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[ [ "Politics of Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Equatorial Guinea''' take place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President is both the head of state and head of government.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Chamber of People's Representatives" ], [ "Political conditions", "A great deal of political party activity ensued when Equatorial Guinea attained autonomy from Spain in 1963.Bubi and Fernandino parties on the island preferred separation from Río Muni or a loose federation.", "Ethnically-based parties in Río Muni favored independence for a united country comprising Bioko and Río Muni, an approach that was adopted.", "The Movement for the Self-Determination of Bioko Island (MAIB), which advocates independence for the island under Bubi control, is one of the offshoots of the era immediately preceding independence.Equatorial Guinea became independent from Spain on October 12, 1968.Since then, the country has had two presidents: Francisco Macías Nguema, who had been the mayor of Mongomo under the Spanish colonial government, and Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo Macías's nephew, who has ruled since 1979, when he staged a military coup d'état and executed his uncle.", "When Macías came to power, political activity largely ceased.", "Opposition figures among the exile communities in Spain and elsewhere agitated for reforms; some of them had been employed in the Macías and Obiang governments.", "After political activities in Equatorial Guinea were legalized in the early 1990s, some opposition leaders returned to test the waters, but repressive actions have continued sporadically.The 1982 Constitution gives Obiang extensive powers, including the right to name, and dismiss, members of the cabinet.", "The 1982 constitution also give him the power to make laws by decree, dissolve the Chamber of Representatives, negotiate and ratify international treaties, and calling legislative elections.", "Obiang retained his role as commander-in-chief of the armed forces and minister of defense when he became president and he maintains close supervision of military activity.", "The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the president.", "The prime minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security.With the prodding of the United Nations, the United States, Spain, and other donor countries, the government undertook an electoral census in 1995 and held freely contested municipal elections, the country's first, in September.", "Most observers agree that these elections were relatively free and transparent and also that the opposition parties garnered between 2/3 and 3/4 of the total vote.", "The government delayed announcing the results, then claimed a highly dubious overall 52% victory, and capture of 19 of the 27 municipal councils.", "The council of Malabo, the capital, went to the opposition however.", "In early January 1996 Obiang called presidential elections, to be held in six weeks.", "The campaign was marred by allegations of fraud, and most of the other candidates withdrew in the final week.", "Obiang claimed re-election with 98% of the vote.", "International observers agreed the election was neither free nor fair.", "In an attempt to mollify his critics, Obiang announced a new cabinet, giving minor portfolios to some people identified by the government as opposition figures.Since President Obiang has been constrained only by a need to maintain a consensus among his advisers and political supporters in the Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea, most of whom are drawn from the Nguema family in Mongomo,part of the Esangu subclan of the Fang in the eastern part of Río Muni.", "Alleged coup attempts in 1981 and 1983 raised little sympathy among the populace.Under Obiang, schools reopened and primary education expanded, public utilities and roads were restored, a favorable contrast with Macías' tyranny and terror, but his administration has been criticized for not implementing genuine democratic reforms.", "Corruption and a dysfunctional judicial system disrupt development of Equatorial Guinea's economy and society.", "In March 2001 the President appointed a new Prime Minister, Cándido Muatetema Rivas, and replaced several ministers perceived to be especially corrupt.", "However, the government budget still does not include all revenues and expenditures.", "The United Nations Development Programme has proposed a broad governance reform program, but the Equatorial Guinean Government has not moved very rapidly to implement it.Although Equatorial Guinea lacks a well-established democratic tradition comparable to the developed democracies of the West, it has progressed toward developing a participatory political system out of the anarchic, chaotic, and repressive conditions of the Macías years.", "In power since 1979, the Obiang government has made little progress in stimulating the economy.", "Extremely serious health and sanitary conditions persist, and the educational system remains in desperate condition.", "Although the abuses and atrocities that characterized the Macías years have been eliminated, effective rule of law does not exist.", "Religious freedom is tolerated.On December 15, 2002, Equatorial Guinea's four main opposition parties withdrew from the country's presidential election.", "Obiang won an election widely considered fraudulent by members of the western press.According to a March 2004 BBC profile, politics within the country are currently dominated by tensions between Obiang's son Teodoro (known by the nickname ''Teodorín'', meaning Little Teodoro), and other close relatives with powerful positions in the security forces.", "The tension may be rooted in a power shift arising from the dramatic increase since 1997 in oil production.A November 2004 report named Mark Thatcher as a financial backer of a March 2004 attempt to topple Obiang organized by Simon Mann.", "Various accounts also name the UK's MI6, the US Central Intelligence Agency, and Spain as having been tacit supporters of the coup attempt.", "Nevertheless, an Amnesty International report on the ensuing trial highlights the government's failure to demonstrate in court that the alleged coup attempt had ever actually taken place." ], [ "Executive branch", "|PresidentTeodoro Obiang Nguema MbasogoDemocratic Party of Equatorial Guinea3 August 1979Prime MinisterManuela Roka BoteyDemocratic Party of Equatorial Guinea1 February 2023The 1982 constitution of Equatorial Guinea gives the President extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and calling legislative elections.", "The President retains his role as commander in chief of the armed forces and minister of defense, and he maintains close supervision of military activity.", "The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the President.", "The Prime Minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security.Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo seized power in a military coup.", "He is elected by popular vote to a seven-year term.Another branch of the government is the State Council.", "The State Council's main function is to serve as caretaker in case of death or physical incapacity of the President.", "It comprises the following ex-officio members: the President of the Republic, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defense, the President of the National Assembly and the Chairman of the Social and Economic Council." ], [ "Legislative branch", "The Chamber of People's Representatives (''Cámara de Representantes del Pueblo'') has 100 members, elected for a five-year term by proportional representation in multi-member constituencies.", "Equatorial Guinea is a dominant-party state.", "This means that only one political party, the Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea, is in fact allowed to hold effective power.", "Although minor parties are allowed, they are required to accept the ''de facto'' leadership of the ruling party.", "The Convergence for Social Democracy is the only true opposition party to operate legally in the county, which holds only a single seat in each house of parliament." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "===Presidential elections======Parliamentary elections=======Chamber of Deputies========Senate====" ], [ "Judicial branch", "The judicial system follows similar administrative levels.", "At the top are the President and his judicial advisors (the Supreme Court).", "In descending rank are the appeals courts, chief judges for the divisions, and local magistrates.", "Tribal laws and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law.", "The court system, which often uses customary law, is a combination of traditional, civil, and military justice, and it operates in an ad hoc manner for lack of established procedures and experienced judicial personnel.As for the legal profession, the Equatorial Guinea Bar Association (Colegio de Abogados de Guinea Ecuatorial) was dissolved by the government in 2002.Although a new bar association was created in 2003, a report issued the same year claimed that \" there are few independent lawyers and judges\" unless they are \"a member of or sympathetic to the ruling party.\"", "It was reported in 2014 (and later reconfirmed in 2016) that the association does not have an official headquarters." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Consulate-General of Equatorial Guinea in Houston, a diplomatic complex in an office building in Houston, Texas, United StatesEquatorial Guinea is divided in seven provinces (''provincias''); Annobon, Bioko Norte, Bioko Sur, Centro Sur, Kie-Ntem, Litoral, Wele-Nzas.The President appoints the governors of the seven provinces.", "Each province is divided administratively into districts and municipalities.", "The internal administrative system falls under the Ministry of Territorial Administration; several other ministries are represented at the provincial and district levels." ], [ "Membership in international organizations", "* ACCT, Agency for the French-Speaking Community,* ACP, African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States,* AfDB, African Development Bank,* BDEAC, Central African States Development Bank,* CEEAC, Economic Community of Central African States,* ECA, Economic Commission for Africa,* FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization,* FZ, Franc Zone,* G-77, Group of 77,* IBRD, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development,* ICAO, International Civil Aviation Organization,* ICRM, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement,* IDA, International Development Association,* IFAD, International Fund for Agricultural Development,* IFC, International Finance Corporation,* IFRCS, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,* ILO, International Labour Organization,* IMF, International Monetary Fund,* IMO, International Maritime Organization,* Intelsat, International Telecommunications Satellite Organization,* Interpol, International Criminal Police Organization,* IOC, International Olympic Committee,* ITU, International Telecommunication Union,* NAM, Non-Aligned Movement,* OAS; (observer), Organization of American States* OAU, Organization of African Unity,* OIF, International Organisation of La Francophonie,* OPCW, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons,* OPEC, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries,* UDEAC, Central African Customs and Economic Union,* UN, United Nations,* UNCTAD, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,* UNESCO, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization,* UNIDO, United Nations Industrial Development Organization,* UPU, Universal Postal Union,* WHO, World Health Organization,* WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization,* WToO, World Tourism Organization,* WTrO;(applicant), World Trade Organization" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Gobierno en el Exilio de Guinea Ecuatorial Official website of the Equatorial Guinea Government in Exile" ], [ "Further viewing", "*''Once Upon a Coup'', PBS Documentary, August 2009," ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Equatorial Guinea''' has traditionally been dependent on commodities such as cocoa and coffee, but is now heavily dependent on petroleum due to the discovery and exploitation of significant oil reserves in the 1980s.", "In 2017, it graduated from \"Least Developed Country\" status, one of six Sub-Saharan African nations that managed to do so.However, despite the economic growth and improving infrastructure, the country has been ranked only 138th out of 188 countries on the United Nations Human Development Index in 2015 and despite its impressive GNI figure, it is still plagued by extreme poverty because its Gini coefficient of 65.0 is the highest in the entire world .", "After the oil price collapsed in 2014, the economy went into a free fall which put growth in a downward spiral from around 15% to −10%." ], [ "Economy overview", "Cocoa factory (2008)Equatorial Guinea Exports Treemap (2019)Comparison of GDP per capita of Equatorial Guinea and Spain, the former colonial power in the Area, based on A. Maddieson ( World Population, GDP and Per Capita GDP, 1-2010 AD)Pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on cocoa production for hard currency earnings.", "In 1959 it had the highest per capita income of Africa which it still has, after several decades as one of the poorest countries in the world.The discovery of large oil reserves in 1996 and their subsequent exploitation have contributed to a dramatic increase in government revenue.", "As of 2004, Equatorial Guinea was the third-largest oil producer in Sub-Saharan Africa.", "Its oil production had then risen to , up from only two years earlier.Forestry, farming, and fishing are also major components of GDP.", "Subsistence farming predominates.", "Although pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on cocoa production for hard currency earnings, the neglect of the rural economy under successive regimes has diminished potential for agriculture-led growth.", "However, the government has stated its intention to reinvest some oil revenue into agriculture.", "A number of aid programs sponsored by the World Bank and the IMF have been cut off since 1993 because of corruption and mismanagement.", "No longer eligible for concessional financing because of large oil revenues, the government has been unsuccessfully trying to agree on a \"shadow\" fiscal management program with the World Bank and IMF.", "Businesses, for the most part, are owned by government officials and their family members.", "Undeveloped natural resources include titanium, iron ore, manganese, uranium, and alluvial gold (Mining in Equatorial Guinea).", "Growth remained strong in 2005 and 2006, led by oil." ], [ "In greater depth", "Oil and gas exports have increased substantially and will drive the economy for years to come.", "Real GDP growth reached 23% in 1999, and initial estimates suggested growth of about 15% in 2001, according to IMF 2001 forecast.", "Per capita income grew from about $1,000 in 1998 to about $2,000 in 2000.The energy export sector is responsible for this rapid growth.", "Oil production has increased from to between 1998 and early 2001.There is ongoing additional development of existing commercially viable oil and gas deposits as well as new exploration in other offshore concessions.Equatorial Guinea has other largely unexploited human and natural resources, including a tropical climate, fertile soils, rich expanses of water, deepwater ports, and an untapped, if unskilled, source of labor.", "Following independence in 1968, the country suffered under a repressive dictatorship for 11 years, which devastated the economy.", "The agricultural sector, which historically was known for cocoa of the highest quality, has never fully recovered.", "In 1969 Equatorial Guinea produced 36,161 tons of highly bid cocoa, but production dropped to 4,800 tons in 2000.Coffee production also dropped sharply during this period to bounce back to 100,000 metric tons in 2000.Timber is the main source of foreign exchange after oil, accounting for about 12.4% of total export earnings in 1996–99.Timber production increased steadily during the 1990s; wood exports reached a record 789,000 cubic meters in 1999 as demand in Asia (mainly China) gathered pace after the 1998 economic crisis.", "Most of the production (mainly Okoume) goes to exports, and only 3% is processed locally.", "Environmentalists fear that exploitation at this level is unsustainable and point out to the permanent damage already inflicted on the forestry reserves on Bioko.Consumer price inflation has declined from the 38.8% experienced in 1994 following the CFA franc devaluation, to 7.8% in 1998, and 1.0% in 1999, according to BEAC data.", "Consumer prices rose about 6% in 2000, according to initial estimates, and there was anecdotal evidence that price inflation was accelerating in 2001.Equatorial Guinea's policies, as defined by law, comprise an open investment regime.", "Qualitative restrictions on imports, non-tariff protection, and many import licensing requirements were lifted when in 1992 the government adopted a public investment program endorsed by the World Bank.", "The Government of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea has sold some state enterprises.", "It is attempting to create a more favourable investment climate, and its investment code contains numerous incentives for job creation, training, promotion of non-traditional exports, support of development projects and indigenous capital participation, freedom for repatriation of profits, exemption from certain taxes and capital, and other benefits.", "Trade regulations have been further liberalized since implementation in 1994 of the ICN turnover tax, in conformity with Central African tax and custom reform codes.", "The reform included elimination of quota restrictions and reductions in the range and amounts of tariffs.", "The CEMAC countries agreed to replace the ICN with a value added tax (VAT) in 1999.While business laws promote a liberalized economy, the business climate remains difficult.", "Application of the laws remains selective.", "Corruption among officials is widespread, and many business deals are concluded under non-transparent circumstances.There is little industry in the country, and the local market for industrial products is small.", "The government seeks to expand the role of free enterprise and to promote foreign investment but has had little success in creating an atmosphere conducive to investor interest.The Equato-Guinean budget has grown enormously in the past 3 years as royalties and taxes on foreign company oil and gas production have provided new resources to a once poor government.", "The 2001 budget foresaw revenues of about 154 billion CFA francs (154 GCFAF) (about U.S.$200 million), up about 50% from 2000 levels.", "Oil revenues account for about two-thirds of government revenue, and VAT and trade taxes are the other large revenue sources.Year 2001 government expenditures were planned to reach 158 billion CFA francs, up about 50% from 2000 levels.", "New investment projects represented about 40% of the budget, and personnel and internal and external debt payments represented about one-third of planned expenditures.The Equato-Guinean Government has undertaken a number of reforms since 1991 to reduce its predominant role in the economy and promote private sector development.", "Its role is a diminishing one, although many government interactions with the private sector are at times capricious.", "Beginning in early 1997, the government initiated efforts to attract significant private sector involvement through a Corporate Council on Africa visit and numerous ministerial efforts.", "In 1998, the government privatized distribution of petroleum products.", "There are now Total and Mobil stations in the country.", "The government has expressed interest in privatizing the outmoded electricity utility.", "A French company operates cellular telephone service in cooperation with a state enterprise.", "The government is anxious for greater U.S. investment, and President Obiang visited the U.S. three times between 1999 and 2001 to encourage greater U.S. corporate interest.", "Investment in agriculture, fishing, livestock, and tourism are among sectors the government would like targeted.Equatorial Guinea's balance-of-payments situation has improved substantially since the mid-1990s because of new oil and gas production and favorable world energy prices.", "Exports totaled about francs CFA 915 billion in 2000 (1.25 G$US), up from CFA 437 billion (700 M$US) in 1999.Crude oil exports accounted for more than 90% of export earnings in 2000.Timber exports, by contrast, represented only about 5% of export revenues in 2000.Additional oil production coming on line in 2001, combined with methanol gas exports from the new CMS-Nomeco plant, should increase export earnings substantially.Imports into Equatorial Guinea also are growing very quickly.", "Imports totaled francs CFA 380 billion (530 M$US), up from franc CFA 261 million (420 M$US) in 1999.Imports of equipment used for the oil and gas sector accounted for about three-quarters of imports in 2000.Imports of capital equipment for public investment projects reached francs CFA 30 billion in 2000, up 40% from 1999 levels.Equatorial Guinea's foreign debt stock was approximately francs CFA 69 billion (100 M$US) in 2000, slightly less than the debt stock in 1999, according to BEAC data.", "Equatorial Guinea's debt service ratio fell from 20% of GDP in 1994 to only 1% in 2000.Foreign exchange reserves were increasing slightly, although they were relatively low in terms of import coverage.", "According to the terms of the franc CFA zone, some of these reserves are kept in an account with the French Ministry of Finance.Equatorial Guinea in the 1980s and 1990s received foreign assistance from numerous bilateral and multilateral donors, including European countries, the United States, and the World Bank.", "Many of these aid programs have ceased altogether or have diminished.", "Spain, France, and the European Union continue to provide some project assistance, as do China and Cuba.", "The government also has discussed working with World Bank assistance to develop government administrative capacity.Equatorial Guinea operated under an IMF-negotiated Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) until 1996.Since then, there have been no formal agreements or arrangements.", "The International monetary Fund held Article IV consultations (periodic country evaluations) in 1996, 1997, and in August 1999.After the 1999 consultations, IMF directors stressed the need for Equatorial Guinea to establish greater fiscal discipline, accountability, and more transparent management of public sector resources, especially energy sector revenue.", "IMF officials also have emphasized the need for economic data.", "In 1999, the Equato-Guinean Government began attempting to meet IMF-imposed requirements, maintaining contact with IMF and the World Bank representatives.", "However, the newfound oil wealth allowed the government to avoid improving fiscal discipline, transparency and accountability." ], [ "Infrastructure", "Malabo International Airport (''Aeropuerto de Malabo'' in Spanish), en Punta Europa, island of BiokoInfrastructure is generally old and in poor condition.", ", surface transport is extremely limited, with little more than 700 kilometres of paved roads.", "The African Development Bank is helping to improve the paved roads from Malabo to Luba