be moved back in the room.", "Drums were often put far from the horn (part of the mechanical transducer) to reduce sound distortion.In the 2020s, drum parts in many popular music styles are often recorded apart from the other instruments and singers, using multitrack recording techniques.", "Once the drums are recorded, the other instruments (rhythm guitar, piano, etc.", "), and then vocals, are added.", "To ensure that the drum tempo is consistent at this type of recording, the drummer usually plays along with a click track (a type of digital metronome) in headphones.", "The ability to play accurately along with a click track has become an important skill for professional drummers." ], [ "Drum manufacturers", "Manufacturers using the American traditional format in their catalogs include these:* ddrum* Camco* Drum Workshop* Gretsch Drums* Ludwig-Musser* Slingerland Drum Company* Tama DrumsThose using the European measures of diameter and depth include these:* Brady Drum Company* Mapex Drums* Meinl Percussion* Pearl Drums* Premier Percussion* Rogers Drums* Sonor* Yamaha Drums" ], [ "See also", "===People===* Drummer* List of drummers===Styles and techniques===* Drum beat* Jazz drumming===Other===" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \" History of the Drum Set\" with Daniel Glass on YouTube" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dying Earth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Dying Earth''''' is a fantasy series by the American author Jack Vance, comprising four books originally published from 1950 to 1984.Some have been called picaresque.", "They vary from short story collections to a fix-up (novel created from older short stories), perhaps all the way to novel.The first book in the series, ''The Dying Earth'', was ranked number 16 of 33 \"All Time Best Fantasy Novels\" by ''Locus'' in 1987, based on a poll of subscribers, although it was marketed as a collection and the Internet Speculative Fiction Database (ISFDB) calls it a \"loosely connected series of stories\"." ], [ "Setting", "The stories of the ''Dying Earth'' series are set in the distant future, at a point when the sun is almost exhausted and magic has asserted itself as a dominant force.", "The Moon has disappeared and the Sun is in danger of burning out at any time, often flickering as if about to go out, before shining again.", "The various civilizations of Earth have collapsed for the most part into decadence or religious fanaticism and its inhabitants overcome with a fatalistic outlook.", "The Earth is mostly barren and cold, and has become infested with various predatory monsters (possibly created by a magician in a former age).Magic in the Dying Earth is performed by memorizing syllables, and the human brain can only accommodate a certain number at once.", "When a spell is used, the syllables vanish from the caster's mind.", "Creatures called sandestins can be summoned and used to perform more complex actions, but are considered dangerous to rely upon.", "Magic has loose links to the science of old, and advanced mathematics is treated like arcane lore.The Dying Earth exists alongside several Overworlds and Underworlds.", "These help add a sense of profound longing and entrapment to the series.", "While humans can, with relative ease, physically travel to the horrific Underworlds (as Cugel does on several occasions, to his dismay) the vast majority of the population are only capable of mentally visiting the wondrous Overworlds through rare artifacts (e.g.", "through the \"Eyes of the Overworld\") or dangerous magic phenomena (such as the ship Cugel encounters in the deserts).", "Though they can look at the wonders and pretend they are really there, humans can never truly inhabit or escape to these utopias as their physical bodies remain stuck on the Dying Earth and will die with the sun regardless.", "These siren-like visions of paradise lead to the deaths, insanity, and suffering of many, especially during Cugel's journeys.While most remaining civilizations on the Dying Earth are utterly unique in their customs and cultures, there are some common threads.", "Because the moon is gone and wind is often weak (the sun no longer heats the earth as much) the oceans are largely placid bodies of water with no tide and tiny waves.", "To cross them, boats are propelled by giant sea-worms.", "These worms are cared for and controlled by \"Wormingers\".", "In addition, the manses of magicians, protected by walls and spells and monsters, are relatively common sights in inhabited lands." ], [ "Origins", "Vance wrote the stories of the first book while he served in the United States Merchant Marine during World War II.", "In the late 1940s several of his other stories were published in magazines.According to pulp editor Sam Merwin, Vance's earliest magazine submissions in the 1940s were heavily influenced by the style of James Branch Cabell.", "Fantasy historian Lin Carter has noted several probable lasting influences of Cabell on Vance's work, and suggests that the early \"pseudo-Cabell\" experiments bore fruit in ''The Dying Earth'' (1950)." ], [ "Series", "The series comprises four books by Vance and some sequels by other authors that may be or may not have been canonical.", "* ''The Dying Earth'' — 1950 collection of original, related stories* ''The Eyes of the Overworld'' — 1966 fix-up* ''Cugel's Saga'' — 1983 novel* ''Rhialto the Marvellous'' — 1984 collection of related stories and one canonical essayOne 741-page omnibus edition has been issued as ''The Compleat Dying Earth'' (SF Book Club, 1999) and in both the US and UK as ''Tales of the Dying Earth'' (2000).===Stories by Vance===All four books were published with Tables of Contents, the first and fourth as collections.", "The second and third contained mostly material previously published in short story form but were marketed as novels, the second as a fix-up and the third without acknowledging any previous publication.1.", "''The Dying Earth'' (the author's preferred title is ''Mazirian the Magician'') was openly a collection of six stories, all original, although written during Vance's war service.", "ISFDB calls them \"slightly connected\" and catalogs the last as a novella (17,500 to 40,000 word count).", "* \"Turjan of Miir\"* \"Mazirian the Magician\"* \"T'sais\"* \"Liane the Wayfarer\" (also known as \"The Loom of Darkness\")* \"Ulan Dhor Ends a Dream\" (also known as \"Ulan Dhor\")* \"Guyal of Sfere\" (it mentions a \"Lost Book of Kells\", but a later publishing changed the name as there is a Book of Kells)2.", "''The Eyes of the Overworld'' (the author's preferred title is ''Cugel the Clever'') was a fix-up of six stories, presented as seven.", "All were novelettes by word count (7500 to 17,500).", "Five were previously published as noted here.", "* \"The Overworld\", from ''F&SF'' December 1965* \"Cil\" (1966), the original component* \"The Mountains of Magnatz\", from ''F&SF'' February 1966* \"The Sorcerer Pharesm\", from ''F&SF'' April 1966* \"The Pilgrims\", from ''F&SF'' June 1966* \"The Cave in the Forest\", originally the first part of \"The Manse of Iucounu\"* \"The Manse of Iucounu\", from ''F&SF'' July 19663.", "''Cugel's Saga'' (the author's preferred title is ''Cugel: The Skybreak Spatterlight'') was marketed as a novel.", "ISFDB calls it \"twice as large and less episodic than ''The Eyes of the Overworld''\" but qualifies that label.", "\"This is marketed as a novel, but there is a table of contents, and some of the parts were previously published (although none are acknowledged thus).\"", "It catalogs previous publication of three chapters without remark on the degree of revision.", "* \"Flutic\", the first part of the first chapter, published separately in the Italian anthology ''Fantasy'' (March 1996) and rereleased in English in ''Coup de Grace and Other Stories'', a sampler of the Vance Integral Edition* \"The Inn of Blue Lamps\"* \"Aboard the Galante\"* \"Lausicaa\"* \"The Ocean of Sighs\"* \"The Columns\"* \"Faucelme\"* \"On the Docks\"* \"The Caravan\"* \"The Seventeen Virgins\", from ''F&SF'' October 1974* \"The Bagful of Dreams\", from ''Flashing Swords #4'', ed.", "Lin Carter, May 1977* \"The Four Wizards\"* \"Spatterlight\"4.", "''Rhialto the Marvellous'' was marketed as a collection, a Foreword and three stories, one previously published.", "The Foreword is non-narrative canonical fiction presenting the general state of the world in the 21st Aeon (a \"short story\" loosely).", "* \"Foreword\", with list of players* \"The Murthe\"* \"Fader's Waft\"* \"Morreion\", from ''Flashing Swords!", "#1'', ed.", "Lin Carter, April 1973=== Sequels ===Some sequels have been written by other authors, either with Vance's authorization or as tributes to his work.Michael Shea's first publication, the novel ''A Quest for Simbilis'' (DAW Books, 1974, ), was an authorized sequel to ''Eyes''.", "However, \"When Vance returned to the milieu, his ''Cugel's Saga'' continued the events of ''The Eyes of the Overworld'' in a different direction.", "\"The tribute anthology ''Songs of the Dying Earth'' (2009) contains short fiction set in the world of the Dying Earth by numerous writers alongside tributes to Vance's work and influence.In 2010 Shea wrote another authorized story belonging to the ''Dying Earth'' series and featuring Cugel as one of characters: \"Hew the Tintmaster\", published in the anthology ''Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery'', ed.", "Jonathan Strahan and Lou Anders (Eos, 2010, pp.", "323–362).=== Translations ===WorldCat contributing libraries report holding all four books in French, Spanish, and (in omnibus edition) Hebrew translations; and report holding ''The Dying Earth'' in five other languages: Finnish, German, Japanese, Polish, and Russian.The whole first volume (of six stories) has been translated also into Esperanto together with two Cugel stories and made available on-line as e-books by a long-time fan and Vance Integral Edition co-worker.", "Permission to translate and distribute (only into Esperanto) was obtained informally direct from the author and, since his death in 2013, continues with ongoing permission from the author's estate.", "To date these are three: ''Mazirian the Magician'', ''The Sorcerer Pharesm'', and ''The Bagful of Dreams'' available for free download as EPub, Mobi and PDF.The entire series has seen several Italian translations, and in Italy Vance remains one of the US scifi authors most often translated and published" ], [ "Legacy", "The Dying Earth subgenre of science fiction is named in recognition of Vance's role in standardizing a setting, the entropically dying earth and sun.", "Its importance was recognized with the publication of ''Songs of the Dying Earth'', a tribute anthology edited by George R. R. Martin and Gardner Dozois (Subterranean, 2009).", "Each short story in the anthology is set on the Dying Earth, and concludes with a short acknowledgement by the author of Vance's influence on them.===Print===Gene Wolfe's ''The Book of the New Sun'' (1980–83) is set in a slightly similar world, and was written under Vance's influence.", "Wolfe suggested in ''The Castle of the Otter'', a collection of essays, that he inserted the book ''The Dying Earth'' into his fictional world under the title ''The Book of Gold'' (specifically, Wolfe wrote that the \"Book of Gold\" mentioned in ''The Book of the New Sun'' is different for each reader, but for him it was \"The Dying Earth\").", "Wolfe has extended the series.Michael Shea's novel ''Nifft the Lean'' (1982), his second book eight years after ''A Quest for Simbilis'', also owes much debt to Vance's creation, since the protagonist of the story is a petty thief (not unlike Cugel the Clever), who travels and struggles in an exotic world.", "Shea returned to Nifft with 1997 and 2000 sequels.The Archonate stories by Matthew Hughes — the 1994 novel ''Fools Errant'' and numerous works in this millennium —take place in \"the penultimate age of Old Earth,\" a period of science and technology that is on the verge of transforming into the magical era of the time of the Dying Earth.Booklist has called him Vance's \"heir apparent.\"", "(Review by Carl Hays of The Gist Hunter and Other Stories, Booklist, August 2005)===Role-playing===The original creators of the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' games were fans of Jack Vance and incorporated many aspects of the ''Dying Earth'' series into the game.", "The magic system, in which a wizard is limited in the number of spells that can be simultaneously remembered and forgets them once they are cast, was based on the magic of Dying Earth.", "In role-playing game circles, this sort of magic system is called \"Vancian\" or \"Vancean\".", "Some of the spells from ''Dungeons & Dragons'' are based on spells mentioned in the ''Dying Earth'' series, such as the ''prismatic spray''.", "Magic items from the ''Dying Earth'' stories such as ioun stones also made their way into ''Dungeons & Dragons''.", "One of the deities of magic in ''Dungeons & Dragons'' is named Vecna, an anagram of \"Vance\".The ''Talislanta'' role-playing game designed by Stephan Michael Sechi and originally published in 1987 by Bard Games was inspired by the works of Jack Vance so much so that the first release, ''The Chronicles of Talislanta'', is dedicated to the author.There is an official ''Dying Earth'' role-playing game published by Pelgrane Press with an occasional magazine ''The Excellent Prismatic Spray'' (named after a magic spell).", "The game situates players in Vance's world populated by desperately extravagant people.", "Many other role-playing settings pay homage to the series by including fantasy elements he invented such as the darkness-dwelling Grues.", "''Goodman Games'' have announced the publication of the setting using their ''Dungeon Crawl Classics'' roleplaying game system, running a successful ''Kickstarter'' campaign for it.", "The game was released in 2023." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** The Dying Earth Roleplaying Game* Vance Integral Edition (project)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dispute resolution" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dispute resolution''' or '''dispute settlement''' is the process of resolving disputes between parties.", "The term ''dispute resolution'' is sometimes used interchangeably with ''conflict resolution''.", "Prominent venues for dispute settlement in international law include the International Court of Justice (formerly the Permanent Court of International Justice); the United Nations Human Rights Committee (which operates under the ICCPR) and European Court of Human Rights; the Panels and Appellate Body of the World Trade Organization; and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea.", "Half of all international agreements include a dispute settlement mechanism.States are also known to establish their own arbitration tribunals to settle disputes.", "Prominent private international courts, which adjudicate disputes between commercial private entities, include the International Court of Arbitration (of the International Chamber of Commerce) and the London Court of International Arbitration." ], [ "Methods", "Methods of dispute resolution include:* lawsuits (litigation) (legislative) * arbitration* collaborative law* mediation* conciliation* negotiation* facilitationavoidanceOne could theoretically include violence or even war as part of this spectrum, but dispute resolution practitioners do not usually do so; violence rarely ends disputes effectively, and indeed, often only escalates them.", "Also, violence rarely causes the parties involved in the dispute to no longer disagree on the issue that caused the violence.", "For example, a country successfully winning a war to annex part of another country's territory does not cause the former waring nations to no longer seriously disagree to whom the territory rightly belongs to and tensions may still remain high between the two nations.", "Dispute resolution processes fall into two major types:# Adjudicative processes, such as litigation or arbitration, in which a judge, jury or arbitrator determines the outcome.# Consensual processes, such as collaborative law, mediation, conciliation, or negotiation, in which the parties attempt to reach agreement.Not all disputes, even those in which skilled intervention occurs, end in resolution.", "Such intractable disputes form a special area in dispute resolution studies.Dispute resolution is an important requirement in international trade, including negotiation, mediation, arbitration and litigation." ], [ "Legal dispute resolution", "The legal system provides resolutions for many different types of disputes.", "Some disputants will not reach agreement through a collaborative process.", "Some disputes need the coercive power of the state to enforce a resolution.", "Perhaps more importantly, many people want a professional advocate when they become involved in a dispute, particularly if the dispute involves perceived legal rights, legal wrongdoing, or threat of legal action against them.The most common form of judicial dispute resolution is litigation.", "Litigation is initiated when one party files suit against another.", "In the United States, litigation is facilitated by the government within federal, state, and municipal courts.", "While litigation is often used to resolve disputes, it is strictly speaking a form of conflict adjudication and not a form of conflict resolution per se.", "This is because litigation only determines the legal rights and obligations of parties involved in a dispute and does not necessarily solve the disagreement between the parties involved in the dispute.", "For example, supreme court cases can rule on whether US states have the constitutional right to criminalize abortion but will not cause the parties involved in the case to no longer disagree on whether states do indeed have the constitutional authority to restrict access to abortion as one of the parties may disagree with the supreme courts reasoning and still disagree with the party that the supreme court sided with.", "Litigation proceedings are very formal and are governed by rules, such as rules of evidence and procedure, which are established by the legislature.", "Outcomes are decided by an impartial judge and/or jury, based on the factual questions of the case and the application law.", "The verdict of the court is binding, not advisory; however, both parties have the right to appeal the judgment to a higher court.", "Judicial dispute resolution is typically adversarial in nature, for example, involving antagonistic parties or opposing interests seeking an outcome most favorable to their position.", "Due to the antagonistic nature of litigation, collaborators frequently opt for solving disputes privately.", "Retired judges or private lawyers often become arbitrators or mediators; however, trained and qualified non-legal dispute resolution specialists form a growing body within the field of alternative dispute resolution (ADR).", "In the United States, many states now have mediation or other ADR programs annexed to the courts, to facilitate settlement of lawsuits." ], [ "Extrajudicial dispute resolution", "Some use the term ''dispute resolution'' to refer only to alternative dispute resolution (ADR), that is, extrajudicial processes such as arbitration, collaborative law, and mediation used to resolve conflict and potential conflict between and among individuals, business entities, governmental agencies, and (in the public international law context) states.", "ADR generally depends on agreement by the parties to use ADR processes, either before or after a dispute has arisen.", "ADR has experienced steadily increasing acceptance and utilization because of a perception of greater flexibility, costs below those of traditional litigation, and speedy resolution of disputes, among other perceived advantages.", "However, some have criticized these methods as taking away the right to seek redress of grievances in the courts, suggesting that extrajudicial dispute resolution may not offer the fairest way for parties not in an equal bargaining relationship, for example in a dispute between a consumer and a large corporation.", "In addition, in some circumstances, arbitration and other ADR processes may become as expensive as litigation or more so." ], [ "See also", " Collaborative divorce* Conflict resolution research* Diplomacy* Dispute pyramid* Investor-state dispute settlement* National Arbitration Forum* Party-directed mediation* Peacekeeping* Restorative justice* UN Peacemaker" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Sherwyn, David, Tracey, Bruce & Zev Eigen, \"In Defense of Mandatory Arbitration of Employment Disputes: Saving the Baby, Tossing out the Bath Water, and Constructing a New Sink in the Process\", 2 ''U.", "Pa. J.", "Lab.", "& Emp.", "L.'' 73 (1999)* Ury, William, 2000.", "''The Third Side: Why We Fight and How We Can Stop''.", "New York: Penguin Putnam.", "*Alés, Javier y Mata, Juan Diego \" manual práctico para mediadores: el misterio de la mediacion\" éxito Atelier.", "Barcelona 2016" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Catan: Cities & Knights" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Catan: Cities & Knights''''' (), formerly ''The Cities and Knights of Catan'' is an expansion to the board game ''The Settlers of Catan'' for three to four players (five to six player play is also possible with the ''Settlers'' and ''Cities & Knights'' five to six player extensions; two-player play is possible with the ''Traders & Barbarians'' expansion).", "It contains features taken from ''The Settlers of Catan'', with emphasis on city development and the use of knights, which are used as a method of attacking other players as well as helping opponents defend Catan against a common foe.", "''Cities & Knights'' can also be combined with the ''Catan: Seafarers'' expansion or with Catan: Traders & Barbarians scenarios (again, five to six player play only possible with the applicable five to six player extension(s))." ], [ "Differences from ''The Settlers of Catan''", "Because of the new rules introduced in ''Cities & Knights'', the game is played to 13 victory points, as opposed to 10 as in the base game ''The Settlers of Catan''.The following cards are not used in Cities & Knights:* the Development Cards—which have been replaced by Progress Cards.", "* the Building Cost Cards—the information on these cards is provided by the City Upgrade Calendar.", "* the \"Largest Army\" Card—having a large army is still an advantage, but does not earn victory points so directly as in the regular version of ''The Settlers of Catan''.", "Instead of soldier cards, one is now able to purchase the eponymous knights." ], [ "Commodities", "One of the main additions to the game is commodities, which are a type of secondary resource produced only by cities.", "Like resources, commodities are associated with a type of terrain, can be stolen by the robber (with ''Seafarers'', also the pirate), count against the resource hand limit, and may not be collected if the robber is on the terrain.", "Resources may be traded for commodities, and commodities may be traded for resources.", "Commodities can then be used to build city improvements (provided the player has a city), which provide additional benefits.The commodities are paper (which comes from forest terrain), coin (from mountain terrain), and cloth (from pasture terrain).When combining ''Cities & Knights'' with ''Barbarian Attack'', the written rules are ambiguous with regards to whether commodities are collected along with normal resources when collecting from a Gold River tile, as well as whether or not commodities can be collected directly from Gold River tiles.", "However, online rules state that \"Gold can only buy you resources, not commodities.", "\"A city on grain or brick gives two of each, as in the original ''Settlers''.", "A city on wool, ore, or wood, produces one corresponding resource as well as one corresponding commodity (cloth, coin, or paper).", "Grain and brick, however, are used for new purchasing options: grain activates knights, and brick can be used to build city walls.In total there are 36 commodity cards: 12 paper (from forest), 12 cloth (from pasture), and 12 coin (from mountains)." ], [ "City improvements", "A player with a city may use commodities to build city improvements, which allow several advantages.", "There are city improvements in five levels, and in three different categories.", "Each category of improvements requires a different commodity and higher levels require more cards of that commodity.", "At the third level, players earn a special ability, depending on the type of improvement.The first player with an improvement at the fourth level can claim any of their cities as a metropolis, worth four victory points instead of two for that city.", "Each type of improvement has only one associated metropolis, and no city can be a metropolis of two different types (because of this, a player without a non-metropolis city may not build improvements beyond the third level).", "If a player is the first to build an improvement to the final level (out-building the current holder of the metropolis), they take the metropolis from its current holder." ], [ "Knights", "The other significant concept in ''Cities & Knights'' is the concept of knights, which replace the concept of soldiers and the largest army.", "Knights are units that require continuous maintenance through their activation mechanism, but have a wide variety of functions.", "Knights can be promoted through three ranks, although promotion to the final rank is a special ability granted by the city improvement the Fortress.Knights are placed on the board in a similar manner to settlements, and can be used to block opposing roads, active or not.", "However, knights must be activated in order to perform other functions, which immediately deactivate the knight.", "Knights cannot perform actions on the same turn they are activated, but can be reactivated on the same turn as performing an action.", "These actions include:* Moving along a road (with ''Seafarers'', a line of ships)* Displacing opposing knights of a lower rank, forcing the lower ranked knight to retreat* Dispelling the robber (with ''Seafarers'', also the pirate) if it is stationed nearbyIf a knight is promoted or forced to retreat, its active status does not change.The standard ''Cities & Knights'' game comes with 24 knights, 6 of each color.", "The 5/6 player extension adds a further 12 knights, 6 each of two new colors." ], [ "Barbarian attacks", "Barbarian attack''Cities & Knights'' introduces a third die, known as the event die, which serves two functions.", "The first applies to the concept of barbarians, a periodic foe that all players must work together to defend against.", "Three of the sides of the event die have a picture of a ship on them.", "The other three sides have a symbol of a city gate, allowing players who have sufficiently built up a city to obtain progress cards (see below).The barbarians are represented by a ship positioned on a track representing the distance between the ship and Catan (i.e.", "the board).", "Each time the event die shows a black ship, the barbarian ship takes one step closer to Catan.", "When the barbarians arrive at Catan, a special phase is immediately performed before all other actions (including collecting resources).", "In this special phase, the barbarians' attack strength, corresponding to the combined number of cities and metropolises held by all players, is compared to Catan's defense strength, corresponding to the combined levels (i.e.", "1 point for each basic, 2 for each strong, and 3 for each mighty) of all activated knights in play.If the barbarians are successful in their attack (if they have a strength greater than Catan), then the players must pay the consequence.", "The player(s) who had the least defense will be attacked, and will have one city reduced to a settlement.", "If they only have settlements, or metropolises, then they are immune to barbarians and do not count as the player contributing the least defense.Should Catan prevail, the player who contributes the most to Catan's defense receives a special ''Defender of Catan'' card, worth a victory point.", "Regardless of the outcome, all knights are immediately deactivated, and the barbarian ship returns to its starting point on the track.", "In the event of a tie among the greatest contributors of knights, none of the tied players earn a Defender of Catan card.", "Instead, each of the tied players draw a progress card (explained below) of the type of their choosing.", "There are 6 Defender of Catan cards.As the likelihood of having the barbarian move closer to Catan is very high, a variant in common usage is that the robber (and with ''Seafarers'', the pirate) does not move until the first barbarian attack, nor can a knight move the robber before that point.", "'''Examples where cities are lost:'''# Player A has 3 cities and 1 active strong knight.", "Player B has 1 city and 2 active basic knights.", "Player C has 2 cities and 1 active basic knight.", "When the barbarians attack, player C will lose one of their cities, because the attack strength (6 cities) is greater than all knights combined (5 knights).# Player A has 3 cities and 2 active basic knights.", "Player B has 1 city, which is a metropolis, and no active knights.", "Player C has 2 cities and 1 active mighty knight.", "Player B's city is a metropolis, and metropolises cannot be destroyed by the barbarians, so Player A loses a city because they have the next fewest active knights.# Player A has 2 cities and 2 active basic knights.", "Player B has 3 cities and 1 active strong knight.", "Player C has 2 cities and 2 active basic knights.", "All players will lose a city, because they all tie in the number of knights activated, and the barbarian attack strength (7 cities) is greater than number of active knights (6 knights).# Player A has 3 cities and 1 active mighty knight and 1 active basic knight.", "Player B has 2 cities, which both are metropolises, and 1 active basic knight.", "Player C has 1 city, which is a metropolis, and no active knights.", "First in line to lose a city is player C, but because their city is a metropolis we need to look at the person next in line.", "This would be player B, but the same applies for them: they have activated only 1 knight, but both of their cities are metropolises.", "This leaves player A to lose a city." ], [ "Progress cards", "The other significant outcome of the event die is Progress cards, which replace development cards.", "Because of the mechanics of progress cards explained below, one of the two white dice used in ''Settlers'' is replaced by a red die.`Progress cards are organized into three categories, corresponding to the three types of improvements.", "Yellow progress cards aid in commercial development, green progress cards aid in technological advancements, and blue progress cards allow for political moves.", "When a castle appears on the event die, progress cards of the corresponding type may be drawn depending on the value of the red die.", "Higher levels of city improvements increase the chance that progress cards will be drawn, with the highest level of city improvement allowing progress cards to be drawn regardless of the value on the red die.Progress cards, unlike the development cards they replace, can be played on the turn that they are drawn, and more than one progress card can be played per turn.", "However, they can generally only be played after the dice are rolled.", "Progress cards granting victory points are an exception, being played immediately (without regards to whose turn it is), while the Alchemist progress card, which allows a player to select the roll of the white and red dice, necessitates the card being played instead of rolling the numerical dice.", "(The event die is still rolled as normal.", ")Players are allowed to keep four progress cards (five in a five to six player game), and any additional ones must be discarded on the spot (unless the 5th card is a victory point, which is played immediately and the original progress cards remain).", "The only exception to this rule is when the player receives a 5th non-victory point progress card during their turn, in which case the player may choose to play any one of the five progress cards in hand, bringing the progress card count back down to four.", "While this clarification is not overtly stated in the Cities & Knights rule book, it is enforced in the online version of the game.In total, there are 54 progress cards: 18 science, 18 politics, and 18 trade.Out of all the available progress cards, progress cards containing victory points can be only earned in the science and politics categories." ], [ "City walls", "City walls are a minor addition to ''Cities & Knights'' that increase the number of resource and commodity cards a player is allowed in their hand before having to discard on a roll of 7.However, they do not protect the player from the robber or barbarians.", "Only cities and metropolises may have walls, and each city or metropolis can only have one wall, up to three walls per player.", "Each wall that the player has deployed permits the player to hold two more cards before being required to discard on a roll of seven.", "This results in a maximum of 13 cards.If the barbarians pillage your city, then the city wall is also destroyed and the wall is removed from the board.The game comes with 12 city walls, 3 of each color." ], [ "The Merchant", "The merchant is another addition to ''Cities & Knights''.", "Like the robber, the merchant is placed on a single land hex.", "Unlike the robber, the merchant has a beneficial effect.The merchant can only be deployed through the use of a Merchant progress card (of which there are six), on a land hex near a city or a settlement.", "The player with the control of the merchant can trade the resource (not commodity) of that type at a two-to-one rate, as if the player had a control of a corresponding two-to-one harbor.The player with the control of the merchant also earns a victory point.", "Both the victory point and the trade privilege are lost if another player takes control of the merchant." ], [ "City Upgrade Calendar", "In place of ''The Settlers of Catan'' standard improvement cost card, ''Cities & Knights'' gives a calendar type flip-chart to each player, matching that player's color.", "The top of the chart has the standard costs from the ''Settlers'' game (for settlements, upgrade to city, and roads).", "It does not include the Development Card cost as those cards are not used in a ''Cities & Knights'' game.", "It does include the costs of hiring a knight, upgrading a knight's level or strength, and the cost to activate a knight.", "It also includes the cost of a ship, which are not used in a regular game of ''Cities & Knights'', but presumably this is to cater for players who have combined ''Cities & Knights'' and ''Seafarers''.Those are only the rudimentary costs of the game however.", "The calendar also shows the costs of the next city improvement in each of the three categories — as a city is improved in a category, that segment has its card flipped down calendar style to reveal the newly built improvement, any advantages gained by the improvement, and the updated cost of upgrading to the next level in that category.", "Each segment, as it is flipped down, also shows the updated dice pattern needed to earn the player a progress card in that category." ], [ "Catan Legend of the Conquerors", "Catan Legend of the Conquerors board game''Catan: Legend of the Conquerors'' is a scenario released in 2017 for the expansion ''Catan: Cities & Knights''.", "A blog post was made in connection with the release.", "The game adds swamp hexes to the board.", "The game also adds a cannon which can be combined with a knight to increase the strength of a knight by one, which makes the maximum possible strength 4, when applied to a mighty knight of strength 3 ().", "To build a cannon, you pay 1 lumber and 1 ore for a foundry.", "When you combine a cannon and a knight you have a cannoneer.", "The game also adds a horse farm that you can build for one lumber and one grain.", "The horse farm gives you a horse that you can use to turn one of your knights into cavalry.", "A cavalry unit can move between road networks, even if there is no connection between them.", "The cannon and horse cannot be combined.", "The blog post writes, \"Some strategists may like the idea of equipping a knight with a horse and a cannon, thus making it some kind of overpowering “mounted cannoneer.” However, you are not allowed to place both playing pieces adjacent to a knight.", "This being said, it’s also hard to imagine a knight on a horse holding a cannon in his arms and firing it in all directions... \"" ], [ "Reviews", "''Pyramid''" ], [ "External links", " * Official website of the author Klaus Teuber* Official PC version of ''Catan - Cities & Knights''* Official C&K rules" ], [ "References", "===General references===The official website for the world of Catan.", "(2016).", "Retrieved May 17, 2016, from" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Catan: Seafarers" ], [ "Introduction", "Water tiles and ships tokens - new in \"Seafarers of Catan\"'''''Catan: Seafarers''''', or '''''Seafarers of Catan''''' in older editions, () is an expansion of the board game ''Catan'' for three to four players (five-to-six-player play is also possible with both of the respective five-to-six-player extensions).", "The main feature of this expansion is the addition of ships, gold fields, and the pirate to the game, allowing play between multiple islands.", "The expansion also provides numerous scenarios, some of which have custom rules.", "The ''Seafarers'' rules and scenarios are also, for the most part, compatible with ''Catan: Cities & Knights'' and ''Catan: Traders & Barbarians''.The concepts introduced in ''Seafarers'' were part of designer Klaus Teuber's original design for ''Settlers''." ], [ "Ships", "''Seafarers'' introduces the concept of ships, which serve as roads over water or along the coast.", "Each ship costs one lumber and one wool to create (lumber for the hull and wool for the sails).", "A settlement must first be built before a player can switch from building roads to building ships, or vice versa.", "Thus, a chain of ships is always anchored at a settlement on the coast.", "A shipping line that is not anchored at both ends by different settlements can also move the last ship at the open end, although this can only be done once per turn and may not be done with any ships that were created on the same turn.The \"Longest Road\" card is now renamed the \"Longest Trade Route\" since this is now calculated by counting the number of contiguous ships ''plus'' roads that a player has.", "A settlement or city is necessary between a road and a ship for the two to be considered continuous for the purposes of this card.The Road Building card allows a player to build 2 roads, 2 ships, or one of each when used.Along with the concept of ships, ''Seafarers'' also introduces the notion of the pirate, which acts as a waterborne robber which steals from nearby ships (similar to how the robber steals from nearby settlements).", "The pirate can also prevent ships from being built or moved nearby, but it does not interfere with harbors.", "The pirate does not prevent settlements from being builtWhen a seven is rolled or a Knight card is played, the player may move either the robber OR the pirate." ], [ "Gold Rivers", "''Seafarers'' also introduces the \"Gold River\" or \"Gold Field\" terrain, which grants nearby players one resource of their choice for every settlement adjacent to a gold tile and 2 resources for every city.", "Since being able to choose any resource type allows more building power, gold rivers are often either marked with number token of only 2 or 3 dots and/or are far away from starting positions to offset this.When combined with ''Cities & Knights'', the rules state that you are not allowed to take commodities instead of resources if a city is nearby." ], [ "Exploration", "Some scenarios have extra rules encompassing the concept of exploration, which is done by having the hex tiles placed face down.", "Should a player build next to unexplored terrain, the terrain tile is turned face up, and the player is rewarded with a resource should the tile revealed be resource-producing.", "In other scenarios, the board is divided into islands, and if the player builds a settlement on an island other than the ones they begin on, the settlement is worth extra victory points.The ''Cities and Knights'' manual recommends that players not use the ''Cities & Knights'' rules in scenarios where exploration is a factor." ], [ "Scenarios", "Unlike ''The Settlers of Catan'' and ''Catan: Cities & Knights'', in which the only random element of setup is the placement of land tiles, number tokens, and harbors in an identically-shaped playing area, ''Catan: Seafarers'' has a number of different scenarios or maps from which to choose.", "Each map uses a different selection of tiles laid out in a specific pattern, which may not use all of the tiles.", "Other attributes also set each map apart, for example, restrictions on the placement of initial settlements, whether tiles are distributed randomly, the number of victory points needed to win, and special victory point awards, usually for building on islands across the sea.", "''Seafarers'' provides scenarios for three or four players (the older fourth edition used the same maps for three- and four-player versions of the scenarios), while the extension provides scenarios for six players (the older third edition also included separate maps for five- and six-player scenarios).", "The scenarios between the older editions of ''Seafarers'' and the newest are generally incompatible, knowing the different frames included with the game.", "(In particular, older editions of ''Settlers'' did not come with a frame for their board; a separate add-on was made available for players of the older-edition ''Settlers'' games, containing the newer edition frames, so as to make them compatible with the newer edition of ''Seafarers''; the older edition of ''Seafarers'' included a square frame, and while both older and newer editions of the frames have the same width across, the newer editions are not square-shaped, and are longer down the middle of the board compared to the sides.", ")===Heading to New Shores===''Heading to New Shores'' (''New Shores'' in older editions) is the scenario resembling Teuber's original design for the game.", "The game board consists of the main ''Settlers'' island as well as a few smaller islands, which award a special victory point to each player for their first settlements on them.", "This scenario is meant for players new to ''Seafarers'', with elements of ''Seafarers'' incorporated into the more familiar main board.===The Four Islands===''The Four Islands'' is the first scenario introduced where new mechanics introduced to ''Seafarers'' is brought into the forefront.", "In this scenario, the map is split up into four islands of roughly equal size and resource distribution.", "(The six-player version found in the extension has the map split into six islands; the scenario is titled ''The Six Islands'', but is played identically.", "Older editions of the extension had a five-player version with five islands, called ''The Five Islands''.)", "Players may claim up to two of the islands as their home islands, and settling on any of the other islands awards a special victory point.===The Fog Island===''The Fog Island'' (''Oceans'' in older editions) is the first scenario where exploration is used.", "The board starts off with a portion of the map left blank: when players expand into the blank region, terrain hexes are drawn at random from a supply and placed in the empty space, and, if a land hex is \"discovered\", a number token may be assigned.", "As a reward for discovering land, the player making the discovery is rewarded with a bonus resource card corresponding to the type of land hex discovered.===Through the Desert===''Through the Desert'' (''Into the Desert'' in older edition) is similar to ''The Four Islands'', but consists of a large continent and smaller outlying islands.", "On the large island, there exists a \"wall of deserts\" that separates the island into a large main area and separate smaller strips of land.", "As the name of the scenario implies, expanding through the desert into these smaller strips of land, or by sea to the outlying islands, award bonus victory points.===The Forgotten Tribe===''The Forgotten Tribe'', originally titled ''Friendly Neighbors'', was a downloadable scenario (but only in the German language) which was incorporated into newer editions of ''Seafarers''.The map consists of a main island and smaller outlying islands, where the namesake forgotten tribe resides.", "Players may not expand into the outlying islands, but by building ships so that they border the outlying islands, players may be awarded with victory points, development cards, or harbors that players may place on the coast of the main island at a later time.===Cloth for Catan===Introduced in the newer editions, ''Cloth for Catan'' continues the adventures with the Forgotten Tribe.", "The scenario was previously available for older editions as a downloadable scenario (but only in German), titled ''Coffee for Catan''.Players begin with settlements on the outside of the map, but may build ships to reach the Forgotten Tribe's islands, which are in the center.", "By connecting to the Forgotten Tribe's settlements (represented by number tokens), players may earn cloth tokens when the number token for the Forgotten Tribe's villages are rolled.", "Cloth tokens, in turn, are worth one victory point for each pair obtained.===The Pirate Island===''The Pirate Island'', introduced in newer editions, is the first scenario which changes the mechanics of new gameplay elements introduced in ''Seafarers''.", "''The Pirate Island'' had previously been available as a downloadable scenario (but only in German) suitable for the older editions.In this scenario, players begin with a pre-placed settlement on a main island.", "Ships may only be built in one single line, which must pass through a fixed waypoint (different for each player) en route to a pirate fortress (each player has their own pirate fortress).", "Once ships connect to the pirate fortress, they may attempt to attack the pirate fortress once per turn.", "Ships may be lost if the attack is unsuccessful, but after three successful attacks, the pirate fortress is converted into a settlement.", "Players must convert their pirate fortresses and have 10 victory points before being able to claim victory.Furthermore, the pirate mechanics have also changed: the pirate moves through the middle of the map in a fixed path every turn, and attacks the owner of any nearby settlements.", "Players win resources if they are able to fend off the pirate attack (which depends on the number rolled by the dice, as well as the number of warships in the defending player's possession; warships are created from using Knight cards on existing ships), but lose resources if they are unsuccessful.", "Maritime expansion is only permitted by building a settlement at the waypoint, however, this increases the chances of a pirate attack.===The Wonders of Catan===''The Wonders of Catan'' was a downloadable scenario for older editions of ''Seafarers'' in both German and English, and was incorporated into ''Seafarers'' in newer editions.In this scenario, there are a number of \"wonders\", each with a large cost of building as well as a prerequisite.", "If a player meets the prerequisite for a wonder, they may claim the wonder for themselves.", "A player may only claim one wonder, and each wonder may only be claimed by one player.", "Wonders must be built in four parts, and each wonder has a different build cost.", "The winner is the first player to complete their wonder, or the first player to have 10 victory points and have more parts of their wonder complete than any other player.===The Great Crossing===''The Great Crossing'' was a scenario in the older editions of ''Seafarers'', which has been dropped in newer editions.", "The map is divided into two islands, Catan and Transcatania.", "Players begin with both settlements on one of the islands, and must build ships connecting settlements between the two islands.", "Players earn victory points for connecting their settlements with settlements (not necessarily theirs) from the opposite island using ships, or to another player's shipping lines which connect two settlements together.===Greater Catan===''Greater Catan'' was a scenario included in the older editions of ''Seafarers'' but is not included in newer editions.", "Due to the sheer amounts of equipment needed, two copies of ''Settlers'' and ''Seafarers'' are required to set up this scenario.", "The map consists of a standard ''Settlers'' island, along with a smaller chain of outlying islands.", "Only the main island initially has number tokens: number tokens are assigned to the outlying islands as they are expanded.", "However, the supply of number tokens is smaller than the number of hexes in the scenario: when the number tokens run out and players expand into a new part of the outlying islands, number tokens are moved from the main island to the outlying islands.Hexes on the main island for which there are no number tokens do not produce resources, but number tokens are moved in such a way so as to avoid rendering a city unproductive; furthermore, whenever possible number tokens must be reassigned from hexes bordering a player's own settlements and cities, so as to prevent harming another player's economy without harming a player's own economy at the same time.===New World===''New World'' is a scenario that blankets all other scenarios that may be created from the parts of ''Settlers'' and ''Seafarers''.", "This scenario uses an entirely random map, and players are encouraged to try and create a tile layout that plays well.", "The only difference between versions in ''Seafarers'', the extension, and the older editions therein is the size of the frames." ], [ "Reception", "''The Seafarers of Catan'' was reviewed in the online second volume of ''Pyramid''." ], [ "See also", "''The Settlers of Catan''''Catan: Cities & Knights''''Catan: Traders & Barbarians''" ], [ "References", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dynamical system" ], [ "Introduction", "The Lorenz attractor arises in the study of the Lorenz oscillator, a dynamical system.In mathematics, a '''dynamical system''' is a system in which a function describes the time dependence of a point in an ambient space, such as in a parametric curve.", "Examples include the mathematical models that describe the swinging of a clock pendulum, the flow of water in a pipe, the random motion of particles in the air, and the number of fish each springtime in a lake.", "The most general definition unifies several concepts in mathematics such as ordinary differential equations and ergodic theory by allowing different choices of the space and how time is measured.", "Time can be measured by integers, by real or complex numbers or can be a more general algebraic object, losing the memory of its physical origin, and the space may be a manifold or simply a set, without the need of a smooth space-time structure defined on it.At any given time, a dynamical system has a state representing a point in an appropriate state space.", "This state is often given by a tuple of real numbers or by a vector in a geometrical manifold.", "The ''evolution rule'' of the dynamical system is a function that describes what future states follow from the current state.", "Often the function is deterministic, that is, for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state.", "However, some systems are stochastic, in that random events also affect the evolution of the state variables.In physics, a '''dynamical system''' is described as a \"particle or ensemble of particles whose state varies over time and thus obeys differential equations involving time derivatives\".", "In order to make a prediction about the system's future behavior, an analytical solution of such equations or their integration over time through computer simulation is realized.The study of dynamical systems is the focus of dynamical systems theory, which has applications to a wide variety of fields such as mathematics, physics, biology, chemistry, engineering, economics, history, and medicine.", "Dynamical systems are a fundamental part of chaos theory, logistic map dynamics, bifurcation theory, the self-assembly and self-organization processes, and the edge of chaos concept." ], [ "Overview", "The concept of a dynamical system has its origins in Newtonian mechanics.", "There, as in other natural sciences and engineering disciplines, the evolution rule of dynamical systems is an implicit relation that gives the state of the system for only a short time into the future.", "(The relation is either a differential equation, difference equation or other time scale.)", "To determine the state for all future times requires iterating the relation many times—each advancing time a small step.", "The iteration procedure is referred to as ''solving the system'' or ''integrating the system''.", "If the system can be solved, then, given an initial point, it is possible to determine all its future positions, a collection of points known as a ''trajectory'' or ''orbit''.Before the advent of computers, finding an orbit required sophisticated mathematical techniques and could be accomplished only for a small class of dynamical systems.", "Numerical methods implemented on electronic computing machines have simplified the task of determining the orbits of a dynamical system.For simple dynamical systems, knowing the trajectory is often sufficient, but most dynamical systems are too complicated to be understood in terms of individual trajectories.", "The difficulties arise because:* The systems studied may only be known approximately—the parameters of the system may not be known precisely or terms may be missing from the equations.", "The approximations used bring into question the validity or relevance of numerical solutions.", "To address these questions several notions of stability have been introduced in the study of dynamical systems, such as Lyapunov stability or structural stability.", "The stability of the dynamical system implies that there is a class of models or initial conditions for which the trajectories would be equivalent.", "The operation for comparing orbits to establish their equivalence changes with the different notions of stability.", "* The type of trajectory may be more important than one particular trajectory.", "Some trajectories may be periodic, whereas others may wander through many different states of the system.", "Applications often require enumerating these classes or maintaining the system within one class.", "Classifying all possible trajectories has led to the qualitative study of dynamical systems, that is, properties that do not change under coordinate changes.", "Linear dynamical systems and systems that have two numbers describing a state are examples of dynamical systems where the possible classes of orbits are understood.", "* The behavior of trajectories as a function of a parameter may be what is needed for an application.", "As a parameter is varied, the dynamical systems may have bifurcation points where the qualitative behavior of the dynamical system changes.", "For example, it may go from having only periodic motions to apparently erratic behavior, as in the transition to turbulence of a fluid.", "* The trajectories of the system may appear erratic, as if random.", "In these cases it may be necessary to compute averages using one very long trajectory or many different trajectories.", "The averages are well defined for ergodic systems and a more detailed understanding has been worked out for hyperbolic systems.", "Understanding the probabilistic aspects of dynamical systems has helped establish the foundations of statistical mechanics and of chaos." ], [ "History", "Many people regard French mathematician Henri Poincaré as the founder of dynamical systems.", "Poincaré published two now classical monographs, \"New Methods of Celestial Mechanics\" (1892–1899) and \"Lectures on Celestial Mechanics\" (1905–1910).", "In them, he successfully applied the results of their research to the problem of the motion of three bodies and studied in detail the behavior of solutions (frequency, stability, asymptotic, and so on).", "These papers included the Poincaré recurrence theorem, which states that certain systems will, after a sufficiently long but finite time, return to a state very close to the initial state.Aleksandr Lyapunov developed many important approximation methods.", "His methods, which he developed in 1899, make it possible to define the stability of sets of ordinary differential equations.", "He created the modern theory of the stability of a dynamical system.In 1913, George David Birkhoff proved Poincaré's \"Last Geometric Theorem\", a special case of the three-body problem, a result that made him world-famous.", "In 1927, he published his '' Dynamical Systems''.", "Birkhoff's most durable result has been his 1931 discovery of what is now called the ergodic theorem.", "Combining insights from physics on the ergodic hypothesis with measure theory, this theorem solved, at least in principle, a fundamental problem of statistical mechanics.", "The ergodic theorem has also had repercussions for dynamics.Stephen Smale made significant advances as well.", "His first contribution was the Smale horseshoe that jumpstarted significant research in dynamical systems.", "He also outlined a research program carried out by many others.Oleksandr Mykolaiovych Sharkovsky developed Sharkovsky's theorem on the periods of discrete dynamical systems in 1964.One of the implications of the theorem is that if a discrete dynamical system on the real line has a periodic point of period 3, then it must have periodic points of every other period.In the late 20th century the dynamical system perspective to partial differential equations started gaining popularity.", "Palestinian mechanical engineer Ali H. Nayfeh applied nonlinear dynamics in mechanical and engineering systems.", "His pioneering work in applied nonlinear dynamics has been influential in the construction and maintenance of machines and structures that are common in daily life, such as ships, cranes, bridges, buildings, skyscrapers, jet engines, rocket engines, aircraft and spacecraft." ], [ "Formal definition", "In the most general sense,a '''dynamical system''' is a tuple (''T'', ''X'', Φ) where ''T'' is a monoid, written additively, ''X'' is a non-empty set and Φ is a function:with: (where is the 2nd projection map)and for any ''x'' in ''X''::: for and , where we have defined the set for any ''x'' in ''X''.In particular, in the case that we have for every ''x'' in ''X'' that and thus that Φ defines a monoid action of ''T'' on ''X''.The function Φ(''t'',''x'') is called the '''evolution function''' of the dynamical system: it associates to every point ''x'' in the set ''X'' a unique image, depending on the variable ''t'', called the '''evolution parameter'''.", "''X'' is called '''phase space''' or '''state space''', while the variable ''x'' represents an '''initial state''' of the system.We often write ::if we take one of the variables as constant.", "The function :is called the '''flow''' through ''x'' and its graph is called the '''trajectory''' through ''x''.", "The set:is called the '''orbit''' through ''x''.Note that the orbit through ''x'' is the image of the flow through ''x''.A subset ''S'' of the state space ''X'' is called Φ-'''invariant''' if for all ''x'' in ''S'' and all ''t'' in ''T'':Thus, in particular, if ''S'' is Φ-'''invariant,''' for all ''x'' in ''S''.", "That is, the flow through ''x'' must be defined for all time for every element of ''S''.More commonly there are two classes of definitions for a dynamical system: one is motivated by ordinary differential equations and is geometrical in flavor; and the other is motivated by ergodic theory and is measure theoretical in flavor.=== Geometrical definition ===In the geometrical definition, a dynamical system is the tuple .", "is the domain for time – there are many choices, usually the reals or the integers, possibly restricted to be non-negative.", "is a manifold, i.e.", "locally a Banach space or Euclidean space, or in the discrete case a graph.", "''f'' is an evolution rule ''t'' → ''f'' ''t'' (with ) such that ''f t'' is a diffeomorphism of the manifold to itself.", "So, f is a \"smooth\" mapping of the time-domain into the space of diffeomorphisms of the manifold to itself.", "In other terms, ''f''(''t'') is a diffeomorphism, for every time ''t'' in the domain .==== Real dynamical system ====A ''real dynamical system'', ''real-time dynamical system'', ''continuous time dynamical system'', or ''flow'' is a tuple (''T'', ''M'', Φ) with ''T'' an open interval in the real numbers '''R''', ''M'' a manifold locally diffeomorphic to a Banach space, and Φ a continuous function.", "If Φ is continuously differentiable we say the system is a ''differentiable dynamical system''.", "If the manifold ''M'' is locally diffeomorphic to '''R'''''n'', the dynamical system is ''finite-dimensional''; if not, the dynamical system is ''infinite-dimensional''.", "Note that this does not assume a symplectic structure.", "When ''T'' is taken to be the reals, the dynamical system is called ''global'' or a ''flow''; and if ''T'' is restricted to the non-negative reals, then the dynamical system is a ''semi-flow''.", "==== Discrete dynamical system ====A ''discrete dynamical system'', ''discrete-time dynamical system'' is a tuple (''T'', ''M'', Φ), where ''M'' is a manifold locally diffeomorphic to a Banach space, and Φ is a function.", "When ''T'' is taken to be the integers, it is a ''cascade'' or a ''map''.", "If ''T'' is restricted to the non-negative integers we call the system a ''semi-cascade''.==== Cellular automaton ====A ''cellular automaton'' is a tuple (''T'', ''M'', Φ), with ''T'' a lattice such as the integers or a higher-dimensional integer grid, ''M'' is a set of functions from an integer lattice (again, with one or more dimensions) to a finite set, and Φ a (locally defined) evolution function.", "As such cellular automata are dynamical systems.", "The lattice in ''M'' represents the \"space\" lattice, while the one in ''T'' represents the \"time\" lattice.==== Multidimensional generalization ====Dynamical systems are usually defined over a single independent variable, thought of as time.", "A more general class of systems are defined over multiple independent variables and are therefore called multidimensional systems.", "Such systems are useful for modeling, for example, image processing.==== Compactification of a dynamical system ====Given a global dynamical system ('''R''', ''X'', Φ) on a locally compact and Hausdorff topological space ''X'', it is often useful to study the continuous extension Φ* of Φ to the one-point compactification ''X'' of ''X''.", "Although we lose the differential structure of the original system we can now use compactness arguments to analyze the new system ('''R''', ''X'', Φ).In compact dynamical systems the limit set of any orbit is non-empty, compact and simply connected.===Measure theoretical definition===A dynamical system may be defined formally as a measure-preserving transformation of a measure space, the triplet (''T'', (''X'', Σ, ''μ''), Φ).", "Here, ''T'' is a monoid (usually the non-negative integers), ''X'' is a set, and (''X'', Σ, ''μ'') is a probability space, meaning that Σ is a sigma-algebra on ''X'' and μ is a finite measure on (''X'', Σ).", "A map Φ: ''X'' → ''X'' is said to be Σ-measurable if and only if, for every σ in Σ, one has .", "A map Φ is said to '''preserve the measure''' if and only if, for every ''σ'' in Σ, one has .", "Combining the above, a map Φ is said to be a '''measure-preserving transformation of ''X'' ''', if it is a map from ''X'' to itself, it is Σ-measurable, and is measure-preserving.", "The triplet (''T'', (''X'', Σ, ''μ''), Φ), for such a Φ, is then defined to be a '''dynamical system'''.The map Φ embodies the time evolution of the dynamical system.", "Thus, for discrete dynamical systems the iterates for every integer ''n'' are studied.", "For continuous dynamical systems, the map Φ is understood to be a finite time evolution map and the construction is more complicated.====Relation to geometric definition====The measure theoretical definition assumes the existence of a measure-preserving transformation.", "Many different invariant measures can be associated to any one evolution rule.", "If the dynamical system is given by a system of differential equations the appropriate measure must be determined.", "This makes it difficult to develop ergodic theory starting from differential equations, so it becomes convenient to have a dynamical systems-motivated definition within ergodic theory that side-steps the choice of measure and assumes the choice has been made.", "A simple construction (sometimes called the Krylov–Bogolyubov theorem) shows that for a large class of systems it is always possible to construct a measure so as to make the evolution rule of the dynamical system a measure-preserving transformation.", "In the construction a given measure of the state space is summed for all future points of a trajectory, assuring the invariance.Some systems have a natural measure, such as the Liouville measure in Hamiltonian systems, chosen over other invariant measures, such as the measures supported on periodic orbits of the Hamiltonian system.", "For chaotic dissipative systems the choice of invariant measure is technically more challenging.", "The measure needs to be supported on the attractor, but attractors have zero Lebesgue measure and the invariant measures must be singular with respect to the Lebesgue measure.", "A small region of phase space shrinks under time evolution.For hyperbolic dynamical systems, the Sinai–Ruelle–Bowen measures appear to be the natural choice.", "They are constructed on the geometrical structure of stable and unstable manifolds of the dynamical system; they behave physically under small perturbations; and they explain many of the observed statistics of hyperbolic systems." ], [ "Construction of dynamical systems", "The concept of ''evolution in time'' is central to the theory of dynamical systems as seen in the previous sections: the basic reason for this fact is that the starting motivation of the theory was the study of time behavior of classical mechanical systems.", "But a system of ordinary differential equations must be solved before it becomes a dynamic system.", "For example consider an initial value problem such as the following:::where represents the velocity of the material point '''x''' ''M'' is a finite dimensional manifold'''v''': ''T'' × ''M'' → ''TM'' is a vector field in '''R'''''n'' or '''C'''''n'' and represents the change of velocity induced by the known forces acting on the given material point in the phase space ''M''.", "The change is not a vector in the phase space ''M'', but is instead in the tangent space ''TM''.", "There is no need for higher order derivatives in the equation, nor for the parameter ''t'' in ''v''(''t'',''x''), because these can be eliminated by considering systems of higher dimensions.Depending on the properties of this vector field, the mechanical system is called '''autonomous''', when '''v'''(''t'', '''x''') = '''v'''('''x''')'''homogeneous''' when '''v'''(''t'', '''0''') = 0 for all ''t''The solution can be found using standard ODE techniques and is denoted as the evolution function already introduced above:The dynamical system is then (''T'', ''M'', Φ).Some formal manipulation of the system of differential equations shown above gives a more general form of equations a dynamical system must satisfy:where is a functional from the set of evolution functions to the field of the complex numbers.This equation is useful when modeling mechanical systems with complicated constraints.Many of the concepts in dynamical systems can be extended to infinite-dimensional manifolds—those that are locally Banach spaces—in which case the differential equations are partial differential equations." ], [ "Examples", "* Arnold's cat map* Baker's map is an example of a chaotic piecewise linear map* Billiards and outer billiards* Bouncing ball dynamics* Circle map* Complex quadratic polynomial* Double pendulum* Dyadic transformation* Hénon map* Irrational rotation* Kaplan–Yorke map* List of chaotic maps* Lorenz system* Quadratic map simulation system* Rössler map* Swinging Atwood's machine* Tent map" ], [ "Linear dynamical systems", "Linear dynamical systems can be solved in terms of simple functions and the behavior of all orbits classified.", "In a linear system the phase space is the ''N''-dimensional Euclidean space, so any point in phase space can be represented by a vector with ''N'' numbers.", "The analysis of linear systems is possible because they satisfy a superposition principle: if ''u''(''t'') and ''w''(''t'') satisfy the differential equation for the vector field (but not necessarily the initial condition), then so will ''u''(''t'') + ''w''(''t'').===Flows===For a flow, the vector field v(''x'') is an affine function of the position in the phase space, that is,:with ''A'' a matrix, ''b'' a vector of numbers and ''x'' the position vector.", "The solution to this system can be found by using the superposition principle (linearity).The case ''b'' ≠ 0 with ''A'' = 0 is just a straight line in the direction of ''b'':: When ''b'' is zero and ''A'' ≠ 0 the origin is an equilibrium (or singular) point of the flow, that is, if ''x''0 = 0, then the orbit remains there.For other initial conditions, the equation of motion is given by the exponential of a matrix: for an initial point ''x''0,: When ''b'' = 0, the eigenvalues of ''A'' determine the structure of the phase space.", "From the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of ''A'' it is possible to determine if an initial point will converge or diverge to the equilibrium point at the origin.The distance between two different initial conditions in the case ''A'' ≠ 0 will change exponentially in most cases, either converging exponentially fast towards a point, or diverging exponentially fast.", "Linear systems display sensitive dependence on initial conditions in the case of divergence.", "For nonlinear systems this is one of the (necessary but not sufficient) conditions for chaotic behavior.Linear vector fields and a few trajectories.===Maps===A discrete-time, affine dynamical system has the form of a matrix difference equation:: with ''A'' a matrix and ''b'' a vector.", "As in the continuous case, the change of coordinates ''x'' → ''x'' + (1 − ''A'') –1''b'' removes the term ''b'' from the equation.", "In the new coordinate system, the origin is a fixed point of the map and the solutions are of the linear system ''A'' ''n''''x''0.The solutions for the map are no longer curves, but points that hop in the phase space.", "The orbits are organized in curves, or fibers, which are collections of points that map into themselves under the action of the map.As in the continuous case, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of ''A'' determine the structure of phase space.", "For example, if ''u''1 is an eigenvector of ''A'', with a real eigenvalue smaller than one, then the straight lines given by the points along ''α'' ''u''1, with ''α'' ∈ '''R''', is an invariant curve of the map.", "Points in this straight line run into the fixed point.There are also many other discrete dynamical systems." ], [ "Local dynamics", "The qualitative properties of dynamical systems do not change under a smooth change of coordinates (this is sometimes taken as a definition of qualitative): a ''singular point'' of the vector field (a point where ''v''(''x'') = 0) will remain a singular point under smooth transformations; a ''periodic orbit'' is a loop in phase space and smooth deformations of the phase space cannot alter it being a loop.", "It is in the neighborhood of singular points and periodic orbits that the structure of a phase space of a dynamical system can be well understood.", "In the qualitative study of dynamical systems, the approach is to show that there is a change of coordinates (usually unspecified, but computable) that makes the dynamical system as simple as possible.===Rectification===A flow in most small patches of the phase space can be made very simple.", "If ''y'' is a point where the vector field ''v''(''y'') ≠ 0, then there is a change of coordinates for a region around ''y'' where the vector field becomes a series of parallel vectors of the same magnitude.", "This is known as the rectification theorem.The ''rectification theorem'' says that away from singular points the dynamics of a point in a small patch is a straight line.", "The patch can sometimes be enlarged by stitching several patches together, and when this works out in the whole phase space ''M'' the dynamical system is ''integrable''.", "In most cases the patch cannot be extended to the entire phase space.", "There may be singular points in the vector field (where ''v''(''x'') = 0); or the patches may become smaller and smaller as some point is approached.", "The more subtle reason is a global constraint, where the trajectory starts out in a patch, and after visiting a series of other patches comes back to the original one.", "If the next time the orbit loops around phase space in a different way, then it is impossible to rectify the vector field in the whole series of patches.===Near periodic orbits===In general, in the neighborhood of a periodic orbit the rectification theorem cannot be used.", "Poincaré developed an approach that transforms the analysis near a periodic orbit to the analysis of a map.", "Pick a point ''x''0 in the orbit γ and consider the points in phase space in that neighborhood that are perpendicular to ''v''(''x''0).", "These points are a Poincaré section ''S''(''γ'', ''x''0), of the orbit.", "The flow now defines a map, the Poincaré map ''F'' : ''S'' → ''S'', for points starting in ''S'' and returning to ''S''.", "Not all these points will take the same amount of time to come back, but the times will be close to the time it takes ''x''0.The intersection of the periodic orbit with the Poincaré section is a fixed point of the Poincaré map ''F''.", "By a translation, the point can be assumed to be at ''x'' = 0.The Taylor series of the map is ''F''(''x'') = ''J'' · ''x'' + O(''x''2), so a change of coordinates ''h'' can only be expected to simplify ''F'' to its linear part: This is known as the conjugation equation.", "Finding conditions for this equation to hold has been one of the major tasks of research in dynamical systems.", "Poincaré first approached it assuming all functions to be analytic and in the process discovered the non-resonant condition.", "If ''λ''1, ..., ''λ''''ν'' are the eigenvalues of ''J'' they will be resonant if one eigenvalue is an integer linear combination of two or more of the others.", "As terms of the form ''λ''''i'' – Σ (multiples of other eigenvalues) occurs in the denominator of the terms for the function ''h'', the non-resonant condition is also known as the small divisor problem.===Conjugation results===The results on the existence of a solution to the conjugation equation depend on the eigenvalues of ''J'' and the degree of smoothness required from ''h''.", "As ''J'' does not need to have any special symmetries, its eigenvalues will typically be complex numbers.", "When the eigenvalues of ''J'' are not in the unit circle, the dynamics near the fixed point ''x''0 of ''F'' is called ''hyperbolic'' and when the eigenvalues are on the unit circle and complex, the dynamics is called ''elliptic''.In the hyperbolic case, the Hartman–Grobman theorem gives the conditions for the existence of a continuous function that maps the neighborhood of the fixed point of the map to the linear map ''J'' · ''x''.", "The hyperbolic case is also ''structurally stable''.", "Small changes in the vector field will only produce small changes in the Poincaré map and these small changes will reflect in small changes in the position of the eigenvalues of ''J'' in the complex plane, implying that the map is still hyperbolic.The Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser (KAM) theorem gives the behavior near an elliptic point." ], [ "Bifurcation theory", "When the evolution map Φ''t'' (or the vector field it is derived from) depends on a parameter μ, the structure of the phase space will also depend on this parameter.", "Small changes may produce no qualitative changes in the phase space until a special value ''μ''0 is reached.", "At this point the phase space changes qualitatively and the dynamical system is said to have gone through a bifurcation.Bifurcation theory considers a structure in phase space (typically a fixed point, a periodic orbit, or an invariant torus) and studies its behavior as a function of the parameter ''μ''.", "At the bifurcation point the structure may change its stability, split into new structures, or merge with other structures.", "By using Taylor series approximations of the maps and an understanding of the differences that may be eliminated by a change of coordinates, it is possible to catalog the bifurcations of dynamical systems.The bifurcations of a hyperbolic fixed point ''x''0 of a system family ''Fμ'' can be characterized by the eigenvalues of the first derivative of the system ''DF''''μ''(''x''0) computed at the bifurcation point.", "For a map, the bifurcation will occur when there are eigenvalues of ''DFμ'' on the unit circle.", "For a flow, it will occur when there are eigenvalues on the imaginary axis.", "For more information, see the main article on Bifurcation theory.Some bifurcations can lead to very complicated structures in phase space.", "For example, the Ruelle–Takens scenario describes how a periodic orbit bifurcates into a torus and the torus into a strange attractor.", "In another example, Feigenbaum period-doubling describes how a stable periodic orbit goes through a series of period-doubling bifurcations." ], [ "Ergodic systems", "In many dynamical systems, it is possible to choose the coordinates of the system so that the volume (really a ν-dimensional volume) in phase space is invariant.", "This happens for mechanical systems derived from Newton's laws as long as the coordinates are the position and the momentum and the volume is measured in units of (position) × (momentum).", "The flow takes points of a subset ''A'' into the points Φ ''t''(''A'') and invariance of the phase space means that: In the Hamiltonian formalism, given a coordinate it is possible to derive the appropriate (generalized) momentum such that the associated volume is preserved by the flow.", "The volume is said to be computed by the Liouville measure.In a Hamiltonian system, not all possible configurations of position and momentum can be reached from an initial condition.", "Because of energy conservation, only the states with the same energy as the initial condition are accessible.", "The states with the same energy form an energy shell Ω, a sub-manifold of the phase space.", "The volume of the energy shell, computed using the Liouville measure, is preserved under evolution.For systems where the volume is preserved by the flow, Poincaré discovered the recurrence theorem: Assume the phase space has a finite Liouville volume and let ''F'' be a phase space volume-preserving map and ''A'' a subset of the phase space.", "Then almost every point of ''A'' returns to ''A'' infinitely often.", "The Poincaré recurrence theorem was used by Zermelo to object to Boltzmann's derivation of the increase in entropy in a dynamical system of colliding atoms.One of the questions raised by Boltzmann's work was the possible equality between time averages and space averages, what he called the ergodic hypothesis.", "The hypothesis states that the length of time a typical trajectory spends in a region ''A'' is vol(''A'')/vol(Ω).The ergodic hypothesis turned out not to be the essential property needed for the development of statistical mechanics and a series of other ergodic-like properties were introduced to capture the relevant aspects of physical systems.", "Koopman approached the study of ergodic systems by the use of functional analysis.", "An observable ''a'' is a function that to each point of the phase space associates a number (say instantaneous pressure, or average height).", "The value of an observable can be computed at another time by using the evolution function φ t. This introduces an operator ''U'' ''t'', the transfer operator,: By studying the spectral properties of the linear operator ''U'' it becomes possible to classify the ergodic properties of Φ ''t''.", "In using the Koopman approach of considering the action of the flow on an observable function, the finite-dimensional nonlinear problem involving Φ ''t'' gets mapped into an infinite-dimensional linear problem involving ''U''.The Liouville measure restricted to the energy surface Ω is the basis for the averages computed in equilibrium statistical mechanics.", "An average in time along a trajectory is equivalent to an average in space computed with the Boltzmann factor exp(−β''H'').", "This idea has been generalized by Sinai, Bowen, and Ruelle (SRB) to a larger class of dynamical systems that includes dissipative systems.", "SRB measures replace the Boltzmann factor and they are defined on attractors of chaotic systems.===Nonlinear dynamical systems and chaos===Simple nonlinear dynamical systems and even piecewise linear systems can exhibit a completely unpredictable behavior, which might seem to be random, despite the fact that they are fundamentally deterministic.", "This seemingly unpredictable behavior has been called ''chaos''.", "Hyperbolic systems are precisely defined dynamical systems that exhibit the properties ascribed to chaotic systems.", "In hyperbolic systems the tangent space perpendicular to a trajectory can be well separated into two parts: one with the points that converge towards the orbit (the ''stable manifold'') and another of the points that diverge from the orbit (the ''unstable manifold'').This branch of mathematics deals with the long-term qualitative behavior of dynamical systems.", "Here, the focus is not on finding precise solutions to the equations defining the dynamical system (which is often hopeless), but rather to answer questions like \"Will the system settle down to a steady state in the long term, and if so, what are the possible attractors?\"", "or \"Does the long-term behavior of the system depend on its initial condition?", "\"Note that the chaotic behavior of complex systems is not the issue.", "Meteorology has been known for years to involve complex—even chaotic—behavior.", "Chaos theory has been so surprising because chaos can be found within almost trivial systems.", "The logistic map is only a second-degree polynomial; the horseshoe map is piecewise linear.=== Solutions of Finite Duration ===For non-linear autonomous ODEs it is possible under some conditions to develop solutions of finite duration, meaning here that from its own dynamics, the system will reach the value zero at an ending time and stays there in zero forever after.", "These finite-duration solutions cannot be analytical functions on the whole real line, and because they are non-Lipschitz functions at their ending time, they are not unique solutions of Lipschitz differential equations.As example, the equation::Admits the finite duration solution::" ], [ "See also", "* Behavioral modeling* Cognitive modeling* Complex dynamics* Dynamic approach to second language development* Feedback passivation* Infinite compositions of analytic functions* List of dynamical system topics* Oscillation* People in systems and control* Sharkovskii's theorem* Conley's fundamental theorem of dynamical systems* System dynamics* Systems theory* Principle of maximum caliber" ], [ "References", "** online version of first edition on the EMIS site .", "" ], [ "Further reading", "Works providing a broad coverage: (available as a reprint: )* ''Encyclopaedia of Mathematical Sciences'' () has a sub-series on dynamical systems with reviews of current research.", "* * Introductory texts with a unique perspective:* * * * * Textbooks* * * * * * * * * * * * * * Popularizations:* * * " ], [ "External links", " Arxiv preprint server has daily submissions of (non-refereed) manuscripts in dynamical systems.", "* Encyclopedia of dynamical systems A part of Scholarpedia — peer reviewed and written by invited experts.", "* Nonlinear Dynamics.", "Models of bifurcation and chaos by Elmer G. Wiens* Sci.Nonlinear FAQ 2.0 (Sept 2003) provides definitions, explanations and resources related to nonlinear science;Online books or lecture notes* Geometrical theory of dynamical systems.", "Nils Berglund's lecture notes for a course at ETH at the advanced undergraduate level.", "* Dynamical systems.", "George D. Birkhoff's 1927 book already takes a modern approach to dynamical systems.", "* Chaos: classical and quantum.", "An introduction to dynamical systems from the periodic orbit point of view.", "* Learning Dynamical Systems.", "Tutorial on learning dynamical systems.", "* Ordinary Differential Equations and Dynamical Systems.", "Lecture notes by Gerald Teschl;Research groups* Dynamical Systems Group Groningen, IWI, University of Groningen.", "* Chaos @ UMD.", "Concentrates on the applications of dynamical systems.", ", SUNY Stony Brook.", "Lists of conferences, researchers, and some open problems.", " Center for Dynamics and Geometry, Penn State.", "* Control and Dynamical Systems, Caltech.", "* Laboratory of Nonlinear Systems, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL).", "* Center for Dynamical Systems, University of Bremen* Systems Analysis, Modelling and Prediction Group, University of Oxford* Non-Linear Dynamics Group, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of Lisbon* Dynamical Systems , IMPA, Instituto Nacional de Matemática Pura e Applicada.", "* Nonlinear Dynamics Workgroup, Institute of Computer Science, Czech Academy of Sciences.", "* UPC Dynamical Systems Group Barcelona, Polytechnical University of Catalonia.", "* Center for Control, Dynamical Systems, and Computation, University of California, Santa Barbara." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dhimmi" ], [ "Introduction", " '''''''''' ( '''', , collectively ''/'' \"the people of the covenant\") or '''''' () is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection.", "The word literally means \"protected person\", referring to the state's obligation under ''sharia'' to protect the individual's life, property, as well as freedom of religion, in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of the ''jizya'' tax, in contrast to the ''zakat'', or obligatory alms, paid by the Muslim subjects.", "''Dhimmi'' were exempt from certain duties assigned specifically to Muslims if they paid the poll tax (''jizya'') but were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation.Historically, dhimmi status was originally applied to Jews, Christians, and Sabians, who are considered \"People of the Book\" in Islamic theology.", "Later, this status was also applied to Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists.", "Jews and Christians were required to pay the ''jizyah'' while others, depending on the different rulings of the four Madhhabs, might be required to accept Islam, pay the jizya, be exiled, or be killed.During the rule of al-Mutawakkil, the tenth Abbasid Caliph, numerous restrictions reinforced the second-class citizen status of dhimmīs and forced their communities into ghettos.", "For instance, they were required to distinguish themselves from their Muslim neighbors by their dress.", "They were not permitted to build new churches or synagogues or repair old churches according to the Pact of Umar.", "Under ''Sharia'', the ''dhimmi'' communities were usually governed by their own laws in place of some of the laws applicable to the Muslim community.", "For example, the Jewish community of Medina was allowed to have its own Halakhic courts, and the Ottoman millet system allowed its various dhimmi communities to rule themselves under separate legal courts.", "These courts did not cover cases that involved religious groups outside of their own communities, or capital offences.", "''Dhimmi'' communities were also allowed to engage in certain practices that were usually forbidden for the Muslim community, such as the consumption of alcohol and pork.Some Muslims reject the ''dhimma'' system by arguing that it is a system which is inappropriate in the age of nation-states and democracies.", "There is a range of opinions among 20th-century and contemporary Islamic theologians about whether the notion of ''dhimma'' is appropriate for modern times, and, if so, what form it should take in an Islamic state.There are differences among the Islamic Madhhabs regarding which non-Muslims can pay jizya and have dhimmi status.", "The Hanafi and Maliki Madhabs generally allow non-Muslims to have dhimmi status.", "In contrast, the Shafi'i and Hanbali Madhabs only allow Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians to have dhimmi status, and they maintain that all other non-Muslims must either convert to Islam or be fought." ], [ "The \"Dhimma contract\"", "Based on Quranic verses and Islamic traditions, ''sharia'' law distinguishes between Muslims, followers of other Abrahamic religions, and Pagans or people belonging to other polytheistic religions.", "As monotheists, Jews and Christians have traditionally been considered \"People of the Book\", and afforded a special legal status known as ''dhimmi'' derived from a theoretical contract—\"dhimma\" or \"residence in return for taxes\".", "Islamic legal systems based on ''sharia'' law incorporated the religious laws and courts of Christians, Jews, and Hindus, as seen in the early caliphate, al-Andalus, Indian subcontinent, and the Ottoman Millet system.In Yemenite Jewish sources, a treaty was drafted between Muhammad and his Jewish subjects, known as ''kitāb ḏimmat al-nabi'', written in the 17th year of the Hijra (638 CE), which gave express liberty to the Jews living in Arabia to observe the Sabbath and to grow-out their side-locks, but required them to pay the ''jizya'' (poll-tax) annually for their protection.", "Muslim governments in the Indus basin readily extended the ''dhimmi'' status to the Hindus and Buddhists of India.", "Eventually, the largest school of Islamic jurisprudence applied this term to all Non-Muslims living in Muslim lands outside the sacred area surrounding Mecca, Arabia.In medieval Islamic societies, the ''qadi'' (Islamic judge) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily chose to be judged according to Islamic law, thus the ''dhimmi'' communities living in Islamic states usually had their own laws independent from the ''sharia'' law, as with the Jews who would have their own rabbinical courts.", "These courts did not cover cases that involved other religious groups, or capital offences or threats to public order.", "By the 18th century, however, ''dhimmi'' frequently attended the Ottoman Muslim courts, where cases were taken against them by Muslims, or they took cases against Muslims or other ''dhimmi''.", "Oaths sworn by ''dhimmi'' in these courts were tailored to their beliefs.", "Non-Muslims were allowed to engage in certain practices (such as the consumption of alcohol and pork) that were usually forbidden by Islamic law, in point of fact, any Muslim who pours away their wine or forcibly appropriates it is liable to pay compensation.", "Some Islamic theologians held that Zoroastrian \"self-marriages\", considered incestuous under ''sharia'', should also be tolerated.", "Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) opined that most scholars of the Hanbali school held that non-Muslims were entitled to such practices, as long as they were not presented to sharia courts and the religious minorities in question held them to be permissible.", "This ruling was based on the precedent that there were no records of the Islamic prophet Muhammad forbidding such self-marriages among Zoroastrians, despite coming into contact with Zoroastrians and knowing about this practice.", "Religious minorities were also free to do as they wished in their own homes, provided they did not publicly engage in illicit sexual activity in ways that could threaten public morals.There are parallels for this in Roman and Jewish law.", "According to law professor H. Patrick Glenn of McGill University, \"today it is said that the dhimmi are 'excluded from the specifically Muslim privileges, but on the other hand they are excluded from the specifically Muslim duties' while (and here there are clear parallels with western public and private law treatment of aliens—Fremdenrecht, la condition de estrangers), 'for the rest, the Muslim and the dhimmi are equal in practically the whole of the law of property and of contracts and obligations'.\"", "Quoting the Qur'anic statement, \"Let Christians judge according to what We have revealed in the Gospel\", Muhammad Hamidullah writes that Islam decentralized and \"communalized\" law and justice.", "However, the classical ''dhimma'' contract is no longer enforced.", "Western influence over the Muslim world has been instrumental in eliminating the restrictions and protections of the ''dhimma'' contract.===The Dhimma contract and Sharia law===The ''dhimma'' contract is an integral part of traditional Islamic law.", "From the 9th century AD, the power to interpret and refine law in traditional Islamic societies was in the hands of the scholars (''ulama'').", "This separation of powers served to limit the range of actions available to the ruler, who could not easily decree or reinterpret law independently and expect the continued support of the community.", "Through succeeding centuries and empires, the balance between the ulema and the rulers shifted and reformed, but the balance of power was never decisively changed.", "At the beginning of the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution introduced an era of European world hegemony that included the domination of most of the Muslim lands.", "At the end of the Second World War, the European powers found themselves too weakened to maintain their empires.", "The wide variety in forms of government, systems of law, attitudes toward modernity and interpretations of sharia are a result of the ensuing drives for independence and modernity in the Muslim world.Muslim states, sects, schools of thought and individuals differ as to exactly what sharia law entails.", "In addition, Muslim states today utilize a spectrum of legal systems.", "Most states have a mixed system that implements certain aspects of sharia while acknowledging the supremacy of a constitution.", "A few, such as Turkey, have declared themselves secular.", "Local and customary laws may take precedence in certain matters, as well.", "Islamic law is therefore polynormative, and despite several cases of regression in recent years, the trend is towards liberalization.", "Questions of human rights and the status of minorities cannot be generalized with regards to the Muslim world.", "They must instead be examined on a case-by-case basis, within specific political and cultural contexts, using perspectives drawn from the historical framework.===The end of the Dhimma contract===The status of the dhimmi \"was for long accepted with resignation by the Christians and with gratitude by the Jews\" but the rising power of Christendom and the radical ideas of the French Revolution caused a wave of discontent among Christian dhimmis.", "The continuing and growing pressure from the European powers combined with pressure from Muslim reformers gradually relaxed the inequalities between Muslims and non-Muslims.On 18 February 1856, the Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856 (Hatt-i Humayan) was issued, building upon the 1839 edict.", "It came about partly as a result of pressure from and the efforts of the ambassadors of France, Austria and the United Kingdom, whose respective countries were needed as allies in the Crimean War.", "It again proclaimed the principle of equality between Muslims and non-Muslims, and produced many specific reforms to this end.", "For example, the jizya tax was abolished and non-Muslims were allowed to join the army.===Views of modern Islamic scholars on the status of non-Muslims in an Islamic society===* The Iranian Shi'a Muslim Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini indicates in his book ''Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist'' that non-Muslims should be required to pay the poll tax, in return for which they would profit from the protection and services of the state; they would, however, be excluded from all participation in the political process.", "Bernard Lewis remarks about Khomeini that one of his main grievances against the Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, was that his legislation allowed the theoretical possibility of non-Muslims exercising political or judicial authority over Muslims.", "* The Egyptian theologian Yusuf al-Qaradawi, chairman of the International Union of Muslim Scholars, has stated in his Al Jazeera program ''Sharia and Life'', which has an estimated audience of 35 to 60 million viewers: \"When we say ''dhimmis'' (''ahl al-dhimma'') it means that ... they are under the covenant of God and His Messenger and the Muslim community and their responsibility (''ḍamān''), and it is everyone's duty to protect them, and this is what is intended by the word.", "At present many of our brethren are offended by the word ''dhimmis'', and I have stated in what I wrote in my books that I don't see anything to prevent contemporary Islamic ijtihad from discarding this word ''dhimmis'' and calling them non-Muslim citizens.", "\"Another Egyptian Islamist, Mohammad Salim al-Awa argued the concept of dhimmi must be re-interpreted in the context of Egyptian nationalism.", "Al-Awa and other Muslim scholars based this on the idea that while the previous ''dhimma'' condition result from the Islamic conquest, the modern Egyptian state results from a joint Muslim-Christian campaign to end the British occupation of Egypt.", "In modern-day Egypt, he argues, the constitution replaces the ''dhimma'' contract.", " Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i, a 20th-century Shia scholar writes that dhimmis should be treated \"in a good and decent manner\".", "He addresses the argument that good treatment of dhimmis was abrogated by Quranic verse 9:29 by stating that, in the literal sense, this verse is not in conflict with good treatment of dhimmis.", "* Javed Ahmad Ghamidi, a Pakistani theologian, writes in ''Mizan'' that certain directives of the Quran were specific only to Muhammad against peoples of his times, besides other directives, the campaign involved asking the polytheists of Arabia for submission to Islam as a condition for exoneration and the others for jizya and submission to the political authority of the Muslims for exemption from capital punishment and for military protection as the dhimmis of the Muslims.", "Therefore, after Muhammad and his companions, there is no concept in Islam obliging Muslims to wage war for propagation or implementation of Islam.", "* The Iranian Shia jurist Grand Ayatollah Naser Makarem Shirazi states in ''Selection of the Tafsir Nemooneh'' that the main philosophy of jizya is that it is only a financial aid to those Muslims who are in the charge of safeguarding the security of the state and dhimmis' lives and properties on their behalf.", "* Prominent Islamic thinkers like Fahmi Huwaidi and Tarek El-Bishry have based their justification for full citizenship of non-Muslims in an Islamic states on the precedent set by Muhammad in the Constitution of Medina.", "They argue that in this charter the People of Book, have the status of citizens (''muwatinun'') rather than dhimmis, sharing equal rights and duties with Muslims.", "* Legal scholar L. Ali Khan also points to the Constitution of Medina as a way forward for Islamic states in his 2006 paper titled ''The Medina Constitution''.", "He suggests this ancient document, which governed the status of religions and races in the first Islamic state, in which Jewish tribes are \"placed on an equal footing with ... Muslims\" and granted \"the freedom of religion,\" can serve as a basis for the protection of minority rights, equality, and religious freedom in the modern Islamic state.", "* Tariq Ramadan, Professor of Islamic Studies at the University of Oxford, advocates the inclusion of academic disciplines and Islamic society, along with traditional Islamic scholars, in an effort to reform Islamic law and address modern conditions.", "He speaks of remaining faithful to the higher objectives of sharia law.", "He posits universal rights of dignity, welfare, freedom, equality and justice in a religiously and culturally pluralistic Islamic (or other) society, and proposes a dialogue regarding the modern term \"citizenship,\" although it has no clear precedent in classical fiqh.", "He further includes the terms \"non-citizen\", \"foreigner\", \"resident\" and \"immigrant\" in this dialogue, and challenges not only Islam, but modern civilization as a whole, to come to terms with these concepts in a meaningful way with regards to problems of racism, discrimination and oppression." ], [ "Dhimmi communities", "Jews and Christians living under early Muslim rule were considered dhimmis, a status that was later also extended to other non-Muslims like Hindus and Buddhists.", "They were allowed to \"freely practice their religion, and to enjoy a large measure of communal autonomy\" and guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, in return for paying tribute and acknowledging Muslim rule.", "Islamic law and custom prohibited the enslavement of free dhimmis within lands under Islamic rule.", "Taxation from the perspective of dhimmis who came under the Muslim rule, was \"a concrete continuation of the taxes paid to earlier regimes\" (but much lower under the Muslim rule).", "They were also exempted from the zakat tax paid by Muslims.", "The dhimmi communities living in Islamic states had their own laws independent from the Sharia law, such as the Jews who had their own Halakhic courts.", "The dhimmi communities had their own leaders, courts, personal and religious laws, and \"generally speaking, Muslim tolerance of unbelievers was far better than anything available in Christendom, until the rise of secularism in the 17th century\".", "\"Muslims guaranteed freedom of worship and livelihood, provided that they remained loyal to the Muslim state and paid a poll tax\".", "\"Muslim governments appointed Christian and Jewish professionals to their bureaucracies\", and thus, Christians and Jews \"contributed to the making of the Islamic civilization\".However, dhimmis faced social and symbolic restrictions, and a pattern of stricter, then more lax, enforcement developed over time.", "Marshall Hodgson, a historian of Islam, writes that during the era of the High Caliphate (7th–13th Centuries), zealous Shariah-minded Muslims gladly elaborated their code of symbolic restrictions on the dhimmis.From an Islamic legal perspective, the pledge of protection granted dhimmis the freedom to practice their religion and spared them forced conversions.", "The dhimmis also served a variety of useful purposes, mostly economic, which was another point of concern to jurists.", "Religious minorities were free to do whatever they wished in their own homes, but could not \"publicly engage in illicit sex in ways that threaten public morals\".", "In some cases, religious practices that Muslims found repugnant were allowed.", "One example was the Zoroastrian practice of incestuous \"self-marriage\" where a man could marry his mother, sister or daughter.", "According to the famous Islamic legal scholar Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), non-Muslims had the right to engage in such religious practices even if it offended Muslims, under the conditions that such cases not be presented to Islamic Sharia courts and that these religious minorities believed that the practice in question is permissible according to their religion.", "This ruling was based on the precedent that Muhammad did not forbid such self-marriages among Zoroastrians despite coming in contact with them and having knowledge of their practices.The Arabs generally established garrisons outside towns in the conquered territories, and had little interaction with the local dhimmi populations for purposes other than the collection of taxes.", "The conquered Christian, Jewish, Mazdean and Buddhist communities were otherwise left to lead their lives as before.===Christians===According to historians Lewis and Stillman, local Christians in Syria, Iraq, and Egypt were non-Chalcedonians and many may have felt better off under early Muslim rule than under that of the Byzantine Orthodox of Constantinople.", "In 1095, Pope Urban II urged western European Christians to come to the aid of the Christians of Palestine.", "The subsequent Crusades brought Roman Catholic Christians into contact with Orthodox Christians whose beliefs they discovered to differ from their own perhaps more than they had realized, and whose position under the rule of the Muslim Fatimid Caliphate was less uncomfortable than had been supposed.", "Consequently, the Eastern Christians provided perhaps less support to the Crusaders than had been expected.", "When the Arab East came under Ottoman rule in the 16th century, Christian populations and fortunes rebounded significantly.", "The Ottomans had long experience dealing with Christian and Jewish minorities, and were more tolerant towards religious minorities than the former Muslim rulers, the Mamluks of Egypt.However, Christians living under Islamic rule have suffered certain legal disadvantages and at times persecution.", "In the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the ''dhimmi'' system implemented in Muslim countries, they, like all other Christians and also Jews, were accorded certain freedoms.", "The dhimmi system in the Ottoman Empire was largely based upon the Pact of Umar.", "The client status established the rights of the non-Muslims to property, livelihood and freedom of worship but they were in essence treated as second-class citizens in the empire and referred to in Turkish as ''gavours'', a pejorative word meaning \"infidel\" or \"unbeliever\".", "The clause of the Pact of Umar which prohibited non-Muslims from building new places of worship was historically imposed on some communities of the Ottoman Empire and ignored in other cases, at discretion of the local authorities.", "Although there were no laws mandating religious ghettos, this led to non-Muslim communities being clustered around existing houses of worship.In addition to other legal limitations, dhimmis, including the Christians among them, were not considered equals to Muslims and several prohibitions were placed on them.", "Their testimony against Muslims was inadmissible in courts of law wherein a Muslim could be punished; this meant that their testimony could only be considered in commercial cases.", "They were forbidden to carry weapons or ride atop horses and camels.", "Their houses could not overlook those of Muslims; and their religious practices were severely circumscribed (e.g., the ringing of church bells was strictly forbidden).===Jews===Because the early Islamic conquests initially preserved much of the existing administrative machinery and culture, in many territories they amounted to little more than a change of rulers for the subject populations, which \"brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persian warfare\".María Rosa Menocal, argues that the Jewish dhimmis living under the caliphate, while allowed fewer rights than Muslims, were still better off than in the Christian parts of Europe.", "Jews from other parts of Europe made their way to al-Andalus, where in parallel to Christian sects regarded as heretical by Catholic Europe, they were not just tolerated, but where opportunities to practice faith and trade were open without restriction save for the prohibitions on proselytization.Bernard Lewis states:Professor of Jewish medieval history at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Hayim Hillel Ben-Sasson, notes:According to the French historian Claude Cahen, Islam has \"shown more toleration than Europe towards the Jews who remained in Muslim lands.", "\"Comparing the treatment of Jews in the medieval Islamic world and medieval Christian Europe, Mark R. Cohen notes that, in contrast to Jews in Christian Europe, the \"Jews in Islam were well integrated into the economic life of the larger society\", and that they were allowed to practice their religion more freely than they could do in Christian Europe.According to the scholar Mordechai Zaken, tribal chieftains (also known as aghas) in tribal Muslim societies such as the Kurdish society in Kurdistan would tax their Jewish subjects.", "The Jews were in fact civilians protected by their chieftains in and around their communities; in return they paid part of their harvest as dues, and contributed their skills and services to their patron chieftain.===Hindus and Buddhists===By the 10th century, the Turks of Central Asia had invaded the Indic plains, and spread Islam in Northwestern parts of India.", "At the end of the 12th century, the Muslims advanced quickly into the Ganges Plain.", "In one decade, a Muslim army led by Turkic slaves consolidated resistance around Lahore and brought northern India, as far as Bengal, under Muslim rule.", "From these Turkic slaves would come sultans, including the founder of the sultanate of Delhi.", "By the 15th century, major parts of Northern India was ruled by Muslim rulers, mostly descended from invaders.", "In the 16th century, India came under the influence of the Mughals.", "Babur, the first ruler of the Mughal empire, established a foothold in the north which paved the way for further expansion by his successors.", "Although the Mughal emperor Akbar has been described as a universalist, most Mughal emperors were oppressive of native Hindu, Buddhist and later Sikh populations.", "Aurangzeb specifically was inclined towards a highly fundamentalist approach." ], [ "Restrictions", "There were a number of restrictions on dhimmis.", "In a modern sense the dhimmis would be described as second-class citizens.", "According to historian Marshall Hodgson, from very early times Muslim rulers would very often humiliate and punish dhimmis (usually Christians or Jews that refused to convert to Islam).", "It was official policy that dhimmis should “feel inferior and to know ‘their place\".Although ''dhimmis'' were allowed to perform their religious rituals, they were obliged to do so in a manner not conspicuous to Muslims.", "Loud prayers were forbidden, as were the ringing of church bells and the blowing of the shofar.", "They were also not allowed to build or repair churches and synagogues without Muslim consent.", "Moreover, dhimmis were not allowed to seek converts among Muslims.", "In the Mamluk Egypt, where non-Mamluk Muslims were not allowed to ride horses and camels, dhimmis were prohibited even from riding donkeys inside cities.", "Sometimes, Muslim rulers issued regulations requiring dhimmis to attach distinctive signs to their houses.Most of the restrictions were social and symbolic in nature, and a pattern of stricter, then more lax, enforcement developed over time.", "The major financial disabilities of the dhimmi were the jizya poll tax and the fact dhimmis and Muslims could not inherit from each other.", "That would create an incentive to convert if someone from the family had already converted.", "Ira M. Lapidus states that the \"payment of the poll tax seems to have been regular, but other obligations were inconsistently enforced and did not prevent many non-Muslims from being important political, business, and scholarly figures.", "In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, Jewish bankers and financiers were important at the 'Abbasid court.\"", "The jurists and scholars of Islamic sharia law called for humane treatment of the dhimmis.A Muslim man may marry a Jewish or Christian dhimmī woman, who may keep her own religion (though her children were automatically considered Muslims and had to be raised as such), but a Muslim woman cannot marry a dhimmī man unless he converts to Islam.", "Dhimmīs are prohibited from converting Muslims under severe penalties, while Muslims are encouraged to convert dhimmīs.", "===Jizya tax===Payment of the ''jizya'' obligated Muslim authorities to protect dhimmis in civil and military matters.", "Sura 9 (At-Tawba), verse 29 stipulates that ''jizya'' be exacted from non-Muslims as a condition required for jihad to cease.", "Islamic jurists required adult, free, healthy males among the dhimma community to pay the jizya, while exempting women, children, the elderly, slaves, those affected by mental or physical handicaps, and travelers who did not settle in Muslim lands.", "According to Abu Yusuf dhimmi should be imprisoned until they pay the jizya in full.", "Other jurists specified that dhimmis who don't pay jizya should have their heads shaved and made to wear a dress distinctive from those dhimmis who paid the jizya and Muslims.Lewis states there are varying opinions among scholars as to how much of a burden jizya was.", "According to Norman Stillman: \"''jizya'' and ''kharaj'' were a \"crushing burden for the non-Muslim peasantry who eked out a bare living in a subsistence economy.\"", "Both agree that ultimately, the additional taxation on non-Muslims was a critical factor that drove many dhimmis to leave their religion and accept Islam.", "However, in some regions the jizya on populations was significantly lower than the zakat, meaning dhimmi populations maintained an economic advantage.", "According to Cohen, taxation, from the perspective of dhimmis who came under Muslim rule, was \"a concrete continuation of the taxes paid to earlier regimes\".", "Lewis observes that the change from Byzantine to Arab rule was welcomed by many among the dhimmis who found the new yoke far lighter than the old, both in taxation and in other matters, and that some, even among the Christians of Syria and Egypt, preferred the rule of Islam to that of Byzantines.", "Montgomery Watt states, \"the Christians were probably better off as dhimmis under Muslim-Arab rulers than they had been under the Byzantine Greeks.\"", "In some places, for example Egypt, the jizya was a tax incentive for Christians to convert to Islam.Some scholars have tried compute the relative taxation on Muslims vs non-Muslims in the early Abbasid period.", "According to one estimate, Muslims had an average tax rate of 17–20 dirhams per person, which rose to 30 dirhams per person when in kind levies are included.", "Non-Muslims paid either 12, 24 or 48 dirhams per person, depending on their taxation category, though most probably paid 12.The importance of dhimmis as a source of revenue for the Rashidun Caliphate is illustrated in a letter ascribed to Umar I and cited by Abu Yusuf: \"if we take dhimmis and share them out, what will be left for the Muslims who come after us?", "By God, Muslims would not find a man to talk to and profit from his labors.", "\"The early Islamic scholars took a relatively humane and practical attitude towards the collection of ''jizya'', compared to the 11th century commentators writing when Islam was under threat both at home and abroad.The jurist Abu Yusuf, the chief judge of the caliph Harun al-Rashid, rules as follows regarding the manner of collecting the jizyaIn the border provinces, dhimmis were sometimes recruited for military operations.", "In such cases, they were exempted from jizya for the year of service.===Administration of law===Religious pluralism existed in medieval Islamic law and ethics.", "The religious laws and courts of other religions, including Christianity, Judaism and Hinduism, were usually accommodated within the Islamic legal framework, as exemplified in the Caliphate, Al-Andalus, Ottoman Empire and Indian subcontinent.", "In medieval Islamic societies, the qadi (Islamic judge) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily chose to be judged according to Islamic law.", "The dhimmi communities living in Islamic states usually had their own laws independent from the Sharia law, such as the Jews who had their own Halakha courts.Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts following their own legal systems.", "However, dhimmis frequently attended the Muslim courts in order to record property and business transactions within their own communities.", "Cases were taken out against Muslims, against other dhimmis and even against members of the dhimmi's own family.", "Dhimmis often took cases relating to marriage, divorce or inheritance to the Muslim courts so these cases would be decided under sharia law.", "Oaths sworn by dhimmis in the Muslim courts were sometimes the same as the oaths taken by Muslims, sometimes tailored to the dhimmis' beliefs.Muslim men could generally marry dhimmi women who are considered People of the Book, however Islamic jurists rejected the possibility any non-Muslim man might marry a Muslim woman.", "Bernard Lewis notes that \"similar position existed under the laws of Byzantine Empire, according to which a Christian could marry a Jewish woman, but a Jew could not marry a Christian woman under pain of death\"." ], [ "Relevant texts", "===Quranic verses as a basis for Islamic policies toward dhimmis===Lewis states* The phrase \"Let there be no compulsion in religion: ...\", from has sometimes been interpreted in the Islamic legal and theological traditions to mean followers of other religions should not be forced to adopt Islam * The phrase \"Unto you your religion, and unto me my religion.", "\", from has been used as a \"proof-text for pluralism and coexistence\".", "* has served to justify the tolerated position accorded to the followers of Christianity, Judaism, and Sabianism under Muslim rule.===Hadith===A hadith by Muhammad, \"Whoever killed a (a person who is granted the pledge of protection by the Muslims) shall not smell the fragrance of Paradise though its fragrance can be smelt at a distance of forty years (of traveling).", "\", is cited as a foundation for the right of non-Muslim citizens to live peacefully and undisturbed in an Islamic state.", "Anwar Shah Kashmiri writes in his commentary on Sahih al-Bukhari ''Fayd al-Bari'' on this hadith: \"You know the gravity of sin for killing a Muslim, for its odiousness has reached the point of disbelief, and it necessitates that the killer abides in Hell forever.", "As for killing a non-Muslim citizen , it is similarly no small matter, for the one who does it will not smell the fragrance of Paradise.", "\"A similar hadith in regard to the status of the dhimmis: \"Whoever wrongs one with whom a compact (treaty) has been made ''i.e., a dhimmi'' and lays on him a burden beyond his strength, I will be his accuser.", "\"===Constitution of Medina===The Constitution of Medina, a formal agreement between Muhammad and all the significant tribes and families of Medina (including Muslims, Jews and pagans), declared that non-Muslims in the Ummah had the following rights:# The security (''dhimma'') of God is equal for all groups,# Non-Muslim members have equal political and cultural rights as Muslims.", "They will have autonomy and freedom of religion.# Non-Muslims will take up arms against the enemy of the Ummah and share the cost of war.", "There is to be no treachery between the two.# Non-Muslims will not be obliged to take part in religious wars of the Muslims.===Khaybar agreement===A precedent for the dhimma contract was established with the agreement between Muhammad and the Jews after the Battle of Khaybar, an oasis near Medina.", "Khaybar was the first territory attacked and conquered by Muslims.", "When the Jews of Khaybar surrendered to Muhammad after a siege, Muhammad allowed them to remain in Khaybar in return for handing over to the Muslims one half their annual produce.===Pact of Umar===The Pact of Umar, traditionally believed to be between caliph Umar and the conquered Jerusalem Christians in the seventh century, was another source of regulations pertaining to dhimmis.", "However, Western orientalists doubt the authenticity of the pact, arguing it is usually the victors and not the vanquished who impose rather than propose, the terms of peace, and that it is highly unlikely that the people who spoke no Arabic and knew nothing of Islam could draft such a document.", "Academic historians believe the Pact of Umar in the form it is known today was a product of later jurists who attributed it to Umar in order to lend greater authority to their own opinions.", "The similarities between the Pact of Umar and the Theodosian and Justinian Codes of the Eastern Roman Empire suggest that perhaps much of the Pact of Umar was borrowed from these earlier codes by later Islamic jurists.", "At least some of the clauses of the pact mirror the measures first introduced by the Umayyad caliph Umar II or by the early Abbasid caliphs." ], [ "Cultural interactions and cultural differences", "During the Middle Ages, local associations known as ''futuwwa'' clubs developed across the Islamic lands.", "There were usually several futuwwah in each town.", "These clubs catered to varying interests, primarily sports, and might involve distinctive manners of dress and custom.", "They were known for their hospitality, idealism and loyalty to the group.", "They often had a militaristic aspect, purportedly for the mutual protection of the membership.", "These clubs commonly crossed social strata, including among their membership local notables, dhimmi and slaves – to the exclusion of those associated with the local ruler, or amir.Muslims and Jews were sometimes partners in trade, with the Muslim taking days off on Fridays and Jews taking off on Saturdays.Andrew Wheatcroft describes how some social customs such as different conceptions of dirt and cleanliness made it difficult for the religious communities to live close to each other, either under Muslim or under Christian rule." ], [ "In modern times", "The dhimma and the jizya poll tax are no longer imposed in Muslim majority countries.", "In the 21st century, jizya is widely regarded as being at odds with contemporary secular conceptions of citizens' civil rights and equality before the law, although there have been occasional reports of religious minorities in conflict zones and areas subject to political instability being forced to pay jizya.In 2009 it was claimed that a group of militants that referred to themselves as the Taliban imposed the ''jizya'' on Pakistan's minority Sikh community after occupying some of their homes and kidnapping a Sikh leader.As late as 2013, in Egypt ''jizya'' was reportedly being imposed by the Muslim Brotherhood on 15,000 Christian Copts of Dalga Village.In February 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) announced that it intended to extract jizya from Christians in the city of Raqqa, Syria, which it controlled at the time.", "Christians who refused to accept the dhimma contract and pay the tax were to have to either convert to Islam, leave or be executed.", "Wealthy Christians would have to pay half an ounce of gold, the equivalent of $664 twice a year; middle-class Christians were to have to pay half that amount and poorer ones were to be charged one-fourth that amount.", "In June, 2014 the Institute for the Study of War reported that ISIL claims to have collected jizya and fay.", "On 18 July 2014 ISIL ordered the Christians in Mosul to accept the dhimma contract and pay the jizya or convert to Islam.", "If they refused to accept either of the options they would be killed." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " * * * * Bosworth, C. E. (1982).", "''The Concept of Dhimma in Early Islam'' In Benjamin Braude and B. Lewis, eds., ''Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society'' 2 vols., New York: Holmes & Meier Publishing.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Nabil Luka Babawi: ''Les droits et les devoirs des chrétiens dans l'état islamique et leurs conséquences sur la sécurité nationale'', thèse de doctorat.", "* * * Mark.", "R. Cohen: ''Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages.''", "Princeton University Press, 1994.", "* * Maribel Fierro and John Tolan, eds, ''The legal status of ḏimmī-s in the Islamic West (second/eighth-ninth/fifteenth centuries)'' (Turnhoult, 2013).", "* * * * Nicola Melis, \"Il concetto di ğihād\", in P. Manduchi (a cura di), ''Dalla penna al mouse.", "Gli strumenti di diffusione del concetto di ğihād'', Angeli, Milano 2006, pp. 23–54.", "* Nicola Melis, \"Lo statuto giuridico degli ebrei dell'Impero Ottomano\", in M. Contu – N. Melis – G. Pinna (a cura di), ''Ebraismo e rapporti con le culture del Mediterraneo nei secoli XVIII–XX'', Giuntina, Firenze 2003.", "* Nicola Melis, ''Trattato sulla guerra.", "Il Kitāb al-ğihād di Molla Hüsrev'', Aipsa, Cagliari 2002.", "* Mohammad Amin Al-Midani: \"La question des minorités et le statut des non-musulmans en Islam.\"", "In: ''La religion est-elle un obstacle à l'application des droits de l'homme?.''", "colloque tenu les 10–11 décembre 2004 à Lyon.", "* M. Levy-Rubin: \"Shurut 'Umar and its alternatives: the legal debate on the status of the dhimmis.\"", "In: ''Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam.''", "30/2005* Pessah Shinar: \"Some remarks regarding the colours of male Jewish dress in North Africa and their Arabic-Islamic context.\"", "In: ''Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam.''", "24/2000, pp.", "380–395" ], [ "External links", "* Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages.", "Thomas F. Glick: Chapter 5: Ethnic relations* Islam and its tolerance level * Surah Al Kafirun is 109 Surah and found in the 30th Parah of the Quran.", "* Islamic Teaching On Dhimmi Status Creates An Atmosphere Of Intolerance from the Religious Freedom Packet of the Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle* Bernard Lewis, ''Race and Slavery in the Middle East'' * Jihad, the Arab Conquests and the Position of Non-Muslim Subjects" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Doctor V64" ], [ "Introduction", "The Doctor V64 attached to an N64The '''Doctor V64''' (also referred to simply as the '''V64''') is a development and backup device made by Bung Enterprises Ltd that is used in conjunction with the Nintendo 64.The Doctor V64 also had the ability to play video CDs and audio CDs.", "Additionally, it could apply stereo 3D effects to the audio." ], [ "History", "The V64 was released in 1996 and was priced around $450 USD.", "It was the first commercially-available backup device for the Nintendo 64 unit.", "The Partner N64 development kit, which was manufactured by Silicon Graphics and sold officially by Nintendo, was a comparatively expensive development machine.", "The V64 served as a lower-cost development machine, though its unofficial status would later lead to conflict with Nintendo.", "Some third-party developers used a number of V64s in their development process.=== Specifications ===The CPU of the V64 is a 6502, and the operating system is contained in a BIOS.The V64 unit contains a CD-ROM drive which sits underneath the Nintendo 64 and plugs into the expansion slot on the underside of the Nintendo 64.The expansion slot is essentially a mirror image of the cartridge slot on the top of the unit, with the same electrical connections; thus, the Nintendo 64 reads data from the Doctor V64 in the same manner as it would from a cartridge plugged into the normal slot." ], [ "Usage", "=== Game booting ===In order to get around Nintendo's lockout chip, when using the V64, a game cartridge is plugged into the Nintendo 64 through an adaptor which connects only the lockout chip.", "The game cart used for the operation had to contain the same lockout chip used by the game back up.=== Saving game progress ===The second problem concerned saving progress.", "Most N64 games are saved to the cart itself instead of external memory cards.", "If the player wanted to keep their progress, then the cartridge used had to have the same type of non-volatile memory hardware.", "Alternatively, Bung produced the \"DX256\" and \"DS1\" add-ons to allow (EEPROM and SRAM respectively) saves to be made without using the inserted cartridge.", "These devices were inserted into the top-slot of the N64 with the game cartridge being then inserted into the top of them to just provide the security bypass.", "Save slots on the DX256 were selected using an alpha and numeric encoder knobs on the front of the device.=== Uploading game images ===The Doctor V64 could be used to read the data from a game cartridge and transfer the data to a PC via the parallel port.", "This allowed developers and homebrew programmers to upload their game images to the Doctor V64 without having to create a CD backup each time.", "It also allowed users to upload game images taken from the Internet." ], [ "Doctor V64 Jr.", "Following the Doctor V64's success, Bung released the Doctor V64 Jr. in December 1998.This was a condensed, cost-efficient version of the original V64.The Doctor V64 Jr. has no CD drive and plugs into the normal cartridge slot on the top of the Nintendo 64.Data is loaded into the Doctor V64 Jr.'s battery-backed RAM from a PC via a parallel port connection.", "The Doctor V64 Jr. has up to 512 megabits (64 MB) of memory storage.", "This was done to provide for future Nintendo 64 carts that employed larger memory storage, but the high costs associated with ordering large storage carts kept this occurrence at a minimum.", "Only a handful of 512-megabit games were released for the Nintendo 64 system." ], [ "Promotions", "In 1998 and 1999, there was a homebrew competition known as \"Presence of Mind\" (POM), an N64 demo competition led by dextrose.com.", "The contest consisted of submitting a user-developed N64 program, game, or utility.", "Bung Enterprises promoted the event and supplied prizes (usually Doctor V64 related accessories).", "Though a contest was planned for 2000, the interest in the N64 was already fading, and so did the event.", "POM contest demo entries can still be found on the Internet." ], [ "Legal issues", "=== Role in piracy ===The Doctor V64 unit was the first commercially available backup device for the Nintendo 64 unit.", "Though the unit was sold as a development machine, it could be modified to enable the creation and use of commercial game backups.", "Unlike official development units, the purchase of V64s was not restricted to software companies only.", "For this reason, the unit became a popular choice among those looking to proliferate unlicensed copies of games.Original Doctor V64 units sold by Bung did not allow the playing of backups.", "A person would have to modify the unit by themselves in order to make it backup friendly.", "This usually required a user to download and install a modified Doctor V64 BIOS.", "Additionally, the cartridge adapter had to be opened and soldered in order to allow for the operational procedure.", "Though Bung never sold backup enabled V64s, many re-sellers would modify the units themselves.=== Conflicts with Nintendo ===During the N64's lifetime, Nintendo revised the N64's model, making the serial port area smaller.", "This slight change in the N64's plastic casing made the connection to the Doctor V64 difficult to achieve without user modification.", "This revision may have been a direct reaction from Nintendo to discourage the use of V64 devices, and may also explain why Bung decided to discontinue the use of this port in the later Doctor V64 Jr. models.Nintendo made many legal efforts worldwide in order to stop the sale of Doctor V64 units.", "They sued Bung directly as well as specific store retailers in Europe and North America for copyright infringement.", "Eventually, Nintendo managed to have the courts prohibit the sale of Doctor V64 units in the United States." ], [ "Main menu", "V64 menu screenThe Doctor V64 implemented text-based menu-driven screens.", "The menus consisted of white text superimposed over a black background.", "Utilizing the buttons on the V64 unit, a user would navigate the menus and issue commands.", "Though the menu was mainly designed for game developers, it is possible to back up cartridges with it (through the use of an unofficial V64 BIOS).", "Some of the menu items related to game backups were removed from the V64's BIOS near the end of its life due to pressure from Nintendo.", "These items are only available by obtaining a patched V64 BIOS.+ Complete V64 menu listing Menu option Effect Alternate and BootCrack This option would load a workaround for booting games.", "It only worked on certain types of game images.", "Load Boot Crack Routine An advanced option that allowed uploading of program code for the use of boot related problems.", "Backup Card Auto → DRAM This option would read a game cartridge and store it in the V64's RAM.", "Backup Card Auto → PC Same as the previous option, but would transfer the data to a PC through the V64's parallel port.", "Manual Slide Show Switch manual between Screenshots the user made in VCD Movie.", "Auto Slide Show Switch automatic between Screenshots the user made in VCD Movie.", "V64 Self Test Diagnostics routine; would check all of V64's subsystems.", "Fully Test 128M DRAM Diagnostics routine; would check only the first 128MB of memory.", "Fully Test 256M DRAM Diagnostics routine; specifically for units with 256MB of memory.", "Upload DRAM Data → PC Used in conjunction with the option \"Backup Card Auto → DRAM\", this option would transfer the contents of Doctor V64's RAM to a PC through the use of V64's parallel port.", "Fix CRC Code → run game Another boot-related command to enable the playing of game images.", "It would only work on certain types of backups.", "Show Game Name in DRAM An advanced option that would read the backup image and extract the game's name, displaying it on the screen.", "Upload V64 BIOS to PC Another advanced option for DV64 developers.", "It would transfer the Doctor V64's own program code to the PC through a parallel connection.", "DX256 Upload to PC This command allowed the operation of specific features of the DX256 cartridge adapter (an alternate cartridge adapter sold by Bung).", "PC Download to DX256 This command allowed the operation of specific features to be downloaded onto the DX256 cartridge adaptor.", "Swap Byte Order in DRAM This command would convert the game image's endianness of a game image already loaded in RAM.", "Later bios revisions would do this automatically, deprecating this option." ], [ "Detailed specifications", "=== CD-ROM access speed ===Most early V64 models shipped with a standard IDE 8X CD-ROM .", "During the manufacturing lifetime of the device, latter V64 models shipped with 16X and eventually 20X drives.", "V64 units could be purchased without a CD-ROM drive.", "It is possible to replace the unit with a faster IDE CD-ROM unit (such as the 52X model in the image on this page).Many Doctor V64s shipped internationally were ordered without an installed CD-ROM drive, to save on shipping costs associated with weight, to avoid import duty on the drive, and to allow users to customize the units in response to the ever-increasing speeds of drives available.", "The variance in the power draw of different manufacturers drives at different speeds caused issues with disc spin-ups exceeding the wattage rating of the included Bung PSU.", "This led to users swapping out the Bung PSU for a more powerful model, or selecting low draw drives (mainly Panasonic drives sometimes badged as Creative).=== CD-Media ===V64s can read CD-Rs and CD-RWs (provided the installed CD-ROM unit supports rewritable media).", "Supported media has to be recorded in Mode 1, ISO 9660 format.", "Doctor V64s only support the 8.3 DOS naming convention.", "As such, Joliet file system is not supported.=== RAM ===Depending on the model, V64s came with either 128 megabits (16 MB) or 256 megabits (32 MB) of RAM.", "Original V64 units shipped with 128 megabits of RAM.", "V64 units started shipping with 256 megabits when developers started using bigger sized memory carts for their games.", "Users had the option of buying a memory upgrade from Bung and other re-sellers.=== Power supply ===The Doctor V64 uses a 4 Pin MiniDIN jack (as used for S-Video) for connecting the power supply cord.", "Power supplies included with Doctor V64s were very unreliable.", "Bung replaced the power supply with a sturdier version in later V64 units.", "Replacing broken power supplies became one of the most common maintenance problems with the V64.It is possible to modify an AT PC power supply for V64 use.", "Only 4 cables have to be connected to the V64 for it to function." ], [ "Additional information", "* The ROM extensions \".v64\" and \".z64\" started out as the preferred naming conventions by Doctor V64 and Z64 users, respectively.", "It would also imply the file's \"endianness\" as those units employed little endian (V64) and big endian (Z64) byte alignment.", "\".n64\" was used as well but not as much (it became more popular as N64 emulators began to appear).", "The terms \".v64\" and \".z64\" are still widely used today by the emulation community.", "* Acclaim Entertainment subsidiary Iguana Entertainment used Doctor V64 units as their development hardware of choice during the N64 era.", "They were best known for developing the ''Turok'', ''NBA Jam'', ''NFL Quarterback Club'', and ''South Park'' video games." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "De Havilland Mosquito" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''de Havilland DH.98 Mosquito''' is a British twin-engined, multirole combat aircraft, introduced during the Second World War.", "Unusual in that its airframe was constructed mostly of wood, it was nicknamed the \"Wooden Wonder\", or \"Mossie\".", "Lord Beaverbrook, Minister of Aircraft Production, nicknamed it \"Freeman's Folly\", alluding to Air Chief Marshal Sir Wilfrid Freeman, who defended Geoffrey de Havilland and his design concept against orders to scrap the project.", "In 1941, it was one of the fastest operational aircraft in the world.Originally conceived as an unarmed fast bomber, the Mosquito's use evolved during the war into many roles, including low- to medium-altitude daytime tactical bomber, high-altitude night bomber, pathfinder, day or night fighter, fighter-bomber, intruder, maritime strike, and photo-reconnaissance aircraft.", "It was also used by the British Overseas Airways Corporation as a fast transport to carry small, high-value cargo to and from neutral countries through enemy-controlled airspace.", "The crew of two, pilot and navigator, sat side by side.", "A single passenger could ride in the aircraft's bomb bay when necessary.The Mosquito FB Mk.", "VI was often flown in special raids, such as Operation Jericho (an attack on Amiens Prison in early 1944), and precision attacks against military intelligence, security, and police facilities (such as Gestapo headquarters).", "On 30 January 1943, the 10th anniversary of Hitler being made chancellor and the Nazis gaining power, a morning Mosquito attack knocked out the main Berlin broadcasting station while Hermann Göring was speaking, taking his speech off the air.", "The Mosquito flew with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and other air forces in the European, Mediterranean, and Italian theatres.", "The Mosquito was also operated by the RAF in the Southeast Asian theatre and by the Royal Australian Air Force based in the Halmaheras and Borneo during the Pacific War.", "During the 1950s, the RAF replaced the Mosquito with the jet-powered English Electric Canberra." ], [ "Development", "DH.88 Comet were later used in the Mosquito.By the early to mid-1930s, de Havilland had built a reputation for innovative high-speed aircraft with the DH.88 Comet racer.", "Later, the DH.91 Albatross airliner pioneered the composite wood construction used for the Mosquito.", "The 22-passenger Albatross could cruise at at , faster than the Handley Page H.P.42 and other biplanes it was replacing.", "The wooden monocoque construction not only saved weight and compensated for the low power of the de Havilland Gipsy Twelve engines used by this aircraft, but also simplified production and reduced construction time.===Air Ministry bomber requirements and concepts===On 8 September 1936, the British Air Ministry issued Specification P.13/36, which called for a twin-engined medium bomber capable of carrying a bomb load of for with a maximum speed of at ; a maximum bomb load of carried over shorter ranges was also required.", "Aviation firms entered heavy designs with new high-powered engines and multiple defensive turrets, leading to the production of the Avro Manchester and Handley Page Halifax.In May 1937, as a comparison to P.13/36, George Volkert, the chief designer of Handley Page, put forward the concept of a fast, unarmed bomber.", "In 20 pages, Volkert planned an aerodynamically clean, medium bomber to carry of bombs at a cruising speed of .", "Support existed in the RAF and Air Ministry; Captain R. N. Liptrot, Research Director Aircraft 3, appraised Volkert's design, calculating that its top speed would exceed that of the new Supermarine Spitfire, but counter-arguments held that although such a design had merit, it would not necessarily be faster than enemy fighters for long.", "The ministry was also considering using non-strategic materials for aircraft production, which, in 1938, had led to specification B.9/38 and the Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle medium bomber, largely constructed from spruce and plywood attached to a steel-tube frame.", "The idea of a small, fast bomber gained support at a much earlier stage than is sometimes acknowledged, though the Air Ministry likely envisaged it using light alloy components.===Inception of the de Havilland fast bomber===One of de Havilland's proposals was to adapt the de Havilland Albatross design to create a fast bomber.Based on his experience with the Albatross, Geoffrey de Havilland believed that a bomber with a good aerodynamic design and smooth, minimal skin area, would exceed the P.13/36 specification.", "Furthermore, adapting the Albatross principles could save time.", "In April 1938, performance estimates were produced for a twin Rolls-Royce Merlin-powered DH.91, with the Bristol Hercules (radial engine) and Napier Sabre (H-engine) as alternatives.", "On 7 July 1938, de Havilland wrote to Air Marshal Wilfrid Freeman, the Air Council's member for Research and Development, discussing the specification and arguing that in war, shortages of aluminium and steel would occur, but supplies of wood-based products were \"adequate.\"", "Although inferior in tension, the strength-to-weight ratio of wood is equal to or better than light alloys or steel, hence this approach was feasible.A follow-up letter to Freeman on 27 July said that the P.13/36 specification could not be met by a twin Merlin-powered aircraft and either the top speed or load capacity would be compromised, depending on which was paramount.", "For example, a larger, slower, turret-armed aircraft would have a range of carrying a 4,000 lb bomb load, with a maximum of at , and a cruising speed of at .", "De Havilland believed that a compromise, including eliminating surplus equipment, would improve matters.", "On 4 October 1938, de Havilland projected the performance of another design based on the Albatross, powered by two Merlin Xs, with a three-man crew and six or eight forward-firing guns, plus one or two manually operated guns and a tail turret.", "Based on a total loaded weight of , it would have a top speed of and cruising speed of at .Still believing this could be improved, and after examining more concepts based on the Albatross and the new all-metal DH.95 Flamingo, de Havilland settled on designing a new aircraft that would be aerodynamically clean, wooden, and powered by the Merlin, which offered substantial future development.", "The new design would be faster than foreseeable enemy fighter aircraft, and could dispense with a defensive armament, which would slow it and make interception or losses to antiaircraft guns more likely.", "Instead, high speed and good manoeuvrability would make evading fighters and ground fire easier.", "The lack of turrets simplified production, reduced drag, and reduced production time, with a delivery rate far in advance of competing designs.", "Without armament, the crew could be reduced to a pilot and navigator.", "Whereas contemporary RAF design philosophy favoured well-armed heavy bombers, this mode of design was more akin to the German philosophy of the ''Schnellbomber''.", "At a meeting in early October 1938 with Geoffrey de Havilland and Charles Walker (de Havilland's chief engineer), the Air Ministry showed little interest, and instead asked de Havilland to build wings for other bombers as a subcontractor.By September 1939, de Havilland had produced preliminary estimates for single- and twin-engined variations of light-bomber designs using different engines, speculating on the effects of defensive armament on their designs.", "One design, completed on 6 September, was for an aircraft powered by a single Napier Sabre, with a wingspan of and capable of carrying a bomb load .", "On 20 September, in another letter to Wilfrid Freeman, de Havilland wrote \"...we believe that we could produce a twin-engined bomber which would have a performance so outstanding that little defensive equipment would be needed.\"", "By 4 October, work had progressed to a twin-engined light bomber with a wingspan of and powered by Merlin or Griffon engines, the Merlin favoured because of availability.", "On 7 October 1939, a month into the war, the nucleus of a design team under Eric Bishop moved to the security and secrecy of Salisbury Hall to work on what was later known as the DH.98.For more versatility, Bishop made provision for four 20 mm cannon in the forward half of the bomb bay, under the cockpit, firing via blast tubes and troughs under the fuselage.The DH.98 was too radical for the ministry, which wanted a heavily armed, multirole aircraft, combining medium bomber, reconnaissance, and general-purpose roles, that was also capable of carrying torpedoes.", "With the outbreak of war, the ministry became more receptive, but was still sceptical about an unarmed bomber.", "They thought the Germans would produce fighters that were faster than had been expected.", "and suggested the incorporation of two forward- and two rear-firing machine guns for defence.", "The ministry also opposed a two-man bomber, wanting at least a third crewman to reduce the work of the others on long flights.", "The Air Council added further requirements such as remotely controlled guns, a top speed of at 15,000 ft on two-thirds engine power, and a range of with a 4,000-lb bomb load.", "To appease the ministry, de Havilland built mock-ups with a gun turret just aft of the cockpit, but apart from this compromise, de Havilland made no changes.On 12 November, at a meeting considering fast-bomber ideas put forward by de Havilland, Blackburn, and Bristol, Air Marshal Freeman directed de Havilland to produce a fast aircraft, powered initially by Merlin engines, with options of using progressively more powerful engines, including the Rolls-Royce Griffon and the Napier Sabre.", "Although estimates were presented for a slightly larger Griffon-powered aircraft, armed with a four-gun tail turret, Freeman got the requirement for defensive weapons dropped, and a draft requirement was raised calling for a high-speed, light-reconnaissance bomber capable of at 18,000 ft.On 12 December, the Vice-Chief of the Air Staff, Director General of Research and Development, and the Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief (AOC-in-C) of RAF Bomber Command met to finalise the design and decide how to fit it into the RAF's aims.", "The AOC-in-C would not accept an unarmed bomber, but insisted on its suitability for reconnaissance missions with F8 or F24 cameras.", "After company representatives, the ministry, and the RAF's operational commands examined a full-scale mock-up at Hatfield on 29 December 1939, the project received backing.", "This was confirmed on 1 January 1940, when Freeman chaired a meeting with Geoffrey de Havilland, John Buchanan (Deputy of Aircraft Production), and John Connolly (Buchanan's chief of staff).", "De Havilland claimed the DH.98 was the \"fastest bomber in the world ... it must be useful\".", "Freeman supported it for RAF service, ordering a single prototype for an unarmed bomber to specification B.1/40/dh, which called for a light bomber/reconnaissance aircraft powered by two Rolls-Royce RM3SM (an early designation for the Merlin 21) with ducted radiators, capable of carrying a bomb load.", "The aircraft was to have a speed of at and a cruising speed of at with a range of at on full tanks.", "Maximum service ceiling was to be .On 1 March 1940, Air Marshal Roderic Hill issued a contract under Specification B.1/40, for 50 bomber-reconnaissance variants of the DH.98; this contract included the prototype, which was given the factory serial ''E-0234''.", "In May 1940, specification F.21/40 was issued, calling for a long-range fighter armed with four 20 mm cannon and four .303 machine guns in the nose, after which de Havilland was authorised to build a prototype of a fighter version of the DH.98.After debate, it was decided that this prototype, given the military serial number ''W4052'', was to carry airborne interception (AI) Mk IV equipment as a day and night fighter.", "By June 1940, the DH.98 had been named \"Mosquito\".", "Having the fighter variant kept the Mosquito project alive, as doubts remained within the government and Air Ministry regarding the usefulness of an unarmed bomber, even after the prototype had shown its capabilities.===Project Mosquito===Flight & Aircraft Engineer'' magazine highlights the speed of the B Mk.IV.With design of the DH.98 started, mock-ups were built, the most detailed at Salisbury Hall, where ''E-0234'' was later constructed.", "Initially, the concept was for the crew to be enclosed in the fuselage behind a transparent nose (similar to the Bristol Blenheim or Heinkel He 111H), but this was quickly altered to a more solid nose with a conventional canopy.Work was cancelled again after the evacuation of the British Army from France, when Lord Beaverbrook, as Minister of Aircraft Production, concentrating production on aircraft types for the defence of the UK decided no production capacity remained for aircraft like the DH.98, which was not expected to be in service until early 1942.Beaverbrook told Air Vice-Marshal Freeman that work on the project should stop, but he did not issue a specific instruction, and Freeman ignored the request.", "In June 1940, however, Lord Beaverbrook and the Air Staff ordered that production should concentrate on five existing types, namely the Supermarine Spitfire, Hawker Hurricane fighter, Vickers Wellington, Armstrong-Whitworth Whitley, and Bristol Blenheim bombers.", "Work on the DH.98 prototype stopped.", "Apparently, the project shut down when the design team were denied materials for the prototype.The Mosquito was only reinstated as a priority in July 1940, after de Havilland's general manager, L.C.L.", "Murray, promised Lord Beaverbrook 50 Mosquitoes by December 1941.This was only after Beaverbrook was satisfied that Mosquito production would not hinder de Havilland's primary work of producing Tiger Moth and Airspeed Oxford trainers, repairing Hurricanes, and manufacturing Merlin engines under licence.", "In promising Beaverbrook such a number by the end of 1941, de Havilland was taking a gamble, because they were unlikely to be built in such a limited time.", "As it transpired, only 20 aircraft were built in 1941, but the other 30 were delivered by mid-March 1942.During the Battle of Britain, interruptions to production due to air raid warnings caused nearly a third of de Havilland's factory time to be lost.", "Nevertheless, work on the prototype went ahead quickly at Salisbury Hall since ''E-0234'' was completed by November 1940.In the aftermath of the Battle of Britain, the original order was changed to 20 bomber variants and 30 fighters.", "Whether the fighter version should have dual or single controls, or should carry a turret, was still uncertain, so three prototypes were built: ''W4052'', ''W4053'', and ''W4073''.", "The second and third, both turret armed, were later disarmed, to become the prototypes for the T.III trainer.", "This caused some delays, since half-built wing components had to be strengthened for the required higher combat loading.", "The nose sections also had to be changed from a design with a clear perspex bomb-aimer's position, to one with a solid nose housing four .303 machine guns and their ammunition.===Prototypes and test flights===On 3 November 1940, the prototype aircraft, painted in \"prototype yellow\" and still coded ''E-0234'', was dismantled, transported by road to Hatfield and placed in a small, blast-proof assembly building.", "Two Merlin 21 two-speed, single-stage supercharged engines were installed, driving three-bladed de Havilland Hydromatic constant-speed controllable-pitch propellers.", "Engine runs were made on 19 November.", "On 24 November, taxiing trials were carried out by Geoffrey de Havilland Jr., the de Havilland test pilot.", "On 25 November, the aircraft made its first flight, piloted by de Havilland Jr., accompanied by John E. Walker, the chief engine installation designer.For this maiden flight, ''E-0234'', weighing , took off from the grass airstrip at the Hatfield site.", "The takeoff was reported as \"straightforward and easy\" and the undercarriage was not retracted until a considerable altitude was attained.", "The aircraft reached , with the only problem being the undercarriage doors – which were operated by bungee cords attached to the main undercarriage legs – that remained open by some at that speed.", "This problem persisted for some time.", "The left wing of ''E-0234'' also had a tendency to drag to port slightly, so a rigging adjustment, i.e., a slight change in the angle of the wing, was carried out before further flights.Mosquito prototype ''W4050'' landing after a test flight on 10 January 1941: Four test flights were flown that day.On 5 December 1940, the prototype, with the military serial number ''W4050'', experienced tail buffeting at speeds between .", "The pilot noticed this most in the control column, with handling becoming more difficult.", "During testing on 10 December, wool tufts were attached to suspect areas to investigate the direction of airflow.", "The conclusion was that the airflow separating from the rear section of the inner engine nacelles was disturbed, leading to a localised stall and the disturbed airflow was striking the tailplane, causing buffeting.", "To smooth the air flow and deflect it from forcefully striking the tailplane, nonretractable slots fitted to the inner engine nacelles and to the leading edge of the tailplane were tested.", "These slots and wing-root fairings fitted to the forward fuselage and leading edge of the radiator intakes stopped some of the vibration experienced, but did not cure the tailplane buffeting.In February 1941, buffeting was eliminated by incorporating triangular fillets on the trailing edge of the wings and lengthening the nacelles, the trailing edge of which curved up to fair into the fillet some behind the wing's trailing edge; this meant the flaps had to be divided into inboard and outboard sections.", "With the buffeting problems largely resolved, John Cunningham flew ''W4050'' on 9 February 1941.He was greatly impressed by the \"lightness of the controls and generally pleasant handling characteristics\".", "Cunningham concluded that when the type was fitted with AI equipment, it might replace the Bristol Beaufighter night fighter.During its trials on 16 January 1941, ''W4050'' outpaced a Spitfire at .", "The original estimates were that as the Mosquito prototype had twice the surface area and over twice the weight of the Spitfire Mk.II, but also with twice its power, the Mosquito would end up being faster.", "Over the next few months, ''W4050'' surpassed this estimate, easily beating the Spitfire Mk.II in testing at RAF Boscombe Down in February 1941, reaching a top speed of at altitude, compared to a top speed of at for the Spitfire.On 19 February, official trials began at the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (AAEE) based at Boscombe Down, although the de Havilland representative was surprised by a delay in starting the tests.", "On 24 February, as ''W4050'' taxied across the rough airfield, the tailwheel jammed leading to the fuselage fracturing.", "Repairs were made by early March, using part of the fuselage of the photo-reconnaissance prototype ''W4051''.", "In spite of this setback, the ''Initial Handling Report 767'' issued by the AAEE stated, \"The aeroplane is pleasant to fly ... aileron control light and effective...\" The maximum speed reached was at , with an estimated maximum ceiling of and a maximum rate of climb of at .", "''W4050'' continued to be used for various test programmes, as the experimental \"workhorse\" for the Mosquito family.", "In late October 1941, it returned to the factory to be fitted with Merlin 61s, the first production Merlins fitted with a two-speed, two-stage supercharger.", "The first flight with the new engines was on 20 June 1942.", "''W4050'' recorded a maximum speed of at (fitted with straight-through air intakes with snow guards, engines in full supercharger gear) and at without snow guards.", "In October 1942, in connection with development work on the NF Mk.XV, ''W4050'' was fitted with extended wingtips, increasing the span to , first flying in this configuration on 8 December.", "Fitted with high-altitude-rated, two-stage, two-speed Merlin 77s, it reached in December 1943.Soon after these flights, ''W4050'' was grounded and scheduled to be scrapped, but instead served as an instructional airframe at Hatfield.", "In September 1958, ''W4050'' was returned to the Salisbury Hall hangar where it was built, restored to its original configuration, and became one of the primary exhibits of the de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre.", "''W4050'' being restored at the de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre near St Albans''W4051'', which was designed from the outset to be the prototype for the photo-reconnaissance versions of the Mosquito, was slated to make its first flight in early 1941.However, the fuselage fracture in ''W4050'' meant that ''W4051's'' fuselage was used as a replacement; ''W4051'' was then rebuilt using a production standard fuselage and first flew on 10 June 1941.This prototype continued to use the short engine nacelles, single-piece trailing-edge flaps, and the \"No.", "1\" tailplane used by ''W4050'', but had production-standard wings and became the only Mosquito prototype to fly operationally.Construction of the fighter prototype, ''W4052'', was also carried out at the secret Salisbury Hall facility.", "It was powered by Merlin 21s, and had an altered canopy structure with a flat, bullet-proof windscreen; the solid nose had mounted four .303 British Browning machine guns and their ammunition boxes, accessible by a large, sideways hinged panel.", "Four 20-mm Hispano Mk.II cannon were housed in a compartment under the cockpit floor with the breeches projecting into the bomb bay and the automatic bomb bay doors were replaced by manually operated bay doors, which incorporated cartridge ejector chutes.As a day and night fighter, prototype ''W4052'' was equipped with AI Mk IV equipment, complete with an \"arrowhead\" transmission aerial mounted between the central Brownings and receiving aerials through the outer wing tips, and it was painted in black RDM2a \"Special Night\" finish.", "It was also the first prototype constructed with the extended engine nacelles.", "''W4052'' was later tested with other modifications, including bomb racks, drop tanks, barrage balloon cable cutters in the leading edge of the wings, Hamilton airscrews and braking propellers, and drooping aileron systems that enabled steep approaches and a larger rudder tab.", "The prototype continued to serve as a test machine until it was scrapped on 28 January 1946.", "''4055'' flew the first operational Mosquito flight on 17 September 1941.During flight testing, the Mosquito prototypes were modified to test a number of configurations.", "''W4050'' was fitted with a turret behind the cockpit for drag tests, after which the idea was abandoned in July 1941.", "''W4052'' had the first version of the Youngman Frill airbrake fitted to the fighter prototype.", "The frill was mounted around the fuselage behind the wing and was opened by bellows and venturi effect to provide rapid deceleration during interceptions and was tested between January and August 1942, but was also abandoned when lowering the undercarriage was found to have the same effect with less buffeting.===Production plans and American interest===The Air Ministry authorised mass production plans on 21 June 1941, by which time the Mosquito had become one of the world's fastest operational aircraft.", "It ordered 19 photo-reconnaissance (PR) models and 176 fighters.", "A further 50 were unspecified; in July 1941, these were confirmed to be unarmed fast bombers.", "By the end of January 1942, contracts had been awarded for 1,378 Mosquitoes of all variants, including 20 T.III trainers and 334 FB.VI bombers.", "Another 400 were to be built by de Havilland Canada.On 20 April 1941, ''W4050'' was demonstrated to Lord Beaverbrook, the Minister of Aircraft Production.", "The Mosquito made a series of flights, including one rolling climb on one engine.", "Also present were US General Henry H. Arnold and his aide Major Elwood Quesada, who wrote \"I ... recall the first time I saw the Mosquito as being impressed by its performance, which we were aware of.", "We were impressed by the appearance of the airplane that looks fast usually is fast, and the Mosquito was, by the standards of the time, an extremely well-streamlined airplane, and it was highly regarded, highly respected.", "\"The trials set up future production plans between Britain, Australia, and Canada.", "Six days later, Arnold returned to America with a full set of manufacturer's drawings.", "As a result of his report, five companies (Beech, Curtiss-Wright, Fairchild, Fleetwings, and Hughes) were asked to evaluate the de Havilland data.", "The report by Beech Aircraft summed up the general view: \"It appears as though this airplane has sacrificed serviceability, structural strength, ease of construction and flying characteristics in an attempt to use construction material which is not suitable for the manufacture of efficient airplanes.\"", "The Americans did not pursue the proposal for licensed production, the consensus arguing that the Lockheed P-38 Lightning could fulfill the same duties.", "However, Arnold urged the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) to evaluate the design even if they would not adopt it.", "On 12 December 1941, after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the USAAF requested one airframe for this purpose." ], [ "Design and manufacture", "===Overview===B Mk.IV nose closeup showing bombsight, clear nose, engine nacelles and undercarriageWhile timber construction was considered outmoded by some, de Havilland claimed that their successes with techniques used for the DH 91 Albatross could lead to a fast, light bomber using monocoque-sandwich shell construction.", "Arguments in favour of this included speed of prototyping, rapid development, minimisation of jig-building time, and employment of a separate category of workforce.", "The ply-balsa-ply monocoque fuselage and one-piece wings with doped fabric covering would give excellent aerodynamic performance and low weight, combined with strength and stiffness.", "At the same time, the design team had to fight conservative Air Ministry views on defensive armament.", "Guns and gun turrets, favoured by the ministry, would impair the aircraft's aerodynamic properties and reduce speed and manoeuvrability, in the opinion of the designers.", "Whilst submitting these arguments, Geoffrey de Havilland funded his private venture until a very late stage.", "The project was a success beyond all expectations.", "The initial bomber and photo-reconnaissance versions were extremely fast, whilst the armament of subsequent variants might be regarded as primarily offensive.The most-produced variant, designated the FB Mk.", "VI (Fighter-bomber Mark 6), was powered by two Merlin Mk.23 or Mk.25 engines driving three-bladed de Havilland hydromatic propellers.", "The typical fixed armament for an FB Mk.", "VI was four Browning .303 machine guns and four 20-mm Hispano cannons, while the offensive load consisted of up to of bombs, or eight RP-3 unguided rockets.===Performance===The design was noted for light and effective control surfaces that provided good manoeuvrability, but required that the rudder not be used aggressively at high speeds.", "Poor aileron control at low speeds when landing and taking off was also a problem for inexperienced crews.", "For flying at low speeds, the flaps had to be set at 15°, speed reduced to , and rpm set to 2,650.The speed could be reduced to an acceptable for low-speed flying.", "For cruising, the optimum speed for obtaining maximum range was at weight.The Mosquito had a high stalling speed of with undercarriage and flaps raised.", "When both were lowered, the stalling speed decreased from .", "Stall speed at normal approach angle and conditions was .", "Warning of the stall was given by buffeting and would occur before stall was reached.", "The conditions and impact of the stall were not severe.", "The wing did not drop unless the control column was pulled back.", "The nose drooped gently and recovery was easy.Early on in the Mosquito's operational life, the intake shrouds that were to cool the exhausts on production aircraft overheated.", "Flame dampers prevented exhaust glow on night operations, but they had an effect on performance.", "Multiple ejector and open-ended exhaust stubs helped solve the problem and were used in the PR.VIII, B.IX, and B.XVI variants.", "This increased speed performance in the B.IX alone by .===Fuselage===The oval-section fuselage was a frameless monocoque shell built in two vertically separate halves formed over a mahogany or concrete mould.", "Pressure was applied with band clamps.", "Some of the 1/2—3/4\" shell sandwich skins comprised 3/32\" birch three-ply outers, with 7/16\" cores of Ecuadorean balsa.", "In many generally smaller but vital areas, such as around apertures and attachment zones, stronger timbers, including aircraft-quality spruce, replaced the balsa core.", "The main areas of the sandwich skin were only thick.", "Together with various forms of wood reinforcement, often of laminated construction, the sandwich skin gave great stiffness and torsional resistance.", "The separate fuselage halves speeded construction, permitting access by personnel working in parallel with others, as the work progressed.Work on the separate half-fuselages included installation of control mechanisms and cabling.", "Screwed inserts into the inner skins that would be under stress in service were reinforced using round shear plates made from a fabric-Bakelite composite.", "Transverse bulkheads were also compositely built-up with several species of timber, plywood, and balsa.", "Seven vertically halved bulkheads were installed within each moulded fuselage shell before the main \"boxing up\" operation.", "Bulkhead number seven was especially strongly built, since it carried the fitments and transmitted the aerodynamic loadings for the tailplane and rudder.", "The fuselage had a large ventral section cut-out, strongly reinforced, that allowed the fuselage to be lowered onto the wing centre-section at a later stage of assembly.For early production aircraft, the structural assembly adhesive was casein-based.", "At a later stage, this was replaced by \"Aerolite\", a synthetic urea-formaldehyde type, which was more durable.", "To provide for the edge joints for the fuselage halves, zones near the outer edges of the shells had their balsa sandwich cores replaced by much stronger inner laminations of birch plywood.", "For the bonding together of the two halves (\"boxing up\"), a longitudinal cut was machined into these edges.", "The profile of this cut was a form of V-groove.", "Part of the edge bonding process also included adding further longitudinal plywood lap strips on the outside of the shells.", "The half bulkheads of each shell were bonded to their corresponding pair in a similar way.", "Two laminated wooden clamps were used in the after portion of the fuselage to provide supports during this complex gluing work.", "The resulting large structural components had to be kept completely still and held in the correct environment until the glue cured.For finishing, a covering of doped madapollam (a fine, plain-woven cotton) fabric was stretched tightly over the shell and several coats of red, followed by silver dope, were added, followed by the final camouflage paint.===Wing===A preserved Mosquito at the U.S. Air Force Museum (former TT Mk.35 which was restored to B Mk.XVI configuration).", "Note the air and oil coolant radiators in the leading edge of the wing, intake for the two-stage Merlin's intercooler radiator behind the propeller blade, and the carburettor intake with ice guard behind and below.The all-wood wing pairs comprised a single structural unit throughout the wingspan, with no central longitudinal joint.", "Instead, the spars ran from wingtip to wingtip.", "There was a single continuous main spar and another continuous rear spar.", "Because of the combination of dihedral with the forward sweep of the trailing edges of the wings, this rear spar was one of the most complex units to laminate and to finish machining after the bonding and curing.", "It had to produce the correct 3D tilt in each of two planes.", "Also, it was designed and made to taper from the wing roots towards the wingtips.", "Both principal spars were of ply box construction, using in general 0.25-in plywood webs with laminated spruce flanges, plus a number of additional reinforcements and special details.Spruce and plywood ribs were connected with gusset joints.", "Some heavy-duty ribs contained pieces of ash and walnut, as well as the special five ply that included veneers laid up at 45°.", "The upper skin construction was in two layers of 0.25-in five-ply birch, separated by Douglas fir stringers running in the span-wise direction.", "The wings were covered with madapollam fabric and doped in a similar manner to the fuselage.", "The wing was installed into the roots by means of four large attachment points.", "The engine radiators were fitted in the inner wing, just outboard of the fuselage on either side.", "These gave less drag.", "The radiators themselves were split into three sections: an oil cooler section outboard, the middle section forming the coolant radiator and the inboard section serving the cabin heater.The wing contained metal-framed and -skinned ailerons, but the flaps were made of wood and were hydraulically controlled.", "The nacelles were mostly wood, although for strength, the engine mounts were all metal, as were the undercarriage parts.", "Engine mounts of welded steel tube were added, along with simple landing gear oleos filled with rubber blocks.", "Wood was used to carry only in-plane loads, with metal fittings used for all triaxially loaded components such as landing gear, engine mounts, control-surface mounting brackets, and the wing-to-fuselage junction.", "The outer leading wing edge had to be brought further forward to accommodate this design.", "The main tail unit was all wood built.", "The control surfaces, the rudder, and elevator were aluminium-framed and fabric-covered.", "The total weight of metal castings and forgings used in the aircraft was only .USAAF markings, PRU Blue finish at the National Museum of the United States Air Force.In November 1944, several crashes occurred in the Far East.", "At first, these were thought to be a result of wing-structure failures.", "The casein glue, it was said, cracked when exposed to extreme heat and/or monsoon conditions.", "This caused the upper surfaces to \"lift\" from the main spar.", "An investigating team led by Major Hereward de Havilland travelled to India and produced a report in early December 1944 stating, \"the accidents were not caused by the deterioration of the glue, but by shrinkage of the airframe during the wet monsoon season\".", "However, a later inquiry by Cabot & Myers firmly attributed the accidents to faulty manufacture and this was confirmed by a further investigation team by the Ministry of Aircraft Production at Defford, which found faults in six Mosquito marks (all built at de Havilland's Hatfield and Leavesden plants).", "The defects were similar, and none of the aircraft had been exposed to monsoon conditions or termite attack.The investigators concluded that construction defects occurred at the two plants.", "They found that the \"...standard of glueing ... left much to be desired.