and Riaba; the Chinese are undertaking a project to link Mongomo to Bata on the mainland, and the European Union is financing an inter-states road network linking Equatorial Guinea to Cameroon and Gabon.", "Road maintenance is often inadequate.Electricity is available in Equatorial Guinea's larger towns thanks to three small overworked hydropower facilities and a number of aged generators.", "In 1999, national production was about 13 MWh.", "In Malabo, the American company, CMS-Nomeco, built a 10 megawatt electricity plant financed by the government, which came in line in mid-2000, and plans to double capacity are advancing.", "This plant provides improved service to the capital, although there are still occasional outages.", "On the mainland the largest city, Bata, still has regular blackouts.The port of MalaboWater is only available in the major towns and is not always reliable because of poor maintenance and mismanagement.", "Some villages and rural areas are equipped with generators and water pumps, usually owned by private individuals.Parastatal Getesa, a joint venture with a minority ownership stake held by a French subsidiary of Orange, provides telephone service in the major cities.", "The regular system is overextended, but Orange has introduced a popular GSM system, which is generally reliable in Malabo and Bata.Equatorial Guinea has two of the deepest Atlantic seaports of the region, including the main business and commercial port city of Bata.", "The ports of both Malabo and Bata are severely overextended and require extensive rehabilitation and reconditioning.", "The British company, Incat, has an ongoing project with the government to renovate and expand Luba, the country's third-largest port which is located on Bioko Island.", "The government hopes Luba will become a major transportation hub for offshore oil and gas companies operating in the Gulf of Guinea.", "Luba is located some 50 kilometres from Malabo and had been virtually inactive except for minor fishing activities and occasional use to ease congestion in Malabo.", "A new jetty is also being built at km 5 on the way from Malabo to the airport.", "It is a project mainly supposed to service the oil industry, but can also relieve the congested Malabo Port due to its closeness.", "The Oil Jetty at km 5 was supposed to open the end of March 2003.Riaba is the other port of any scale on Bioko but is less active.", "The continental ports of Mbini and Cogo have deteriorated as well and are now used primarily for timber activities.There are both air and sea connections between the two cities of Malabo and Bata.", "As of 2002, a few aging Soviet-built aircraft constituted the national air fleet.", "Since then, most Soviet-built aircraft have been replaced by ATR and Boeing.", "The runway at Malabo (3,200 m) is equipped with lights and can service aircraft similar to Boeing 777s and Ilyushin Il-76s.", "The one at Bata (2,400 m) does not operate at night but can accommodate aircraft as large as Boeing 737s.", "Their primary users are the national airline (EGA) and a private company (GEASA).", "Two minor airstrips (800 m) are located at Mongomo and Annobon.", "There are international connections out of Malabo to Madrid and Zürich in Europe and to Cotonou, Douala and Libreville in West Africa." ], [ "Energy developments", "After a slow start, Equatorial Guinea has recently (as of 2002) emerged as a major oil producer in the Gulf of Guinea, one of the most promising hydrocarbon regions in the world.", "The main oil fields, Zafiro and Alba, both lie offshore of Bioko island.", "In 1999 oil production was about five times its 1996 level; Zafiro Field, operated by ExxonMobil and Ocean Energy, produced about , and CMS Nomeco extracted approximately .", "In 2002, production was nearly 200,000 barrels per day.In 1995 Mobil (now ExxonMobil) discovered the large Zafiro field, with estimated reserves of .", "Production began in 1996.The company announced a 3-year U.S.$1bn rapid-development program to boost output to by early 2001.Progress was delayed due to a contractual dispute with the government and by unexpectedly difficult geology.", "The difference with the government was eventually resolved.In 1998 a more liberal regulatory and profit-sharing arrangement for hydrocarbon exploration and production activities was introduced.", "It revised and updated the production-sharing contract, which, until then, had favoured Western operators heavily.", "As a result, domestic oil receipts rose from 13% to 20% of oil export revenue.", "However, the government's share remains relatively poor by international standards.In 1997 CMS Nomeco moved to expand its operation with a U.S.$300m methanol plant.", "The plant entered production in 2000 and helped boost natural gas condensate output from Alba field.In August 1999 the government closed bidding on a new petroleum-licensing round for 53 unexplored deepwater blocks and seven shallow-water blocks.", "The response was small due to a combination of factors, including falling oil prices, restructuring within the oil industry, and uncertainty over an undemarcated maritime border with Nigeria (which was not resolved until 2000).In late 1999 Triton Energy, a U.S. independent, discovered La Ceiba in block G in an entirely new area offshore the mainland of the country.", "Triton expected a U.S.$200m development program to enable La Ceiba and associated fields to produce by late 2001, despite disappointments and technical problems at the beginning of the year.With an upturn in oil prices, exploration intensified in 2000.In April 2000 U.S.-based Vanco Energy signed a production-sharing contract for the offshore block of Corisco Deep.", "In May 2000, Chevron was granted block L, offshore Río Muni, and a further three production-sharing contracts (for blocks J, I, and H) were signed with Atlas Petroleum, a Nigerian company.In early 2001 the government announced plans to establish a national oil company, to allow Equatorial Guinea to take a greater stake in the sector and to facilitate the more rapid transfer of skills.", "However, critics fear that such a company may become a vehicle for opaque accounting and inertia of the sort that has hindered development in neighbouring countries including Angola, Cameroon, and Nigeria.Since 2001 the government has created GEPetrol, a national oil company; and Sonagas, a national natural-gas company.", "The company EG LNG has been created to construct and operate the Bioko Island LNG plant and terminal.", "The plant began to operate in May 2007 and a second plant is now under development.Equatorial Guinea became a member of OPEC in May 2017." ], [ "Agriculture" ], [ "Data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Year GDP(in bil.", "US$ PPP) GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in bil.", "US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Government debt(Percentage of GDP) 1980 0.09 4120.03 4.8 % 146 % 1985 0.15 4820.07 12.9 % 184 % 1990 0.19 4980.13 2.5 % 157 % 1995 0.45 1,0200.17 26.5 % 137 % 2000 6.20 11,9811.16 112.1 % 37 % 2005 21.56 35,7218.19 8.2 % 3 % 2006 23.48 37,78510.10 5.7 % 1 % 2007 27.79 43,45413.09 15.3 % 1 % 2008 33.38 50,73219.83 17.8 % 0 % 2009 34.09 50,36315.09 1.3 % 4 % 2010 31.43 45,14116.31 −8.9 % 8 % 2011 34.17 47,71921.36 6.5 % 7 % 2012 37.68 51,18722.39 8.3 % 7 % 2013 36.71 48,49921.95 −4.1 % 7 % 2014 37.22 47,70121.77 −0.7 % 13 % 2015 34.09 42,64813.19 −9.1 % 36 % 2016 31.18 37,98511.24 −9.7 % 48 % 2017 30.35 36,01712.20 −4.4 % 43 %; Investment (gross fixed):: 46.3% (2005 est.", "); Industries:: Petroleum, fishing, sawmilling, natural gas; Industrial production growth rate:: 30% (2002 est.", "); Electricity – production:: 29.43 GWh (2005); Electricity – consumption:: 27.37 GWh (2005); Agriculture – products:: Coffee, cocoa, rice, yams, cassava (tapioca), bananas, palm oil nuts; livestock; timber; Exchange rates:: Communauté financière africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 – 480.56 (2005), 528.29 (2004), 581.2 (2003), 696.99 (2002), 733.04 (2001)" ], [ "See also", "* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa" ], [ "See also", "* Minister of Finance (Equatorial Guinea)* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Equatorial Guinea latest trade data on ITC Trade Map* Equatorial Oil- Government source on economics, run by the Ministry of Mines, Industry and Energy" ] ]
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[ [ "Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet." ], [ "Radio and television", "* Radio stations:** 1 state-owned radio station, and 1 private radio station owned by the president's eldest son; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are accessible (2007); ** no AM, 3 FM, and 5 shortwave stations (2001).", "* Radios: 180,000 (1997).", "* Television stations:** 1 state-owned TV station; satellite TV service is available; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are accessible (2007);** 1 TV station (2001).", "* Television sets: 4,000 (1997).The state maintains direct or indirect control of all broadcast media.", "The government owns the only national radio and television broadcast system, RTVGE.", "The president's eldest son owns the only private radio station.", "Satellite broadcasts are widely available, including the French language Africa24 television news channel that occasionally carries opposition criticism.", "Foreign channels, including Radio France International (RFI) and the BBC World Service, were broadcast uncensored throughout the country." ], [ "Telephones", "* Calling code: +240* International call prefix: 00* Land lines:** 14,900 lines in use, 195th in the world (2012);** 10,000 lines in use, 204th in the world (2008).", "* Mobile cellular:** 501,000 lines, 169th in the world (2012);** 346,000 lines, 165th in the world (2008).", "* Telephone system: digital fixed-line network in most major urban areas and good mobile coverage; fixed-line density is about 2 per 100 persons; mobile-cellular subscribership has been increasing and in 2011 stood at about 60 percent of the population; international communications from Bata and the capital, Malabo, to African and European countries (2011).", "* Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) (2011).", "* Communications cables: Africa Coast to Europe (ACE) submarine cable system, links countries along the west coast of Africa to each other and on to Portugal and France." ], [ "Internet", "* Top-level domain: .gq* Internet users: ** 95,649 users, 169th in the world; 13.9% of the population, 158th in the world (2012);** 14,400 users, 200th in the world (2009).", "* Fixed broadband: 1,372 subscriptions, 174th in the world; 0.2% of population, 159th in the world (2012).", "* Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).", "* Internet hosts: 7 hosts, 227th in the world (2012).", "* IPv4: 3,072 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 4.5 addresses per 1000 people (2012).", "* Internet service providers: 9 ISPs (2009).===Internet censorship and surveillance===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.", "Most overt criticism of the government comes from the country's community in exile, and the Internet has replaced broadcast media as the primary way opposition views were expressed and disseminated.Although the constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, the law grants authorities extensive powers to restrict media activities, which the government uses to limit these rights.", "While criticism of government policies is allowed, individuals generally can not criticize the president, his family, other high-ranking officials, or the security forces without fear of reprisal.", "Libel is a criminal offense, but there were no instances of the government using these laws to suppress criticism during 2012.The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, but the government often does not respect these prohibitions.", "Search warrants are required unless the crime is in progress or for reasons of national security.", "Security forces enter homes without authorization and arrest alleged criminals, foreign nationals, and others, often without required judicial orders.", "The government reportedly attempts to impede criticism by monitoring the activities of the political opposition, journalists, and others.", "Journalists are subject to surveillance and practice self-censorship." ], [ "See also", "* Radio Nacional de Guinea Equatorial, state-owned national radio broadcaster.", "* List of terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Africa* Media of Equatorial Guinea* Economy of Equatorial Guinea* Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* \"Press Reference: Equatorial Guinea\"" ] ]
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[ [ "Transport in Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of Equatorial Guinea.The port of Malabo.Malabo International Airport (''Aeropuerto de Malabo'' in Spanish), en Punta Europa, island of Bioko.This article lists '''transport in Equatorial Guinea'''." ], [ "Railways", "There are currently no railways in Equatorial Guinea." ], [ "Maps", "*" ], [ "Highways", "There are 2,880 km (1,790 mi) of highways in Equatorial Guinea, the majority of which were not paved in 2002.Equatorial Guinea's roads and highways are underdeveloped, but improving.", "During the rainy season, roads are frequently impassable without four-wheel drive vehicles.Furthermore, the country has recently built a 175-km long two-lane expressway that runs between Bata and President Obiang Nguema International Airport, and it is expected to soon reach the city of Mongomo, located on the border with Gabon." ], [ "Merchant marine", "In 2005, the country had one merchant ship of over in service; a cargo vessel of ." ], [ "Airports", "There are seven airports in Equatorial Guinea.", "Its main airport is Malabo International Airport in Punta Europa, Bioko Island.", "International flights operate from:* Madrid (Spain): Ceiba Intercontinental (4 flights per week)* Paris (France): Air France (3 flights per week)* Frankfurt (Germany): Lufthansa (3 flights per week)* Casablanca (Marroco): Royal Air Marroc ( 2 flights per week)* Istanbul (Turkey): Turkish Airlines (1 flight per week)* Cotonou (Benin): Cronos Airlines (2 flights per week)* Abidjan (Ivory Coast): Ceiba Intercontinental (3 flights per week)* Accra (Ghana): Ceiba Intercontinental (3 flights per week);* Sao Tome (Sao Tome y Príncipe): Ceiba Intercontinental (3 flights per week);* Douala (Cameroon) Ethiopian Airline (3 flights per week); Cronos Airlines (3 flights per week)* Libreville (Gabon): Royal Air Marrocc (2 flights per week)* Port Harcourt (Nigeria): Cronos Airlines  (2 flights per week)* Addis Abeba (Ethiopia): Ethiopian Airlines (3 flights per week)From Malabo airport, you can fly to any of the other airports in the country.", "These airports are located in the region of Annobón, Bata, Mongomoyen, and Corisco." ], [ "See also", "* Economy of Equatorial Guinea* Equatorial Guinea* List of airports in Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Armed Forces of Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Armed Forces of Equatorial Guinea''' (; ; ) consists of approximately 2,500 service members.", "The army has almost 1,400 soldiers, the navy 200 service members, and the air force about 120 members.", "There is also a gendarmerie, but the number of members is unknown.", "The Gendarmerie is a new branch of the service in which training and education is being supported by the French Military Cooperation in Equatorial Guinea.", "Military appointments are all reviewed by President Teodoro Obiang, and few of the native militiamen come from outside of Obiang's Mongomo-based Esangui clan.", "Obiang was a general when he overthrew his uncle, Francisco Macías Nguema." ], [ "History", "Map of Equatorial Guinea elaborated by CIA in 1992.The Armed Forces were reorganized in 1979.In 1988, the United States donated a 68-foot patrol boat to the Equatoguinean navy to patrol its exclusive economic zone.", "The U.S. patrol boat ''Isla de Bioko'' is no longer operational.", "U.S. military-to-military engagement has been dormant since 1997 (the year of the last Joint Combined Exchange Training exercise).", "Between 1984 and 1992, service members went regularly to the United States on the International Military Education Training program, after which funding for this program for Equatorial Guinea ceased.", "The government spent 6.5% of its annual budget on defense in 2000 and 4.5% of its budget on defense in 2001.It recently acquired some Chinese artillery pieces, some Ukrainian patrol boats, and some Ukrainian helicopter gunships.", "Cooper and Weinert 2010 says that all aircraft are based on the military side of Malabo International Airport.In 2002, an International Consortium of Investigative Journalists report said:" ], [ "Equipment", "===Armour===A T-55 Main Battle TankNameOriginTypeIn serviceNotes Armored fighting vehicle T-55 Soviet Union Main battle tank 3 BRDM-2 Soviet Union Armored scout car 6 BMP-1 Soviet Union Infantry fighting vehicle 20 Acquired from the Czech Republic in 2007.BTR-152 Soviet Union Armoured personnel carrier 10 Reva South Africa Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected 25An RPG-7 Rocket-propelled grenade launcher === Small arms ===NameOriginTypeNotesAKMSoviet UnionAssault rifleFN FALBelgiumBattle rifleRPDSoviet UnionLight machine gunRPG-7Soviet UnionRocket-propelled grenade===Aircraft===The Equatorial Guinea Air Corps was founded in 1979 with mainly French and Spanish air frames.", "In 2005, 4 Su 25s including 2 Su-25UB combat trainers were delivered to the Equatorial Guinea Air Corps.", "The current status of the aircraft is unknown.", "In 2015 two CASA C-295 (one transport and one surveillance) aircraft were ordered for delivery from September 2016.An Antonov An-72P on lift off=== Current inventory ===AircraftOriginTypeVariantIn serviceNotesCombat AircraftSukhoi Su-25Russiaattack4TransportIlyushin Il-76Soviet Unionheavy transport 1Let L-410 TurboletCzech Republictransport 2HelicoptersKamov Ka-27RussiautilityKa-291Mil Mi-26Russiautility / transport1Mil Mi-24RussiaattackMi-357Trainer AircraftAero L-39Czech Republicjet trainer2" ], [ "Navy", "Joint U.S.-Equatorial Guinea naval exercises off the coast of Equatorial Guinea on February 2, 2008.Behind the American landing craft 1655 sail three Guinean patrol boats, the first being the patrol boat ''Daphne'' and the other two being ''Isla de Corisco'' and ''Isla de Annobon''.The Equatorial Guinean main task is to counter piracy and robbery at sea.", "In July 2010, after the visit of Brazilian president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, an order for a ''Barroso''-class corvette was announced.", "However, no further news has been announced.", "On 3 June 2014, the frigate ''Wele Nzas'' was commissioned and became the navy's flagship.VesselOriginTypeIn serviceNotes ''Wele Nzas'' (F073) Bulgaria Frigate1 Ukrainian designed - modified locally ''Bata'' Bulgaria Corvette1Ukrainian design PV-50 Ukraine Patrol vessel2 ''Isla de Corisco'' Israel Patrol boat1 ''Isla de Annobon'' Israel Patrol boat1Shaldag class Sa'ar 4 class Israel Patrol boat2 ''Osa'' China Landing ship1 Salamandra class'' Daphne\t'' Denmark Patrol boat1" ], [ "Higher education and training", "On 6 November 2016, the Zimbabwe Defence Forces deployed a training contingent to the Equatorial Guinea to train the country's military officers on operational and logistic matters following an urgent request by the West African country.", "The security personnel contingent is composed of members of the Zimbabwe National Army and Air Force of Zimbabwe.", "In 2018, 28 graduates from the military received diplomas from the Nakhimov Naval Academy in Sevastopol." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "*Cooper, Tom & Weinert, Peter (2010).", "African MiGs: Volume I: Angola to Ivory Coast.", "Harpia Publishing LLC.", ".", "*Jeremy Binnie, 'Boom Time – Equatorial Guinea,' Jane's Defence Weekly, 30 May 2012.", "* Рост военно-морской мощи Экваториальной Гвинеи и украинские корни этого роста (The growth of Equatorial Guinea's naval power and the Ukrainian roots of this growth)" ] ]