\"", "Records at the time showed that accidents caused by \"loss of control\" were three times more frequent on Mosquitoes than on any other type of aircraft.", "The Air Ministry forestalled any loss of confidence in the Mosquito by holding to Major de Havilland's initial investigation in India that the accidents were caused \"largely by climate\" To solve the problem of seepage into the interior, a strip of plywood was set along the span of the wing to seal the entire length of the skin joint.===Systems===A view into the bomb bay showing the brick-red coloured twin fuel tanks fitted into the fuselageThe fuel systems gave the Mosquito good range and endurance, using up to nine fuel tanks.", "Two outer wing tanks each contained of fuel.", "These were complemented by two inner wing fuel tanks, each containing , located between the wing root and engine nacelle.", "In the central fuselage were twin fuel tanks mounted between bulkhead number two and three aft of the cockpit.", "In the FB.VI, these tanks contained each, while in the B.IV and other unarmed Mosquitoes each of the two centre tanks contained .", "Both the inner wing, and fuselage tanks are listed as the \"main tanks\" and the total internal fuel load of was initially deemed appropriate for the type.", "In addition, the FB Mk.", "VI could have larger fuselage tanks, increasing the capacity to .", "Drop tanks of or could be mounted under each wing, increasing the total fuel load to .The design of the Mk.VI allowed for a provisional long-range fuel tank to increase range for action over enemy territory, for the installation of bomb release equipment specific to depth charges for strikes against enemy shipping, or for the simultaneous use of rocket projectiles along with a drop tank under each wing supplementing the main fuel cells.", "The FB.VI had a wingspan of , a length (over guns) of .", "It had a maximum speed of at .", "Maximum take-off weight was and the range of the aircraft was with a service ceiling of .To reduce fuel vaporisation at the high altitudes of photographic reconnaissance variants, the central and inner wing tanks were pressurised.", "The pressure venting cock located behind the pilot's seat controlled the pressure valve.", "As the altitude increased, the valve increased the volume applied by a pump.", "This system was extended to include field modifications of the fuel tank system.The engine oil tanks were in the engine nacelles.", "Each nacelle contained a oil tank, including a air space.", "The oil tanks themselves had no separate coolant controlling systems.", "The coolant header tank was in the forward nacelle, behind the propeller.", "The remaining coolant systems were controlled by the coolant radiators shutters in the forward inner wing compartment, between the nacelle and the fuselage and behind the main engine cooling radiators, which were fitted in the leading edge.", "Electric-pneumatic operated radiator shutters directed and controlled airflow through the ducts and into the coolant valves, to predetermined temperatures.Electrical power came from a 24 volt DC generator on the starboard (No.", "2) engine and an alternator on the port engine, which also supplied AC power for radios.", "The radiator shutters, supercharger gear change, gun camera, bomb bay, bomb/rocket release and all the other crew controlled instruments were powered by a 24 V battery.", "The radio communication devices included VHF and HF communications, GEE navigation, and IFF and G.P.", "devices.", "The electric generators also powered the fire extinguishers.", "Located on the starboard side of the cockpit, the switches would operate automatically in the event of a crash.", "In flight, a warning light would flash to indicate a fire, should the pilot not already be aware of it.", "In later models, to save liquids and engine clean up time in case of belly landing, the fire extinguisher was changed to semi-automatic triggers.The main landing gear, housed in the nacelles behind the engines, were raised and lowered hydraulically.", "The main landing gear shock absorbers were de Havilland manufactured and used a system of rubber in compression, rather than hydraulic oleos, with twin pneumatic brakes for each wheel.", "The Dunlop-Marstrand anti-shimmy tailwheel was also retractable." ], [ "Operational history", "Bombing of the Gestapo headquarters in the Shellhus, Copenhagen, Denmark, in March 1945.A Mosquito pulling away from its bombing run is visible on the extreme left, centre.The de Havilland Mosquito operated in many roles, performing medium bomber, reconnaissance, tactical strike, anti-submarine warfare, shipping attacks and night fighter duties, until the end of the war.", "In July 1941, the first production Mosquito ''W4051'' (a production fuselage combined with some prototype flying surfaces – see Prototypes and test flights) was sent to No.", "1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (PRU), at RAF Benson.", "The secret reconnaissance flights of this aircraft were the first operational missions of the Mosquito.", "In 1944, the journal ''Flight'' gave 19 September 1941 as date of the first PR mission, at an altitude \"of some 20,000 ft\".On 15 November 1941, 105 Squadron, RAF, took delivery at RAF Swanton Morley, Norfolk, of the first operational Mosquito Mk.", "B.IV bomber, serial no.", "''W4064''.", "Throughout 1942, 105 Squadron, based next at RAF Horsham St.", "Faith, then from 29 September, RAF Marham, undertook daylight low-level and shallow dive attacks.", "Apart from the Oslo and Berlin raids, the strikes were mainly on industrial and infrastructure targets in occupied Netherlands and Norway, France and northern and western Germany.", "The crews faced deadly flak and fighters, particularly Focke-Wulf Fw 190s, which they called ''snappers''.", "Germany still controlled continental airspace and the Fw 190s were often already airborne and at an advantageous altitude.", "Collisions within the formations also caused casualties.", "It was the Mosquito's excellent handling capabilities, rather than pure speed, that facilitated successful evasions.The Mosquito was first announced publicly on 26 September 1942 after the Oslo Mosquito raid of 25 September.", "It was featured in ''The Times'' on 28 September and the next day the newspaper published two captioned photographs illustrating the bomb strikes and damage.", "On 6 December 1942, Mosquitoes from Nos.", "105 and 139 Squadrons made up part of the bomber force used in Operation Oyster, the large No.", "2 Group raid against the Philips works at Eindhoven.From mid-1942 to mid-1943, Mosquito bombers flew high-speed, medium and low-altitude daylight missions against factories, railways and other pinpoint targets in Germany and German-occupied Europe.", "From June 1943, Mosquito bombers were formed into the Light Night Striking Force to guide RAF Bomber Command heavy bomber raids and as \"nuisance\" bombers, dropping Blockbuster bombs – \"cookies\" – in high-altitude, high-speed raids that German night fighters were almost powerless to intercept.As a night fighter from mid-1942, the Mosquito intercepted ''Luftwaffe'' raids on Britain, notably those of Operation Steinbock in 1944.Starting in July 1942, Mosquito night-fighter units raided ''Luftwaffe'' airfields.", "As part of 100 Group, it was flown as a night fighter and as an intruder supporting Bomber Command heavy bombers that reduced losses during 1944 and 1945.The Mosquito fighter-bomber served as a strike aircraft in the Second Tactical Air Force (2TAF) from its inception on 1 June 1943.The main objective was to prepare for the invasion of occupied Europe a year later.", "In Operation Overlord three Mosquito FB Mk.", "VI wings flew close air support for the Allied armies in co-operation with other RAF units equipped with the North American B-25 Mitchell medium bomber.", "In the months between the foundation of 2TAF and its duties from D day onwards, vital training was interspersed with attacks on V-1 flying bomb launch sites.In another example of the daylight precision raids carried out by the Mosquitoes of Nos.", "105 and 139 Squadrons, on 30 January 1943, the 10th anniversary of the Nazis' seizure of power, a morning Mosquito attack knocked out the main Berlin broadcasting station while ''Luftwaffe'' Chief Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring was speaking, putting his speech off the air.", "A second sortie in the afternoon inconvenienced another speech, by Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels.", "Lecturing a group of German aircraft manufacturers, Göring said:During this daylight-raiding phase, Nos.", "105 and 139 Squadrons flew 139 combat operations and aircrew losses were high.", "Even the losses incurred in the squadrons' dangerous Blenheim era were exceeded in percentage terms.", "The Roll of Honour shows 51 aircrew deaths from the end of May 1942 to April 1943.In the corresponding period, crews gained three Mentions in Despatches, two DFMs and three DFCs.", "The low-level daylight attacks finished on 27 May 1943 with strikes on the Schott glass and Zeiss instrument works, both in Jena.", "Subsequently, when low-level precision attacks required Mosquitoes, they were allotted to squadrons operating the FB.IV version.", "Examples include the Aarhus air raid and Operation Jericho.Since the beginning of the year, the German fighter force had become seriously overstretched.", "In April 1943, in response to \"political humiliation\" caused by the Mosquito, Göring ordered the formation of special ''Luftwaffe'' units (''Jagdgeschwader 25'', commanded by ''Oberstleutnant'' Herbert Ihlefeld and ''Jagdgeschwader 50'', under ''Major'' Hermann Graf) to combat the Mosquito attacks, though these units, which were \"little more than glorified squadrons\", were unsuccessful against the elusive RAF aircraft.", "Post-war German histories also indicate that there was a belief within the Luftwaffe that Mosquito aircraft \"gave only a weak radar signal.", "\".The first Mosquito Squadron to be equipped with Oboe (navigation) was No.", "109, based at RAF Wyton, after working as an experimental unit at RAF Boscombe Down.", "They used Oboe in anger for the first time on 31 December 1942 and 1 January 1943, target marking for a force of heavy bombers attacking Düsseldorf.. On 1 June, the two pioneering Squadrons joined No.", "109 Squadron in the re-formed No.", "8 Group RAF (Bomber Command).", "Initially they were engaged in moderately high altitude (about ) night bombing, with 67 trips during that summer, mainly to Berlin.", "Soon after, Nos.", "105 and 139 Squadron bombers were widely used by the RAF Pathfinder Force, marking targets for the main night-time strategic bombing force.In what were, initially, diversionary \"nuisance raids,\" Mosquito bombers dropped 4,000 lb Blockbuster bombs or \"Cookies.\"", "Particularly after the introduction of H2S (radar) in some Mosquitoes, these raids carrying larger bombs succeeded to the extent that they provided a significant additional form of attack to the large formations of \"heavies.\"", "Latterly in the war, there were a significant number of all-Mosquito raids on big German cities involving up to 100 or more aircraft.", "On the night of 20/21 February 1945, for example, Mosquitoes of No.", "8 Group mounted the first of 36 consecutive night raids on Berlin.From 1943, Mosquitoes with RAF Coastal Command attacked ''Kriegsmarine'' U-boats and intercepted transport ship concentrations.", "After Operation Overlord, the U-boat threat in the Western Approaches decreased fairly quickly, but correspondingly the Norwegian and Danish waters posed greater dangers.", "Hence the RAF Coastal Command Mosquitoes were moved to Scotland to counter this threat.", "The Strike Wing at Banff stood up in September 1944 and comprised Mosquito aircraft of No's 143, 144, 235 and 248 Squadrons Royal Air Force and No.333 Squadron Royal Norwegian Air Force.", "Despite an initially high loss rate, the Mosquito bomber variants ended the war with the lowest losses of any aircraft in RAF Bomber Command service.A de Havilland Mosquito of the RAF Banff Strike Wing attacking a convoy evacuating German troops in the Kattegat on 5 April 1945.A flak ship and a trawler were sunk.The Mosquito also proved a very capable night fighter.", "Some of the most successful RAF pilots flew these variants.", "For example, Wing Commander Branse Burbridge claimed 21 kills.Mosquitoes of No.", "100 Group RAF acted as night intruders operating at high level in support of the Bomber Command \"heavies\", to counter the enemy tactic of merging into the bomber stream, which, towards the end of 1943, was causing serious allied losses.", "These RCM (radio countermeasures) aircraft were fitted with a device called \"Serrate\" to allow them to track down German night fighters from their ''Lichtenstein B/C'' (low-UHF-band) and ''Lichtenstein SN-2'' (lower end of the VHF FM broadcast band) radar emissions, as well as a device named \"Perfectos\" that tracked German IFF signals.", "These methods were responsible for the destruction of 257 German aircraft from December 1943 to April 1945.Mosquito fighters from all units accounted for 487 German aircraft during the war, the vast majority of which were night fighters.One Mosquito is listed as belonging to German secret operations unit ''Kampfgeschwader 200'', which tested, evaluated and sometimes clandestinely operated captured enemy aircraft during the war.", "The aircraft was listed on the order of battle of ''Versuchsverband OKL''s, ''2 Staffel'', ''Stab Gruppe'' on 10 November and 31 December 1944.However, on both lists, the Mosquito is listed as unserviceable.The Mosquito flew its last official European war mission on 21 May 1945, when Mosquitoes of 143 Squadron and 248 Squadron RAF were ordered to continue to hunt German submarines that might be tempted to continue the fight; instead of submarines all the Mosquitoes encountered were passive E-boats.The last operational RAF Mosquitoes were the Mosquito TT.35's, which were finally retired from No.", "3 Civilian Anti-Aircraft Co-Operation Unit (CAACU) in May 1963.In 1947–49, up to 180 Canadian surplus Mosquitoes flew many operations for the Nationalist Chinese under Chiang Kai-shek in the civil war against Communist forces.", "Pilots from three squadrons of Mosquitoes claimed to have sunk or damaged 500 ships during one invasion attempt.", "As the Communists assumed control, the remaining aircraft were evacuated to Formosa, where they flew missions against shipping." ], [ "Variants", "Until the end of 1942 the RAF always used Roman numerals (I, II, ...) for mark numbers; 1943–1948 was a transition period during which new aircraft entering service were given Arabic numerals (1, 2, ...) for mark numbers, but older aircraft retained their Roman numerals.", "From 1948 onwards, Arabic numerals were used exclusively.===Prototypes===Three prototypes were built, each with a different configuration.", "The first to fly was ''W4050'' on 25 November 1940, followed by the fighter ''W4052'' on 15 May 1941 and the photo-reconnaissance prototype ''W4051'' on 10 June 1941.", "''W4051'' later flew operationally with 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (1 PRU).===Photo-reconnaissance===Loading photoflash bombs onto a PR Mk.XVI of No.", "140 Squadron RAF at B58/Melsbroek, Belgium, circa 1944–1945A total of 10 '''Mosquito PR Mk.Is''' were built, four of them \"long range\" versions equipped with a overload fuel tank in the fuselage.", "The contract called for 10 of the PR Mk.I airframes to be converted to '''B Mk.IV Series 1s'''.", "All of the PR Mk.Is, and the B Mk.IV Series 1s, had the original short engine nacelles and short span (19 ft 5.5 in) tailplanes.", "Their engine cowlings incorporated the original pattern of integrated exhaust manifolds, which, after relatively brief flight time, had a troublesome habit of burning and blistering the cowling panels.", "The first operational sortie by a Mosquito was made by a PR Mk.I, '''W4055''', on 17 September 1941; during this sortie the unarmed Mosquito PR.I evaded three Messerschmitt Bf 109s at .", "Powered by two Merlin 21s, the PR Mk.I had a maximum speed of , a cruise speed of , a ceiling of , a range of , and a climb rate of per minute.Over 30 Mosquito B Mk.IV bombers were converted into the '''PR Mk.IV''' photo-reconnaissance aircraft.", "The first operational flight by a PR Mk.IV was made by ''DK284'' in April 1942.The Mosquito '''PR Mk.VIII''', built as a stopgap pending the introduction of the refined PR Mk.IX, was the next photo-reconnaissance version.", "The five VIIIs were converted from B Mk.IVs and became the first operational Mosquito version to be powered by two-stage, two-speed supercharged engines, using Rolls-Royce Merlin 61 engines in place of Merlin 21/22s.", "The first PR Mk.VIII, ''DK324'' first flew on 20 October 1942.The PR Mk.VIII had a maximum speed of , an economical cruise speed of at 20,000 ft, and at 30,000 ft, a ceiling of , a range of , and a climb rate of 2,500 ft per minute (760 m).The Mosquito '''PR Mk.IX''', 90 of which were built, was the first Mosquito variant with two-stage, two-speed engines to be produced in quantity; the first of these, ''LR405'', first flew in April 1943.The PR Mk.IX was based on the Mosquito B Mk.IX bomber and was powered by two Merlin 72/73 or 76/77 engines.", "It could carry either two , two or two droppable fuel tanks.The Mosquito '''PR Mk.XVI''' had a pressurised cockpit and, like the Mk.IX, was powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 72/73 or 76/77 piston engines.", "This version was equipped with three overload fuel tanks, totalling in the bomb bay, and could also carry two or drop tanks.", "A total of 435 of the PR Mk.XVI were built.", "The PR Mk.XVI had a maximum speed of , a cruise speed of , ceiling of , a range of , and a climb rate of 2,900 feet per minute (884 m).thumbThe Mosquito '''PR Mk.32''' was a long-range, high-altitude, pressurised photo-reconnaissance version.", "It was powered by a pair of two-stage supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin 113 and Merlin 114 piston engines, the Merlin 113 on the starboard side and the Merlin 114 on the port.", "First flown in August 1944, only five were built and all were conversions from PR.XVIs.The Mosquito '''PR Mk.34''' and '''PR Mk.34A''' was a very long-range unarmed high altitude photo-reconnaissance version.", "The fuel tank and cockpit protection armour were removed.", "Additional fuel was carried in a bulged bomb bay: 1,192 gallons—the equivalent of .", "A further two 200-gallon (910-litre) drop tanks under the outer wings gave a range of cruising at .", "Powered by two Merlin 114s first used in the PR.32.The port Merlin 114 drove a Marshal cabin supercharger.", "A total of 181 were built, including 50 built by Percival Aircraft Company at Luton.", "The PR.34's maximum speed (TAS) was at sea level, at and at .All PR.34s were installed with four split F52 vertical cameras, two forward, two aft of the fuselage tank and one F24 oblique camera.", "Sometimes a K-17 camera was used for air surveys.", "In August 1945, the PR.34A was the final photo-reconnaissance variant with one Merlin 113A and 114A each delivering .Colonel Roy M. Stanley II, USAF (RET) wrote: \"I consider the Mosquito the best photo-reconnaissance aircraft of the war\".After the end of World War II Spartan Air Services used ten ex-RAF Mosquitoes, mostly B.35s plus one of only six PR.35s built, for high-altitude photographic survey work in Canada.===Bombers===105 Squadron, becoming GB-O.On 21 June 1941 the Air Ministry ordered that the last 10 Mosquitoes, ordered as photo-reconnaissance aircraft, should be converted to bombers.", "These 10 aircraft were part of the original 1 March 1940 production order and became the '''B Mk.IV Series 1'''.", "''W4052'' was to be the prototype and flew for the first time on 8 September 1941.The bomber prototype led to the '''B Mk.IV''', of which 273 were built: apart from the 10 Series 1s, all of the rest were built as Series 2s with extended nacelles, revised exhaust manifolds, with integrated flame dampers, and larger tailplanes.", "Series 2 bombers also differed from the Series 1 in having an increased payload of four bombs, instead of the four bombs of Series 1.This was made possible by ''cropping'', or shortening the tail of the bomb so that these four heavier weapons could be carried (or a 2,000 lb (920 kg) total load).", "The B Mk.IV entered service in May 1942 with 105 Squadron.In April 1943 it was decided to convert a B Mk.IV to carry a Blockbuster bomb (nicknamed a Cookie).", "The conversion, including modified bomb bay suspension arrangements, bulged bomb bay doors and fairings, was relatively straightforward and 54 B.IVs were modified and distributed to squadrons of the Light Night Striking Force.", "27 B Mk.IVs were later converted for special operations with the Highball anti-shipping weapon, and were used by 618 Squadron, formed in April 1943 specifically to use this weapon.", "A B Mk.IV, ''DK290'' was initially used as a trials aircraft for the bomb, followed by ''DZ471,530 and 533''.", "The B Mk.IV had a maximum speed of , a cruising speed of , ceiling of , a range of , and a climb rate of 2,500 ft per minute (12.7 m/s).No.", "692 Squadron, showing bulged bomb bay doors to accommodate the 4,000lb Cookie.Other bomber variants of the Mosquito included the Merlin 21 powered '''B Mk.V''' high-altitude version.", "Trials with this configuration were made with ''W4057'', which had strengthened wings and two additional fuel tanks, or alternatively, two bombs.", "This design was not produced in Britain, but formed the basic design of the Canadian-built B.VII.", "Only ''W4057'' was built in prototype form.", "The Merlin 31 powered '''B Mk.VII''' was built by de Havilland Canada and first flown on 24 September 1942.It only saw service in Canada, 25 were built.", "Six were handed over to the United States Army Air Forces.", "'''B Mk.IX''' (54 built) was powered by the Merlin 72,73, 76 or 77.The two-stage Merlin variant was based on the PR.IX.", "The prototype ''DK 324'' was converted from a PR.VIII and first flew on 24 March 1943.In October 1943 it was decided that all B Mk.IVs and all B Mk.IXs then in service would be converted to carry the \"Cookie\", and all B Mk.IXs built after that date were designed to allow them to be converted to carry the weapon.", "The B Mk.IX had a maximum speed of , an economical cruise speed of at 20,000 ft, and at 30,000 ft, ceiling of , a range of , and a climb rate of 2,850 feet per minute (14.5 m/s).", "The IX could carry a maximum load of of bombs.", "A Mosquito B Mk.IX holds the record for the most combat operations flown by an Allied bomber in the Second World War.", "''LR503'', known as \"F for Freddie\" (from its squadron code letters, GBF), first served with No.", "109 and subsequently, No.", "105 RAF squadrons.", "It flew 213 sorties during the war, only to crash at Calgary airport during the Eighth Victory Loan Bond Drive on 10 May 1945, two days after Victory in Europe Day, killing both the pilot, Flt.", "Lt. Maurice Briggs, DSO, DFC, DFM and navigator Fl.", "Off.", "John Baker, DFC and Bar.The '''B Mk.XVI''' was powered by the same variations as the B.IX.", "All B Mk.XVIs were capable of being converted to carry the \"Cookie\".", "The two-stage powerplants were added along with a pressurised cabin.", "''DZ540'' first flew on 1 January 1944.The prototype was converted from a IV (402 built).", "The next variant, the '''B Mk.XX''', was powered by Packard Merlins 31 and 33s.", "It was the Canadian version of the IV.", "Altogether, 245 were built.", "The B Mk.XVI had a maximum speed of , an economical cruise speed of at 20,000 ft, and at 30,000 ft, ceiling of , a range of , and a climb rate of 2,800 ft per minute (14 m/s).", "The type could carry of bombs.The '''B.35''' was powered by Merlin 113 and 114As.", "Some were converted to TT.35s (Target Tugs) and others were used as PR.35s (photo-reconnaissance).", "The B.35 had a maximum speed of , a cruising speed of , ceiling of , a range of , and a climb rate of 2,700 ft per minute (13.7 m/s).", "A total of 174 B.35s were delivered up to the end of 1945.A further 100 were delivered from 1946 for a grand total of 274, 65 of which were built by Airspeed Ltd.===Fighters===Mosquito F Mk.II in India circa 1943Developed during 1940, the first prototype of the '''Mosquito F Mk.II''' was completed on 15 May 1941.These Mosquitoes were fitted with four Hispano cannon in the fuselage belly and four .303 (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns mounted in the nose.", "On production Mk.IIs the machine guns and ammunition tanks were accessed via two centrally hinged, sideways opening doors in the upper nose section.", "To arm and service the cannon the bomb bay doors were replaced by manually operated bay doors: the F and NF Mk.IIs could not carry bombs.", "The type was also fitted with a gun camera in a compartment above the machine guns in the nose and was fitted with exhaust flame dampers to reduce the glare from the Merlin XXs.In the summer of 1942, Britain experienced day-time incursions of the high-altitude reconnaissance bomber, the Junkers Ju 86P.", "Although the Ju 86P only carried a light bomb load, it overflew sensitive areas, including Bristol, Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire.", "Bombs were dropped on Luton and elsewhere, and this particular aircraft was seen from the main de Havilland offices and factory at Hatfield.", "An attempt to intercept it with a Spitfire from RAF Manston was unsuccessful.", "As a result of the potential threat, a decision was quickly taken to develop a high-altitude Mosquito interceptor, using the ''MP469'' prototype.", "''MP469'' entered the experimental shop on 7 September and made its initial flight on 14 September, piloted by John de Havilland.", "The bomber nose was altered using a normal fighter nose, armed with four standard .303 (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns.", "The low pressure cabin retained a bomber canopy structure and a two-piece windscreen.", "The control wheel was replaced with a fighter control stick.", "The wingspan was increased to .", "The airframe was lightened by removing armour plating, some fuel tanks and other fitments.", "Smaller-diameter main wheels were fitted after the first few flights.", "At a loaded weight of this HA Mk.XV was lighter than a standard Mk.II.", "For this first conversion, the engines were a pair of Merlin 61s.", "On 15 September, John de Havilland reached an altitude of in this version.", "The aircraft was delivered to a High Altitude Flight which had been formed at RAF Northolt.", "However, the high-level German daylight intruders were no longer to be seen.", "It was subsequently revealed that only five Ju 86P aircraft had been built and they had only flown 12 sorties.", "Nevertheless, the general need for high altitude interceptors was recognised – but now the emphasis was to be upon night fighters.The A&AEE tested the climb and speed of night fighter conversion of MP469 in January 1943 for the Ministry of Aircraft Production.", "Wingspan had been increased to , the Brownings had been moved to a fairing below the fuselage.", "According to Birtles, an AI radar was mounted in the nose and the Merlins were upgraded to Mk76 type, although Boscombe Down reported Merlin 61s.", "In addition to MP469, four more B Mk.IVs were converted into '''NF MK XVs'''.", "The Fighter Interception Unit at RAF Ford carried out service trials, March 1943, and then these five aircraft went to 85 Squadron, Hunsdon, where they were flown from April until August of that year.", "The greatest height reached in service was .Apart from the F Mk.XV, all Mosquito fighters and fighter bombers featured a modified canopy structure incorporating a flat, single piece armoured windscreen, and the crew entry/exit door was moved from the bottom of the forward fuselage to the right side of the nose, just forward of the wing leading edge.===Night fighters===157 Squadron, January 1944.Just visible is part of the aerial array for the A.I.", "Mk.IV near the wingtip.At the end of 1940, the Air Staff's preferred turret-equipped night fighter design to Operational Requirement O.R.", "95 was the Gloster F.18/40 (derived from their F.9/37).", "However, although in agreement as to the quality of the Gloster company's design, the Ministry of Aircraft Production was concerned that Gloster would not be able to work on the F.18/40 and also the jet fighter design, considered the greater priority.", "Consequently, in mid-1941 the Air Staff and MAP agreed that the Gloster aircraft would be dropped and the Mosquito, when fitted with a turret would be considered for the night fighter requirement.The first production night fighter Mosquitoes – minus turrets – were designated '''NF Mk.II'''.", "A total of 466 were built with the first entering service with No.", "157 Squadron in January 1942, replacing the Douglas Havoc.", "These aircraft were similar to the F Mk.II, but were fitted with the AI Mk.IV metric wavelength radar.", "The herring-bone transmitting antenna was mounted on the nose and the dipole receiving antennae were carried under the outer wings.", "A number of NF IIs had their radar equipment removed and additional fuel tanks installed in the bay behind the cannon for use as night intruders.", "These aircraft, designated '''NF II (Special)''' were first used by 23 Squadron in operations over Europe in 1942.23 Squadron was then deployed to Malta on 20 December 1942, and operated against targets in Italy.Ninety-seven NF Mk.IIs were upgraded with 3.3 GHz frequency, low-SHF-band AI Mk.VIII radar and these were designated '''NF Mk.XII'''.", "The '''NF Mk.XIII''', of which 270 were built, was the production equivalent of the Mk.XII conversions.", "These \"centimetric\" radar sets were mounted in a solid \"thimble\" (Mk.XII / XIII) or universal \"bull nose\" (Mk.XVII / XIX) radome, which required the machine guns to be dispensed with.256 Squadron, with the \"bull nose\", caught in the beam of a Chance light on the main runway at Foggia, Italy, before taking off on a night intruder sortie.Four F Mk.XVs were converted to the '''NF Mk.XV'''.", "These were fitted with AI Mk.VIII in a \"thimble\" radome, and the .303 Brownings were moved into a gun pack fitted under the forward fuselage.'''", "NF Mk.XVII''' was the designation for 99 NF Mk.II conversions, with single-stage Merlin 21, 22, or 23 engines, but British AI.X (US SCR-720) radar.The '''NF Mk.XIX''' was an improved version of the NF XIII.", "It could be fitted with American or British AI radars; 220 were built.The '''NF Mk.30''' was the final wartime variant and was a high-altitude version, powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 76s.", "The NF Mk.30 had a maximum speed of at .", "It also carried early electronic countermeasures equipment.", "526 were built.Swedish Air Force NF.XIX operational in 1949.Other Mosquito night fighter variants planned but never built included the '''NF Mk.X''' and '''NF Mk.XIV''' (the latter based on the NF Mk.XIII), both of which were to have two-stage Merlins.", "The '''NF Mk.31''' was a variant of the NF Mk.30, but powered by Packard Merlins.After the war, two more night fighter versions were developed:The '''NF Mk.36''' was similar to the Mosquito NF Mk.30, but fitted with the American-built AI.Mk.X radar.", "Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 113/114 piston engines; 266 built.", "Max level speeds (TAS) with flame dampers fitted were at sea level, at , and at .The '''NF Mk.38''', 101 of which were built, was also similar to the Mosquito NF Mk.30, but fitted with the British-built AI Mk.IX radar.", "This variant suffered from stability problems and did not enter RAF service: 60 were eventually sold to Yugoslavia.", "According to the Pilot's Notes and Air Ministry 'Special Flying Instruction TF/487', which posted limits on the Mosquito's maximum speeds, the NF Mk.38 had a VNE of 370 knots (425 mph), without under-wing stores, and within the altitude range of sea level to .", "However, from 10,000 to the maximum speed was 348 knots (400 mph).", "As the height increased other recorded speeds were; 15,000 to 320 knots (368 mph); 20,000 to , 295 knots (339 mph); 25,000 to , 260 knots (299 mph); 30,000 to , 235 knots (270 mph).", "With two added 100-gallon fuel tanks this performance fell; between sea level and 15,000 feet 330 knots (379 mph); between 15,000 and 320 knots (368 mph); 20,000 to , 295 knots (339 mph); 25,000 to , 260 knots (299 mph); 30,000 to , 235 knots (270 mph).", "Little difference was noted above .===Strike (\"fighter-bomber\") variants ===Guns and bombs of an RAAF FB Mk.", "VIThe '''FB Mk.", "VI''', which first flew on 1 June 1942, was powered by two, single-stage two-speed, Merlin 21s or Merlin 25s, and introduced a re-stressed and reinforced \"basic\" wing structure capable of carrying single bombs on racks housed in streamlined fairings under each wing, or up to eight RP-3 25lb or 60 lb rockets.", "In addition fuel lines were added to the wings to enable single or drop tanks to be carried under each wing.", "The usual fixed armament was four 20 mm Hispano Mk.II cannon and four .303 (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns, while two bombs could be carried in the bomb bay.Unlike the F Mk.II, the ventral bay doors were split into two pairs, with the forward pair being used to access the cannon, while the rear pair acted as bomb bay doors.", "The maximum fuel load was distributed between internal fuel tanks, plus two overload tanks, each of capacity, which could be fitted in the bomb bay, and two drop tanks.", "All-out level speed is often given as , although this speed applies to aircraft fitted with saxophone exhausts.", "The test aircraft (''HJ679'') fitted with stub exhausts was found to be performing below expectations.", "It was returned to de Havilland at Hatfield where it was serviced.", "Its top speed was then tested and found to be , in line with expectations.", "2,298 FB Mk.", "VIs were built, nearly one-third of Mosquito production.", "Two were converted to TR.33 carrier-borne, maritime strike prototypes.The FB Mk.", "VI proved capable of holding its own against fighter aircraft, in addition to strike/bombing roles.", "For example, on 15 January 1945 Mosquito FB Mk.", "VIs of 143 Squadron were engaged by 30 Focke-Wulf Fw 190s from ''Jagdgeschwader 5'': the Mosquitoes sank an armed trawler and two merchant ships, but five Mosquitoes were lost (two reportedly to flak), while shooting down five Fw 190s.613 Squadron, June 1944, shows full invasion stripes and is well weathered through operational use.Another fighter-bomber variant was the '''Mosquito FB Mk.", "XVIII''' (sometimes known as the ''Tsetse'') of which one was converted from a FB Mk.", "VI to serve as prototype and 17 were purpose-built.", "The Mk.XVIII was armed with a Molins \"6-pounder Class M\" cannon: this was a modified QF 6-pounder (57 mm) anti-tank gun fitted with an auto-loader to allow both semi- or fully automatic fire.", "25 rounds were carried, with the entire installation weighing .", "In addition, of armour was added within the engine cowlings, around the nose and under the cockpit floor to protect the engines and crew from heavily armed U-boats, the intended primary target of the Mk.XVIII.", "Two or four .303 (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns were retained in the nose and were used to \"sight\" the main weapon onto the target.The Air Ministry initially suspected that this variant would not work, but tests proved otherwise.", "Although the gun provided the Mosquito with yet more anti-shipping firepower for use against U-boats, it required a steady approach run to aim and fire the gun, making its wooden construction an even greater liability, in the face of intense anti-aircraft fire.", "The gun had a muzzle velocity of and an excellent range of some .", "It was sensitive to sidewards movement; an attack required a dive from at a 30° angle with the turn and bank indicator on centre.", "A move during the dive could jam the gun.", "The prototype ''HJ732'' was converted from a FB.VI and was first flown on 8 June 1943.The effect of the new weapon was demonstrated on 10 March 1944 when Mk.XVIIIs from 248 Squadron (escorted by four Mk.VIs) engaged a German convoy of one U-boat and four destroyers, protected by 10 Ju 88s.", "Three of the Ju 88s were shot down.", "Pilot Tony Phillips destroyed one Ju 88 with four shells, one of which tore an engine off the Ju 88.The U-boat was damaged.", "On 25 March, was sunk by Molins-equipped Mosquitoes.", "On 10 June, was abandoned in the face of intense air attack from No.", "248 Squadron, and was later sunk by a Liberator of No.", "206 Squadron.", "On 5 April 1945 Mosquitoes with Molins attacked five German surface ships in the Kattegat and again demonstrated their value by setting them all on fire and sinking them.", "A German ''Sperrbrecher'' (\"minefield breaker\") was lost with all hands, with some 200 bodies being recovered by Swedish vessels.", "Some 900 German soldiers died in total.", "On 9 April, German U-boats , and were spotted in formation heading for Norway.", "All were sunk with rockets.", "and followed on 19 April and 2 May 1945, also sunk by rockets.248 Squadron Special Detachment.", "Note the 57 mm Molins gun and streamlined blister used to accommodate the automatic loading mechanism.Despite the preference for rockets, a further development of the large gun idea was carried out using the even larger, 96 mm calibre QF 32-pounder, a gun based on the QF 3.7-inch AA gun designed for tank use, the airborne version using a novel form of muzzle brake.", "Developed to prove the feasibility of using such a large weapon in the Mosquito, this installation was not completed until after the war, when it was flown and fired in a single aircraft without problems, then scrapped.Designs based on the Mk.VI were the '''FB Mk.", "26''', built in Canada, and the '''FB Mk.40''', built in Australia, powered by Packard Merlins.", "The FB.26 improved from the FB.21 using single stage Packard Merlin 225s.", "Some 300 were built and another 37 converted to T.29 standard.", "212 FB.40s were built by de Havilland Australia.", "Six were converted to PR.40; 28 to PR.41s, one to FB.42 and 22 to T.43 trainers.", "Most were powered by Packard-built Merlin 31 or 33s.===Trainers===The Mosquito was also built as the '''Mosquito T Mk.III''' two-seat trainer.", "This version, powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 21s, was unarmed and had a modified cockpit fitted with dual control arrangements.", "A total of 348 of the '''T Mk.III''' were built for the RAF and Fleet Air Arm.", "de Havilland Australia built 11 '''T Mk.43''' trainers, similar to the Mk.III.===Torpedo-bombers===To meet specification N.15/44 for a navalised Mosquito for Royal Navy use as a torpedo bomber, de Havilland produced a carrier-borne variant.", "A Mosquito FB.VI was modified as a prototype designated '''Sea Mosquito TR Mk.33''' with folding wings, arrester hook, thimble nose radome, Merlin 25 engines with four-bladed propellers and a new oleo-pneumatic landing gear rather than the standard rubber-in-compression gear.", "Initial carrier tests of the Sea Mosquito were carried out by Eric \"Winkle\" Brown aboard HMS ''Indefatigable'', the first landing-on taking place on 25 March 1944.An order for 100 TR.33s was placed although only 50 were built at Leavesden.", "Armament was four 20 mm cannon, two 500 lb bombs in the bomb bay (another two could be fitted under the wings), eight 60 lb rockets (four under each wing) and a standard torpedo under the fuselage.", "The first production TR.33 flew on 10 November 1945.This series was followed by six '''Sea Mosquito TR Mk.37'''s, which were built at Chester (Broughton) and differed in having ASV Mk.XIII radar instead of the TR.33's AN/APS-6.===Target tugs===The RAF's target tug version was the '''Mosquito TT Mk.35''', which were the last aircraft to remain in operational service with No 3 CAACU at Exeter, being finally retired in 1963.These aircraft were then featured in the film 633 Squadron.A number of B Mk.XVIs bombers were converted into TT Mk.39 target tug aircraft.", "The Royal Navy also operated the '''Mosquito TT Mk.39''' for target towing.Two ex-RAF FB.6s were converted to TT.6 standard at Manchester (Ringway) Airport by Fairey Aviation in 1953–1954, and delivered to the Belgian Air Force for use as towing aircraft from the Sylt firing ranges.===Canadian-built===B Mk.XX, the Canadian version of B Mk.IV.", "One of the 40 USAAF F-8s.A total of 1,032 (wartime + 2 afterwards) Mosquitoes were built by De Havilland Canada at Downsview Airfield in Downsview Ontario (now Downsview Park in Toronto Ontario).", " '''Mosquito B Mk.VII''' : Canadian version based on the Mosquito B Mk.V bomber aircraft.", "Powered by two Packard Merlin 31 piston engines; 25 built.", "* '''Mosquito B Mk.XX''' : Canadian version of the Mosquito B Mk.IV bomber aircraft; 145 built, of which 40 were converted into '''F-8''' photo-reconnaissance aircraft for the USAAF.", "* '''Mosquito FB Mk.21''' : Canadian version of the Mosquito FB Mk.", "VI fighter-bomber aircraft.", "Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 31 piston engines, three built.Lynn Garrison Mosquito CF-HMS arrives Calgary, February, 1964* '''Mosquito T Mk.22''' : Canadian version of the Mosquito T Mk.III training aircraft.", "* '''Mosquito B Mk.23''' : Unused designation for a bomber variant.", "* '''Mosquito FB Mk.24''' : Canadian fighter-bomber version.", "Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 301 piston engines; two built.", "* '''Mosquito B Mk.25''' : Improved version of the Mosquito B Mk.XX Bomber aircraft.", "Powered by two Packard Merlin 225 piston engines; 400 built.", "* '''Mosquito FB Mk.26''' : Improved version of the Mosquito FB Mk.21 fighter-bomber aircraft.", "Powered by two Packard Merlin 225 piston engines; 338 built.", "* '''Mosquito T Mk.27''' : Canadian-built training aircraft.", "* '''Mosquito T Mk.29''' : A number of FB Mk.26 fighters were converted into T Mk.29 trainers.===Australian-built===Mosquito FB Mk.40 ''A52-50''.", "* '''Mosquito FB Mk.40''' : Two-seat fighter-bomber version for the RAAF.", "Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 31 piston engines.", "A total of 178 built in Australia.", "* '''Mosquito PR Mk.40''' : This designation was given to six FB Mk.40s, which were converted into photo-reconnaissance aircraft.", "* '''Mosquito FB Mk.41''' : Two-seat fighter-bomber version for the RAAF.", "A total of 11 were built in Australia.", "* '''Mosquito PR Mk.41''' : Two-seat photo-survey version for the RAAF.", "A total of 17 were built in Australia.", "* '''Mosquito FB Mk.42''' : Two-seat fighter-bomber version.", "Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 69 piston engines.", "One FB Mk.40 aircraft was converted into a Mosquito FB Mk.42.", "* '''Mosquito T Mk.43''' : Two-seat training version for the RAAF.", "A total of 11 FB Mk.40s were converted into Mosquito T Mk.43s.===Highball===A number of Mosquito IVs were modified by Vickers-Armstrongs to carry Highball \"bouncing bombs\" and were allocated Vickers Type numbers:* Type 463 – Prototype Highball conversion of Mosquito IV ''DZ741''.", "* Type 465 – Conversion of 33 Mosquito IVs to carry Highball." ], [ "Production", "105 Squadron being prepared for Operation Oyster, December 1942.This aircraft crashed near Shipham while returning from Cologne on 27 January 1943About 5,000 of the total of 7,781 Mosquitoes built had major structural components fabricated from wood in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, England.", "Fuselages, wings and tailplanes were made at furniture companies such as Ronson, E. Gomme, Parker Knoll, Austinsuite and Styles & Mealing.", "Wing spars were made by J.", "B. Heath and Dancer & Hearne.", "Many of the other parts, including flaps, flap shrouds, fins, leading edge assemblies and bomb doors were also produced in the Buckinghamshire town.", "Dancer & Hearne processed much of the wood from start to finish, receiving timber and transforming it into finished wing spars at their factory in Penn Street on the outskirts of High Wycombe.Initially much of the specialised yellow birch wood veneer and finished plywood used for the prototypes and early production aircraft was shipped from firms in Wisconsin, US.", "Prominent in this role were Roddis Plywood and Veneer Manufacturing in Marshfield.", "In conjunction with the USDA Forest Products Laboratory, Hamilton Roddis had developed new plywood adhesives and hot pressing technology.", "Later on, paper birch was logged in large quantities from the interior of British Columbia along the Fraser and Quesnel Rivers and processed in Quesnel and New Westminster by the Pacific Veneer Company.", "According to the Quesnel archives, BC paper birch supplied ½ of the wartime British Empire birch used for Mosquitoes and other aircraft.As the supply of Ecuadorean balsa was threatened by the U-boats in the Atlantic Ocean, the Ministry of Aircraft Production approved a research effort to supplant the balsa with calcium alginate foam, made from local brown algae.", "By 1944 the foam was ready, but the U-boat threat had been reduced, the larger B-25 bombers were in sufficient supply to handle most of the bombing raids, and the foam was not used in Mosquito production.===Canada===In July 1941, it was decided that DH Canada would build Mosquitoes at Downsview, Ontario.", "This was to continue even if Germany invaded Great Britain.", "Packard Merlin engines produced under licence were bench-tested by August and the first two aircraft were built in September.", "Production was to increase to fifty per month by early 1942.Initially, the Canadian production was for bomber variants; later, fighters, fighter-bombers and training aircraft were also made.", "DH Chief Production Engineer, Harry Povey, was sent first, then W. D. Hunter followed on an extended stay, to liaise with materials and parts suppliers.", "As was the case with initial UK production, Tego-bonded plywood and birch veneer was obtained from firms in Wisconsin, principally Roddis Plywood and Veneer Manufacturing, Marshfield.", "Enemy action delayed the shipping of jigs and moulds and it was decided to build these locally.", "During 1942, production improved to over 80 machines per month, as sub-contractors and suppliers became established.", "A mechanised production line based in part on car building methods started in 1944.As the war progressed, Canadian Mosquitoes may have utilized paper birch supplied by the Pacific Veneer Company of New Westminster using birch logs from the Cariboo, although records only say this birch was shipped to England for production there.", "When flight testing could no longer keep up, this was moved to the Central Aircraft Company airfield, London, Ontario, where the approved Mosquitoes left for commissioning and subsequent ferry transfer to Europe.Ferrying Mosquitoes and many other types of WWII aircraft from Canada to Europe was dangerous, resulting in losses of lives and machines, but in the exigencies of war it was regarded as the best option for twin-engine and multi-engine aircraft.", "In the parlance of the day, among RAF personnel, \"it was no piece of cake.\"", "Considerable efforts were made by de Havilland Canada to resolve problems with engine and oil systems and an additional five hours of flight testing were introduced before the ferry flight, but the actual cause of some of the losses was unknown.", "Nevertheless, by the end of the war, nearly 500 Mosquito bombers and fighter-bombers had been ferried successfully by the Canadian operation.After DH Canada had been established for the Mosquito, further manufacturing was set up at DH Australia, in Sydney.", "One of the DH staff who travelled there was the distinguished test pilot, Pat Fillingham.", "These production lines added totals of 1,133 aircraft of varying types from Canada plus 212 aircraft from Australia.===Exports===In total, both during the war and after, de Havilland exported 46 FB.VIs and 29 PR.", "XVIs to Australia; two FB.VI and 18 NF.30s to Belgium; approximately 250 FB.26, T.29 and T.27s from Canada to Nationalist China.", "A significant number never went into service due to deterioration on the voyage and to crashes during Chinese pilot training; however, five were captured by the People's Liberation Army during the Chinese Civil War; 19 FB.VIs to Czechoslovakia in 1948; 6 FB.VIs to Dominica; a few B.IVs, 57 FB.VIs, 29 PR.XVIs and 23 NF.30s to France.", "Some T.IIIs were exported to Israel along with 60 FB.VIs, and at least five PR.XVIs and 14 naval versions.", "Four T.IIIs, 76 FB.VIs, one FB.40 and four T.43s were exported to New Zealand.", "Three T.IIIs were exported to Norway, and 18 FB.VIs, which were later converted to night fighter standard.", "South Africa received two F.II and 14 PR.XVI/XIs and Sweden received 60 NF.XIXs.", "Turkey received 96 FB.VIs and several T.IIIs, and Yugoslavia had 60 NF.38s, 80 FB.VIs and three T.IIIs delivered.", "At least a single de Havilland Mosquito was delivered to the Soviet Union marked 'DK 296'.===Sites===Total Mosquito production was 7,781, of which 6,710 were built during the war.", "Factory-fresh Mosquito B.XVIs built by Percival: visible serial numbers are ''PF563'', ''561'', ''564'', ''565'' and ''562''.+Production Producer and site Number builtde Havilland Hatfield, Hertfordshire 3,326 de Havilland Leavesden, Hertfordshire 1,476 Standard Motor Company (Canley), Coventry 1,066 Percival Aircraft Company, Luton 245 Airspeed Aircraft, Portsmouth 122 de Havilland Hawarden, Chester 88 de Havilland Canada, Toronto 1,076 de Havilland Australia, Sydney 212" ], [ "Civilian accidents and incidents", "A number of Mosquitoes were lost in civilian airline service, mostly with British Overseas Airways Corporation during World War II.", "* On 17 August 1943, G-AGGF crashed near Glenshee, Perthshire.", "* On 25 October 1943, G-AGGG crashed near RAF Leuchars.", "* On 3 January 1944, G-AGGD stalled on landing at Såtenäs, Sweden, and was written off.", "* On 19 August 1944, G-AGKP crashed into the North Sea off Leuchars, Fife.", "All three people on board were killed.", "* On 29 August 1944, G-AGKR disappeared on a flight from Gothenburg, Sweden, to RAF Leuchars with the loss of both crew members.On 21 July 1996, Mosquito G-ASKH, wearing the markings of RR299, crashed 1 mile west of Manchester Barton Airport.", "Pilot Kevin Moorhouse and Engineer Steve Watson were both killed in the crash.", "At the time, this was the last airworthy Mosquito T.III." ], [ "Operators", "*********************" ], [ "Surviving aircraft", "De Havilland Mosquito ''KA114'' at the \"Wings over Wairarapa\" Airshow, Masterton, New Zealand (January 2013)There are approximately 30 non-flying Mosquitoes around the world with four airworthy examples, three in the United States and one in Canada.", "The largest collection of Mosquitoes is at the de Havilland Aircraft Museum in the United Kingdom, which owns three aircraft, including the first prototype, ''W4050'', the only initial prototype of a Second World War British aircraft design still in existence in the 21st century." ], [ "Specifications (B Mk.XVI)", "Mosquito P.R.34." ], [ "Notable appearances in media" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources === Air Ministry.", "Pilot's Notes For Mosquito B IV.", "London: 1943.A.P.2019D-PN.", "* Air Ministry.", "Pilot's Notes For Mosquito, Marks VIII and IX, Mk.XVI.", "London: 1944.A.P.2653A, B, F, H & J-PN.", "* Air Ministry.", "''Pilot's Notes For Mosquito FB 6''.", "London: 1945..* Air Ministry.", "''Pilot's Notes For Mosquito NF 38''.", "London: 1945..* Batchelor, John and Malcolm Low.", "''de Havilland Mosquito Manual'' (Plane Essentials).", "Victoria, Australia: Publishing Solutions, 2008..* Bird, Andrew.", "''A Separate Little War''.", "London, UK: Grub Street, 2003..* Birtles, Philip.", "''De Havilland Mosquito: The Original Multirole Combat Aircraft''.", "Stroud, England: Fonthill Media, 2017..* Bishop, Edward.", "''The Wooden Wonder''.", "Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 3rd edition 1995..* Boiten, Theo.", "''Nachtjagd: The Night Fighter Versus Bomber War over the Third Reich, 1939–45''.", "London: Crowood Press, 1997.", "* Boog, Horst, Gerhard Krebs and Detlef Vogel.", "''Germany and the Second World War: Volume VII: The Strategic Air War in Europe and the War in the West and East Asia, 1943-1944/5.''", "Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 2006..* Bowman, Martin.", "''de Havilland Mosquito'' (Crowood Aviation series).", "Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: The Crowood Press, 2005..* Bowman, Martin.", "''Mosquito Bomber/Fighter-bomber Units 1942–45''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1997..* Bowman, Martin.", "''Mosquito Fighter/Fighter-bomber Units of World War 2''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1998..* Bowman, Martin.", "''Mosquito Photo-Reconnaissance Units of World War 2''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1999..* Bowyer, Chaz.", "''Mosquito at War''.", "Shepperton, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Ltd., 4th impression 1979..* Bowyer, Michael J.F., Bryan Philpott and Stuart Howe.", "''Mosquito (Classic Aircraft No.", "7: Their History and How to Model Them)''.", "Cambridge, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd., 1980..* Bridgman, Leonard, ed.", "\"The D.H.98 Mosquito.\"", "''Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II''.", "London: Studio, 1946..* Buttler, Tony.", "''British Secret Projects: Fighters & Bombers 1935–1950''.", "Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004..* Caldwell, Donald L. and Richard Muller.", "''The Luftwaffe Over Germany: Defense of the Reich'' .", "London: Greenhill MBI Publishing Company, 2007.", "* Cole, Roger.", "''High Wycombe – Local History Series''.", "Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing Ltd., 2001..* Connor, Sara Witter, Hamilton Roddis Memorial Lecture Series No.", "11.", "''Wisconsin Flying Trees: Wisconsin Plywood Industry's Contribution to WWII''.", "Department of Forest & Wildlife Ecology, Kemp Natural Resources Station, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin – Madison 31 January 2007.Wayback Machine.", "* Christie, Carl A.", "''Ocean Bridge – The history of RAF Ferry Command'' Midland Publishing, Leicester, England, 1995..* Harris, Sir Arthur T. et al.", "''Despatch on War Operations – 23rd.", "February 1942 to 8th.", "May 1945''.", "Frank Cass, England, 1993..* Hotson, Fred.", "''The De Havilland Canada Story''.", "Toronto: CANAV Books, 1983..* Malayney, Norman, The 25th Bomb Group (Rcn) History in WWII, Schiffer Publishers Ltd. 2011..* Miracle, Daniel B. and Steven L. Donaldson.", "''ASM Handbook: Composites''.", "Cleveland, Ohio: ASM International, 2001..* Mujumdar, A. S. ''Drying '92: Proceedings of the 8th International Drying Symposium''.", "Toronto: Elsevier, 1992..* Rhodes, Tom.", "''Stress Without Tears''.", "Jacobs Publishing, 1st edition 1 December 2008..* Scott, Stuart R. \"Mosquito Thunder: No.", "105 Squadron RAF at war 1942-5.\"", "Sutton Publishing, Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK, 1999..* Scutts, Jerry.", "''Mosquito in Action, Part 2''.", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1993..* Sharp, C. Martin and Michael J.F.", "Bowyer.", "''Mosquito''.", "London: Faber & Faber, 1971..* Sharp, C. Martin and Michael J.F.", "Bowyer.", "''Mosquito (2nd ed.)''.", "Manchester, UK: Crécy Books Ltd, 1995..* Simons, Graham M. ''Mosquito: The Original Multi-Role Combat Aircraft''.", "Barnsley, Yorkshire, UK: Pen & Sword, 2011.", "* Streetly, Martin.", "\"The Aircraft of 100 Group: Part 14.DH Mosquito, Internal Detail\".", "''Scale Models'', Volume 12, Issue 139, April 1981.", "* Stroud, John.", "\"Wings of Peace:- de Havilland Albatross.\"", "''Aeroplane Monthly,'', Volume 18, Issue 206, June 1990.", "* Thirsk, Ian.", "''de Havilland Mosquito: An Illustrated History Volume 2''.", "Manchester, UK: Crécy Publishing Limited, 2006..* Thomas, Geoffrey J. and Barry Ketely.", "''KG 200: The Luftwaffe's Most Secret Unit''.", "Tokyo: Hikoki Publications, 2003..* Wooldridge, John de L. ''Low Attack – The story of two Mosquito squadrons, 1940–1943''.", "Crecy Books, England, 1993.." ], [ "Further reading", "* Anoni, Shlomo.", "\"The Last of the Wooden Wonders: The DH Mosquito in Israeli Service\".", "''Air Enthusiast'', No.", "83, September–October 1999, pp. 30–51.", "* Birtles, Philip.", "''Mosquito: A Pictorial History of the DH98''.", "London: Jane's Publishing Company Ltd., 1980..* Birtles, Philip.", "''De Havilland Mosquito: The Original Multirole Combat Aircraft''.", "Stroud, England: Fonthill Media, 2017..** Gilman J.D.", "and J. Clive.", "''KG 200''.", "London: Pan Books, 1978..* Hardy, M.J. ''The de Havilland Mosquito''.", "Devon, UK/New York: David & Charles (Publishers) Ltd./Arco Publishing, 1977., (David & Charles) (Arco).", "* Hinchcliffe, Peter.", "''The Other Battle: Luftwaffe Night Aces vs Bomber Command''.", "London: Zenith Press, 1996..* Holliday, Joe.", "''Mosquito!", "The Wooden Wonder Aircraft of World War II''.", "Toronto: Doubleday, 1970..* Howe, Stuart.", "''Mosquito Portfolio''.", "London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1984..* Jackson, Robert.", "''de Havilland Mosquito'' (Combat Legend).", "Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 2003..* Jones, R.C.", "''de Havilland Mosquito: RAF Northern Europe 1936–45''.", "London: Ducimus Books Ltd., 1970.", "* Mason, Francis K. and Richard Ward.", "''De Havilland Mosquito in RAF-FAA-RAAF-SAAF-RNZAF-RCAF-USAAF-French & Foreign Service''.", "Canterbury, Kent, UK: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1972..* McKee, Alexander.", "''The Mosquito Log''.", "London: Souvenir Press Ltd., 1988..* Morgan, Hugh and John Weal.", "''German Jet Aces of World War 2''.", "London: Osprey Publishing Ltd, 1998..* Price, Nigel (ed.).", "\"Mosquito: A Celebration of de Havilland's 'Wooden Wonder'.\"", "FlyPast Special.", "Stamford, Lincolnshire, UK: Key Publishing Ltd., 2009.", "* Radinger, Will and Walter Schick.", "''Me262'' (German lang.", "ed.", "), Berlin: Avantic Verlag GmbH, 1996..* Sasbye, Kjeld Mahler.", "''Operation Carthage''.", "Copenhagen: Den Danske Luftfartsskole, 1994..* Scholefield, R.A. ''Manchester Airport''.", "Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing, 1998..* Scutts, Jerry.", "''Mosquito in Action, Part 1''.", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1993..* Shacklady, Edward.", "''De Havilland Mosquito (Classic WWII Aviation, Volume 6)''.", "Bristol, UK: Cerberus Publishing Ltd., 2003..* Stanley, Colonel Roy M. II, USAF (Ret).", "''V-Weapons Hunt: Defeating German Secret Weapons.''", "Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Pen & Sword, 2010..* Sweetman, Bill and Rikyu Watanabe.", "''Mosquito''.", "London: Jane's Publishing Company Ltd., 1981.." ], [ "External links", "* The Mosquito Page at Mossie.org* de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre a.k.a.", "Mosquito Aircraft Museum* Calgary Mosquito Aircraft Preservation Association* * Victoria Air Maintenance Ltd.", "Restoring a Mosquito to flying condition* The People's Mosquito Ltd. UK charity restoring Mosquito RL249 to flight.", "Website features WW2 colour film of the Mosquito* de Havilland Mosquito magazine articles and publications* Data at Warbirdregistry.org* Mosquito restoration project New Zealand (633 Squadron theme) Retrieved: 3 January 2012.", "* Wartime film of the construction of the Mosquito in Australia Retrieved: 3 January 2012.", "* \"Flying Plywood With A Sting\": ''Popular Science'' article, December 1943* A close-up picture of the nose of a Tsetse Mosquito FB Mk.XVIII showing the Molins 57 mm gun muzzle* A photograph of the Tsetse Mosquito FB Mk.XVIII ''NT225''* \"Mosquito Wars on U-Boats With 6-pound Shells.", "\": ''Popular Mechanics'' article, February 1945, p. 39.", "* Wartime footage of Coastal Command 57mm cannon and 60lb rocket-armed Mosquitoes* Mosquito Pathfinders, Pathfinder Museum* 627 Squadron RAF Mosquito Pathfinders Based at RAF Woodall Spa * Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) report on the crash of T.III G-ASKH, 1996* IWM Image of Mosquito PR34 ''RG241'', which holds the twin piston-engine Atlantic crossing record.", "* \"America Reports On Aid To Allies etc.", "(1942).\"", "''Universal Newsreel''* \"Mosquito Makes Base\" a 1943 ''Flight'' article on a Mosquito Intruder's battle damage* \"'Pin-Point' Attack On One House by Mosquitoes\" a 1944 ''Flight'' advertisement* \"The Magnificent Mosquito\" a 1969 ''Flight'' article by Air Commodore Allen Wheeler* Mosquito from the IBCC Digital Archive at the University of Lincoln." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dave Thomas (businessman)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Rex David Thomas''' (July 2, 1932 – January 8, 2002) was an American businessman, philanthropist, and fast-food tycoon.", "Thomas was the founder and chief executive officer of Wendy's, a fast-food restaurant chain specializing in hamburgers.", "In this role, Thomas appeared in more than 800 commercial advertisements for the chain from 1989 to 2002, more than any other company founder in television history." ], [ "Early life", "Rex David Thomas was born July 2, 1932, in Atlantic City, New Jersey.", "His biological father's name was Sam and his biological mother's name was Molly.", "Thomas was adopted between six weeks and six months later by Rex and Auleva Thomas, and as an adult became a well-known advocate for adoption, founding the Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption.", "After his adoptive mother's death when he was five, his father moved around the country seeking work.", "Thomas spent some of his early childhood near Kalamazoo, Michigan, with his grandmother, Minnie Sinclair, whom he credited with teaching him the importance of service and treating others well and with respect, lessons that helped him in his future business life.At age 12, Thomas had his first job at Regas Restaurant, a fine dining restaurant in downtown Knoxville, Tennessee, then lost it in a dispute with his boss; decades later, Regas Restaurant installed a large autographed poster of Thomas just inside their entrance, which remained until the business closed in 2010.He vowed never to lose another job.", "By 15, he was moving with his father and working at the Hobby House Restaurant in Fort Wayne, Indiana.", "When his father prepared to move again, Thomas decided to stay in Fort Wayne, dropping out of high school to work full-time at the restaurant.", "Thomas, who considered ending his schooling the greatest mistake of his life, did not graduate from high school until 1993, when he obtained a GED.He subsequently became an education advocate and founded the Dave Thomas Education Center in Coconut Creek, Florida, which offers GED classes to young adults." ], [ "Career", "===U.S.", "Army===At the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, rather than waiting for the draft, he volunteered for the U.S. Army at age 18 to have some choice in assignments.", "Having food production and service experience, Thomas requested the Cook's and Baker's School at Fort Benning, Georgia.", "He was sent to West Germany as a mess sergeant and was responsible for the daily meals of 2,000 soldiers, rising to the rank of staff sergeant.", "After his discharge in 1953, Thomas returned to Fort Wayne and the Hobby House.===Fast food career=======Kentucky Fried Chicken====In the mid-1950s, Kentucky Fried Chicken founder Col. Harland Sanders came to Fort Wayne, hoping to find restaurateurs with established businesses to whom he could try to sell KFC franchises.", "At first, Thomas – who was the head cook at a restaurant – and the Clauss family declined Sanders' offer, but Sanders persisted, and the Clauss family franchised their restaurant with KFC; they also later owned many other KFC franchises in the Midwest.", "During this time, Thomas worked with Sanders on many projects to make KFC more profitable and give it brand recognition.", "Among other ideas for improvements, Thomas suggested that KFC reduce the number of items on its menu and instead focus on a signature dish; he also proposed that KFC make commercials in which Sanders would personally appear.", "Thomas was sent by the Clauss family in the mid-1960s to help turn around four of their failing KFC stores in Columbus, Ohio.By 1968, Thomas had increased sales in the four fried chicken restaurants so much that he sold his share in them back to Sanders for more than $1.5 million.", "This experience would prove invaluable to Thomas when he began Wendy's about a year later.====Arthur Treacher's====After serving as a regional director for Kentucky Fried Chicken, Thomas became part of the investor group which founded Arthur Treacher's.", "His involvement with the new restaurant lasted less than a year before he went on to found Wendy's.====Wendy's====Thomas opened his first Wendy's in Columbus, Ohio, November 15, 1969.This original restaurant remained operational until March 2, 2007, when it was closed due to lagging sales.", "Thomas named the restaurant after his eight-year-old daughter Melinda Lou, whose nickname was \"Wendy\", stemming from the child's inability to say her own name at a young age.", "According to ''Bio TV'', Dave claims that people nicknamed his daughter \"Wenda.", "Not Wendy, but Wenda.", "'I'm going to call it Wendy's Old Fashioned Hamburgers'.\"", "Before his death in 2002, Thomas admitted regret for naming the franchise after his daughter, saying \"I should've just named it after myself, because it put a lot of pressure on her.", "\"In 1982, Thomas resigned from his day-to-day operations at Wendy's.", "However, by 1985, several company business decisions, including an awkward new breakfast menu and loss in brand awareness due to fizzled marketing efforts, led the company's new president to urge Thomas back into a more active role with Wendy's.", "Thomas began to visit franchises and espouse his hardworking, so-called \"mop-bucket attitude\".", "In 1989, he took on a significant role as the TV spokesperson in a series of commercials for the brand.", "Thomas was not a natural actor, and initially, his performances were criticized as stiff and ineffective by advertising critics.By 1990, after efforts by Wendy's advertising agency, Backer Spielvolgel Bates, to get humor into the campaign, a decision was made to portray Thomas in a more self-deprecating and folksy manner, which proved much more popular with test audiences.", "Consumer brand awareness of Wendy's eventually regained levels it had not achieved since octogenarian Clara Peller's highly popular \"Where's the beef?\"", "campaign of 1984.With his natural self-effacing style and his relaxed manner, Thomas quickly became a household name.", "A company survey during the 1990s, a decade during which Thomas starred in every Wendy's commercial that aired, found that 90% of Americans knew who Thomas was.", "After more than 800 commercials, it was clear that Thomas played a major role in Wendy's' status as the third most popular burger restaurant in the U.S.====The Wellington School====In 1982, Thomas and a consortium of entrepreneurs created and launched The Wellington School in Upper Arlington, Ohio.", "The group of entrepreneurs spent three years refining plans, raising money, finding a property, and recruiting teachers and students.The school opened with 137 students and 19 employees as the first co-ed independent school in the greater Columbus metropolitan area.", "The first graduating class was in 1989 with 32 students.", "In 2010, a new building opened.", "In 2012, the Little Jags preschool program for 3-year-olds began." ], [ "Personal life", "Thomas was a Christian.", "He was married for 47 years to Lorraine Thomas and started his family with her in Upper Arlington, Ohio.", "In addition to Melinda, they had three more daughters – Pam, Lori, and Molly – and a son, Kenny.", "After Kenny died in 2013, his sisters still continued to own and run multiple Wendy's locations.", "Thomas founded the chain Sisters Chicken and Biscuits in 1978, named in reference to his other three daughters.===Death===Thomas had been afflicted with a carcinoid neuroendocrine tumor for a decade, before it metastasized to his liver.", "He died on January 8, 2002, in his home in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, at the age of 69.Thomas was buried in Union Cemetery in Columbus, Ohio.", "At the time of his death, there were more than 6,000 Wendy's restaurants operating in North America." ], [ "Honors and memberships", "In 1979, Thomas received the Horatio Alger Award for his success with his restaurant chain Wendy's, which had reached annual sales of US$1 billion with franchises then.In 1980, Thomas received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.Thomas, realizing that his success as a high school dropout might convince other teenagers to quit school (something he later claimed was a mistake), became a student at Coconut Creek High School.", "He earned a GED in 1993.Thomas was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1999.Thomas was an honorary Kentucky colonel, as was former boss Harland Sanders.Thomas was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2003.Thomas was raised a Master Mason in Sol.", "D. Bayless Lodge No.", "359 of Fort Wayne, Indiana, and became a 32° Mason, N.M.J., on November 16, 1961, in the Scottish Rite Bodies of Fort Wayne.", "He was unanimously elected to the Scottish Rite's highest honor, the Grand Cross, by The Supreme Council, 33°, in Executive Session on October 3, 1997, in Washington, D.C.A small triangular block and the surrounding streets and traffic pattern in the Northeast quadrant of Washington, D.C., is unofficially known in the D.C. area as Dave Thomas Circle, due to the longtime presence of a Wendy's franchise and its parking lot on that block." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Wendy's tribute to Dave Thomas* The Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption* \"Dave Thomas Biography\".", "Retrieved June 1, 2005*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Device driver" ], [ "Introduction", "In computing, a '''device driver''' is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer or automaton.", "A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems and other computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details about the hardware being used.A driver communicates with the device through the computer bus or communications subsystem to which the hardware connects.", "When a calling program invokes a routine in the driver, the driver issues commands to the device (drives it).", "Once the device sends data back to the driver, the driver may invoke routines in the original calling program.Drivers are hardware dependent and operating-system-specific.", "They usually provide the interrupt handling required for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface." ], [ "Purpose", "The main purpose of device drivers is to provide abstraction by acting as a translator between a hardware device and the applications or operating systems that use it.", "Programmers can write higher-level application code independently of whatever specific hardware the end-user is using.For example, a high-level application for interacting with a serial port may simply have two functions for \"send data\" and \"receive data\".", "At a lower level, a device driver implementing these functions would communicate to the particular serial port controller installed on a user's computer.", "The commands needed to control a 16550 UART are much different from the commands needed to control an FTDI serial port converter, but each hardware-specific device driver abstracts these details into the same (or similar) software interface." ], [ "Development", "Writing a device driver requires an in-depth understanding of how the hardware and the software works for a given platform function.", "Because drivers require low-level access to hardware functions in order to operate, drivers typically operate in a highly privileged environment and can cause system operational issues if something goes wrong.", "In contrast, most user-level software on modern operating systems can be stopped without greatly affecting the rest of the system.", "Even drivers executing in user mode can crash a system if the device is erroneously programmed.", "These factors make it more difficult and dangerous to diagnose problems.The task of writing drivers thus usually falls to software engineers or computer engineers who work for hardware-development companies.", "This is because they have better information than most outsiders about the design of their hardware.", "Moreover, it was traditionally considered in the hardware manufacturer's interest to guarantee that their clients can use their hardware in an optimum way.", "Typically, the Logical Device Driver (LDD) is written by the operating system vendor, while the Physical Device Driver (PDD) is implemented by the device vendor.", "However, in recent years, non-vendors have written numerous device drivers for proprietary devices, mainly for use with free and open source operating systems.", "In such cases, it is important that the hardware manufacturer provide information on how the device communicates.", "Although this information can instead be learned by reverse engineering, this is much more difficult with hardware than it is with software.Microsoft has attempted to reduce system instability due to poorly written device drivers by creating a new framework for driver development, called Windows Driver Frameworks (WDF).", "This includes User-Mode Driver Framework (UMDF) that encourages development of certain types of drivers—primarily those that implement a message-based protocol for communicating with their devices—as user-mode drivers.", "If such drivers malfunction, they do not cause system instability.", "The Kernel-Mode Driver Framework (KMDF) model continues to allow development of kernel-mode device drivers, but attempts to provide standard implementations of functions that are known to cause problems, including cancellation of I/O operations, power management, and plug and play device support.Apple has an open-source framework for developing drivers on macOS, called I/O Kit.In Linux environments, programmers can build device drivers as parts of the kernel, separately as loadable modules, or as user-mode drivers (for certain types of devices where kernel interfaces exist, such as for USB devices).", "Makedev includes a list of the devices in Linux, including ttyS (terminal), lp (parallel port), hd (disk), loop, and sound (these include mixer, sequencer, dsp, and audio).Microsoft Windows .sys files and Linux .ko files can contain loadable device drivers.", "The advantage of loadable device drivers is that they can be loaded only when necessary and then unloaded, thus saving kernel memory." ], [ "Privilege levels", "Depending on the operating system, device drivers may be permitted to run at various different privilege levels.", "The choice of which level of privilege the drivers are in is largely decided by the type of kernel an operating system uses.", "An operating system which uses a monolithic kernel, such as the Linux kernel, will typically run device drivers with the same privilege as all other kernel objects.", "By contrast, a system designed around microkernel , such as Minix, will place drivers as processes independent from the kernel but that use the it for essential input-output functionalities and to pass messages between user programs and each other.On Windows NT, a system with a hybrid kernel, it is common for device drivers to run in either kernel-mode or user-mode.", "The most common mechanism for segregating memory into various privilege levels is via protection rings.", "On many systems, such as those with x86 and ARM processors, switching between rings imposes a performance penalty, a factor that operating system developers and embedded software engineers consider when creating drivers for devices which are preferred to be run with low latency, such as network interface cards.", "The primary benefit of running a driver in user mode is improved stability, since a poorly written user-mode device driver cannot crash the system by overwriting kernel memory." ], [ "Applications", "Because of the diversity of hardware and operating systems, drivers operate in many different environments.", "Drivers may interface with:* Printers* Video adapters* Network cards* Sound cards* PC chipsets* Local buses of various sorts—in particular, for bus mastering on modern systems* Low-bandwidth I/O buses of various sorts (for pointing devices such as mice, keyboards, etc.", ")* Computer storage devices such as hard disk, CD-ROM, and floppy disk buses (ATA, SATA, SCSI, SAS)* Implementing support for different file systems* Image scanners* Digital cameras* Digital terrestrial television tuners* Radio frequency communication transceiver adapters for wireless personal area networks as used for short-distance and low-rate wireless communication in home automation, (such as example Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), Thread, Zigbee, and Z-Wave).", "* IrDA adaptersCommon levels of abstraction for device drivers include:* For hardware: Interfacing directly Writing to or reading from a device control register Using some higher-level interface (e.g.", "Video BIOS) Using another lower-level device driver (e.g.", "file system drivers using disk drivers)** Simulating work with hardware, while doing something entirely different* For software: Allowing the operating system direct access to hardware resources Implementing only primitives Implementing an interface for non-driver software (e.g.", "TWAIN) Implementing a language, sometimes quite high-level (e.g.", "PostScript)So choosing and installing the correct device drivers for given hardware is often a key component of computer system configuration." ], [ "Virtual device drivers", "Virtual device drivers represent a particular variant of device drivers.", "They are used to emulate a hardware device, particularly in virtualization environments, for example when a DOS program is run on a Microsoft Windows computer or when a guest operating system is run on, for example, a Xen host.", "Instead of enabling the guest operating system to dialog with hardware, virtual device drivers take the opposite role and emulates a piece of hardware, so that the guest operating system and its drivers running inside a virtual machine can have the illusion of accessing real hardware.", "Attempts by the guest operating system to access the hardware are routed to the virtual device driver in the host operating system as e.g., function calls.", "The virtual device driver can also send simulated processor-level events like interrupts into the virtual machine.Virtual devices may also operate in a non-virtualized environment.", "For example, a virtual network adapter is used with a virtual private network, while a virtual disk device is used with iSCSI.", "A good example for virtual device drivers can be Daemon Tools.There are several variants of virtual device drivers, such as VxDs, VLMs, and VDDs." ], [ "Open source drivers", "* Graphics device driver* Printers: CUPS* RAIDs: CCISS (Compaq Command Interface for SCSI-3 Support)* Scanners: SANE* Video: Vidix, Direct Rendering InfrastructureSolaris descriptions of commonly used device drivers:* fas: Fast/wide SCSI controller* hme: Fast (10/100 Mbit/s) Ethernet* isp: Differential SCSI controllers and the SunSwift card* glm: (Gigabaud Link Module) UltraSCSI controllers* scsi: Small Computer Serial Interface (SCSI) devices* sf: soc+ or social Fiber Channel Arbitrated Loop (FCAL)* soc: SPARC Storage Array (SSA) controllers and the control device* social: Serial optical controllers for FCAL (soc+)" ], [ "APIs", "* Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) – the graphic display driver architecture for Windows Vista and later.", "* Unified Audio Model (UAM)* Windows Driver Foundation (WDF)* Declarative Componentized Hardware (DCH) - Universal Windows Platform driver* Windows Driver Model (WDM)* Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS) – a standard network card driver API* Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA) – the standard Linux sound-driver interface* Scanner Access Now Easy (SANE) – a public-domain interface to raster-image scanner-hardware* Installable File System (IFS) – a filesystem API for IBM OS/2 and Microsoft Windows NT* Open Data-Link Interface (ODI) – network card API similar to NDIS* Uniform Driver Interface (UDI) – a cross-platform driver interface project* Dynax Driver Framework (dxd) – C++ open source cross-platform driver framework for KMDF and IOKit" ], [ "Identifiers", "A device on the PCI bus or USB is identified by two IDs which consist of 4 hexadecimal numbers each.", "The vendor ID identifies the vendor of the device.", "The device ID identifies a specific device from that manufacturer/vendor.A PCI device has often an ID pair for the main chip of the device, and also a subsystem ID pair which identifies the vendor, which may be different from the chip manufacturer." ], [ "Security", "Devices often have a large number of diverse and customized device drivers running in their operating system (OS) kernel and often contain various bugs and vulnerabilities, making them a target for exploits.", "''Bring Your Own Vulnerable Driver'' (BYOVD) uses signed, old drivers that contain flaws that allow hackers to insert malicious code into the kernel.There is a lack of effective kernel vulnerability detection tools, especially for closed-source OSes such as Microsoft Windows where the source code of the device drivers is mostly not public (open source) and the drivers often also have many privileges.Such vulnerabilities also exist in drivers in laptops, drivers for WiFi and bluetooth, gaming/graphics drivers, and drivers in printers.A group of security researchers considers the lack of isolation as one of the main factors undermining kernel security, and published a isolation framework to protect operating system kernels, primarily the monolithic Linux kernel which, according to them, gets ~80,000 commits/year to its drivers." ], [ "See also", "* Driver (software)* Class driver* Device driver synthesis and verification* Driver wrapper* Free software* Firmware* Loadable kernel module* Makedev* Microcontroller* Open-source hardware* Printer driver* Replicant (operating system)* udev (userspace /dev)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Windows Hardware Dev Center* Linux Hardware Compatibility Lists and Linux Drivers* Understanding Modern Device Drivers(Linux)* BinaryDriverHowto, Ubuntu.", "* Linux Drivers Source" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dimona" ], [ "Introduction", "View of DimonaApartment blocks in Dimona'''Dimona''' (, ) is an Israeli city in the Negev desert, to the south-east of Beersheba and west of the Dead Sea above the Arava valley in the Southern District of Israel.", "In its population was .", "The Shimon Peres Negev Nuclear Research Center, colloquially known as the ''Dimona Reactor'', is located southeast of the city." ], [ "Etymology", "The Negev Naming Committee chose the name based upon that of a biblical town, mentioned in Joshua 15:21-22, on the basis that \"the sound of this name had been preserved in the Arabic name Harabat Umm Dumna.\"" ], [ "History", "Palm boulevard in DimonaDimona was one of the development towns created in the 1950s under the leadership of Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion.", "Dimona itself was conceived in 1953.The location chosen was close to the Dead Sea Works.", "It was established in 1955.The first residents were Jewish immigrants from North Africa, with an initial 36 families being the first to settle there.", "Its population in 1955 was about 300.The North African immigrants also constructed the city's houses.", "The population was composed mainly of North African, particularly Moroccan immigrants, though immigrants from Yemen and Eastern Europe also arrived, as did Bene Israel immigrants from India.When the Israeli nuclear program began in 1958, a location not far from the city was chosen for the Negev Nuclear Research Center due to its relative isolation in the desert and availability of housing.", "In the late 1950s and early 1960s, immigrants from Eastern Europe arrived.", "A textile factory was opened in 1958.That same year, Dimona became a local council.", "In 1961, it had a population of 5,000.The emblem of Dimona (as a local council), adopted 2 March 1961, appeared on a stamp issued on 24 March 1965.Dimona was declared a city in 1969.In 1971, it had a population of 23,700.In spite of a gradual decrease during the 1980s, the city's population began to grow once again in the 1990s when it took in immigrants from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia.", "Currently, Dimona is the third largest city in the Negev, with the population of almost 34,000.Due to projected rapid population growth in the Negev, the city is expected to triple in size by 2025." ], [ "Demography", "Dimona is described as \"mini-India\" by many for its 7,500-strong Indian Jewish community.", "It is also home to Israel's Black Hebrew community, formerly governed by its founder and spiritual leader, Ben Ammi Ben-Israel, now deceased.", "The Black Hebrews number about 3,000 in Dimona, with additional families in Arad, Mitzpe Ramon and the Tiberias area.", "Their official status in Israel was an ongoing issue for many years, but in May 1990, the issue was resolved with the issuing of first B/1 visas, and a year later, issuing of temporary residency.", "Status was extended to August 2003, when the Israeli Ministry of Interior granted permanent residency." ], [ "Economy", "In the early 1980s, textile plants, such as Dimona Textiles Ltd., dominated the industrial landscape.", "Many plants have since closed.", "Dimona Silica Industries Ltd. manufactures precipitated silica and calcium carbonate fillers.", "About a third of the city's population works in industrial workplaces (chemical plants near the Dead Sea like the Dead Sea Works, high-tech companies and textile shops), and another third in the area of services.", "Due to the introduction of new technologies, many workers have been made redundant in the recent years, creating a total unemployment rate of about 10%.", "Dimona has taken part of Israel's solar transformation.", "The Rotem Industrial Complex outside of the city has dozens of solar mirrors that focus the sun's rays on a tower that in turn heats a water boiler to create steam, turning a turbine to create electricity.", "Luz II, Ltd. plans to use the solar array to test new technology for the three new solar plants to be built in California for Pacific Gas and Electric Company." ], [ "Geography and climate", "Dimona is located in the Negev Desert.", "The city stands at an elevation of around above sea level.===Climate===Dimona has a semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: ''BSh'').", "The average annual temperature is , and around of precipitation falls annually." ], [ "Transportation", "Dimona Railway StationIn the early 1950s, an extension to Dimona and south was constructed from the Railway to Beersheba, designed for freight traffic.", "A passenger service began in 2005, after pressure from Dimona's municipality.", "Dimona Railway Station is located in the southwestern part of the city.", "The main bus terminal is the Dimona Central Bus Station, with lines to Beersheba, Tel Aviv, Eilat, and nearby towns." ], [ "Notable people", "Yossi BenayounLucy Aharish, News presenter, Reporter, Television hostJacques Amir (1933–2011), Knesset memberYossi Benayoun (born 1980), Footballer Meir Cohen (born 1955), Minister of Welfare and Social Services, Knesset memberKfir Edri (born 1976), FootballerBen Israel Ben Ammi (1939–2014), Spiritual leader of the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem (Shomrei Hashalom)" ], [ "Twin towns", "Dimona is twinned with:* Andernach, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany (1975)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The African Hebrew Israelites: New black civilisation in the promised land, January 1, 2004" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "DC Comics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''DC Comics, Inc.''' (doing business as '''DC''') is an American comic book publisher and the flagship unit of DC Entertainment, a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Discovery.DC Comics is one of the largest and oldest American comic book companies, with their first comic under the DC banner being published in 1937.The majority of its publications take place within the fictional DC Universe and feature numerous culturally iconic heroic characters, such as Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern, the Flash, and Aquaman; as well as famous fictional teams including the Justice League, the Justice Society of America, the Teen Titans, and the Suicide Squad.", "The universe also features an assortment of well-known supervillains such as the Joker, Lex Luthor, Deathstroke, the Reverse-Flash, Brainiac, and Darkseid.", "The company has published non-DC Universe-related material, including ''Watchmen'', ''V for Vendetta'', ''Fables'' and many titles under their alternative imprint Vertigo and now DC Black Label.Originally in Manhattan at 432 Fourth Avenue, the DC Comics offices have been located at 480 and later 575 Lexington Avenue; 909 Third Avenue; 75 Rockefeller Plaza; 666 Fifth Avenue; and 1325 Avenue of the Americas.", "DC had its headquarters at 1700 Broadway, Midtown Manhattan, New York City, but DC Entertainment relocated its headquarters to Burbank, California in April 2015.Penguin Random House Publisher Services distributes DC Comics' books to the bookstore market, while Diamond Comic Distributors supplied the comics shop direct market until June 2020, when Lunar Distribution and UCS Comic Distributors, who already dominated direct market distribution on account of the disruption to Diamond that resulted from the COVID-19 pandemic, replaced Diamond to distribute to that market.DC Comics and its longtime major competitor Marvel Comics (acquired in 2009 by The Walt Disney Company, Warner Bros.", "Discovery's main competitor) together shared approximately 70% of the American comic book market in 2017, though this number may give a distorted view since graphic novels are excluded.", "With the sales of all books included, DC is the second biggest publisher, after Viz Media, and Marvel is third." ], [ "History", "=== National Comics Publications ======= Golden Age ==== Pioneers of DC Comics who started in the 1930sMalcolm Wheeler-NicholsonJerry SiegelJoe ShusterBob KaneBill FingerSheldon MayerGardner Fox Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson Jerry Siegel Joe Shuster Bob Kane Bill Finger Sheldon Mayer Gardner Fox Founder of DC Comics Creators of Superman Creators of Batman and the Joker Early founder Created various charactersCover art of the first comic book by National Comics Publications, ''New Fun: The Big Comic Magazine'' #1 (cover dated February 1935).", "Unlike comic book magazines series up to that point, characters in this book, such as the Western character Jack Wood, were original creations, and did not originate in comic strips.Entrepreneur Major Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson founded National Allied Publications in 1935 intended as an American comic book publishing company.", "The first publishing of the company debuted with the tabloid-sized ''New Fun: The Big Comic Magazine'' #1 (the first of a comic series later called ''More Fun Comics'') with a cover date of February 1935.It was an anthology title essentially for original stories not reprinted from newspaper strips, unlike many comic book series before it.", "While superhero comics are what DC Comics is known for throughout modern times, the genres in the first anthology titles consisted of funnies, Western comics and adventure-related stories.", "The character Doctor Occult, created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster in December 1935 with issue No.", "6 of ''New Fun Comics'', is considered the earliest recurring superhero created by DC who is still used.", "The company created a second recurring title called ''New Comics'' No.", "1, released in December 1935, which was the start of the long-running ''Adventure Comics'' series featuring many anthology titles as well.Wheeler-Nicholson's next and final title, ''Detective Comics'', advertised with a cover illustration dated December 1936, eventually premiered three months late with a March 1937 cover date.", "The themed anthology that revolved originally around fictional detective stories became in modern times the longest-running ongoing comic series.", "A notable debut in the first issue was Slam Bradley, created in a collaboration between Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson, Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster.", "In 1937, in debt to printing-plant owner and magazine distributor Harry Donenfeld — who also published pulp magazines and operated as a principal in the magazine distributorship Independent News — Wheeler-Nicholson had to take Donenfeld on as a partner to publish ''Detective Comics'' No.", "1.Detective Comics, Inc. (which would help inspire the abbreviation DC) was formed, with Wheeler-Nicholson and Jack S. Liebowitz, Donenfeld's accountant, listed as owners.", "Major Wheeler-Nicholson remained for a year, but cash-flow problems continued, and he was forced out.", "Shortly afterwards, Detective Comics, Inc. purchased the remains of National Allied, also known as Nicholson Publishing, at a bankruptcy auction.Meanwhile, Max Gaines formed the sister company All-American Publications in 1939.Detective Comics, Inc. soon launched a new anthology title, entitled ''Action Comics''.", "Issue#1, cover dated June 1938, first featured characters such as Superman by Siegel and Shuster, Zatara by Fred Guardineer and Tex Thompson by Ken Finch and Bernard Baily.", "It is considered to be the first comic book to feature the new character archetype, soon known as \"superheroes\", and was a sales hit bringing to life a new age of comic books, with the credit going to the first appearance of Superman both being featured on the cover and within the issue.", "It is now one of the most expensive and valuable comic book issues of all time.", "The issue's first featured tale which starred Superman was the first to feature an origin story of superheroes with the reveal of an unnamed planet, later known as Krypton, that he is said to be from.", "The issue also contained the first essential supporting character and one of the earliest essential female characters in comics with Lois Lane as Superman's first depicted romantic interest.", "The Green Hornet-inspired character known as the Crimson Avenger by Jim Chamber was featured in ''Detective Comics'' No.", "20 (October 1938).", "The character makes a distinction of being the first masked vigilante published by DC.", "An unnamed \"office boy\" retconned as Jimmy Olsen's first appearance was revealed in ''Action Comics'' #6's (November 1938) Superman story by Siegel and Shuster.Starting in 1939, Siegel and Shuster's Superman would be the first comic-derived character to appear outside of comic magazines and later appear in newspaper strips starring himself, which first introduced Superman's biological parents, Jor-El and Lara.", "All-American Publications' first comic series called ''All-American Comics'' was first published in April 1939.The series ''Detective Comics'' would make successful history as first featuring Batman by Bob Kane and Bill Finger in issue No.27 (March 1939) with the request of more superhero titles.", "Batman was depicted as a masked vigilante wearing a caped suit known as the Batsuit, along with riding a car that would later be referred to as the Batmobile.", "Also within the Batman story was the supporting character, James Gordon, Police commissioner of what later would be Gotham City Police Department.", "Despite being a parody, All-American Publications introduced the earliest female character who would later be a female superhero called Red Tornado (though disguised as a male) in Ma Hunkel who first appeared in the \"Scribbly\" stories in ''All-American Comics'' No.", "3 (June 1939).", "Another important Batman debut was the introduction of the fictional mansion known as Wayne Manor first seen in ''Detective Comics'' No.", "28 (June 1939).", "The series ''Adventure Comics'' would eventually follow in the footsteps of ''Action Comics'' and ''Detective Comics,'' featuring a new recurring superhero.", "The superhero called Sandman was first written in issue No.", "40 (cover date: July 1939).", "''Action Comics'' No.", "13 (June 1939) introduced the first recurring Superman enemy referred to as the Ultra-Humanite first introduced by Siegel and Shuster, commonly cited as one of the earliest supervillains in comic books.", "The character Superman had another breakthrough when he was given his own comic book, which was unheard of at the time.", "The first issue, introduced in June 1939, helped directly introduce Superman's adoptive parents, Jonathan and Martha Kent, by Siegel and Shuster.", "''Detective Comics'' #29 (July 1939) introduced the Batman's utility belt by Gardner Fox.", "Outside of DC's publishing, a character later integrated as DC was introduced by Fox Feature Syndicate named the Blue Beetle released in August 1939.Fictional cities would be a common theme of DC.", "The first revealed city was Superman's home city, Metropolis, that was originally named in ''Action Comics'' No.", "16 in September 1939.", "''Detective Comics'' No.", "31 in September 1939 by Gardner Fox, Bob Kane and Sheldon Moldoff introduced a romantic interest of Batman named Julie Madison, the weapon known as the Batarang that Batman commonly uses, and the fictional aircraft called the Batplane.", "Batman's origin would first be shown in ''Detective Comics'' No.", "33 (Nov. 1939) first depicting the death of Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne by a mugger.", "The origin story would remain crucial for the fictional character since the inception.The ''Daily Planet'' (a common setting of Superman) was first named in a Superman newspaper strip around November 1939.The superhero Doll Man was the first superhero by Quality, which DC now owns.", "Fawcett Comics was formed around 1939 and would become DC's original competitor company in the next decade.National Allied Publications soon merged with Detective Comics, Inc., forming National Comics Publications on September 30, 1946.National Comics Publications absorbed an affiliated concern, Max Gaines' and Liebowitz' All-American Publications.", "In the same year Gaines let Liebowitz buy him out, and kept only ''Picture Stories from the Bible'' as the foundation of his own new company, EC Comics.", "At that point, \"Liebowitz promptly orchestrated the merger of All-American and Detective Comics into National Comics... Next he took charge of organizing National Comics, the self-distributorship Independent News, and their affiliated firms into a single corporate entity, National Periodical Publications\".", "National Periodical Publications became publicly traded on the stock market in 1961.Despite the official names \"National Comics\" and \"National Periodical Publications\", the company began branding itself as \"Superman-DC\" as early as 1940, and the company became known colloquially as DC Comics for years before the official adoption of that name in 1977.The company began to move aggressively against what it saw as copyright-violating imitations from other companies, such as Fox Comics' Wonder Man, which (according to court testimony) Fox started as a copy of Superman.", "This extended to DC suing Fawcett Comics over Captain Marvel, at the time comics' top-selling character (see ''National Comics Publications, Inc. v. Fawcett Publications, Inc.'').", "Faced with declining sales and the prospect of bankruptcy if it lost, Fawcett capitulated in 1953 and ceased publishing comics.", "Years later, Fawcett sold the rights for Captain Marvel to DC—which in 1972 revived Captain Marvel in the new title ''Shazam!''", "featuring artwork by his creator, C. C. Beck.", "In the meantime, the abandoned trademark had been seized by Marvel Comics in 1967, with the creation of their Captain Marvel, forbidding the DC comic itself to be called that.", "While Captain Marvel did not recapture his old popularity, he later appeared in a Saturday morning live action TV adaptation and gained a prominent place in the mainstream continuity DC calls the DC Universe.When the popularity of superheroes faded in the late 1940s, the company focused on such genres as science fiction, Westerns, humor, and romance.", "DC also published crime and horror titles, but relatively tame ones, and thus avoided the mid-1950s backlash against such comics.", "A handful of the most popular superhero-titles, including ''Action Comics'' and ''Detective Comics'', the medium's two longest-running titles, continued publication.==== Silver Age ====In the mid-1950s, editorial director Irwin Donenfeld and publisher Liebowitz directed editor Julius Schwartz (whose roots lay in the science-fiction book market) to produce a one-shot Flash story in the try-out title ''Showcase''.", "Instead of reviving the old character, Schwartz had writers Robert Kanigher and John Broome, penciler Carmine Infantino, and inker Joe Kubert create an entirely new super-speedster, updating and modernizing the Flash's civilian identity, costume, and origin with a science-fiction bent.", "The Flash's reimagining in ''Showcase'' No.", "4 (October 1956) proved sufficiently popular that it soon led to a similar revamping of the Green Lantern character, the introduction of the modern all-star team Justice League of America (JLA), and many more superheroes, heralding what historians and fans call the Silver Age of Comic Books.National did not reimagine its continuing characters (primarily Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman), but radically overhauled them.", "The Superman family of titles, under editor Mort Weisinger, introduced such enduring characters as Supergirl, Bizarro, and Brainiac.", "The Batman titles, under editor Jack Schiff, introduced the successful Batwoman, Bat-Girl, Ace the Bat-Hound, and Bat-Mite in an attempt to modernize the strip with non-science-fiction elements.", "Schwartz, together with artist Infantino, then revitalized Batman in what the company promoted as the \"New Look\", with relatively down-to-Earth stories re-emphasizing Batman as a detective.", "Meanwhile, editor Kanigher successfully introduced a whole family of Wonder Woman characters having fantastic adventures in a mythological context.Since the 1940s, when Superman, Batman, and many of the company's other heroes began appearing in stories together, DC's characters inhabited a shared continuity that, decades later, was dubbed the \"DC Universe\" by fans.", "With the story \"Flash of Two Worlds\", in ''Flash'' No.", "123 (September 1961), editor Schwartz (with writer Gardner Fox and artists Infantino and Joe Giella) introduced a concept that allowed slotting the 1930s and 1940s Golden Age heroes into this continuity via the explanation that they lived on an other-dimensional \"Earth 2\", as opposed to the modern heroes' \"Earth 1\"—in the process creating the foundation for what was later called the DC Multiverse.=== National Periodical Publications ===DC's introduction of the reimagined superheroes did not go unnoticed by other comics companies.", "In 1961, with DC's JLA as the specific spur, Marvel Comics writer-editor Stan Lee and a robust creator Jack Kirby ushered in the sub-Silver Age \"Marvel Age\" of comics with the debut issue of ''The Fantastic Four''.", "Reportedly, DC ignored the initial success of Marvel with this editorial change until its consistently strengthening sales, albeit also benefiting Independent News' business as their distributor as well, made that impossible.", "That commercial situation especially applied with Marvel's superior sell-through percentage numbers which were typically 70% to DC's roughly 50%, which meant DC's publications were barely making a profit in comparison after returns from the distributors were calculated while Marvel was making an excellent profit by comparison.However, the senior DC staff were reportedly at a loss at this time to understand how this small publishing house was achieving this increasingly threatening commercial strength.", "For instance, when Marvel's product was examined in a meeting, Marvel's emphasis on more sophisticated character-based narrative and artist-driven visual storytelling was apparently ignored for self-deluding guesses at the brand's popularity which included superficial reasons like the presence of the color red or word balloons on the cover, or that the perceived crudeness of the interior art was somehow more appealing to readers.", "When Lee learned about DC's subsequent experimental attempts to imitate these perceived details, he amused himself by arranging direct defiance of those assumptions in Marvel's publications as sales strengthened further to frustrate the competition.However, this ignorance of Marvel's true appeal did not extend to some of the writing talent during this period, from which there were some attempts to emulate Marvel's narrative approach.", "For instance, there was the ''Doom Patrol'' series by Arnold Drake, a writer who previously warned the management of the new rival's strength; a superhero team of outsiders who resented their freakish powers, which Drake later speculated was plagiarized by Stan Lee to create ''The X-Men''.", "There was also the young Jim Shooter who purposely emulated Marvel's writing when he wrote for DC after much study of both companies' styles, such as for the ''Legion of Super-Heroes'' feature.", "In 1966, National Periodical Publications had set up its own television arm, led by Allen Ducovny to develop and produce projects for television, with Superman TV Corporation to handle its television distribution of NPP's TV shows.A 1966 Batman TV show on the ABC network sparked a temporary spike in comic book sales, and a brief fad for superheroes in Saturday morning animation (Filmation created most of DC's initial cartoons) and other media.", "DC significantly lightened the tone of many DC comics—particularly ''Batman'' and ''Detective Comics''—to better complement the \"camp\" tone of the TV series.", "This tone coincided with the famous \"Go-Go Checks\" checkerboard cover-dress which featured a black-and-white checkerboard strip (all DC books cover dated February 1966 until August 1967) at the top of each comic, a misguided attempt by then-managing editor Irwin Donenfeld to make DC's output \"stand out on the newsracks\".", "In particular, DC artist, Carmine Infantino, complained that the visual cover distinctiveness made DC's titles easier for readers to see and then avoid in favor of Marvel's titles.In 1967, Batman artist Infantino (who had designed popular Silver Age characters Batgirl and the Phantom Stranger) rose from art director to become DC's editorial director.", "With the growing popularity of upstart rival Marvel Comics threatening to topple DC from its longtime number-one position in the comics industry, he attempted to infuse the company with more focus towards marketing new and existing titles and characters with more adult sensibilities towards an emerging older age group of superhero comic book fans that grew out of Marvel's efforts to market their superhero line to college-aged adults.", "He also recruited major talents such as ex-Marvel artist and Spider-Man co-creator Steve Ditko and promising newcomers Neal Adams and Denny O'Neil and replaced some existing DC editors with artist-editors, including Joe Kubert and Dick Giordano, to give DC's output a more artistic critical eye.=== Kinney National / Warner Communications (1967–1990) ===In 1967, National Periodical Publications was purchased by Kinney National Company, which purchased Warner Bros.-Seven Arts in 1969.Kinney National spun off its non-entertainment assets in 1972 (as National Kinney Corporation) and changed its name to Warner Communications Inc.In 1970, Jack Kirby moved from Marvel Comics to DC, at the end of the Silver Age of Comics, in which Kirby's contributions to Marvel played a large, integral role.As artist Gil Kane described:Jack was the single most influential figure in the turnaround in Marvel's fortunes from the time he rejoined the company ...", "It wasn't merely that Jack conceived most of the characters that are being done, but ... Jack's point of view and philosophy of drawing became the governing philosophy of the entire publishing company and, beyond the publishing company, of the entire field ... Marvel took Jack and used him as a primer.", "They would get artists ... and they taught them the ABCs, which amounted to learning Jack Kirby ... Jack was like the Holy Scripture and they simply had to follow him without deviation.", "That's what was told to me ...", "It was how they taught everyone to reconcile all those opposing attitudes to one single master point of view.Given ''carte blanche'' to write and illustrate his own stories, he created a handful of thematically-linked series he called collectively \"The Fourth World\".", "In the existing series ''Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen'' and in his own, newly-launched series ''New Gods'', ''Mister Miracle'', and ''The Forever People'', Kirby introduced such enduring characters and concepts as arch-villain Darkseid and the other-dimensional realm Apokolips.", "Furthermore, Kirby intended their stories to be reprinted in collected editions, in a publishing format that was later called the trade paperback, which became a standard industry practice decades later.", "While sales were respectable, they did not meet DC management's initially high expectations, and also suffered from a lack of comprehension and internal support from Infantino.", "By 1973 the \"Fourth World\" was all cancelled, although Kirby's conceptions soon became integral to the broadening of the DC Universe, especially after the major toy-company, Kenner Products, judged them ideal for their action-figure adaptation of the DC Universe, the Super Powers Collection.", "Obligated by his contract, Kirby created other unrelated series for DC, including ''Kamandi'', ''The Demon'', and ''OMAC'', before ultimately returning to Marvel Comics in 1976.==== Bronze Age ====Following the science-fiction innovations of the Silver Age, the comics of the 1970s and 1980s became known as the Bronze Age, as fantasy gave way to more naturalistic and sometimes darker themes.", "Illegal drug use, banned by the Comics Code Authority, explicitly appeared in comics for the first time in Marvel Comics' story \"Green Goblin Reborn!\"", "in ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' No.", "96 (May 1971), and after the Code's updating in response, DC offered a drug-fueled storyline in writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams' ''Green Lantern'', beginning with the story \"Snowbirds Don't Fly\" in the retitled ''Green Lantern / Green Arrow'' No.", "85 (September 1971), which depicted Speedy, the teen sidekick of superhero archer Green Arrow, as having become a heroin addict.Jenette Kahn, a former children's magazine publisher, replaced Infantino as editorial director in January 1976.As it happened, her first task even before being formally hired, was to convince Bill Sarnoff, the head of Warner Publishing, to keep DC as a publishing concern, as opposed to simply managing their licensing of their properties.", "With that established, DC had attempted to compete with the now-surging Marvel by dramatically increasing its output and attempting to win the market by flooding it.", "This included launching series featuring such new characters as ''Firestorm'' and ''Shade, the Changing Man'', as well as an increasing array of non-superhero titles, in an attempt to recapture the pre-Wertham days of post-War comicdom.=== DC Comics ===In 1977, the company officially changed its name to '''DC Comics'''.", "It had used the brand \"Superman-DC\" since the 1950s, and was colloquially known as DC Comics for years.In June 1978, five months before the release of the first Superman movie, Kahn expanded the line further, increasing the number of titles and story pages, and raising the price from 35 cents to 50 cents.", "Most series received eight-page back-up features while some had full-length twenty-five-page stories.", "This was a move the company called the \"DC Explosion\".", "The move was not successful, however, and corporate parent Warner dramatically cut back on these largely unsuccessful titles, firing many staffers in what industry watchers dubbed \"the DC Implosion\".", "In September 1978, the line was dramatically reduced and standard-size books returned to 17-page stories but for a still increased 40 cents.", "By 1980, the books returned to 50 cents with a 25-page story count but the story pages replaced house ads in the books.Seeking new ways to boost market share, the new team of publisher Kahn, vice president Paul Levitz, and managing editor Giordano addressed the issue of talent instability.", "To that end—and following the example of Atlas/Seaboard Comics and such independent companies as Eclipse Comics—DC began to offer royalties in place of the industry-standard work-for-hire agreement in which creators worked for a flat fee and signed away all rights, giving talent a financial incentive tied to the success of their work.", "As it happened, the implementation of these incentives proved opportune considering Marvel Comics' Editor-in-Chief, Jim Shooter, was alienating much of his company's creative staff with his authoritarian manner and major talents there went to DC like Roy Thomas, Gene Colan, Marv Wolfman, and George Perez.In addition, emulating the era's new television form, the miniseries while addressing the matter of an excessive number of ongoing titles fizzling out within a few issues of their start, DC created the industry concept of the comic book limited series.", "This publishing format allowed for the deliberate creation of finite storylines within a more flexible publishing format that could showcase creations without forcing the talent into unsustainable open-ended commitments.", "The first such title was ''World of Krypton'' in 1979, and its positive results led to subsequent similar titles and later more ambitious productions like ''Camelot 3000'' for the direct market in 1982.These changes in policy shaped the future of the medium as a whole, and in the short term allowed DC to entice creators away from rival Marvel, and encourage stability on individual titles.", "In November 1980 DC launched the ongoing series ''The New Teen Titans'', by writer Marv Wolfman and artist George Pérez, two popular talents with a history of success.", "Their superhero-team comic, superficially similar to Marvel's ensemble series ''X-Men'', but rooted in DC history, earned significant sales in part due to the stability of the creative team, who both continued with the title for six full years.", "In addition, Wolfman and Pérez took advantage of the limited-series option to create a spin-off title, ''Tales of the New Teen Titans'', to present origin stories of their original characters without having to break the narrative flow of the main series or oblige them to double their work load with another ongoing title.==== Modern Age ====This successful revitalization of the Silver Age Teen Titans led DC's editors to seek the same for the wider DC Universe.", "The result, the Wolfman/Pérez 12-issue limited series ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'', gave the company an opportunity to realign and jettison some of the characters' complicated backstory and continuity discrepancies.", "A companion publication, two volumes entitled ''The History of the DC Universe'', set out the revised history of the major DC characters.", "''Crisis'' featured many key deaths that shaped the DC Universe for the following decades, and it separated the timeline of DC publications into pre- and post-\"Crisis\".Meanwhile, a parallel update had started in the non-superhero and horror titles.", "Since early 1984, the work of British writer Alan Moore had revitalized the horror series ''The Saga of the Swamp Thing'', and soon numerous British writers, including Neil Gaiman and Grant Morrison, began freelancing for the company.", "The resulting influx of sophisticated horror-fantasy material led to DC in 1993 establishing the Vertigo mature-readers imprint, which did not subscribe to the Comics Code Authority.Two DC limited series, ''Batman: The Dark Knight Returns'' by Frank Miller and ''Watchmen'' by Moore and artist Dave Gibbons, drew attention in the mainstream press for their dark psychological complexity and promotion of the antihero.", "These titles helped pave the way for comics to be more widely accepted in literary-criticism circles and to make inroads into the book industry, with collected editions of these series as commercially successful trade paperbacks.The mid-1980s also saw the end of many long-running DC war comics, including series that had been in print since the 1960s.", "These titles, all with over 100 issues, included ''Sgt.", "Rock'', ''G.I.", "Combat'', ''The Unknown Soldier'', and ''Weird War Tales''.=== Time Warner / Time Warner Entertainment / AOL Time Warner (1990–2018) ===In March 1989, Warner Communications merged with Time Inc., making DC Comics a subsidiary of Time Warner.", "In June, the first Tim Burton-directed Batman movie was released, and DC began publishing its hardcover series of DC Archive Editions, collections of many of their early, key comics series, featuring rare and expensive stories unseen by many modern fans.", "Restoration for many of the Archive Editions was handled by Rick Keene with colour restoration by DC's long-time resident colourist, Bob LeRose.", "These collections attempted to retroactively credit many of the writers and artists who had worked without much recognition for DC during the early period of comics when individual credits were few and far between.The comics industry experienced a brief boom in the early 1990s, thanks to a combination of speculative purchasing (mass purchase of the books as collectible items, with intent to resell at a higher value as the rising value of older issues, was thought to imply that ''all'' comics would rise dramatically in price) and several storylines which gained attention from the mainstream media.", "DC's extended storylines in which Superman was killed, Batman was crippled and superhero ''Green Lantern'' turned into the supervillain Parallax resulted in dramatically increased sales, but the increases were as temporary as the hero's replacements.", "Sales dropped off as the industry went into a major slump, while manufactured \"collectables\" numbering in the millions replaced quality with quantity until fans and speculators alike deserted the medium in droves.DC's Piranha Press and other imprints (including the mature readers line Vertigo, and Helix, a short-lived science fiction imprint) were introduced to facilitate compartmentalized diversification and allow for specialized marketing of individual product lines.", "They increased the use of non-traditional contractual arrangements, including the dramatic rise of creator-owned projects, leading to a significant increase in critically lauded work (much of it for Vertigo) and the licensing of material from other companies.", "DC also increased publication of book-store friendly formats, including trade paperback collections of individual serial comics, as well as original graphic novels.One of the other imprints was Impact Comics from 1991 to 1992 in which the Archie Comics superheroes were licensed and revamped.", "The stories in the line were part of its own shared universe.DC entered into a publishing agreement with Milestone Media that gave DC a line of comics featuring a culturally and racially diverse range of superhero characters.", "Although the Milestone line ceased publication after a few years, it yielded the popular animated series ''Static Shock''.", "DC established Paradox Press to publish material such as the large-format ''Big Book of...'' series of multi-artist interpretations on individual themes, and such crime fiction as the graphic novel ''Road to Perdition''.", "In 1998, DC purchased WildStorm Comics, Jim Lee's imprint under the Image Comics banner, continuing it for many years as a wholly separate imprint – and fictional universe – with its own style and audience.", "As part of this purchase, DC also began to publish titles under the fledgling WildStorm sub-imprint America's Best Comics (ABC), a series of titles created by Alan Moore, including ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'', ''Tom Strong'', and ''Promethea''.", "Moore strongly contested this situation, and DC eventually stopped publishing ABC.In March 2003 DC acquired publishing and merchandising rights to the long-running fantasy series ''Elfquest'', previously self-published by creators Wendy and Richard Pini under their WaRP Graphics publication banner.", "This series then followed another non-DC title, Tower Comics' series T.H.U.N.D.E.R.", "Agents, in collection into DC Archive Editions.", "In 2004 DC temporarily acquired the North American publishing rights to graphic novels from European publishers 2000 AD and Humanoids.", "It also rebranded its younger-audience titles with the mascot Johnny DC and established the CMX imprint to reprint translated manga.", "In 2006, CMX took over from Dark Horse Comics publication of the webcomic ''Megatokyo'' in print form.", "DC also took advantage of the demise of Kitchen Sink Press and acquired the rights to much of the work of Will Eisner, such as his ''The Spirit'' series and his graphic novels.In 2004, DC began laying the groundwork for a full continuity-reshuffling sequel to ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'', promising substantial changes to the DC Universe (and side-stepping the 1994 ''Zero Hour'' event which similarly tried to ret-con the history of the DCU).", "In 2005, the critically lauded ''Batman Begins'' film was released; also, the company published several limited series establishing increasingly escalated conflicts among DC's heroes, with events climaxing in the ''Infinite Crisis'' limited series.", "Immediately after this event, DC's ongoing series jumped forward a full year in their in-story continuity, as DC launched a weekly series, ''52'', to gradually fill in the missing time.", "Concurrently, DC lost the copyright to \"Superboy\" (while retaining the trademark) when the heirs of Jerry Siegel used a provision of the 1976 revision to the copyright law to regain ownership.In 2005, DC launched its \"All-Star\" line (evoking the title of the 1940s publication), designed to feature some of the company's best-known characters in stories that eschewed the long and convoluted continuity of the DC Universe.", "The line began with ''All-Star Batman & Robin the Boy Wonder'' and ''All-Star Superman'', with ''All-Star Wonder Woman'' and ''All-Star Batgirl'' announced in 2006 but neither being released nor scheduled as of the end of 2009.DC licensed characters from the Archie Comics imprint Red Circle Comics by 2007.They appeared in the Red Circle line, based in the DC Universe, with a series of one-shots followed by a miniseries that lead into two ongoing titles, each lasting 10 issues.=== DC Entertainment ===In 2011, DC rebooted all of its running titles following the Flashpoint storyline.", "The reboot called The New 52 gave new origin stories and costume designs to many of DC's characters.DC licensed pulp characters including Doc Savage and the Spirit which it then used, along with some DC heroes, as part of the First Wave comics line launched in 2010 and lasting through fall 2011.In May 2011, DC announced it would begin releasing digital versions of their comics on the same day as paper versions.On June 1, 2011, DC announced that it would end all ongoing series set in the DC Universe in August and relaunch its comic line with 52 issue #1s, starting with ''Justice League'' on August 31 (written by Geoff Johns and drawn by Jim Lee), with the rest to follow later on in September.On June 4, 2013, DC unveiled two new digital comic innovations to enhance interactivity: ''DC2'' and ''DC2 Multiverse''.", "''DC2'' layers dynamic artwork onto digital comic panels, adding a new level of dimension to digital storytelling, while ''DC2 Multiverse'' allows readers to determine a specific story outcome by selecting individual characters, storylines and plot developments while reading the comic, meaning one digital comic has multiple outcomes.", "''DC2'' appeared in the digital-first title, ''Batman '66'', based on the 1960s television series and ''DC2 Multiverse'' appeared in ''Batman: Arkham Origins'', a digital-first title based on the video game of the same name.In 2014, DC announced an eight-issue miniseries titled ''Convergence'' which began in April 2015.In 2016, DC announced a line-wide relaunch titled DC Rebirth.", "The new line would launch with an 80-page one-shot titled DC Universe: Rebirth, written by Geoff Johns, with art from Gary Frank, Ethan Van Sciver, and more.", "After that, many new series would launch with a twice-monthly release schedule and new creative teams for nearly every title.", "The relaunch was meant to bring back the legacy and heart many felt had been missing from DC characters since the launch of the New 52.Rebirth brought huge success, both financially and critically.=== WarnerMedia / Warner Bros.", "Discovery unit (2018–present) ===On February 21, 2020, the Co-Publisher of DC Comics, Dan DiDio stepped down after 10 years at that position.", "The company did not give a reason for the move, nor did it indicate whether it was his decision or the company's.", "The leadership change was the latest event in the company restructuring which began the previous month, as several top executives were laid off from the company.", "However, Bleeding Cool reported that he was fired.In June 2020, Warner Bros. announced a separate DC-themed online-only convention.", "Known as DC FanDome, the free \"immersive virtual fan experience\" was a 24-hour-long event held on August 22, 2020.The main presentation, entitled \"DC FanDome: Hall of Heroes\", was held as scheduled on August 22.The remaining programming was provided through a one-day video on demand experience, \"DC FanDome: Explore the Multiverse\", on September 12.As Warner Bros. and DC's response to San Diego Comic-Con's cancellation due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the convention featured information about DC-based content including the DC Extended Universe film franchise, the Arrowverse television franchise, comic books, and video games.", "The convention also returned for the virtual premiere of ''Wonder Woman 1984'' and returned once again on October 16, 2021.In August 2020, roughly one-third of DC's editorial ranks were laid off, including the editor-in-chief, senior story editor, executive editor, and several senior VPs.In March 2021, DC relaunched their entire line once again under the banner of Infinite Frontier.", "After the events of the Dark Nights: Death Metal storyline, the DC Multiverse was expanded into a larger \"Omniverse\" where everything is canon, effectively reversing the changes The New 52 introduced a decade prior.Furthermore, AT&T spun off WarnerMedia to Discovery, forming Warner Bros.", "Discovery.", "This merger was completed on April 8, 2022.In January 2023, DC relaunched their line under the banner of Dawn of DC following the conclusion of Dark Crisis on Infinite Earths and Lazarus Planet.", "Later that year, Jim Lee was promoted to President of DC in May." ], [ "Logo", "* DC's first logo appeared on the April 1940 issues of its titles.", "The small logo, with no background, read simply, \"A DC Publication\".", "* The November 1941 DC titles introduced an updated logo.", "This version was almost twice the size of the previous one and was the first version with a white background.", "The name \"Superman\" was added to \"A DC Publication\", effectively acknowledging both Superman and Batman.", "This logo was the first to occupy the top-left corner of the cover, where the logo has usually resided since.", "The company now referred to itself in its advertising as \"Superman-DC\".", "* In November 1949, the logo was modified to incorporate the company's formal name, National Comics Publications.", "This logo also served as the round body of Johnny DC, DC's mascot in the 1960s.", "* In October 1970, DC briefly retired the circular logo in favour of a simple \"DC\" in a rectangle with the name of the title, or the star of the book; the logo on many issues of ''Action Comics'', for example, read \"DC Superman\".", "An image of the lead character either appeared above or below the rectangle.", "For books that did not have a single star, such as anthologies like ''House of Mystery'' or team series such as ''Justice League of America'', the title and \"DC\" appeared in a stylized logo, such as a bat for \"House of Mystery\".", "This use of characters as logos helped to establish the likenesses as trademarks, and was similar to Marvel's contemporaneous use of characters as part of its cover branding.", "* DC's \"100 Page Super-Spectacular\" titles and later 100-page and \"Giant\" issues published from 1972 to 1974 featured a logo exclusive to these editions: the letters \"DC\" in a simple sans-serif typeface within a circle.", "A variant had the letters in a square.", "* The July 1972 DC titles featured a new circular logo.", "The letters \"DC\" were rendered in a block-like typeface that remained through later logo revisions until 2005.The title of the book usually appeared inside the circle, either above or below the letters.", "* In December 1973, this logo was modified with the addition of the words \"The Line of DC Super-Stars\" and the star motif that continued in later logos.", "This logo was placed in the top center of the cover from August 1975 to October 1976.", "* When Jenette Kahn became DC's publisher in late 1976, she commissioned graphic designer Milton Glaser to design a new logo.", "Popularly referred to as the \"DC bullet\", this logo premiered on the February 1977 titles.", "Although it varied in size and colour and was at times cropped by the edges of the cover, or briefly rotated 4 degrees, it remained essentially unchanged for nearly three decades.", "Despite logo changes since 2005, the old \"DC bullet\" continues to be used only on the DC Archive Editions series.", "* On May 8, 2005, a new logo (dubbed the \"DC spin\") was unveiled, debuting on DC titles in June 2005 with ''DC Special: The Return of Donna Troy'' No.", "1 and the rest of the titles the following week.", "In addition to comics, it was designed for DC properties in other media, which was used for movies since ''Batman Begins'', with ''Superman Returns'' showing the logo's normal variant, and the TV series ''Smallville'', the animated series ''Justice League Unlimited'' and others, as well as for collectibles and other merchandise.", "The logo was designed by Josh Beatman of Brainchild Studios and DC executive Richard Bruning.", "* In March 2012, DC unveiled a new logo consisting of the letter \"D\" flipping back to reveal the letter \"C\" and \"DC ENTERTAINMENT\".", "* DC Entertainment announced a new identity and logo for another iconic DC Comics universe brand on May 17, 2016.The new logo was first used on May 25, 2016, in conjunction with the release of ''DC Universe: Rebirth Special #1'' by Geoff Johns.=== Gallery ===DC Bullet (SVG).svg\|1977–2005 logo, aka the \"DC Bullet\"DC Comics logo 2005–2012.svg\|2005–2012 logo, aka the \"DC Spin\"DC comics logo 2012.png\|2012–2016 logoDC Comics logo.svg\|upright=0.55\|DC Comics' current logo, introduced with the DC Rebirth relaunch in 2016" ], [ "Imprints", "=== Active ===* DC (1937–present) Elseworlds (1989–2010, 2024–present) WildStorm (1999–2010, 2017–present) Earth-M (1993–1997, 2018–present) Young Animal (2016–present) DC Black Label (2018–present)* Sandman Universe (2018–present)* Hill House Comics (2019–present) Wonder Comics (2019–present) DC Graphic Novels for Young Adults (2020–present) DC Graphic Novels for Kids (2020–present)** DC Compact Comics (2024–present)* Mad (1953–present)=== Defunct ===* DC Archive Editions (1989–2014; replaced by DC Omnibus)* Piranha Press (1989–1993; renamed Paradox Press)* Impact Comics (1991–1993; licensed from Archie Comics)* Vertigo Comics (1993–2019)* Amalgam Comics (1996–1997; jointly with Marvel Comics)* Helix (1996–1998; merged with Vertigo)* Tangent Comics (1997–1998)* Paradox Press (1998–2003)* WildStorm Productions (1999–2010) America's Best Comics (1999–2005) Homage Comics (1999–2004; merged to form WildStorm Signature) Cliffhanger (1999–2004; merged to form WildStorm Signature) WildStorm Signature (2004–2006; merged with main WildStorm line)** CMX Manga (2004–2010)* DC Focus (2004–2005; merged with main DC line)* Johnny DC (2004–2012)* All Star (2005–2008)* Minx (2007–2008)* Zuda Comics (2007–2010)* First Wave (2010–2011; licensed from Condé Nast Publications and Will Eisner Library)* DC Ink (2019; replaced by DC Graphic Novels for Young Adults)* DC Zoom (2019; replaced by DC Graphic Novels for Kids)" ], [ "See also", "* Batman Day (September 17)* DC Collectibles* DC Cosmic Cards* DC Extended Universe* DC Studios* List of comics characters which originated in other media* List of current DC Comics publications* List of DC Comics characters* List of films based on DC Comics publications* List of television series based on DC Comics publications* List of unproduced DC Comics projects* List of video games based on DC Comics* Publication history of DC Comics crossover events" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "* " ], [ "External links", " * * * Mike's Amazing World of Comics* DC Database Fandom" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diophantine equation" ], [ "Introduction", "right triangles with integer side-lengths is equivalent to solving the Diophantine equation In mathematics, a '''Diophantine equation''' is an equation, typically a polynomial equation in two or more unknowns with integer coefficients, for which only integer solutions are of interest.", "A '''linear Diophantine equation''' equates to a constant the sum of two or more monomials, each of degree one.", "An '''exponential Diophantine equation''' is one in which unknowns can appear in exponents.", "'''Diophantine problems''' have fewer equations than unknowns and involve finding integers that solve simultaneously all equations.", "As such systems of equations define algebraic curves, algebraic surfaces, or, more generally, algebraic sets, their study is a part of algebraic geometry that is called ''Diophantine geometry''.The word ''Diophantine'' refers to the Hellenistic mathematician of the 3rd century, Diophantus of Alexandria, who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce symbolism into algebra.", "The mathematical study of Diophantine problems that Diophantus initiated is now called '''Diophantine analysis'''.While individual equations present a kind of puzzle and have been considered throughout history, the formulation of general theories of Diophantine equations (beyond the case of linear and quadratic equations) was an achievement of the twentieth century." ], [ "Examples", "In the following Diophantine equations, , and are the unknowns and the other letters are given constants: This is a linear Diophantine equation or Bézout's identity.", "The smallest nontrivial solution in positive integers is .", "It was famously given as an evident property of 1729, a taxicab number (also named Hardy–Ramanujan number) by Ramanujan to Hardy while meeting in 1917.There are infinitely many nontrivial solutions.", "For there are infinitely many solutions : the Pythagorean triples.", "For larger integer values of , Fermat's Last Theorem (initially claimed in 1637 by Fermat and proved by Andrew Wiles in 1995) states there are no positive integer solutions .", "This is Pell's equation, which is named after the English mathematician John Pell.", "It was studied by Brahmagupta in the 7th century, as well as by Fermat in the 17th century.", "The Erdős–Straus conjecture states that, for every positive integer ≥ 2, there exists a solution in , and , all as positive integers.", "Although not usually stated in polynomial form, this example is equivalent to the polynomial equation Conjectured incorrectly by Euler to have no nontrivial solutions.", "Proved by Elkies to have infinitely many nontrivial solutions, with a computer search by Frye determining the smallest nontrivial solution, ." ], [ "{{anchor\|Linear Diophantine}}Linear Diophantine equations", "===One equation===The simplest linear Diophantine equation takes the form where , and are given integers.", "The solutions are described by the following theorem::''This Diophantine equation has a solution'' (where and are integers) ''if and only if'' ''is a multiple of the greatest common divisor of'' ''and'' .", "''Moreover, if'' ''is a solution, then the other solutions have the form'' , ''where'' ''is an arbitrary integer, and'' ''and'' ''are the quotients of'' ''and'' ''(respectively) by the greatest common divisor of'' ''and'' .", "'''Proof:''' If is this greatest common divisor, Bézout's identity asserts the existence of integers and such that .", "If is a multiple of , then for some integer , and is a solution.", "On the other hand, for every pair of integers and , the greatest common divisor of and divides .", "Thus, if the equation has a solution, then must be a multiple of .", "If and , then for every solution , we have showing that is another solution.", "Finally, given two solutions such that one deduces that As and are coprime, Euclid's lemma shows that divides , and thus that there exists an integer such that both Therefore, which completes the proof.===Chinese remainder theorem===The Chinese remainder theorem describes an important class of linear Diophantine systems of equations: let be pairwise coprime integers greater than one, be arbitrary integers, and be the product The Chinese remainder theorem asserts that the following linear Diophantine system has exactly one solution such that , and that the other solutions are obtained by adding to a multiple of :=== System of linear Diophantine equations===More generally, every system of linear Diophantine equations may be solved by computing the Smith normal form of its matrix, in a way that is similar to the use of the reduced row echelon form to solve a system of linear equations over a field.", "Using matrix notation every system of linear Diophantine equations may be writtenwhere is an matrix of integers, is an column matrix of unknowns and is an column matrix of integers.The computation of the Smith normal form of provides two unimodular matrices (that is matrices that are invertible over the integers and have ±1 as determinant) and of respective dimensions and , such that the matrixis such that is not zero for not greater than some integer , and all the other entries are zero.", "The system to be solved may thus be rewritten asCalling the entries of and those of , this leads to the systemThis system is equivalent to the given one in the following sense: A column matrix of integers is a solution of the given system if and only if for some column matrix of integers such that .It follows that the system has a solution if and only if divides for and for .", "If this condition is fulfilled, the solutions of the given system arewhere are arbitrary integers.Hermite normal form may also be used for solving systems of linear Diophantine equations.", "However, Hermite normal form does not directly provide the solutions; to get the solutions from the Hermite normal form, one has to successively solve several linear equations.", "Nevertheless, Richard Zippel wrote that the Smith normal form \"is somewhat more than is actually needed to solve linear diophantine equations.", "Instead of reducing the equation to diagonal form, we only need to make it triangular, which is called the Hermite normal form.", "The Hermite normal form is substantially easier to compute than the Smith normal form.", "\"Integer linear programming amounts to finding some integer solutions (optimal in some sense) of linear systems that include also inequations.", "Thus systems of linear Diophantine equations are basic in this context, and textbooks on integer programming usually have a treatment of systems of linear Diophantine equations." ], [ "Homogeneous equations", "A homogeneous Diophantine equation is a Diophantine equation that is defined by a homogeneous polynomial.", "A typical such equation is the equation of Fermat's Last Theorem:As a homogeneous polynomial in indeterminates defines a hypersurface in the projective space of dimension , solving a homogeneous Diophantine equation is the same as finding the rational points of a projective hypersurface.Solving a homogeneous Diophantine equation is generally a very difficult problem, even in the simplest non-trivial case of three indeterminates (in the case of two indeterminates the problem is equivalent with testing if a rational number is the th power of another rational number).", "A witness of the difficulty of the problem is Fermat's Last Theorem (for , there is no integer solution of the above equation), which needed more than three centuries of mathematicians' efforts before being solved.For degrees higher than three, most known results are theorems asserting that there are no solutions (for example Fermat's Last Theorem) or that the number of solutions is finite (for example Falting's theorem).", "For the degree three, there are general solving methods, which work on almost all equations that are encountered in practice, but no algorithm is known that works for every cubic equation.===Degree two===Homogeneous Diophantine equations of degree two are easier to solve.", "The standard solving method proceeds in two steps.", "One has first to find one solution, or to prove that there is no solution.", "When a solution has been found, all solutions are then deduced.For proving that there is no solution, one may reduce the equation modulo .", "For example, the Diophantine equation:does not have any other solution than the trivial solution .", "In fact, by dividing , and by their greatest common divisor, one may suppose that they are coprime.", "The squares modulo 4 are congruent to 0 and 1.Thus the left-hand side of the equation is congruent to 0, 1, or 2, and the right-hand side is congruent to 0 or 3.Thus the equality may be obtained only if , and are all even, and are thus not coprime.", "Thus the only solution is the trivial solution .", "This shows that there is no rational point on a circle of radius centered at the origin.More generally, the Hasse principle allows deciding whether a homogeneous Diophantine equation of degree two has an integer solution, and computing a solution if there exist.", "If a non-trivial integer solution is known, one may produce all other solutions in the following way.====Geometric interpretation====Let :be a homogeneous Diophantine equation, where is a quadratic form (that is, a homogeneous polynomial of degree 2), with integer coefficients.", "The ''trivial solution'' is the solution where all are zero.", "If is a non-trivial integer solution of this equation, then are the homogeneous coordinates of a rational point of the hypersurface defined by .", "Conversely, if are homogeneous coordinates of a rational point of this hypersurface, where are integers, then is an integer solution of the Diophantine equation.", "Moreover, the integer solutions that define a given rational point are all sequences of the form :where is any integer, and is the greatest common divisor of the It follows that solving the Diophantine equation is completely reduced to finding the rational points of the corresponding projective hypersurface.====Parameterization====Let now be an integer solution of the equation As is a polynomial of degree two, a line passing through crosses the hypersurface at a single other point, which is rational if and only if the line is rational (that is, if the line is defined by rational parameters).", "This allows parameterizing the hypersurface by the lines passing through , and the rational points are those that are obtained from rational lines, that is, those that correspond to rational values of the parameters.More precisely, one may proceed as follows.", "By permuting the indices, one may suppose, without loss of generality that Then one may pass to the affine case by considering the affine hypersurface defined by :which has the rational point:If this rational point is a singular point, that is if all partial derivatives are zero at , all lines passing through are contained in the hypersurface, and one has a cone.", "The change of variables :does not change the rational points, and transforms into a homogeneous polynomial in variables.", "In this case, the problem may thus be solved by applying the method to an equation with fewer variables.If the polynomial is a product of linear polynomials (possibly with non-rational coefficients), then it defines two hyperplanes.", "The intersection of these hyperplanes is a rational flat, and contains rational singular points.", "This case is thus a special instance of the preceding case.In the general case, consider the parametric equation of a line passing through ::Substituting this in , one gets a polynomial of degree two in , that is zero for .", "It is thus divisible by .", "The quotient is linear in , and may be solved for expressing as a quotient of two polynomials of degree at most two in with integer coefficients::Substituting this in the expressions for one gets, for ,:where are polynomials of degree at most two with integer coefficients.Then, one can return to the homogeneous case.", "Let, for , :be the homogenization of These quadratic polynomials with integer coefficients form a parameterization of the projective hypersurface defined by ::A point of the projective hypersurface defined by is rational if and only if it may be obtained from rational values of As are homogeneous polynomials, the point is not changed if all are multiplied by the same rational number.", "Thus, one may suppose that are coprime integers.", "It follows that the integer solutions of the Diophantine equation are exactly the sequences where, for ,:where is an integer, are coprime integers, and is the greatest common divisor of the integers One could hope that the coprimality of the , could imply that .", "Unfortunately this is not the case, as shown in the next section.====Example of Pythagorean triples====The equation :is probably the first homogeneous Diophantine equation of degree two that has been studied.", "Its solutions are the Pythagorean triples.", "This is also the homogeneous equation of the unit circle.", "In this section, we show how the above method allows retrieving Euclid's formula for generating Pythagorean triples.For retrieving exactly Euclid's formula, we start from the solution , corresponding to the point of the unit circle.", "A line passing through this point may be parameterized by its slope::Putting this in the circle equation :one gets :Dividing by , results in:which is easy to solve in ::It follows:Homogenizing as described above one gets all solutions as :where is any integer, and are coprime integers, and is the greatest common divisor of the three numerators.", "In fact, if and are both odd, and if one is odd and the other is even.The ''primitive triples'' are the solutions where and .This description of the solutions differs slightly from Euclid's formula because Euclid's formula considers only the solutions such that , and are all positive, and does not distinguish between two triples that differ by the exchange of and ," ], [ "Diophantine analysis", "=== Typical questions ===The questions asked in Diophantine analysis include:#Are there any solutions?#Are there any solutions beyond some that are easily found by inspection?#Are there finitely or infinitely many solutions?#Can all solutions be found in theory?#Can one in practice compute a full list of solutions?These traditional problems often lay unsolved for centuries, and mathematicians gradually came to understand their depth (in some cases), rather than treat them as puzzles.=== Typical problem ===The given information is that a father's age is 1 less than twice that of his son, and that the digits making up the father's age are reversed in the son's age (i.e.", ").", "This leads to the equation , thus .", "Inspection gives the result , , and thus equals 73 years and equals 37 years.", "One may easily show that there is not any other solution with and positive integers less than 10.Many well known puzzles in the field of recreational mathematics lead to diophantine equations.", "Examples include the cannonball problem, Archimedes's cattle problem and the monkey and the coconuts.===17th and 18th centuries===In 1637, Pierre de Fermat scribbled on the margin of his copy of ''Arithmetica'': \"It is impossible to separate a cube into two cubes, or a fourth power into two fourth powers, or in general, any power higher than the second into two like powers.\"", "Stated in more modern language, \"The equation has no solutions for any higher than 2.\"", "Following this, he wrote: \"I have discovered a truly marvelous proof of this proposition, which this margin is too narrow to contain.\"", "Such a proof eluded mathematicians for centuries, however, and as such his statement became famous as Fermat's Last Theorem.", "It was not until 1995 that it was proven by the British mathematician Andrew Wiles.In 1657, Fermat attempted to solve the Diophantine equation (solved by Brahmagupta over 1000 years earlier).", "The equation was eventually solved by Euler in the early 18th century, who also solved a number of other Diophantine equations.", "The smallest solution of this equation in positive integers is , (see Chakravala method).===Hilbert's tenth problem===In 1900, David Hilbert proposed the solvability of all Diophantine equations as the tenth of his fundamental problems.", "In 1970, Yuri Matiyasevich solved it negatively, building on work of Julia Robinson, Martin Davis, and Hilary Putnam to prove that a general algorithm for solving all Diophantine equations cannot exist.===Diophantine geometry===Diophantine geometry, is the application of techniques from algebraic geometry which considers equations that also have a geometric meaning.", "The central idea of Diophantine geometry is that of a rational point, namely a solution to a polynomial equation or a system of polynomial equations, which is a vector in a prescribed field , when is ''not'' algebraically closed.===Modern research===The oldest general method for solving a Diophantine equationor for proving that there is no solution is the method of infinite descent, which was introduced by Pierre de Fermat.", "Another general method is the Hasse principle that uses modular arithmetic modulo all prime numbers for finding the solutions.", "Despite many improvements these methods cannot solve most Diophantine equations.The difficulty of solving Diophantine equations is illustrated by Hilbert's tenth problem, which was set in 1900 by David Hilbert; it was to find an algorithm to determine whether a given polynomial Diophantine equation with integer coefficients has an integer solution.", "Matiyasevich's theorem implies that such an algorithm cannot exist.During the 20th century, a new approach has been deeply explored, consisting of using algebraic geometry.", "In fact, a Diophantine equation can be viewed as the equation of an hypersurface, and the solutions of the equation are the points of the hypersurface that have integer coordinates.This approach led eventually to the proof by Andrew Wiles in 1994 of Fermat's Last Theorem, stated without proof around 1637.This is another illustration of the difficulty of solving Diophantine equations.===Infinite Diophantine equations===An example of an infinite diophantine equation is:which can be expressed as \"How many ways can a given integer be written as the sum of a square plus twice a square plus thrice a square and so on?\"", "The number of ways this can be done for each forms an integer sequence.", "Infinite Diophantine equations are related to theta functions and infinite dimensional lattices.", "This equation always has a solution for any positive .", "Compare this to:which does not always have a solution for positive ." ], [ "Exponential Diophantine equations", "If a Diophantine equation has as an additional variable or variables occurring as exponents, it is an exponential Diophantine equation.", "Examples include the Ramanujan–Nagell equation, , and the equation of the Fermat–Catalan conjecture and Beal's conjecture, with inequality restrictions on the exponents.", "A general theory for such equations is not available; particular cases such as Catalan's conjecture have been tackled.", "However, the majority are solved via ad hoc methods such as Størmer's theorem or even trial and error." ], [ "See also", "* Kuṭṭaka, Aryabhata's algorithm for solving linear Diophantine equations in two unknowns" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "Bashmakova, Izabella G. ''Diophantus and Diophantine Equations''.", "Moscow: Nauka 1972 in Russian.", "German translation: ''Diophant und diophantische Gleichungen''.", "Birkhauser, Basel/ Stuttgart, 1974.English translation: ''Diophantus and Diophantine Equations''.", "Translated by Abe Shenitzer with the editorial assistance of Hardy Grant and updated by Joseph Silverman.", "The Dolciani Mathematical Expositions, 20.Mathematical Association of America, Washington, DC.", "1997.", "Bashmakova, Izabella G. \" Arithmetic of Algebraic Curves from Diophantus to Poincaré\" ''Historia Mathematica'' 8 (1981), 393–416.", "Bashmakova, Izabella G., Slavutin, E. I.", "''History of Diophantine Analysis from Diophantus to Fermat''.", "Moscow: Nauka 1984 in Russian.", "Bashmakova, Izabella G. \"Diophantine Equations and the Evolution of Algebra\", ''American Mathematical Society Translations'' 147 (2), 1990, pp.", "85–100.Translated by A. Shenitzer and H.", "Grant.", "* *Rashed, Roshdi, ''Histoire de l'analyse diophantienne classique : D'Abū Kāmil à Fermat'', Berlin, New York : Walter de Gruyter." ], [ "External links", " Diophantine Equation.", "From MathWorld at Wolfram Research.", "** Dario Alpern's Online Calculator.", "Retrieved 18 March 2009" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diophantus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Diophantus of Alexandria''' (born ; died ) was a Greek mathematician, who was the author of two main works: ''On Polygonal Numbers'', which survives incomplete, and the ''Arithmetica'' in thirteen books, most of it extant, made up of arithmetical problems that are solve through algebraic equations.Diophantus was the first Greek mathematician who recognized positive rational numbers as numbers, by allowing fractions for coefficients and solutions.", "He coined the term παρισότης (parisotes) to refer to an approximate equality.", "This term was rendered as ''adaequalitas'' in Latin, and became the technique of adequality developed by Pierre de Fermat to find maxima for functions and tangent lines to curves.", "Although not the earliest, the ''Arithmetica'' has the most well-known use of algebraic notation to solve arithmetical problems coming from Greek antiquity, and some of its problems served as inspiration for later mathematicians working in analysis and number theory.", "In modern use, Diophantine equations are algebraic equations with integer coefficients for which integer solutions are sought.", "Diophantine geometry and Diophantine approximations are other two subareas of number theory that are named after him." ], [ "Biography", "Diophantus was born into a Greek family and is known to have lived in Alexandria, Egypt, during the Roman era, between AD 200 and 214 to 284 or 298.Much of our knowledge of the life of Diophantus is derived from a 5th-century Greek anthology of number games and puzzles created by Metrodorus.", "One of the problems (sometimes called his epitaph) states:Here lies Diophantus,' the wonder behold.", "Through art algebraic, the stone tells how old: 'God gave him his boyhood one-sixth of his life, One twelfth more as youth while whiskers grew rife; And then yet one-seventh ere marriage begun; In five years there came a bouncing new son.", "Alas, the dear child of master and sage After attaining half the measure of his father's life chill fate took him.", "After consoling his fate by the science of numbers for four years, he ended his life.", "'This puzzle implies that Diophantus' age can be expressed as:which gives a value of 84 years.", "However, the accuracy of the information cannot be confirmed.In popular culture, this puzzle was the Puzzle No.142 in ''Professor Layton and Pandora's Box'' as one of the hardest solving puzzles in the game, which needed to be unlocked by solving other puzzles first." ], [ "''Arithmetica''", "Bachet (1621).\|328x328px''Arithmetica'' is the major work of Diophantus and the most prominent work on premodern algebra in Greek mathematics.", "It is a collection of problems giving numerical solutions of both determinate and indeterminate equations.", "Of the original thirteen books of which ''Arithmetica'' consisted only six have survived, though there are some who believe that four Arabic books discovered in 1968 are also by Diophantus.", "Some Diophantine problems from ''Arithmetica'' have been found in Arabic sources.It should be mentioned here that Diophantus never used general methods in his solutions.", "Hermann Hankel, renowned German mathematician made the following remark regarding Diophantus:Our author (Diophantos) not the slightest trace of a general, comprehensive method is discernible; each problem calls for some special method which refuses to work even for the most closely related problems.", "For this reason it is difficult for the modern scholar to solve the 101st problem even after having studied 100 of Diophantos's solutions.===History===Like many other Greek mathematical treatises, Diophantus was forgotten in Western Europe during the Dark Ages, since the study of ancient Greek, and literacy in general, had greatly declined.", "The portion of the Greek ''Arithmetica'' that survived, however, was, like all ancient Greek texts transmitted to the early modern world, copied by, and thus known to, medieval Byzantine scholars.", "Scholia on Diophantus by the Byzantine Greek scholar John Chortasmenos (1370–1437) are preserved together with a comprehensive commentary written by the earlier Greek scholar Maximos Planudes (1260 – 1305), who produced an edition of Diophantus within the library of the Chora Monastery in Byzantine Constantinople.", "In addition, some portion of the ''Arithmetica'' probably survived in the Arab tradition (see above).", "In 1463 German mathematician Regiomontanus wrote:No one has yet translated from the Greek into Latin the thirteen books of Diophantus, in which the very flower of the whole of arithmetic lies hidden.", "''Arithmetica'' was first translated from Greek into Latin by Bombelli in 1570, but the translation was never published.", "However, Bombelli borrowed many of the problems for his own book ''Algebra''.", "The ''editio princeps'' of ''Arithmetica'' was published in 1575 by Xylander.", "The Latin translation of ''Arithmetica'' by Bachet in 1621 became the first Latin edition that was widely available.", "Pierre de Fermat owned a copy, studied it and made notes in the margins.", "A later 1895 Latin translation by Paul Tannery was said to be an improvement by Thomas L. Heath, who used it in the 1910 second edition of his English translation.===Margin-writing by Fermat and Chortasmenos===Problem II.8 in the ''Arithmetica'' (edition of 1670), annotated with Fermat's comment which became Fermat's Last Theorem.The 1621 edition of ''Arithmetica'' by Bachet gained fame after Pierre de Fermat wrote his famous \"Last Theorem\" in the margins of his copy: If an integer is greater than 2, then has no solutions in non-zero integers , , and .", "I have a truly marvelous proof of this proposition which this margin is too narrow to contain.Fermat's proof was never found, and the problem of finding a proof for the theorem went unsolved for centuries.", "A proof was finally found in 1994 by Andrew Wiles after working on it for seven years.", "It is believed that Fermat did not actually have the proof he claimed to have.", "Although the original copy in which Fermat wrote this is lost today, Fermat's son edited the next edition of Diophantus, published in 1670.Even though the text is otherwise inferior to the 1621 edition, Fermat's annotations—including the \"Last Theorem\"—were printed in this version.Fermat was not the first mathematician so moved to write in his own marginal notes to Diophantus; the Byzantine scholar John Chortasmenos (1370–1437) had written \"Thy soul, Diophantus, be with Satan because of the difficulty of your other theorems and particularly of the present theorem\" next to the same problem." ], [ "Other works", "Diophantus wrote several other books besides ''Arithmetica'', but only a few of them have survived.===The ''Porisms''===Diophantus himself refers to a work which consists of a collection of lemmas called ''The Porisms'' (or ''Porismata''), but this book is entirely lost.Although ''The Porisms'' is lost, we know three lemmas contained there, since Diophantus refers to them in the ''Arithmetica''.", "One lemma states that the difference of the cubes of two rational numbers is equal to the sum of the cubes of two other rational numbers, i.e.", "given any and , with , there exist , all positive and rational, such that:.===Polygonal numbers and geometric elements===Diophantus is also known to have written on polygonal numbers, a topic of great interest to Pythagoras and Pythagoreans.", "Fragments of a book dealing with polygonal numbers are extant.A book called ''Preliminaries to the Geometric Elements'' has been traditionally attributed to Hero of Alexandria.", "It has been studied recently by Wilbur Knorr, who suggested that the attribution to Hero is incorrect, and that the true author is Diophantus." ], [ "Influence", "Diophantus' work has had a large influence in history.", "Editions of ''Arithmetica'' exerted a profound influence on the development of algebra in Europe in the late sixteenth and through the 17th and 18th centuries.", "Diophantus and his works also influenced Arab mathematics and were of great fame among Arab mathematicians.", "Diophantus' work created a foundation for work on algebra and in fact much of advanced mathematics is based on algebra.", "How much he affected India is a matter of debate.Diophantus has been considered \"the father of algebra\" because of his contributions to number theory, mathematical notations and the earliest known use of syncopated notation in his book series ''Arithmetica''.", "However this is usually debated, because Al-Khwarizmi was also given the title as \"the father of algebra\", nevertheless both mathematicians were responsible for paving the way for algebra today." ], [ "Diophantine analysis", "Today, Diophantine analysis is the area of study where integer (whole-number) solutions are sought for equations, and Diophantine equations are polynomial equations with integer coefficients to which only integer solutions are sought.", "It is usually rather difficult to tell whether a given Diophantine equation is solvable.", "Most of the problems in ''Arithmetica'' lead to quadratic equations.", "Diophantus looked at 3 different types of quadratic equations: , , and .", "The reason why there were three cases to Diophantus, while today we have only one case, is that he did not have any notion for zero and he avoided negative coefficients by considering the given numbers , , to all be positive in each of the three cases above.", "Diophantus was always satisfied with a rational solution and did not require a whole number which means he accepted fractions as solutions to his problems.", "Diophantus considered negative or irrational square root solutions \"useless\", \"meaningless\", and even \"absurd\".", "To give one specific example, he calls the equation 'absurd' because it would lead to a negative value for .", "One solution was all he looked for in a quadratic equation.", "There is no evidence that suggests Diophantus even realized that there could be two solutions to a quadratic equation.", "He also considered simultaneous quadratic equations." ], [ "Mathematical notation", "Diophantus made important advances in mathematical notation, becoming the first person known to use algebraic notation and symbolism.", "Before him everyone wrote out equations completely.", "Diophantus introduced an algebraic symbolism that used an abridged notation for frequently occurring operations, and an abbreviation for the unknown and for the powers of the unknown.", "Mathematical historian Kurt Vogel states:The symbolism that Diophantus introduced for the first time, and undoubtedly devised himself, provided a short and readily comprehensible means of expressing an equation...", "Since an abbreviation is also employed for the word 'equals', Diophantus took a fundamental step from verbal algebra towards symbolic algebra.Although Diophantus made important advances in symbolism, he still lacked the necessary notation to express more general methods.", "This caused his work to be more concerned with particular problems rather than general situations.", "Some of the limitations of Diophantus' notation are that he only had notation for one unknown and, when problems involved more than a single unknown, Diophantus was reduced to expressing \"first unknown\", \"second unknown\", etc.", "in words.", "He also lacked a symbol for a general number .", "Where we would write , Diophantus has to resort to constructions like: \"... a sixfold number increased by twelve, which is divided by the difference by which the square of the number exceeds three\".", "Algebra still had a long way to go before very general problems could be written down and solved succinctly." ], [ "See also", "* Erdős–Diophantine graph* Diophantus II.VIII* Polynomial Diophantine equation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Allard, A.", "\"Les scolies aux arithmétiques de Diophante d'Alexandrie dans le Matritensis Bibl.Nat.4678 et les Vatican Gr.191 et 304\" ''Byzantion'' 53.Brussels, 1983: 682–710.", "Bachet de Méziriac, C.G.", "''Diophanti Alexandrini Arithmeticorum libri sex et De numeris multangulis liber unus''.", "Paris: Lutetiae, 1621.", "Bashmakova, Izabella G. ''Diophantos.", "Arithmetica and the Book of Polygonal Numbers.", "Introduction and Commentary'' Translation by I.N.", "Veselovsky.", "Moscow: Nauka in Russian.", "Christianidis, J.", "\"Maxime Planude sur le sens du terme diophantien \"plasmatikon\"\", ''Historia Scientiarum'', 6 (1996)37-41.", "Christianidis, J.", "\"Une interpretation byzantine de Diophante\", ''Historia Mathematica'', 25 (1998) 22–28.", "Czwalina, Arthur.", "''Arithmetik des Diophantos von Alexandria''.", "Göttingen, 1952.", "Heath, Sir Thomas, ''Diophantos of Alexandria: A Study in the History of Greek Algebra'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1885, 1910.", "Robinson, D. C. and Luke Hodgkin.", "''History of Mathematics'', King's College London, 2003.", "Rashed, Roshdi.", "''L’Art de l’Algèbre de Diophante''.", "éd.", "arabe.", "Le Caire : Bibliothèque Nationale, 1975.", "Rashed, Roshdi.", "''Diophante.", "Les Arithmétiques''.", "Volume III: Book IV; Volume IV: Books V–VII, app., index.", "Collection des Universités de France.", "Paris (Société d’Édition \"Les Belles Lettres\"), 1984.", "Sesiano, Jacques.", "''The Arabic text of Books IV to VII of Diophantus’ translation and commentary''.", "Thesis.", "Providence: Brown University, 1975.", "Sesiano, Jacques.", "''Books IV to VII of Diophantus’ Arithmetica in the Arabic translation attributed to Qusṭā ibn Lūqā'', Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1982., .", "Σταμάτης, Ευάγγελος Σ.", "''Διοφάντου Αριθμητικά.", "Η άλγεβρα των αρχαίων Ελλήνων.", "Αρχαίον κείμενον – μετάφρασις – επεξηγήσεις''.", "Αθήναι, Οργανισμός Εκδόσεως Διδακτικών Βιβλίων, 1963.", "Tannery, P. L. ''Diophanti Alexandrini Opera omnia: cum Graecis commentariis'', Lipsiae: In aedibus B.G.", "Teubneri, 1893-1895 (online: vol.", "1, vol.", "2)Ver Eecke, P. ''Diophante d’Alexandrie: Les Six Livres Arithmétiques et le Livre des Nombres Polygones'', Bruges: Desclée, De Brouwer, 1921.", "Wertheim, G. ''Die Arithmetik und die Schrift über Polygonalzahlen des Diophantus von Alexandria''.", "Übersetzt und mit Anmerkungen von G. Wertheim.", "Leipzig, 1890." ], [ "Further reading", "Bashmakova, Izabella G. \"Diophante et Fermat\", ''Revue d'Histoire des Sciences'' 19 (1966), pp.", "289–306Bashmakova, Izabella G. ''Diophantus and Diophantine Equations''.", "Moscow: Nauka 1972 in Russian.", "German translation: ''Diophant und diophantische Gleichungen''.", "Birkhauser, Basel/ Stuttgart, 1974.English translation: ''Diophantus and Diophantine Equations''.", "Translated by Abe Shenitzer with the editorial assistance of Hardy Grant and updated by Joseph Silverman.", "The Dolciani Mathematical Expositions, 20.Mathematical Association of America, Washington, DC.", "1997.", "Bashmakova, Izabella G. \"Arithmetic of Algebraic Curves from Diophantus to Poincaré\", ''Historia Mathematica'' 8 (1981), 393–416.", "Bashmakova, Izabella G., Slavutin, E.I.", "''History of Diophantine Analysis from Diophantus to Fermat''.", "Moscow: Nauka 1984 in Russian.", "Rashed, Roshdi, Houzel, Christian.", "''Les Arithmétiques de Diophante : Lecture historique et mathématique'', Berlin, New York : Walter de Gruyter, 2013.", "Rashed, Roshdi, ''Histoire de l’analyse diophantienne classique : D’Abū Kāmil à Fermat'', Berlin, New York : Walter de Gruyter.", "" ], [ "External links", "* * Diophantus's Riddle Diophantus' epitaph, by E. Weisstein* Norbert Schappacher (2005).", "Diophantus of Alexandria : a Text and its History.", "* Review of Sesiano's Diophantus Review of J. Sesiano, Books IV to VII of Diophantus' Arithmetica, by Jan P. Hogendijk* Latin translation from 1575 by Wilhelm Xylander* Scans of Tannery's edition of Diophantus at wilbourhall.org" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dong" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dong''' or '''DONG''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Dong Lake, or East Lake, a lake in China* Dong, Arunachal Pradesh, a village in India* Dong (administrative division) (동 or 洞), a neighborhood division in Korea" ], [ "Person names", "=== Surnames ===Dǒng (surname) or 董, a Chinese surnameDōng (surname) or 東, a Chinese surname=== Persons ===Queen Dong (1623–1681), princess consort of Koxinga and mother of Zheng JingEmpress Dong (Ran Min's wife), wife of Ran Min, emperor of Chinese state Ran WeiEmpress Dowager Dong (died 189), empress dowager during Han dynasty" ], [ "Entertainment", " ''Dong'' (film) (东), a documentary film by Jia Zhangke.", "* Dong Open Air, a heavy metal festival in Germany.", "* D!NG (previously Do Online Now Guys, or DONG), a YouTube channel created and hosted by Michael Stevens as a segment of the Vsauce, Vsauce2, Vsauce3 and WeSauce channelsGeneral Dong, villain of the 1992 Indian film ''Tahalka'', played by Amrish Puri" ], [ "Other uses", " Dong people, an ethnic minority group of China* Dong language (China)* Dong language (Nigeria)* Vietnamese đồng, a unit of currency* Ørsted (company), a Danish energy company formerly known as DONG Energy** Danish Cup or DONG Cup, a trophy sponsored by the oil company from 2000 to 2004* Dong, a slang term for the human penis* Dong, an internet slang term for the character Donkey Kong derived from the meme \"Expand Dong,\" which is an edited picture of the game ''Donkey Kong 64'''s box art" ], [ "See also", "* Dong quai, a medicinal herb* Lá dong or ''Phrynium placentarium'', a type of prayer-plant* Long Duk Dong or \"the Donger,\" a character in ''Sixteen Candles''* Rodong-1, a type of North Korean missiles* Taepodong (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Duke Kahanamoku" ], [ "Introduction", "Signature'''Duke Paoa Kahinu Mokoe Hulikohola Kahanamoku''' (August 24, 1890 – January 22, 1968) was a Hawaiian competition swimmer who popularized the sport of surfing.", "A Native Hawaiian, he was born to a minor noble family less than three years before the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom.", "He lived to see the territory's admission as a state, and became a United States citizen.", "He was a five-time Olympic medalist in swimming, winning medals in 1912, 1920 and 1924.Kahanamoku joined fraternal organizations: he was a Scottish Rite Freemason in the Honolulu lodge, and a Shriner.", "He worked as a law enforcement officer, an actor, a beach volleyball player, and a businessman." ], [ "Family background", "According to Kahanamoku, he was born in Honolulu at Haleʻākala, the home of Bernice Pauahi Bishop, which was later converted into the Arlington Hotel.", "He was born into a family of Native Hawaiians headed by Duke Halapu Kahanamoku and Julia Paʻakonia Lonokahikina Paoa.", "He had five brothers, and three sisters.", "His brothers were Sargent, Samuel, David, William and Louis, all of whom participated in competitive aquatic sports.", "His sisters were Bernice, Kapiolani and Maria.", "\"Duke\" was not a title or a nickname, but a given name.", "He was named after his father, Duke Halapu Kahanamoku, who was christened by Bernice Pauahi Bishop in honor of Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, who was visiting Hawaii at the time.", "His father was a policeman.", "His mother Julia Paakonia Lonokahikina Paoa was a deeply religious woman with a strong sense of family ancestry.His parents were from prominent Hawaiian ''ohana'' (families).", "The Kahanamoku and the Paoa ohana were considered to be lower-ranking nobles, who were in service to the ''aliʻi nui'', or royalty.", "His paternal grandfather was Kahanamoku and his grandmother, Kapiolani Kaoeha (sometimes spelled ''Kahoea''), a descendant of Alapainui.", "They were ''kahu'', retainers and trusted advisors of the Kamehamehas, to whom they were related.", "His maternal grandparents Paoa, son of Paoa Hoolae and Hiikaalani, and Mele Uliama, were also of aliʻi descent.In 1893, his family moved to Kālia, Waikiki (near the present site of Hilton Hawaiian Village), to be closer to his mother's parents and family.", "Kahanamoku grew up with his siblings and 31 Paoa cousins.", "He attended the Waikiki Grammar School, Kaahumanu School, and the Kamehameha Schools, although he never graduated because he had to quit to help support the family." ], [ "Early years", "Growing up on the outskirts of Waikiki, Kahanamoku spent much of his youth at the beach, where he developed his surfing and swimming skills.", "In his youth, Kahanamoku preferred a traditional surf board, which he called his ''\"papa nui\"'', constructed after the fashion of ancient Hawaiian olo boards.", "Made from the wood of a koa tree, it was long and weighed .", "The board was without a skeg, which had yet to be invented.", "In his later surfing career, he would often use smaller boards but always preferred those made of wood.Kahanamoku was also a powerful swimmer.", "On August 11, 1911, Kahanamoku was timed at 55.4 seconds in the freestyle, beating the existing world record by 4.6 seconds, in the salt water of Honolulu Harbor.", "He also broke the record in the and equaled it in the .", "But the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), in disbelief, would not recognize these feats until many years later.", "The AAU initially claimed that the judges must have been using alarm clocks rather than stopwatches and later claimed that ocean currents aided Kahanamoku." ], [ "Career", "Duke Kahanamoku with his solid redwood surfboard, in Corona Del Mar, California in 1921Kahanamoku easily qualified for the U.S. Olympic swimming team in 1912.At the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, he won a gold medal in the 100-meter freestyle, and a silver medal with the second-place U.S. team in the men's 4×200-meter freestyle relay.During the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp, Kahanamoku won gold medals in both the 100 meters (bettering fellow Hawaiian Pua Kealoha) and in the relay.", "He finished the 100 meters with a silver medal during the 1924 Olympics in Paris, with the gold going to Johnny Weissmuller and the bronze to Kahanamoku's brother, Samuel.", "By then age 34, Kahanamoku won no more Olympic medals.", "But he served as an alternate for the U.S. water polo team at the 1932 Summer Olympics.