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[ [ "Foreign relations of Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "Nations with which Equatorial Guinea has diplomatic relations.The government's official policy is one of nonalignment.", "In its search for assistance to meet the goal of national reconstruction, the government of Equatorial Guinea has established diplomatic relations with numerous European and Third World countries.", "Having achieved independence under UN sponsorship, Equatorial Guinea feels a special kinship with that organization.", "It became the 126th UN member on November 12, 1968.Equatorial Guinea served as a non-permanent member on the United Nations Security Council from 2017 to 2019." ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Africa=== Country Formal relations established Notes* Angola has an embassy in Malabo.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Luanda.10 April 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 April 1981 when first Ambassador of Equatorial Guinea to Benin presented his credentials to Head of State, Colonel Mathieu Kérékou.13 December 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 December 2006.1 October 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 October 2004 when Ambassador of Burkina Faso with residence in Abuja M. Dramane Yaméogo has presented his credentials to President of Equatorial Guinea Théodoro Obiang Nguema.27 October 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 October 1968Equatorial Guinea has cordial relations with neighbouring Cameroon, although there was criticism in Cameroon in 2000 about perceived mistreatment of Cameroonians working in Equatorial Guinea.", "Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea have an unresolved maritime border dispute.", "The majority Fang ethnic group of mainland Equatorial Guinea extends both north and south into the forests of Cameroon and Gabon.", "Cameroon exports some food products to Equatorial Guinea and imports oil from Equatorial Guinea for its refinery at nearby Limbe.In December 2008, Equatorial Guinea security forces killed a Cameroonian fisherman and abducted two immigrants, Cameroon closed its border in response.", "* Cameroon has an embassy in Malabo and a consulate in Bata.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Yaoundé and a consulates-general in Ebolowa and Douala.24 January 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 January 1975.", "* Chad has an embassy in Malabo.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in N'Djamena.29 August 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 August 2012.12 July 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 July 1971 when first Ambassador of Equatorial Guinea to People's Republic of the Congo Mr. Clemente Aqueda presented his cedentials to President Ngouabi* Congo-Brazzavile has an embassy in Malabo.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Brazzaville.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Abidjan.", "* Cote d'Ivoire has an embassy in Malabo.9 October 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 2018 when Ambassador of Djibouti (resident in Addis Ababa) Mr. Mohamed Idriss Farah has presented his credentials to President of Equatorial Guinea Obiang Nguema Mbasogo.15 April 1969* Egypt has an embassy in Malabo.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Cairo.19 February 2015Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 February 2015 when Ambassador of Swaziland Mr.Promise Mbisa has presented his credentials to President of Equatorial Guinea Obiang Nguema Mbasogo.1969* Gabon has an embassy in Malabo.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Libreville and a consulate-general in Oyem.29 May 2022Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 May 2022.1968* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Malabo.22 November 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 November 2018 when Ambassador of Equatorial Guinea Tito Mba Ada, presented his credentials to President Guinea-Bissau José Mario Vaz.11 February 2001Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 February 20014 November 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 November 1993.6 October 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 October 2012 when Ambassador of Mauritania M. Ba Abderrahmane, presented his letters of credentials to President of Equatorial Guinea Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbazogo.26 May 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 May 20041978* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Rabat.", "* Morocco has an embassy in Malabo.3 August 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 August 2011 when has been accredited Ambassador of Equatorial Guinea to Namibia (resident in Luanda) Mr. Jose Esono Micha Akeng.25 January 1969Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 January 1969Equatorial Guinea has warmer relations with Nigeria, and the Nigerian President made an official visit to Malabo in 2001.The two countries have delineated their offshore borders, which will facilitate development of nearby gas fields.", "In addition, many Nigerians work in Equatorial Guinea, as do immigrants from Cameroon and some West African states.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Abuja and consulates-general in Calabar and Lagos.", "* Nigeria has an embassy in Malabo and a consulate in Bata.29 July 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 July 2010 when Ambassador of Rwanda to Equatorial Guinea with residence in Abuja (Nigeria) Mr. Rugiera Amandin, presented his credentials to President Obiang Nguema Mbasogo.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in São Tomé.", "* São Tomé and Príncipe has an embassy in Malabo.14 April 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 April 1993March 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations in March 19835 May 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 May 1993* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Pretoria.", "* South Africa has an embassy in Malabo.8 October 2015Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 October 2015 when Ambassador of South Sudan to Equatorial Guinea Parmena Makuet Manbar, has presented his credentials to President Obiang Nguema Mbasogo.14 December 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 December 2016 when Ambassador of Equatorial Guinea presented his credentials to President Omer Al-Basher.19 February 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 February 2018 when Ambassador of Uganda Nelson Ocheger has presented his credentials to President of Equatorial Guinea Obiang Nguema Mbasogo.19 April 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 April 2018 when first Ambassador of Zambia with residence in Kinshasa Friday Musiyalike Nyambe has presented his credentials to President of Equatorial Guinea Obiang Nguema Mbasogo.2 June 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 June 2004.===Americas=== Country Formal relations established Notes26 April 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 April 1974.", "* Argentina is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria.", "* Equatorial Guinea is accredited to Argentina from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.21 October 1987Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 October 198726 May 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 May 1975* Brazil has an embassy in Malabo.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Brasília.20 August 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 August 1980* Canada is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its high commission in Abuja, Nigeria.", "* Equatorial Guinea is accredited to Canada from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York City.9 November 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 November 1971* Chile is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York City.", "* Equatorial Guinea is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.6 May 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 May 1981* Colombia is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its embassy in Accra, Ghana.", "* Equatorial Guinea is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.27 December 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 December 1972* Cuba has an embassy in Malabo.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Havana.24 November 1999Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 November 19998 September 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 September 198018 September 2023Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 September 20238 December 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 December 200624 June 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 June 2008 when Ambassador of Equatorial Guinea Teresa Efua Asangono presented his credentials to President of Haiti , René Préval.18 May 2015Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 May 201526 September 1975See Equatorial Guinea–Mexico relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 September 1975* Equatorial Guinea is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Mexico is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria.20 September 1984Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 September 198413 May 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 May 19813 November 2005Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 November 200528 April 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 April 1981.22 September 2023Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 September 2023.12 January 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 January 201221 November 1968See Equatorial Guinea–United States relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 November 1968, diplomatic relations suspension from 14 March 1976 to 19 December 1979.Embassy of Equatorial Guinea in Washington, D.C.In 1995, the United States closed its embassy, ostensibly for budget reasons, though the ambassador of the time had been accused of witchcraft, and had criticised the human rights situation.", "In 1996, offshore oil began flowing, and, with several US oil companies present in the country, the US reopened the embassy in October 2003.The US has sought to encourage the progress of human rights to the country by addressing its concerns directly to the government, as well as holding seminars for better police conduct and judicial conferences with US judges to improve the rule of law.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and a consulate-general in Houston.", "* United States has an embassy in Malabo.15 September 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 September 19817 May 1981See Equatorial Guinea–Venezuela relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 May 1981* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Caracas.", "* Venezuela has an embassy in Malabo.===Asia=== Country Formal relations established Notes19 May 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 May 1992.11 November 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 November 2004.7 April 2022Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 April 2022 when first Ambassador of Bangladesh (resident in Madrid) Mr. Mohammad Sarwar Mahmood presented his credentials to President of Equatorial Guinea Obiang Nguema.30 June 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 June 201015 October 1970See China–Equatorial Guinea relationsThe People's Republic of China and the Republic of Equatorial Guinea established diplomatic relations on October 15, 1970.", "* China has an embassy in Malabo and a consulate-general in Bata.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Beijing.23 June 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 June 20101975See Equatorial Guinea–India relations* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in New Delhi.", "* India has an embassy in Malabo.22 September 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 September 2016.1968, broke off diplomatic relations 14 October 1973, Restored 5 December 1993* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "* Israel is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its embassy in Yaoundé, Cameroon.20 October 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 October 1980* Equatorial Guinea is accredited to Japan from its embassy in Beijing, China.", "* Japan is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its embassy in Libreville, Gabon.24 May 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 May 20171988Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1988.7 June 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 June 201821 November 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 November 200821 May 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 May 201820 February 2014Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 February 201430 April 2019Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 201930 January 1969See Equatorial Guinea–North Korea relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 30 January 1969* Equatorial Guinea is accredited to North Korea from its embassy in Beijing, China.", "* North Korea has an embassy in Malabo.9 october 1990Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 1990 when Ambassador of Pakistan M. Shahid Amin has presented his credentials to President of Equatorial Guinea Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo.7 April 2021Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 April 202112 October 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 October 2011 when Ambassador of Equatorial Guinea to Saudi Arabia presented his credentials to King Abdullah.11 April 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 April 201814 September 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 September 1979* Equatorial Guinea is accredited to South Korea from its embassy in Beijing, China.", "* South Korea is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its embassy in Libreville, Gabon.21 May 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 May 201815 February 1991Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 February 199116 September 1980See Equatorial Guinea–Turkey relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 September 1980* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Ankara.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Malabo.", "* Trade volume between the two countries was 23.8 million USD in 2019 (Guinean exports/imports: 3.6/20.2 million USD).", "*There are direct flights from Istanbul to Malabo since 7 February 2020.1 September 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 September 1972.===Europe=== Country Formal relations established Notes30 November 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 November 19721 March 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 March 1976* Belgium is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its embassy in Kinshasa, DR Congo.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Brussels.24 February 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 February 201015 September 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 September 1971.18 October 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 October 200729 February 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 February 200831 July 1970Equatorial Guinea and Czechoslovakia established diplomatic relations on 31 July 197018 December 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 December 200730 April 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 200810 July 1969Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 July 1969Equatorial Guinea is member of the Central African Economic and Monetary Union (CEMAC), which includes Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, and Gabon.", "It also is a member of the Franc zone.", "Parallel to the Equatoguinean rapprochement with its Francophone neighbors, France's role has significantly increased following Equatorial Guinea's entry into the CFA Franc Zone and the BEAC.", "French technical advisers work in the finance and planning ministries, and agreements have been signed for infrastructure development projects.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Malabo.7 June 1969Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 June 1969* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Malabo.24 December 1981* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy to the Holy See based in Rome.", "* Holy See has an apostolic nunciature accredited to Equatorial Guinea from Yaoundé, Cameroon.27 February 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 February 197010 September 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 September 2004* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Rome.", "* Italy is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its embassy in Yaoundé, Cameroon.13 November 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 November 200816 June 2009Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 June 2009 when Ambassador of Equatorial Guinea Mr. Federico Edjo Ovono has presented his credentials to Prince of Monaco.9 July 2002Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 July 200229 May 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 May 1979* Equatorial Guinea is accredited to Poland from its embassy in Berlin, Germany.", "* Poland is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria.9 May 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 May 1977* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Lisbon.", "* Portugal has an embassy in Malabo.9 March 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 March 19727 December 1968See Equatorial Guinea–Russia relations* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its embassy in Yaoundé, Cameroon.18 May 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 May 197026 May 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 May 201012 October 1968See Equatorial Guinea–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 12 october 1968A transitional agreement, signed in October 1968, implemented a Spanish preindependence decision to assist Equatorial Guinea and provided for the temporary maintenance of Spanish military forces there.", "A dispute with President Francisco Macías Nguema in 1969 led to a request that all Spanish troops immediately depart, and many civilians left at the same time.", "Diplomatic relations between the two countries were never broken but were suspended by Spain in March 1977 in the wake of renewed disputes.", "After Macías' fall in 1979, President Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo asked for Spanish assistance, and since then, Spain has regained influence in Equatorial Guinea's diplomatic relations.", "The two countries signed permanent agreements for economic and technical cooperation, private concessions, and trade relations.", "President Obiang made an official visit to Madrid in March 2001, and senior Spanish Foreign Ministry officials visited Malabo during 2001 as well.", "Spain maintained a bilateral assistance program in Equatorial Guinea.", "Some Equato-Guinean opposition elements are based in Spain to the annoyance of the government in Malabo.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Madrid and a consulate in Las Palmas.", "* Spain has an embassy in Malabo and a consulate-general in Bata.4 November 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 November 196818 May 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 May 199220 June 1969Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 June 1969 when has been appointed first Ambassador of United Kingdom to Equatorial Guinea (resident in Yaoude) Mr. Alan John Edden.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom is accredited to Equatorial Guinea from its high commission in Yaoundé, Cameroon.=== Oceania ===CountryFormal relationsestablished Notes 23 July 2009 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 July 2009 6 October 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 October 2011" ], [ "See also", "*List of diplomatic missions in Equatorial Guinea*List of diplomatic missions of Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Equatorial Guinea* Embassy of Equatorial Guinea in London, United Kingdom* United States Embassy in Malabo* Honorary Consul of Equatorial Guinea and Investment Opportunities in Bucharest, Romania (Spanish)* Curriculum Vitae of Equatorial Guinea Foreign Minister H.E.", "Don Pastor Micha Ondo Bile (Spanish)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Eritrea" ], [ "Introduction", " Eritrea is an ancient name, associated in the past with its Greek form ''Erythraia'', Ἐρυθραία, and its derived Latin form ''Erythræa''.", "This name relates to that of the Red Ocean, then called the ''Erythræan Sea'', from the Greek for \"red\", ἐρυθρός, ''erythros.", "But earlier Eritrea was called Mdre Bahri''.", "The Italians created the colony of Eritrea in the 19th century around Asmara and named it with its current name.", "After World War II, Eritrea annexed to Ethiopia.", "Following the communist Ethiopian government's defeat in 1991 by the coalition created by various armed groups notably the EPLF and the TPLF among others, Eritrea declared its independence.", "Eritrea officially celebrated its 1st anniversary of independence on May 24,1994." ], [ "Prehistory", "At Buya in Eritrea, one of the oldest hominids representing a possible link between ''Homo erectus'' and an archaic ''Homo sapiens'' was discovered by Eritrean and Italian scientists.", "Dated to over 1 million years old, it is the oldest skeletal find of its kind and provides a link between hominids and the earliest anatomically modern humans.", "It is believed that the section of the Danakil Depression in Eritrea was also a major player in terms of human evolution, and may contain other traces of evolution from ''Homo erectus'' hominids to anatomically modern humans.Neolithic rock art in a Qohaito canyon cavePre-Axumite monolithic columns in QohaitoDuring the last interglacial period, the Red Sea coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans.", "It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World.", "In 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team composed of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch and French scientists discovered a Paleolithic site with stone and obsidian tools dated to over 125,000 years old near the Bay of Zula south of Massawa, along the Red Sea littoral.", "The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources like clams and oysters.According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the family's proposed urheimat (\"original homeland\") in the Nile Valley.", "Other scholars propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there." ], [ "Antiquity", "===Punt===Together with Djibouti, Tigray Region, Northern Somalia, and the Red Sea coast of Sudan, Eritrea is considered to be one of the most likely locations of the land known, to the Ancient Egyptians, as ''Punt'', whose first mention dates to the 25th century BC.", "The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut.In 2010, a genetic study was conducted on the mummified remains of baboons that were brought back as gifts from Punt by the ancient Egyptians.", "Led by a research team from the Egyptian Museum and the University of California, the scientists used oxygen isotope analysis to examine hairs from two baboon mummies that had been preserved in the British Museum.", "One of the baboons had distorted isotopic data, so the other's oxygen isotope values were compared to present-day baboon specimens from regions of interest.", "The researchers found that the mummies most closely matched modern baboon specimens in Eritrea and Ethiopia, which they suggested implied that Punt was likely a narrow region that included Northern Ethiopia also known as the Tigray region, North East Sudan, Northern Somalia, and all of Eritrea.===Ona culture===Excavations at Sembel found evidence of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization in greater Asmara.", "This Ona urban culture is believed to have been among the earliest pastoral and agricultural communities in the Horn region.", "Artefacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC.Additionally, the Ona culture may have had connections with the ancient Land of Punt.", "In a tomb in Thebes dated to the reign of Pharaoh Amenophis II (Amenhotep II), long-necked pots similar to those made by the Ona people are depicted as part of the cargo in a ship from Punt.===Gash Group===Excavations in and near Agordat in central Eritrea yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as the Gash Group.", "Ceramics were discovered that were related to those of the C-Group (Temehu) pastoral culture, which inhabited the Nile Valley between 2500 and 1500 BC.", "Sherds akin to those of the Kerma culture, another community that flourished in the Nile Valley around the same period, were also found at other local archaeological sites in the Barka valley belonging to the Gash Group.", "According to Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst (2000), linguistic evidence indicates that the C-Group and Kerma peoples spoke Afro-Asiatic languages of the Berber and Cushitic branches, respectively.===Kingdom of D'mt===Matara, dating from the Kingdom of Dʿmt (1st century BCE or earlier)D'mt was a kingdom that encompassed most of Eritrea and the northern fringes of Ethiopia, it existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BC.", "Given the presence of a massive temple complex, its capital was most likely Yeha.", "Qohaito, often identified as the town ''Koloe'' in the ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'', as well as Matara were important ancient D'mt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea.", "There are many Ancient cities in Eritrea.The realm developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons.", "After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms until the rise of one of these polities during the first century, the Kingdom of Aksum, which was able to reunite the area.===Kingdom of Aksum===Debre Sina monastery from the 4th century is the first Christian place of worship recorded in Eritrea.", "Debre Bizen monastery was built during 1350s near the town of Nefasit in Eritrea.", "The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.", "It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period c. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD.The Aksumites established bases on the northern highlands of the Ethiopian Plateau and from there expanded southward.", "The Persian religious figure Mani listed Axum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his time.", "The origins of the Axumite Kingdom are unclear, although experts have offered their speculations about it.", "Even whom should be considered the earliest known king is contested: although Carlo Conti Rossini proposed that Zoskales of Axum, mentioned in the ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'', should be identified with one Za Haqle mentioned in the Ethiopian King Lists (a view embraced by later historians of Ethiopia such as Yuri M. Kobishchanov and Sergew Hable Sellasie), G.W.B.", "Huntingford argued that Zoskales was only a sub-king whose authority was limited to Adulis, and that Conti Rossini's identification can not be substantiated.According to the medieval ''Liber Axumae'' (Book of Aksum), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush.", "Munro-Hay cites the Muslim historian Abu Ja'far al-Khwarazmi/Kharazmi (who wrote before 833) as stating that the capital of \"the kingdom of Habash\" was Jarma (hypothetically from Ge'ez ''girma'', \"remarkable, revered\").", "The capital was later moved to Aksum in northern Ethiopia.", "The Kingdom used the name \"Axum\" as early as the 4th century.The Aksumites erected a number of large stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-Christian times.", "One of these granite columns is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet.", "Under Ezana (fl.", "320–360), Aksum later adopted Christianity.", "In 615, during the lifetime of Muhammad, the Aksumite King Sahama provided asylum to early Muslims from Mecca fleeing persecution.", "This journey is known in Islamic history as the First Hijra.", "The area is also the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and the purported home of the Queen of Sheba.King Ezana's Stele in Axum The kingdom is mentioned in the ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world.", "Aksum was at the time ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis.", "The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency.The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom.", "Inscriptions have been found in Southern Arabia celebrating victories over one GDRT, described as \"''nagashi'' of Habashat i.e.", "Abyssinia and of Axum.\"", "Other dated inscriptions are used to determine a ''floruit'' for GDRT (interpreted as representing a Ge'ez name such as Gadarat, Gedur, or Gedara) around the beginning of the 3rd century.", "A bronze scepter or wand has been discovered at Atsbi Dera with in inscription mentioning \"GDR of Axum\".", "Coins showing the royal portrait began to be minted under King Endubis toward the end of the 3rd century.Additionally, expeditions by Ezana into the Kingdom of Kush at Meroe in Sudan may have brought about the latter polity's demise, though there is evidence that the kingdom was experiencing a period of decline beforehand.", "As a result of Ezana's expansions, Aksum bordered the Roman province of Egypt.", "The degree of Aksum's control over Yemen is uncertain.", "Though there is little evidence supporting Aksumite control of the region at that time, his title, which includes ''king of Saba and Salhen, Himyar and Dhu-Raydan'' (all in modern-day Yemen), along with gold Aksumite coins with the inscriptions, \"king of the ''Habshat''\" or \"Habashite,\" indicate that Aksum might have retained some legal or actual footing in the area.Christian monastery complex in Eritrea was built during 1350s but is much older than the oldest monastery Debre Sina (monastery) from 4th centuryDetails of the Aksumite Kingdom, never abundant, become even more scarce after this point.", "The last king known to mint coins is Armah, whose coinage refers to the Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614.Stuart Munro-Hay believes that Axum had been abandoned as the capital by Sahama's reign.", "However, Kobishchanov suggests that the Axum kingdom retained hegemony over the Arabian ports until at least as late as 702." ], [ "Post-classical period", "===Early developments===Massawa's Sheikh Hanafi Mosque, built in the 15th century under Emperor Zara YacobFrom the late first to early second millennium Eritrea witnessed a period of migrations: Since the late 7th century, so with the decline of Aksum, large parts of Eritrea, including the highlands, were overrun by pagan Beja, who supposedly founded several kingdoms on its soil, like Baqlin, Jarin and Qata.", "The Beja rule declined in the 13th century.", "Subsequently, the Beja were expelled from the highlands by Abyssinian settlers from the south.", "Another people, the Bellou, originated from a similar milieu as the Beja.", "They appeared first in the 12th century, from then on they dominated parts of northwestern Eritrea until the 16th century.", "After 1270, with the destruction of the Zagwe Kingdom, many Agaw fled to what is now Eritrea.", "Most were culturally and linguistically assimilated into the local Tigrinya culture, with the notable exception of the Bilen.", "Yet another people that arrived after the fall of Aksum were the Cushitic-speaking Saho, who had established themselves in the highlands until the 14th century.Meanwhile, Eritrea witnessed a very slow, but steady conversion to Islam.", "Muslims had already reached Eritrea in 613/615, during the First Hijra.", "In 702, muslim travelers entered the Dahlak islands.", "In 1060, a Yemeni dynasty fled to Dahlak and proclaimed the Sultanate of Dahlak, which would last for almost 500 years.", "This sultanate also had sovereignty over the port town of Massawa.===12th century to the Italian arrival===Beginning in the 12th century, however, the Ethiopian Zagwe and Solomonid dynasties held control to a fluctuating extent over the entire plateau and the Red Sea coast of Eritrea.", "Previously, this area has been known as ''Ma'ikele Bahr'' (\"between the seas/rivers,\" i.e.", "the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river), but during the reign of emperor Zara Yaqob it was rebranded as the domain of the Bahr Negash, the Medri Bahri (\"Sea land\" in Tigrinya, although it included some areas like Shire on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia).", "With its capital at Debarwa, the state's main provinces were Hamasien, Serae and Akele Guzai.", "The Red Sea coast, having its strategic and commercial importance, was contested by many powers.", "In the 16th century the Ottomans occupied the Dahlak Archipelago and then Massawa.", "Also in the 16th century, Eritrea was affected by the invasions of Ahmad Gragn, the Muslim leader of the Sultanate of Adal.", "After the expulsion of the Adalites, the Ottomans occupied even more of Eritrea’s coastal area.", "The Ottoman Empire maintained only tenuous control over much of the territory over the following centuries until 1865, when the Egyptians obtained Massawa from the Ottomans.", "From there they pushed inland to the plateau, until 1876, when the Egyptians were defeated during the Egyptian-Ethiopian War.In southern Eritrea, the Aussa Sultanate (Afar Sultanate) succeeded the earlier Imamate of Aussa.", "The latter polity had come into existence in 1577, when Muhammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Aussa (Asaita) with the split of the Adal Sultanate into Aussa and the Sultanate of Harar.", "At some point after 1672, Aussa declined in conjunction with Imam Umar Din bin Adam's recorded ascension to the throne.", "In 1734, the Afar leader Kedafu, head of the Mudaito clan, seized power and established the Mudaito dynasty.", "This marked the start of a new and more sophisticated polity that would last into the colonial period." ], [ "Italian Eritrea", "Bahta Hagos was an important leader of the Eritrean resistance to foreign domination specifically against northern Ethiopian and Italian colonialism.===Establishment===Flag of Italian Eritrea The boundaries of the present-day Eritrea nation state were established during the Scramble for Africa.", "In 1869 or ’70, the then ruling Sultan of Raheita sold lands surrounding the Bay of Assab to the Rubattino Shipping Company.", "The area served as a coaling station along the shipping lanes introduced by the recently completed Suez Canal.", "It almost became a part of the Ottoman Habesh Eyalet centered in Egypt, though they withdrew from the place after the resistance of the Eritrean people.", "The first Italian settlers arrived in 1880.Later, as the Egyptians retreated out of Sudan during the Mahdist rebellion and failed in their attempts take over the ports and other places on this coast, the British brokered an agreement whereby the Egyptians could retreat through Ethiopia, and in exchange they would allow the Emperor to occupy those lowland districts that he had disputed with the Turks and Egyptians.", "Emperor Yohannes IV believed this included Massawa, but instead, the port was handed by the British to the Italians, who united it with the already colonised port of Asseb to form a coastal Italian possession.", "The Italians took advantage of disorder in northern Ethiopia following the death of Emperor Yohannes IV in 1889 to occupy the highlands and established their new colony, henceforth known as Eritrea, and received recognition from Menelik II, Ethiopia's new Emperor.The Italian possession of maritime areas previously claimed by Abyssinia/Ethiopia was formalized in 1889 with the signing of the Treaty of Wuchale with Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia (r. 1889–1913) after the defeat of Italy by Ethiopia at the battle of Adua where Italy launched an effort to expand its possessions from Eritrea into the more fertile Abyssinian hinterland.", "Menelik would later renounce the Wuchale Treaty as he had been tricked by the translators to agree to making the whole of Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate.", "However, he was forced by circumstance to live by the tenets of Italian sovereignty over Eritrea.In the vacuum that followed the 1889 death of Emperor Yohannes IV, Gen. Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of the new colony of Italian Eritrea, a colony of the Kingdom of Italy.", "In the Treaty of Wuchale (It.", "''Uccialli'') signed the same year, King Menelik of Shewa, a southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition.", "His subsequent victory over his rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelek II (r. 1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory.Church of Our Lady of the Rosary built in 1923 in AsmaraIn 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony.", "The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888, and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911.The Asmara–Massawa Cableway was the longest of its kind in the world when inaugurated in 1937.It was later dismantled by the British after World War II as war reparations.", "Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector.", "It also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments.", "Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the army, serving during the Italo-Turkish War in Libya as well as the First and second Italo-Abyssinian Wars.Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened a number of factories, which produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide and other household commodities.", "In 1939, there were around 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens.", "The establishment of industries also made an increase in the number of both Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities.", "The number of Italians residing in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industries, trade and fruit plantation was expanded across the nation, while some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans.In 1922, Benito Mussolini's rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea.", "After ''il Duce'' declared the birth of the Italian Empire in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and Italian Somaliland were merged with the just conquered Ethiopia in the new Italian East Africa (''Africa Orientale Italiana'') administrative territory.", "This Fascist period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a \"new Roman Empire\".", "Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa.", "After the revolutional fight by the Eritreans, the Italians left Eritrea.The Italians brought to Eritrea a huge development of Catholicism.", "By 1940, nearly one third of the territory's population was Catholic, mainly in Asmara where some churches were built.===Asmara development===The Fiat Tagliero Building in Asmara, built in 1938Italian Asmara was populated by a large Italian community and the city acquired an Italian architectural look.", "One of the first building was the Asmara President's Office: this former \"Italian government's palace\" was built in 1897 by Ferdinando Martini, the first Italian governor of Eritrea.", "The Italian government wanted to create in Asmara an impressive building, from where the Italian Governors could show the dedication of the Kingdom of Italy to the \"colonia primogenita\" (first daughter-colony) as was called Eritrea.Today Asmara is worldwide known for its early twentieth-century Italian buildings, including the Art Deco Cinema Impero, \"Cubist\" Africa Pension, eclectic Orthodox Cathedral and former Opera House, the futurist Fiat Tagliero Building, the neo-Romanesque Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, Asmara, and the neoclassical Governor's Palace.", "The city is littered with Italian colonial villas and mansions.", "Most of central Asmara was built between 1935 and 1941, so effectively the Italians managed to build almost an entire city, in just six years.The city of Italian Asmara had a population of 98,000, of which 53,000 were Italians according to the Italian census of 1939.This fact made Asmara the main \"Italian town\" of the Italian empire in Africa.In all Eritrea the Italian Eritreans were 75,000 in that year.Many industrial investments were done by the Italians in the area of Asmara and Massawa, but the beginning of World War II stopped the blossoming industrialization of Eritrea.", "During the Allied efforts to capture Eritrea from the Italians in spring 1941, most of the infrastructure and the industrial areas were heavily damaged by the fighting.The following Italian guerrilla war was supported by many Eritrean colonial troops until the Italian armistice in September 1943.Eritrea was placed under British military administration after the Italian surrender in World War II.The Italian Eritreans strongly rejected the Ethiopian annexation of Eritrea after the war: the ''Party of Shara Italy'' of Dr. Vincenzo Di Meglio was established in Asmara in July 1947, and majority of the members were former Italian soldiers and many Eritrean Ascari (the organization was backed up by the government of Italy).", "This party ruled by Dr. Di Meglio obtained in 1947 the dismissal of a proposal to divide Eritrea between Sudan and Ethiopia.The main objective of this italo-Eritrean party was Eritrea freedom, but they had a pre-condition that stated that before independence the country should be governed by Italy for at least 15 years (as with Italian Somalia)." ], [ "British administration and federalisation<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"British Eritrea\"></span><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"British Military Administration (Eritrea)\"></span>", "British forces defeated the Italian army in Eritrea in 1941 at the Battle of Keren and placed the colony under British military administration until Allied forces could determine its fate.", "Several Italian-built infrastructure projects and industries were dismantled and removed to Kenya as war reparations.In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea, the British military administration continued for the remainder of World War II until 1950.During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines, with the Muslim population joining Sudan and the Christians Ethiopia.", "The Soviet Union, anticipating an Italian Communist Party victory in the Italian polls, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony.", "Soviet diplomats, led by Maxim Litvinov and backed by Ivan Maisky and Vyacheslav Molotov, even attempted to have Eritrea become a trustee of the Soviet Union itself.Arab states, seeing Eritrea and its large Muslim population as an extension of the Arab world, sought the establishment of an independent state.", "There are only two main Christian-Muslim conflicts reported in Asmara, Eritrea (the Ethiopians supported by the Unionist Party played a big role in it), one was in 1946 where Sudanese Defence Forces were involved, and the other was in February 1950.This note is about that of 1950.The UN Commission (UNC) arrived in Eritrea on February 9 and began its months-long inquiry 5 days later.", "Unionist Shifta activities supported by Ethiopia increased after its arrival, they became daring, better planned, better coordinated and innovative.", "The main target of the shifta was to disrupt the free movement of the UNC in areas controlled by the independence bloc supporters.", "The shifta attempted to prevent the rural population that supported independence from having an audience with the UNC.", "They targeted transportation and communication systems.", "Telephone lines connecting Asmara with major cities of the predominantly areas pro-independence areas of the western lowlands and Masswa were continuously cut.An active Muslim League local leader, from Mai Derese, Bashai Nessredin Saeed was killed by the Unionist Shifta while praying, on February 20.According to an account of the incident written by Mufti Sheikh Ibrahim Al Mukhtar, at 07:30 in the evening of a Monday that date 5 shifta came and fired several bullets at him while he was praying.", "The reason for the killing was that they had asked him to abandon the Muslim League and join the Unionist Party (UP), but he refused.", "The killing sparked an outrage among Muslims in Asmara.", "A well organised funeral procession was arranged and attended by youth and Muslim dignitaries.", "The procession passed through three main streets before they reached the street where the UP Office was located.", "According to the Mufti, then the UP members started first to throw stones at the procession which was followed by three grenades and then chaos followed.", "There was open confrontation between both sides and many were killed and injured from both sides.", "The police intervened by firing live ammunition, but the confrontations continued.", "Despite all this, the procession continued to the cemetery where the body was buried.", "The riots then spread to other areas and took a dangerous sectarian form.", "Many properties were also looted and burned.", "On Wednesday, the British Military Administration (BMA) declared a curfew, but the riots continued.On Thursday, the BMA administrator called for a meeting that included the Mufti and Abuna Marcos and asked them to calm the people and ask for reconciliation and both agreed.", "The wise men from both sides accepted the call, but the looting of properties of Muslim merchants continued for three more days before the riots came to an end.On Saturday 25 February, the Copts met at the main church and Muslims at the grand mosque and discussed ways to end the violence.", "Both sides agreed to take an oath to prevent violence against each other.", "Each side appointed a four-member committee to oversee the agreements.", "Later 31 members from each side took an oath in front of the eight-member committee.", "To prevent further violence in other areas, the committee of both sides decided to visit the Muslim and Christian cemeteries and laid flowers on the graveyards of the victims of both sides.", "More than 62 persons were killed and more than 180 were injured and the damage on the properties was huge.", "This way the riots, which the Ethiopian Liaison Officer played a big role to ignite, was brought to an end by the wise religious leaders and elders of both sides.Ethiopian ambition in the Horn was apparent in the expansionist ambition of its monarch when Haile Selassie claimed Italian Somaliland and Eritrea.", "He made this claim in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt, at the Paris Peace Conference and at the First Session of the United Nations.", "In the United Nations the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued.", "The British and Americans preferred to cede Eritrea to the Ethiopians if possible as a reward for their support during World War II.", "\"The United States and the United Kingdom have (similarly) agreed to support the cession to Ethiopia of all of Eritrea except the Western province.", "The United States has given assurances to Ethiopia in this regard.\"", "The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the UN General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty.A United Nations (UN) commission was dispatched to the former colony in February 1950 in the absence of Allied agreement and in the face of Eritrean demands for self-determination.", "It was also at this juncture that the US Ambassador to the UN, John Foster Dulles, said, \"From the point of view of justice, the opinions of the Eritrean people must receive consideration.", "''Nevertheless'' the strategic interest of the United States in the Red Sea basin and the considerations of security and world peace make it necessary that the country has to be linked with our ''ally'' Ethiopia.\"", "The Ambassador's word choice, along with the estimation of the British Ambassador in Addis Ababa, makes quite clear the fact that the Eritrean aspiration was for independence.The commission proposed the establishment of some form of association with Ethiopia, and the UN General Assembly on 2 December 1950 adopted that proposal along with a provision terminating the British military administration of Eritrea no later than 15 September 1952.The British military administration held Legislative Assembly elections on 25 and 26 March 1952, for a representative Assembly of 68 members, evenly divided between Christians and Muslims.", "This body in turn accepted a draft constitution put forward by the UN commissioner on 10 July.", "On 11 September 1952, Emperor Haile Selassie ratified the constitution.", "The Representative Assembly subsequently became the Eritrean Assembly.", "In 1952 UN General Assembly Resolution 390 to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia went into effect.The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence, but guaranteed the population some democratic rights and a measure of autonomy.", "Some scholars have contended that the issue was a religious issue, between the Muslim lowland population desiring independence while the highland Christian population sought a union with Ethiopia.", "Other scholars, including the former Attorney-General of Ethiopia, Bereket Habte Selassie, contend that, \"religious tensions here and there...were exploited by the British, but most Eritreans (Christians and Moslems) were united in their goal of freedom and independence.