=== Post-Olympic career ===Between Olympic competitions, and after retiring from the Olympics, Kahanamoku traveled internationally to give swimming exhibitions.", "It was during this period that he popularized the sport of surfing, previously known only in Hawaii, by incorporating surfing exhibitions into his touring exhibitions as well.", "He attracted people to surfing in mainland America first in 1912 while in Southern California.His surfing exhibition at Sydney, Australia's Freshwater Beach on December 24, 1914, is widely regarded as a seminal event in the development of surfing in Australia.", "The board that Kahanamoku built from a piece of pine from a local hardware store is retained by the Freshwater Surf Life Saving Club.", "A statue of Kahanamoku was erected in his honor on the Northern headland of Freshwater Lake, New South Wales.During his time living in Southern California, Kahanamoku performed in Hollywood as a background actor and a character actor in several films.", "He made connections in this way with people who could further publicize the sport of surfing.", "Kahanamoku was involved with the Los Angeles Athletic Club, acting as a lifeguard and competing in both swimming and water polo teams.While living in Newport Beach, California, on June 14, 1925, Kahanamoku rescued eight men from a fishing vessel that capsized in heavy surf while it was attempting to enter the city's harbor.", "Using his surfboard, Kahanamoku made repeated trips from shore to the capsized ship, and helped rescue several people.", "Two other surfers saved four more fishermen, while five succumbed to the seas before they could be rescued.", "At the time the Newport Beach police chief called Kahanamoku's efforts \"The most superhuman surfboard rescue act the world has ever seen.\"", "It also led to lifeguards across the US to begin using surfboards as standard equipment for water rescues.He was the first person to be inducted into both the Swimming Hall of Fame and the Surfing Hall of Fame.", "The Duke Kahanamoku Invitational Surfing Championships in Hawaii, the first major professional surfing contest event ever held in the huge surf on the North Shore of Oahu, was named in his honor.", "He is a member of the U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame.Later Kahanamoku was elected to serve as the Sheriff of Honolulu, Hawaii from 1932 to 1961, completing 13 consecutive terms.", "During World War II, he also served as a military police officer for the United States; Hawai'i was not yet a state and was administered.In the postwar period, he also appeared in a number of television programs and films, such as ''Mister Roberts'' (1955).", "He was well-liked throughout the Hollywood community.Kahanamoku became a friend and surfing companion of heiress Doris Duke.", "She built a home (now a museum) on Oahu named Shangri-la.", "Kahanamoku gave private surfing lessons to Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr. and John Aspinwall Roosevelt, the children of Franklin D. Roosevelt." ], [ "''Duncan v. Kahanamoku''", "In 1946, Kahanamoku was the ''pro forma'' defendant in the landmark Supreme Court case ''Duncan v. Kahanamoku''.", "While Kahanamoku was a military police officer during World War II, he arrested Duncan, a civilian shipfitter, for public intoxication.At the time, Hawaii, not yet a state, was being administered by the United States under the Hawaiian Organic Act.", "This effectively instituted martial law on the island.", "After Duncan was tried by a military tribunal, he appealed to the Supreme Court.", "In a ''post hoc'' ruling, the court ruled that trial by military tribunal for the civilian was, in this case, unconstitutional." ], [ "Personal life", "On August 2, 1940, Kahanamoku married dance instructor Nadine Alexander, who had relocated to Hawaii from Cleveland, Ohio, after she had been hired to teach at the Royal Hawaiian Hotel.", "Duke was 50 years old, Nadine was 35.He was initiated, passed and raised to the degree of Master Mason in Hawaiian Lodge Masonic Lodge No 21 and was also a Noble (member) of the Shriners fraternal organization.", "He was a Republican." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Kahanamoku died of a heart attack on January 22, 1968, at age 77.For his burial at sea, a long motorcade of mourners, accompanied by a 30-man police escort, traveled in procession across town to Waikiki Beach.", "Reverend Abraham Akaka, the pastor of Kawaiahao Church, performed the service.", "A group of beach boys sang Hawaiian songs, including \"Aloha Oe\", and Kahanamoku's ashes were scattered into the ocean.=== Statues and monuments ===In 1994 a statue of Kahanamoku by Barry Donohoo was inaugurated in Freshwater, NSW, Australia.", "It is the showpiece of the Australian Surfers Walk of Fame.On February 28, 2015, a monument featuring a replica of Kahanamoku's surfboard was unveiled at New Brighton beach, Christchurch, New Zealand in honor of the 100th anniversary of Kahanamoku's visit to New Brighton.A statue of Kahanamoku was installed in Huntington Beach, California.", "A nearby restaurant is named for him and is close to Huntington Beach pier.", "The City of Huntington Beach identifies with the legacy of surfing, and a museum dedicated to that sport is located here.In April 2022 NSW Heritage announced that Kahanamoku would be included in the first batch of Blue Plaques to be issued, to recognize his contribution to recreation and surfing.A sculpture of Kahanamoku flanked by a male knee paddler and a female prone paddler commemorating the Catalina Classic Paddleboard Race was installed on the Manhattan Beach Pier in 2023.=== Additional tributes ===Hawaii music promoter Kimo Wilder McVay capitalized on Kahanamoku's popularity by naming his Waikiki showroom \"Duke Kahanamoku's\" at the International Market Place and giving Kahanamoku a financial interest in the showroom in exchange for the use of his name.", "It was a major Waikiki showroom in the 1960s and is remembered as the home of Don Ho & The Aliis from 1964 through 1969.The showroom continued to be known as Duke Kahanamoku's until Hawaii showman Jack Cione bought it in the mid-1970s and renamed it Le Boom Boom.The Duke Kahanamoku Aquatic Complex (DKAC) serves as the home for the University of Hawai‘i’s swimming and diving and women’s water polo teams.", "The facility, located on the University’s lower campus, includes a 50-meter training pool and a separate 25-yard competition and diving pool.", "The long course pool is four feet at both ends, seven feet in the middle, and an average depth of six feet.Kahanamoku's name is also used by Duke's Canoe Club & Barefoot Bar, known as Duke's Waikiki, a beachfront bar and restaurant in the Outrigger Waikiki on the Beach Hotel.", "There is a chain of restaurants named after him in California, Florida and Hawaii called Duke's.On August 24, 2002, the 112th anniversary of Kahanamoku's birth, the U.S.", "Postal Service issued a first-class commemorative stamp with Duke's picture on it.", "The First Day Ceremony was held at the Hilton Hawaiian Village in Waikiki and was attended by thousands.", "At this ceremony, attendees could attach the Duke stamp to an envelope and get it canceled with a First Day of Issue postmark.", "These first day covers are very collectible.On August 24, 2015, a Google Doodle honored the 125th anniversary of Duke Kahanamoku's birthday.In 2021, a 88-minute feature film was made about Kahanamoku's life.", "It was later broadcast by PBS as part of their American Masters series." ], [ "Filmography", " Year Title Role Notes1925 ''Adventure'' Noah Noa ''The Pony Express'' Indian Chief Uncredited ''No Father to Guide Him'' The Lifeguard Short ''Lord Jim'' Tamb Itam 1926 ''Old Ironsides'' Pirate Captain Uncredited1927 ''Hula'' Hawaiian Boy Uncredited ''Isle of Sunken Gold'' Lono 1928 ''Woman Wise'' Guard1929 ''The Rescue'' Jaffir ''Where East Is East'' Wild Animal Trapper Uncredited1930 ''Girl of the Port'' Kalita ''Isle of Escape'' Manua1931 ''Around the World with Douglas Fairbanks'' Himself Documentary ''The Black Camel'' bit part as surf instructor at 0:01:36 1948 ''Wake of the Red Witch'' Ua Nuke 1955 ''Mister Roberts'' Native Chief (as Duke Kahanamoko) 1959 ''This Is Your Life'' Himself Episode: \"Duke Kahanamoku\"1967 ''Free and Easy'' Himself Documentary ''Surfari'' Himself Documentary Source:" ], [ "See also", "* Google Arts & Culture - \"Duke Paoa Kahanamoku\"* Google Maps - Public Art \"Duke Kahanamoku\"* Duke Paoa Kahanamoku Lagoon* List of multiple Olympic gold medalists* List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)* World record progression 100 metres freestyle* World record progression 4 × 200 metres freestyle relay" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Kahanamoku, Duke.", "\"Do's and Don't's.\"", "''Photoplay'', September 1925.Tie-in to ''Adventure''.", "* Paniccia, Patti.", "\"Who Owns the Duke?", ": The battle for the trademark to Duke Kahanamoku’s name has been far less dignified than the man himself.\"", "''Honolulu Magazine''.", "November 1, 2006.", "" ], [ "External links", " * * * * * Surfline bio of Duke* Undated photo of Kahanamoku from the Library of Congress collection* * * * Image of Duke Kahanamoku surfing in Los Angeles, California, circa 1920.Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429).", "UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Distinguished Service Medal''' ('''DSM''') is a military decoration of the United States Army that is presented to soldiers who have distinguished themselves by exceptionally meritorious service to the government in a duty of great responsibility.", "The performance must be such as to merit recognition for service that is clearly exceptional.", "The exceptional performance of normal duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration.The Army's Distinguished Service Medal is equivalent to the Naval Service's Navy Distinguished Service Medal, Air and Space Forces' Distinguished Service Medal, and the Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal.", "Prior to the creation of the Air Force's Distinguished Service Medal in 1960, United States Air Force airmen were awarded the Army's Distinguished Service Medal." ], [ "Description", "The coat of arms of the United States in Gold surrounded by a circle of Dark Blue enamel, 1 ½ inches in diameter, bearing the inscription \"'''FOR DISTINGUISHED SERVICE MCMXVIII'''\".", "On the reverse is a scroll for the name of the recipient (which is to be engraved) upon a trophy of flags and weapons.", "The medal is suspended by a bar attached to the ribbon.===Ribbon===The ribbon is wide and consists of the following stripes:# Scarlet 67111;# Ultramarine Blue 67118;# White 67101;# Ultramarine Blue;# Scarlet.", "Additional awards of the Distinguished Service Medal are denoted by oak leaf clusters." ], [ "Criteria", "The Distinguished Service Medal is awarded to any person who, while serving in any capacity with the United States Army, has distinguished themselves by exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a duty of great responsibility.The performance must be such as to merit recognition for service which is clearly exceptional.", "Exceptional performance of normal duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration.", "For service not related to actual war, the term \"duty of a great responsibility\" applies to a narrower range of positions than in time of war and requires evidence of a conspicuously significant achievement.", "However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of high positions of great importance.", "Awards may be made to persons other than members of the Armed Forces of the United States for wartime services only, and only then under exceptional circumstances with the express approval of the president in each case." ], [ "Components", "The following are authorized components of the Distinguished Service Medal and applicable specifications:#Decoration (regular size): MIL-D-3943/7.##NSN for decoration set: 8455-00-444-0007.##NSN for replacement medal is 8455-00-246-3830.#Decoration (miniature size): MIL-D-3943/7.NSN 8455-00-996-5008.#Ribbon: MIL-R-11589/52.NSN 8455-00-252-9922.#Lapel Button (metal replica of ribbon bar): MIL-L-11484/4.NSN 8455-00-253-0809." ], [ "History of the Distinguished Service Medal", "The Distinguished Service Medal was authorized by Presidential Order dated January 2, 1918, and confirmed by Congress on July 9, 1918.It was announced by War Department General Order No.", "6, 1918-01-12, with the following information concerning the medal: \"A bronze medal of appropriate design and a ribbon to be worn in lieu thereof, to be awarded by the President to any person who, while serving in any capacity with the Army shall hereafter distinguish himself or herself, or who, since 04-06-1917, has distinguished himself or herself by exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a duty of great responsibility in time of war or in connection with military operations against an armed enemy of the United States.\"", "The Act of Congress on July 9, 1918, recognized the need for different types and degrees of heroism and meritorious service and included such provisions for award criteria.", "The current statutory authorization for the Distinguished Service Medal is Title 10, United States Code, Section 3743." ], [ "Recipients", "Among the first awards of the Distinguished Service Medal for service in World War I, were those to the Commanding Officers of the Allied Armies:#Marshal Ferdinand Foch#Marshal Joseph Joffre#General Philippe Petain of France#General Louis Franchet d'Espèrey of France#General Sir Arthur Currie of Canada#General Sir John Monash of Australia#Field Marshal Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig of Britain#General Armando Diaz of Italy#General Cyriaque Gillain of Belgium#General John Joseph Pershing of the United States#Field Marshal Živojin Mišić of SerbiaMore than 2,000 awards were made during World War I, and by the time the United States entered World War II, approximately 2,800 awards had been made.", "From July 1, 1941, to June 6, 1969, when the Department of the Army stopped publishing awards of the DSM in Department of the Army General Orders, over 2,800 further awards were made.Prior to World War II the DSM was the only decoration for non-combat service in the U.S. Army.", "As a result, before World War II the DSM was awarded to a wider range of recipients than during and after World War II.", "During World War I awards of the DSM to officers below the rank of brigadier general were fairly common but became rare once the Legion of Merit was established in 1942.Until the first award of the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal in 1965, United States Air Force personnel received this award as well, as was the case with several other Department of the Army decorations until the Department of the Air Force fully established its own system of decorations.===Notable recipients===Because the Army Distinguished Service Medal is principally awarded to general officers, a list of notable recipients would include nearly every general, and some admirals, since 1918, many of whom received multiple awards, as well as a few civilians and sergeants major prominent for their contributions to national defense.General Martin Dempsey, former chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, holds the record for receiving the greatest number of awards of the Army Distinguished Service Medal, at six.", "He also received three awards of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal as well as one award each of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, and the Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal, for a total of twelve Distinguished Service Medals.Generals of the Army Douglas MacArthur and Dwight Eisenhower are tied with five awards each received of the Army Distinguished Service Medal.", "They also each received one award of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, for a total of six DSMs each.General Lucius D. Clay (Four Star) received three Army DSM awards for his service that included Commanding General, U.S. Army Forces (European Theater) and Military Governor of Germany.", "During his tenure, Gen. Clay solved his greatest challenge: the Soviet Blockade of Berlin, which was imposed in June 1948.Gen.", "Clay triggered the Berlin Airlift, which served the city residents during the harsh winter of 1948–1949.He is also a recipient of the Legion of Merit.General Norman Schwarzkopf received two awards of the Army DSM and one award each of the Defense DSM, Navy DSM, the Air Force DSM and the Coast Guard DSM, for a total of six DSMs.General Lloyd Austin received four awards of the Army DSM and five awards of the Defense DSM for a total of nine DSMs.Among notable recipients below flag rank are: X-1 test pilot Chuck Yeager and X-15 test pilot Robert M. White, who both received the DSM as U.S. Air Force majors; Air Force Major Rudolf Anderson, the U-2 pilot shot down during the Cuban Missile Crisis; director Frank Capra, decorated in 1945 as an army colonel; actor James Stewart, decorated in 1945 as an Army Air Forces colonel (later Air Force Brigadier General); Colonel Wendell Fertig, who led Filipino guerrillas behind Japanese lines; Colonel (later Major General) John K. Singlaub, who led partisan forces in the Korean War; and Major Maude C. Davison, who led the \"Angels of Bataan and Corregidor\" during their imprisonment by the Japanese, and Colonel William S. Taylor, Program Manager Multiple Launch Rocket System.", "Among notable civilian recipients are Harry L. Hopkins, Robert S. McNamara and Henry L. Stimson.Notable American and foreign recipients include:===United States Army===General of the Armies John J. Pershing – Commander of the American Expeditionary ForcesGeneral of the Army George C. Marshall – US Army Chief of Staff (two awards)General of the Army Douglas MacArthur – Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (five awards)General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower – NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe (five awards)General of the Army Omar N. Bradley – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (four awards)General John Abizaid – Commander US Central CommandGeneral Creighton Abrams – US Army Chief of Staff (five awards)General Lloyd Austin – Commander US Central Command (four awards)General Julius W. Becton Jr. – African American combat veteran of the Korean and Vietnam wars.", "General J. H. Binford Peay III – Commander US Central Command (two awards)General Tasker H. Bliss – US Army Chief of StaffGeneral George W. Casey Jr. – US Army Chief of Staff (two awards)General Richard E. Cavazos - Commander United States Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) (two awards)General Peter W. Chiarelli – US Army Vice Chief of StaffGeneral Mark W. Clark – Commander of the United Nations Command (four awards)General Lucius D. Clay – Commanding General European Theater and Military Governor of Germany (three awards)General J. Lawton Collins – US Army Chief of Staff (four awards)General Bantz J. Craddock – Commander US European CommandGeneral Malin Craig – US Army Chief of Staff (three awards)General Martin E. Dempsey – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (six awards)General Oliver W. Dillard – African American infantry officer and combat veteran of the Korean and Vietnam wars (two awards)General Ann E. Dunwoody – First female US Army four-star general United States Army Materiel Command (two awards)General John W. Foss – Commander Training and Doctrine Command (three awards)General Tommy Franks – Commander US Central Command (two awards)General John Galvin – NATO Supreme Allied Commander EuropeGeneral Alfred Gruenther – NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe (four awards)General Alexander Haig – NATO Supreme Allied Commander EuropeGeneral Carter Ham – Commander of United States Africa CommandGeneral John J. Hennessey – Commander United States Readiness CommandGeneral John L. Hines – US Army Chief of StaffGeneral Harold K. Johnson – US Army Chief of Staff (two awards)General George Joulwan – NATO Supreme Allied Commander EuropeGeneral Lyman L. Lemnitzer – NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe (four awards)General Peyton C. March – US Army Chief of StaffGeneral Edward C. Meyer – US Army Chief of StaffGeneral Mark Milley – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (four awards)General Lauris Norstad – NATO Supreme Allied Commander EuropeGeneral George S. Patton – Commander US 3rd Army (three awards)General David Petraeus – Commander International Security Assistance Force (three awards)General Colin Powell – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (two awards)General Dennis Reimer – US Army Chief of StaffGeneral Matthew B. Ridgeway – US Army Chief of Staff (four awards)General Bernard W. Rogers – NATO Supreme Allied Commander EuropeGeneral Peter Schoomaker – US Army Chief of Staff (three awards)General Norman Schwarzkopf – Commander of Operation Desert Storm (three awards)General John Shalikashvili – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of StaffGeneral Hugh Shelton – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (three awards)General Eric Shinseki – US Army Chief of Staff (two awards)General Joseph Stilwell – Commander of the China Burma India TheaterGeneral Maxwell D. Taylor – US Army Chief of StaffGeneral James Van Fleet – Commander US 8th Army in KoreaGeneral Jonathan M. Wainwright – Commander Allied Forces PhilippinesGeneral Walton Walker – Commander US 8th Army in Korea (two awards)General William Westmoreland – US Army Chief of Staff (four awards)General Earle G. Wheeler – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (two awards)Lieutenant General A.C. Roper – Vice Commander, U.S.", "Element, North American Aerospace Defense Command and Deputy Commander, U.S. Northern CommandLieutenant General John B. Coulter (three awards)Lieutenant General Harris W. Hollis – Commanding General, 9th and 25th Infantry Divisions in South Vietnam Lieutenant General Henry E. Emerson – Commander XVIII Airborne CorpsLieutenant General Charles Flynn – 25th Infantry DivisionLieutenant General Mark P. Hertling – Commanding General of US Army EuropeLieutenant General Kenneth W. HunzekerLieutenant General John C. H. Lee – Commanding General Army Service Forces Europe WWIILieutenant General Hunter LiggettLieutenant General Edward J. O'Neill – with 1 bronze oak leaf cluster in lieu of subsequent award of medalLieutenant General Ricardo Sanchez – Commanding General V Corps (two awards)Lieutenant General Eric Schoomaker – 42nd Surgeon General of the United States ArmyLieutenant General William Wilson Quinn – Chevalier of the French Legion of HonorLieutenant General Nadja West – 44th Surgeon General of the United States ArmyMajor General Gladeon M. Barnes – Chief of Research and EngineeringMajor General Chester V. Clifton – Military Aide to Presidents Kennedy and JohnsonMajor General William E. Cole – Commander 351st Field Artillery 1917-18Major General William J. Donovan – founder of the Office of Strategic ServicesMajor General James L. Dozier – deputy chief of staff at NATO's Southern European land forcesMajor General Lawrence J. Fuller – deputy director of the Defense Intelligence AgencyMajor General Charles M. Gettys – commanding general, 23rd Infantry DivisionMajor General George W. Goethals – engineer of the Panama CanalMajor General William C. Gorgas – Surgeon General of the ArmyMajor General Patrick J. HurleyMajor General Edward Mann LewisMajor General Henry Balding LewisMajor General Robert McGowan LittlejohnMajor General Viet Xuan Luong – United States Army, JapanMajor General Franklin Lane McKean - Commander 96th ARCOM, Fort DouglasMajor General Mason M. PatrickMajor General Maurice Rose – commanding general 3rd Armored DivisionMajor General John K. SinglaubMajor General Arthur R. WilsonMajor General Cedric T. WinsBrigadier General Sherwood Cheney – chief of the Army Transport Service during World War IBrigadier General Charles G. Dawes – Vice President of the United StatesBrigadier General Anna Mae Hays – chief of the United States Army Nurse Corps and first female US Army generalBrigadier General Frank T. Hines – director of the Veterans AdministrationBrigadier General Howard Knox RameyBrigadier General Frank MerrillBrigadier General Greg ParkerBrigadier General Russell W. VolckmannColonel Frank Capra – movie director (received as a colonel, Army of the United States in WW II) Colinel Laurie Buckhout – political candidate and business executiveColonel Harvey Williams Cushing – neurosurgeonColonel Horatio B. Hackett – Assistant administrator of the Public Works Administration; noted architect and businessman; football official and playerColonel Oveta Culp Hobby – director of the Women's Army Corps during World War IIColonel Herbert H. Lehman – Governor of New York and United States SenatorColonel Floyd James Thompson – The longest-held prisoner of war in American historyMajor David A. Reed – U.S.", "Senator for Pennsylvania, 1922, for service as a major in World War IMajor Forsyth Wickes – socialite, philanthropist and collectorChaplain Francis P. Duffy – chaplain of the \"Fighting 69th\"Major Herbert O. Yardley – cryptologistSergeant Major of the Army Daniel A. DaileyCommand Sergeant Major Adam NashCommand Sergeant Major John P. McDwyer===United States Navy===Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz – Chief of Naval OperationsFleet Admiral William F. Halsey – Commander of the 3rd FleetAdmiral William S. Benson - Chief of Naval OperationsAdmiral William J. Crowe, Jr. – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of StaffAdmiral William Fechteler - Chief of Naval OperationsAdmiral Albert Gleaves - Commander of the Asiatic FleetAdmiral Jonathan Greenert - Chief of Naval OperationsAdmiral Thomas C. Kinkaid - Commander Sixteenth FleetAdmiral William V. Pratt - Chief of Naval OperationsAdmiral U. S. Grant Sharp Jr. - Commander US Pacific CommandAdmiral Raymond A. Spruance – Commander of the 5th Fleet (later Ambassador to the Philippines)Admiral Harold Rainsford Stark - Chief of Naval OperationsAdmiral Carlisle Trost – Chief of Naval OperationsAdmiral Henry B. Wilson - Commander of the Atlantic FleetVice Admiral Robert L. GhormleyVice Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt (with oak leaf cluster)Rear Admiral Hilary P. JonesRear Admiral Charles P. Plunkett===United States Marine Corps===General Paul X. KelleyGeneral Vernon E. Megee,General Peter Pace – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of StaffMajor General Graves B. ErskineMajor General Smedley ButlerMajor General John A. Lejeune===United States Air Force===Note – includes Army Air Service, Army Air Corps and Army Air ForcesGeneral of the Air Force Hap Arnold – commander of the Army Air ForcesGeneral Jimmy DoolittleGeneral Edwin W. RawlingsGeneral Joseph McNarneyGeneral Hoyt S. Vandenberg – Air Force Chief of Staff and Director of Central IntelligenceGeneral George C. KenneyGeneral Curtis Lemay – Air Force Chief of StaffGeneral Carl Spaatz – Air Force Chief of StaffGeneral Michael E. RyanLieutenant General Claire Lee Chennault (with oak leaf cluster) – Leader of the Flying TigersMajor General Billy Mitchell, USAAC – Military air power prophetBrigadier General Chuck Yeager – Legendary test pilotColonel Bernt Balchen, USAF – Legendary Norwegian-American pilot and arctic explorer.", "Captain John Birch, USAAF – Missionary, guerilla leader and namesake of the John Birch SocietyBrigadier General Darr H. Alkire===Civilians===Grace Banker – chief telephone operator of mobile for the American Expeditionary ForcesBernard Baruch – chairman, War Industries Board, 1918Evangeline Booth – General of the Salvation Army Maude Cleveland (Woodworth) – chief of the home communication and casualty service, Red Cross, at Brest, FranceJacqueline Cochran – Aviator and founder of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs)Henry Pomeroy Davison – director of the American Red CrossJane Delano – Founder of the American Red Cross Nursing ServiceJames Forrestal - Secretary of DefenseHugh Frayne – chairman, labor division of the War Industries BoardHarry Augustus Garfield – U.S. Fuel AdministratorHarry Hopkins – Presidential aideEdward N. Hurley – chairman, American Shipping BoardRobert McNamara – Secretary of DefenseEdwin B. Parker – member of the War Industries Board and arbiter with Germany, Austria and Hungary following World War IHannah J. Patterson – resident director of the Women's Committee of the Council of National DefenseAnna Howard Shaw – head of the Women's Committee of the Council of National DefenseEdward R. Stettinius – director general of purchases for the War DepartmentJohn F. Stevens – Engineer of the Panama Canal and the Great Northern RailwayHenry L. Stimson – Secretary of War===Foreigners===Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby, General (later Field Marshal), British ArmyHM Albert I, King of BelgiansAlan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke, field marshal, British ArmyPietro Badoglio, general, Italian ArmyWilliam Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood, general, British Indian Army (during secondment to Australian Army, later promoted to Field Marshal)Julian Byng, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy, General (later Field Marshal), British ArmySir Winston Churchill KG, OM, PC, CH, FRS – British Minister of Munitions (later Prime Minister)Harry Crerar, lieutenant general, Canadian ArmyAndrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope, Admiral of the Fleet, Royal NavySir Arthur Currie, lieutenant general, British Army, commanding Canadian CorpsGeorges de Bazelaire, major general, VII Army Corps of the French Army during World War ISir Francis de Guingand, major general, British ArmyJean de Lattre de Tassigny, general, French Army (later a Marshal of France)Sir Miles Dempsey, general, British ArmySir John Dill, field marshal, British ArmyFerdinand Foch, Marshal of France, French ArmyDouglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig, field marshal, British ArmyArthur T. Harris, air chief marshal, Royal Air Force (later a Marshal of the Royal Air Force)Chiang Kai-shek, general, Chinese ArmyMariano Goybet, general, French ArmyCharles Mangin, general, French ArmyPaul Maistre, general, French ArmySir Richard McCreery, general, British ArmyLord Alfred Milner, British Secretary of State for WarŽivojin Mišić, field marshal, Serbian ArmySir John Monash, general, Australian ArmyBernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, field marshal, British ArmySir Frederick E. Morgan, lieutenant general, British ArmyLouis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, admiral, Royal Navy (later Admiral of the Fleet)Henri Petain, Marshal of France, French ArmyAlexander Pokryshkin, Marshal of the Soviet Air ForceCharles Portal, 1st Viscount Portal of Hungerford, Marshal of the Royal Air ForceSir William Robertson, 1st Baronet, field marshal, British ArmyFrederick Sykes, Chief of the Air Staff (United Kingdom)Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder, air chief marshal, Royal Air Force (later Marshal of the Royal Air Force)Sir Henry Worth Thornton, major general, British Army (American-born)Gerald Trotter, brigadier-general, British ArmySir Thomas Montgomery-Cuninghame, 10th Baronet of Corsehill, brevet lieutenant colonel, military attache, British ArmyMaxime Weygand, general, French ArmyHarold St. John Loyd Winterbotham, British" ], [ "See also", "Awards and decorations of the United States militaryAwards and decorations of the United States ArmyAir Force Distinguished Service MedalCoast and Geodetic Survey Distinguished Service MedalMerchant Marine Distinguished Service MedalNavy Distinguished Service Medal" ], [ "References", "Major General Franklin L McKean - https://ocsalumni.org/at_biz_dir/franklin-l-mckean/" ], [ "External links", " Department of the Army Regulation 600-8-22; Military Awards; 2006-12-11; Effective date: 2007-01-11.", "* Department of the Army Regulation 670-1; Wear and Appearance of Army Uniforms and Insignia; 2005-02-03; Effective date: 2005-03-03.", "* US Army Institute of Heraldry: Distinguished Service Medal* Distinguished Service Medal - Criteria, Background, and Images * Noteworthy NCOs* ''Congressional Medal of Honor, Distinguished Service Cross, and Distinguished Service Medal Issued by The War Department'' 1919" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Defense Distinguished Service Medal" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Defense Distinguished Service Medal''' is a military decoration of the United States Department of Defense, which is presented to United States Armed Forces service members for exceptionally distinguished performance of duty contributing to the national security or defense of the United States.", "The medal was created on July 9, 1970, by President Richard Nixon in .", "President Nixon awarded the first medal, on the day the Executive Order was signed, to General Earle Wheeler, who was retiring from the US Army after serving as Chief of Staff of the United States Army and then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.It is equivalent to the United States Department of Homeland Security's Homeland Security Distinguished Service Medal." ], [ "Criteria", "The Defense Distinguished Service Medal is the United States Department of Defense's highest non-combat related military award and it is the highest joint service decoration.", "The Defense Distinguished Service Medal is awarded only while assigned to a joint activity.", "Normally, such responsibilities deserving of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal are held by the most senior officers such as the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the chiefs and vice chiefs of the military services, and commanders and deputy commanders of the Combatant Commands, the Director of the Joint Staff, and others whose duties bring them frequently into direct contact with the Secretary of Defense, the Deputy Secretary of Defense, and other senior government officials.", "In addition, the medal may also be awarded to other service members whose direct and individual contributions to national security or national defense are recognized as being so exceptional in scope and value as to be equivalent to contributions normally associated with positions encompassing broader responsibilities.This decoration takes precedence over the Distinguished Service Medals of the services and is not to be awarded to any individual for a period of service for which an Army, Navy, Air Force or Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal is awarded." ], [ "Appearance", "The medal is gold in color and on the obverse it features a medium blue enameled pentagon (point up).", "Superimposed on this is an American bald eagle with wings outspread facing left grasping three crossed arrows in its talons and on its breast is a shield of the United States.", "The pentagon and eagle are enclosed within a gold pieced circle consisting, in the upper half of 13 five-pointed stars and in the lower half, a wreath of laurel on the left and olive on the right.", "At the top is a suspender of five graduated gold rays.", "The reverse of the medal has the inscription \"''For Distinguished Service''\" at the top in raised letters, and within the pentagon the inscription \"FROM THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE TO\", all in raised letters.Additional awards of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal are denoted by oak leaf clusters." ], [ "Notable recipients", "* Ramon Colon-Lopez (first enlisted recipient)* Jonathan Howe (six awards)* Lloyd Austin (five awards)* Wesley Clark (five awards)* Raymond T. Odierno (five awards)* Dennis C. Blair (four awards)* James B. Busey IV (four awards)* George W. Casey Jr. (four awards)* William J. Crowe (four awards)* James L. Jones (four awards)* Timothy J. Keating (four awards)* Michael Mullen (four awards)* Richard Myers (four awards)* Peter Pace (four awards)* David Petraeus (four awards)* Colin Powell (four awards)* Victor E. Renuart Jr. (four awards)* John Shalikashvili (four awards)* Hugh Shelton (four awards)* John Abizaid (three awards)* John R. Allen (three awards)* Peter W. Chiarelli (three awards)* Vern Clark (three awards)* James T. Conway (three awards)* Martin Dempsey (three awards)* Edmund P. Giambastiani Jr. (three awards)* Gregory G. Johnson (three awards)* George Joulwan (three awards)* William H. McRaven (three awards)* David M. Rodriguez (three awards)* Curtis Scaparrotti (three awards)* Peter Schoomaker (three awards)* Kurt W. Tidd (three awards)* Thomas D. Waldhauser (three awards)* William E. Ward (three awards)* James A. Winnefeld Jr. (three awards)* Creighton Abrams (two awards)* Jeremy M. Boorda (two awards)* William A.", "Brown (two awards)* Bantz J. Craddock (two awards)* Walter Doran (two awards)* James O. Ellis (two awards)* William J. Fallon (two awards)* Noel Gayler (two awards)* Andrew Goodpaster (two awards)* William E. Gortney (two awards)* Alexander Haig (two awards)* Harry B. Harris Jr. (two awards)* Thomas B. Hayward (two awards)* James L. Holloway III (two awards)* Jay L. Johnson (two awards)* Frank B. Kelso II (two awards)* Joseph D. Kernan (two awards)* George E. R. Kinnear II (two awards)* Samuel J. Locklear (two awards)* Deborah Loewer (two awards)* Jim Mattis (two awards)* Stanley A. McChrystal (two awards)* Mark Milley (two awards)* Thomas Hinman Moorer (two awards)* Donald L. Pilling (two awards)* Joseph Ralston (two awards)* Bernard W. Rogers (two awards)* Eric Shinseki (two awards)* James G. Stavridis (two awards)* Patricia Ann Tracey (two awards)* Carlisle A.H. Trost (two awards)* James D. Watkins (two awards)* Maurice F. Weisner (two awards)* Anthony Zinni (two awards)* J. H. Binford Peay III* Philip M. Breedlove* Frank Bowman* Nancy Elizabeth Brown* Ronald Burgess (two awards)* Wendi B. Carpenter* Bruce W. Clingan* Robert H. Conn* Michael P. DeLong* Leon A. Edney* Craig S. Faller* Mark E. Ferguson III* James R. Fitzgerald* Mark P. Fitzgerald* William J. Flanagan Jr.* Michael Flynn* Tommy Franks* Douglas M. Fraser* John Galvin* Harold W. Gehman Jr.* Jonathan W. Greenert* Cecil D. Haney* Huntington Hardisty* John C. Harvey Jr.* Michelle Howard* Grace Hopper* Rick Husband* Daniel James Jr.* David E. Jeremiah* John F. Kelly* Isaac C. Kidd Jr.* Charles R. Larson* Thomas J. Lopez* Richard C. Macke* William C. McCool* Wesley L. McDonald* Richard W. Mies* Michael H. Miller* Carl Epting Mundy Jr. * Eric T. Olson* William A. Owens* Joseph Prueher* Dennis Reimer* Gary Roughead* Ricardo Sanchez* Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.* Leighton W. Smith Jr.* Vincent R. Stewart* Harry D. Train II* Stephen J. Townsend* Carlisle Trost* Earle Wheeler* Charles E. Wilhelm* Alexander F. Krichevsky* Robert F. Willard* Ronald J. Zlatoper* Bradley A. Heithold* Gregg A. Blevins- John Zirkelbach (two awards)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dacoity" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dacoity''' is a term used for \"banditry\" in the Indian subcontinent.", "The spelling is the anglicised version of the Hindi word डाकू (daaku); \"dacoit\" is a colloquial Indian English word with this meaning and it appears in the ''Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases'' (1903).", "Banditry is criminal activity involving robbery by groups of armed bandits.", "The East India Company established the Thuggee and Dacoity Department in 1830, and the Thuggee and Dacoity Suppression Acts, 1836–1848 were enacted in British India under East India Company rule.", "Areas with ravines or forests, such as Chambal and Chilapata Forests, were once known for dacoits.Daku (Dacoit) written in Samrup Rachna Calligraphy" ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"dacoity\", the anglicized version of the Hindi word ''ḍakaitī'' (historically spelled ''dakaitee'').", "Hindi डकैती comes from ''ḍākū'' (historically spelled ''dakoo'', Hindi: डाकू, meaning \"armed robber\").The term '''dacoit''' (Hindi: डकैत ''ḍakait'') means \"a bandit\" according to the ''OED'' (\"A member of a class of robbers in India and Burma, who plunder in armed bands\")." ], [ "History", "=== Bandits of Bhind-Morena and Chambal ===The dacoity have had a large impact in the Bhind and Morena of Chambal regions in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh in north-central India.", "The exact reasons for the emergence of dacoity in the Chambal valley have been disputed.", "Most explanations have simply suggested feudal exploitation as the cause that provoked many people of this region to take to arms.", "The area was also underdeveloped and poor, so that banditry posed great economic incentives.", "However, the fact that many gangs operating in this valley were composed of higher castes and wealthy people appears to suggest that feudalism may only be a partial explanation of dacoity in Chambal valley (Bhaduri, 1972; Khan, 1981; Jatar, 1980; Katare, 1972).", "Furthermore, traditional honour codes and blood feuds would drive some into criminality.In Chambal, India, organized crime controlled much of the countryside from the time of the British Raj up to the early 2000s, with the police offering high rewards for the most notorious bandit chiefs.", "The criminals regularly targeted local businesses, though they preferred to kidnap wealthy people, and demand ransom from their relatives - cutting off fingers, noses, and ears to pressure them into paying high sums.", "Many dacoity also posed as social bandits toward the local poor, paying medical bills and funding weddings.", "One ex-dacoit described his own criminal past by claiming that \"I was a rebel.", "I fought injustice.\"", "Following intense anti-banditry campaigns by the Indian Police, highway robbery was almost completely eradicated in the early 2000s.", "Nevertheless, Chambal is still popularly believed to be unsafe and bandit-infested by many Indians.", "One police officer noted that the fading of the dacoity was also due to social changes, as few young people were any longer willing to endure the harsh life as a highway robber in the countryside.", "Instead, they prefer to join crime groups in the city, where life is easier.=== Dacoits in Bengal ===While thugs and dacoits operating in northern and central India are more popularly known and referenced in books, films and academic journal, a significant number of accounts also come from Bengal.", "Writing about the dacoits of Bengal, the colonial official CH Keighly mentions the “great difference between gangs of hereditary dacoits or thugs in other parts of India and the dacoits of Bengal”.", "It is notable that unlike the rest of India, dacoits in Bengal did not come from a particular social class, caste, or creed.", "==== The Gangs of Nadia and Hooghly ====Dacoit gangs in Nadia and Hooghly were particularly known for their ritualistic practices before the night of dacoity.", "Before setting off for their mission, the members would assemble to perform “kalipuja” led by the Sirdar (leader).", "The dacoits would form a straight line and a pot of liquor, torches, and weapons to be used in the dacoity were laid down in a clear space.", "The Sirdar would then dip his finger in oil and touch the forehead of all the dacoits, making them promise never to confess.", "Even during the raid, when dacoits opened chests and discovered a good fortune, they would shout “Kali, Jai Kali”.==== Dacoits of Birbhum ====Dacoity was highly prevalent in 19th century west Bengal.", "One of the gangs, led by a charismatic leader named Bhabani Pathak, was known for its loyalty to their leader.", "After the British captured Bhabani, the inner workings and social factors that led to the construction of this gang were revealed.", "Leaders such as Bhabani were known as Sirdars and had a symbiotic relationship with their followers.", "Among other benefits, a Sirdar would lend loans to members and provided them protection.", "This allowed for the formation of a special bond between the Sirdar and followers which meant that cases of desertion and exiting the gang were virtually unheard of.", "==== Tales of Burdwan ====In Burdwan, dacoities were heavily planned and considerable thought went into their seamless execution.", "Sirdars in Burdwan operated by employing several informants who kept them updated about prospective targets.", "When a target was finalized, the Sirdar and relevant gang members were constantly made aware about his whereabouts.", "The informants were always on the lookout for wealthy businessmen and kept a close watch on those that exchanged bank notes of considerable value or received a shipment of merchandise that they would store in their houses.=== Other dacoity ===The term is also applied, according to the ''OED'', to \"pirates who formerly infested the Ganges between Calcutta and Burhampore\".Dacoits existed in Burma as well – Rudyard Kipling's fictional Private Mulvaney hunted Burmese dacoits in \"The Taking of Lungtungpen\".", "Sax Rohmer's criminal mastermind Dr. Fu Manchu also employed Burmese dacoits as his henchmen.Indian police forces use \"Known Dacoit\" (K.D.)", "as a label to classify criminals.=== Thuggee and Dacoity Suppression Act ===Introduced in 1836, the suppression acts brought about several legislative measures including the establishment of special courts, authorization for the use of rewards for informants, and the power to arrest suspects.", "The suppression acts marked the beginning of active British intervention in policing and law enforcement in Indian society.", "These acts were known to be authoritarian and further deepened the uneven power dynamic between the British and the Indians.=== British Portrayal of Crime in India ===The British often saw Indians as primitive, violent, and unruly, and this often acted as a justification for colonization and further consolidated their “civilization mission” pretext.", "The practice of thuggee and dacoity was seen in a similar Eurocentric light, without understanding the local context.", "An orientalist view of such activities was portrayed in the rest of the world to account for several repressive legislative measures that the British took.", "Under this punitive approach, several innocent individuals fell prey to false suspicion and were incriminated." ], [ "Notable dacoits", "A family of dacoitsNotable dacoits include:* Chavviram Singh Yadav* Gabbar Singh Gujjar - inspired the famous 1975 film ''Sholay'', based on his life* Man Singh was a notorious Dacoit of the Rathore clan of Rajputs.", "He was also known as the Lion of Chambal.", "* Malkhan Singh Rajpoot, a notorious bandit known as the ''Bandit King'' or ''King of Dacoits.''", "He also had political aspirations in MP.", "* Malangi* Kallu Yadav (Kalua), also known as Katri King* Mohar Singh* Nirbhay Singh Gujjar* Nizam Lohar, a dacoit born into a Punjabi Muslim family during the Sikh Empire.", "He is known for his rebellion and freedom struggle against the British colonial government.", "* Paan Singh Tomar, a former soldier in the Indian Army, an athlete that represented India in the Asian Games, who later resorted to becoming a Baaghi due to the injustices he faced.", "Also inspired the famous Bollywood film Paan Singh Tomar played by Irrfan Khan.", "* Phoolan Devi, known as Bandit Queen (even a movie with the same name was made), a lady bandit who initially rebelled against her rape and injustice her community she was subjected to.", "* Rambabu Gadariya - Regarded as the last notorious dacoit of Chambal* Shiv Kumar Patel (Dadua)* Ramashish Koeri was active in Rohtas Plateau of Bihar in 1980s.", "He was the leader of a group of bandits, who were supported by the people from lower strata of society.", "This dacoit group was known for challenging the hagemony of upper caste landlords in the region, who were exploitative.", "* Jagga Jatt* Veerappan, a notorious dacoit, poacher, and smuggler in South India.He was responsible for poaching approximately 500 of the 2000 elephants killed in the peninsular region where he was active and for smuggling ivory worth US$2.6 million (₹16 crore) and about 65 tons of sandalwood worth approximately US$22 million (₹143 crore)." ], [ "Protection measures", "In Madhya Pradesh, women belonging to a village defence group have been issued firearm permits to fend off dacoity.", "The Chief minister of the state, Shivraj Singh Chouhan, recognised the role the women had played in defending their villages without guns.", "He stated that he wanted to enable these women to better defend both themselves and their villages, and issued the gun permits to advance this goal." ], [ "In popular culture", "===Dacoit films===As the dacoits flourished through the 1940s–1970s, they were the subject of various Hindi films made during this era, leading to the emergence of the dacoit film genre in Hindi Film Industry.", "The genre began with Mehboob Khan's ''Aurat'' (1940), which he remade as ''Mother India'' (1957).", "''Mother India'' received an Academy Award nomination, and defined the dacoit film genre, along with Dilip Kumar's ''Gunga Jumna'' (1961).", "Other popular films in this genre included Raj Kapoor’s ''Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai'' (1961) and Moni Bhattacharjee's ''Mujhe Jeene Do'' (1963).Pakistani actor Akmal Khan had two dacoit films, ''Malangi'' (1965) and ''Imam Din Gohavia'' (1967).", "Other films in this genre included ''Khote Sikkay'' (1973), ''Mera Gaon Mera Desh'' (1971), and ''Kuchhe Dhaage'' (1973) both by Raj Khosla.The most famous dacoit film is ''Sholay'' (1975), written by Salim–Javed, and starring Dharmendra, Amitabh Bachchan, and Amjad Khan as the dacoit character Gabbar Singh.", "It was a masala film that combined the dacoit film conventions of ''Mother India'' and ''Gunga Jumna'' with that of Spaghetti Westerns, spawning the \"Dacoit Western\" genre, also known as the \"Curry Western\" genre.", "The film also borrowed elements from Akira Kurosawa's ''Seven Samurai''.", "''Sholay'' became a classic in the genre, and its success led to a surge of films in this genre, including ''Ganga Ki Saugandh'' (1978), once again starring Amitabh Bachchan and Amjad Khan.An internationally acclaimed example of the genre is ''Bandit Queen'' (1994).The Tamil movie starring Karthi, ''Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru'' (2017) deals elaborately with bandits.", "The film reveals the real dacoity incidents which held in Tamil Nadu between 1995 and 2005.Director Vinoth did a two-year research about bandits to develop the script.A related genre of crime films are Mumbai underworld films.===Other media===Bengali novel Devi Chowdhurani by author Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in 1867.A Hindi novel named ''Painstth Lakh ki Dacoity'' (1977) was written by Surender Mohan Pathak; it was translated as ''The 65 Lakh Heist''.Dacoits armed with pistols and swords appear in ''Age of Empires III: Asian Dynasties''.They frequently appeared in the French language ''Bob Morane'' series of novels by Henri Vernes, principally as the main thugs or assassins of the hero's recurring villain, Mr. Ming and in English as the agents of Sax Rohmer’s Fu Manchu." ], [ "See also", "MeenasOrganised crime in IndiaCriminal Tribes Act" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Phoolan Devi, with Marie-Therese Cuny, and Paul Rambali, ''The Bandit Queen of India: An Indian Woman's Amazing Journey from Peasant to International Legend'' Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press, 2006 Mala Sen, ''India's Bandit Queen: The true Story of Phoolan Devi'', HarperCollins Publishers (September 1991) .", "G.", "K. Betham, ''The Story of a Dacoity, and the Lolapaur Week: An Up-Country Sketch''.", "BiblioBazaar, 2008..Shyam Sunder Katare, ''Patterns of dacoity in India: a case study of Madhya Pradesh''.", "S. Chand, 1972.", "Mohammad Zahir Khan, ''Dacoity in Chambal Valley''.", "National, 1981." ], [ "External links", "* Dacoity - Indian Penal Code, Chapter XVII (Mobile Friendly)* As modern world closes in, India's fabled bandits are disappearing - International Herald Tribune" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Davis, California" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Davis''' is the most populous city in Yolo County, California, United States.", "Located in the Sacramento Valley region of Northern California, the city had a population of 66,850 in 2020, not including the on-campus population of the University of California, Davis, which was over 9,400 (not including students' families) in 2016.there were 38,369 students enrolled at the university." ], [ "History", "Davis sits on land that originally belonged to the Indigenous Patwin, a southern branch of Wintun people, who were killed or forced from their lands by the 1830s as part of the California Genocide through a combination of mass murders, smallpox and other diseases, and both Mexican and American systems of Indigenous slavery.", "Patwin burial grounds have been found across Davis, including on the site of the UC Davis Mondavi Center.", "After the killing and expulsion of the Patwin, territory that eventually became Davis emerged from one of California's most complicated ranchos, Laguna de Santos Callé.", "The 1852 Land Commission concurred with US Attorneys who argued that the grant was \"fraudulent in all its parts,\" and in his 1860 District Court ruling Justice Ogden Hoffman observed that \"It is impossible to contemplate without disgust the series of perjuries which compose the record\" of the land grant.", "Nevertheless, Jerome C. Davis, a prominent farmer and one of the early claimants to land in Laguna de Santos Callé, lobbied all the way to the United States Congress in order to retain the land that eventually became Davis.", "Davis became a depot on the Southern Pacific Railroad in 1868, when it was named \"Davisville\" after Jerome C. Davis.", "However, the post office at Davisville shortened the town name to \"Davis\" in 1907.The name stuck, and the city of Davis was incorporated on March 28, 1917.From its inception as a farming community, Davis is known primarily for its contributions to agricultural policy along with veterinary care and animal husbandry.", "Following the passage of the University Farm Bill in 1905 by the California State Legislature, Governor George Pardee selected Davis out of 50 other sites as the future home to the University of California's University Farm, officially opening to students in 1908.The farm, later renamed the Northern Branch of the College of Agriculture in 1922, was upgraded to become the seventh UC general campus, the University of California, Davis, in 1959." ], [ "Geography and environment", "===Location===Davis is located in Yolo County, California, west of Sacramento, northeast of San Francisco, north of Los Angeles, at the intersection of Interstate 80 and State Route 113.Neighboring towns include Dixon, Winters, Woodland, and West Sacramento.Davis lies in the Sacramento Valley, the northern portion of the Central Valley, in Northern California, at an elevation of about above sea level.According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of .", "of it is land and of it (0.19%) is water.The topography is flat, which has helped Davis to become known as a haven for bicyclists.=== Climate ===The Davis climate resembles that of nearby Sacramento and is typical of California's Central Valley Mediterranean climate region: warm and dry in the spring, summer and autumn, and cool and wet in the winter.", "It is classified as a Köppen Csa climate.", "Summer days are hot, ranging from , but the nights turn pleasantly cool, almost always dropping below .", "The Delta Breeze, a flow of cool marine air originating from the Pacific Ocean via San Francisco Bay and the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, frequently provides relief in the evening.", "Winter temperatures generally reach between in the afternoon; nights average at about , but occasionally fall below freezing.Average temperatures range from in December and January to in July and August.", "Thick ground fog called tule fog settles into Davis during late fall and winter.", "This fog can be dense, with visibility nearly zero.", "As in other areas of northern California, the tule fog is a leading cause of road accidents in the winter season.Mean rainfall per annum is about .", "The bulk of rain occurs between about mid-November to mid-March, with typically no precipitation falling from mid-June to mid-September.Record temperatures range from a high of on July 17, 1925, to a low of on December 11, 1932.===Neighborhoods===Davis is internally divided by two freeways (Interstate 80 and State Route 113), a north–south railroad (California Northern), an east–west mainline (Union Pacific) and several major streets.", "The city is unofficially divided into six main districts made up of smaller neighborhoods (often originally named as housing subdivisions):UC Davis Arboretum.", "* Central Davis, north of Fifth Street and Russell Boulevard, south of Covell Blvd., east of SR 113, and west of the railroad tracks running along G Street.", "Within these boundaries is the officially denoted neighborhood of Old North Davis, which is sometimes also considered part of Downtown.", "* Downtown Davis, roughly the numbered-and-lettered grid north of I-80, south of Fifth Street, east of A Street, and west of the railroad tracks, including the Aggie Village and Olive Drive areas.", "* East Davis, north of I-80, south of Covell Blvd., and east of the railroad tracks.", "It includes the older, 'inner' East Davis of lettered streets and neighborhoods such as Davis Manor, Chestnut, and Rancho Yolo, as well as more distinctly identified (in some cases walled-in) subdivisions such as Mace Ranch, Lake Alhambra Estates, and Wildhorse.", "* North Davis, north of Covell Blvd.", "North Davis includes Covell Park, Senda Nueva, Northstar, and North Davis Farms.", "* South Davis, south of I-80, and includes Willowbank.", "El Macero, California, although outside the city limits, is sometimes considered part of South Davis; El Macero is part of the Davis Joint Unified School District, and El Macero children who attend public schools attend Davis' public schools.", "* West Davis, north of I-80 and west of SR 113.West Davis includes Westwood, Evergreen, Aspen, Stonegate (west of Lake Boulevard and including Stonegate Lake and the Stonegate Country Club) and the eco-friendly Village Homes development, known for its solar-powered houses.The University of California, Davis is located south of Russell Boulevard and west of A Street and then south of 1st Street.", "The land occupied by the university is not incorporated within the boundaries of the city of Davis and lies within both Yolo and Solano Counties.=== Environment ===Local energy planning began in Davis after the energy crisis of 1973.A new building code promoted energy efficiency.", "Energy use in buildings decreased dramatically and in 1981 Davis citizens won a $100,000 prize from utility PG&E, for cutting electricity use during the summer peak.On November 14, 1984, the Davis City Council declared the city to be a nuclear-free zone.", "In 1998, the City passed a \"Dark Skies\" ordinance in an effort to reduce light pollution in the night sky.In 2013, Davis became part of the state Cool Roof Initiative with the \"CoolDavis\" campaign, requiring all new roofing projects to meet Cool Roof Rating Council (CRRC) requirements, including the installation of light-colored roofs.", "The aim is to reflect more sunlight back into space via the albedo effect, and reduce the amount of heat absorbed in hopes of limiting climate change." ], [ "Demographics", "Davis is part of the Sacramento–Arden-Arcade–Roseville Metropolitan Statistical Area.=== 2020 ===According to the 2020 Census the population of Davis was 66,850 people.", "In 2020 the racial demographics were as follows:53.6% White 2.3% Black13.8% Hispanic or Latino 23.3% Asian1.1% Native American 9.6% 2 or more races ===2010===The 2010 United States Census reported that Davis had a population of 65,622.The population density was .", "The racial makeup of Davis was 42,571 (64.9%) White, 1,528 (2.3%) African American, 339 (0.5%) Native American, 14,355 (21.9%) Asian, 136 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 3,121 (4.8%) from other races, and 3,572 (5.4%) from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8,172 persons (12.5%).In 2006, Davis was ranked as the second most educated city (in terms of the percentage of residents with graduate degrees) in the US by CNN ''Money Magazine'', after Arlington County, Virginia.Davis' Asian population of 14,355 was apportioned among 1,631 Indian Americans, 6,395 Chinese Americans, 1,560 Korean Americans, 1,185 Vietnamese Americans, 1,033 Filipino Americans, 953 Japanese Americans, and 1,598 other Asian Americans.Davis' Hispanic and Latino population of 8,172 was apportioned among 5,618 Mexican American, 221 Puerto Rican American, 80 Cuban American, and 2,253 other Hispanic and Latino.Davis, California population reported at 2010 United States Census '''''' 42,57138,6413,930 1,5281,415113 339166173 14,35514,213142 13612016 3,1211812,9403,5722,714858The Census reported that 63,522 people (96.8% of the population) lived in households, 1,823 (2.8%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 277 (0.4%) were institutionalized.There were 24,873 households, of which 6,119 (24.6%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 9,343 (37.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,880 (7.6%) had a female householder with no husband present, and 702 (2.8%) had a male householder with no wife present.", "There were 1,295 (5.2%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 210 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships.", "5,952 households (23.9%) were made up of individuals, and 1,665 (6.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.55.There were 11,925 families (47.9% of all households); the average family size was 2.97.The population age and sex distribution was 10,760 people (16.4%) under the age of 18, 21,757 people (33.2%) aged 18 to 24, 14,823 people (22.6%) aged 25 to 44, 12,685 people (19.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 5,597 people (8.5%) who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 25.2 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 90.5 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.0 males.There were 25,869 housing units, with an average density of , of which 10,699 (43.0%) were owner-occupied, and 14,174 (57.0%) were occupied by renters.", "The homeowner vacancy rate was 0.9%; the rental vacancy rate was 3.5%.", "27,594 people (42.0% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 35,928 people (54.7%) lived in rental housing units.===2000===As of the United States 2000 Census, there were 60,308 people, 22,948 households, and 11,290 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 23,617 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial composition of the city was 70.07% White, 2.35% Black or African American, 0.67% Native American, 17.5% Asian, 0.24% Pacific Islander, 4.26% from other races, and 4.87% from two or more races.", "9.61% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 22,948 households, of which 26.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.3% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.8% were non-families.", "25.0% of all households were composed of individuals, and 5.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.00.In the city, the population age distribution was 18.6% under the age of 18, 30.9% from 18 to 24, 27.1% from 25 to 44, 16.7% from 45 to 64, and 6.6% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 25 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 91.2 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.8 males.The median income for a household in the city was $42,454, and the median income for a family was $74,051.Males had a median income of $51,189 versus $36,082 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $22,937.About 5.4% of families and 24.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.8% of those under age 18 and 2.8% of those age 65 or over.This city of approximately 62,000 people abuts a university campus of 32,000 students.", "Although the university's land is not incorporated within the city, many students live off-campus in the city." ], [ "Economy", "Old City Hall.===Top employers===According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are: # Employer # of Employees 1University of California, Davis25,227 2Davis Joint Unified School District1,120 3Sutter Health505 4City of Davis341 (FTEs) 5Nugget Markets265 6Unitrans260 7Safeway188 8Courtyard Healthcare Center162 9University Retirement Community160 10Davis Food Co-op117===Davis Dollars===A community currency scheme was in use in Davis, called ''Davis Dollars''.==Bicycling==Davis Amtrak stationBicycling has been one of the most popular modes of transportation in Davis for decades, particularly among school-age children and UC Davis students.", "In 2010, Davis became the new home of the United States Bicycling Hall of Fame.Davis racksBicycle infrastructure became a political issue in the 1960s, culminating in the election of a pro-bicycle majority to the City Council in 1966.By the early 1970s, Davis became a pioneer in the implementation of cycling facilities.", "As the city expands, new facilities are usually mandated.", "As a result, Davis residents today enjoy an extensive network of bike lanes, bike paths, and grade-separated bicycle crossings.", "The flat terrain and temperate climate are also conducive to bicycling.Bicycle crossing over Covell Blvd.In 2005 the Bicycle-Friendly Community program of the League of American Bicyclists recognized Davis as the first Platinum Level city in the US In March 2006, ''Bicycling Magazine'' named Davis the best small town for cycling in its compilation of \"America's Best Biking Cities.\"", "Bicycling appears to be declining among Davis residents: from 1990 to 2000, the US Census Bureau reported a decline in the fraction of commuters traveling by bicycle, from 22 percent to 15 percent.", "This resulted in the reestablishment of the city's Bicycle Advisory Commission and creation of advocate groups such as \"Davis Bicycles!\".", "In 2016, Fifth Street, a main road in Davis was converted from four lanes to two lanes to allow for bicycle lanes and encourage more bicycling.In 1996, 2001, 2006, and 2009 the UC Davis \"Cal Aggie Cycling\" Team won the national road cycling competition.", "The team also competes off-road and on the track, and has competed in the national competitions of these disciplines.", "In 2007, UC Davis also organized a record breaking bicycle parade numbering 822 bicycles." ], [ "Sights and culture", "=== Whole Earth Festival ===A continuous stream of bands, speakers and various workshops occurs throughout Mother's Day weekend on each of Whole Earth Festival's (WEF) three stages and other specialty areas.", "The WEF is organized entirely by UC Davis students, in association with the Associated Students of UC Davis and the university.=== Celebrate Davis ===Celebrate Davis is the annual free festival held by the Davis Chamber of Commerce.", "It features booths by Davis businesses, live music, food vendors, live animals, activities like rock climbing and zip-line.", "It concludes with fireworks after dark.", "Parking is problematic, so most people ride their bikes and use the free valet parking.=== Picnic Day ===Picnic Day is an annual event at the University of California, Davis and is always held on the third Saturday in April.", "It is the largest student-run event in the US.", "Picnic Day starts off with a parade, which features the UC Davis California Aggie Marching Band-uh!, and runs through campus and around downtown Davis and ends with the Battle of the Bands, which lasts until the last band stops playing (sometimes until 2 am).", "There are over 150 free events and over 50,000 attend every year.", "Other highlights include: the Dachshund races, a.k.a.", "the Doxie Derby, held in the Pavilion; the Davis Rock Challenge, the Chemistry Magic Show, and the sheep dog trials.", "Many departments have exhibits and demonstrations, such as the Cole Facility, which until recently showed a fistulated cow (a cow that has been fitted with a plastic portal (a \"fistula\") into its digestive system to observe digestion processes).", "Its name was \"Hole-y Cow\".=== Davis Transmedia Art Walk ===The Davis Transmedia Art Walk is a free—self-guided—public art tour includes 23 public murals, 16 sculptures, and 15 galleries and museums all in downtown Davis and the University of Davis campus.", "A free Davis Art Walk map serves as a detailed guide to the entire collection.", "The art pieces are all within walking distance of each other.", "The walk is a roughly circuitous path that can be completed within an hour or two.", "Every piece of art on the Art Walk has been embedded with an RFID chip.", "Using a cellphone that supports this technology, you access multimedia files that relate to each work.", "You can even leave a comment or \"burn your own message\" for other visitors to see.", "Artist hosted tours are held on the weekend by appointment only.", "To pick up a copy of the Davis Art Walk map, visit the Yolo County Visitors Bureau (132 E St., Suite 200; (530) 297–1900) or the John Natsoulas Center for the Arts (521 1st St.; (530) 756–3938).=== Manetti Shrem Museum of Art ===The Manetti Shrem Museum of Art, located on the UC Davis campus, opened on November 13, 2016, and carries on the legacy of the university's world-renowned first generation art faculty, which contributed to innovations in conceptual, performance and video art in the 1960s and 70s.", "The museum has generated nationwide attention with exhibits by artists such as Wayne Thiebaud, Bruce Nauman, John Cage, and Robert Arneson as well as its striking architecture, featuring a 50,000 square-foot “Grand Canopy” of perforated aluminum triangular beams, supported by 40 steel columns.", "Every year the museum exhibits works by graduating art students.", "The museum is free and hosts lecture series and events throughout the year, as well as weekend art studio activities for all ages.=== Mondavi Center ===The Mondavi Center, located on the UC Davis campus, is one of the biggest non-seasonal attractions in Davis.", "The Mondavi Center is a theater which hosts many world-class touring acts, including star performers such as Yo-Yo Ma, Yitzhak Perlman and Wynton Marsalis, and draws a large audience from Sacramento.=== UC Davis Arboretum ===The UC Davis Arboretum is an arboretum and botanical garden.", "Plants from all over the world grow in different sections of the park.", "There are notable oak and native plant collections and a small redwood grove.", "A small waterway spans the arboretum along the bed of the old North Fork of Putah Creek.", "Occasionally herons, kingfishers, and cormorants can be seen around the waterways, as well as the ever-present ducks.", "Tours of the arboretum led by volunteer naturalists are often held for grade-school children.=== The Domes ===The Domes, (AKA Baggins End Innovative Housing), is an on-campus cooperative housing community designed by project manager Ron Swenson and future student-residents in 1972.Consisting of 14 polyurethane foam-insulated fiberglass domes and located in the Sustainable Research Area at the western end of Orchard Road, it is governed by its 26 UCD student residents.", "It is one of the few student co-housing cooperative communities in the US, and is an early example of the modern-day growing tiny house movement.", "The community has successfully resisted several threats to its continuation over the years.===Farmers Market===The Davis Farmers Market is held every Wednesday evening and Saturday morning.", "Participants sell a range of fruits and vegetables, baked goods, dairy and meat products (often from certified organic farms), crafts, and plants and flowers.", "From April to October, the market hosts ''Picnic in the Park'', with musical events and food sold from restaurant stands.The Davis Farmers Market won first place in the 2009, and second place in the 2010 ''America's Favorite Farmers Markets'' held by the American Farmland Trust under the large Farmers market classification.===Media===Davis has one newspaper, ''The Davis Enterprise'', a thrice-weekly founded in 1897.UC Davis also has a weekly newspaper called ''The California Aggie'' which covers campus, local and national news.", "Davis Media Access, a community media center, is the umbrella organization of television station DCTV.", "There are also numerous commercial stations broadcasting from nearby Sacramento.", "Davis has two community radio stations: KDVS 90.3 FM, on the University of California campus, and KDRT 95.7 FM, a subsidiary of Davis Media Access and one of the first low-power FM radio stations in the United States.", "Davis has the world's largest English-language local wiki, DavisWiki.", "In 2006, ''The People's Vanguard of Davis'' began news reporting about the city of Davis, the Davis Joint Unified School District, the county of Yolo, and the Sacramento area.=== Toad Tunnel ===Entrance to the Toad Tunnel in front of the Post OfficeDavis' '''Toad Tunnel''' is a wildlife crossing that was constructed in 1995 and has drawn much attention over the years, including a mention on ''The Daily Show''.", "Because of the building of an overpass, animal lovers worried about toads being killed by cars commuting from South Davis to North Davis, since the toads traveled from one side of a dirt lot (which the overpass replaced) to the reservoir at the other end.", "After much controversy, a decision was made to build a toad tunnel, which runs beneath the Pole Line Road overpass which crosses Interstate 80.The project cost $14,000, .", "The tunnel is wide and high." ], [ "Education", "===University of California===The University of California, Davis, or UC Davis, a campus of the University of California, had a 2019 Fall enrollment of 38,369 students.", "UC Davis has a dominant influence on the social and cultural life of the town.===D-Q University===Entrance and mural at D-Q UniversityAlso known as '''Deganawidah-Quetzalcoatl University''' and much smaller than UC Davis, D-Q University was a two-year institution located on Road 31 in Yolo County west of State Route 113.This is just west of Davis near the Yolo County Airport.", "About to the west, the Road 31 exit from Interstate 505 is marked with cryptic signage, \"DQU.\"", "The site is about above mean sea level (AMSL).", "NAD83 coordinates for the campus are The college closed in 2005.The curriculum was said to include heritage and traditional American Indian ceremonies.", "The and 5 buildings were formerly a military reservation according to a National Park Service publication, ''Five Views.''", "The full name of the school is included here so that readers can accurately identify the topic.", "According to some tribal members, use of the spelled-out name of the university can be offensive.", "People who want to be culturally respectful refer to the institution as ''D-Q University''.", "Tribal members in appropriate circumstances may use the full name.===Other colleges===An off-campus branch of Sacramento City College is located in Davis.", "The satellite is located in West Village, an area built by UC Davis to house students and others affiliated with the university.===Public schools===Davis' public school system is administrated by the Davis Joint Unified School District.The city has nine public elementary schools (North Davis, Birch Lane, Pioneer Elementary, Patwin, Cesar Chavez, Robert E. Willett, Marguerite Montgomery, Fred T. Korematsu at Mace Ranch, and Fairfield Elementary (which is outside the city limits but opened in 1866 and is Davis Joint Unified School District's oldest public school)).", "Davis has one school for independent study (Davis School for Independent Study), four public junior high schools (Ralph Waldo Emerson, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Frances Harper, and Leonardo da Vinci Junior High), one main high school (Davis Senior High School), one alternative high school (Martin Luther King High School), and a small project based high school (Leonardo da Vinci High School).", "Cesar Chavez is a Spanish immersion school, with no English integration until the third grade.", "The junior high schools contain grades 7 through 9.Due to a decline in the school-age population in Davis, two of the elementary schools in south Davis may have their district boundaries changed, or magnet programs may be moved to equalize enrollment.", "Valley Oak was closed after the 2007–08 school year, and their campus was granted to Da Vinci High (which had formerly been located in the back of Davis Senior High's campus) and a special-ed preschool.", "On average, class size is about 25 students: 1 teacher.At one time, Chavez and Willett were incorporated together to provide elementary education K–6 to both English-speaking and Spanish immersion students in West Davis.", "César Chávez served grades K–3 and was called West Davis Elementary, and Robert E. Willett (named for a long-time teacher at the school, now deceased) served grades 4–6 and was known as West Davis Intermediate.", "Willett now serves K–6 English-speaking students, and Chavez supports the Spanish immersion program for K–6.===Private schools===* Davis Waldorf School (Pre-K–8)" ], [ "Notable people", "These are some notable Davis residents, other than UC Davis faculty who were not previously from Davis.", "* Karin Argoud, actress* David Henry Breaux* Samuel G. Armistead, anthropologist and linguist* Ruth Asmundson, former mayor of Davis* Peter S. Beagle, author, ''The Last Unicorn''* Eric Beavers, American football quarterback* Robert F. Berkhofer, historian* David Breaux, local counselor* William G. Burrill, Episcopal bishop* Cathy Carr, American Olympic swimmer* Robert Todd Carroll (born 1945), publisher of ''The Skeptic's Dictionary'' and fellow for Committee for Skeptical Inquiry* Alexandra Chalupa, American pro-Ukrainian activist* Connie Chan, San Francisco politician* Joseph Ballinger Chiles, trail blazer and early pioneer* Tony Cline Jr., NFL tight end* Antoinette Clinton, aka Butterscotch, musician* Kim Conley, 2012 Olympian, track and field* Ross Cordy, archaeologist* Joe Craven, musician* Denise Curry, basketball player* Jerome C. Davis, state figure and pioneer, and namesake of Davis* Malachi Davis, sprinter, Olympian* Josh Davis, aka DJ Shadow, famous for his critically acclaimed sample based instrumental hip-hop* Cecilia Dean, fashion model and entrepreneur* Theodosius Dobzhansky, Russian-American geneticist and evolutionary biologist* Delaine Eastin, former California State Superintendent of Public Instruction* Tony Fields, actor, dancer; Davis High School alumnus.", "Fields is best known in his tenure as a ''Solid Gold'' Dancer (1979–1984) and his film roles of Alan DeLuca in the 1985 movie version of ''A Chorus Line'' and Sammi Curr in the 1986 cult horror film ''Trick Or Treat''.", "* Jason Fisk, former NFL defensive tackle* Karen Joy Fowler, author* Rebecca Fransway, author and poet* Michael Franti, musician* Nick Frentz, politician, member of the Minnesota Senate* Todd Gogulski, former professional bicycle road racer and TV commentator for Universal Sports* John Lawrence Goheen, American missionary, educator and administrator, agriculturist, social worker, and writer* Carol Greider, molecular biologist and Nobel Laureate (at Johns Hopkins), raised in Davis* Myril Hoag, MLB outfielder, three-time World Series champion* Rita Hosking, musician* Winnifred Hudson, painter* Nyjah Huston, professional skateboarderKatie Kitamura, author John Lescroart, author* John Lieswyn, American racing cyclist* Ladule Lako LoSarah is an American-born South Sudanese international footballer currently with FC Inter Leipzig of the German NOFV-Oberliga.", "* Deborah Madison, chef, author* Mike May, entrepreneur and athlete, regained sight after decades of complete blindness* Jonna Mazet, epidemiologist* Barry Melton, musician* Gina Miles, 2008 Beijing Olympic silver medalist, equestrian* Scott Miller, pop musician* Hasan Minhaj, comedian * Jennifer Moffitt, politician* Paul Moller, engineer and developer of the Moller Skycar* Rachel Moore, president and CEO of the Los Angeles Music Center* Freddie Muller, Major League Baseball infielder* Dave Nachmanoff, musician* Gabe Newell, co-founder of Valve* Iyabo Obasanjo, Nigerian politician* Thretton Palamo, American rugby union player* Dickie Peterson, musician* Orange Phelps, Oregon businessman and politician* Kim Stanley Robinson, science-fiction author; famous works include Mars trilogy.", "* Stephen Robinson, astronaut (received bachelor's degree from UC Davis, 1978)* Beth Rodden, professional rock climber* Halsey Rodman, artist* Ray Rohwer, Major League Baseball outfielder* Ed Ross, tintype photographer and lawyer* Paul Scheuring, screenwriter (''Prison Break'', ''A Man Apart'')* Dave Scott, triathlete, six-time Ironman Triathlon world champion* Jonathan Segel, American composer and multi-instrumentalist* Meredith Small, anthropologist* Peter Siebold, member of the Scaled Composites astronaut team* Colby Slater, American rugby union player, Olympic gold-medal winner* Sean Stewart, author* Charles Tart, parapsychologist* Donnette Thayer, vocalist, guitarist and songwriter* Helen Thomson, state and county politician* Alexandria Villaseñor, climate activist* Nick Watney, PGA Tour professional golfer* Zach Weiner, web comic author and illustrator* Andrew Weir, author of ''The Martian''* Paul Whaley, drummer for the band Blue Cheer* Craig Wilson, water polo player and Olympian* Mike Wise, NFL defensive end* Lois Wolk, state politician* Paul Wulff, former Washington State football head coach* Steve Wynn, musician, leader of the band The Dream Syndicate* Mariko Yamada, state politician* Martin Yan, cooking show host* Sophia Yin, veterinarian, animal trainer and author* Gary Lee Yoder, musician, part of several 1960s psychedelic rock bands* Malcolm Clemens Young, Episcopal priest, Dean of Grace Cathedral, San Francisco* Robert Zirkin, Maryland politician* Eunice Dahae Baik, designer of the Crunchyroll Hime mascot" ], [ "Sister cities", "Davis' sister cities are:* Huishan (Wuxi), China * Inuyama, Japan* Los Baños, Philippines* Muñoz, Philippines* Qufu, China* Rutilio Grande, El Salvador* Sangju, South Korea* Uman, Ukraine" ], [ "See also", "* Davis Community Church, 1800s structure, congregation* Lake Davis, California* 2023 Davis, California stabbings" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Yolo County Visitors Bureau – information on hotels, restaurants and attractions in Davis;Directory*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Damon Runyon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Alfred Damon Runyon''' (October 4, 1880 – December 10, 1946) was an American journalist and short-story writer.He was best known for his short stories celebrating the world of Broadway in New York City that grew out of the Prohibition era.", "To New Yorkers of his generation, a \"Damon Runyon character\" evoked a distinctive social type from Brooklyn or Midtown Manhattan.", "The adjective \"Runyonesque\" refers to this type of character and the type of situations and dialog that Runyon depicts.He spun humorous and sentimental tales of gamblers, hustlers, actors, and gangsters, few of whom go by \"square\" names, preferring instead colorful monikers such as \"Nathan Detroit\", \"Benny Southstreet\", \"Big Jule\", \"Harry the Horse\", \"Good Time Charley\", \"Dave the Dude\", or \"The Seldom Seen Kid\".His distinctive vernacular style is known as \"Runyonese\": a mixture of formal speech and colorful slang, almost always in the present tense, and always devoid of contractions.", "He is credited with coining the phrase \"Hooray Henry\", a term now used in British English to describe the upper-class version of a loud-mouthed, arrogant twit.Runyon's fictional world is also known to the general public through the musical ''Guys and Dolls'' based on two of his stories, \"The Idyll of Miss Sarah Brown\" and \"Blood Pressure\".", "The musical additionally borrows characters and story elements from a few other Runyon stories, most notably \"Pick The Winner\".", "The film ''Little Miss Marker'' (and its three remakes, ''Sorrowful Jones'', ''40 Pounds of Trouble'' and the 1980 ''Little Miss Marker'') grew from his short story of the same name.Runyon was also a newspaper reporter, covering sports and general news for decades for various publications and syndicates owned by William Randolph Hearst.", "Already known for his fiction, he wrote a well-remembered \"present tense\" article on Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Presidential inauguration in 1933 for the Universal Service, a Hearst syndicate, which was merged with the co-owned International News Service in 1937." ], [ "Early life", "Boyhood home of Damon Runyon in Manhattan, KansasDamon Runyon was born '''Alfred Damon Runyan''' to Alfred Lee and Elizabeth (Damon) Runyan.", "His relatives in his birthplace of Manhattan, Kansas, included several newspapermen.", "His grandfather was a newspaper printer from New Jersey who had relocated to Manhattan, Kansas, in 1855, and his father was the editor of his newspaper in the town.", "In 1882 Runyon's father was forced to sell his newspaper, and the family moved westward.", "The family eventually settled in Pueblo, Colorado, in 1887, where Runyon spent the rest of his youth.", "By most accounts, he attended school only through the fourth grade.", "He began to work in the newspaper trade under his father in Pueblo.", "In present-day Pueblo, Runyon Field, the Damon Runyon Repertory Theater Company, and Runyon Lake are named in his honor." ], [ "Enlistment in the military", "Runyon's World War I draft registration (September 1918)In 1898, when still in his teens, Runyon enlisted in the US Army to fight in the Spanish–American War.", "While in the service, he was assigned to write for the ''Manila Freedom'' and ''Soldier's Letter''." ], [ "Newspaper reporter", "After military service, he worked for Colorado newspapers, beginning in Pueblo.", "His first job as a reporter was in September 1900, when he was hired by the ''Pueblo Star''; he then worked in the Rocky Mountain area during the first decade of the 1900s: at the ''Denver Daily News'', he served as \"sporting editor\" (today a \"sports editor\") and then as a staff writer.", "His expertise was in covering the semi-professional teams in Colorado.", "He briefly managed a semi-pro team in Trinidad, Colorado.", "At one of the newspapers where he worked, the spelling of his last name was changed from \"Runyan\" to \"Runyon\", a change he let stand.After failing in an attempt to organize a Colorado minor baseball league, which lasted less than a week, Runyon moved to New York City in 1910.In his first New York byline, the ''American'' editor dropped the \"Alfred\" and the name \"Damon Runyon\" appeared for the first time.", "For the next ten years, he covered the New York Giants and professional boxing for the ''New York American''.He was the Hearst newspapers' baseball columnist for many years, beginning in 1911, and his knack for spotting the eccentric and the unusual, on the field or in the stands, is credited with revolutionizing the way baseball was covered.", "Perhaps as confirmation, Runyon was voted 1967 J. G. Taylor Spink Award by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA), for which he was honored at ceremonies at the National Baseball Hall of Fame in July 1968.He is also a member of the International Boxing Hall Of Fame and is known for dubbing heavyweight champion James J. Braddock the \"Cinderella Man\".", "Runyon frequently contributed sports poems to the ''American'' on boxing and baseball themes and wrote numerous short stories and essays." ], [ "Gambling", "Gambling, particularly on craps or horse races, was a common theme of Runyon's works, and he was a notorious gambler.", "One of his paraphrases from a line in Ecclesiastes ran: \"The race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, but that's how the smart money bets.", "\"A heavy drinker as a young man, he seems to have quit drinking soon after arriving in New York, after his drinking nearly cost him the courtship of the woman who became his first wife, Ellen Egan.", "He remained a heavy smoker.His best friend was mobster accountant Otto Berman, and he incorporated Berman into several of his stories under the alias \"Regret, the horse player\".", "When Berman was killed in a hit on Berman's boss, Dutch Schultz, Runyon quickly assumed the role of damage control for his deceased friend, mostly by correcting erroneous press releases – including one that stated Berman was one of Schultz's gunmen, to which Runyon replied, \"Otto would have been as effective a bodyguard as a two-year-old.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "While in New York City, Runyon courted and eventually married Ellen Egan.", "Their marriage produced two children, Mary and Damon Jr. A modern writer remarks that \"by contemporary standards, Runyon was a marginal husband and father.\"", "In 1928, Egan separated from Runyon permanently and moved to Bronxville with their children after hearing persistent rumors about her husband's infidelities.", "As it became subsequently known, Runyon, in 1916, was covering the border raids of Mexican bandit Pancho Villa as a reporter for the ''American'' newspaper owned by William Randolph Hearst.", "He had first met Villa in Texas while covering spring training of the state's teams.", "While in Mexico, Runyon visited one afternoon the Ciudad Juárez racetrack where Villa was present and placed a bet through a young messenger girl in Villa's entourage.", "The 14-year-old girl, whose name was Patrice Amati del Grande, erroneously placed Runyon's bet on a different horse that nonetheless won the race.", "She confided to the lucky bettor that she wanted to be a dancer when she grew up and Runyon told her that if, instead, she would attend school, for which he would pay, she could come after her graduation to see him New York and he would get her a dancing job in the city; Runyon did indeed pay for her enrollment in the local convent school.In 1925, 19-year-old Grande came to New York City looking for Runyon and found him through the ''American'''s receptionist.", "The two became lovers and he found her work at local speakeasies.", "In 1928, after the separation between Runyon and Ellen Egan turned into a divorce, Runyon and Grande were married by his friend, city mayor Jimmy Walker.", "His former wife became an alcoholic and died in 1931 from a heart attack.", "In 1946, some time after Grande began an affair with a younger man, the couple got divorced." ], [ "Death", "Woodlawn CemeteryIn late 1946, the same year he and his second wife were divorced, Runyon died, at age 66, in New York City from the throat cancer that had been diagnosed two years earlier, in 1944, when he underwent an unsuccessful operation that left him practically unable to speak.", "His body was cremated, and his ashes were scattered from a DC-3 airplane over Broadway in Manhattan by Eddie Rickenbacker on December 18, 1946.This was an infringement of the law but widely approved.", "The family plot of Damon Runyon is located at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York.Runyon, in his will, left to his former second wife his house in Florida, his racing stables, and the money from his insurance.", "He split in half the royalties from his works to his children and Grande.", "His daughter Mary was eventually institutionalized for alcoholism while his son Damon Jr., after working as a journalist in Washington, D.C., committed suicide in 1968." ], [ "Legacy", "* After Runyon's death, his friend and fellow journalist Walter Winchell went on his radio program and appealed for contributions to help fight cancer, eventually establishing the Damon Runyon Cancer Memorial Fund to support scientific research into causes of, and prevention of, cancer.", "* The first-ever telethon was hosted by Milton Berle in 1949 to raise funds for the Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation.", "* Each year the Denver Press Club assigns the Damon Runyon Award to a prominent journalist.", "Past winners include Jimmy Breslin, Mike Royko, George Will and Bob Costas.", "* Damon Runyon Elementary school in Littleton, Colorado is named after him.", "* The Damon Runyon Stakes is a thoroughbred horse race run every December at Aqueduct Race Track.", "Runyon loved horse racing and ran a small stable of his own.", "* In the mid-1930s, Runyon persuaded promoter Leo Seltzer to formally change his Roller Derby spectacle from a marathon roller-skating race into a full-contact team sport, an innovation that was eventually revived in a DIY spirit seven decades later.", "* One block of West 45th Street (between 8th and 9th Avenues) in Manhattan's Hell's Kitchen is named Runyon's Way.", "* The house in Manhattan, Kansas, where Runyon was born, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.", "* In 2008, The Library of America selected \"The Eternal Blonde\", Runyon's account of a 1927 murder trial, for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American Crime Writing.", "* Until January 1944, the 515th B-24 bomber squadron \"Satan's Kids\", of the 376th Bomber Group named their bombers after Runyon \"Gangster\" characters," ], [ "Literary style – the \"Broadway\" stories", "An illustration from \"Breach of Promise\" showing Spanish John and Harry the HorseThe English comedy writer Frank Muir comments that Runyon's plots were, in the manner of O. Henry, neatly constructed with professionally wrought endings, but their distinction lay in the manner of their telling, as the author invented a peculiar argot for his characters to speak.", "Runyon almost totally avoids the past tense (English humorist E. C. Bentley thought there was only one instance and was willing to \"lay plenty of 6 to 5 that it is nothing but a misprint\", but \"was\" appears in the short stories \"The Lily of St Pierre\" and \"A Piece of Pie\"; \"had\" appears in \"The Lily of St Pierre\", \"Undertaker Song\" and \"Bloodhounds of Broadway\"), and makes little use of the future tense, using the present for both.", "He also avoided the conditional, using instead the future indicative in situations that would normally require conditional.", "An example: \"Now most any doll on Broadway will be very glad indeed to have Handsome Jack Madigan give her a tumble\" (''Guys and Dolls'', \"Social error\").", "Bentley comments that \"there is a sort of ungrammatical purity about it Runyon's resolute avoidance of the past tense, an almost religious exactitude.\"", "There is an homage to Runyon that makes use of this peculiarity (\"Chronic Offender\" by Spider Robinson), which involves a time machine and a man going by the name \"Harry the Horse\".He uses many slang terms (which go unexplained in his stories), such as:* pineapple = pineapple grenade* roscoe/john roscoe/the old equalizer/that thing = gun* shiv = knife* noggin = head* snoot = noseThere are many recurring composite phrases such as:* ever-loving wife (occasionally \"ever-loving doll\")* more than somewhat (or \"no little, and quite some\"); this phrase was so typical that it was used as the title of one of his short story collections* loathe and despise* one and allBentley notes that Runyon's \"telling use of the recurrent phrase and fixed epithet\" demonstrates a debt to Homer.Runyon's stories also employ occasional rhyming slang, similar to the cockney variety but native to New York (e.g.", ": \"Miss Missouri Martin makes the following crack one night to her: 'Well, I do not see any Simple Simon on your lean and linger.'", "This is Miss Missouri Martin's way of saying she sees no diamond on Miss Billy Perry's finger.\"", "(from \"Romance in the Roaring Forties\")).The comic effect of his style results partly from the juxtaposition of broad slang with mock pomposity.", "Women, when not \"dolls\", \"Judies\", \"pancakes\", \"tomatoes\", or \"broads\", may be \"characters of a female nature\", for example.", "He typically avoided contractions such as \"don't\" in the example above, which also contributes significantly to the humorously pompous effect.", "In one sequence, a gangster tells another character to do as he is told, or else \"find another world in which to live\".Runyon's short stories are told in the first person by a protagonist who is never named and whose role is unclear; he knows many gangsters and does not appear to have a job, but he does not admit to any criminal involvement, and seems to be largely a bystander.", "He describes himself as \"being known to one and all as a guy who is just around\".", "The radio program ''The Damon Runyon Theatre'' dramatized 52 of Runyon's works in 1949, and for these the protagonist was given the name \"Broadway\", although it was admitted that this was not his real name, much in the way \"Harry the Horse\" and \"Sorrowful Jones\" are aliases." ], [ "Literary works", "===Books=======Poems====''The Tents of Trouble'' (1911)''Rhymes of the Firing Line'' (1912)''Poems for Men'' (1947)====Story collections====''Guys and Dolls'' (1932)''Blue Plate Special'' (1934)''Money From Home'' (1935)''More Than Somewhat'' (1937)''Furthermore'' (1938)''Take It Easy'' (1938)''My Wife Ethel'' (1939)''My Old Man'' (1939)''Runyon à la Carte'' (1944)''In Our Town'' (1946)''The Three Wise Guys and Other Stories'' (1946)''Damon Runyon Favorites'' (1946)''Trials and Other Tribulations'' (1947)====Collected newspaper columns===='' Short Takes'' (1946)====Compilations containing previously collected material====''The Best of Runyon'' (1940)''Damon Runyon Favorites'' (1942)''The Damon Runyon Omnibus'' (1944)''Runyon First and Last'' (1949)''Runyon on Broadway'' (1950; introduction by E.C.", "Bentley)''More Guys and Dolls'' (1950)''The Turps'' (1951)''Damon Runyon from First to Last'' (1954)''A Treasury of Damon Runyon'' (1958)''The Bloodhounds of Broadway and Other Stories'' (1985)''Romance in the Roaring Forties and other stories'' (1986)''On Broadway (1990)''Guys, Dolls, and Curveballs: Damon Runyon on Baseball'' (2005; Jim Reisler, editor)''Guys and Dolls and Other Writings'' (2008; introduction by Pete Hamill)====Play====''A Slight Case of Murder'' (with Howard Lindsay, 1940)====Biography====''Capt.", "Eddie Rickenbacker'' (with W. Kiernan, 1942)===Stories===There are many collections of Runyon's stories, in particular ''Runyon on Broadway'' and ''Runyon from First to Last''.", "A publisher's note in the latter claims that collection contains all of Runyon's short stories not included in ''Runyon on Broadway'', but two Broadway stories originally published in ''Collier's Weekly'' are not in either collection: \"Maybe a Queen\" and \"Leopard's Spots\", both collected in ''More Guys And Dolls'' (1950).", "The radio show, in addition, has a story, \"Joe Terrace\", that appears in 'More Guys and Dolls' and the August 29, 1936, issue of ''Colliers''.", "It is one of his \"Our Town\" stories that does not appear in the \"In Our Town\" book, and the only episode of the show which is not a Broadway' story, however, the action is changed in the show from Our Town to Broadway.The \"Our Town\" stories are short vignettes of life in a small town, largely based on Runyon's experiences.", "They are written in a simple, descriptive style and contain twists and odd endings based on the personalities of the people involved.", "Each story's title is the name of the principal character.", "Twenty-seven of them were published in the 1946 book ''In Our Town''.", "''Runyon on Broadway'' contains the following stories:'''More Than Somewhat'''Breach of PromiseRomance in the Roaring FortiesDream Street RoseThe Old Doll's HouseBlood PressureThe Bloodhounds of BroadwayTobias the TerribleThe Snatching of Bookie BobThe Lily of St. PierreHold 'em, YaleEarthquake'Gentlemen, the King!", "'A Nice PriceBroadway FinancierThe Brain Goes Home'''Furthermore'''Madame La GimpDancing Dan's ChristmasSense of HumourLillianLittle Miss MarkerPick the WinnerUndertaker SongButch Minds the BabyThe Hottest Guy in the WorldThe Lemon Drop KidWhat, No Butler?", "The Three Wise GuysA Very Honourable GuyPrincess O'HaraSocial Error'''Take It Easy'''Tight ShoesLonely HeartThe Brakeman's DaughterCemetery BaitIt Comes Up MudThe Big UmbrellaFor a PalBig ShouldersThat Ever-Loving Wife of Hymie'sNeat StripBred for BattleToo Much PepBaseball HattieSituation WantedA Piece of PieA Job for the MacaroneAll Horse Players Die Broke ''Runyon from First to Last'' includes the following stories and sketches:'''The First Stories'''\t(early non-Broadway stories):The Defence of StrikervilleFat FallonTwo Men Named Collins.", "First published in Reader Magazine, Date UnknownAs Between FriendsThe Informal Execution of Soupbone PewMy Father'''Stories à la Carte''' (Broadway stories written in Runyonese):Money from HomeA Story Goes With ItBroadway ComplexSo You Won't Talk!", "Dark DoloresDelegates at LargeA Light in FranceOld Em's Kentucky HomeJohnny One-EyeBroadway IncidentThe Idyll of Miss Sarah BrownThe Melancholy DaneBarbecueLittle PinksPalm Beach Santa ClausCleoThe Lacework Kid'''The Last Stories''' (Broadway stories written in Runyonese):Blonde MinkBig Boy Blues'''Written in Sickness''' (sketches):Why Me?", "The Doctor Knows BestNo LifeGood NightBed-WarmersSweet DreamsPassing the Word AlongDeath Pays a Social Call ''In Our Town'' contains the following stories:Our Old Man (originally titled On Good Turns)Samuel GrazePete HankinsJeremiah ZoreMrs. JudsonThe Happiness JonesesMrs. McGregorDoc BrackettOfficer LipscomberMarigold and Maidie SoSterling CurlewDoc MindlerMrs. PilplaySheriff HardingBoswell Van DusenDr. DavenportMrs. BoganeSam CrableAncil ToombsAmy VedermanPeter ChowlesJudge JugginsBanker BeaverbrookJudge JoesAngel KakeBet RagleHank SmithThe following \"Our Town\" stories were not included in ''In Our Town'':Joe TerraceBurge McCallLou Louder===Uncollected stories===''The Art of High Grading''.", "Illustrated Sunday Magazine, January 2, 1910''The Sucker''.", "San Francisco Examiner, July 10, 1910''Burge McCall''.", "Collier's, July 11, 1936 (not in Runyonese)''Lou Louder''.", "Collier's, August 8, 1936 (not in Runyonese)''Nothing Happens in Brooklyn''.", "Collier's, April 30, 1938 (partly in Runyonese, but includes past tense)===Film===Dave the Dude (Warren William) and Apple Annie (May Robson) in ''Lady for a Day'' (1933)Twenty of his stories became motion pictures.", "''Lady for a Day'' (1933) – Adapted by Robert Riskin, who suggested the name change from Runyon's title \"Madame La Gimp\".", "The film garnered Academy Award nominations for Best Picture, Best Director (Frank Capra), Best Actress (May Robson), and Best Adaptation for the Screen (Riskin).", "It was remade as ''Pocketful of Miracles'' in 1961, with Bette Davis in the Apple Annie role (fused with the \"raggedy doll\" from Runyon's short story \"The Brain Goes Home\"); Frank Sinatra recorded the upbeat title song (his rendition is not used in the film).", "The film received Oscar nominations for composers Sammy Cahn and Jimmy Van Heusen and for co-star Peter Falk (Best Supporting Actor).", "In 1989, Jackie Chan adapted the story yet again for the Hong Kong action film ''Miracles'', adding several of his trademark stunt sequences.", "''Little Miss Marker'' (1934) – The film that made Shirley Temple a star, launched her career, and pushed her past Greta Garbo as the nation's biggest film draw of the year.", "Also starred Charles Bickford.", "Subsequent remakes include ''Sorrowful Jones'' (1949) with Bob Hope and Lucille Ball; ''40 Pounds of Trouble'' (1962) with Tony Curtis, and ''Little Miss Marker'' (1980) with Walter Matthau, Julie Andrews, Bob Newhart and Curtis.", "''The Lemon Drop Kid'' (1934) – Starring Lee Tracy, remade in 1951 with Bob Hope (and ''I Love Lucy'' co-star William Frawley appearing in both adaptations); the latter version introduced the Christmas song \"Silver Bells\".", "''Princess O'Hara'' (1935) – Starring Jean Parker, remade in 1943 as ''It Ain't Hay'' with Abbott and Costello and Patsy O'Connor''Professional Soldier'' (1935) – an adventure story starring Victor McLaglen and Freddie Bartholomew''A Slight Case of Murder'' (1938) with Edward G. Robinson – remade in 1953 as ''Stop, You're Killing Me'' with Broderick Crawford and Claire Trevor''Joe and Ethel Turp Call on the President'' (1939) with Ann Sothern, Lewis Stone and Walter Brennan.", "''The Big Street'' (1942) – Henry Fonda, Lucille Ball (adapted from Runyon's story \"Little Pinks\")''Butch Minds the Baby'' (1942) – Broderick Crawford, Shemp Howard''Johnny One-Eye'' – (1950) Starring Pat O'Brien, Wayne Morris, Delores Moran, and Gayle Reed''Money from Home'' (1953) – Starring Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis''Guys and Dolls'' (1955) – Marlon Brando, Jean Simmons, Frank Sinatra, Vivian Blaine, and Stubby Kaye.", "Blaine and Kaye reprised their roles from the 1950 Broadway production.", "Adapted from the story \"The Idyll of Miss Sarah Brown\".", "The big craps game is adapted from the story \"Blood Pressure\".", "''Bloodhounds of Broadway'' (1952) – Musical comedy starring Mitzi Gaynor and directed by Harmon Jones''Bloodhounds of Broadway'' (1989) – Ensemble cast starring Matt Dillon, Jennifer Grey, Madonna, and Julie Hagerty, among others.", "The film combines elements from four stories into one large one: \"A Very Honorable Guy\", \"The Brain Goes Home\", \"Social Error\", and \"The Bloodhounds of Broadway\".In 1938, his unproduced play ''Saratoga Chips'' became the basis of The Ritz Brothers film ''Straight, Place and Show''.===Plays and musicals===''A Slight Case of Murder'' (1935) co-written for Broadway with Howard Lindsay''Guys and Dolls'' (1950) starring Robert Alda (Sky Masterson), Vivian Blaine (Miss Adelaide), Sam Levene (Nathan Detroit), Isabel Bigley (Sarah Brown), Pat Rooney Sr., B.S.", "Pully, Stubby Kaye, Johnny Silver, Tom Pedi.", "Adapted from Runyon's stories \"The Idyll of Miss Sarah Brown\" and \"Blood Pressure\".===Radio===''The Damon Runyon Theater'' radio series dramatized 52 of Runyon's short stories in weekly broadcasts running from October 1948 to September 1949 (with reruns until 1951).", "The series was produced by Alan Ladd's Mayfair Transcription Company for syndication to local radio stations.", "John Brown played the character \"Broadway\", who doubled as host and narrator.", "The cast also comprised Alan Reed, Luis Van Rooten, Joseph Du Val, Gerald Mohr, Frank Lovejoy, Herb Vigran, Sheldon Leonard, William Conrad, Jeff Chandler, Lionel Stander, Sidney Miller, Olive Deering and Joe De Santis.", "Pat O'Brien was initially engaged for the role of \"Broadway\".", "The original stories were adapted for the radio by Russell Hughes.", "\"Broadway's New York had a crisis each week, though the streets had a rose-tinged aura\", wrote radio historian John Dunning.", "\"The sad shows then were all the sadder; plays like ''For a Pal'' had a special poignance.", "The bulk of Runyon's work had been untapped by radio, and the well was deep.", "\"===Television===''Damon Runyon Theatre'' aired on CBS-TV from 1955 to 1956.Mike McShane told Runyon stories as monologues on British TV in 1994, and an accompanying book was released, both titled ''Broadway Stories''.", "''Three Wise Guys'' was a 2005 TV movie." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Breslin, Jimmy (1991).", "''Damon Runyon: A Life''.", "London: Houghton Mifflin.", "* Clark, Tom (1978).", "''The World of Damon Runyon''.", "New York: Harper & Row.", "* D'Itri, Patricia Ward (1982).", "''Damon Runyon''.", "Boston: Twayne.", "* Hoyt, Edwin P (1964).", "''A Gentleman of Broadway: The Story of Damon Runyon''.", "Boston: Little Brown.", "* Mosedale, John (1981).", "''The Men Who Invented Broadway: Damon Runyon, Walter Winchell & Their World''.", "New York: Richard Marek Publishers.", "* Runyon, Damon Jr (1953).", "''Father's Footsteps: The Story of Damon Runyon by his Son''.", "New York: Random House* Schwarz, Daniel R (2003).", "''Broadway Boogie Woogie: Damon Runyon and the Making of New York City Culture''.", "New York: Palgrave MacMillan.", "* Wagner, Jean (1965).", "''Runyonese: The Mind and Craft of Damon Runyon''.", "Paris: Stechert-Hafner.", "* Weiner, Ed (1948). ''", "The Damon Runyon Story''.", "New York: Longmans Green." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Baseball Hall of Fame* All the stories from: More than Somewhat, Furthermore, & Take it Easy at Project Gutenberg Australia* Text of story \"The Informal Execution of Soupbone Pew\" at Project Gutenberg Australia* ''The Damon Runyon Theatre'' – audio files of the complete series at the Internet Archive* * * ''Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation and Broadway Theater Service''* Damon Runyon Papers.", "Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.", "* https://damon-runyon.com \"Damon Runyon's Pueblo\" Award-winning 40 minute film.", "KRMA TV Denver called \"Damon Runyon's Pueblo\" \"an eye-opening and vastly entertaining semi-documentary\" on the author's early, formative years in Pueblo, Colorado where he met historical figures such as Bat Masterson and Doc Holliday.", "Encyclopædia Britannica said \"few of his admirers know that many characters and incidents in Runyon's stories were suggested by Pueblo people and experiences.\"" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Don Tennant" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Donald G. Tennant''' (November 23, 1922 – December 8, 2001) was an American advertising agency executive.He worked at the Leo Burnett agency in Chicago, Illinois.", "The agency placed anthropomorphic faces of 'critters' on packaged goods.Tennant was in charge of the Marlboro account and invented the Marlboro Man." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Devo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Devo''' (, originally ), often stylized as '''DEVO''', is an American new wave band from Akron, Ohio, formed in 1973.Their classic line-up consisted of two sets of brothers, the Mothersbaughs (Mark and Bob) and the Casales (Gerald and Bob), along with Alan Myers.", "The band had a No.", "14 ''Billboard'' chart hit in 1980 with the single \"Whip It\", the song that gave the band mainstream popularity.Devo's music and visual presentation (including stage shows and costumes) mingle kitsch science fiction themes, deadpan surrealist humor and mordantly satirical social commentary.", "The band's namesake, the tongue-in-cheek social theory of \"de-evolution\", was an integral concept in their early work, which was marked by experimental and dissonant art punk that merged rock music with electronics.", "Their output in the 1980s embraced synth-pop and a more mainstream, less conceptual style, though the band's satirical and quirky humor remained intact.", "Their music has proven influential on subsequent movements, particularly on new wave, industrial, and alternative rock artists.", "Devo (most enthusiastically Gerald Casale) was also a pioneer of the music video format." ], [ "History", "=== 1973–1978: Formation ===The name ''Devo'' comes from the concept of \"de-evolution\" and the band's related idea that instead of continuing to evolve, mankind had begun to regress, as evidenced by the dysfunction and herd mentality of American society.", "In the late 1960s, this idea was developed as a joke by Kent State University art students Gerald Casale and Bob Lewis, who created a number of satirical art pieces in a devolution vein.", "At this time, Casale had also performed with the local band 15-60-75 (The Numbers Band).", "They met Mark Mothersbaugh around 1970, a talented keyboardist who had been playing with the band Flossy Bobbitt.", "Mothersbaugh brought a more humorous feel to the band, introducing them to material like the pamphlet \"Jocko Homo Heavenbound\", which includes an illustration of a winged devil labelled \"D-EVOLUTION\" and would later inspire the song \"Jocko Homo\".", "The \"joke\" about de-evolution became serious following the Kent State massacre of May 4, 1970.This event would be cited multiple times as the impetus for forming the band Devo.", "Throughout the band's career, they have often been considered a \"joke band\" by the music press.The first form of Devo was the \"Sextet Devo\" which performed at the 1973 Kent State performing arts festival.", "It included Casale, Lewis and Mothersbaugh, as well as Gerald's brother Bob Casale on guitar, and friends Rod Reisman and Fred Weber on drums and vocals, respectively.", "This performance was filmed and an excerpt was later included on the home video release ''The Complete Truth About De-Evolution''.", "This lineup performed only once.", "Devo returned to perform in the Student Governance Center (featured prominently in the film) at the 1974 Creative Arts Festival with a lineup including the Casale brothers, Bob Lewis, Mark Mothersbaugh, and Jim Mothersbaugh on drums.The band continued to perform, generally as a quartet, but with a fluid lineup including Mark's brothers Bob Mothersbaugh and Jim Mothersbaugh.", "Bob played electric guitar, and Jim provided percussion using a set of home-made electronic drums.", "Their first two music videos, \"Secret Agent Man\" and \"Jocko Homo\", which both appeared in ''The Truth About De-Evolution'', were filmed in Akron, and Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, the hometown of most members.", "This lineup of Devo lasted until late 1975 when Jim left the band.", "Lewis would sometimes play guitar during this period, but mainly stayed in a managerial role.", "In concert, Devo would often perform in the guise of theatrical characters, such as Booji Boy and the Chinaman.", "Live concerts from this period were often confrontational, and would remain so until 1977.A recording of an early Devo performance from 1975 with the quartet lineup appears on ''Devo Live: The Mongoloid Years'' (1992), ending with the promoters unplugging Devo's equipment.Following Jim Mothersbaugh's departure, Bob Mothersbaugh found a new drummer, Alan Myers, who played on a conventional, acoustic drum kit.", "Casale re-recruited his brother Bob Casale, and the lineup of Devo remained the same for nearly ten years.Devo gained some fame in 1976 when their short film ''The Truth About De-Evolution'', directed by Chuck Statler, won a prize at the Ann Arbor Film Festival.", "This attracted the attention of David Bowie, who began work to get the band a recording contract with Warner Music Group.", "In 1977, Devo were asked by Neil Young to participate in the making of his film ''Human Highway''.", "Released in 1982, the film featured the band as \"nuclear garbagemen\".", "The band members were asked to write their own parts and Mark Mothersbaugh scored and recorded much of the soundtrack, his first of many.In March 1977, Devo released their first single, \"Mongoloid\" backed with \"Jocko Homo\", the B-side of which came from the soundtrack to ''The Truth About De-Evolution'', on their independent label Booji Boy.", "This was followed by a cover of the Rolling Stones' \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\".In 1978, the ''B Stiff'' EP was released by British independent label Stiff, which included the single \"Be Stiff\" plus two previous Booji Boy releases.", "\"Mechanical Man\", a 4-track 7-inch extended play (EP) of demos, an apparent bootleg, but actually put out by the band, was also released that year.=== 1978–1980: Recording contract, ''Q: Are We Not Men?", "A: We Are Devo!", "'', and ''Duty Now for the Future'' ===Live performance in Atlanta, Georgia, 1978: Bob Casale and Gerald CasaleRecommendations from David Bowie and Iggy Pop enabled Devo to secure a recording contract with Warner Bros. in 1978.After Bowie backed out of the business deal due to previous commitments, their first album, ''Q: Are We Not Men?", "A: We Are Devo!''", "was produced by Brian Eno and featured re-recordings of their previous singles \"Mongoloid\" and \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\".", "On October 14, 1978, Devo gained national exposure with an appearance on the late-night show ''Saturday Night Live'', a week after the Rolling Stones, performing \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\" and \"Jocko Homo\".The band followed up with ''Duty Now for the Future'' in 1979, which moved the band more towards electronic instrumentation.", "While not as successful as their first album, it did produce some fan favorites with the songs \"Blockhead\" and \"The Day My Baby Gave Me a Surprize\" , as well as a cover of the Johnny Rivers hit \"Secret Agent Man\".", "\"Secret Agent Man\" had been recorded first in 1974 for Devo's first film and performed live as early as 1976.In 1979, Devo traveled to Japan for the first time, and a live show from this tour was partially recorded.", "Devo appeared on ''Don Kirshner's Rock Concert'' in 1979, performing \"Blockhead\", \"Secret Agent Man\", \"Uncontrollable Urge\", and \"Mongoloid\".", "Also in 1979, Rhino, in conjunction with the Los Angeles radio station KROQ-FM, released ''Devotees'', a tribute album.", "It contained a set of covers of Devo songs interspersed with renditions of popular songs in Devo's style.Devo actively embraced the parody religion Church of the SubGenius.", "In concert, Devo sometimes performed as their own opening act, pretending to be a Christian soft rock band called \"Dove (the Band of Love)\", which is an anagram of \"Devo\".", "They appeared as Dove in the 1980 televangelism spoof film ''Pray TV''.=== 1980–1982: Mainstream breakthrough, ''Freedom of Choice'', and ''New Traditionalists'' ===Devo gained a new level of visibility with 1980's ''Freedom of Choice''.", "This album included their best-known hit, \"Whip It\", which quickly became a Top 40 hit.", "The album moved to an almost completely electronic sound, with the exception of acoustic drums and Bob Mothersbaugh's guitar.", "The tour for ''Freedom of Choice'' was ambitious for the band, including dates in Japan, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Canada.", "The band used a minimalist set including large custom light boxes which could be laid on their back to form a second, smaller stage during the second half of the set.", "Other popular songs from ''Freedom of Choice'' were \"Girl U Want\", the title-track, and \"Gates of Steel\".", "The band released popular music videos for \"Whip It\" and \"Girl U Want\".", "Devo made two appearances on the TV show ''Fridays'' in 1980, as well as on ''Don Kirshner's Rock Concert'', ''American Bandstand'', and other shows.", "The band members often wore red, terraced energy dome hats as part of its stage outfit.", "The dome was first worn during the band's ''Freedom of Choice'' campaign of 1980.It reappeared in the 1981, 1982, and 1988 tours, as well as in most of their performances since 1997.Devo also recorded two albums of their own songs as elevator music for their fan club, Club Devo, released on cassette in 1981 and 1984.These were later re-released on the album ''E-Z Listening Disc'' (1987), with all but two of the original Club Devo songs.", "These songs were often played as house music before Devo concerts.In August 1981, the band's ''DEV-O Live'' EP spent three weeks at the top of the Australian charts.", "In 1982, they toured Australia and appeared on the TV show ''Countdown''.", "Devo enjoyed continued popularity in Australia, where the nationally broadcast 1970s–1980s pop TV show ''Countdown'' was one of the first programs in the world to broadcast their video clips.", "They were given consistent radio support by Sydney-based non-commercial rock station Double Jay (2JJ) and Brisbane-based independent community station Triple Zed (4ZZZ), two of the first rock stations outside America to play their recordings.", "The late-night music program ''Nightmoves'' aired ''The Truth About De-Evolution''.In 1981, Devo contributed a cover of \"Working in the Coal Mine\", recorded during the ''Freedom of Choice'' sessions, to the film ''Heavy Metal''.", "They offered the song to be used in the film when Warner Bros. refused to include it on the album.", "Warner then included it as an independent bonus single accompanying their 1981 release, ''New Traditionalists''.", "For this album Devo wore self-described \"Utopian Boy Scout uniforms\" topped with a \"New Traditionalist Pomp\"—a plastic half-wig modeled on the hairstyle of John F. Kennedy.", "Among the singles from the album was \"Through Being Cool\", written as a reaction to their new-found fame from \"Whip It\" and seen as a response to new fans who had misinterpreted the message behind the hit song.", "The album's accompanying tour featured the band performing an intensely physical show with treadmills and a large Greek temple set.", "That same year they served as Toni Basil's backing band on ''Word of Mouth'', her debut album, which included versions of three Devo songs, recorded with Basil singing lead.=== 1982–1987: ''Oh, No!", "It's Devo'', ''Shout'', and Myers' departure ===''Oh, No!", "It's Devo'' followed in 1982.Produced by Roy Thomas Baker, the album featured a more synth-pop-oriented sound than its predecessors.", "According to Gerald Casale, the album's sound was inspired by reviewers alternately describing them as both \"fascists\" and \"clowns\".", "The album's tour featured the band performing seven songs in front of a 12-foot high rear-projection screen with synchronized video, an image recreated using blue screen effects in the album's accompanying music videos.", "Devo also contributed two songs, \"Theme from Doctor Detroit\" and \"Luv-Luv\", to the 1983 Dan Aykroyd film ''Doctor Detroit'', and produced a music video for \"Theme from Doctor Detroit\" featuring clips from the film interspersed with live-action segments.The band's sixth studio album, ''Shout'' (1984), which featured extensive use of the Fairlight CMI digital sampling synthesizer, was received poorly, and the expensive music video they'd produced for their cover of the Jimi Hendrix Experience's \"Are You Experienced?\"", "was criticized by some as being \"disrespectful\", all of which caused Warner Bros. to buy out the remainder of Devo's contract.", "Shortly thereafter, Myers left the band, citing creative unfulfillment.In the interim, Mark Mothersbaugh began composing music for the TV show ''Pee-wee's Playhouse'' and released an elaborately packaged solo cassette, ''Musik for Insomniaks'', which was later expanded and released as two CDs in 1988.=== 1987–1991: ''Total Devo'', ''Smooth Noodle Maps'', and breakup ===In 1987, Devo re-formed with former Sparks drummer David Kendrick to replace Myers.", "Their first project was a soundtrack for the horror film ''Slaughterhouse Rock'' (1988), starring Toni Basil.", "The band released the album ''Total Devo'' in 1988, on Enigma Records.", "This album included two songs used in the ''Slaughterhouse Rock'' soundtrack.", "The song \"Baby Doll\" was used that same year in the comedy film ''Tapeheads'', with newly recorded Swedish lyrics, and was credited to (and shown in a music video by) a fictitious Swedish band called Cube-Squared.", "Devo followed this up with a world tour, and released the live album ''Now It Can Be Told: Devo at the Palace'' in 1989.However, ''Total Devo'' was not a commercial success and received poor critical reviews.In 1989, members of Devo were involved in the project Visiting Kids, releasing a self-titled EP on the New Rose label in 1990.The band featured Mark's then-wife Nancye Ferguson, as well as David Kendrick, Bob Mothersbaugh, and Bob's daughter Alex Mothersbaugh.", "Their record was produced by Bob Casale and Mark Mothersbaugh, and Mark also co-wrote some of the songs.", "Visiting Kids appeared on the soundtrack to the film ''Rockula'', as well as on ''Late Night with David Letterman''.", "A promotional video was filmed for the song \"Trilobites\".In 1990, ''Smooth Noodle Maps'', Devo's last album for twenty years, was released.", "It too was a critical and commercial failure which, along with its two singles \"Stuck in a Loop\" and \"Post Post-Modern Man\", were Devo's worst-selling efforts; all failed to appear on the U.S. charts.", "Devo launched a concert tour in support of the album, but poor ticket sales and the bankruptcy and dissolution of Enigma Records, which was responsible for organizing and financing the tour, caused it to be cancelled part way through.In 1990, the members of Devo, bar Bob Mothersbaugh, appeared in the film ''The Spirit of '76''.", "Two albums of demo recordings from 1974 to 1977, namely ''Hardcore Devo: Volume One'' (1990) and ''Hardcore Devo: Volume Two'' (1991), were released on Rykodisc, as well as an album of early live recordings, ''Devo Live: The Mongoloid Years'' (1992).The band played one final show in March 1991 before breaking up.", "In an interview with Mark Mothersbaugh concerning their 1996 computer game ''Devo Presents Adventures of the Smart Patrol'', he explained, \"Around '88, '89, '90 maybe, we did our last tour in Europe, and it was kind of at that point, We were watching ''This Is Spinal Tap'' on the bus and said, 'Oh my God, that's our life.'", "And we just said, 'Things have to change.'", "So we kind of agreed from there that we wouldn't do live shows anymore.", "\"=== 1991–1996: Hiatus ===Following the split, Mark Mothersbaugh established Mutato Muzika, a commercial music production studio, along with Bob Mothersbaugh and Bob Casale.", "Mothersbaugh meant to further a career as a composer, and the latter worked as an audio engineer.", "Mothersbaugh has had considerable success writing and producing music for television programs, including ''Pee-wee's Playhouse'' and ''Rugrats'', video games, cartoons, and films, where he worked alongside director Wes Anderson.", "David Kendrick also worked at Mutato for a period during the early 1990s.", "Gerald Casale began a career as a director of music videos and commercials, working with bands including Rush, Soundgarden, Silverchair and the Foo Fighters.", "In the wake of Devo's dissolution, Bob Mothersbaugh attempted to start a solo career with The Bob I Band, recording an album that was never released.", "The tapes for this are now lost, though a bootleg recording of the band in concert exists and can be obtained through the bootleg aggregator Booji Boy's Basement.While they did not release any studio albums during this period, Devo sporadically reconvened to record a number of songs for various films and compilations, including a new recording of \"Girl U Want\" on the soundtrack to the 1995 film ''Tank Girl'' and a cover of the Nine Inch Nails hit \"Head Like a Hole\" for the 1996 North American version of the film ''Supercop''.=== 1996–2007: Reunion ===In January 1996, Devo performed a reunion concert at the Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah.", "The band performed on part of the 1996 Lollapalooza tour in the rotating Mystery Spot.", "On these tours and most subsequent tours, Devo performed a set-list mostly composed of material from between 1978 and 1982, ignoring their Enigma Records-era material.", "Also in 1996, Devo released a multimedia CD-ROM adventure game, ''Adventures of the Smart Patrol'' with Inscape.", "The game was not a success, but the Lollapalooza tour was received well enough to allow Devo to return in 1997 as a headliner.", "Devo performed sporadically from 1997 onwards.In 1999, the ''Oh, No!", "It's Devo'' era outtakes \"Faster and Faster\" and \"One Dumb Thing\", as well as the ''Shout'' era outtake \"Modern Life\", were restored, completed and used in the video game ''Interstate '82'', developed by Activision and released.", "Also that year, Mothersbaugh started the Devo side-project The Wipeouters, after their band in junior high, featuring himself (keyboards, organ), Bob Mothersbaugh (guitar), Bob Casale (guitar), and Mutato Muzika composer Josh Mancell (drums).", "The Wipeouters performed the theme song to the Nickelodeon animated series ''Rocket Power'', and in 2001 they released an album of surf rock material, titled ''P'Twaaang''.Around this same time, Devo's online fandom continued to grow, leading to 'Devotional', a Devo fan convention held annually in Cleveland, Ohio.", "The festival was most recently held in September 2022.In 2005, Devo recorded a new version of \"Whip It\" to be used in Swiffer television commercials, a decision they have said they regretted.", "During an interview with the ''Dallas Observer'', Gerald Casale said, \"It's just aesthetically offensive.", "It's got everything a commercial that turns people off has.\"", "The song \"Beautiful World\" was also used in a re-recorded form for an advertisement for Target stores.", "Due to rights issues with their back catalog, Devo has re-recorded songs for films and advertisements.In 2005, Gerald Casale announced his \"solo\" project, Jihad Jerry & the Evildoers (the Evildoers, including the other members of Devo), and released the first EP, ''Army Girls Gone Wild'' in 2006.A full-length album, ''Mine Is Not a Holy War'', was released on September 12, 2006, after a several-month delay.", "It featured mostly new material, plus re-recordings of four obscure Devo songs: \"I Need a Chick\" and \"I Been Refused\" (from ''Hardcore Devo: Volume Two''), \"Find Out\" (which appeared on the single and EP of \"Peek-a-Boo!\"", "in 1982), and \"Beehive\" (which was recorded by the band in 1974, whereupon it was apparently abandoned, with the exception of one appearance at a special show in 2001).", "Devo continued to tour actively in 2005 and 2006, unveiling a new stage show at appearances in October 2006, with the Jihad Jerry character performing \"Beautiful World\" as an encore.Also in 2006, Devo worked on a project with Disney known as Devo 2.0.A band of child performers was assembled and re-recorded Devo songs.", "A quote from the ''Akron Beacon Journal'' stated, \"Devo recently finished a new project in cahoots with Disney called Devo 2.0, which features the band playing old songs and two new ones with vocals provided by children.", "Their debut album, a two disc CD/DVD combo entitled ''DEV2.0'', was released on March 14, 2006.The lyrics of some of the songs were changed for family-friendly airplay, which has been claimed by the band to be a play on irony of the messages of their classic hits.", "\"Mark Mothersbaugh performing live with Devo at the Festival Internacional de Benicàssim, 2007 (Gerald Casale vacuum forms thermoplastic using an Art Deco lamp as a mold, with a hat liner, to make the \"energy\" helmets)In an April 2007 interview, Gerald Casale mentioned a tentative project for a biographical film about Devo's early days.", "According to Casale, a script was supposedly in development, called ''The Beginning Was the End''.", "Devo played their first European tour since 1990 in the summer of 2007, including a performance at Festival Internacional de Benicàssim.=== 2007–2013: ''Something for Everybody'' ===In December 2007, Devo released their first new single since 1990, \"Watch Us Work It\", which was featured in a commercial for Dell.", "The song features a sampled drum track from the ''New Traditionalists'' song \"The Super Thing\".", "Casale said that the song was chosen from a batch that the band was working on, and that it was the closest the band had been to releasing a new album.Festival Hall, in Melbourne, Australia, 2008: Casale and Mothersbaugh.Devo performed at the South by Southwest (SXSW) festival in March 2009, unveiling a new stage show with synchronized video backdrops (similar to the 1982 tour), new costumes, and three new songs: \"Don't Shoot, I'm a Man!", "\", \"What We Do\", and \"Fresh\".", "On September 16, Warner Bros. and Devo announced re-releases of ''Q: Are We Not Men?", "A: We Are Devo!''", "and ''Freedom of Choice'', as well as a subsequent tour, where they would perform both albums in their entirety.A new album, ''Something for Everybody'', was eventually released on June 15, 2010, preceded by a 12-inch single of \"Fresh\"/\"What We Do\" on June 10.Devo was awarded the first Moog Innovator Award on October 29, during Moogfest 2010 in Asheville, North Carolina.", "The Moog Innovator Award has been said to celebrate \"pioneering artists whose genre-defying work exemplifies the bold, innovative spirit of Bob Moog\".", "Devo was scheduled to perform at Moogfest, but Bob Mothersbaugh severely injured his hand three days prior, and the band was forced to cancel.", "Mark Mothersbaugh and Gerald Casale collaborated with Austin-based band the Octopus Project to perform \"Girl U Want\" and \"Beautiful World\" at the event instead.The band split from Warner Bros in 2012 and launched a new \"post-Warner Brothers\" website that would offer \"new protective gear\" and \"unreleased material from the archives in vinyl disc format\".", "In August of that year, the band released a single called \"Don't Roof Rack Me, Bro (Seamus Unleashed)\", dedicated to the Republican Party presidential candidate Mitt Romney's former pet dog Seamus.", "The title refers to the Mitt Romney dog incident of 1983, when Romney travelled twelve hours with the dog in a crate on his car's roof rack.On June 24, 2013, the group's former drummer Alan Myers died of stomach cancer in Los Angeles, California.", "He was 58.News reports at the time of his death incorrectly cited brain cancer as the cause.", "One month later, Devo released their ''Something Else for Everybody'' album, which collected \"Unreleased Demos and Focus Group Rejects\" from 2006–2009.Gerald Casale had earlier teased the album in a 2012 interview with ''Billboard'' magazine.=== 2014: Hardcore Devo Tour, Bob Casale's death ===On February 17, 2014, founding member Bob Casale died of heart failure at age 61.Shortly afterwards, the group, a quartet for the first time in 38 years, embarked on their Hardcore Devo Tour, a ten-show tour across the US and Canada between June 18 and July 2, 2014.The tour focused on material the group had written before the release of their first album, which was largely written when the group were a quartet.", "Partial proceeds for the ten shows went to support Bob Casale's family after his sudden death.", "The show featured the group performing material written during 1974–1977.The June 28 Oakland show was filmed and later released as the concert film ''Hardcore Devo Live!", "'', released on Blu-ray, DVD, and Video on Demand on February 10, 2015, accompanied by CD and double-vinyl audio releases.=== 2014–present: Current activities ===Devo at the premiere of the documentary about the band at the 2024 Sundance Film FestivalImmediately following from the Hardcore tour, Devo continued to tour a 'greatest hits' style show.", "Josh Hager joined the band at this time, playing both keyboards and guitar.", "On April 29, 2016, Devo performed at Will Ferrell and Chad Smith's Red Hot Benefit.On May 22, Robert Mothersbaugh Sr., father of Mark, Bob, and Jim Mothersbaugh, died.", "Robert portrayed General Boy in various Devo films.In 2017, the official Twitter account for the ''Are We Not Men?''", "documentary film, which had been in production since 2009, stated that \"the film was finished years ago\" and that \"mm Mark Mothersbaugh is blocking its release\".", "Jeff Winner, who was consulting producer for the Devo documentary, went on to state that he and director Tony Pemberton had \"delivered the film that was contracted, and on schedule.", "It's now in the hands of the band to decide when/how it's released/distributed.", "\"Devo headlined the Burger Boogaloo festival in Oakland, California, on June 30, 2018, with comedian and former Trenchmouth drummer Fred Armisen on drums.", "On October 12, 2020, Devo performed at the Desert Daze festival, with Jeff Friedl on drums.In January 2021, Funko released two Devo Funko Pops inspired by the group's \"Whip It\" and \"Satisfaction\" music videos.", "One month later, the band starred in ''Devolution: A Devo Theory'', a television documentary based entirely on their theory of devolution, which had been completed in 2020.In September, Devo performed a short three-date tour of the USA, including a show at Riot Fest.", "These performances marked the return of Josh Freese on drums, who had not played live with Devo in over five years.Shortly afterwards, Gerald Casale announced the release of an official Devo potato-based vodka through the Trust Me Vodka brand.", "The packaging for the drink was themed around Devo imagery and featured original artwork.", "It was signed by the group's co-founders Gerald Casale and Mark Mothersbaugh, as well as Bob Mothersbaugh.On October 24, 2021, John Hinckley Jr posted on Twitter that he had not received any royalties for Devo's song \"I Desire\" in 35 years.", "\"I Desire\" had been written by Mark Mothersbaugh and Gerald Casale for their 1982 album ''Oh, No!", "It's Devo'', inspired by a poem written by Hinckley that was published in a tabloid newspaper, following his attempt to assassinate then-current president Ronald Reagan.", "Hinckley had been adequately credited for his contributions through a co-writing credit on all releases.", "Casale claimed that Devo were not at fault, as it was the publishing company's duty to pay him, not the band's.Devotional 2021, an annual convention for Devo fans, was held on November 5–6, with the annual 5KDEVO race taking place on the 7th.", "On November 15, it was announced that Devo would perform a one-off show at the Rooftop at Pier 17 on May 18, 2022, in order to make up for their cancelled Radio City Music Hall gig in September 2021.Tickets went on sale on the 18th.In December, it was announced that rare images of Devo would feature in a book of rock photography from 1977–1980 titled ''HARD + FAST'', to be released on February 1, 2022.The book will also include a 7-inch single of live recordings from the band, which were also released on SoundCloud prior to the book's release.", "The recordings were dated 1977, but the performances are identical to those found on an audience bootleg recorded on October 10, 1978.Devo were nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2018, 2021 and 2022.On May 14 and 15, 2022, Devo performed at the Cruel World Festival at the Rose Bowl's Brookside golf course in Pasadena, California, followed three days later by their performance at The Rooftop at Pier 17.In a February 20, 2023, article by the ''Akron Beacon Journal'' promoting the film ''Cocaine Bear'', Mothersbaugh announced that 2023 would be celebrated as Devo's 50th anniversary, and that he had plans for Devo to remain active for 50 more years.", "He also stated that he, Gerald Casale and Bob Mothersbaugh were all interested in touring and jokingly wished for the remaining members of Devo to be buried in a car park near the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "Two weeks later, Devo announced that they would perform at London's Eventim Apollo on August 19 as part of their \"farewell tour\".", "Other stops on the tour include the Øyafestivalen in Norway, Way Out West festival in Sweden, Flow Festival in Finland and Luna Fest in Portugal, throughout August 2023.On March 1, a show at Green Man Festival in Wales was added to the tour.On March 22, BMG, Fremantle Documentaries, and Warner Music Entertainment announced that they would be producing and financing a Chris Smith directed documentary titled ''Devo''.", "According to a statement by the band the film \"explores Devo's evolution from hippie artistes to art-rockers with a message, to their unexpected mainstream success as a hit rock band and the pioneers of the MTV age.\"", "The film will follow the group's career arc up to its status as \"elder statesmen\".", "Smith is known for directing ''American Movie'', ''Fyre'', and executive producing ''Tiger King'', the latter of which was scored by Mark Mothersbaugh, with Bob Mothersbaugh co-scoring its first season.The film will be produced by Chris Holmes and Anita Greenspan for Mutato Entertainment, and will be executive produced by William Kennedy, Stuart Souter, and Kathy Rivkin Daum for BMG, Mandy Chang for Fremantle, and at Warners, Charlie Cohen for WME and Mark Pinkus for Rhino Entertainment.", "As of these announcements, the film had entered production.In April, Devo's energy domes were featured in Fat Mike's Punk Rock Museum.On July 6, it was confirmed in a post made to the group's Instagram account that Jeff Friedl would play drums on their 2023 tour.", "This tour would be the group's last and as they retired from live performance, the compilation ''Art Devo 1973–1977'' and a documentary would be released.At the 2024 Sundance Film Festival, a documentary about the band directed by Chris Smith was premiered." ], [ "Band members", "'''Current members'''* Gerald Casale – lead and backing vocals, bass, keyboards (1973–1991, 1996–present)* Mark Mothersbaugh – lead and backing vocals, keyboards, guitar (1973–1991, 1996–present)* Bob Mothersbaugh – lead guitar, backing and lead vocals (1974–1991, 1996–present)* Josh Freese – drums, percussion (1996–present)* Josh Hager – guitar, keyboards (2014–present)'''Former members'''* Bob Casale – rhythm guitar, keyboards, backing vocals (1973–1974, 1976–1991, 1996–2014; his death)* Bob Lewis – lead guitar (1973–1974)* Rod Reisman – drums (1973)* Fred Weber – vocals (1973)* Jim Mothersbaugh – electronic drums (1974–1975)* Alan Myers – drums (1976–1986; died 2013)* David Kendrick – drums (1987–1991, 1996–2004)'''Touring members'''* Neil Taylor – drums (2008)* Pete Parada – drums (2011)* Brian Applegate – keyboards, bass guitar (2014 Hardcore Tour)* Alex Casale – bass guitar (2014 Hardcore Tour)* Ed Marshall – bass guitar (2014 Hardcore Tour)* Fred Armisen – drums (2018 Burger Boogaloo)* Jeff Friedl – drums (2008–2014, 2019, 2023)=== Timeline ===" ], [ "Discography", "'''Studio albums'''* ''Q: Are We Not Men?", "A: We Are Devo!.''", "(1978)* ''Duty Now for the Future'' (1979)* ''Freedom of Choice'' (1980)* ''New Traditionalists'' (1981)* ''Oh, No!", "It's Devo'' (1982)* ''Shout'' (1984)* ''Total Devo'' (1988)* ''Smooth Noodle Maps'' (1990)* ''Something for Everybody'' (2010)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Lewis, Bob.", "''Readers vs.", "Breeders: Didactical Works re De-Evolution'', originally appearing in Los Angeles Staff, 1972, cleveland.com* Lewis, Bob (2006)." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * Devo – encyclopedia.com* \"Devo Live Guide\" – Comprehensive guide to Devo's live performances" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dale Chihuly" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dale Chihuly''' () (born September 20, 1941) is an American glass artist and entrepreneur.", "He is well known in the field of blown glass, \"moving it into the realm of large-scale sculpture\"." ], [ "Early life", "Dale Patrick Chihuly was born on September 20, 1941, in Tacoma, Washington.", "His parents were George and Viola Chihuly; his paternal grandfather was born in Slovakia.", "In 1957, his older brother and only sibling George died in a Navy aviation training accident in Pensacola, Florida.", "In 1958, Chihuly's father died of a heart attack at the age of 51.Chihuly had no interest in continuing his formal education after graduating from Woodrow Wilson High School in 1959.However, at his mother's urging, he enrolled at the College of Puget Sound.", "A year later, he transferred to the University of Washington in Seattle to study interior design.", "In 1961, he joined the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity (Kappa Epsilon chapter), and the same year he learned how to melt and fuse glass.", "In 1962, Chihuly dropped out of the university to study art in Florence.", "He later traveled to the Middle East where he met architect Robert Landsman.", "Their meeting and his time abroad spurred Chihuly to return to his studies.", "In 1963, he took a weaving class where he incorporated glass shards into tapestries.", "He received an award for his work from the Seattle Weavers Guild in 1964.Chihuly graduated from the University of Washington in 1965 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in interior design.Chihuly began experimenting with glassblowing in 1965, and in 1966 he received a full scholarship to attend the University of Wisconsin–Madison.", "He studied under Harvey Littleton, who had established the first glass program in the United States at the university.", "In 1967, Chihuly received a Master of Science degree in sculpture.", "After graduating, he enrolled at the Rhode Island School of Design, where he met and became close friends with Italo Scanga.", "Chihuly earned a Master of Fine Arts degree in sculpture from the RISD in 1968.That same year, he was awarded a Louis Comfort Tiffany Foundation grant for his work in glass, as well as a Fulbright Fellowship.", "He traveled to Venice to work at the Venini factory on the island of Murano, where he first saw the team approach to blowing glass.", "After returning to the United States, Chihuly spent the first of four consecutive summers teaching at the Haystack Mountain School of Crafts in Deer Isle, Maine.", "In 1969, he traveled to Europe, in part to meet Erwin Eisch in Germany and Stanislav Libenský and Jaroslava Brychtová in Czechoslovakia.Chihuly donated a portion of a large exhibit to his alma mater, the University of Wisconsin, in 1997 and it is on permanent display in the Kohl Center.", "In 2013 the university awarded him an Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts." ], [ "Career", "Chihuly at Kew GardensIn 1971, with the support of John Hauberg and Anne Gould Hauberg, Chihuly co-founded the Pilchuck Glass School near Stanwood, Washington.", "Chihuly also founded the HillTop Artists program in Tacoma, Washington at Hilltop Heritage Middle School and Wilson High School.In 1976, while Chihuly was in England, he was involved in a head-on car accident that propelled him through the windshield.", "His face was severely cut by glass and he was blinded in his left eye.", "After recovering, he continued to blow glass until he dislocated his right shoulder in 1979 while bodysurfing.In 1983, Chihuly returned to his native Pacific Northwest where he continued to develop his own work at the Pilchuck Glass School, which he had helped to found in 1971.No longer able to hold the glassblowing pipe, he hired others to do the work.", "Chihuly explained the change in a 2006 interview, saying \"Once I stepped back, I liked the view\", and said that it allowed him to see the work from more perspectives, enabling him to anticipate problems earlier.", "Chihuly's role has been described as \"more choreographer than dancer, more supervisor than participant, more director than actor\".", "''San Diego Union-Tribune'' reporter Erin Glass wrote that she \"wonders at the vision of not just the artist Chihuly, but the very successful entrepreneur Chihuly, whose estimated sales by 2004 was reported by ''The Seattle Times'' as $29 million.", "\"Chihuly and his team of artists were the subjects of the documentary ''.''", "They were also featured in the documentary ''Chihuly in the Hotshop,'' syndicated to public television stations by American Public Television starting on November 1, 2008.In 2010, the Space Needle Corporation submitted a proposal for an exhibition of Chihuly's work at a site in the Seattle Center, in competition with proposals for other uses from several other groups.", "The project, which sees the new Chihuly exhibition hall occupy the site of the former Fun Forest amusement park in the Seattle Center park and entertainment complex, received the final approval from the Seattle City Council on April 25, 2011.Called Chihuly Garden and Glass, it opened May 21, 2012.=== 2006 lawsuit ===In 2006, Chihuly filed a lawsuit against his former longtime employee, glassblower Bryan Rubino, and businessman Robert Kaindl, claiming copyright and trademark infringement.", "Kaindl's pieces used titles Chihuly had employed for his own works, such as Seaforms and Ikebana, and resembled the construction of Chihuly's pieces.", "Legal experts stated that influence on art style did not constitute copyright infringement.", "Chihuly settled the lawsuit with Rubino initially, and later with Kaindl as well." ], [ "Works", "Chihuly's ''The Sun'' was on temporary display until January 2006 at Kew Gardens, in LondonTower of David Museum, in JerusalemRegina Hackett, a ''Seattle Post-Intelligencer'' art critic, provided a chronology of Chihuly's work during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s:V&A Museum* 1975: Navajo Blanket Series, in which patterns of Navajo blankets were painted onto glass* 1977: Northwest Coast Basket Series, baskets inspired by Northwest coast Indian baskets he had seen as a child* 1980: Seaform Series, transparent sculptures of thin glass, strengthened by ribbed strands of color* 1981: Macchia Series, featuring every color available in the studio* 1986: Persian Series, inspired by Middle East glass from the 12th- to 14th-century, featuring more restrained color and room-sized installations* 1988: Venetian Series, improvisations based on Italian Art Deco* 1989: Ikebana Series, glass flower arrangements inspired by ikebana* 1990: Venetian Series returns, this time in a more eccentric form* 1991: Niijima Floats, six-foot spheres of intricate color inspired by Japanese glass fishing floats from the island of Niijima from Chihuly's website* 1992: Chandeliers, starting modestly but by the middle of the decade involving a ton of glass orbs and shapes that in some works look like flowers, others like breasts, and still others like snakes.", "Chihuly has also produced a sizable volume of \"Irish cylinders\", which are more modest in conception than his blown glass works.For his exhibition in Jerusalem, in 1999–2000, in addition to the glass pieces, he had enormous blocks of transparent ice brought in from an Alaskan artesian well and formed a wall, echoing the stones of the nearby Citadel.", "Lights with color gels were set up behind them for illumination.", "Chihuly said the melting wall represented the \"dissolution of barriers\" between people.", "This exhibit holds the world record for most visitors to a temporary exhibit with more than 1.3 million visitors.=== Galleries ===Chihuly's largest permanent exhibit is at the Oklahoma City Museum of Art.", "Other large collections can be found at the Morean Arts Center in St. Petersburg, Florida, and Chihuly Garden and Glass in Seattle, Washington.Chihuly also maintains two retail stores in partnership with MGM Resorts International, one at the Bellagio on the Las Vegas Strip, and the other at the MGM Grand Casino in Macau.=== Exhibitions ====== Permanent collections ===Chihuly's art appears in over 400 permanent collections all over the world, including in the United States, Canada, England, Israel, China, Singapore, the United Arab Emirates, and Australia.=== Recognition ===In 1994, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.", "In 2006, he received the American Craft Council’s gold medal.", "In 2011, he received the Fritz Redlich Alumni Award of the Institute of International Education." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''Chihuly Over Venice'' by William Warmus and Dana Self.", "Seattle: Portland Press, 1996.", "''Chihuly'' by Donald Kuspit.", "New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998.", " ''The Essential Dale Chihuly'' by William Warmus.", "New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2000.", "* ''Dale Chihuly:365 Days.''", "Margaret L. Kaplan, Editor.", "New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2008.", "''Chihuly Drawing'', illustrated by Chihuly, with an essay by Nathan Kernan.", "Portland Press, 2003, " ], [ "External links", "* * Chihuly Garden And Glass exhibition* ''Seattle Times'' article on Dale Chihuly" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dean Kamen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dean Lawrence Kamen''' (born April 5, 1951) is an American engineer, inventor, and businessman.", "He is known for his invention of the Segway and iBOT, as well as founding the non-profit organization FIRST with Woodie Flowers.", "Kamen holds over 1,000 patents." ], [ "Early life and family", "Kamen was born on Long Island, New York, to a Jewish family.", "His father was Jack Kamen, an illustrator for ''Mad'', ''Weird Science'' and other EC Comics publications.", "During his teenage years, Kamen was already being paid for his ideas; local bands and museums paid him to build light and sound systems.", "His annual earnings reached $60,000 before his high school graduation.He attended Worcester Polytechnic Institute, but in 1976 quit before graduating, after five years of private advanced research for the insulin pump AutoSyringe." ], [ "Career", "President Bill Clinton and Kamen in the White House, Kamen riding the iBOT Mobility System===Inventions===Kamen is known best for inventing the product that eventually became known as the Segway PT, an electric, self-balancing human transporter with a computer-controlled gyroscopic stabilization and control system.", "The device is balanced on two parallel wheels and is controlled by moving body weight.", "The machine's development was the object of much speculation and hype after segments of a book quoting Steve Jobs and other notable information technology visionaries espousing its society-revolutionizing potential were leaked in December 2001.Kamen was already a successful inventor: his company ''Auto Syringe'' manufactures and markets the first drug infusion pump.", "His company DEKA also holds patents for the technology used in portable dialysis machines, an insulin pump (based on the drug infusion pump technology), and an all-terrain electric wheelchair known as the iBOT, using many of the same gyroscopic balancing technologies that later made their way into the Segway.200pxKamen Stirling Generator 10 coupled to Water Still 12 (from )Kamen has worked extensively on a project involving Stirling engine designs, attempting to create two machines: one that would generate power, and the Slingshot that would serve as a water purification system.", "He hopes the project will help improve living standards in developing countries.", "Kamen has a patent on his water purifier, and other patents pending.", "In 2014, the film ''SlingShot'' was released, detailing Kamen's quest to use his vapor compression distiller to fix the world's water crisis.Kamen is also the co-inventor of a compressed air device that would launch a human into the air in order to quickly launch SWAT teams or other emergency workers to the roofs of tall, inaccessible buildings.In 2009 Kamen stated that his company DEKA was now working on solar powered inventions.Kamen and DEKA also developed the DEKA Arm System or \"Luke\", a prosthetic arm replacement that offers its user much more fine motor control than traditional prosthetic limbs.", "It was approved for use by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in May 2014, and DEKA is looking for partners to mass-produce the prosthesis.===FIRST===In 1989, Kamen founded FIRST (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology), an organization intended to build students' interests in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).", "In 1992, working with MIT Professor Emeritus Woodie Flowers, Kamen created the FIRST Robotics Competition (FRC), which evolved into an international competition that by 2020 had drawn 3,647 teams and more than 91,000 students.FIRST organizes robotics competition leagues for students in grades K-12, including FIRST LEGO League Discover for ages 4–6, FIRST LEGO League Explore for younger elementary school students, FIRST LEGO League Challenge for older elementary school and middle school students, FIRST Tech Challenge (FTC) for middle and high school students, and FIRST Robotics Competition (FRC) for high school students.", "In 2017, FIRST held its first Olympics-style competition – FGC (FIRST Global Challenge) – in Washington, D.C.In 2010, Kamen called FIRST the invention he is most proud of, and said that 1 million students had taken part in the contests.=== Advanced Regenerative Manufacturing Institute ===In 2017, Kamen founded the Advanced Regenerative Manufacturing Institute (ARMI) and launched BioFabUSA, a Manufacturing USA Innovation Institute with an $80 million grant from the Department of Defense.", "BioFabUSA's mission is to \"...''make practical the large-scale manufacturing of engineered tissues and tissue-related technologies, to benefit existing industries and grow new ones\"'' In addition to DoD funding, Kamen brought together a consortium of private sector entities to form a public-private partnership which pledged $214M additional private dollars.In early 2020, ARMI was awarded a grant from the Department of Health and Human Services to establish the first Foundry for American Biotechnology, known as NextFab \"to produce technological solutions that help the United States protect against and respond to health security threats, enhance daily medical care, and add to the U.S. bioeconomy\".===Awards===Kamen has won numerous awards.", "He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1997 for inventing and commercializing biomedical devices and fluid measurement and control systems, and for popularizing engineering among young people.", "In 1999 he was awarded the 5th Annual Heinz Award in Technology, the Economy and Employment, and in 2000 received the National Medal of Technology from then President Clinton for inventions that have advanced medical care worldwide.", "In April 2002, Kamen was awarded the Lemelson-MIT Prize for inventors, for his invention of the Segway and of an infusion pump for diabetics.", "In 2003 his \"Project Slingshot\", an inexpensive portable water purification system, was named a runner-up for \"coolest invention of 2003\" by ''Time'' magazine.In 2005 he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame for his invention of the AutoSyringe.", "In 2006 Kamen was awarded the \"Global Humanitarian Action Award\" by the United Nations.", "In 2007 he received the ASME Medal, the highest award from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, in 2008 he was the recipient of the IRI Achievement Award from the Industrial Research Institute, and in 2011 Kamen was awarded the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Mechanical Engineering of the Franklin Institute.Kamen received an honorary Doctor of Engineering degree from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in 1992, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute May 17, 1996, a Doctor of Engineering degree from Kettering University in 2001, an honorary Doctor of Science degree from Clarkson University on May 13, 2001, an honorary \"Doctor of Science\" degree from the University of Arizona on May 16, 2009, and an honorary doctorate from the Wentworth Institute of Technology when he spoke at the college's centennial celebration in 2004, and other honorary doctorates from North Carolina State University in 2005, Bates College in 2007, the Georgia Institute of Technology in 2008, the Illinois Institute of Technology in 2008 the Plymouth State University in May 2008 and Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology in 2012.In 2015, Kamen received an honorary Doctor of Engineering and Technology degree from Yale University.", "In 2017, Kamen was honored with an institutional honorary degree from Université de Sherbrooke.Kamen received the Stevens Honor Award on November 6, 2009, given by the Stevens Institute of Technology and the Stevens Alumni Association.", "On November 14, 2013, he received the James C. Morgan Global Humanitarian Award.Kamen received the 2018 Public Service Award from the National Science Board, honoring his exemplary public service and contributions to the public's understanding of science and engineering." ], [ "Personal life", "Will.i.am speaking at the 2011 FIRST kickoff at Southern New Hampshire University with KamenIn 2007, his residence was a hexagonal, shed style mansion he dubbed Westwind, located in Bedford, New Hampshire, just outside Manchester.", "The house has at least four levels and is very eclectically conceived, with such things as: hallways resembling mine shafts; 1960s novelty furniture; a collection of vintage wheelchairs; spiral staircases; at least one secret passage; an observation tower; a fully equipped machine shop; and a huge cast iron steam engine which once belonged to Henry Ford (built into the multi-story center atrium of the house) which Kamen is working to convert into a Stirling engine-powered kinetic sculpture.", "Kamen owns and pilots an Embraer Phenom 300 light jet aircraft and three Enstrom helicopters, including a 280FX, a 480, and a 480B.", "He regularly commutes to work via his helicopters and had a hangar built into his house.", "In 2016 he flew as a passenger in a B-2 Spirit bomber at Whiteman AFB, marking the opening of the 2016 FRC World Championship in St. Louis.He is the main subject of ''Code Name Ginger: the Story Behind Segway and Dean Kamen's Quest to Invent a New World'', a nonfiction narrative book by journalist Steve Kemper published by Harvard Business School Press in 2003 (released in paperback as ''Reinventing the Wheel'').His company, DEKA, annually creates intricate mechanical presents for him.", "The company has created a robotic chess player, which is a mechanical arm attached to a chess board, and a vintage-looking computer with antique wood, and a converted typewriter as a keyboard.", "In addition, DEKA has received funding from DARPA to work on a brain-controlled prosthetic limb called the Luke Arm.Kamen is a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Advisory Board and is also a member of the Xconomists, an ad hoc team of editorial advisors for the tech news and media company, Xconomy.", "He is also on the Board of Trustees of the X Prize Foundation.", "''Dean of Invention'', a TV show on Planet Green, premiered on October 22, 2010.It starred Kamen and correspondent Joanne Colan, in which they investigate new technologies,Kamen was a keynote speaker at the 2015 Congress of Future Science and Technology Leaders.In the 2016 New Hampshire Senate election, Kamen endorsed Kelly Ayotte, appearing in an ad supporting her." ], [ "See also", "* Insulin pump* North Dumpling Island* SlingShot" ], [ "Index", "===Works cited===" ], [ "External links", " *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Derivative (finance)" ], [ "Introduction", "In finance, a '''derivative''' is a contract that ''derives'' its value from the performance of an underlying entity.", "This underlying entity can be an asset, index, or interest rate, and is often simply called the '''underlying'''.", "Derivatives can be used for a number of purposes, including insuring against price movements (hedging), increasing exposure to price movements for speculation, or getting access to otherwise hard-to-trade assets or markets.Some of the more common derivatives include forwards, futures, options, swaps, and variations of these such as synthetic collateralized debt obligations and credit default swaps.", "Most derivatives are traded over-the-counter (off-exchange) or on an exchange such as the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, while most insurance contracts have developed into a separate industry.", "In the United States, after the financial crisis of 2007–2009, there has been increased pressure to move derivatives to trade on exchanges.Derivatives are one of the three main categories of financial instruments, the other two being equity (i.e., stocks or shares) and debt (i.e., bonds and mortgages).", "The oldest example of a derivative in history, attested to by Aristotle, is thought to be a contract transaction of olives, entered into by ancient Greek philosopher Thales, who made a profit in the exchange.", "However, Aristotle did not define this arrangement as a derivative but as a monopoly (Aristotle's Politics, Book I, Chapter XI).", "Bucket shops, outlawed in 1936 in the US, are a more recent historical example." ], [ "Basics", "Derivatives are contracts between two parties that specify conditions (especially the dates, resulting values and definitions of the underlying variables, the parties' contractual obligations, and the notional amount) under which payments are to be made between the parties.", "The assets include commodities, stocks, bonds, interest rates and currencies, but they can also be other derivatives, which adds another layer of complexity to proper valuation.", "The components of a firm's capital structure, e.g., bonds and stock, can also be considered derivatives, more precisely options, with the underlying being the firm's assets, but this is unusual outside of technical contexts.From the economic point of view, financial derivatives are cash flows that are conditioned stochastically and discounted to present value.", "The market risk inherent in the underlying asset is attached to the financial derivative through contractual agreements and hence can be traded separately.", "The underlying asset does not have to be acquired.", "Derivatives therefore allow the breakup of ownership and participation in the market value of an asset.", "This also provides a considerable amount of freedom regarding the contract design.", "That contractual freedom allows derivative designers to modify the participation in the performance of the underlying asset almost arbitrarily.", "Thus, the participation in the market value of the underlying can be effectively weaker, stronger (leverage effect), or implemented as inverse.", "Hence, specifically the market price risk of the underlying asset can be controlled in almost every situation.There are two groups of derivative contracts: the privately traded over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives such as swaps that do not go through an exchange or other intermediary, and exchange-traded derivatives (ETD) that are traded through specialized derivatives exchanges or other exchanges.Derivatives are more common in the modern era, but their origins trace back several centuries.", "One of the oldest derivatives is rice futures, which have been traded on the Dojima Rice Exchange since the eighteenth century.", "Derivatives are broadly categorized by the relationship between the underlying asset and the derivative (such as forward, option, swap); the type of underlying asset (such as equity derivatives, foreign exchange derivatives, interest rate derivatives, commodity derivatives, or credit derivatives); the market in which they trade (such as exchange-traded or over-the-counter); and their pay-off profile.Derivatives may broadly be categorized as \"lock\" or \"option\" products.", "Lock products (such as swaps, futures, or forwards) obligate the contractual parties to the terms over the life of the contract.", "Option products (such as interest rate swaps) provide the buyer the right, but not the obligation to enter the contract under the terms specified.Derivatives can be used either for risk management (i.e.", "to \"hedge\" by providing offsetting compensation in case of an undesired event, a kind of \"insurance\") or for speculation (i.e.", "making a financial \"bet\").", "This distinction is important because the former is a prudent aspect of operations and financial management for many firms across many industries; the latter offers managers and investors a risky opportunity to increase profit, which may not be properly disclosed to stakeholders.Along with many other financial products and services, derivatives reform is an element of the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010.The Act delegated many rule-making details of regulatory oversight to the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) and those details are not finalized nor fully implemented as of late 2012." ], [ "Size of market", "To give an idea of the size of the derivative market, ''The Economist'' has reported that as of June 2011, the over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives market amounted to approximately $700 trillion, and the size of the market traded on exchanges totaled an additional $83 trillion.", "For the fourth quarter 2017 the European Securities Market Authority estimated the size of European derivatives market at a size of €660 trillion with 74 million outstanding contracts.However, these are \"notional\" values, and some economists say that these aggregated values greatly exaggerate the market value and the true credit risk faced by the parties involved.", "For example, in 2010, while the aggregate of OTC derivatives exceeded $600 trillion, the value of the market was estimated to be much lower, at $21 trillion.", "The credit-risk equivalent of the derivative contracts was estimated at $3.3 trillion.Still, even these scaled-down figures represent huge amounts of money.", "For perspective, the budget for total expenditure of the United States government during 2012 was $3.5 trillion, and the total current value of the U.S. stock market is an estimated $23 trillion.", "Meanwhile, the global annual Gross Domestic Product is about $65 trillion.At least for one type of derivative, credit default swaps (CDS), for which the inherent risk is considered high , the higher, nominal value remains relevant.", "It was this type of derivative that investment magnate Warren Buffett referred to in his famous 2002 speech in which he warned against \"financial weapons of mass destruction\".", "CDS notional value in early 2012 amounted to $25.5 trillion, down from $55 trillion in 2008." ], [ "Usage", "Derivatives are used for the following:* Hedge or to mitigate risk in the underlying, by entering into a derivative contract whose value moves in the opposite direction to their underlying position and cancels part or all of it out* Create option ability where the value of the derivative is linked to a specific condition or event (e.g., the underlying reaching a specific price level)* Obtain exposure to the underlying where it is not possible to trade in the underlying (e.g., weather derivatives)* Provide leverage (or gearing), such that a small movement in the underlying value can cause a large difference in the value of the derivativeSpeculate and make a profit if the value of the underlying asset moves the way they expect (e.g.", "moves in a given direction, stays in or out of a specified range, reaches a certain level) Switch asset allocations between different asset classes without disturbing the underlying assets, as part of transition management* Avoid paying taxes.", "For example, an equity swap allows an investor to receive steady payments, e.g.", "based on SONIA rate, while avoiding paying capital gains tax and keeping the stock.", "* For arbitraging purpose, allowing a riskless profit by simultaneously entering into transactions into two or more markets.