\"", "Almost immediately after the federation went into effect, however, these rights began to be abridged or violated.", "Pleas in Eritrea for a referendum for independence were received by the American, British and Ethiopian government, and a confidential American memo estimated around 75% of Eritreans supported the Independence Party.The details of Eritrea's association with Ethiopia were established by the UN General Assembly Resolution 390A (V) of 2 December 1950.It called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the Emperor.", "Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation.", "The federal government, which for all intents and purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation.", "As a result of a long history of a strong landowning peasantry and the virtual absence of serfdom in most parts of Eritrea, the bulk of Eritreans had developed a distinct sense of cultural identity and superiority vis-à-vis Ethiopians.", "This combined with Eriteans who had a desire for political freedoms alien to Ethiopian political tradition, was the reason why the British administration left the country and the Eritreans finally won that fight.", "From the start of the federation, however, Haile Selassie attempted to undercut Eritrea's independent status, a policy that alienated many Eritreans.", "The Emperor pressured Eritrea's elected chief executive to resign, made Amharic the official language in place of Arabic and Tigrinya, terminated the use of the Eritrean flag, imposed censorship, and moved many businesses out of Eritrea.", "Finally, in 1962 Haile Selassie pressured the Eritrean Assembly to abolish the Federation and join the Imperial Ethiopian fold, much to the dismay of those in Eritrea who favored a more liberal political order." ], [ "War for independence", "Map of Eritrea attached to EthiopiaMilitant opposition to the incorporation of Eritrea into Ethiopia had begun in 1958 with the founding of the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM, (Movements for liberation of Eritrea), ''Mahber showate'' (Association of Seven)), an organization made up mainly of students, intellectuals, and urban wage laborers.", "The ELM, under the leadership of the Eritrean Hamid Idris Awate, engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state.", "By 1962, however, the ELM had been discovered and destroyed by imperial authorities.Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and illegally annexed the country in 1962.The war continued after Haile Selassie was ousted in a coup in 1974.The Derg, the new Ethiopian government, was a Marxist military junta led by strongman Mengistu Haile Mariam.In 1960 Eritrean exiles in Cairo founded the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), which led the Eritrean independence struggle during the 1960s.", "In contrast to the ELM, from the outset the ELF was bent on waging armed struggle on behalf of Eritrean independence.", "The ELF was composed mainly of Eritrean Muslims from the rural lowlands on the western edge of the territory.", "In 1961 the ELF's political character was vague, but radical Arab states such as Syria and Iraq saw Eritrea as a predominantly Muslim region struggling to escape Ethiopian oppression and imperial domination.", "These two countries therefore supplied military and financial assistance to the ELF.The ELF initiated military operations in 1961 and intensified its activities in response to the dissolution of the federation in 1962.By 1967 the ELF had gained considerable support among peasants, particularly in Eritrea's north and west, and around the port city of Massawa.", "Haile Selassie attempted to calm the growing unrest by visiting Eritrea and assuring its inhabitants that they would be treated as equals under the new arrangements.", "Although he doled out offices, money, and titles mainly to Christian highlanders in the hope of co-opting would-be Eritrean opponents in early 1967, the imperial secret police of Ethiopia also set up a wide network of informants in Eritrea and conducted disappearances, intimidations and assassinations among the same populace driving several prominent political figures into exile.", "Imperial police fired live ammunition killing scores of youngsters during several student demonstrations in Asmara in this time.", "The imperial army also actively perpetrated massacres until the ousting of the Emperor by the Derg in 1974.Map of the Eritrean War of IndependenceBy 1971 ELF activity had become enough of a threat that the emperor had declared martial law in Eritrea.", "He deployed roughly half of the Ethiopian army to contain the struggle.", "Internal disputes over strategy and tactics eventually led to the ELF's fragmentation and the founding in 1972 of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF).", "The leadership of this multi-ethnic movement came to be dominated by leftist, Christian dissidents who spoke Tigrinya, Eritrea's predominant language.", "Sporadic armed conflict ensued between the two groups from 1972 to 1974, even as they fought Ethiopian forces.", "By the late 1970s, the EPLF had become the dominant armed Eritrean group fighting against the Ethiopian Government, and Isaias Afewerki had emerged as its leader.", "Much of the material used to combat Ethiopia was captured from the army.By 1977 the EPLF seemed poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea.", "However, that same year a massive airlift of Soviet arms to Ethiopia enabled the Ethiopian Army to regain the initiative and forced the EPLF to retreat to the bush.", "Between 1978 and 1986 the Derg launched eight unsuccessful major offensives against the independence movement.", "In 1988 the EPLF captured Afabet, headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, putting approximately a third of the Ethiopian Army out of action and prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands.", "EPLF fighters then moved into position around Keren, Eritrea's second-largest city.", "Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia.", "At the end of the 1980s the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not renew its defense and cooperation agreement.", "With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF, along with other Ethiopian rebel forces, began to advance on Ethiopian positions.", "In 1980 the Permanent Peoples' Tribunal determined that the right of the Eritrean people to self-determination does not represent a form of secession.===Provisional Government and People's Front for Democracy and Justice===A view over Asmara The United States played a facilitative role in the peace talks in Washington during the months leading up to the May 1991 fall of the Mengistu regime.", "In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian Government and went into exile in Zimbabwe, leaving a caretaker government in Addis Ababa.", "Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, EPLF troops took control of their homeland.", "Later that month, the United States chaired talks in London to formalize the end of the war.", "These talks were attended by the four major combatant groups, including the EPLF.Following the collapse of the Mengistu government, Eritrean independence began drawing influential interest and support from the United States.", "Heritage Foundation Africa expert Michael Johns wrote that \"there are some modestly encouraging signs that the front intends to abandon Mengistu's autocratic practices.", "\"A high-level U.S. delegation was also present in Addis Ababa for the July 1–5, 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia.", "The EPLF attended the July conference as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia.", "The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence.Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet support for Mengistu had cooled their ardor.", "The fall of communist regimes in the former Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc convinced them it was a failed system.", "The EPLF expressed its commitment to establishing a democratic form of government and a free-market economy in Eritrea.", "The United States agreed to provide assistance to both Ethiopia and Eritrea, conditional on continued progress toward democracy and human rights.In May 1991 the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum was held on independence and a permanent government established.", "EPLF leader Afewerki became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative body.Eritreans voted overwhelmingly in favor of independence between 23 and 25 April 1993 in a UN-monitored referendum.", "The result of the referendum was 99.83% for Eritrea's independence.", "The Eritrean authorities declared Eritrea an independent state on 27 April 1993.The government was reorganized and the National Assembly was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members.", "The assembly chose Isaias Afewerki as president.", "The EPLF reorganized itself as a political party, the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ)." ], [ "After independence", "The first President of Eritrea, Isaias Afwerki, has authoritatively ruled Eritrea since 1993.People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) is the only legal political party.Eritrea after the independence in 1993In July 1996 the Constitution of Eritrea was ratified, but it has yet to be implemented.In 1998 a border dispute with Ethiopia, over the town of Badme, led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War in which thousands of soldiers from both countries died.", "Eritrea suffered from significant economic and social stress, including massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and one of Africa's most severe land mine problems.The border war ended in 2000 with the signing of the Algiers Agreement.", "Amongst the terms of the agreement was the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation, known as the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE); with over 4,000 UN peacekeepers.", "The UN established a temporary security zone consisting of a 25-kilometre demilitarized buffer zone within Eritrea, running along the length of the disputed border between the two states and patrolled by UN troops.", "Ethiopia was to withdraw to positions held before the outbreak of hostilities in May 1998.The Algiers agreement called for a final demarcation of the disputed border area between Eritrea and Ethiopia by the assignment of an independent, UN-associated body known as the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC), whose task was to clearly identify the border between the two countries and issue a final and binding ruling.", "The peace agreement would be completed with the implementation of the Border Commission's ruling, which would also end the task of the peacekeeping mission.", "After extensive study, the Commission issued a final border ruling in April 2002, which awarded some territory to each side, but Badme (the flash point of the conflict) was awarded to Eritrea.", "The commission's decision was rejected by Ethiopia.", "The border question remains in dispute, with Ethiopia refusing to withdraw its military from positions in the disputed areas, including Badme, while a \"difficult\" peace remains in place.The UNMEE mission was formally abandoned in July 2008, after experiencing serious difficulties in sustaining its troops after fuel stoppages.Furthermore, Eritrea's diplomatic relations with Djibouti were briefly severed during the border war with Ethiopia in 1998 due to a dispute over Djibouti's intimate relation with Ethiopia during the war but were restored and normalized in 2000.Relations are again tense due to a renewed border dispute.", "Similarly, Eritrea and Yemen had a border conflict between 1996 and 1998 over the Hanish Islands and the maritime border, which was resolved in 2000 by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the Hague.Eritrea has improved health care, and is on track to meet its Millennium Development Goals (MDG) for health, in particular child health.", "Life expectancy at birth increased from 39.1 years in 1960 to 59.5 years in 2008; maternal and child mortality rates dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure expanded.", "Eritrea's main exports, 2013Immunisation and child nutrition have been tackled by working closely with schools in a multi-sectoral approach; the number of children vaccinated against measles almost doubled in seven years, from 40.7% to 78.5% and the prevalence of underweight children decreased by 12% from 1995 to 2002 (severe underweight prevalence by 28%).", "The National Malaria Protection Unit of the Ministry of Health registered reductions in malarial mortality by as much as 85% and in the number of cases by 92% between 1998 and 2006.The Eritrean government has banned female genital mutilation (FGM), saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life-threatening health problems.", "Malaria and tuberculosis are common.", "HIV prevalence for ages 15 to 49 years exceeds 2%.Due to his frustration with the stalemated peace process with Ethiopia, the President of Eritrea Isaias Afewerki wrote a series of Eleven Letters to the UN Security Council and Secretary-General Kofi Annan.", "Despite the Algiers Agreement, tense relations with Ethiopia have continued and led to regional instability.", "His government has also been condemned for allegedly arming and financing the insurgency in Somalia; the United States is considering labeling Eritrea a \"State Sponsor of Terrorism.", "\"In December 2007, an estimated 4000 Eritrean troops remained in the 'demilitarized zone' with a further 120,000 along its side of the border.", "Ethiopia maintained 100,000 troops along its side.In September, 2012, the Israeli ''Haaretz'' newspaper published an exposé on Eritrea.", "There are over 40,000 Eritrean refugees in Israel.", "The NGO Reporters Without Borders has ranked Eritrea in last in freedom of expression since 2007, even lower than North Korea.The 2013 Eritrean Army mutiny took place on 21 January 2013, when around 100–200 soldiers of the Eritrean Army in the capital city Asmara briefly seized the headquarters of the state broadcaster, EriTV, and broadcast a message demanding reforms and the release of political prisoners.", "On 10 February 2013, president Isaias Afwerki commented on the mutiny, describing it as nothing to worry about.In September 2018, President Isaias Afwerki and Prime Minister of Ethiopia, Abiy Ahmed, signed a historic peace agreement between the two countries.On 8 July 2017, the entire capital city of Asmara was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with the inscription taking place during the 41st World Heritage Committee Session.===Relations with neighbours===The BBC published on 19 June 2008 a timeline of Eritrea's conflict with Ethiopia to that date and reported that the \"Border dispute rumbles on\":* 2007 September – War could resume between Ethiopia and Eritrea over their border conflict, warns United Nations special envoy to the Horn of Africa, Kjell Magne Bondevik.", "* 2007 November – Eritrea accepts border line demarcated by international boundary commission.", "Ethiopia rejects it.", "* 2008 January – UN extends mandate of peacekeepers on Ethiopia-Eritrea border for six months.", "UN Security Council demands Eritrea lift fuel restrictions imposed on UN peacekeepers at the Eritrea-Ethiopia border area.", "Eritrea declines, saying troops must leave border.", "* 2008 February – UN begins pulling 1,700-strong peacekeeper force out due to lack of fuel supplies following Eritrean government restrictions.", "* 2008 April – UN Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon warns of likelihood of new war between Ethiopia and Eritrea if peacekeeping mission withdraws completely.", "Outlines options for the future of the UN mission in the two countries.", "* 2008 May – Eritrea calls on UN to terminate peacekeeping mission.In relation to the Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict:* 2008 April — Djibouti accuses Eritrean troops of digging trenches at disputed Ras Doumeira border area and infiltrating Djiboutian territory.", "Eritrea denies charge.", "* 2008 June – Fighting breaks out between Eritrean and Djiboutian troops.", "* 2009, 23 December — the UN Security Council imposed sanctions on Eritrea for providing support to armed groups undermining peace and reconciliation in Somalia and because it had not withdrawn its forces following clashes with Djibouti in June 2008.The sanctions consisted of an arms embargo, travel restrictions and a freeze on the assets of its political and military leaders.", "The sanctions were reinforced on 5 December 2011.", "* 2010 June — Djibouti and Eritrea agreed to refer the dispute to Qatar for mediation.", "* 2017 June — Following the 2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis, Qatar withdrew its peacekeeping forces from the disputed territory.", "Shortly after, Djibouti accused Eritrea of reoccupying the mainland hill and Doumeira Island.In relation to southern Somalia: In December 2009, the United Nations Security Council imposed sanctions on Eritrea, accusing it of arming and providing financial aid to militia groups in southern Somalia's conflict zones.", "On July 16, 2012, a United Nations Monitoring Group reported that \"it had found no evidence of direct Eritrean support for militia groups in the past year.", "\"Since November 2020, Eritrea has been involved in the Tigray War (see Eritrean involvement in the Tigray War)." ], [ "See also", "*Asmara*History of Asmara*History of Africa*Italian Eritrea*Timeline of Asmara" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Peter R. Schmidt, Matthew C. Curtis and Zelalem Teka, ''The Archaeology of Ancient Eritrea''.", "Asmara: Red Sea Press, 2008.469 pp.", "* Beretekeab R. (2000); ''Eritrean making of a Nation 1890–1991'', Uppsala University, Uppsala.", "* Ghebrehiwot, Petros Kahsai (2006): \" A study sample of the Eritrean art and material culture in the collections of the National Museum of Eritrea\" * Mauri, Arnaldo (2004); ''Eritrea's early stages in monetary and banking development'', International Review of Economics, , Vol.", "51, n. 4, pp. 547–569.", "* Negash T. (1987); ''Italian colonisation in Eritrea: policies, praxis and impact'', Uppsala University, Uppsala.", "* Wrong, Michela.", "''I Didn't Do It For You : How the World Used and Abused a Small African Nation''.", "Harper Perennial (2005)." ], [ "External links", "* Background Note: Eritrea* The Eritrean railway (in Italian)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Eritrea" ], [ "Introduction", "Massifs surrounding Senafe, EritreaEritrea is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea, on the west and northwest by Sudan, on the south by Ethiopia, and on the southeast by Djibouti.", "The country has a high central plateau that varies from above sea level.", "A coastal plain, western lowlands, and some 350 islands comprise the remainder of Eritrea's land mass." ], [ "Climate", "Eritre's climate according to KoppenThe climate of Eritrea is shaped by its diverse topography and its location within the tropics.", "The diversity in landscape and topography in the highlands and lowlands of Eritrea results in the diversity of climate across the country.", "The highlands have temperate climate throughout the year.", "The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid.", "The distribution of rainfall and vegetation types varies markedly throughout the country.", "Eritrean climate varies on the basis of seasonal and altitudinal differences.", "Based on variations in temperature Eritrea can be broadly divided into three major climate zones: a temperate zone, a subtropical climate zone and a tropical climate zone.Eritrea can be divided into three major climate zones: the central highlands, the coastal region, and the western lowlands.", "Each has a different climate pattern.", "According to Köppen climate classification, Eritrea have either a hot semi-arid climate (''BSh'') or a hot desert climate (''BWh''), although temperatures are much moderated at the highest elevations.In the central highlands, the hottest month is usually May to June with highs around 27 °C (80.6 °F) to 30 °C (86 °F).", "Winter is between December and February with lows at night that can be near freezing point.", "Asmara itself enjoys a pleasant climate all year round, although it can be quite cold at night in winter.", "There are two rainy seasons: the short rains in March and April and the main rains from late June to the beginning of September.Over there, the climate is usually sunny and dry as sunshine durations turn around 3,000 h and averages annual rainfall hover around 500 mm (19.68 in).", "On the coast along the Red Sea, the summertime is long, from June to September and extremely hot with averages high temperatures ranging from 40 °C (104 °F) to 46 °C (114.8 °F), and it's even hotter in Denkalia.", "The wintertime is nearly non-existent and averages high temperatures remain above 28 °C (82.4 °F) during the least hot month of the year and averages low temperatures exceed 20 °C (68 °F).", "The rainy season along the coast north of Denkalia falls during the winter months but rainy days still remain scarce ; rainfall is even more rare in Denkalia Region.", "The climate is always sunny and dry in this zone and cloudy days are rare.In the western lowlands, the high temperatures are comparable to those on the coast in the hottest months of April until June.", "December is the coolest month with averages low temperatures falling as low as 15 °C (59 °F).", "The rainy seasons are the same as for the highlands." ], [ "Data", "Topography of Eritrea'''Location:'''Eastern Africa, bordering the Red Sea, between Djibouti and Sudan, also bordering Ethiopia.", "'''Geographic coordinates:''' '''Continent:'''Africa'''Area:'''''total:''117,600 km2''land:''101,000 km2''water:''16,600 km2'''Area - comparative:'''slightly smaller than Malawi'''Land boundaries:'''''total:''1,840 km''border countries:''Djibouti 125 km, Ethiopia 1,033 km, Sudan 682 kmNote that the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia is disputed.Dahlak Islands near Massawa, as seen from space.", "'''Coastline:'''2,234 km total; mainland on Red Sea 1,151 km, islands in Red Sea 1,083 km'''Maritime claims:'''territorial sea: 12 nm'''Terrain:'''dominated by extension of Ethiopian north-south trending highlands, descending on the east to a coastal desert plain, on the northwest to hilly terrain and on the southwest to flat-to-rolling plains'''Ecoregions:'''Most of Eritrea's coast is part of the Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands semi-desert ecoregion.", "The southern part of the Red Sea coast, along with the Red Sea coast of Djibouti, has been described as the Eritrean coastal desert, a harsh sand and gravel coastal strip covered in dune grasses and shrubs that is important as a channel for the mass migration of birds of prey.", "'''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:''near Lake Kulul within the Afar Depression −75 m''highest point:''Soira 3,018 m'''Natural resources:'''gold, potash, zinc, copper, salt, possibly petroleum and natural gas, fish'''Land use:'''''arable land:''6.83%''permanent crops:''0.02%''other:''93.15% (2012 est.", ")'''Irrigated land:'''215.9 km2 (2003)'''Total renewable water resources:'''6.3 km3'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''''total:''0.58 km3/yr (5%/0%/95%)''per capita:''121.3 m3/yr (2004)'''Natural hazards:'''frequent droughts, rare earthquakes and volcanic activity, and locust storms'''Environment - current issues:'''deforestation; desertification; soil erosion; overgrazing; loss of infrastructure from civil warfare;'''Environment - international agreements:'''''party to:''Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection'''Geography - note:'''strategic geopolitical position along world's busiest shipping lanes; Eritrea retained the entire coastline of Ethiopia along the Red Sea upon ''de jure'' independence from Ethiopia on 24 May 1993." ], [ "Extreme points", "This is a list of the extreme points of Eritrea, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "* Northernmost point - the point at which the border with Sudan enters the Red Sea, Northern Red Sea region* Easternmost point - the point at which the border with Djibouti enters the Red Sea, Southern Red Sea Region* Southernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Djibouti immediately east of the Djiboutian town of Dadda`to, Southern Red Sea Region* Westernmost point - Abu Gamal mountain, Gash-Barka" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Eritrea" ], [ "Introduction", "Sources disagree as to the current population of Eritrea, with some proposing numbers as low as 3.6 million and others as high as 6.7 million.", "Eritrea has never conducted an official government census.Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesThe nation has nine recognized ethnic groups.", "Of these, the largest is the Tigriniya, who make up around 50% of the population; the Tigre people, who also speak a Ethiosemitic language, constitute around 30% of residents.", "Most of the rest of the population belong to other Afro-Asiatic-speaking communities of the Cushitic branch.", "Additionally, there are a number of Nilo-Saharan-speaking ethnic minorities and other smaller groups.", "The two most followed religions are Christianity (47%-63% of the total population) and Islam (37%-52%)." ], [ "Ethno-linguistic groups", "Ethno-Demography of EritreaEritrea's population comprises nine recognized ethnic groups, most of whom speak languages from the Ethiopian Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family.", "The East African Semitic languages spoken in Eritrea are Tigre, Tigrinya, and the newly recognized Dahlik.", "Other Afro-Asiatic languages belonging to the Cushitic branch are also widely spoken in the country.", "The latter include Afar, Beja, Blin, and Saho.In addition, languages belonging to the Nilo-Saharan language family (Kunama and Nara) are spoken as a mother tongue by the Kunama and Nara Nilotic ethnic minorities that live in the north and northwestern part of the country.", "The Rashaida speak Arabic, while there are also a number of Italians who speak their native Italian language.===Afro-Asiatic communities=======Semitic speakers=========Tigrinya=====Tigrigna traditional dance.The majority of the Tigrinya inhabit the highlands of Eritrea; however, migration to other parts of the country has occurred.", "Their language is called Tigrinya.", "They are the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting about 50% of the population.", "The predominantly Tigrinya populated urban centers in Eritrea are the capital Asmara, Mendefera, Dekemhare, Adi Keyh, Adi Quala and Senafe, while there is a significant population of Tigrinya in other cities including Keren, and Massawa.They are 92% Christians, (of which 90% are of the Eritrean Orthodox faith, 5% Roman Catholic and Eastern Catholic (whose mass is held in Ge'ez as opposed to Latin), and 5% belonging to various Protestant and other Christian denominations, the majority of which belong to the (Lutheran) Evangelical Church of Eritrea).=====Tigre=====Tigre danceThe Tigre reside in the western lowlands in Eritrea.", "Many also migrated to Sudan at the time of the Ethiopian-Eritrean conflict and lived there since.", "They are a nomadic and pastoralist people, related to the Tigrinya and to the Beja people.", "They are a predominantly Muslim nomadic people who inhabit the northern, western, and coastal lowlands of Eritrea, and constitute 30% of the country's population.", "Some also inhabit areas in eastern Sudan.", "95% of the Tigre people adhere to the Islamic religion Sunni Islam, but there are a small number of Christians among them as well (often referred to as the Mensaï in Eritrea).", "Their language is called Tigre.=====Rashaida=====The Rashaida are one of Eritrea's nine recognized ethnic groups.", "They represent around 1% of the population of Eritrea.", "The Rashaida reside in the northern coastal lowlands of Eritrea and the northern eastern coasts of Sudan.", "They are predominantly Muslim and are the only ethnic group in Eritrea to have Arabic as their communal language, specifically the Hejazi dialect.", "The Rashaida first came to Eritrea in the 19th century from the Arabian Coast.====Jeberti====The Jeberti people in Eritrea trace descent from early Muslim adherents.", "The term ''Jeberti'' is also locally sometimes used to generically refer to all Islamic inhabitants of the highlands.", "The Jeberti in Eritrea speak Arabic and Tigrinya.", "They account for about 8% of the Tigrinya speakers in the nation.====Cushitic speakers=========Afar=====According to the CIA, the Afar constitute 4% of the nation's population.", "They live in the Debubawi Keyih Bahri Region of Eritrea, as well as the Afar Region in Ethiopia, and Djibouti.", "They speak the Afar language as a mother tongue, and are predominantly Muslim.", "Afars in Eritrea number about 600,000 individuals, the smallest population out of the countries they reside in.", "In Djibouti, there are about 780,000 group members, and in Ethiopia, they number approximately 2,100,000.=====Saho=====The Saho represent 4% of Eritrea's population.", "They principally reside in the Debubawi Keyih Bahri Region and the Northern Red Sea Region of Eritrea.", "Their language is called Saho.", "They are predominantly Muslim, although a few Christians known as the Irob live in the Debub Region of Eritrea and the Tigray region of Ethiopia.=====Bilen=====The Bilen in Eritrea represent around 3% of the country's population.", "They are primarily concentrated in the north-central areas, in and around the city of Keren, and south towards Asmara, the nation's capital.", "Many of them entered Eritrea from Kush (central Sudan) in the 8th century and settled at Merara, after which they went to Lalibela and Lasta.", "The Bilen then returned to Axum in Ethiopia's Tigray Province, and battled with the natives; in the resulting aftermath, the Bilen returned to their main base at Merara.", "The Bilen include adherents of both Islam and Christianity.", "They speak the Bilen language as a mother tongue.", "Christian adherents are mainly urban and have interbred with the Tigrinya who live in the area.", "Muslim adherents are mainly rural and have intermingled with the adjacent Tigre.=====Beja=====The Beja in Eritrea, or Hedareb, constitute 2% of local residents.", "They mainly live along the north-western border with Sudan.", "Group members are predominantly Muslim and communicate in Hedareb as a first or second language.", "The Beja also include the Beni-Amer people, who have retained their native Beja language alongside Hedareb.===Nilo-Saharan communities=======Kunama====According to the CIA, the Kunama constitute around 4% of Eritrea's population.", "They mainly live in the country's Gash Barka Region, as well as in adjacent parts of Ethiopia's Tigray Region.", "Many of them reside in the contested border village of Badme.", "Their language is called Kunama.", "Although some Kunama still practice traditional beliefs, most are converts to either Christianity (Roman Catholic and Protestant) or Islam.====Nara====The Nara represent 2% of the nation's population.", "They principally reside along the south-western border with Sudan and Ethiopia.", "They are generally Muslim, with a few Christians and some practising their indigenous beliefs.", "Their language is called Nara.===Other communities=======Italians====A few monolingual Italian Eritreans remain.", "As of 2008, they were estimated at 900 people, down from around 38,000 residents at the end of World War II." ], [ "Religion", " File:Regions of Eritrea.svg|thumb|Regions of Eritrea 1.Maekel 2.Anseba 3.Gash-Barka 4.Debub 5.Northern Red Sea 6.Southern Red Seapoly 167 182 163 205 179 211 184 203 176 179 Maekel Regionpoly 167 182 176 179 118 108 118 50 59 85 53 133 Anseba Regionpoly 163 205 167 182 53 133 19 258 91 276 135 239 147 206 Gash-Barka Regionpoly 184 203 179 211 147 206 135 239 153 254 221 248 225 226 189 200 Debub Regionpoly 176 179 184 203 189 200 225 226 221 248 271 259 279 220 200 159 155 21 118 50 118 108 Northern Red Sea Regionpoly 279 220 271 259 419 388 442 361 319 241 Southern Red Sea RegionPeople in Eritrea practice various religions.", "According to the Pew Research Center (2010), 62.9% of the population are Christian, mostly followers of Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo, and to a lesser extent, Roman Catholicism, with the second-largest religion being Muslims.", "In general, most local residents who adhere to Christianity live in the Maekel and Debub regions, whereas those who follow Islam predominantly inhabit the Anseba, Northern Red Sea, Southern Red Sea and Gash-Barka regions.", "A few adherents of traditional faiths can also be found, particularly in the lowlands.", "Region '''Christians (63%)''' '''Muslims (36%)%''' '''Other ('''1%) Maekel Region, ''ዞባ ማእከል'' 97% 3% 1% Debub region, ''ዞባ ደቡብ'' 96% 3% ''Semienawi Keyih Bahri ዞባ ሰሜናዊ ቀይሕ ባሕሪ'' 1% 99% 0% Southern Red Sea Region,''Debubawi Keyih Bahri ዞባ ደቡባዊ ቀይሕ ባሕሪ'' 23% 76% <1%" ], [ "Population", "Sources disagree as to the current population of Eritrea, with UN DESA proposing a low estimate of 3.6 million for 2021 and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa proposing a high estimate of 6.7 million for 2019.Eritrea has never conducted an official government census.", "In its 2019 data release, UN DESA described why its estimate was much lower than earlier estimates, stating, \"The decrease is due to the availability of new official population estimates for several years (population count in 2000, official estimates up to 2018) that contribute to lower the size of the population in the recent years, as well as to revised past estimates since 1950.", "\"In the 2010s, worsening conditions fueled migration pressure, with Eritreans trying to reach Europe illegally.", "The UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs expects Eritrean population growth to accelerate to 1.8% per year from 2020-2030, vs. 1.1% per year from 2010-2020.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2020 was 41.1%, 54.3% were between 15 and 65 years of age, while 4.5% were 65 or older.Eritrea population pyramid in 2020Population aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 195045.351.63.0 196043.453.92.7 197044.153.42.5 198044.353.12.6 199045.252.12.7 200045.750.43.8 201039.556.54.0 202041.154.34.5Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (1 July 2020) (Estimates based on the 2000 quick population count results and 1995, 2002 and 2010 Eritrea Demographic and Health Surveys.", "):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 1 704 531 1 760 057 3 464 588 100 0–4 258 209 260 452 518 661 14.97 5–9 226 081 229 410 455 492 13.15 10–14 189 259 192 799 382 058 11.03 15–19 156 082 159 332 315 413 9.10 20–24 141 888 134 220 276 108 7.97 25–29 166 664 158 295 324 959 9.38 30–34 139 275 141 835 281 110 9.11 35–39 103 079 103 347 206 427 5.96 40–44 62 197 76 107 138 304 3.99 45–49 60 159 77 960 138 119 3.99 50–54 47 632 55 264 102 896 2.97 55–59 39 491 50 117 89 607 2.59 60–64 34 801 35 259 70 060 2.02 65-69 28 019 28 134 56 153 1.62 70-74 22 886 24 318 47 204 1.36 75-79 14 576 18 574 33 150 0.96 80-84 8 912 10 116 19 028 0.55 85+ 5 323 4 519 9 842 0.28Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 673 549 682 661 1 356 210 39.14 15–64 951 266 991 735 1 943 001 56.08 65+ 79 716 85 661 165 377 4.77" ], [ "Vital statistics", "===Demographic surveys===The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) Population Division published its ''UN DESA 2019 Revision'' (''World Population Prospects 2019'') data release based on several data samples, including the 1995 and 2002 Demographic and Health Surveys (1995 DHS, 2002 DHS) and the 2010 ''Population and Health Survey'' (2010 PHS), since a full census had not been carried out in Eritrea .The 1995 DHS survey was carried out in Eritrea by the Eritrean National Statistics Office (NSO) and Macro International Inc., collecting data by interviewing 5,054 women aged 15–49 and 1,114 men aged 15–59, chosen to be a statistically representative sample, from September 1995 to January 1996.The 2002 DHS survey was carried out by the NSO (renamed as the ''National Statistics and Evaluation Office''), with support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and ORC Macro, collecting data with interviews of 8,754 women in Eritrea in the 15–49 age range, in what was considered to be a statistically representative sample of the full population.", "Key findings of the survey included a drop from 1995 to 2002 of fertility from 6.1 to 4.8 children per woman; improved knowledge of contraception; a drop in post-neonatal mortality; improved antenatal care; a doubling of the full vaccination rate for 12–23 month old babies from 41 to 76 percent; 38 percent of children under five years old were chronically malnourished or stunted; and near universal knowledge of HIV and AIDS.In 2010, the NSO, supported by the Fafo Institute for Applied International Studies, published a ''Population and Health Survey'' (EPHS2010), based on a survey covering 34,423 households by choosing 900 areas around Eritrea, 525 rural and 375 urban, and randomly selecting 40 households in each cluster.", "Interviews aimed to include all women aged 15–49 and men aged 15–59 who were either residents or visitors in any selected household on the night preceding the interview.", "Key findings compared to the 1995 DHS survey included a decrease in early childhood mortality, increased children's vaccination, decreased maternal death, and a \"wide gap between knowledge and use of family planning\".===Fertility and mortality===PeriodLive births per 5 yearsDeaths per 5 yearsNatural change per 5 yearsCBR*CDR*NC*TFR*IMR* 1950–1955 204 000 128 000 76 000 47.5 29.7 17.7 6.96 199 1955–1960 233 000 128 000 105 00048.8 26.8 22.0 6.96 181 1960–1965 261 000 127 000 134 00048.4 23.6 24.8 6.82160 1965–1970 291 000 133 000 158 00047.4 21.7 25.7 6.70148 1970–1975 324 000 140 000 184 00046.0 19.8 26.26.62140 1975–1980 366 000 148 000 218 00045.3 18.3 27.9 6.62 132 1980–1985 422 000 161 000 261 00045.2 17.3 27.7 6.70 121 1985–1990 469 000 174 000 295 00044.0 16.4 23.3 6.6 112 1990–1995 428 000 168 000 260 00038.4 15.1 19.4 6.394.4 1995–2000 359 000 140 000 219 00031.9 12.5 24.0 5.671.1 2000–2005 442 000 135 000 307 00034.6 10.6 28.3 5.159.4 2005–2010 564 000 140 000 424 00037.6 9.4 28.3 4.851.6 2010–2015 552 000 134 000 418 00033.9 8.2 25.7 4.3545.0 2015–2020 528 000 125 000 403 00030.6 7.2 23.4 4.1 34.7 * Values per year: CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)====Urban/rural and geographical distribution====Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR) (1995 DHS, Table 3.1; 2002 DHS, Table 4.1;) Year Total CBR Total TFR Urban CBR Urban TFR Rural CBR Rural TFR 1995 37.5 6.10 29.3 4.23 40.3 6.99 2002 32 4.8 28 3.5 35 5.7Fertility geographical distribution as of 2010 (PHS, Table 4-2): Zoba Total fertility rate Mean number of children ever born to women age 40-49 Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant Debubawi Keih Bahri 4.2 5.4 7.6 Maekel 3.4 4.1 5.5 Semenawi Keih Bahri 5.4 5.9 8.1 Anseba 5.7 6.3 8.2 Gash-Barka 5.4 5.6 8.0 Debub 5.0 6.0 7.9=== Life expectancy ===PeriodLife expectancy in Years1950–195534.081955–1960 36.681960–1965 40.081965–1970 42.151970–1975 44.111975–1980 45.911980–1985 47.331985–1990 48.691990–1995 50.771995–2000 53.972000–2005 56.702005–2010 60.712010–2015 63.422015–2020 65.74===Migration===In 2015, there was a major outflow of emigrants from Eritrea.", "''The Guardian'' attributed the emigration to Eritrea being \"a totalitarian state where most citizens fear arrest at any moment and dare not speak to their neighbours, gather in groups or linger long outside their homes\", with a major factor being the conditions and long durations of conscription in the Eritrean Army.", "At the end of 2018, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that about 507,300 Eritreans were refugees who had fled Eritrea.", "Factors corresponding to emigration include the \"lack of political, religious and social freedom\", economic reasons and indefinite military service.", "Young people choosing to flee Eritrea often keep their plans secret from their families in order to decrease their families' stress and risk of being fined or imprisoned.", "Payment to people smugglers is typically made when a refugee arrives in Libya and provides the smugglers with a telephone number of a diaspora contact who is expected to pay.", "Several refugees given educational opportunities while residing in refugee camps in Ethiopia felt that they lacked long-term life opportunities beyond obtaining academic degrees, motivating them to attempt further emigration to Europe.During the first four half decades of the twenty-first century, UN DESA Population Division, in its ''2019 Revision'' of ''World Population Prospects'', estimated that Eritrea had 227 thousand more immigrants than emigrants during 2000–2005 (more people arrived than left), and had net outflows afterwards, with 80 thousand net emigrants during 2005–2010, 246 thousand during 2010–2015 and 199 thousand during 2015-2020." ], [ "Demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "*One birth every 5 minutes\t*One death every 22 minutes\t*One net migrant every 25 minutes\t*Net gain of one person every 9 minutesThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.===Population===:6,209,262 (2022 est.", ")===Age structure===Population pyramid of Eritrea in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 38.23% (male 1,169,456/female 1,155,460):''15-24 years:'' 20.56% (male 622,172/female 627,858):''25-54 years:'' 33.42% (male 997,693/female 1,034,550):''55-64 years:'' 3.8% (male 105,092/female 125,735):''65 years and over:'' 4% (male 99,231/female 143,949) (2020 est.", "):''0-14 years:'' 39.53% (male 1,186,749 /female 1,173,530):''15-24 years:'' 19.94% (male 592,365 /female 598,305):''25-54 years:'' 32.88% (male 965,405 /female 997,771):''55-64 years:'' 3.7% (male 96,967 /female 123,895):''65 years and over:'' 3.95% (male 97,816 /female 137,843) (2018 est.", "):''0–14 years:'' 42.9% (male 1,085,116/female 1,072,262) :''15–64 years:'' 53.5% (male 1,332,349/female 1,355,494) :''65 years and over:'' 3.6% (male 88,068/female 95,186) (2008 est.", ")===Total fertility rate===:3.58 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 35th:3.9 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 37th:According to 2002 official survey, fertility rate was 4.8 with 3.5 in urban and 5.7 in rural.===Birth rate===:27.04 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 40th:29.1 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 40th===Death rate===:6.69 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 130th:7.1 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 126th===Population growth rate===:1.03% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 93rd:0.89% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 123rd:2.445% (2011 est.", ")===Median age===:total: 20.3 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 192nd:male: 19.7 years:female: 20.8 years (2020 est.", "):total: 19.9 years Country comparison to the world: 194th:male: 19.4 years :female: 20.4 years (2018 est.", ")===Mother's mean age at first birth===:21.3 years (2010 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25-29===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:8.4% (2010)===Net migration rate===:-10.11 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 221st:-13.9 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 215th===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 85 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 78.3 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 6.8 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 14.8 (2015 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 42.6% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 3.67% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", "):urban population: 40.1% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 3.86% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ")===Sex ratio===:''at birth:'':1.03 male(s)/female:''under 15 years:'':1.01 male(s)/female:''15–64 years:'':0.98 male(s)/female:''65 years and over:'':0.93 male(s)/female:''total population:'':0.99 male(s)/female (2008 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 66.85 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 195th:male: 64.25 years:female: 69.53 years (2022 est.", "):total population: 65.6 years (2018 est.", "):male: 63 years (2018 est.", "):female: 68.2 years (2018 est.", ")===Nationality===:''noun:''Eritrean(s):''adjective:''Eritrean===Ethnic groups===Tigrinya 55%, Tigre 30%, Saho 4%, Kunama 2%, Rashaida 2%, Bilen 2%, other (Afar, Beni-Amer, Nera) 5% (2010 est.", ")===Religion===:Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Sunni Islam, Eritrean Catholic Church, Protestantism in Eritrea===Languages===:Afar, Arabic (spoken by the Rashaida), Beja (spoken by the Hedareb), Blin, Kunama, Nara, Saho, Tigre, Tigrinya, as a second language.", "English, Italian and Arabic are the foremost second languages.", "===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.", "):total population: 73.8% (2015 est.", "):male: 82.4% (2015 est.", "):female: 65.5% (2015 est.", ")===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 5 years (2015):male: 6 years (2015):female: 5 years (2015)===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: malaria and dengue fever" ], [ "See also", "* Languages of Eritrea* Culture of Eritrea" ], [ "References", "'''Attribution:'''" ], [ "External links", "* Languages in Eritrea* Ethnic groups in Eritrea* Eritrean website featuring resources relevant to Tigre history and culture" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Eritrea" ], [ "Introduction", "thumbThe '''Politics of Eritrea''' and the '''Government of Eritrea''' takes place in a framework of a single-party presidential republican totalitarian dictatorship.", "The President officially serves as both head of state and head of government.", "The People's Front for Democracy and Justice is the only political party legally permitted to exist in Eritrea.", "The popularly elected National Assembly of 150 seats, formed in 1993 shortly after independence from Ethiopia, elected the current president, Isaias Afwerki.", "There have been no general elections since its official independence in 1993.A new constitution was drafted in 1993 and ratified in 1997, but has not been implemented.", "Since the National Assembly last met in January 2002, President Isaias Afwerki has exercised the powers of both the executive and legislative branches of government.Independent local sources of political information on Eritrean domestic politics are scarce; in September 2001 the government closed down all of the nation's privately owned print media, and outspoken critics of the government have been arrested and held without trial, according to domestic and international observers, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International.", "In 2004 the U.S. State Department declared Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC) for its alleged record of religious persecution." ], [ "Executive branch", "|PresidentIsaias AfewerkiPFDJ24 May 1991The President nominates individuals to head the various ministries, authorities, commissions, and offices, and the National Assembly ratifies those nominations.", "The cabinet is the country's executive branch.", "It is composed of 18 ministries and chaired by the president.", "It implements policies, regulations, and laws and is, in theory, accountable to the National Assembly.The Ministries are:* Agriculture* Ministry of Defence* Education* Energy & Mines* Ministry of Finance* Fisheries & Maritime Resources* Ministry of Foreign Affairs* Health* Information* Ministry of Justice* Labour & Human Welfare* Land, Water, & Environment* Local Government* Ministry of National Development (Eritrea)* Public Works* Tourism* Trade & Industry* Transport & Communications" ], [ "Legislative branch", "The legislature, the National Assembly appointed in 1993, includes 75 members of the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) and 75 additional 'popularly elected' members.", "Those elected by the general population must include 11 women and representation of 15 Eritreans not currently living in the state.", "The National Assembly is the highest legal power in the government until the establishment of a democratic, constitutional government.", "Within the Eritrean Constitution, the legislature would remain the strongest arm of the government.", "The legislature sets the internal and external policies of the government, regulates the implementation of those policies, approves the budget, and elects the president of the country.", "Its membership has not been renewed through national elections, and its latest session was in January 2002.Lower Regional Assemblies are also in each of Eritrea's six zones.", "These Assemblies are responsible for setting a local agenda in the case that they are not overruled by the National Assembly.", "These Regional Assemblies are popularly elected within each region.", "Unlike the National Assembly, however, the Regional administrator is not selected by the Regional Assembly." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "Eritrea is a single-party state run by the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ).", "No other political groups are legally allowed to organize.", "The PFDJ's most recent party congress was held in January 2002, and its members have not met since.Legislative elections were set for 1997 and then postponed until 2001, it was then decided that because 20% of Eritrea's land was under occupation that elections would be postponed until the resolution of the conflict with Ethiopia.", "Local elections have continued in Eritrea.", "The most recent round of local government elections was held in May 2003.On further elections, the President's Chief of Staff, Yemane Ghebremeskel said, ===Eritrean opposition groups in exile===*ምንቅስቓስ ንብሩህ መጻኢ ኤርትራ (Eritrean bright future movement) Dawit Girmay* Global Yiakl Movement*Eritrean Renaissance Party for Justice (ERPJ), Dr. Mohammed Birhan Idris*Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ) ?", "*Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), Abdullah Muhammed*Eritrean Liberation Front-Revolutionary Council (ELF-RC), Ahmed Nasser (died 26 March 2014)*Eritrean Liberation Front-United Organization (ELF-UO), Mohammed Said Nawd*Eritrean People's Democratic Front (EPDF), Tewelde Ghebreselassie*Eritrean Solidarity Movement for National Salvation (ESMNS) Grassroots Movement led by Tesfu Atsbeha ESMNS official website *Democratic Movement for Liberation of Eritrean Kunama (DMLEK) (Kernelewos)*The Agazyan National Front, Mehari Yowhans===Regional issues===Eritrea has had rough relations with most of its neighbors in the 1990s and initiated both small-scale and large-scale battles against Sudan, Djibouti, Yemen and Ethiopia.", "Eritrea invaded the Hanish islands of Yemen, Sudan blamed Eritrea for attacks in Eastern Sudan, UN commission accused Eritrea for invading Ethiopia and Djibouti officials accused Eritrea for shelling towns in Djibouti in 1996.After this, Eritrea has made efforts to solve relations with Sudan and Djibouti, though relations with Yemen and Ethiopia remain sour.", "In 2008, an attack on Djibouti led by the Eritrean Army on the tip South end of the country led to several civilians being killed, and further international tensions.", "Eritrea abandoned the regional bloc IGAD which is membered by the four nations and Kenya.", "Due to the nature of its environment, many Eritreans risk their lives to flee the country and reach the Mediterranean and Europe." ], [ "Judicial branch", "The judiciary operates independently of both the legislative and executive bodies, with a court system that extends from the village through to the regional and national levels.", "Such isolation, in fact, can be seen in the judiciary’s exclusion from Proclamation no.", "86/1996 for the Establishment of Regional Administration (PERA).", "PERA outlines the responsibilities and discretions of the legislative and executive branches but notably excludes the judiciary branch.", "In addition to its separation, the constitution also upholds the courts to protect the ''meselat'' (rights), ''rebhatat'' (rights), and ''natznetat'' (freedoms) of government, organizations, associations, and individuals.", "With regard to the legal profession, according to a 2015 source, there is not a bar association in Eritrea.", "The Legal Committee of the Ministry of Justice oversees the admission and requirements to practice law.", "Although the source goes on to state that there have been female judges, there is no indication as to how demographic groups, such as women, have fared in the legal field.=== Court Structure ===The Eritrean judicial system is split into three different courts: the Civil Court, the Military Court, and the Special Court.", "Indeed, each level possesses distinct characteristics and responsibilities to uphold the rule of law in Eritrea.==== Civil Court ====At the lowest level of the Eritrean judiciary, the Civil Court eases the pressures of the higher courts by ruling on minor infractions of the law with sums less than 110,000 nakfa, or US dollars.", "Notably, there are multiple divisions within the Civil Court; the structure has three tiers, the local \"community courts,\" the regional courts and the national High Court.The community courts work on the basis of the area, the local rules and customs.", "At the bottom tier, they operate on a single-judge bench system where only one judge presides over each case.", "Here, village judges are elected, though typically they are the village elders and do not possess formal training.", "Although these judges mainly preside over civil cases, those who are well-versed in criminal law may rule on these kinds of cases, as well.", "Within Eritrea, There are a total of 683 community courts across the country with the number of magistrates totalling to 2,049, i.e.", "55 in the Central Region, 213 in the South, 178 in Gash-Barka, 109 in Anseba, 98 in the Northern and 30 in the Southern Red Sea regions.\"", "If a dispute cannot be resolved in the community courts it can be appealed to the next level of judicial administration, the regional courts, natively known as Zoba Courts, which operate on a three-judge bench system.", "The Zoba Courts adjudicate civil, criminal, and ''Shari’a'' law, the last of which handles cases regarding members of the Islam faith.", "Decisions in the Zoba Courts can be appealed to the High Courts, which is primarily appellate in nature but also operates as a first-instance court for murder, rape, and serious felonies.", "This three-judge bench system holds jurisdiction in civil, criminal, commercial, and ''Shari’a'' law.", "Final appeals from the High Court are taken to the Supreme Court with a panel of five judges.", "The president of this Supreme Court is the president of the High Court, as well, and is accompanied by four other judges from the High Court to interpret the law.==== Military Court ====The Military Court composes another component of the Eritrean judicial system.", "The Military Court’s jurisdiction falls under cases brought against members of the armed forces as well as crimes committed by and against the members of the armed forces.", "In addition, this court may also sentence military personnel that express criticism of the government.", "As one may expect, all presiding judges are veterans of the military.", "There are two levels to the Military Branch, but neither are appellate courts; in fact, the Eritrean High Court (from the Civil Court) fulfils this task.", "Given the large presence and popularity of militarization in Eritrea, the Military Court embodies an “enormous - and unchecked - judicial importance in the country”.==== Special Court ====The Special Court, the third and final element to the Eritrean judicial system, operates on a three-judge bench system and works under three themes: general criminal cases, corruption, and illegal foreign exchange and smuggling.", "Judges in this branch are either senior military members or former members of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front, the leading group that fought for Eritrea’s independence from Ethiopia.", "The Special Court is defined by its high level of autonomy and discretion; in fact, the Special Court operates in complete secrecy, so no published records of its procedures available.", "Although the Office of the Attorney-General decides which cases are heard, judges are not bound by the Code of Criminal Procedure, Penal Code, or any precedence in law; rather, judges rely on their “conscience” to make most decisions.", "Furthermore, the court can re-open and adjudicate cases that have already been processed through federal courts, allowing for the occurrence of double jeopardy.", "Judges can also, without limit, intensify punishments that the government sees as insufficient.", "Moreover, during a trial, defendants are denied any form of representation and may even be asked to defend themselves in person.", "Except for rare instances when appeals are made to the Office of the President, there are no ways to challenge the rulings that result from the Special Court.=== Discrepancies Within the Judicial System ===By Constitutional measures, the law prohibits “indefinite and arbitrary” detention, requires arrested persons be brought before a court within 48 hours, and sets a limit of 28 days in which an arrested person may be held without being charged for a criminal offense.", "However, this statute is often not practiced, especially in regard to political crimes.", "The Constitution also grants defendants the right to be present during the trial with legal representation for punishments exceeding ten years; yet, many lack the resources to retain a lawyer and the Eritrean judicial system lacks qualified lawyers who can serve as defense attorneys.", "Although the High Court does uphold the right to confront and question witnesses, present evidence, gain access to government-held evidence, and appeal against a decision, the Special Court disregards the above qualities.", "In addition, Eritrea’s absence of civil judicial procedures addressing human rights violations by the government contradicts Article 24 of the constitution that allows for this redress for citizens.", "The last contradiction is of the judges, themselves.", "Of course, the judges are physically able, for Proclamation on the Establishment of Community Courts No.", "132/2003 bars citizens with mental disabilities from standing for elections as judges; however, judges do not receive training or do not have prior experience in law.", "Many are military men who form their decision based on conscience and the political values of the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF).", "Lastly, despite constitutional calls for an independent judiciary, the president of Eritrea continues to intervene in the judicial decision-making." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Regions of EritreaEritrea is divided into 6 regions (or ''zoba''s) and subdivided into approximately 55 districts or sub-zobas.", "The regions are based on the hydrological properties of area.", "This has the dual effect of providing each administration with ample control over its agricultural capacity and eliminating historical intra-regional conflicts.The regions are included followed by the Sub-region: ''Region'' ''(''ዞባ'')'' (location on map) ''Sub-region'' ''(''ንዑስ ዞባ'')'' Central (Maekel Zoba) (Al-Wasat) (1) Berikh, Ghala Nefhi, North Eastern, Serejaka, South Eastern, South Western Southern (Debub Zoba) (Al-Janobi) (2) Adi Keyh, Adi Quala, Areza, Debarwa, Dekemhare, Kudo Be'ur, Mai-Mne, Mendefera, Segeneiti, Senafe, Tserona Gash-Barka (3) Agordat City, Barentu City, Dghe, Forto, Gogne, Haykota, Logo Anseba (Awraja Adi Naamen), Mensura, Mogolo, Molki, Omhajer (Guluj), Shambuko, Tesseney, Upper Gash Anseba (4) Adi Teklezan, Asmat, Elabered, Geleb, Hagaz, Halhal, Habero, Keren City, Kerkebet, Sela Northern Red Sea (Semienawi-QeyH-Bahri Zoba) (Shamal Al-Bahar Al-Ahmar) (5) Afabet, Dahlak, Ghelalo, Foro, Ghinda, Karura, Massawa, Nakfa, She'eb Southern Red Sea (Debubawi-QeyH-Bahri Zoba) (Janob Al-Bahar Al-Ahmar) (6) Are'eta, Central Dankalia, Southern Dankalia" ], [ "Foreign relations", "External issues include an undemarcated border with the Sudan, a brief war with Yemen over the Hanish Islands in 1996, and a recent border conflict with Ethiopia.The undemarcated border with Sudan poses a problem for Eritrean external relations.", "After a high-level delegation to the Sudan from the Eritrean Ministry of Foreign Affairs ties are being normalized.", "While normalization of ties continues, Eritrea has been recognized as a broker for peace between the separate factions of the Sudanese civil war, with Hassan al-Turabi crediting Eritrea in playing a role in the peace agreement between the Southern Sudanese and the government.", "Additionally, the Sudanese Government and Eastern Front rebels requested that Eritrea mediate their peace talks in 2006.A dispute with Yemen over the Hanish Islands in 1996 resulted in a brief war.", "As part of an agreement to cease hostilities the two nations agreed to refer the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague.", "At the conclusion of the proceedings, both nations acquiesced to the decision.", "Since 1996 both governments have remained wary of one another but relations are relatively normal.The undemarcated border with Ethiopia is the primary external issue facing Eritrea.", "This led to a long and bloody border war between 1998 and 2000.As a result, the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) is occupying a 25 km by 900 km area on the border to help stabilize the region.", "Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war.", "Central to the continuation of the stalemate is Ethiopia's failure to abide by the border delimitation ruling and reneging on its commitment to demarcation.", "The stalemate has led the President of Eritrea to write his Eleven Letters to the United Nations Security Council, which urges the UN to take action on Ethiopia.", "Relations between the two countries is further strained by the continued effort of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting each other's opposition.The 8–9 July 2018 took place the '''2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia summit''' (also '''2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia peace summit''') in Asmara, Eritrea, between Eritrean President Isaias Afwerki and Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed and officials from the two countries.The two leaders signed a joint declaration on 9 July, formally ending the border conflict between both countries, restoring full diplomatic relations, and agreeing to open their borders to each other for persons, goods and services.", "The joint statement was also considered to close all chapters regarding the Eritrean–Ethiopian War (1998–2000) and of the following Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict (2000–2018) with sporadic clashes." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Eritrea" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Eritrea''' has undergone extreme changes after the War of Independence.", "It experienced considerable growth in recent years, indicated by an improvement in gross domestic product in 2011 of 8.7 percent and in 2012 of 7.5% over 2011, and has a total of $8.090 billion as of 2020.However, worker remittances from abroad are estimated to account for 32 percent of gross domestic product.", "Eritrea has an extensive amount of resources such as copper, gold, granite, marble, and potash.", "As of 2012, 20 mining companies had obtained licenses to prospect and exploit mines." ], [ "Economic history", "Eritrea's recent growth performance has been marked by significant volatility in part due to its dependence on a predominantly rain-fed agriculture sector, accounting for about one-third of the economy and which has a significant impact on distribution services which account for around 20% of gross domestic product (GDP), and on a narrow mining sector which also accounts for 20% of the economy.", "Real GDP growth is estimated to have recovered to around 12% in 2018, while averaging -2.7% during 2015–18 on account of frequent droughts and a decline in mining production.Reported inflation has been negative during 2016–18, following the exchange of currency in circulation in November 2015 that resulted in a monetary contraction.", "Deflation continued in 2018 as increased trade with Ethiopia resulted in further put downward pressure on prices.In recent years, Eritrea has significantly tightened fiscal policy to reverse the chronic deficits it suffered after the increase in regional insecurity in 1998.In 2018, the fiscal surplus widened to around 11% of GDP.", "This was largely achieved by a sharp drop in capital spending as well as some revenue measures.", "However, fiscal pressures, both recurrent and wage-related are likely to mount.Short-term growth prospects remain challenging given fiscal constraints and limited opportunities under existing restrictions.", "The recovery in agriculture is expected to slow.", "The country remains in a difficult macroeconomic situation with an unsustainable debt burden (including arrears to the World Bank) and vulnerable financial and external sectors." ], [ "Gross domestic product (GDP)", "Eritrea's GDP, estimated at $4.037 billion in 2011, was 8.7 percent above the GDP in 2010.The growth was due to increased agricultural output and the expansion of the mining industry along with increasing gold prices.", "Breakdowns of the Eritrean economy by sector have not been readily available; however, according to some estimates, in 2011 services accounted for 55 percent of the GDP, industry for 34 percent, and agriculture for the remaining 11 percent.", "The growth of the GDP, however, is compromised by the ongoing and tensions with the country's borders." ], [ "Industries", "===Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing===In 2004, agriculture employed nearly 80 percent of the population but accounted for only 12.4 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in Eritrea.", "The agricultural sector has improved with the use of modern farming equipment and techniques, and dams.", "Nevertheless, it is compromised by a lack of financial services and investment.", "Major agricultural products are sorghum, barley, beans, dairy products, lentils, meat, millet, leather, teff, and wheat.", "The displacement of 1 million Eritreans as a result of the war with Ethiopia, and the widespread presence of land mines have played a role in the declining productivity of the agricultural sector.", "Almost a quarter of the country's most productive land remains unoccupied because of the lingering effects of the 1998–2000 war with Ethiopia.Forestry is not a significant economic activity in Eritrea.As of 2011, the government encouraged large-scale cultivation of cactus to help alleviate the human suffering and, in the future, increase export revenues.", "Cactus plants are said to have been introduced in 1839 by a French catholic missionary who planted the cactus in Digsa, Akrur and Hebo, Southern region.", "The second generation cactus plants were introduced by the Italians, who planted them at Arberebu while they were building the Asmara rail lines.Reliable figures on the extent and value of the fishing industry in Eritrea are difficult to obtain.", "However, Eritrea's long coastline offers the opportunity for significant expansion of the fishing industry from its current, largely artisanal, stage.", "Eritrea exports fish and sea cucumbers from the Red Sea to markets in Europe and Asia, and there is hope that the construction of a new, jet-capable airport in Massawa, as well as rehabilitation of the port there, may support increased exports of high-value seafood.", "In 2002, exports were about 14,000 tons, but the maximum stable yield is thought to be nearly 80,000 tons.", "A fish processing plant was built in 1998 that now exports 150 tons of frozen fish every month to markets in Britain, Germany, and the Netherlands.", "Tensions with Yemen over fishing rights in the Red Sea flared up in 1995 and again in 2002, and Eritrea's difficult relations with other nations could hamper further development of the industry.===Mining and minerals===As of 2001, Eritrea's substantial mineral deposits were largely unexplored.", "According to the Eritrean government, artisanal mining in 1998 collected 573.4 kilograms of gold, however the number of gold reserves was unknown.", "International observers also have noted Eritrea's potential for quarrying ornamental marble and granite.", "As of 2001, some 10 mining companies had obtained licenses to prospect for different minerals in Eritrea.", "The government of Eritrea reportedly was in the process of conducting a geological survey for use by potential investors in the mining sector.", "The presence of hundreds of thousands of land mines in Eritrea, particularly along the border with Ethiopia, has presented a serious impediment to future development of the mining sector.In 2011, AngloGold Ashanti moved into Eritrea to explore the Arabian-Nubian Shield for gold through a 50/50 joint venture set up in 2009 with Thani Dubai Mining.In 2011, the Australian Chalice mining company applied through a 60/40 joint venture for a mining license for 18 years.Also in 2011, Nevsun Resources completed construction of its Bisha gold mining project.", "Estimated production was to be 350,000 ounces of gold per year until the gold ore is exhausted, at which point the mine would produce copper and zinc.As of 2012, nine explorer companies operated in Eritrea from Canada (NGEx Resources), Australia (Chalice Gold Mines, South Boulder Mines, Sunridge Gold Corp), China (Sichuan Road and Bridge Group, Zhong Chang Mining Co, China Africa Huakan Investment Co.,Land Energy Group (China) Ltd, Beijing Donia Resources Co. ) , UK (London Africa Ltd, Andiamo Exploration Ltd.), UAE and Barbados.===Industry and Manufacturing===During the period of federation, industrial capacity largely shifted to Ethiopia, leaving the Eritrean industrial sector with outmoded capital equipment.", "In 2003 industry accounted for 25.3 percent of gross domestic product.", "Major products include processed food and dairy products, alcoholic beverages, glass, leather goods, marble, textiles, and salt.===Energy===Households consume more than 80 percent of total energy production.", "Electricity production in 2001 was estimated at 220.5 million kilowatt-hours.", "Consumption for that year was estimated at 205.1-kilowatt hours.", "An 88-megawatt electricity plant funded by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Abu Dhabi was completed just south of Massawa in 2003, its completion delayed nearly three years by the war with Ethiopia.", "Annual consumption of petroleum in 2001 was estimated at 370,000 tons.", "Eritrea has no domestic petroleum production; the Eritrean Petroleum Corporation conducts purchases through international competitive tender.", "According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, opportunities exist for both on- and offshore oil and natural gas exploration; however, these prospects have yet to come to fruition.", "The use of Wind energy and solar power have slightly increased, due to the growth of solar power manufacturing companies in the country.", "The Eritrean government has expressed interest in developing alternative energy sources, including geothermal, solar, and wind power.Harnet Avenue in Asmara===Services===In 2011, services accounted for 55 percent of gross domestic product.", "Financial services, the bulk of the services sector, are principally rendered by the National Bank of Eritrea (the nation's central bank), the Commercial Bank of Eritrea, the Housing and Commerce Bank of Eritrea, the Agricultural and Industrial Bank of Eritrea, the Eritrean Investment and Development Bank, and the National Insurance Corporation of Eritrea.