===Mechanics and valuation===Lock products are theoretically valued at zero at the time of execution and thus do not typically require an up-front exchange between the parties.", "Based upon movements in the underlying asset over time, however, the value of the contract will fluctuate, and the derivative may be either an asset (i.e., \"in the money\") or a liability (i.e., \"out of the money\") at different points throughout its life.", "Importantly, either party is therefore exposed to the credit quality of its counterparty and is interested in protecting itself in an event of default.Option products have immediate value at the outset because they provide specified protection (intrinsic value) over a given time period (time value).", "One common form of option product familiar to many consumers is insurance for homes and automobiles.", "The insured would pay more for a policy with greater liability protections (intrinsic value) and one that extends for a year rather than six months (time value).", "Because of the immediate option value, the option purchaser typically pays an up front premium.", "Just like for lock products, movements in the underlying asset will cause the option's intrinsic value to change over time while its time value deteriorates steadily until the contract expires.", "An important difference between a lock product is that, after the initial exchange, the option purchaser has no further liability to its counterparty; upon maturity, the purchaser will execute the option if it has positive value (i.e., if it is \"in the money\") or expire at no cost (other than to the initial premium) (i.e., if the option is \"out of the money\").===Hedging===Derivatives allow risk related to the price of the underlying asset to be transferred from one party to another.", "For example, a wheat farmer and a miller could sign a futures contract to exchange a specified amount of cash for a specified amount of wheat in the future.", "Both parties have reduced a future risk: for the wheat farmer, the uncertainty of the price, and for the miller, the availability of wheat.", "However, there is still the risk that no wheat will be available because of events unspecified by the contract, such as the weather, or that one party will renege on the contract.", "Although a third party, called a clearing house, insures a futures contract, not all derivatives are insured against counter-party risk.From another perspective, the farmer and the miller both reduce a risk and acquire a risk when they sign the futures contract: the farmer reduces the risk that the price of wheat will fall below the price specified in the contract and acquires the risk that the price of wheat will rise above the price specified in the contract (thereby losing additional income that he could have earned).", "The miller, on the other hand, acquires the risk that the price of wheat will fall below the price specified in the contract (thereby paying more in the future than he otherwise would have) and reduces the risk that the price of wheat will rise above the price specified in the contract.", "In this sense, one party is the insurer (risk taker) for one type of risk, and the counter-party is the insurer (risk taker) for another type of risk.Hedging also occurs when an individual or institution buys an asset (such as a commodity, a bond that has coupon payments, a stock that pays dividends, and so on) and sells it using a futures contract.", "The individual or institution has access to the asset for a specified amount of time, and can then sell it in the future at a specified price according to the futures contract.", "Of course, this allows the individual or institution the benefit of holding the asset, while reducing the risk that the future selling price will deviate unexpectedly from the market's current assessment of the future value of the asset.pit at the Chicago Board of Trade in 1993Derivatives trading of this kind may serve the financial interests of certain particular businesses.", "For example, a corporation borrows a large sum of money at a specific interest rate.", "The interest rate on the loan reprices every six months.", "The corporation is concerned that the rate of interest may be much higher in six months.", "The corporation could buy a forward rate agreement (FRA), which is a contract to pay a fixed rate of interest six months after purchases on a notional amount of money.", "If the interest rate after six months is above the contract rate, the seller will pay the difference to the corporation, or FRA buyer.", "If the rate is lower, the corporation will pay the difference to the seller.", "The purchase of the FRA serves to reduce the uncertainty concerning the rate increase and stabilize earnings.===Speculation===Derivatives can be used to acquire risk, rather than to hedge against risk.", "Thus, some individuals and institutions will enter into a derivative contract to speculate on the value of the underlying asset.", "Speculators look to buy an asset in the future at a low price according to a derivative contract when the future market price is high, or to sell an asset in the future at a high price according to a derivative contract when the future market price is less.Speculative trading in derivatives gained a great deal of notoriety in 1995 when Nick Leeson, a trader at Barings Bank, made poor and unauthorized investments in futures contracts.", "Through a combination of poor judgment, lack of oversight by the bank's management and regulators, and unfortunate events like the Kobe earthquake, Leeson incurred a $1.3 billion loss that bankrupted the centuries-old institution.===Arbitrage===Individuals and institutions may also look for arbitrage opportunities, as when the current buying price of an asset falls below the price specified in a futures contract to sell the asset.===Proportion used for hedging and speculation===The true proportion of derivatives contracts used for hedging purposes is unknown, but it appears to be relatively small.", "Also, derivatives contracts account for only 3–6% of the median firms' total currency and interest rate exposure.", "Nonetheless, we know that many firms' derivatives activities have at least some speculative component for a variety of reasons.==Types==In broad terms, there are two groups of derivative contracts, which are distinguished by the way they are traded in the market:===Over-the-counter derivatives===Over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives are contracts that are traded (and privately negotiated) directly between two parties, without going through an exchange or other intermediary.", "Products such as swaps, forward rate agreements, exotic options – and other exotic derivatives – are almost always traded in this way.", "The OTC derivative market is the largest market for derivatives, and is largely unregulated with respect to disclosure of information between the parties, since the OTC market is made up of banks and other highly sophisticated parties, such as hedge funds.", "Reporting of OTC amounts is difficult because trades can occur in private, without activity being visible on any exchangesAccording to the Bank for International Settlements, who first surveyed OTC derivatives in 1995, reported that the \"gross market value, which represent the cost of replacing all open contracts at the prevailing market prices, ... increased by 74% since 2004, to $11 trillion at the end of June 2007 (BIS 2007:24).\"", "Positions in the OTC derivatives market increased to $516 trillion at the end of June 2007, 135% higher than the level recorded in 2004.The total outstanding notional amount is US$708 trillion (as of June 2011).", "Of this total notional amount, 67% are interest rate contracts, 8% are credit default swaps (CDS), 9% are foreign exchange contracts, 2% are commodity contracts, 1% are equity contracts, and 12% are other.", "Because OTC derivatives are not traded on an exchange, there is no central counter-party.", "Therefore, they are subject to counterparty risk, like an ordinary contract, since each counter-party relies on the other to perform.===Exchange-traded derivatives===Exchange-traded derivatives (ETD) are those derivatives instruments that are traded via specialized derivatives exchanges or other exchanges.", "A derivatives exchange is a market where individuals trade standardized contracts that have been defined by the exchange.", "A derivatives exchange acts as an intermediary to all related transactions, and takes initial margin from both sides of the trade to act as a guarantee.", "The world's largest derivatives exchanges (by number of transactions) are the Korea Exchange (which lists KOSPI Index Futures & Options), Eurex (which lists a wide range of European products such as interest rate & index products), and CME Group (made up of the 2007 merger of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and the Chicago Board of Trade and the 2008 acquisition of the New York Mercantile Exchange).", "According to BIS, the combined turnover in the world's derivatives exchanges totaled US$344 trillion during Q4 2005.By December 2007 the Bank for International Settlements reported that \"derivatives traded on exchanges surged 27% to a record $681 trillion.", "\"===Inverse ETFs and leveraged ETFs===Inverse exchange-traded funds (IETFs) and leveraged exchange-traded funds (LETFs) are two special types of exchange traded funds (ETFs) that are available to common traders and investors on major exchanges like the NYSE and Nasdaq.", "To maintain these products' net asset value, these funds' administrators must employ more sophisticated financial engineering methods than what's usually required for maintenance of traditional ETFs.", "These instruments must also be regularly rebalanced and re-indexed each day.===Common derivative contract===Some of the common variants of derivative contracts are as follows:# Forwards: tailored contract between two parties, where payment takes place at a specific time in the future at today's pre-determined price.# Futures: contracts to buy or sell an asset on a future date at a price specified today.", "A futures contract differs from a forward contract in that the futures contract is a standardized contract written by a clearing house that operates an exchange where the contract can be bought and sold; the forward contract is a non-standardized contract written by the parties themselves.# Options: contracts that give the owner the right, but not the obligation, to buy (in the case of a call option) or sell (in the case of a put option) an asset.", "The price at which the sale takes place is known as the strike price, and is specified at the time the parties enter into the option.", "The option contract also specifies a maturity date.", "In the case of a European option, the owner has the right to require the sale to take place on (but not before) the maturity date; in the case of an American option, the owner can require the sale to take place at any time up to the maturity date.", "If the owner of the contract exercises this right, the counter-party has the obligation to carry out the transaction.", "Options are of two types: call option and put option.# Binary options: contracts that provide the owner with an all-or-nothing profit profile.# Warrants: apart from the commonly used short-dated options which have a maximum maturity period of one year, there exist certain long-dated options as well, known as warrants.", "These are generally traded over the counter.# Swaps: contracts to exchange cash (flows) on or before a specified future date based on the underlying value of currencies exchange rates, bonds/interest rates, commodities exchange, stocks or other assets.", "::Swaps can basically be categorized into Interest rate swap and Currency swap.Some common examples of these derivatives are the following:UNDERLYINGCONTRACT TYPES Exchange-traded futures Exchange-traded options OTC swap OTC forward OTC option Equity DJIA Index future Single-stock future Option on DJIA Index future Single-share option Equity swap Back-to-back Repurchase agreement Stock optionWarrantTurbo warrant Interest rate Eurodollar future Euribor future Option on Eurodollar future Option on Euribor future Interest rate swap Forward rate agreement Interest rate cap and floor Swaption Basis swap Bond option Credit Bond future Option on Bond future Credit default swap Total return swap Repurchase agreement Credit default option Foreign exchange Currency future Option on currency future Currency swap Currency forward Currency option Commodity WTI crude oil futures Weather derivative Commodity swap Iron ore forward contract Gold option===Collateralized debt obligation===A '''collateralized debt obligation''' (CDO) is a type of structured asset-backed security (ABS).", "An \"asset-backed security\" is used as an umbrella term for a type of security backed by a pool of assets—including collateralized debt obligations and mortgage-backed securities (MBS) (Example: \"The capital market in which asset-backed securities are issued and traded is composed of three main categories: ABS, MBS and CDOs\".", ")—and sometimes for a particular type of that security—one backed by consumer loans (example: \"As a rule of thumb, securitization issues backed by mortgages are called MBS, and securitization issues backed by debt obligations are called CDO, and Securitization issues backed by consumer-backed products—car loans, consumer loans and credit cards, among others—are called ABS.)", "Originally developed for the corporate debt markets, over time CDOs evolved to encompass the mortgage and mortgage-backed security (MBS) markets.Like other private-label securities backed by assets, a CDO can be thought of as a promise to pay investors in a prescribed sequence, based on the cash flow the CDO collects from the pool of bonds or other assets it owns.", "The CDO is \"sliced\" into \"tranches\", which \"catch\" the cash flow of interest and principal payments in sequence based on seniority.", "If some loans default and the cash collected by the CDO is insufficient to pay all of its investors, those in the lowest, most \"junior\" tranches suffer losses first.", "The last to lose payment from default are the safest, most senior tranches.", "Consequently, coupon payments (and interest rates) vary by tranche with the safest/most senior tranches paying the lowest and the lowest tranches paying the highest rates to compensate for higher default risk.", "As an example, a CDO might issue the following tranches in order of safeness: Senior AAA (sometimes known as \"super senior\"); Junior AAA; AA; A; BBB; Residual.Separate special-purpose entities—rather than the parent investment bank—issue the CDOs and pay interest to investors.", "As CDOs developed, some sponsors repackaged tranches into yet another iteration called \"CDO-Squared\" or the \"CDOs of CDOs\".", "In the early 2000s, CDOs were generally diversified, but by 2006–2007—when the CDO market grew to hundreds of billions of dollars—this changed.", "CDO collateral became dominated not by loans, but by lower level (BBB or A) tranches recycled from other asset-backed securities, whose assets were usually non-prime mortgages.", "These CDOs have been called \"the engine that powered the mortgage supply chain\" for nonprime mortgages, and are credited with giving lenders greater incentive to make non-prime loans leading up to the 2007-9 subprime mortgage crisis.===Credit default swap===A '''credit default swap''' ('''CDS''') is a financial swap agreement that the seller of the CDS will compensate the buyer (the creditor of the reference loan) in the event of a loan default (by the debtor) or other credit event.", "The buyer of the CDS makes a series of payments (the CDS \"fee\" or \"spread\") to the seller and, in exchange, receives a payoff if the loan defaults.", "It was invented by Blythe Masters from JP Morgan in 1994.In the event of default the buyer of the CDS receives compensation (usually the face value of the loan), and the seller of the CDS takes possession of the defaulted loan.", "However, anyone with sufficient collateral to trade with a bank or hedge fund can purchase a CDS, even buyers who do not hold the loan instrument and who have no direct insurable interest in the loan (these are called \"naked\" CDSs).", "If there are more CDS contracts outstanding than bonds in existence, a protocol exists to hold a credit event auction; the payment received is usually substantially less than the face value of the loan.Credit default swaps have existed since the early 1990s, and increased in use after 2003.By the end of 2007, the outstanding CDS amount was $62.2 trillion, falling to $26.3 trillion by mid-year 2010 but reportedly $25.5 trillion in early 2012.CDSs are not traded on an exchange and there is no required reporting of transactions to a government agency.", "During the 2007–2010 financial crisis the lack of transparency in this large market became a concern to regulators as it could pose a systemic risk.", "In March 2010, the DTCC Trade Information Warehouse announced it would give regulators greater access to its credit default swaps database.CDS data can be used by financial professionals, regulators, and the media to monitor how the market views credit risk of any entity on which a CDS is available, which can be compared to that provided by credit rating agencies.", "U.S. courts may soon be following suit.Most CDSs are documented using standard forms drafted by the International Swaps and Derivatives Association (ISDA), although there are many variants.", "In addition to the basic, single-name swaps, there are basket default swaps (BDSs), index CDSs, funded CDSs (also called credit-linked notes), as well as loan-only credit default swaps (LCDS).", "In addition to corporations and governments, the reference entity can include a special-purpose vehicle issuing asset-backed securities.Some claim that derivatives such as CDS are potentially dangerous in that they combine priority in bankruptcy with a lack of transparency.", "A CDS can be unsecured (without collateral) and be at higher risk for a default.===Forwards===In finance, a '''forward contract''' or simply a '''forward''' is a non-standardized contract between two parties to buy or to sell an asset at a specified future time at an amount agreed upon today, making it a type of derivative instrument.", "This is in contrast to a spot contract, which is an agreement to buy or sell an asset on its spot date, which may vary depending on the instrument, for example most of the FX contracts have Spot Date two business days from today.", "The party agreeing to buy the underlying asset in the future assumes a long position, and the party agreeing to sell the asset in the future assumes a short position.", "The price agreed upon is called the delivery price, which is equal to the forward price at the time the contract is entered into.The price of the underlying instrument, in whatever form, is paid before control of the instrument changes.", "This is one of the many forms of buy/sell orders where the time and date of trade is not the same as the value date where the securities themselves are exchanged.The forward price of such a contract is commonly contrasted with the spot price, which is the price at which the asset changes hands on the spot date.", "The difference between the spot and the forward price is the forward premium or forward discount, generally considered in the form of a profit, or loss, by the purchasing party.", "Forwards, like other derivative securities, can be used to hedge risk (typically currency or exchange rate risk), as a means of speculation, or to allow a party to take advantage of a quality of the underlying instrument which is time-sensitive.A closely related contract is a futures contract; they differ in certain respects.", "Forward contracts are very similar to futures contracts, except they are not exchange-traded, or defined on standardized assets.", "Forwards also typically have no interim partial settlements or \"true-ups\" in margin requirements like futures—such that the parties do not exchange additional property securing the party at gain and the entire unrealized gain or loss builds up while the contract is open.", "However, being traded over the counter (OTC), forward contracts specification can be customized and may include mark-to-market and daily margin calls.", "Hence, a forward contract arrangement might call for the loss party to pledge collateral or additional collateral to better secure the party at gain.", "In other words, the terms of the forward contract will determine the collateral calls based upon certain \"trigger\" events relevant to a particular counterparty such as among other things, credit ratings, value of assets under management or redemptions over a specific time frame (e.g., quarterly, annually).===Futures===In finance, a 'futures contract' (more colloquially, '''futures''') is a standardized contract between two parties to buy or sell a specified asset of standardized quantity and quality for a price agreed upon today (the ''futures price'') with delivery and payment occurring at a specified future date, the ''delivery date'', making it a derivative product (i.e.", "a financial product that is derived from an underlying asset).", "The contracts are negotiated at a futures exchange, which acts as an intermediary between buyer and seller.", "The party agreeing to buy the underlying asset in the future, the \"buyer\" of the contract, is said to be \"long\", and the party agreeing to sell the asset in the future, the \"seller\" of the contract, is said to be \"short\".While the futures contract specifies a trade taking place in the future, the purpose of the futures exchange is to act as intermediary and mitigate the risk of default by either party in the intervening period.", "For this reason, the futures exchange requires both parties to put up an initial amount of cash (performance bond), the margin.", "Margins, sometimes set as a percentage of the value of the futures contract, need to be proportionally maintained at all times during the life of the contract to underpin this mitigation because the price of the contract will vary in keeping with supply and demand and will change daily and thus one party or the other will theoretically be making or losing money.", "To mitigate risk and the possibility of default by either party, the product is marked to market on a daily basis whereby the difference between the prior agreed-upon price and the actual daily futures price is settled on a daily basis.", "This is sometimes known as the variation margin where the futures exchange will draw money out of the losing party's margin account and put it into the other party's thus ensuring that the correct daily loss or profit is reflected in the respective account.", "If the margin account goes below a certain value set by the Exchange, then a margin call is made and the account owner must replenish the margin account.", "This process is known as \"marking to market\".", "Thus on the delivery date, the amount exchanged is not the specified price on the contract but the spot value (i.e., the original value agreed upon, since any gain or loss has already been previously settled by marking to market).", "Upon marketing the strike price is often reached and creates much income for the \"caller\".A closely related contract is a forward contract.", "A forward is like a futures in that it specifies the exchange of goods for a specified price at a specified future date.", "However, a forward is not traded on an exchange and thus does not have the interim partial payments due to marking to market.", "Nor is the contract standardized, as on the exchange.Unlike an option, both parties of a futures contract must fulfill the contract on the delivery date.", "The seller delivers the underlying asset to the buyer, or, if it is a cash-settled futures contract, then cash is transferred from the futures trader who sustained a loss to the one who made a profit.", "To exit the commitment prior to the settlement date, the holder of a futures position can close out its contract obligations by taking the opposite position on another futures contract on the same asset and settlement date.", "The difference in futures prices is then a profit or loss.===Mortgage-backed securities===A '''mortgage-backed security''' ('''MBS''') is an asset-backed security that is secured by a mortgage, or more commonly a collection (\"pool\") of sometimes hundreds of mortgages.", "The mortgages are sold to a group of individuals (a government agency or investment bank) that \"securitizes\", or packages, the loans together into a security that can be sold to investors.", "The mortgages of an MBS may be residential or commercial, depending on whether it is an Agency MBS or a Non-Agency MBS; in the United States they may be issued by structures set up by government-sponsored enterprises like Fannie Mae or Freddie Mac, or they can be \"private-label\", issued by structures set up by investment banks.", "The structure of the MBS may be known as \"pass-through\", where the interest and principal payments from the borrower or homebuyer pass through it to the MBS holder, or it may be more complex, made up of a pool of other MBSs.", "Other types of MBS include collateralized mortgage obligations (CMOs, often structured as real estate mortgage investment conduits) and collateralized debt obligations (CDOs).The shares of subprime MBSs issued by various structures, such as CMOs, are not identical but rather issued as tranches (French for \"slices\"), each with a different level of priority in the debt repayment stream, giving them different levels of risk and reward.", "Tranches—especially the lower-priority, higher-interest tranches—of an MBS are/were often further repackaged and resold as collaterized debt obligations.", "These subprime MBSs issued by investment banks were a major issue in the subprime mortgage crisis of 2006–2008.The total face value of an MBS decreases over time, because like mortgages, and unlike bonds, and most other fixed-income securities, the principal in an MBS is not paid back as a single payment to the bond holder at maturity but rather is paid along with the interest in each periodic payment (monthly, quarterly, etc.).", "This decrease in face value is measured by the MBS's \"factor\", the percentage of the original \"face\" that remains to be repaid.===Options===In finance, an '''option''' is a contract which gives the ''buyer'' (the owner) the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an underlying asset or instrument at a specified strike price on or before a specified date.", "The ''seller'' has the corresponding obligation to fulfill the transaction—that is to sell or buy—if the buyer (owner) \"exercises\" the option.", "The buyer pays a premium to the seller for this right.", "An option that conveys to the owner the right to buy something at a certain price is a \"call option\"; an option that conveys the right of the owner to sell something at a certain price is a \"put option\".", "Both are commonly traded, but for clarity, the call option is more frequently discussed.Options valuation is a topic of ongoing research in academic and practical finance.", "In basic terms, the value of an option is commonly decomposed into two parts:* The first part is the \"intrinsic value\", defined as the difference between the market value of the underlying and the strike price of the given option.", "* The second part is the \"time value\", which depends on a set of other factors which, through a multivariable, non-linear interrelationship, reflect the discounted expected value of that difference at expiration.Although options valuation has been studied since the 19th century, the contemporary approach is based on the Black–Scholes model, which was first published in 1973.Options contracts have been known for many centuries.", "However, both trading activity and academic interest increased when, as from 1973, options were issued with standardized terms and traded through a guaranteed clearing house at the Chicago Board Options Exchange.", "Today, many options are created in a standardized form and traded through clearing houses on regulated options exchanges, while other over-the-counter options are written as bilateral, customized contracts between a single buyer and seller, one or both of which may be a dealer or market-maker.", "Options are part of a larger class of financial instruments known as derivative products or simply derivatives.===Swaps===A '''swap''' is a derivative in which two counterparties exchange cash flows of one party's financial instrument for those of the other party's financial instrument.", "The benefits in question depend on the type of financial instruments involved.", "For example, in the case of a swap involving two bonds, the benefits in question can be the periodic interest (coupon) payments associated with such bonds.", "Specifically, two counterparties agree to the exchange one stream of cash flows against another stream.", "These streams are called the swap's \"legs\".", "The swap agreement defines the dates when the cash flows are to be paid and the way they are accrued and calculated.", "Usually at the time when the contract is initiated, at least one of these series of cash flows is determined by an uncertain variable such as a floating interest rate, foreign exchange rate, equity price, or commodity price.The cash flows are calculated over a notional principal amount.", "Contrary to a future, a forward or an option, the notional amount is usually not exchanged between counterparties.", "Consequently, swaps can be in cash or collateral.Swaps can be used to hedge certain risks such as interest rate risk, or to speculate on changes in the expected direction of underlying prices.Swaps were first introduced to the public in 1981 when IBM and the World Bank entered into a swap agreement.", "Today, swaps are among the most heavily traded financial contracts in the world: the total amount of interest rates and currency swaps outstanding is more than $348 trillion in 2010, according to the Bank for International Settlements (BIS).", "The five generic types of swaps, in order of their quantitative importance, are: interest rate swaps, currency swaps, credit swaps, commodity swaps and equity swaps (there are many other types)." ], [ "Economic function of the derivative market", "Some of the salient economic functions of the derivative market include:# Prices in a structured derivative market not only replicate the discernment of the market participants about the future but also lead the prices of underlying to the professed future level.", "On the expiration of the derivative contract, the prices of derivatives congregate with the prices of the underlying.", "Therefore, derivatives are essential tools to determine both current and future prices.# The derivatives market reallocates risk from the people who prefer risk aversion to the people who have an appetite for risk.# The intrinsic nature of derivatives market associates them to the underlying spot market.", "Due to derivatives there is a considerable increase in trade volumes of the underlying spot market.", "The dominant factor behind such an escalation is increased participation by additional players who would not have otherwise participated due to absence of any procedure to transfer risk.# As supervision, reconnaissance of the activities of various participants becomes tremendously difficult in assorted markets; the establishment of an organized form of market becomes all the more imperative.", "Therefore, in the presence of an organized derivatives market, speculation can be controlled, resulting in a more meticulous environment.# Third parties can use publicly available derivative prices as educated predictions of uncertain future outcomes, for example, the likelihood that a corporation will default on its debts.In a nutshell, there is a substantial increase in savings and investment in the long run due to augmented activities by derivative market participant." ], [ "Valuation", "Total world derivatives from 1998 to 2007 compared to total world wealth in the year 2000===Market and arbitrage-free prices===Two common measures of value are:* Market price, i.e.", "the price at which traders are willing to buy or sell the contract* Arbitrage-free price, meaning that no risk-free profits can be made by trading in these contracts (see ''rational pricing'')===Determining the market price===For exchange-traded derivatives, market price is usually transparent (often published in real time by the exchange, based on all the current bids and offers placed on that particular contract at any one time).", "Complications can arise with OTC or floor-traded contracts though, as trading is handled manually, making it difficult to automatically broadcast prices.", "In particular with OTC contracts, there is no central exchange to collate and disseminate prices.===Determining the arbitrage-free price===The arbitrage-free price for a derivatives contract can be complex, and there are many different variables to consider.", "Arbitrage-free pricing is a central topic of financial mathematics.", "For futures/forwards the arbitrage free price is relatively straightforward, involving the price of the underlying together with the cost of carry (income received less interest costs), although there can be complexities.However, for options and more complex derivatives, pricing involves developing a complex pricing model: understanding the stochastic process of the price of the underlying asset is often crucial.", "A key equation for the theoretical valuation of options is the Black–Scholes formula, which is based on the assumption that the cash flows from a European stock option can be replicated by a continuous buying and selling strategy using only the stock.", "A simplified version of this valuation technique is the binomial options model.OTC represents the biggest challenge in using models to price derivatives.", "Since these contracts are not publicly traded, no market price is available to validate the theoretical valuation.", "Most of the model's results are input-dependent (meaning the final price depends heavily on how we derive the pricing inputs).Therefore, it is common that OTC derivatives are priced by Independent Agents that both counterparties involved in the deal designate upfront (when signing the contract)." ], [ "Risks", "Derivatives are often subject to the following criticisms; particularly since the Financial crisis of 2007–2008, the discipline of Risk management has developed attempting to address the below and other risks - see .=== Hidden tail risk ===According to Raghuram Rajan, a former chief economist of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), \"... it may well be that the managers of these firms investment funds have figured out the correlations between the various instruments they hold and believe they are hedged.", "Yet as Chan and others (2005) point out, the lessons of summer 1998 following the default on Russian government debt is that correlations that are zero or negative in normal times can turn overnight to one – a phenomenon they term \"phase lock-in\".", "A hedged position \"can become unhedged at the worst times, inflicting substantial losses on those who mistakenly believe they are protected\".See the FRTB framework, which seeks to address this to some extent.===Leverage===The use of derivatives can result in large losses because of the use of leverage, or borrowing.", "Derivatives allow investors to earn large returns from small movements in the underlying asset's price.", "However, investors could lose large amounts if the price of the underlying moves against them significantly.", "There have been several instances of massive losses in derivative markets, such as the following::* American International Group (AIG) lost more than US$18 billion through a subsidiary over the preceding three quarters on credit default swaps (CDSs).", "The United States Federal Reserve Bank announced the creation of a secured credit facility of up to US$85 billion, to prevent the company's collapse by enabling AIG to meet its obligations to deliver additional collateral to its credit default swap trading partners.", ":* The loss of US$7.2 Billion by Société Générale in January 2008 through mis-use of futures contracts.", ":* The loss of US$6.4 billion in the failed fund Amaranth Advisors, which was long natural gas in September 2006 when the price plummeted.", ":* The loss of US$4.6 billion in the failed fund Long-Term Capital Management in 1998.:* The loss of US$1.3 billion equivalent in oil derivatives in 1993 and 1994 by Metallgesellschaft AG.", ":* The loss of US$1.2 billion equivalent in equity derivatives in 1995 by Barings Bank.", ":UBS AG, Switzerland's biggest bank, suffered a $2 billion loss through unauthorized trading discovered in September 2011.Derivatives typically have a '''large notional value'''.", "As such, there is the danger that their use could result in losses for which the investor would be unable to compensate.", "The possibility that this could lead to a chain reaction ensuing in an economic crisis was pointed out by famed investor Warren Buffett in Berkshire Hathaway's 2002 annual report.", "Buffett called them 'financial weapons of mass destruction.'", "A potential problem with derivatives is that they comprise an increasingly larger notional amount of assets which may lead to distortions in the underlying capital and equities markets themselves.", "Investors begin to look at the derivatives markets to make a decision to buy or sell securities and so what was originally meant to be a market to transfer risk now becomes a leading indicator.", "(See Berkshire Hathaway Annual Report for 2002)===Counter party risk===Some derivatives (especially swaps) expose investors to counterparty risk, or risk arising from the other party in a financial transaction.", "Counterparty risk results from the differences in the current price versus the expected future settlement price.", "Different types of derivatives have different levels of counter party risk.", "For example, standardized stock options by law require the party at risk to have a certain amount deposited with the exchange, showing that they can pay for any losses; banks that help businesses swap variable for fixed rates on loans may do credit checks on both parties.", "However, in private agreements between two companies, for example, there may not be benchmarks for performing due diligence and risk analysis." ], [ "Financial reform and government regulation", "Under US law and the laws of most other developed countries, derivatives have special legal exemptions that make them a particularly attractive legal form to extend credit.", "The strong creditor protections afforded to derivatives counterparties, in combination with their complexity and lack of transparency however, can cause capital markets to underprice credit risk.", "This can contribute to credit booms, and increase systemic risks.", "Indeed, the use of derivatives to conceal credit risk from third parties while protecting derivative counterparties contributed to the financial crisis of 2008 in the United States.In the context of a 2010 examination of the ICE Trust, an industry self-regulatory body, Gary Gensler, the chairman of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission which regulates most derivatives, was quoted saying that the derivatives marketplace as it functions now \"adds up to higher costs to all Americans\".", "More oversight of the banks in this market is needed, he also said.", "Additionally, the report said, \"the Department of Justice is looking into derivatives, too.", "The department's antitrust unit is actively investigating 'the possibility of anticompetitive practices in the credit derivatives clearing, trading and information services industries', according to a department spokeswoman.", "\"For legislators and committees responsible for financial reform related to derivatives in the United States and elsewhere, distinguishing between hedging and speculative derivatives activities has been a nontrivial challenge.", "The distinction is critical because regulation should help to isolate and curtail speculation with derivatives, especially for \"systemically significant\" institutions whose default could be large enough to threaten the entire financial system.", "At the same time, the legislation should allow for responsible parties to hedge risk without unduly tying up working capital as collateral that firms may better employ elsewhere in their operations and investment.", "In this regard, it is important to distinguish between financial (e.g.", "banks) and non-financial end-users of derivatives (e.g.", "real estate development companies) because these firms' derivatives usage is inherently different.", "More importantly, the reasonable collateral that secures these different counterparties can be very different.", "The distinction between these firms is not always straight forward (e.g.", "hedge funds or even some private equity firms do not neatly fit either category).", "Finally, even financial users must be differentiated, as 'large' banks may classified as \"systemically significant\" whose derivatives activities must be more tightly monitored and restricted than those of smaller, local and regional banks.Over-the-counter dealing will be less common as the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act comes into effect.", "The law mandated the clearing of certain swaps at registered exchanges and imposed various restrictions on derivatives.", "To implement Dodd-Frank, the CFTC developed new rules in at least 30 areas.", "The Commission determines which swaps are subject to mandatory clearing and whether a derivatives exchange is eligible to clear a certain type of swap contract.Nonetheless, the above and other challenges of the rule-making process have delayed full enactment of aspects of the legislation relating to derivatives.", "The challenges are further complicated by the necessity to orchestrate globalized financial reform among the nations that comprise the world's major financial markets, a primary responsibility of the Financial Stability Board whose progress is ongoing.In the U.S., by February 2012 the combined effort of the SEC and CFTC had produced over 70 proposed and final derivatives rules.", "However, both of them had delayed adoption of a number of derivatives regulations because of the burden of other rulemaking, litigation and opposition to the rules, and many core definitions (such as the terms \"swap\", \"security-based swap\", \"swap dealer\", \"security-based swap dealer\", \"major swap participant\" and \"major security-based swap participant\") had still not been adopted.", "SEC Chairman Mary Schapiro opined: \"At the end of the day, it probably does not make sense to harmonize everything between the SEC and CFTC rules because some of these products are quite different and certainly the market structures are quite different.\"", "On February 11, 2015, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) released two final rules toward establishing a reporting and public disclosure framework for security-based swap transaction data.", "The two rules are not completely harmonized with the requirements with CFTC requirements.Country leaders at the 2009 G-20 Pittsburgh summitIn November 2012, the SEC and regulators from Australia, Brazil, the European Union, Hong Kong, Japan, Ontario, Quebec, Singapore, and Switzerland met to discuss reforming the OTC derivatives market, as had been agreed by leaders at the 2009 G-20 Pittsburgh summit in September 2009.In December 2012, they released a joint statement to the effect that they recognized that the market is a global one and \"firmly support the adoption and enforcement of robust and consistent standards in and across jurisdictions\", with the goals of mitigating risk, improving transparency, protecting against market abuse, preventing regulatory gaps, reducing the potential for arbitrage opportunities, and fostering a level playing field for market participants.", "They also agreed on the need to reduce regulatory uncertainty and provide market participants with sufficient clarity on laws and regulations by avoiding, to the extent possible, the application of conflicting rules to the same entities and transactions, and minimizing the application of inconsistent and duplicative rules.", "At the same time, they noted that \"complete harmonization – perfect alignment of rules across jurisdictions\" would be difficult, because of jurisdictions' differences in law, policy, markets, implementation timing, and legislative and regulatory processes.On December 20, 2013 the CFTC provided information on its swaps regulation \"comparability\" determinations.", "The release addressed the CFTC's cross-border compliance exceptions.", "Specifically it addressed which entity level and in some cases transaction-level requirements in six jurisdictions (Australia, Canada, the European Union, Hong Kong, Japan, and Switzerland) it found comparable to its own rules, thus permitting non-US swap dealers, major swap participants, and the foreign branches of US Swap Dealers and major swap participants in these jurisdictions to comply with local rules in lieu of Commission rules.===Reporting===Mandatory reporting regulations are being finalized in a number of countries, such as Dodd Frank Act in the US, the European Market Infrastructure Regulations (EMIR) in Europe, as well as regulations in Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, Canada, and other countries.", "The OTC Derivatives Regulators Forum (ODRF), a group of over 40 worldwide regulators, provided trade repositories with a set of guidelines regarding data access to regulators, and the Financial Stability Board and CPSS IOSCO also made recommendations in with regard to reporting.DTCC, through its \"Global Trade Repository\" (GTR) service, manages global trade repositories for interest rates, and commodities, foreign exchange, credit, and equity derivatives.", "It makes global trade reports to the CFTC in the U.S., and plans to do the same for ESMA in Europe and for regulators in Hong Kong, Japan, and Singapore.", "It covers cleared and uncleared OTC derivatives products, whether or not a trade is electronically processed or bespoke." ], [ "Glossary", " Bilateral netting: A legally enforceable arrangement between a bank and a counter-party that creates a single legal obligation covering all included individual contracts.", "This means that a bank's obligation, in the event of the default or insolvency of one of the parties, would be the net sum of all positive and negative fair values of contracts included in the bilateral netting arrangement.", "* Counterparty: The legal and financial term for the other party in a financial transaction.", "* Credit derivative: A contract that transfers credit risk from a protection buyer to a credit protection seller.", "Credit derivative products can take many forms, such as credit default swaps, credit linked notes and total return swaps.", "* Derivative: A financial contract whose value is derived from the performance of assets, interest rates, currency exchange rates, or indexes.", "Derivative transactions include a wide assortment of financial contracts including structured debt obligations and deposits, swaps, futures, options, caps, floors, collars, forwards and various combinations thereof.", "* Exchange-traded derivative contracts: Standardized derivative contracts (e.g., futures contracts and options) that are transacted on an organized futures exchange.", "* Gross negative fair value: The sum of the fair values of contracts where the bank owes money to its counter-parties, without taking into account netting.", "This represents the maximum losses the bank's counter-parties would incur if the bank defaults and there is no netting of contracts, and no bank collateral was held by the counter-parties.", "* Gross positive fair value: The sum total of the fair values of contracts where the bank is owed money by its counter-parties, without taking into account netting.", "This represents the maximum losses a bank could incur if all its counter-parties default and there is no netting of contracts, and the bank holds no counter-party collateral.", "* High-risk mortgage securities: Securities where the price or expected average life is highly sensitive to interest rate changes, as determined by the U.S. Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council policy statement on high-risk mortgage securities.", "* Notional amount: The nominal or face amount that is used to calculate payments made on swaps and other risk management products.", "This amount generally does not change hands and is thus referred to as notional.", "* Over-the-counter (OTC) derivative contracts: Privately negotiated derivative contracts that are transacted off organized futures exchanges.", "* Structured notes: Non-mortgage-backed debt securities, whose cash flow characteristics depend on one or more indices and / or have embedded forwards or options.", "* Total risk-based capital: The sum of tier 1 plus tier 2 capital.", "Tier 1 capital consists of common shareholders equity, perpetual preferred shareholders equity with noncumulative dividends, retained earnings, and minority interests in the equity accounts of consolidated subsidiaries.", "Tier 2 capital consists of subordinated debt, intermediate-term preferred stock, cumulative and long-term preferred stock, and a portion of a bank's allowance for loan and lease losses." ], [ "See also", "* Credit derivative* Derivatives law* Equity derivative* Exotic derivative* Financial engineering* Foreign exchange derivative* Freight derivative* Inflation derivative* Interest rate derivative* Property derivatives* Weather derivative" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**** * * * * * * * Nassim N. Taleb (1996).", "“Dynamic Hedging: Managing Vanilla and Exotic Options”.", "Wiley." ], [ "External links", "* ''Understanding Derivatives: Markets and Infrastructure'' (Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago)* \"Derivatives simple guide\", BBC News* ''Investment-foundations: Derivatives''.", ".", "CFA Institute.", "* \"European Union proposals on derivatives regulation – 2008 onwards\" (archived 19 February 2014)* \" Derivatives Regulatory Roulette\", PwC Financial Services Regulatory Practice (December 2013)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Disney (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Disney''' is another name for The Walt Disney Company, an American diversified multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate'''Disney''' may also refer to:* Walt Disney (1901–1966), founder of the Walt Disney Company" ], [ "Units of The Walt Disney Company", "Disney Enterprises, Inc., the copyright holder and trademark owner of everything Disney-brandedWalt Disney Studios (Burbank), the company headquarters and studio lot in Burbank, CaliforniaWalt Disney Studios (division), the film studios division of The Walt Disney CompanyWalt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, the theatrical distribution division of The Walt Disney CompanyWalt Disney Pictures, the film distribution banner and production company of The Walt Disney Company*Walt Disney Animation Studios, the main animation studio (formerly known as Walt Disney Feature Animation)Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment, the home entertainment distribution division of The Walt Disney CompanyDisney Theatrical Group, the live show, stageplay and musical production arm of The Walt Disney CompanyDisney Theatrical Productions, the flagship stageplay and musical production division of The Walt Disney CompanyDisney Music Group, the music publishing arm of The Walt Disney Company*Walt Disney Records, the flagship Disney-branded music labelDisney Parks, Experiences and Products, the division which builds and manages Disney's theme parks and vacation resorts, Disney Stores, merchandising, publishing and digital media, games and interactive experiences*Walt Disney WorldDisneyland Resort*DisneylandDisney California AdventureDisneyland ParisHong Kong Disneyland ResortTokyo Disney ResortShanghai Disney ResortDisney Signature Experiences, non-theme park travel units*Adventures by DisneyDisney Cruise LineDisney's Castaway CayDisney Vacation ClubWalt Disney Imagineering, the research and development arm of The Walt Disney Company responsible for the creation, design and construction of global Disney theme parks and attractionsDisney Publishing Worldwide, the publishing division of The Walt Disney CompanyDisney Programs, division that provides paid internship experiences in The Walt Disney Company to college students and graduates*Disney College ProgramDisney International ProgramsDisney Media Networks, the former division before the October 10, 2020 breakup and restructuring into Disney Media and Entertainment Distribution, Disney General Entertainment Content and ESPN and Sports ContentWalt Disney Television — rebranded as \"Disney General Entertainment Content\" or \"Disney General Entertainment\" in 2021Disney Channel, a pay television network owned by The Walt Disney CompanyWalt Disney Television, a broken-up and defunct American television production company arm of The Walt Disney Company active from 1983 to 2003Disney Television Animation, the television animation studio division of The Walt Disney CompanyCapital Disney, a defunct digital radio station in the United Kingdom owned by The Walt Disney Company which was active from 2002 until 2007Radio Disney, a defunct radio network in the United States owned by The Walt Disney Company which was active from 1996 until 2021*Disney+, a streaming service launched on November 12, 2019 and is owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company" ], [ "Subsidiaries of The Walt Disney Company", "Disney IndiaDisney Italia" ], [ "People with the surname", "===Relatives of Walt Disney===Roy O. Disney (1893–1971), Walt's brother and co-founder of The Walt Disney CompanyRoy E. Disney (1930–2009), son of Roy O. and leader of the Save Disney campaignAbigail Disney (born 1960), Walt's grandniece, philanthropist and film-makerLillian Disney (1899–1997), Walt's wifeElias Disney (1859–1941), father of Walt and Roy O.", "Herbert Arthur Disney (1888–1961), brother of Walt and Roy O.", "Diane Marie Disney (1933–2013), Walt's daughterSharon Mae Disney (1936–1993), Walt's adopted daughter===Others===David T. Disney (1803-1857), American politician from OhioDonald Disney, Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics EngineersDoris Miles Disney (1907-1976), American authorDorothy Cameron Disney (1903-1992), American authorJohn Disney (antiquarian) (1779–1857), English barrister and archaeologistJohn Disney (ornithologist) (1919–2014), Australian ornithologistJohn Disney (priest) (1677–1730), English clergymanJohn Disney (Unitarian) (1746–1816), English Unitarian minister and biographical writerMelissa Disney, American voice actressMoore Disney (1766-1846), British Army officerRichard Disney (disambiguation)Wesley E. Disney, former US congressman from OklahomaDisney-Roebuck family, see Captain Disney-Roebuck" ], [ "Other uses", "Disney, Oklahoma, United StatesDisney bomb, a British \"rocket-assisted\" bomb of World War II" ], [ "See also", "Disney Enterprises (disambiguation)Disney family, a surnameDisneyland (disambiguation)Walt Disney (disambiguation)Disney Rodríguez, a Cuban freestyle wrestlerDizney, Kentucky, U.S.*Norton Disney, Lincolnshire, U.K." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Divine right of kings" ], [ "Introduction", " In European Christianity, the '''divine right of kings''', '''divine right''', or '''God's mandation''', is a political and religious doctrine of political legitimacy of a monarchy.", "It is also known as the '''divine-right theory of kingship'''.The doctrine asserts that a monarch is not accountable to any earthly authority (such as a parliament or pope) because their right to rule is derived from divine authority.", "Thus, the monarch is not subject to the will of the people, of the aristocracy, or of any other estate of the realm.", "It follows that only divine authority can judge a monarch, and that any attempt to depose, dethrone, resist or restrict their powers runs contrary to God's will and may constitute a sacrilegious act.", "It does not imply that their power is absolute.In its full-fledged form, the Divine Right of Kings is associated with Henry VIII of England (and the Acts of Supremacy), James VI and I of Scotland and England, Louis XIV of France, and their successors.", "In contrast, the conception of human rights started being developed during the Middle Ages by scholars such as St. Thomas Aquinas (see Natural Law) and were systematised by the thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment, e.g.", "John Locke.", "This concept is grounded in Christian thought, especially the idea that reason is a spark of the divine that allows the creature to know the Creator, making each rational creature sacred.", "Liberty, dignity, freedom and equality are examples of important human rights." ], [ "Concepts", "Divine right has been a key element of the self-legitimisation of many absolute monarchies, connected with their authority and right to rule.", "Related but distinct notions include Caesaropapism (the complete subordination of bishops etc.", "to the secular power), Supremacy (the legal sovereignty of the civil laws over the laws of the Church), Absolutism (a form of monarchical or despotic power that is unrestrained by all other institutions, such as churches, legislatures, or social elites) or Tyranny (an absolute ruler who is unrestrained even by moral law).", "Historically, many notions of rights have been authoritarian and hierarchical, with different people granted different rights and some having more rights than others.", "For instance, the right of a father to receive respect from his son did not indicate a right for the son to receive a return from that respect.", "Analogously, the divine right of kings, which permitted absolute power over subjects, provided few rights for the subjects themselves.It is sometimes signified by the phrase \"by the Grace of God\" or its Latin equivalent, ''Dei Gratia'', which has historically been attached to the titles of certain reigning monarchs.", "Note, however, that such accountability only to God does not ''per se'' make the monarch a sacred king." ], [ "Pre-Christian conceptions", "=== Zoroastrianism (Iranian world) ===Ahura Mazda gives divine kingship to Ardashir.Khvarenah (also spelled ''khwarenah'' or ''xwarra(h)'': ''''; ) is an Iranian and Zoroastrian concept, which literally means ''glory'', about divine right of the kings.", "This may stem from early Mesopotamian culture, where kings were often regarded as deities after their death.", "Shulgi of Ur was among the first Mesopotamian rulers to declare himself to be divine.", "In the Iranian view, kings would never rule, unless Khvarenah is with them, and they will never fall unless Khvarenah leaves them.", "For example, according to the ''Kar-namag of Ardashir,'' when Ardashir I of Persia and Artabanus V of Parthia fought for the throne of Iran, on the road Artabanus and his contingent are overtaken by an enormous ram, which is also following Ardashir.", "Artabanus's religious advisors explain to him that the ram is the manifestation of the ''khwarrah'' of the ancient Iranian kings, which is leaving Artabanus to join Ardashir.=== Roman Empire ===The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified Roman emperors and some members of their families with the \"divinely sanctioned\" authority (''auctoritas'') of the Roman State.", "The official offer of ''cultus'' to a living emperor acknowledged his office and rule as divinely approved and constitutional: his Principate should therefore demonstrate pious respect for traditional Republican deities and mores.", "Many of the rites, practices and status distinctions that characterized the cult to emperors were perpetuated in the theology and politics of the Christianised Empire.=== Judaism ===While the earliest references to kingship in Israel proclaim that \"14 \"When you come to the land that the Lord your God is giving you, and you possess it and dwell in it and then say, 'I will set a king over me, like all the nations that are around me,' 15 you may indeed set a king over you whom the Lord your God will choose.", "One from among your brothers you shall set as king over you.", "You may not put a foreigner over you, who is not your brother.\"", "(Deut 17:14-15), significant debate on the legitimacy of kingship has persisted in Rabbinical Judaism until Maimonides, though many mainstream currents continue to reject the notion.", "The controversy is highlighted by the instructions to the Israelites in the above-quoted passage, as well as the passages in 1 Samuel 8 and 12, concerning the dispute over kingship; and ''Perashat Shoftim.''", "It is from 1 Samuel 8 that the Jews receive ''mishpat ha-melech,'' the ''ius regium'', or the law of kingship, and from this passage that Maimonides finally concludes that Judaism supports the institution of monarchy, stating that the Israelites had been given three commandments upon entering the land of Israel - to designate a king for themselves, to wipe out the memory of Amalek, and to build the Temple.", "The debate has primarily centered around the problem of being told to \"designate\" a king, which some rabbinical sources have argued is an invocation ''against'' a divine right of kings, and a call to elect a leader, in opposition to a notion of a divine right.", "Other rabbinical arguments have put forward an idea that it is through the collective decision of the people that God's will is made manifest, and that the king does therefore have a divine right - once appointed by the nation, he is God's emissary.", "Jewish law requires one to recite a special blessing upon seeing a monarch: \"Blessed are You, L‑rd our G‑d, King of the universe, Who has given from His glory to flesh and blood\"." ], [ "European conceptions", "With the rise of firearms, nation-states and the Protestant Reformation in the late 16th century, the theory of divine right justified the king's absolute authority in both political and spiritual matters.", "Henry VIII of England declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England and exerted the power of the throne more than any of his predecessors.", "As a political theory, it was further developed by James VI of Scotland (1567–1625) and came to the fore in England under his reign as James I of England (1603–1625).", "Louis XIV of France (1643–1715) strongly promoted the theory as well.Historian J.P. Sommerville stresses the theory was polemic: \"Absolutists magnified royal power.", "They did this to protect the state against anarchy and to refute the ideas of resistance theorists\", those being in Britain Catholic and Presbyterian theorists.The concept of divine right incorporates, but exaggerates, the ancient Christian concept of \"royal God-given rights\", which teach that \"the right to rule is anointed by God\", although this idea is found in many other cultures, including Aryan and Egyptian traditions.", "In pagan religions, the king was often seen as a ''God incarnate'' and so was an unchallengeable despot.", "The ancient Roman Catholic tradition overcame this idea with the doctrine of the two swords and so achieved, for the very first time, a balanced constitution for states.", "The advent of Protestantism saw something of a return to the idea of a mere unchallengeable despot.===Biblical background===The Christian notion of a divine right of kings is traced to a story found in 1 Samuel, where the prophet Samuel anoints Saul and then David as ''Messiah'' (\"anointed one\")—king over Israel.", "In the Jewish traditions, the lack of a divine leadership represented by an anointed king, beginning shortly after the death of Joshua, left the people of Israel vulnerable, and the promise of the \"promised land\" was not fully fulfilled until a king was anointed by a prophet on behalf of God.The effect of anointing was seen to be that the monarch became inviolable, so that even when Saul sought to kill David, David would not raise his hand against him because \"he was the Lord's anointed\".", "Raising a hand to a king was therefore considered to be as sacrilegious as raising a hand against God and stood on equal footing as blasphemy.", "In essence, the king stood in place of God and was never to be challenged \"without the challenger being accused of blasphemy\" - except by a prophet, which under Christianity was replaced by the church.=== Medieval periods ===Outside of Christianity, kings were often seen as ruling with the backing of heavenly powers.", "====Early Middle Ages====Although the later Roman Empire had developed the European concept of a divine regent in Late Antiquity, Adomnan of Iona provides one of the earliest written examples of a Western medieval concept of kings ruling with divine right.", "He wrote of the Irish King Diarmait mac Cerbaill's assassination and claimed that divine punishment fell on his assassin for the act of violating the monarch.", "Adomnan also recorded a story about Saint Columba supposedly being visited by an angel carrying a glass book, who told him to ordain Aedan mac Gabrain as King of Dal Riata.", "Columba initially refused, and the angel answered by whipping him and demanding that he perform the ordination because God had commanded it.", "The same angel visited Columba on three successive nights.", "Columba finally agreed, and Aedan came to receive ordination.", "At the ordination, Columba told Aedan that so long as he obeyed God's laws, then none of his enemies would prevail against him, but the moment he broke them, this protection would end, and the same whip with which Columba had been struck would be turned against the king.", "Adomnan's writings most likely influenced other Irish writers, who in turn influenced continental ideas as well.", "Pepin the Short's coronation may have also come from the same influence.", "The Byzantine Empire can be seen as the progenitor of this concept (which began with Constantine I).", "This in turn inspired the Carolingian dynasty and the Holy Roman Emperors, whose lasting impact on Western and Central Europe further inspired all subsequent Western ideas of kingship.====High Middle Ages====In the Middle Ages, the idea that God had granted certain earthly powers to the monarch, just as he had given spiritual authority and power to the church, especially to the Pope, was already a well-known concept long before later writers coined the term \"divine right of kings\" and employed it as a theory in political science.", "However, the dividing line for the authority and power was a subject of frequent contention: notably in England with the murder of Archbishop Thomas Beckett (1170).", "For example, Richard I of England declared at his trial during the diet at Speyer in 1193: \"I am born in a rank which recognizes no superior but God, to whom alone I am responsible for my actions\", and it was Richard who first used the motto \"\" (\"God and my right\") which is still the motto of the Monarch of the United Kingdom.Thomas Aquinas condoned extra-legal tyrannicide in the worst of circumstances:On the other hand, Aquinas forbade the overthrow of any morally, Christianly and spiritually legitimate king by his subjects.", "The only human power capable of deposing the king was the pope.", "The reasoning was that if a subject may overthrow his superior for some bad law, who was to be the judge of whether the law was bad?", "If the subject could so judge his own superior, then all lawful superior authority could lawfully be overthrown by the arbitrary judgement of an inferior, and thus all law was under constant threat.According to John of Paris, kings had their jurisdictions and bishops (and the pope) had theirs, but kings derived their supreme, non-absolute temporal jurisdiction from popular consent.====Late Middle Ages and Renaissance====Towards the end of the Middle Ages, many philosophers, such as Nicholas of Cusa and Francisco Suárez, propounded similar theories.", "The Church was the final guarantor that Christian kings would follow the laws and constitutional traditions of their ancestors and the laws of God and of justice.Radical English theologian John Wycliffe's theory of Dominium meant that injuries inflicted on someone personally by a king should be born by them submissively, a conventional idea, but that injuries by a king against God should be patiently resisted even to death; gravely sinful kings and popes forfeited their (divine) right to obedience and ownership, though the political order should be maintained.", "More aggressive versions of this were taken up by Lollards and Hussites.For Erasmus of Rotterdam it was the consent of the people which gives and takes away \"the purple\", not an unchangeable divine mandate.===Catholic limits===Roman Catholic jurisprudence, the monarch is always subject to natural and divine law, which are regarded as superior to the monarch.", "The possibility of monarchy declining morally, overturning natural law, and degenerating into a tyranny oppressive of the general welfare was answered theologically with the Catholic concept of the spiritual superiority of the Pope (there is no \"Catholic concept of extra-legal tyrannicide\", as some falsely suppose, the same being expressly condemned by St Thomas Aquinas in chapter 7 of his ''De Regno'').", "Catholic thought justified limited submission to the monarchy by reference to the following:# The Old Testament, in which God chose kings to rule over Israel, beginning with Saul who was then rejected by God in favour of David, whose dynasty continued (at least in the southern kingdom) until the Babylonian captivity.# The New Testament, in which the first pope, Peter, commands that all Christians shall honour the Roman Emperor, even though, at that time, he was still a pagan emperor.", "Paul agreed with Peter that subjects should be obedient to the powers that be because they are appointed by God, as he wrote in his Epistle to the Romans.", "Likewise, Jesus Christ proclaims in the Gospel of Matthew that one should \"Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's\"; that is at first, literally, the payment of taxes as binding those who use the imperial currency.", "Jesus told Pontius Pilate that his authority as Roman governor of Judaea came from heaven according to John 19:10–11.# The endorsement by the popes and the church of the line of emperors beginning with the Emperors Constantine and Theodosius, later the Eastern Roman emperors, and finally the Western Roman emperor, Charlemagne and his successors, the Catholic Holy Roman Emperors.=== Reformation-period conceptions ===The divine right of kings, or divine-right theory of kingship, is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy.", "It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving his right to rule directly from the will of God.", "The king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or any other estate of the realm, including (in the view of some, especially in Protestant countries) the church.A weaker or more moderate form of this political theory does hold, however, that the king is subject to the church and the pope, although completely irreproachable in other ways; but according to this doctrine in its strong form, only God can judge an unjust king.", "The doctrine implies that any attempt to depose the king or to restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and may constitute a sacrilegious act.==== Scottish ====The Scots textbooks of the divine right of kings were written in 1597–1598 by James VI of Scotland.", "His ''Basilikon Doron'', a manual on the powers of a king, was written to edify his four-year-old son Henry Frederick that a king \"acknowledgeth himself ordained for his people, having received from God a burden of government, whereof he must be countable\".", "The conception of ordination brought with it largely unspoken parallels with the Anglican and Catholic priesthood, but the overriding metaphor in James VI's 'Basilikon Doron' was that of a father's relation to his children.", "\"Just as no misconduct on the part of a father can free his children from obedience to the fifth commandment.", "\"====British====James, after becoming James I of England, also had printed his ''Defense of the Right of Kings'' in the face of English theories of inalienable popular and clerical rights.", "He based his theories in part on his understanding of the Bible, as noted by the following quote from a speech to parliament delivered in 1610 as James I of England:James's reference to \"God's lieutenants\" is apparently a reference to the text in Romans 13 where Paul refers to \"God's ministers\".=====Ceremonial conflation=====Some of the symbolism within the coronation ceremony for British monarchs, in which they are anointed with holy oils by the Archbishop of Canterbury, thereby ''ordaining'' them to monarchy, perpetuates the ancient Roman Catholic monarchical ideas and ceremonial (although few Protestants realize this, the ceremony is nearly entirely based upon that of the Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor).", "However, in the UK, the symbolism ends there since the real governing authority of the monarch was all but extinguished by the Whig revolution of 1688–89 (see Glorious Revolution).", "The king or queen of the United Kingdom is one of the last monarchs still to be crowned in the traditional Christian ceremonial, which in most other countries has been replaced by an inauguration or other declaration.In England, it is not without significance that the sacerdotal vestments, generally discarded by the clergy – dalmatic, alb and stole – continued to be among the insignia of the sovereign (see Coronation of the British monarch).", "Moreover, this sacrosanct character he acquired not by virtue of his \"sacring\", but by hereditary right; the coronation, anointing and vesting were but the outward and visible symbol of a divine grace adherent in the sovereign by virtue of his title.", "Even Roman Catholic monarchs, like Louis XIV, would never have admitted that their coronation by the archbishop constituted any part of their title to reign; it was no more than the consecration of their title.====French====Louis XIV of France depicted as the Sun King.The French prelate Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet made a classic statement of the doctrine of divine right in a sermon preached before King Louis XIV:The French Huguenot nobles and clergy, having rejected the pope and the Catholic Church, were left only with the supreme power of the king who, they taught, could not be gainsaid or judged by anyone.", "Since there was no longer the countervailing power of the papacy and since the Church of England was a creature of the state and had become subservient to it, this meant that there was nothing to regulate the powers of the king, and he became an absolute power.", "In theory, divine, natural, customary, and constitutional law still held sway over the king, but, absent a superior spiritual power, it was difficult to see how they could be enforced since the king could not be tried by any of his own courts.====German====One passage in scripture supporting the idea of the divine right of kings was used by Martin Luther, when urging the secular authorities to crush the Peasant Rebellion of 1525 in Germany in his ''Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants'', basing his argument on Paul's Epistle to the Romans.It is related to the ancient Catholic philosophies regarding monarchy, in which the monarch is God's vicegerent upon the earth and therefore subject to no inferior power.==== Protestantism ====File:PapalPolitics2.JPG\|upright=1.25\|right\|thumb\|''Antichristus'', a woodcut by Lucas Cranach the Elder, of the pope using the temporal power to grant authority to a ruler contributing generously to the Catholic ChurchBefore the Reformation the anointed king was, within his realm, the accredited vicar of God for secular purposes (see the Investiture Controversy); after the Reformation he (or she if queen regnant) became this in Protestant states for religious purposes also.=== Opposition ===In the sixteenth century, both Catholic and Protestant political thinkers alike challenged the idea of a monarch's \"divine right\".====Catholic====The Spanish Catholic historian Juan de Mariana put forward the argument in his book ''De rege et regis institutione'' (1598) that since society was formed by a \"pact\" among all its members, \"there can be no doubt that they are able to call a king to account\".", "Mariana thus challenged divine right theories by stating in certain circumstances, tyrannicide could be justified.", "Cardinal Robert Bellarmine also \"did not believe that the institute of monarchy had any divine sanction\" and shared Mariana's belief that there were times where Catholics could lawfully remove a monarch.====Protestant====Among groups of English Protestant exiles fleeing from Queen Mary I, some of the earliest anti-monarchist publications emerged.", "\"Weaned off uncritical royalism by the actions of Queen Mary ...", "The political thinking of men like Ponet, Knox, Goodman and Hales.", "\"In 1553, Mary I, a Roman Catholic, succeeded her Protestant half-brother, Edward VI, to the English throne.", "Mary set about trying to restore Roman Catholicism by making sure that: Edward's religious laws were abolished in the Statute of Repeal Act (1553); the Protestant religious laws passed in the time of Henry VIII were repealed; and the Revival of the Heresy Acts were passed in late 1554.When Thomas Wyatt the Younger instigated what became known as Wyatt's rebellion in early 1554, John Ponet, the highest-ranking ecclesiastic among the exiles, allegedly participated in the uprising.", "He escaped to Strasbourg after the Rebellion's defeat and, the following year, he published ''A Shorte Treatise of Politike Power'', in which he put forward a theory of justified opposition to secular rulers.Ponet's pamphlet was republished on the eve of King Charles I's execution.====Enlightenment====According to U.S. President John Adams, Ponet's work contained \"all the essential principles of liberty, which were afterward dilated on by Sidney and Locke\", including the idea of a three-branched government.Over time, opposition to the divine right of kings came from a number of sources, including poet John Milton in his pamphlet ''The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates'', and Thomas Paine in his pamphlet ''Common Sense''.", "By 1700 an Anglican Archbishop was prepared to assert that Kings hold their Crowns by law alone, and the law may forfeit them.", "Probably the two most famous declarations of a right to revolution against tyranny in the English language are John Locke's ''Essay concerning The True Original, Extent, and End of Civil-Government'' and Thomas Jefferson's formulation in the United States Declaration of Independence that \"all men are created equal\".===Peak and decline===Charles I of England, with a divine hand moving his crown.In England the doctrine of the divine right of kings was developed to its most extreme logical conclusions during the political controversies of the 17th century; its most famous exponent was Sir Robert Filmer.", "It was the main issue to be decided by the English Civil War, the Royalists holding that \"all Christian kings, princes and governors\" derive their authority direct from God, the Parliamentarians that this authority is the outcome of a contract, actual or implied, between sovereign and people.In one case the king's power would be unlimited, according to the famous saying misattributed to Louis XIV: ''\"L' état, c'est moi\"'', or limited only by his own free act; in the other his actions would be governed by the advice and consent of the people, to whom he would be ultimately responsible.", "The victory of this latter principle was proclaimed to all the world by the execution of Charles I.", "The doctrine of divine right, indeed, for a while drew nourishment from the blood of the royal \"martyr\"; it was the guiding principle of the Anglican Church of the Restoration; but it suffered a rude blow when James II of England made it impossible for the clergy to obey both their conscience and their king.", "The Glorious Revolution of 1688 made an end of it as a great political force.", "This has led to the constitutional development of the Crown in Britain, as held by descent modified and modifiable by parliamentary action." ], [ "Related concepts in other religions", "* Mandate of Heaven and monarch as the Son of Heaven - Sinosphere* Madkhalism - Islam* Monarchs who are also deities: God emperors God kings* Sacred kings - the occupant of the monarchy gains religious significance or has support from a deity** Cakravartin - South Asia" ], [ "See also", "* Absolutism (European history)* Absolute monarchy* Ancien Régime - the government in France justified by the divine right of kings* Caliphate* Church and state in medieval Europe* Cuius regio, eius religio - the European idea that the religion of the people follows the religion of the ruler* Exclusive right* Royal prerogative* ''Vindiciae contra tyrannos'' - a tract opposing the divine right of kings* Sacred king" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Davros" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Davros''' () is a fictional character from the long-running British science fiction television series ''Doctor Who''.", "He was created by screenwriter Terry Nation, originally for the 1975 serial ''Genesis of the Daleks''.", "Davros is a major enemy of the series' protagonist, the Doctor, and is the creator of the Doctor's deadliest enemies, the Daleks.", "Davros is a genius who has mastered many areas of science, but also a megalomaniac who believes that through his creations he can become the supreme being and ruler of the Universe.", "The character has been compared to the infamous dictator Adolf Hitler several times, including by the actor Terry Molloy, while Julian Bleach defined him as a cross between Hitler and the renowned scientist Stephen Hawking.Davros is from the planet Skaro, whose people, the Kaleds, were engaged in a bitter thousand-year war of attrition with their enemies, the Thals.", "He is horribly scarred and disabled, a condition that various spin-off media attribute to his laboratory being attacked by a Thal shell.", "He has one functioning hand and one cybernetic eye mounted on his forehead to take the place of his real eyes, which he is not able to open for long; for much of his existence he depends completely upon a self-designed mobile life-support chair in place of his lower body.", "It would become an obvious inspiration for his eventual design of the Dalek.", "The lower half of his body is absent and he is physically incapable of leaving the chair for more than a few minutes without dying.", "Davros' voice, like those of the Daleks, is electronically distorted.", "His manner of speech is generally soft and contemplative, but when angered or excited he is prone to ranting outbursts that resemble the hysterical, staccatissimo speech of the Daleks." ], [ "Concept", "Davros first appeared in the 1975 serial ''Genesis of the Daleks'', written by Terry Nation.", "Nation, creator of the Dalek concept, had deliberately modelled elements of the Daleks' character on Nazi ideology, and conceived of their creator as a scientist with strong fascist tendencies.", "The physical appearance of Davros was developed by visual effects designer Peter Day and sculptor John Friedlander, who based Davros' chair on the lower half of a Dalek.", "Producer Philip Hinchcliffe told Friedlander to consider a design similar to the Mekon from the ''Eagle'' comic ''Dan Dare'', with a large dome-like head and a withered body.Cast in the role of Davros was Michael Wisher, who had previously appeared in several different roles on ''Doctor Who'' and had provided Dalek voices in the serials ''Frontier in Space'', ''Planet of the Daleks'' and ''Death to the Daleks''.", "Wisher based his performance as Davros on the philosopher Bertrand Russell.", "In order to prepare for filming under the heavy mask, Wisher rehearsed wearing a paper bag over his head.", "Friedlander's mask was cast in hard latex, with only the mouth revealing Wisher's features; make-up artist Sylvia James shaded the mask's tones and blackened Wisher's lips and teeth to hide the transition.In the serial ''Destiny of the Daleks'', Davros is played by David Gooderson using the mask Friedlander made for Wisher after it was split into intersecting sections to get as good a fit as possible.", "When Terry Molloy took over the role in ''Resurrection of the Daleks'', a new mask was designed by Stan Mitchell.In 2023, Bleach reprised the role of Davros for a minisode aired during ''Children in Need'', informally titled \"Destination: Skaro\".", "For the first time on television, Davros is depicted as non-disabled.", "In an interview for ''Doctor Who: Unleashed'', executive producer Russell T. Davies said that this is how Davros will be depicted in future appearances, to avoid contributing to harmful tropes of disabled villains in media.The decision to portray Davros without his chair received a divisive reception from fans." ], [ "Character history", "===Encounters with the Fourth Doctor===Michael Wisher as Davros in ''Genesis of the Daleks''The Fourth Doctor (Tom Baker) first encountered Davros (Michael Wisher) in ''Genesis of the Daleks'' when he and his companions were sent to Skaro to avert the creation of the Daleks.", "As chief scientist of the Kaleds and leader of their elite scientific division, Davros devised new military strategies in order to win his people's thousand-year war against the Thal race that also occupies Skaro.", "When Davros learned his people were evolving from exposure to nuclear weapons, chemical weapons and biological weapons used in the war, he artificially accelerates the process to his design and stores the resulting tentacled creatures in tank-like \"Mark III travel machines\" partly based on the design of his wheelchair.", "He later names these creatures \"Daleks\", an anagram of Kaleds.Davros quickly becomes obsessed with his creations, considering them to be the ultimate form of life compared to others.", "When other Kaleds attempted to thwart his project, Davros arranges the extinction of his own people by using the Thals, whom he mostly killed with the Daleks later.", "Davros then weeds out those in elite scientific division who are loyal to him so he can have the Daleks eliminate the rest.", "However, the Daleks ultimately turn on Davros, killing his supporters before shooting him when he tries to halt the Dalek production line.In ''Destiny of the Daleks'', it is revealed that Davros (now played by David Gooderson) was not killed, but placed in suspended animation and buried underground in the destruction of his bunker.", "The Daleks unearth their creator to help them break a logical impasse in their war against the android Movellans.", "However, the Dalek force is destroyed by the Doctor, and Davros is captured and imprisoned in suspended animation by the humans, before being taken to Earth to face trial.===The Dalek Civil War===In the Fifth Doctor story ''Resurrection of the Daleks'', Davros (Terry Molloy) is released from his space station prison by a small Dalek force aided by human mercenaries and Dalek duplicates.", "The Daleks require Davros to find an antidote for a Movellan-created virus that has all but wiped them out.", "Believing his creations to be treacherous, Davros begins using a syringe-like mind control device hidden in a secret compartment in his wheelchair on Daleks and humans; he ultimately releases a sample of the virus to kill off the Daleks before they can exterminate him.", "Davros expresses a desire to build a new and improved race of Daleks, but he apparently succumbs to the virus himself, his physiology being close enough to that of the Daleks for the virus to affect him.In the Sixth Doctor story ''Revelation of the Daleks'', it is revealed that Davros managed to escape at the end of ''Resurrection'' and has gone into hiding as \"The Great Healer\" of the funeral and cryogenic preservation centre Tranquil Repose on the planet Necros.", "There, creating a clone of his head to serve as a decoy while modifying his body so that it can fire electric bolts and his chair is able to hover, Davros uses the more intelligent frozen bodies to engineer a new variety of white armoured Daleks loyal to him (while using the lesser intellects as food for the galaxy, ending a galaxy-wide famine), but he is captured by the original Daleks and taken to Skaro to face trial.Davros' final classic appearance is as the Emperor Dalek in ''Remembrance of the Daleks'', with his white and gold Daleks now based on Skaro and termed \"Imperial Daleks\", fighting against the grey \"Renegade Dalek\" faction, who answer to the Dalek Supreme.", "By this time, Davros has been physically transplanted into a customised Dalek casing.", "He is only revealed to be the Emperor in the final episode.", "Both Skaro and the Imperial Dalek mothership are apparently destroyed (in the future) when the Seventh Doctor tricks Davros into using the Time Lord artefact known as the Hand of Omega, which makes Skaro's Sun go supernova, before homing in on their mothership.", "However, a Dalek on the bridge of Davros' ship reports that the Emperor's escape pod is being launched and a white light is seen speeding away from the ship moments before its destruction, leaving a clear route to bring Davros back in the future.===The Time War and the Reality Bomb ===Davros, as he looked in both 2008 and 2015, played by Julian BleachDuring the revived series, Davros was referred to in the episode \"Dalek\" (2005) by the Ninth Doctor (Christopher Eccleston), who explains to Henry Van Statten that the Daleks were created by \"a genius... a man who was king of his own little world\", and again by the Tenth Doctor (David Tennant) in the episode \"Evolution of the Daleks\" (2007), where he refers to the Daleks' creator as believing that \"removing emotions makes you stronger\".", "Davros makes his first physical appearance in the episode \"The Stolen Earth\" (2008), portrayed by Julian Bleach.", "The episode reveals that Davros was thought to have died during the first year of the Time War, when his command ship \"flew into the jaws of the Nightmare Child\" at the Gates of Elysium, despite the Doctor's failed efforts to save him.", "But Davros was pulled out of the time lock of the war by Dalek Caan (voiced by Nicholas Briggs), using his own flesh to create a \"new empire\" of Daleks who place him in the Vault as their prisoner to make use of his knowledge.", "Under Davros' guidance, the Daleks steal 27 planets, including Earth, and hide them in the Medusa Cascade, one second out of sync with the rest of the universe.In the follow-up episode \"Journey's End\" (2008), it is revealed that the stolen planets are required as a power source for Davros' ideal final solution: the Reality Bomb, which produces a wavelength that would cancel out the electrical field binding atoms to reduce all life outside the Crucible into nothingness in both his universe and countless other realities.", "But Davros learns too late that Dalek Caan, who came to the realisation of his race's atrocities as a consequence of saving his creator, used his prophecies and influence to ensure the Daleks' destruction while manipulating events to bring the Tenth Doctor and Donna Noble (Catherine Tate) together for the role the latter would play.", "Though the Doctor attempts to save him, having earlier taunted the Doctor for turning his companions into killers and being the cause of the deaths of countless people during his travels, Davros furiously refuses the Doctor's help and accuses him of being responsible for the destruction while screaming: \"Never forget, Doctor, you did this!", "I name you forever: ''You'' are the Destroyer of Worlds!\"", "Thus the Doctor is forced to leave Davros to his supposed fate as the Crucible self-destructs.=== Remembering the Twelfth Doctor ===Davros returns in the two-part Series 9 opening \"The Magician's Apprentice\" and \"The Witch's Familiar\" (2015), having escaped the Crucible's destruction and ending up on a restored Skaro with his life being prolonged by the Daleks.", "But when the aged Davros' health begins to fail, he remembers his childhood self, played by Joey Price, meeting the Twelfth Doctor (Peter Capaldi) during the Kaleds' thousand-year war prior to ''Genesis of the Daleks''.", "The young Davros finds himself lost on the battlefield and surrounded by handmines, with the Doctor throwing his sonic screwdriver to the boy with the intent to save him before learning his name and leaving the child to his fate.", "Davros, seeking a final revenge on the Doctor, employs the snake-like Colony Sarff (Jami Reid-Quarrell) to bring him to Skaro.", "When it appears that the Doctor has lost his companion Clara Oswald (Jenna Coleman) to the Daleks, Davros manages to trick the Doctor into using his regeneration energy to heal him, extending his own life while infusing every Dalek on Skaro with the energy.", "But the Doctor reveals Davros' scheme has also revitalised the decomposing-yet-still-alive Daleks left to rot in Skaro's sewers, causing them to revolt and destroy the city.", "The Doctor then discovers the Daleks have a concept of mercy and are allowed to have the word in their vocabulary when he encounters Clara, having been placed in a Dalek casing by Missy (Michelle Gomez).", "The Doctor and Clara escape, the former having an epiphany as to how Davros somehow put a sliver of compassion into the Daleks.", "He then returns to the battlefield in Davros' childhood, using a Dalek gun to destroy the handmines with the one bit of compassion in Davros' life instilled in the Daleks' design to ensure Clara being saved.===The Fourteenth Doctor===In the ''Children in Need'' sketch \"Destination: Skaro\" (2023) (which takes place during an earlier time in the Kaled-Thal war), Davros (Julian Bleach) (who has not yet become disabled nor has the cybernetic eye) is seen presenting a Dalek prototype featuring a robotic claw to his assistant, Castavillian.", "When he briefly departs to attend to an urgent matter, the Fourteenth Doctor lands in the TARDIS, accidentally destroying the robotic claw.", "He inadvertently suggests the name \"Dalek\" for the prototype, and gives Castavillian a plunger-tipped arm as a replacement for the broken claw.", "Once he realises that he has accidentally assisted with the creation of his greatest enemy, he quickly departs saying that he was \"never here\".", "Davros returns and approves of the new plunger arm." ], [ "Other appearances", "===Comic strips===''Doctor Who Magazine'' printed several comics stories involving Davros.", "The first, \"Nemesis of the Daleks\" (#152–155), with the Seventh Doctor, features an appearance of a Dalek Emperor.", "Speaking with the Emperor, the Doctor addresses him as Davros, but the Emperor responds \"Who is Davros?\"", "The Doctor initially assumes Davros' personality has been totally subsumed, but in the later strip \"Emperor of the Daleks\" (#197–202) this Emperor is shown as a different entity from Davros.", "Set prior to ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' in Davros' timeline, but after in the timeline of the Doctor, the latter, accompanied by Bernice Summerfield, together with help from the Sixth Doctor, ensures that Davros will survive the wrath of the Daleks so that he can assume the title of Emperor, allowing history to take its course.", "\"Up Above the Gods\" (#227), a vignette following up on this, features the Sixth Doctor and Davros having a conversation in the TARDIS.===Audio plays===Terry Molloy has reprised his role as Davros in the spin-off audio plays produced by Big Finish Productions, mostly notably ''Davros'' (taking place during the Sixth Doctor's era), which, through flashbacks, explored the scientist's life prior to his crippling injury, which is attributed to a Thal nuclear attack (an idea that first appeared in Terrance Dicks' novelisation of ''Genesis of the Daleks'').", "''Davros'', which does not feature the Daleks, apparently fills in the gaps between ''Resurrection of the Daleks'' and ''Revelation of the Daleks'', and has the scientist trying to manipulate the galaxy's economy into a war footing similar to Skaro's.", "The Sixth Doctor manages to defeat his plans, and Davros is last heard when his ship explodes, an event obliquely mentioned in ''Revelation''.", "However the Doctor thinks he has survived.", "Davros also mentions he will work on a plan to combat famine, tying into ''Revelation of the Daleks''.", "''The Davros Mission'' is an original audio adventure (without the Doctor) available on ''The Complete Davros Collection'' DVD box set.", "It takes place directly after the television story ''Revelation'', while leaving the planet Necros and beginning Davros' trial.", "At the end of ''Davros Mission'', he turns the tables on the Daleks, forcing them to do his bidding.", "The Big Finish miniseries ''I, Davros'', also features trial scenes, but mostly explores his early life.", "In those four stories, his journey is seen from his boyhood, to just before ''Genesis of the Daleks''.", "''The Curse of Davros'' begins with Davros and the Daleks working together to try and alter the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo using technology that Davros has created that allows him to swap peoples' minds, allowing him to switch various soldiers in Napoleon's army with his own Daleks, ultimately intending to replace Napoleon with a Dalek after Waterloo is won so that he can change history and lead humanity in a direction where they may ally with the Daleks.", "The plan is complicated when the Sixth Doctor arrives and uses the device to swap bodies with Davros in an attempt to subvert the Daleks' plans from the inside, but Davros-in-the-Doctor is eventually able to convince the Daleks of his true identity, planning to remain in the Doctor's healthy body while leaving the Doctor trapped in his original form.", "At the end, Davros and the Doctor are returned to their original bodies with the aid of the Doctor's new companion Flip Jackson, the Doctor exposes Davros's true agenda to Napoleon, and Davros is left with an army of Daleks who have had their minds wiped.", "These Daleks presumably become the \"Imperial Daleks\", first seen in ''Remembrance of the Daleks''.In ''The Juggernauts'', Davros is on the run from the original Daleks.", "He hatches a plan to add human tissue to robotic Mechanoids, using them, along with his own Daleks, to destroy the originals, but the Doctor learns the truth about this plan, and his companion Mel Bush—who unwittingly assisted in the programming of the new Mechanoids—uses a backdoor she installed in their programming to turn them against Davros.", "At the end of the story, the self-destruct mechanism of Davros' life-support chair explodes after he is attacked by the Mechanoids, destroying an entire human colony.", "It is not clear how Davros survives to become the Dalek Emperor as seen in ''Remembrance''.", "However, in the DVD documentary ''Davros Connections'', director Gary Russell points out that the explosion of Davros' life-support chair leaves the listener to believe there is little of Davros left.", "This fits chronologically the fact that ''Remembrance'' depicts Davros as just a head inside the Emperor Dalek.In ''Daleks Among Us'', set after ''Remembrance'', Davros returns to Azimuth, a planet that was invaded by the Daleks long ago, presenting himself as a victim of Dalek enslavement to infiltrate an underground movement against the repressive government- so desperate to prevent riots about individual actions during the Dalek occupation that official policy is now that the Dalek invasion never happened- seeking the remnants of an old experiment he carried out on the planet.", "This experiment is revealed to be Falkus, a clone of Davros's original body that was intended to be a new host for his mind, with Falkus having evolved an independent personality since the Daleks left Azimuth.", "Falkus attempts to acquire the Persuasion Machine, a dangerous device that the Seventh Doctor has been tracking with his companions Elizabeth Elizabeth Klein and Will Arrowsmith, but the Doctor is able to trick Falkus into using the reprogrammed Persuasion Machine to destroy himself and his Daleks, while Davros flees in an escape pod.", "Davros is last shown trapped on the planet Lamuria, faced with the spectral former residents of the planet who sought to punish all criminals in the universe.By the time of the Eighth Doctor audio play ''Terror Firma'' (set after ''Remembrance''), Davros is commanding a Dalek army which has successfully conquered the Earth.", "His mental instability has grown to the point where \"Davros\" and \"the Emperor\" exist within him as different personalities.", "His Daleks recognise this instability and rebel against Davros.", "By the story's end the Emperor personality is dominant, and the Daleks agree to follow him and leave Earth.In the fourth volume of the ''Time War'' series, looking at the Eighth Doctor's role in the Time War, after The Valeyard uses a Dalek weapon to erase the Daleks from history, the Dalek Time Strategist escapes the erasure by travelling into a parallel universe where the Kaleds and Thals have been at peace for centuries, with Davros still fully human and married to a Thal woman.", "The Dalek Time Strategist manipulates this alternate Davros into using his dimensional portal technology to merge various alternate Skaros together to recreate the Daleks in the prime universe, convincing Davros that the Doctor is an enemy of the ''Kaleds'' rather than the Thals.", "Reference is made to the 'prime' Davros having been killed in the first year of the War (as mentioned in \"The Stolen Earth\").", "The process of merging with his alternate selves causes the alternate Davros to gain the injuries and memories of his counterparts, to the extent that he forgets his wife and the peace with the Thals.", "Eventually his presence restores the Daleks in the prime universe, but the Dalek Emperor has Davros put into stasis to prevent his influence causing another civil war by causing the Daleks to become divided between loyalty to the Emperor and Davros.===Novels===''Terror Firma'' may contradict the events of the Eighth Doctor Adventures novel ''War of the Daleks'' by John Peel, in which an unmerged Davros is placed on trial by the Dalek Prime, a combination of the Dalek Emperor and the Dalek Supreme.", "In the novel the Dalek Prime claimed that the planet Antalin had been terraformed to resemble Skaro and was destroyed in its place.", "A subterfuge to destroy Daleks aligned to Davros; both on Skaro (Antalin) and those that remained hidden within Dalek ranks on Skaro (original).", "Despite finding evidence of threat to Skaro via evidence found on 22nd century earth of Davros' mission to 1960s Earth and seeing the event via time-tracking equipment, the Dalek Prime allowed the destruction of Skaro to destroy Daleks allied to Davros.", "Dalek Prime also claimed that the Dalek/Movellan war (and indeed most of Dalek history before the destruction of \"Skaro\") was actually faked for Davros' benefit; in fact another ruse designed to bait Davros into giving evidence against himself (as he does in his trial.)", "Skaro is later seen to be intact and undamaged, and one character notes that it is quite possible the Dalek Prime is lying in order to weaken Davros' claim to leadership of the Daleks, while using foreknowledge of events to destroy and entrap Davros and his allies.At the conclusion of ''War'', Davros was seemingly disintegrated by a Spider Dalek on the order of the Dalek Prime.", "However, Davros had previously recruited one of the Spider Daleks as a sleeper agent for just such an eventuality, and even he was not certain in the end if he was being disintegrated or being teleported away to safety, leaving the possibility open for his return.===Short fiction===Paul Cornell's dark vignette in the ''Doctor Who Magazine'' Brief Encounters series, \"An Incident Concerning the Bombardment of the Phobos Colony\" occurs sometime between ''Resurrection of the Daleks'' and his assumption of the role of Emperor.===Theatre===In 1993, Michael Wisher, the original Davros, with Peter Miles, who had played his confederate, Nyder, reprised the role in an unlicensed one-off amateur stage production, ''The Trial of Davros''.", "The plot of the play involved the Time Lords putting Davros on trial, with Nyder as a witness.Terry Molloy played Davros in the remounting of the play, again with Miles, for another one-off production in 2005.During the production, specially shot footage portrayed Dalek atrocities.In 2008, Julian Bleach appeared live as Davros at the Doctor Who Prom, announcing that the Royal Albert Hall would become his new palace, and the audience his \"obedient slaves\".===Unofficial BBC representation===BBC staff have traditionally created parodies of its own programming to be shown to colleagues at Christmas events and parties.", "The BBC's 1993 Christmas tape parodied the allegedly robotic, dictatorial and ruthless management style of its then Director-General, John Birt, by portraying him as Davros taking over the BBC, carrying out bizarre mergers of departments, awarding himself a bonus and singing a song to the tune of \"I Wan'na Be Like You (The Monkey Song)\" describing his plans." ], [ "List of appearances", "=== Television ===''Genesis of the Daleks'' (1975) (played by Michael Wisher)''Destiny of the Daleks'' (1979) (played by David Gooderson)''Resurrection of the Daleks'' (1984) (debut of Terry Molloy)''Revelation of the Daleks'' (1985) ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' (1988)\"The Stolen Earth\" / \"Journey's End\" (2008) (debut of Julian Bleach)\"The Magician's Apprentice\" / \"The Witch's Familiar\" (2015) (Joey Price as young Davros) \"Destination: Skaro\" (2023)===Comic strips===''Nemesis of the Daleks'' (''Doctor Who Magazine'') (implied) ''Emperor of the Daleks'' (''Doctor Who Magazine'')''Up Above the Gods'' (''Doctor Who Magazine'')===Audio plays===''Davros''''The Juggernauts''''Terror Firma''''I, Davros: Innocence'' (young Davros played by Rory Jennings)''I, Davros: Purity''''I, Davros: Corruption''''I, Davros: Guilt''''The Davros Mission''''Masters of War'' (''Doctor Who Unbound'' series; outside of default ''Doctor Who'' continuity)''The Curse of Davros''''Daleks Among Us''''Palindrome'' (alternative Davros)''Restoration of the Daleks'' (alternative Davros)''The War Master: Anti-Genesis'' (alternative timeline)''The Dalek Defence''====Note====Played by Terry Molloy, except when noted.===Short fiction===\"An Incident Concerning the Continual Bombardment of the Phobos Colony\" by Paul Cornell, ''Doctor Who Magazine'' No.", "168===Original novels===''War of the Daleks'' by John Peel (''Eighth Doctor Adventures'')===Video games===''Dalek Attack'' (later told that is in fact a Davros made up by the Doctor in the Land of Fiction)''Lego Dimensions'' Doctor Who level expansion pack \"The Dalek's Extermination of Earth\" features Davros and the Daleks as the main antagonists.===Theatrical productions===''The Trial of Davros'', 14 November 1993, 16 July 2005 (played by Michael Wisher in 1993 production, Terry Molloy in 2005 production) Doctor Who Prom, 27 July 2008 (played by Julian Bleach)" ], [ "Other media", "On 26 November 2007, a DVD box set was released featuring all of the Davros stories from the shows original run, including ''Genesis of the Daleks'', ''Destiny of the Daleks'', ''Resurrection of the Daleks'', ''Revelation of the Daleks'', and ''Remembrance of the Daleks''." ], [ "See also", "''The Trial of Davros''History of the DaleksDalek variants" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * Some quotes from ''Genesis of the Daleks''.", "* ''First History of the Daleks'' (and Second).", "* Information on ''I, Davros'' on Big Finish's website* BBC Norfolk – Watch interview with Terry Molloy discussing I Davros – November '06* BBC Norfolk – Davros gallery with Terry Molloy interviews* The Davros Connections DVD, documentary included in the Davros Collection DVD box set, goes into depth about the Davros audios by Big Finish." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dalek" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Daleks''' ( ) are a fictional extraterrestrial race of extremely xenophobic mutants principally portrayed in the British science fiction television programme ''Doctor Who''.", "They were conceived by writer Terry Nation and first appeared in the 1963 ''Doctor Who'' serial ''The Daleks'', in casings designed by Raymond Cusick.Drawing inspiration from the Nazis, Nation portrayed the Daleks as violent, merciless and pitiless cyborg aliens, completely absent of any emotion other than hate, who demand total conformity to the will of the Dalek with the highest authority, and are bent on the conquest of the universe and the extermination of any other forms of life, including other \"impure\" Daleks which are deemed inferior for being different to them.", "Collectively, they are the greatest enemies of ''Doctor Who''s protagonist, the Time Lord known as \"the Doctor\".", "During the second year of the original ''Doctor Who'' programme (1963–1989), the Daleks developed their own form of time travel.", "At the beginning of the second ''Doctor Who'' TV series that debuted in 2005, it was established that the Daleks had engaged in a Time War against the Time Lords that affected much of the universe and altered parts of history.In the programme's narrative, the planet Skaro suffered a thousand-year war between two societies: the Kaleds and the Thals.", "During this time-period, many natives of Skaro became badly mutated by fallout from nuclear weapons and chemical warfare.", "The Kaled government believed in genetic purity and swore to \"exterminate the Thals\" for being inferior.", "Believing his own society was becoming weak and that it was his duty to create a new master race from the ashes of his people, the Kaled scientist Davros genetically modified several Kaleds into squid-like life-forms he called Daleks, removing \"weaknesses\" such as mercy and sympathy while increasing aggression and survival-instinct.", "He then integrated them with tank-like robotic shells equipped with advanced technology based on the same life-support system he himself used since being burned and blinded by a nuclear attack.", "His creations became intent on dominating the universe by enslaving or purging all \"inferior\" non-Dalek life.The Daleks are the series' most popular and famous villains and their returns to television over the decades have often gained media attention.", "Their battle cry, a staccato \"Exterminate!\"", "has entered common usage as a popular catchphrase." ], [ "Creation", "The Daleks were created by Terry Nation and designed by the BBC designer Raymond Cusick.Designer Raymond Cusick said that he got the idea for their appearance \"whilst fiddling with a pepperpot\" and had them produced in fibreglass, at a cost of less than £250 each.", "They were introduced in December 1963 in the second ''Doctor Who'' serial, colloquially known as ''The Daleks''.", "They became an immediate and huge hit with viewers, featuring in many subsequent serials and, in the 1960s, two films.", "They have become as synonymous with ''Doctor Who'' as the Doctor himself, and their behaviour and catchphrases are now part of British popular culture.", "\"Hiding behind the sofa whenever the Daleks appear\" has been cited as an element of British cultural identity, and a 2008 survey indicated that nine out of ten British children were able to identify a Dalek correctly.", "In 1999 a Dalek photographed by Lord Snowdon appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture.", "In 2010, readers of science fiction magazine ''SFX'' voted the Dalek as the all-time greatest monster, beating competition including Japanese movie monster Godzilla and J. R. R. Tolkien's Gollum, of ''The Lord of the Rings''." ], [ "Entry into popular culture", "As early as one year after first appearing on ''Doctor Who'', the Daleks had become popular enough to be recognized even by non-viewers.", "In December 1964 editorial cartoonist Leslie Gilbert Illingworth published a cartoon in the ''Daily Mail'' captioned \"THE DEGAULLEK\", caricaturing French President Charles de Gaulle arriving at a NATO meeting as a Dalek with de Gaulle's prominent nose.The word \"Dalek\" has entered major dictionaries, including the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', which defines \"Dalek\" as \"In the BBC television science-fiction series Doctor Who: a member of a race of aggressive alien mutants in mobile armoured casings.", "Frequently in extended, allusive, or similative use.", "\"English-speakers sometimes use the term metaphorically to describe people, usually authority figures, who act like robots unable to break from their programming.", "For example, John Birt, the Director-General of the BBC from 1992 to 2000, was called a \"croak-voiced Dalek\" by playwright Dennis Potter in the MacTaggart Lecture at the 1993 Edinburgh Television Festival." ], [ "Physical characteristics", "Externally, Daleks resemble human-sized pepper pots with a single mechanical eyestalk mounted on a rotating dome, a gun-mount containing an energy-weapon (\"gunstick\" or \"death ray\") resembling an egg-whisk, and a telescopic manipulator arm usually tipped by an appendage resembling a sink-plunger.", "Daleks have been known to use their plungers to interface with technology, crush a man's skull by suction, measure the intelligence of a subject, and extract information from a man's mind.", "Dalek casings are made of a bonded polycarbide material called \"Dalekanium\" by a member of the human resistance in ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'' and the Dalek comics, as well as by the Cult of Skaro in \"Daleks in Manhattan\".The lower half of a Dalek's shell is covered with hemispherical protrusions, or 'Dalek-bumps', which are shown in the episode \"Dalek\" to be spheres embedded in the casing.", "Both the BBC-licensed ''Dalek Book'' (1964) and ''The Doctor Who Technical Manual'' (1983) describe these items as being part of a sensory array, while in the 2005 series episode \"Dalek\" they are integral to a Dalek's forcefield mechanism, which evaporates most bullets and resists most types of energy weapons.", "The forcefield seems to be concentrated around the Dalek's midsection (where the mutant is located), as normally ineffective firepower can be concentrated on the eyestalk to blind a Dalek.", "In 2019 episode \"Resolution\" the bumps give way to reveal missile launchers capable of wiping out a military tank with ease.", "Daleks have a very limited visual field, with no peripheral sight at all, and are relatively easy to hide from in fairly exposed places.", "Their own energy weapons are capable of destroying them.", "Their weapons fire a beam that has electrical tendencies, is capable of propagating through water, and may be a form of plasma or electrolaser.", "The eyepiece is a Dalek's most vulnerable spot; impairing its vision often leads to a blind, panicked firing of its weapon while exclaiming \"My vision is impaired; I cannot see!\"", "Russell T Davies subverted the catchphrase in his 2008 episode \"The Stolen Earth\", in which a Dalek vaporises a paintball that has blocked its vision while proclaiming, \"My vision is ''not'' impaired!\"", "Kaled mutants are octopus-like; many are coloured green, such as this one from \"Resurrection of the Daleks\".The creature inside the mechanical casing is soft and repulsive in appearance, and vicious in temperament.", "The first-ever glimpse of a Dalek mutant, in ''The Daleks'', was a claw peeking out from under a Thal cloak after it had been removed from its casing.", "The mutants' actual appearance has varied, but often adheres to the Doctor's description of the species in ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' as \"little green blobs in bonded polycarbide armour\".", "In ''Resurrection of the Daleks'' a Dalek creature, separated from its casing, attacks and severely injures a human soldier; in ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' there are two Dalek factions (Imperial and Renegade), and the creatures inside have a different appearance in each case, one resembling the amorphous creature from ''Resurrection'', the other the crab-like creature from the original Dalek serial.", "As the creature inside is rarely seen on screen there is a common misconception that Daleks are wholly mechanical robots.", "In the new series Daleks are retconned to be squid-like in appearance, with small tentacles, one or two eyes, and an exposed brain.", "In the new series, a Dalek creature separated from its casing is shown capable of inserting a tentacle into the back of a human's neck and controlling them.Daleks' voices are electronic; when out of its casing the mutant is only able to squeak.", "Once the mutant is removed the casing itself can be entered and operated by humanoids; for example, in ''The Daleks'', Ian Chesterton (William Russell) enters a Dalek shell to masquerade as a guard as part of an escape plan.An Imperial Dalek levitates up a flight of stairs in \"Remembrance of the Daleks\".For many years it was assumed that, due to their design and gliding motion, Daleks were unable to climb stairs, and that this provided a simple way of escaping them.", "A cartoon from ''Punch'' pictured a group of Daleks at the foot of a flight of stairs with the caption, \"Well, this certainly buggers our plan to conquer the Universe\".", "In a scene from the serial ''Destiny of the Daleks'', the Doctor and companions escape from Dalek pursuers by climbing into a ceiling duct.", "The Fourth Doctor calls down, \"If you're supposed to be the superior race of the universe, why don't you try climbing after us?\"", "The Daleks generally make up for their lack of mobility with overwhelming firepower; a joke among ''Doctor Who'' fans is that \"Real Daleks don't climb stairs; they level the building.\"", "Dalek mobility has improved over the history of the series: in their first appearance, in ''The Daleks'', they were capable of movement only on the conductive metal floors of their city; in ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'' a Dalek emerges from the waters of the River Thames, indicating not only that they had become freely mobile, but that they are amphibious; ''Planet of the Daleks'' showed that they could ascend a vertical shaft by means of an external anti-gravity mat placed on the floor; ''Revelation of the Daleks'' showed Davros in his life-support chair and one of his Daleks hovering and ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' depicted them as capable of hovering up a flight of stairs.", "Despite this, journalists covering the series frequently refer to the Daleks' supposed inability to climb stairs; characters escaping up a flight of stairs in the 2005 episode \"Dalek\" made the same joke and were shocked when the Dalek began to hover up the stairs after uttering the phrase \"ELEVATE\", in a similar manner to their normal phrase \"EXTERMINATE\".", "The new series depicts the Daleks as fully capable of flight, even space flight.===Prop details=======Overview====A Bronze Dalek seen at Television Centre, albeit with a missing globe on its bottom \"base unit\"The non-humanoid shape of the Dalek did much to enhance the creatures' sense of menace.", "A lack of familiar reference points differentiated them from the traditional \"bug-eyed monster\" of science fiction, which ''Doctor Who'' creator Sydney Newman had wanted the show to avoid.", "The unsettling Dalek form, coupled with their alien voices, made many believe that the props were wholly mechanical and operated by remote control.The Daleks were actually controlled from inside by short operators, who had to manipulate their eyestalks, domes and arms, as well as flashing the lights on their heads in sync with the actors supplying their voices.", "The Dalek cases were built in two pieces; an operator would step into the lower section and then the top would be secured.", "The operators looked out between the cylindrical louvres just beneath the dome, which were lined with mesh to conceal their faces.In addition to being hot and cramped, the Dalek casings also muffled external sounds, making it difficult for operators to hear the director or dialogue.", "John Scott Martin, a Dalek operator from the original series, said that Dalek operation was a challenge: \"You had to have about six hands: one to do the eyestalk, one to do the lights, one for the gun, another for the smoke canister underneath, yet another for the sink plunger.", "If you were related to an octopus then it helped.", "\"For ''Doctor Who'''s 21st-century revival the Dalek casings retain the same overall shape and dimensional proportions of previous Daleks, although many details have been redesigned to give the Dalek a heavier and more solid look.", "Changes include a larger, more pointed base; a glowing eyepiece; an all-over metallic-brass finish (specified by Davies); thicker, nailed strips on the \"neck\" section; a housing for the eyestalk pivot; and significantly larger dome lights.", "The new prop made its on-screen debut in the 2005 episode \"Dalek\".", "These Dalek casings use a short operator inside the housing while the 'head' and eyestalk are operated via remote control.", "A third person, Nicholas Briggs, supplies the voice in their various appearances.", "In the 2010 season, a new, larger model appeared in several colours representing different parts of the Dalek command hierarchy.====Movement====Terry Nation's original plan was for the Daleks to glide across the floor.", "Early versions of the Daleks rolled on nylon castors, propelled by the operator's feet.", "Although castors were adequate for the Daleks' debut serial, which was shot entirely at the BBC's Lime Grove Studios, for ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'' Terry Nation wanted the Daleks to be filmed on the streets of London.", "To enable the Daleks to travel smoothly on location, designer Spencer Chapman built the new Dalek shells around miniature tricycles with sturdier wheels, which were hidden by enlarged fenders fitted below the original base.", "The uneven flagstones of Central London caused the Daleks to rattle as they moved and it was not possible to remove this noise from the final soundtrack.", "A small parabolic dish was added to the rear of the prop's casing to explain why these Daleks, unlike the ones in their first serial, were not dependent on static electricity drawn up from the floors of the Dalek city for their motive power.Later versions of the prop had more efficient wheels and were once again simply propelled by the seated operators' feet, but they remained so heavy that when going up ramps they often had to be pushed by stagehands out of camera shot.", "The difficulty of operating all the prop's parts at once contributed to the occasionally jerky Dalek movements.", "This problem has largely been eradicated with the advent of the \"new series\" version, as its remotely controlled dome and eyestalk allow the operator to concentrate on the smooth movement of the Dalek and its arms.====Voices====The staccato delivery, harsh tone and rising inflection of the Dalek voice were initially developed by two voice actors, Peter Hawkins and David Graham, who varied the pitch and speed of the lines according to the emotion needed.", "Their voices were further processed electronically by Brian Hodgson at the BBC Radiophonic Workshop.", "The sound-processing devices used have varied over the decades.", "In 1963 Hodgson and his colleagues used equalisation to boost the mid-range of the actor's voice, then subjected it to ring modulation with a 30 Hz sine wave.", "The distinctive harsh, grating vocal timbre this produced has remained the pattern for all Dalek voices since (with the exception of those in the 1985 serial ''Revelation of the Daleks'', for which the director, Graeme Harper, deliberately used less distortion).Besides Hawkins and Graham, other voice actors for the Daleks have included Roy Skelton, who first voiced the Daleks in the 1967 story ''The Evil of the Daleks'' and provided voices for five additional Dalek serials including ''Planet of the Daleks'', and for the one-off anniversary special ''The Five Doctors''.", "Michael Wisher, the actor who originated the role of Dalek creator Davros in ''Genesis of the Daleks'', provided Dalek voices for that same story, as well as for ''Frontier in Space'', ''Planet of the Daleks'', and ''Death to the Daleks''.", "Other Dalek voice actors include Royce Mills (three stories), Brian Miller (two stories), and Oliver Gilbert and Peter Messaline (one story).", "John Leeson, who performed the voice of K9 in several ''Doctor Who'' stories, and Davros actors Terry Molloy and David Gooderson also contributed supporting voices for various Dalek serials.Since 2005 the Dalek voice in the television series has been provided by Nicholas Briggs, speaking into a microphone connected to a voice modulator.", "Briggs had previously provided Dalek and other alien voices for Big Finish Productions audio plays, and continues to do so.", "In a 2006 BBC Radio interview, Briggs said that when the BBC asked him to do the voice for the new television series, they instructed him to bring his own analogue ring modulator that he had used in the audio plays.", "The BBC's sound department had changed to a digital platform and could not adequately create the distinctive Dalek sound with their modern equipment.", "Briggs went as far as to bring the voice modulator to the actors' readings of the scripts.====Construction====Time War Dalek model on display at MediaCityUK in ManchesterManufacturing the props was expensive.", "In scenes where many Daleks had to appear, some of them would be represented by wooden replicas (''Destiny of the Daleks'') or life-size photographic enlargements in the early black-and-white episodes (''The Daleks'', ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'', and ''The Power of the Daleks'').", "In stories involving armies of Daleks, the BBC effects team even turned to using commercially available toy Daleks, manufactured by Louis Marx & Co and Herts Plastic Moulders Ltd.", "Examples of this can be observed in the serials ''The Power of the Daleks'', ''The Evil of the Daleks'', and ''Planet of the Daleks''.", "Judicious editing techniques also gave the impression that there were more Daleks than were actually available, such as using a split screen in \"The Parting of the Ways\".Four fully functioning props were commissioned for the first serial \"The Daleks\" in 1963, and were constructed from BBC plans by Shawcraft Engineering.", "These became known in fan circles as \"Mk I Daleks\".", "Shawcraft were also commissioned to construct approximately 20 Daleks for the two Dalek movies in 1965 and 1966 (see below).", "Some of these movie props filtered back to the BBC and were seen in the televised serials, notably ''The Chase'', which was aired before the first movie's debut.", "The remaining props not bought by the BBC were either donated to charity or given away as prizes in competitions.The BBC's own Dalek props were reused many times, with components of the original Shawcraft \"Mk I Daleks\" surviving right through to their final classic series appearance in 1988.But years of storage and repainting took their toll.", "By the time of the Sixth Doctor's ''Revelation of the Daleks'' new props were being manufactured out of fibreglass.", "These models were lighter and more affordable to construct than their predecessors.", "These newer models were slightly bulkier in appearance around the mid-shoulder section, and also had a redesigned skirt section which was more vertical at the back.", "Other minor changes were made to the design due to these new construction methods, including altering the fender and incorporating the arm boxes, collars, and slats into a single fibreglass moulding.", "These props were repainted in grey for the Seventh Doctor serial ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' and designated as \"Renegade Daleks\"; another redesign, painted in cream and gold, became the \"Imperial Dalek\" faction.New Dalek props were built for the 21st-century version of ''Doctor Who''.", "The first, which appeared alone in the 2005 episode \"Dalek\", was built by modelmaker Mike Tucker.", "Additional Dalek props based on Tucker's master were subsequently built out of fibreglass by Cardiff-based Specialist Models." ], [ "Development", "Wishing to create an alien creature that did not look like a \"man in a suit\", Terry Nation stated in his script for the first Dalek serial that they should have no legs.", "He was also inspired by a performance by the Georgian National Ballet, in which dancers in long skirts appeared to glide across the stage.", "For many of the shows the Daleks were operated by retired ballet dancers wearing black socks while sitting inside the Dalek.", "Raymond Cusick was given the task of designing the Daleks when Ridley Scott, then a designer for the BBC, proved unavailable after having been initially assigned to their debut serial.", "According to Jeremy Bentham's ''Doctor Who—The Early Years'' (1986), after Nation wrote the script, Cusick was given only an hour to come up with the design for the Daleks and was inspired in his initial sketches by a pepper pot on a table.", "Cusick himself, however, states that he based it on a man seated in a chair, and used the pepper pot only to demonstrate how it might move.", "In 1964, Nation told a ''Daily Mirror'' reporter that the Dalek name came from a dictionary or encyclopaedia volume, the spine of which read \"Dal – Lek\" (or, according to another version, \"Dal – Eks\").", "He later admitted that this book and the associated origin of the Dalek name were completely fictitious, and that anyone bothering to check out his story would have found him out.", "The name had simply rolled off his typewriter.", "Later, Nation was pleasantly surprised to discover that in Serbo-Croatian the word \"dalek\" means \"far\" or \"distant\".The Nazis, on whom the Daleks were basedNation grew up during the Second World War and remembered the fear caused by German bombings.", "He consciously based the Daleks on the Nazis, conceiving the species as faceless, authoritarian figures dedicated to conquest, racial purity and complete conformity.", "The allusion is most obvious in the Dalek stories written by Nation, in particular ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'' (1964) and ''Genesis of the Daleks'' (1975).Before he wrote the first Dalek serial, Nation was a scriptwriter for the comedian Tony Hancock.", "The two men had a falling out and Nation either resigned or was fired.", "Hancock worked on several series proposals, one of which was called ''From Plip to Plop'', a comedic history of the world that would have ended with a nuclear apocalypse, the survivors being reduced to living in dustbin-like robot casings and eating radiation to stay alive.", "According to Hancock's biographer Cliff Goodwin, when Hancock saw the Daleks he allegedly shouted at the screen, \"That bloody Nation — he's stolen my robots!", "\"The titling of early ''Doctor Who'' stories is complex and sometimes controversial.", "The first Dalek serial is called, variously, ''The Survivors'' (the pre-production title and on-screen title used for the serial's second episode), ''The Mutants'' (its official title at the time of production and broadcast, later taken by another unrelated story), ''Beyond the Sun'' (used on some production documentation), ''The Dead Planet'' (the on-screen title of the serial's first episode), or simply ''The Daleks''.The instant appeal of the Daleks caught the BBC off-guard, and transformed ''Doctor Who'' into a national phenomenon.", "Children were both frightened and fascinated by the alien look of the monsters, and the idea of \"hiding behind the sofa\" became a popular, if inaccurate or exaggerated, meme.", "The ''Doctor Who'' production office was inundated with letters and calls asking about the creatures.", "Newspaper articles focused attention on the series and the Daleks, further enhancing their popularity.Nation jointly owned the intellectual property rights to the Daleks with the BBC, and the money-making concept proved nearly impossible to sell to anyone else, so he was dependent on the BBC wanting to produce stories featuring the creatures.", "Several attempts to market the Daleks outside the series were unsuccessful.", "Since Nation's death in 1997, his share of the rights is now administered by his former agent, Tim Hancock.Early plans for what eventually became the 1996 ''Doctor Who'' television movie included radically redesigned Daleks whose cases unfolded like spiders' legs.", "The concept for these \"Spider Daleks\" was abandoned, but it was picked up again in several ''Doctor Who'' spin-offs.When the new series was announced, many fans hoped that the Daleks would return once more to the programme.", "The Nation estate, however, demanded levels of creative control over the Daleks' appearances and scripts that were unacceptable to the BBC.", "Eventually the Daleks were cleared to appear in the first series.", "In 2014, ''Doctor Who'' showrunner Steven Moffat denied their numerous appearances since was as a result of a contractual obligation." ], [ "Fictional history", "Dalek in-universe history has seen many retroactive changes, which have caused continuity problems.", "When the Daleks first appeared, they were presented as the descendants of the Dals, mutated after a brief nuclear war between the Dal and Thal races 500 years ago.", "This race of Daleks is destroyed when their power supply is wrecked.", "However, when they reappear in ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'', they have conquered Earth in the 22nd century.", "Later stories saw them develop time travel and a space empire.", "In 1975, Terry Nation revised the Daleks' origins in ''Genesis of the Daleks'', where the Dals were now called Kaleds (of which \"Daleks\" is an anagram), and the Dalek design was attributed to one man, the paralyzed Kaled chief scientist and evil genius, Davros.", "Later Big Finish Productions audio plays attempted to explain this retcon by saying that the Skaro word \"dal\" simply means warrior, which is how the Kaleds described themselves, while \"dal-ek\" means \"god.\"", "According to ''Genesis of the Daleks'', instead of a short nuclear exchange, the Kaled-Thal war was a thousand-year-long war of attrition, fought with nuclear, biological and chemical weapons which caused widespread mutations among the life forms of Skaro.", "Davros experimented on living Kaled cells to find the ultimate mutated form of the Kaled species, believing his own people had become weak and needed to be replaced by a greater life form.", "He placed his new Dalek creations in tank-like \"travel machines\" of advanced technology whose design was based on his own life-support chair.", "''Genesis of the Daleks'' marked a new era for the depiction of the species, with most of their previous history either forgotten or barely referred to again.", "Future stories in the original ''Doctor Who'' series, which followed a rough story arc, would also focus more on Davros, much to the dissatisfaction of some fans who felt that the Daleks should take centre stage rather than merely becoming minions of their creator.", "Davros made his last televised appearance for 20 years in ''Remembrance of the Daleks'', which depicted a civil war between two factions of Daleks.", "One faction, the \"Imperial Daleks\", were loyal to Davros, who had become their Emperor, whilst the other, the \"Renegade Daleks\", followed a black Supreme Dalek.", "By the end of the story, armies of both factions have been wiped out and the Doctor has tricked them into destroying Skaro.", "However, Davros escapes and based on the fact that Daleks possess time travel and were spread throughout the universe, there was still a possibility that many had survived these events.The original \"classic\" ''Doctor Who'' series ended in 1989.In the 1996 ''Doctor Who'' TV-movie (which introduced the Eighth Doctor), Skaro has seemingly been recreated and the Daleks are shown to still rule it.", "Though the aliens are never seen on-screen, the story shows the Time Lord villain the Master being executed on Skaro as Dalek voices chant \"Exterminate.\"", "In Eighth Doctor audio plays produced by Big Finish from 2000–2005, Paul McGann reprised his role.", "The audio play ''The Time of the Daleks'' featured the Daleks without Davros and nearly removing William Shakespeare from history.", "In ''Terror Firma'', the Eighth Doctor met a Dalek faction led by Davros who was devolving more into a Dalek-like life form himself while attempting to create new Daleks from mutated humans of Earth.", "The audio dramas ''The Apocalypse Element'' and ''Dalek Empire'' also depicted the alien villains invading Gallifrey and then creating their own version of the Time Lord power source known as the Eye of Harmony, allowing the Daleks to rebuild an empire and become a greater threat against the Time Lords and other races that possess time travel.A new ''Doctor Who'' series premiered in 2005, introducing the Ninth Doctor and revealing that the \"Last Great Time War\" had just ended, resulting in the seeming destruction of the Time Lord society.", "The episode \"Dalek\", written by Robert Shearman, was broadcast on BBC One on 30 April 2005 and confirmed that the Time War had mainly involved the Daleks fighting the Time Lords, with the Doctor ending the conflict by seemingly destroying both sides, remarking that his own survival was \"not by choice.\"", "The episode featured a single Dalek who appeared to be the sole survivor of his race from the Time War.", "Later audio plays by Big Finish Productions expanded on the Time War in different audio drama series such as ''Gallifrey: Time War, The Eighth Doctor: Time War, The War Doctor,'' and ''The War Master.", "''A Dalek Emperor returned at the end of the 2005 series, having survived the Time War and then rebuilt the Dalek race with genetic material harvested from human subjects.", "It saw itself as a god, and the new human-based Daleks were shown worshipping it.", "The Emperor and this Dalek fleet were destroyed in \"The Parting of the Ways\".", "The 2006 season finale \"Army of Ghosts\"/\"Doomsday\" featured a squad of four pure-bred Dalek survivors from the old Empire, known as the Cult of Skaro, composed of Daleks who were tasked with developing imagination to better predict and combat enemies.", "These Daleks took on names: Jast, Thay, Caan, and their black Dalek leader Sec.", "The Cult had survived the Time War by escaping into the Void between dimensions.", "They emerged along with the Genesis Ark, a Time Lord prison vessel containing millions of pure Daleks, at Canary Wharf due to the actions of the Torchwood Institute and Cybermen from a parallel world.", "This resulted in a Cyberman-Dalek clash in London, which was resolved when the Tenth Doctor caused both groups to be suckedunprotectedinto the Void.", "The Cult of Skaro survived by utilising an \"emergency temporal shift\" to escape.The four-Dalek Cult of Skaro returned in the two-part story \"Daleks in Manhattan\"/\"Evolution of the Daleks\", in which whilst stranded in 1930s New York, they set up a base in the partially built Empire State Building and attempt to rebuild the Dalek race.", "To this end, Dalek Sec merges with a human being to become a Human/Dalek hybrid.", "The Cult then set about creating \"Human Daleks\" by \"formatting\" the brains of a few thousand captured humans so they can have Dalek minds.", "Dalek Sec, however, becomes more human in personality and alters the plan so the hybrids will be more human like him.", "The rest of the Cult mutinies.", "Sec is killed, while Thay and Jast are later wiped out with the hybrids.", "Dalek Caan, believing it may be the last of its kind now, escapes once more via an emergency temporal shift.The Daleks returned in the 2008 season's two-part finale, \"The Stolen Earth\"/\"Journey's End\", accompanied once again by their creator Davros.", "The story reveals that Caan's temporal shift sent him into the Time War, despite the War being \"Time-Locked\".", "The experience of piercing the Time-Lock resulted in Caan seeing parts of several futures, destroying his sanity in the process.", "Caan rescued many pure-bred Time War era Daleks and Davros, who created new pure Dalek troops using his own body's cells (his Kaled DNA, as all pure Daleks were originally Kaleds).", "A red Supreme Dalek leads the new army while keeping Caan and Davros imprisoned on the Dalek flagship, the ''Crucible''.", "Davros and the Daleks plan to destroy reality itself with a \"reality bomb\".", "The plan fails due to the interference of Donna Noble, a companion of the Doctor, and Caan, who has been manipulating events to destroy the Daleks after realising the severity of the atrocities they have committed.The Daleks returned in the 2010 episode \"Victory of the Daleks\", wherein it is revealed that some Daleks survived the destruction of their army in \"Journey's End\" and retrieved the \"Progenitor\", a tiny apparatus containing 'original' Dalek DNA.", "The activation of the Progenitor results in the creation of New Paradigm Daleks who deem the Time War era Daleks to be inferior.", "The new Daleks are organised into different roles (drone, scientist, strategists, supreme and eternal), which are identifiable with colour-coded armour instead of the identification plates under the eyestalk used by their predecessors.", "They escape the Doctor at the end of the episode via time travel with the intent to rebuild their Empire.The Daleks appeared, only briefly, in subsequent finales \"The Pandorica Opens\"/\"The Big Bang\" (2010) and The Wedding of River Song (2011) as Steven Moffat decided to \"give them a rest\" and stated, \"There's a problem with the Daleks.", "They are the most famous of the Doctor's adversaries and the most frequent, which means they are the most reliably defeatable enemies in the universe.\"", "These episodes also reveal that Skaro has been recreated yet again.", "They next appear in \"Asylum of the Daleks\" (2012), where the Daleks are shown to have greatly increased numbers and now have a Parliament; in addition to the traditional \"modern\" Daleks, several designs from both the original and new series appear, all co-existing rather than judging each other as inferior or outdated (except for those Daleks whose personalities deem them \"insane\" or can no longer battle).", "All record of the Doctor is removed from their collective consciousness at the end of the episode.The Daleks then appear in the 50th Anniversary special \"The Day of the Doctor\" (2013), where they are seen being defeated in the Time War.", "The same special reveals that many Time Lords survived the war since the Doctor found a way to transfer planet Gallifrey out of phase with reality and into a pocket dimension.", "In \"The Time of the Doctor\" (2013), the Daleks are one of the races that besieges Trenzalore in an attempt to stop the Doctor from releasing the Time Lords from the pocket dimension.", "After converting Tasha Lem into a Dalek puppet, they regain knowledge of the Doctor.The Twelfth Doctor's first encounter with the Daleks is in his second full episode, \"Into the Dalek\" (2014), where he encounters a damaged Dalek he names 'Rusty.'", "Connecting to the Doctor's love of the universe and his hatred of the Daleks, Rusty assumes a mission to destroy other Daleks.", "In \"The Magician's Apprentice\"/\"The Witch's Familiar\" (2015), the Doctor is summoned to Skaro where he learns Davros has rebuilt the Dalek Empire.", "In \"The Pilot\" (2017), the Doctor briefly visits a battle during the Dalek-Movellan war.The Thirteenth Doctor encountered a Dalek in a New Year's Day episode, \"Resolution\" (2019), when a Dalek mutant, separated from its armoured casing, takes control of a human in order to build a new travel device for itself and summon more Daleks to conquer Earth.", "This Dalek is cloned by a scientist in \"Revolution of the Daleks\" (2021), and attempts to take over Earth using further clones, but they are killed by other Daleks for perceived genetic impurity.", "The Dalek army is later sent by the Doctor into the \"void\" between worlds to be destroyed, using a spare TARDIS she recently acquired on Gallifrey.", "After cameo appearances depicting them as one of several villains trying to take advantage of \"the Flux\" event tearing through space-time in series 13, the Daleks returned in the first 2022 special, \"Eve of the Daleks\".", "In the episode, a team of Dalek Executioners are dispatched by High Command to avenge the Dalek War Fleet destroyed by the Doctor in the series 13 finale \"The Vanquishers\", only for a time loop established by the TARDIS to save the Doctor's life and give her a chance to destroy the executioners instead.", "The Daleks later appeared alongside the Cybermen as allies to the Master in \"The Power of the Doctor\" as part of a plot to finally destroy their nemesis, but the alliance is defeated by the Doctor and new and old companions.In a video short for the 2023 ''Children in Need'' telethon, the origin of the iconic plunger-like appendages used by Daleks was retroactively established as being from the Fourteenth Doctor's TARDIS, while also establishing an unintentional hint by that Doctor, given to a Kaled military officer, for the creation of the name \"Dalek\"." ], [ "Dalek culture", "Daleks have little, if any, individual personality, ostensibly no emotions other than hatred and anger, and a strict command structure in which they are conditioned to obey superiors' orders without question.", "Dalek speech is characterised by repeated phrases, and by orders given to themselves and to others.", "Unlike the stereotypical emotionless robots often found in science fiction, Daleks are often angry; author Kim Newman has described the Daleks as behaving \"like toddlers in perpetual hissy fits\", gloating when in power and flying into a rage when thwarted.", "They tend to be excitable and will repeat the same word or phrase over and over again in heightened emotional states, most famously \"Exterminate!", "Exterminate!", "\"Daleks are extremely aggressive, and seem driven by an instinct to attack.", "This instinct is so strong that Daleks have been depicted fighting the urge to kill or even attacking when unarmed.", "The Fifth Doctor characterises this impulse by saying, \"However you respond to Daleks is seen as an act of provocation.\"", "The fundamental feature of Dalek culture and psychology is an unquestioned belief in the superiority of the Dalek race, and their default directive is to destroy all non-Dalek life-forms.", "Other species are either to be exterminated immediately or enslaved and then exterminated once they are no longer useful.The Dalek obsession with their own superiority is illustrated by the schism between the Renegade and Imperial Daleks seen in ''Revelation of the Daleks'' and ''Remembrance of the Daleks'': the two factions each consider the other to be a perversion despite the relatively minor differences between them.", "This intolerance of any \"contamination\" within themselves is also shown in \"Dalek\", ''The Evil of the Daleks'' and in the Big Finish Productions audio play ''The Mutant Phase''.", "This superiority complex is the basis of the Daleks' ruthlessness and lack of compassion.", "This is shown in extreme in \"Victory of the Daleks\", where the new, pure Daleks destroy their creators, impure Daleks, with the latter's consent.", "It is nearly impossible to negotiate or reason with a Dalek, a single-mindedness that makes them dangerous and not to be underestimated.", "The Eleventh Doctor (Matt Smith) is later puzzled in the \"Asylum of the Daleks\" as to why the Daleks don't just kill the sequestered ones that have \"gone wrong\".", "Although the Asylum is subsequently obliterated, the Prime Minister of the Daleks explains that \"it is offensive to us to destroy such divine hatred\", and the Doctor is sickened at the revelation that hatred is actually considered beautiful by the Daleks.Dalek society is depicted as one of extreme scientific and technological advancement; the Third Doctor states that \"it was their inventive genius that made them one of the greatest powers in the universe.\"", "However, their reliance on logic and machinery is also a strategic weakness which they recognise, and thus use more emotion-driven species as agents to compensate for these shortcomings.Although the Daleks are not known for their regard for due process, they have taken at least two enemies back to Skaro for a \"trial\", rather than killing them immediately.", "The first was their creator, Davros, in ''Revelation of the Daleks'', and the second was the renegade Time Lord known as the Master in the 1996 television movie.", "The reasons for the Master's trial, and why the Doctor would be allowed to retrieve the Master's remains, have never been explained on screen.", "The ''Doctor Who Annual 2006'' implies that the trial may have been due to a treaty signed between the Time Lords and the Daleks.", "The framing device for the ''I, Davros'' audio plays is a Dalek trial to determine if Davros should be the Daleks' leader once more.Spin-off novels contain several tongue-in-cheek mentions of Dalek poetry, and an anecdote about an opera based upon it, which was lost to posterity when the entire cast was exterminated on the opening night.", "Two stanzas are given in the novel ''The Also People'' by Ben Aaronovitch.", "In an alternative timeline portrayed in the Big Finish Productions audio adventure ''The Time of the Daleks'', the Daleks show a fondness for the works of Shakespeare.", "A similar idea was satirised by comedian Frankie Boyle in the BBC comedy quiz programme ''Mock the Week''; he gave the fictional Dalek poem \"Daffodils; EXTERMINATE DAFFODILS!\"", "as an \"unlikely line to hear in ''Doctor Who''\".Because the Doctor has defeated the Daleks so often, he has become their collective arch-enemy and they have standing orders to capture or exterminate him on sight.", "In later fiction, the Daleks know the Doctor as ''\"Ka Faraq Gatri\"'' (\"Bringer of Darkness\" or \"Destroyer of Worlds\"), and \"The Oncoming Storm\".", "Both the Ninth Doctor (Christopher Eccleston) and Rose Tyler (Billie Piper) suggest that the Doctor is one of the few beings the Daleks fear.", "In \"Doomsday\", Rose notes that while the Daleks see the extermination of five million Cybermen as \"pest control\", \"one Doctor\" visibly un-nerves them (to the point they physically recoil).", "To his indignant surprise, in \"Asylum of the Daleks\", the Eleventh Doctor (Matt Smith) learns that the Daleks have designated him as \"The Predator\".===Measurements===A ''rel'' is a Dalek and Kaled unit of measurement.", "It was usually a measurement of time, with a duration of slightly more than one second, as mentioned in \"Doomsday\", \"Evolution of the Daleks\" and \"Journey's End\", counting down to the ignition of the reality bomb.", "(One earth minute most likely equals about 50 ''rels''.)", "However, in some comic books it was also used as a unit of velocity.", "Finally, in some cases it was used as a unit of hydroelectric energy (not to be confused with a vep, the unit used to measure artificial sunlight).The ''rel'' was first used in the non-canonical feature film ''Daleks – Invasion Earth: 2150 A.D.'', soon after appearing in early Doctor Who comic books." ], [ "Licensed appearances", "A page from the TV 21 comic strip, featuring the creation of the Emperor DalekTwo ''Doctor Who'' movies starring Peter Cushing featured the Daleks as the main villains: ''Dr.", "Who and the Daleks'', and ''Daleks - Invasion Earth 2150 AD'', based on the television serials ''The Daleks'' and ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'', respectively.", "The movies were not direct remakes; for example, the Doctor in the Cushing films was a human inventor called \"Dr. Who\" who built a time-travelling device named ''Tardis'', instead of a mysterious alien who stole a device called \"the TARDIS\".Four books focusing on the Daleks were published in the 1960s.", "''The Dalek Book'' (1964, written by Terry Nation and David Whitaker), ''The Dalek World'' (1965, written by Nation and Whitaker) and ''The Dalek Outer Space Book'' (1966, by Nation and Brad Ashton) were all hardcover books formatted like annuals, containing text stories and comics about the Daleks, along with fictional information (sometimes based on the television serials, other times made up for the books).", "Nation also published ''The Dalek Pocketbook and Space-Travellers Guide'', which collected articles and features treating the Daleks as if they were real.", "Four more annuals were published in the 1970s by World Distributors under the title ''Terry Nation's Dalek Annual'' (with cover dates 1976–1979, but published 1975–1978).", "Two original novels by John Peel, ''War of the Daleks'' (1997) and ''Legacy of the Daleks'' (1998), were released as part of the Eighth Doctor Adventures series of ''Doctor Who'' novels.Howe (2003), pp.", "83–84 A novella, ''The Dalek Factor'' by Simon Clark, was published in 2004, and two books featuring the Daleks and the Tenth Doctor (''I am a Dalek'' by Gareth Roberts, 2006, and ''Prisoner of the Daleks'' by Trevor Baxendale, 2009) have been released as part of the New Series Adventures.Howe (2006), p. 51Nation authorised the publication of the comic strip ''The Daleks'' in the comic ''TV Century 21'' in 1965.The weekly one-page strip, written by Whitaker but credited to Nation, featured the Daleks as protagonists and \"heroes\", and continued for two years, from their creation of the mechanised Daleks by the humanoid Dalek scientist, Yarvelling, to their eventual discovery in the ruins of a crashed space-liner of the co-ordinates for Earth, which they proposed to invade.", "Although much of the material in these strips was directly contradicted by what was later shown on television, some concepts like the Daleks using humanoid duplicates and the design of the Dalek Emperor did show up later on in the programme.At the same time, a ''Doctor Who'' strip was also being published in ''TV Comic''.", "Initially, the strip did not have the rights to use the Daleks, so the First Doctor battled the \"Trods\" instead, cone-shaped robotic creatures that ran on static electricity.", "By the time the Second Doctor appeared in the strip in 1967 the rights issues had been resolved, and the Daleks began making appearances starting in ''The Trodos Ambush'' (TVC #788-#791), where they massacred the Trods.", "The Daleks also made appearances in the Third Doctor-era ''Dr.", "Who'' comic strip that featured in the combined ''Countdown/TV Action'' comic during the early 1970s.An animated series called ''Daleks!", "'', which consists of five 10-minute long episodes, was released on the official ''Doctor Who'' YouTube channel in 2020.Other licensed appearances have included a number of stage plays (see Stage plays below) and television adverts for Wall's \"Sky Ray\" ice lollies (1966), Weetabix breakfast cereal (1977), Kit Kat chocolate bars (2001), and the ANZ Bank (2005).", "In 2003, Daleks also appeared in UK billboard ads for Energizer batteries, alongside the slogan \"Are You Power Mad?\"" ], [ "Other major appearances", "===Stage plays===* ''The Curse of the Daleks'': Wyndham's Theatre, London (premiere 21 December 1965)* ''Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday'': Adelphi Theatre, London (premiere 16 December 1974)* ''Doctor Who - The Ultimate Adventure'': Wimbledon Theatre, London (premiere 23 March 1989)''The Trial of Davros'': The Village Hotel, Hyde, Greater Manchester (premiere 14 November 1993) ''The Trial of Davros'': Tameside Hippodrome, Ashton-under-Lyne (premiere 16 July 2005)* ''The Evil of the Daleks'': Theatre Royal, Portsmouth (premiere 25 October 2006)* ''The Daleks' Master Plan'': Theatre Royal, Portsmouth (premiere 24 October 2007)* '' Recall U.N.I.T.", "or THE GREAT TEA BAG MYSTERY!", "'': Edinburgh Fringe Festival 1984 play by Richard Franklin===Concerts===* ''Doctor Who'' Prom (27 July 2008)* ''Doctor Who'' Prom (27 July 2010)* ''Doctor Who'' Prom (27 July 2013)===Original novels and novellas===''War of the Daleks'' by John Peel (''Eighth Doctor Adventures''), published October 1997''Legacy of the Daleks'' by John Peel (''Eighth Doctor Adventures''), published April 1998''The Dalek Factor'' by Simon Clark (''Telos Doctor Who novellas''), published March 2004''I am a Dalek'' by Gareth Roberts (''New Series Adventures'', part of the Quick Reads Initiative), published May 2006''Prisoner of the Daleks'' by Trevor Baxendale (''New Series Adventures''), published April 2009''The Only Good Dalek'' by Justin Richards and Mike Collins (''New Series Adventures''), published November 2010''The Dalek Generation'' by Nicholas Briggs (''New Series Adventures''), published April 2013''Engines of War'' by George Mann (New Series Adventures), published July 2014" ], [ "Other appearances", "===Non–''Doctor Who'' television and film===Daleks have made cameo appearances in television programmes and films unrelated to ''Doctor Who'' from the 1960s to the present day.", "* Two to three purple toy Daleks are also seen in the background of an episode of the American children's cartoon ''Rugrats''.", "* In the television special ''The Red Dwarf A–Z'', two Daleks are shown (under \"E\" for \"Exterminate\") arguing that all Earth television is human propaganda, and the works more commonly attributed to William Shakespeare and Ludwig van Beethoven were actually written by Daleks, although they deny having written \"Mandy\" by Barry Manilow; subsequently, one of them remarks that the \"change the bulb\" joke from the episode \"Legion\" was funny, and is promptly exterminated by the other for the crime of \"not behaving like a true Dalek\".", "* In the 2004 series of ''Coupling'', written by Steven Moffat (who was later to write for and produce ''Doctor Who''), a Dalek appears in the second episode of season four.", "This was voiced by Nicholas Briggs, who later went on to provide Dalek voices for the series proper from 2005 onwards.", "(Terry Nation's original Dalek rights deal with the BBC had been negotiated by his then agent Beryl Vertue, later Moffat's mother-in-law.", ")* In the film ''Looney Tunes: Back in Action'', the secret military base, Area 52, detains a number of monsters and robots from old sci-fi films; among those are two Daleks, who upon release by Marvin the Martian, proceed to attack while spouting their catchphrases.", "* A Dalek appeared alongside Darth Vader, Ming the Merciless, a Klingon, the Sixth Doctor and a 1980s Cyberman in a 2003 episode of the British motoring programme ''Top Gear'', to see who was \"Master of the Universe\" with a lap around their test track in a racing modified Honda Civic.", "The Dalek could not get into the car, so it exterminated the other drivers (with the exception of the Klingon and the Doctor; who had apparently fled beforehand as they were not present); the Cyberman was eventually declared the winner by the hosts.", "* In a 2009 episode of the American sitcom ''Better Off Ted'', a deactivated Dalek is spotted in the sub-basement where the supposed \"Robot Farm\" is located.", "* In the 2017 film ''The Lego Batman Movie'', the Daleks, in what appears to be a Lego adaptation of their 2010 designs, make an appearance as escaped prisoners from the Phantom Zone.", "* ''Sin'' (written by former ''Doctor Who'' show runner Russell T Davies), in scenes where series lead Ritchie Tozer (Olly Alexander) is cast in a fictional ''Doctor Who'' story called ''Regression of the Daleks''.===Comic books===* In the graphic novel ''Abslom Daak: Dalek Killer'', the titular protagonist, a sentenced criminal with a death wish and an insatiable hatred of the Daleks, hunts his nemeses who have recently invaded the planet Mazar, homeworld of princess Taiyin.===Music===the Go-Go'sDaleks have been referred to or associated in many musical compositions.", "* The first known musical reference to Daleks is the 1964 novelty single \"I'm Gonna Spend My Christmas with a Dalek\" by the Go-Go's, released during the 1960s' \"Dalekmania\" fad.", "* Dalek voices were sampled and recreated in the 1988 novelty single \"Doctorin' the Tardis\" by The Timelords (who later performed as the KLF),===Video games===Licensed ''Doctor Who'' games featuring Daleks include 1984's ''The Key to Time'', a text adventure game for the ZX Spectrum.", "The first graphical game to feature daleks was the eponymous, turn-based title released by Johan Strandberg for the Macintosh in the same year.", "Daleks also appeared in minor roles or as thinly disguised versions in other, minor games throughout the 80s, but did not feature as central adversaries in a licensed game until 1992, when Admiral Software published ''Dalek Attack''.", "The game allowed the player to play various Doctors or companions, running them through several environments to defeat the Daleks.", "In 1997 the BBC released a PC game entitled ''Destiny of the Doctors'' which also featured the Daleks, among other adversaries.One authorised online game is ''The Last Dalek'', a Flash game created by New Media Collective for the BBC.", "It is based on the 2005 episode \"Dalek\" and can be played at the official BBC ''Doctor Who'' website.", "The ''Doctor Who'' website also features another game, ''Daleks vs Cybermen'' (also known as ''Cyber Troop Control Interface''), based on the 2006 episode \"Doomsday\"; in this game, the player controls troops of Cybermen which must fight Daleks as well as Torchwood Institute members.On 5 June 2010, the BBC released the first of four official computer games on its website, ''Doctor Who: The Adventure Games'', which are intended as part of the official TV series adventures.", "In the first of these, 'The City of the Daleks', the Doctor in his 11th incarnation and Amy Pond must stop the Daleks re-writing time and reviving Skaro, their homeland.They also appear in the Nintendo DS and Wii games ''Doctor Who: Evacuation Earth'' and ''Doctor Who: Return to Earth''.Several Daleks appear in the iOS game ''The Mazes of Time'' as rare enemies the player faces, appearing only in the first and final levels.The Daleks also appear in ''Lego Dimensions'' where they ally themselves with Lord Vortech and possess the size-altering scale keystone.", "When Batman, Gandalf, and Wyldstyle encounter them, they assume that they are allies of the Doctor and attack the trio.", "The main characters continue to fight the Daleks until they call the Doctor to save them.", "A Dalek saucer also appears in the level based on Metropolis, in which the top of it serves as the stage for the boss battle against Sauron and includes Daleks among the various enemies summoned to attack the player.", "A Dalek is also among the elements summoned by the player to deal with the obstacles in the ''Portal 2'' story level.The Daleks also appear in Doctor Who: The Edge of Time, a Virtual Reality Game for the PlayStation VR, Oculus Rift, Oculus Quest, HTC Vive, and Vive Cosmos, which was released in September 2019.The Daleks are a licensed costume in Fall Guys.===Politics===At the 1966 Conservative Party conference in Blackpool, delegate Hugh Dykes publicly compared the Labour government's Defence Secretary Denis Healey to the creatures.", "\"Mr. Healey is the Dalek of defence, pointing a metal finger at the armed forces and saying 'I will eliminate you'.", "\"In a British Government Parliamentary Debate in the House of Commons on 12 February 1968, the then Minister of Technology Tony Benn mentioned the Daleks during a reply to a question from the Labour MP Hugh Jenkins concerning the Concorde aircraft project.", "In the context of the dangers of solar flares, he said, \"Because we are exploring the frontiers of technology, some people think Concorde will be avoiding solar flares like Dr. Who avoiding Daleks.", "It is not like this at all.", "\"Australian Labor Party luminary Robert Ray described his right wing Labor Unity faction successor, Victorian Senator Stephen Conroy, and his Socialist Left faction counterpart, Kim Carr, as \"factional Daleks\" during a 2006 Australian Fabian Society lunch in Sydney.During a 2021 House of Commons debate about the retention of dentists in rural areas of the United Kingdom during the COVID-19 pandemic, the voice of Conservative MP Scott Mann of North Cornwall, while on a video link, became distorted due to a malfunction with his audio feed.", "Deputy Speaker of the House Nigel Evans interrupted his broadcast, amidst the chuckles from other MPs; by saying, \"Scott, you sound like a Dalek and I don't mean that unkindly.", "There's clearly a communications problem.\"", "Mann later returned to apologise.Daleks have been used in political cartoons to caricature: Douglas Hurd, as the 'Douglek', in Private Eye's Dan Dire – Pilot of the Future; Tony Benn, John Birt, Tony Blair (also portrayed as Davros), Alec Douglas-Home, Charles de Gaulle, Mark Thompson.===Magazine covers===general election.", "In 2008, it was voted the best British magazine cover of all time.Daleks have appeared on magazine covers promoting ''Doctor Who'' since the \"Dalekmania\" fad of the 1960s.", "''Radio Times'' has featured the Daleks on its cover several times, beginning with the 21–27 November 1964 issue which promoted ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth''.", "Other magazines also used Daleks to attract readers' attention, including ''Girl Illustrated''.In April 2005, ''Radio Times'' created a special cover to commemorate both the return of the Daleks to the screen in \"Dalek\" and the forthcoming general election.", "This cover recreated a scene from ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'' in which the Daleks were seen crossing Westminster Bridge, with the Houses of Parliament in the background.", "The cover text read \"VOTE DALEK!\"", "In a 2008 contest sponsored by the Periodical Publishers Association, this cover was voted the best British magazine cover of all time.", "In 2013 it was voted \"Cover of the century\" by the Professional Publishers Association.", "The 2010 United Kingdom general election campaign also prompted a collector's set of three near-identical covers of the ''Radio Times'' on 17 April with exactly the same headline but with the newly redesigned Daleks in their primary colours representing the three main political parties, Red being Labour, Blue as Conservative and Yellow as Liberal Democrats.===Parodies===Daleks have been the subject of many parodies, including Spike Milligan's \"Pakistani Dalek\" sketch in his comedy series ''Q'', and Victor Lewis-Smith's \"Gay Daleks\".", "Occasionally the BBC has used the Daleks to parody other subjects: in 2002, BBC Worldwide published the ''Dalek Survival Guide'', a parody of ''The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbooks''.", "Comedian Eddie Izzard has an extended stand-up routine about Daleks, which was included in her 1993 stand-up show \"Live at the Ambassadors\".", "The Daleks made two brief appearances in a pantomime version of ''Aladdin'' at the Birmingham Hippodrome which starred ''Torchwood'' star John Barrowman in the lead role.", "A joke-telling robot, possessing a Dalek-like boom, and loosely modelled after the Dalek, also appeared in the ''South Park'' episode \"Funnybot\", even spouting out \"exterminate\".", "A Dalek can also be seen in the background at timepoints 1:13 and 1:17 in the Sam & Max animated series episode \"The Trouble with Gary\".", "In the ''Community'' parody of ''Doctor Who'' called ''Inspector Spacetime'', they are referred to as Blorgons." ], [ "Merchandising", "The BBC approached Walter Tuckwell, a New Zealand-born entrepreneur who was handling product merchandising for other BBC shows, and asked him to do the same for the Daleks and ''Doctor Who''.", "Tuckwell created a glossy sales brochure that sparked off a Dalek craze, dubbed \"Dalekmania\" by the press, which peaked in 1965.===Toys and models===A Louis Marx & Co. Dalek modelThe first Dalek toys were released in 1965 as part of the \"Dalekmania\" craze.", "These included battery-operated, friction drive and \"Rolykins\" Daleks from Louis Marx & Co., as well as models from Cherilea, Herts Plastic Moulders Ltd and Cowan, de Groot Ltd, and \"Bendy\" Daleks made by Newfeld Ltd. At the height of the Daleks' popularity, in addition to toy replicas, there were Dalek board games and activity sets, slide projectors for children and even Dalek playsuits made from PVC.", "Collectible cards, stickers, toy guns, music singles, punching bags and many other items were also produced in this period.", "Dalek toys released in the 1970s included a new version of Louis Marx's battery-operated Dalek (1974), a \"talking Dalek\" from Palitoy (1975) and a Dalek board game (1975) and Dalek action figure (1977), both from Denys Fisher.", "From 1988 to 2002, Dapol released a line of Dalek toys in conjunction with its ''Doctor Who'' action figure series.In 1984, Sevans Models released a self-assembly model kit for a one-fifth scale Dalek, which ''Doctor Who'' historian David Howe has described as \"the most accurate model of a Dalek ever to be released\".", "Comet Miniatures released two Dalek self-assembly model kits in the 1990s.In 1992, Bally released a Doctor Who pinball machine which prominently featured the Daleks both as a primary playfield feature and as a motorised toy in the topper.Bluebird Toys produced a Dalek-themed ''Doctor Who'' playset in 1998.Beginning in 2000, Product Enterprise (who later operated under the names \"Iconic Replicas\" and \"Sixteen 12 Collectibles\") produced various Dalek toys.", "These included Dalek \"Rolykins\" (based on the Louis Marx toy from 1965); push-along \"talking\" Daleks; Dalek \"Rollamatics\" with a pull back and release mechanism; and a remote control Dalek.In 2005 Character Options was granted the \"Master Toy License\" for the revived ''Doctor Who'' series, including the Daleks.", "Their product lines have included static/push-along and radio controlled Daleks, radio controlled versions and radio controlled / 1:3 scale variants.", "The 12-inch remote control Dalek won the 2005 award for Best Electronic Toy of the Year from the Toy Retailers Association.", "Some versions of the 18-inch model included semi-autonomous and voice command-features.", "In 2008, the company acquired a license to produce Daleks of the various \"classic series\" variants.", "For the fifth revived series, both Ironside (Post-Time war Daleks in camouflage khaki), Drone (new, red) and, later, Strategist Daleks (new, blue) were released as both RC Infrared Battle Daleks and action figures.A pair of Lego based Daleks were included in the Lego Ideas ''Doctor Who'' set, and another appeared in the ''Lego Dimensions'' Cyberman Fun-Pack.===Full-size reproductions===Dalek fans have been building life-size reproduction Daleks for many years.", "The BBC and Terry Nation estate officially disapprove of self-built Daleks, but usually intervene only if attempts are made to trade unlicensed Daleks and Dalek components commercially, or if it is considered that actual or intended use may damage the BBC's reputation or the Doctor Who/Dalek brand.", "The Crewe, Cheshire-based company \"This Planet Earth\" is the only business which has been licensed by the BBC and the Terry Nation Estate to produce full-size TV Dalek replicas, and by Canal+ Image UK Ltd. to produce full size Movie Dalek replicas commercially." ], [ "See also", "* History of the Daleks* Dalek variants* Dalekmania* Dalek comic strips, illustrated annuals and graphic novels" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===******************" ], [ "External links", " * A history of the dalek props 1963–1988* How the Daleks were built – BBC Wales interview with engineer Bill Roberts* The making of the 'Cover of the Century'." ] ]	wikipedia

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