===Tourism===Eritrea's lack of access to funds, the presence of large numbers of land mines, and the continued tensions that flare up between Eritrea and Ethiopia have deterred the development of a tourist industry in Eritrea.", "According to the World Tourism Organization, international tourism receipts in 2002 were only US$73 million.===Banking and Finance===According to the International Monetary Fund, commercial banks in Eritrea—all government owned and operated—appear to be in compliance with prudent regulations.", "Although the commercial banking sector is largely profitable, mostly owing to income from foreign exchange transactions, the sector is burdened by a high proportion of non-performing loans.", "Core lending activities do not generate sufficient income to cover operating costs at most commercial banks." ], [ "Labor force", "Agriculture employs about 80 percent of the population in Eritrea, and the remaining 20 percent are employed in industry and services.", "The GDP per capita at nominal value was $475 in 2011." ], [ "Currency, exchange rate, and inflation", "The official currency is the Eritrean nakfa (ERN), introduced in November 1997.In early 2005, likely in an effort to increase foreign capital reserves, the Eritrean government decreed that all transactions in Eritrea must be conducted in nakfa.", "It soon became illegal for individuals to hold and exchange foreign currency.", "As of January 1, 2005, the government set the foreign exchange rate at US$1=ERN15.Inflation continues to be a problem in Eritrea, particularly as years of drought push grain prices higher and defense expenditures remain high.", "The International Monetary Fund estimates that in 2003 (the most recent year for which figures are available) average inflation reached 23 percent.The Massawa-Asmara Highway, built as part of the Wefri Warsay Yika'alo program." ], [ "Government budget", "Eritrea does not publish a budget, making its fiscal condition difficult to assess.", "According to the International Monetary Fund, the overall fiscal deficit in 2003 was 17 percent of gross domestic product (GDP).", "Government expenditures for that year were estimated to be US$375 million, with revenues of only US$235.7 million.", "In 2002 the fiscal deficit was 32 percent of GDP.", "Current expenditures continue to exceed budgeted spending, particularly in defense and other discretionary expenditures.", "Monetary policy remains subservient to the financing demands of the government, and debt is unsustainably high.", "This situation is not likely to change until demobilization of the military occurs.", "According to the CIA World Factbook, the Eritrean Government has revenues of $715.2 million, and outlays of $1.021 billion." ], [ "Foreign economic relations", "China, India, South Korea, Italy, South Africa, and Germany are aggressively pursuing market opportunities in Eritrea.", "There is growing interest in U.S. products and services in Eritrea, although U.S. investment in Eritrea is still small.In 2011, Eritrea imported goods worth US$899.9 million, including machinery, petroleum products, food, and manufactured goods.", "Eritrea's main suppliers were Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Italy, Germany, Saudi Arabia, and South Africa.", "In 2011 exports from Eritrea were valued at US$415.4 million, and the bulk were food, livestock, small manufactures, sorghum, and textiles.", "The major markets for Eritrean goods were China, Egypt, Italy, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and the UK.", "More recently, fish, flowers, and salt have joined the list of exports.Foreign investment is hindered by government regulations that seek to protect domestic industries from foreign competition and by a generally unfavorable investment climate.", "Major foreign investors in Eritrea include China, South Korea, Italy, South Africa, and Germany, as well as the World Bank.The government prefers private-sector investment to official aid programs and declines foreign aid; therefore its relations with aid-dispensing nations and international institutions have often been difficult.On 16 September 2018, Eritrean President Isaias Afwerki and Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed signed a peace agreement in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia between the two countries after a bitter war that lasted 20 years (from 1998 to 2018).", "The two neighbouring countries ceased hostilities and restored trade and diplomatic ties, and planned joint projects." ], [ "See also", "*Eritrea*Banking in Eritrea*List of companies based in Eritrea* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Eritrea latest trade data on ITC Trade Map* IMF Executive Board Concludes Consultation with Eritrea February 2005" ] ]
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[ [ "Telecommunications in Eritrea" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Eritrea''' are under the authority of the Government of Eritrea." ], [ "Infrastructure", "The Eritrea Telecommunication Services Corporation, more commonly known as ''EriTel'', is the sole operator of both landline and mobile telephone communication infrastructure in Eritrea.", "However, it is one of several internet service providers in the country.The domestic telecommunications infrastructure is very inadequate.", "Most fixed line telephones are located in Asmara, the capital and largest city.", "Cell phones are in increasing use throughout the country.", "The government is seeking international tenders to improve the system.On 13 April 2006, Eritrea received a soft loan from the government of China to upgrade their communication infrastructure.", "The total sum loaned to EriTel was $23 million.", "All major cities are connected to the mobile telephone system in Eritrea except for Assab, as of 2023." ], [ "Telephone", "* Fixed phones in use: 58,500 lines, 159th in the world (2011).", "* Mobile cellular phones in use: 241,900 lines, 175th in the world (2011).", "* Combined fixed-line and mobile-cellular subscribership is less than 5 per 100 persons (2011).", "* International country code: 291." ], [ "Radio and television", "* The government controls all broadcast media with private ownership prohibited.", "Purchases of satellite dishes and subscriptions to international broadcast media are permitted.", "* Radio networks: 2 state-owned (2007).", "* TV stations: 1 state-owned (2007)." ], [ "Internet", "* Internet users: 48,692 users, 180th in the world; 0.8% of the population, 211th in the world (2012).", "* Fixed broadband: 122 subscriptions, 192nd (last) in the world; 0.0% of the population, 192nd (last) in the world (2012).", "* Mobile broadband: unknown.", "* Internet hosts: 701 hosts, 177th in the world (2012).", "* Internet service providers (ISPs): 4 (2005) - EriTel, CTS, TFanus, Ewan.", "* Country code: ER* Top level domain: .er===Internet censorship and surveillance===* Listed as Under Surveillance by Reporters Without Borders (RWB) in 2008, 2009, not in 2010, and again from 2011 to the present.Eritrea has not set up a widespread automatic Internet filtering system, but it does not hesitate to order blocking of several diaspora websites critical of the regime.", "Access to these sites is blocked by two of the Internet service providers, Erson and Ewan, as are pornographic websitesand YouTube.", "Self-censorship is said to be widespread." ], [ "See also", "* Media of Eritrea* Freedom of press in Eritrea" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* GSM World page on Eritrea" ] ]
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[ [ "Transport in Eritrea" ], [ "Introduction", "An Eritrean Airlines Boeing 767-366/ER aircraft.", "The national carrier is based in Asmara.", "'''Transport in Eritrea''' includes highways, airports and seaports, in addition to various forms of public and private vehicular, maritime and aerial transportation." ], [ "Railways", "This steam locomotive dating from the 1930s still operates, carrying both freight and tourists.As of 1999, there was a total of 317 kilometres of (narrow gauge) rail line in Eritrea.", "The railway links Agordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa; however, it was nonoperational since 1978 except for about a 5 kilometre stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994.Rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock has occurred in recent years.", "By 2003, the line had been restored from Massawa all the way through to Asmara.There are no rail links with adjacent countries." ], [ "Highways", "The Railway line Massawa-Asmara between Ghinda and Embatkalla.The Eritrean highway system is named according to the road classification.", "The three levels of classification are: primary (P), secondary (S), and tertiary (T).", "The lowest level road is tertiary and serves local interests.", "Typically they are improved earth roads which are occasionally paved.", "During the wet seasons these roads typically become impassable.", "The next higher level road is a secondary road and typically is a single-layered asphalt road that connects district capitals together and those to the regional capitals.", "Roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully asphalted (throughout their entire length) and in general they carry traffic between all the major towns in Eritrea.", "+Primary Highways of Eritrea Title Start point Intermediate point End point Road type P-1 Asmara Ghinda Massawa Asphalt P-2 Asmara Adi Tekelezan Keren Asphalt P-3 Asmara Adi Keyh Senafe Asphalt P-4 Asmara Mendefera Mareb River(''border with Ethiopia'') Asphalt P-5 Keren Barentu Tesseney Asphalt P-6 Massawa Tiyo Asseb Gravel P-7 Asseb ''n/a'' Bure Asphalt P-8 Gahtelai Shebah She'eb Asphalt P-9 Serejeqa ''n/a'' Shebah Gravel''total:''4,010 km''paved:''874 km''unpaved:''3,136 km (1996 est.)" ], [ "Seaports and harbours", "The Massawa harbor/port was created by the Italians.=== Red Sea ===* Asseb (Aseb)* Massawa (Mits'iwa)" ], [ "Merchant marine", "''total:''5 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling /''ships by type:''bulk carrier 1, cargo ship 1, liquefied gas 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off ship 1 (1999 est.)" ], [ "Airports", "There are three international airports, one in the capital, Asmara International Airport, and the two others in the coastal cities, Massawa (Massawa International Airport) and Assab (Assab International Airport).", "The airport in Asmara received all international flights into the country as of March 2007, as well as being the main airport for domestic flights.", "21 (1999 est.", ")=== Airports - with paved runways ===A Nasair Eritrea Boeing 737-200 aircraft at the Asmara International Airport.NameLength of the runwayAsmaraMassawaAssab=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===''total:''18''over 3,047 m:''2''2,438 to 3,047 m:''2''1,524 to 2,437 m:''6''914 to 1,523 m:''6''under 914 m:''2 (1999 est.)" ], [ "Cableway", "The Asmara-Massawa Cableway, built by Italy in the 1930s, connected the port of Massawa with the city of Asmara.", "The British later dismantled it during their eleven-year occupation after defeating Italy in World War II." ], [ "References" ], [ "See also", "* Eritrea" ] ]
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[ [ "Eritrean Defence Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Eritrean Defence Forces''' ('''EDF''') () are the combined military forces of Eritrea composed of three branches: Eritrean Army, Eritrean Air Force and Eritrean Navy.", "The Army is by far the largest, followed by the Air Force and Navy.", "The Commander-in-Chief of the EDF is the President of Eritrea.", "Their military role stems from Eritrea's strategic geographical location, located on the Red Sea with a foothold on the Bab-el-Mandeb strait." ], [ "History", "===Pre-independence===Military history in Eritrea stretches back for thousands of years; from ancient times to present day, the society of the Eritreans have dealt with both war and peace.", "During the kingdom of Medri Bahri, the military fought numerous battles against the invading forces of the Abyssinians to the south and the Ottoman Turks at the Red Sea.During the 16th century the port of Massawa was used by the Ottomans to protect sea lanes from disruption, while more recently it was used by the Italians during their colonial occupation.", "The kingdom of Medri Bahri was dissolved and the Colony of Eritrea was founded by the Italians in 1890, shortly after the opening of the Suez Canal.", "When Italian troops occupied Ethiopia in 1936, Eritrean native soldiers (known as Askaris) supported the invading force.", "However, this was reversed by British and Ethiopian troops in 1941.The Eritrean infantry battalions and cavalry squadrons of the \"Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali\" (Royal Colonial Corps) saw extensive service in the various Italian colonial territories between 1888 and 1942.During the war for Eritrea's independence rebel movements (the ELF and the EPLF) used volunteers.", "In the final years of the struggle for independence, the EPLF ranks grew to 110,000 volunteers (some 3% of the total population).===Independence (1991–present)===During the first two decades of independence, the EDF formally had the power to detain and arrest civilians, and used this power to help police detain and arrest civilians, which systematically happened for arbitrary reasons.", "Together with police, EPLF members and government officials, the EDF carried out widespread torture of Eritreans.Military-run prisons included the underground ''Track B'' (or ''Tract B'') in the west of Asmara, holding 2000 detainees; ''Adi Abeto'' near Asmara; ''Wi'a'', 32 km south of Massawa, for holding military prisoners (escaped conscripts and draft evaders) and members of unauthorised religions; ''Mitire'', in north-eastern Eritrea for religious prisoners; ''Haddis Ma'askar'', mostly underground, near the ''Sawa'' military base; ''Ala Bazit'' in a desert next to the Ala mountains; and ''Mai Dima'' near Berakit Mountain for Kunama detainees.====Tigray War====In the Tigray War, the EDF was attributed the main responsibility for the extrajudicial killing of hundreds of civilians in the Aksum massacre, that mainly took place on 28–29 November 2020 in Aksum, according to investigations by Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch.", ", just after the publication of the Amnesty International report, ''Al Jazeera English'' had not received responses from Eritrean officials, but commented that the Eritrean Minister of Information had stated in January 2021 that \"the rabid defamation campaign against Eritrea was on the rise again\".On 12 November 2021, the U.S. Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control added the EDF to its to its Specially Designated Nationals (SDN) list for being \"a government entity that has engaged in, or whose members have engaged in, activities that have contributed to the crisis in northern Ethiopia or have obstructed a ceasefire or peace process to resolve such crisis\"." ], [ "Leadership", "The EDF was led from 1991 by Ogbe Abraha, until 2000, when he was dismissed for his participation in the G-15 group of ministers who called for political change in Eritrea.", "A prison guard stated that Ogbe died in prison in 2002 from asthma.", ", the Chief of Staff is Filipos Woldeyohannes." ], [ "Manpower", "The Eritrean Defence Forces are considerably small when compared to the largest in Africa such as those of Egypt, Algeria, and Morocco.", "The size of Eritrea's population is small, particularly when compared to its neighbors.", "During peacetime the military of Eritrea numbers approximately 45,000 with a reserve force of approximately 250,000.===National service===Every able bodied man and woman is required to serve ostensibly for 18 months.", "In this time they receive six months of military training and the balance is spent working on national reconstruction projects.", "This program allegedly aims to compensate for Eritrea's lack of capital and to reduce dependence on foreign aid, while welding together an ethnically diverse society, half Christian and half Muslim, representing nine ethnic groups.", "This is outlined in both the Constitution of Eritrea and Proclamation 82 issued by the National Assembly on 1995-10-23.However, the period of enlistment may be extended during times of national crisis and the typical period of national service is considerably longer than the minimum.", "Since the 1990s, conscription has been effectively open-ended; this draft policy has been likened to \"slavery\" and has earned international condemnation.Military training is given at the Sawa Defence Training Centre and Kiloma Military Training Centre.", "Students, both male and female, are required to attend the Sawa Training Centre to complete the final year of their secondary education, which is integrated with their military service.", "If a student does not attend this period of training, he or she will not be allowed to attend university - many routes to employment also require proof of military training.", "However, they may be able to attend a vocational training centre, or to find work in the private sector.", "At the end of the 1½-year national service, a conscript can elect to stay on and become a career military officer.", "Conscripts who elect otherwise may, in theory, return to their civilian life but will continue to be reservists.", "In practice, graduates of military service are often chosen for further national service according to their vocation - for example, teachers may be compulsorily seconded for several years to schools in an unfamiliar region of the country.", "According to the Government of Eritrea, \"The sole objective of the National Service program is thus to cultivate capable, hardworking, and alert individuals.", "\"Eritrean conscripts are used in non-military capacities as well.", "Soldiers are often used as supplemental manpower in the country's agricultural fields picking crops, though much of the harvested food is used to feed the military rather than the general population.=== People's Militia ===In 2012 the government created People's Militia (known natively as the \"Hizbawi Serawit\"), to provide additional military training to civilians and assist in development work.", "Many elderly citizens have been forced to join.", "Its organizational structure is set up by profession and/or geographic.", "It serves as a form of national service.", "In 2013, it was led by Brigadier General Teklai Manjus." ], [ "References", "'''Attribution'''*This article incorporates public domain text from U.S. State Department: ''Background Notes.''" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * ACIG* AFVID (Mika Golf's armored vehicles) Eritrean fighting vehicles* Hazegray World Navies Today - Eritrea* Ascari: I Leoni di Eritrea/Ascari: The Lions of Eritrea.", "* Iran Deploys Troops, Ballistic Missiles To Eritrea" ] ]
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[ [ "Foreign relations of Eritrea" ], [ "Introduction", "The foreign relations of Eritrea are the policies of the Eritrean government by which it administers its external relations with other nations.", "Since its independence, Eritrea's foreign relations have been dominated by conflict and confrontation, both in the regional and international arenas.", "It has maintained often troubled, and usually violent, relations with its neighbors, including brief armed conflicts with Yemen and Djibouti and a destructive war with its bigger-neighbour, Ethiopia.", "At present, Eritrea has very tense relations with neighboring Ethiopia and Djibouti.", "Relations in the international arena also have been strained since the last decade, particularly with major powers.", "What appeared cordial relations with the US in the 1990s turned acrimonious following the border war with Ethiopia, 1998-2000.Although the two nations have a close working relationship regarding the ongoing war on terror, there has been a growing tension in other areas.", "Ties with international organizations such as the United Nations, the African Union, and the European Union have also been complicated in part because of Eritrea's outrage at their reluctance to force Ethiopia to accept a boundary commission ruling issued in 2002." ], [ "International organizations", "Eritrea is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, and is an observing member of the Arab League.Eritrea holds a seat on the United Nations' Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ).Eritrea also holds memberships in the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Finance Corporation, International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Permanent Court of Arbitration, Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa, and the World Customs Organization." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Eritrea maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435363738394041424344454647484950515253545556575858606162636465—666768697071727374757677—78798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128" ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes4 June 1999See Croatia–Eritrea relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 4 June 199928 September 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 September 1993 See Denmark–Eritrea relations22 May 1993See Eritrea–Ethiopia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 22 May 1993 when first Ambassador of the Transitional Government of Ethiopia's to Eritrea Mr. Awalom Woldu Tuku presented his credentials to President Issaias Afwerki.", "Diplomatic relations were broken on 12 May 1998 when Ethiopia and Eritrea went to war over the disputed border area of Badme.", "Diplomatic relations were restored on 8 July 2018Eritrea's foreign relations with Ethiopia are adversarial.", "Immediately after Eritrea's independence from Ethiopia, relations were cordial despite the former relationship.", "Since independence Eritrea's relationship with Ethiopia was entirely political, especially in the resuscitation and expansion of IGAD's scope.", "Since 1998 and the Eritrean–Ethiopian War, the relationship became increasingly hostile.In December 2000, Eritrea and Ethiopia signed a peace treaty ending their war and created a pair of binding judicial commissions, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Border Commission and the Eritrean-Ethiopian Claims Commission, to rule on their disputed border and related claims.", "In April 2002 The Commission released its decision (with a clarification in 2003).", "Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war.", "Since these decisions Ethiopia has refused to permit the physical demarcation of the border while Eritrea insists the border must be demarcated as defined by the commission.", "Consequently, the Boundary Commission ruled boundary as virtually demarcated and effective.Eritrea maintains a military force on its border with Ethiopia roughly equal in size to Ethiopia's force, which has required a general mobilization of a significant portion of the population.", "Eritrea has viewed this border dispute as an existential threat to itself in particular and the African Union in general, because it deals with the supremacy of colonial boundaries in Africa.", "Since the border conflict Ethiopia no longer uses Eritrean ports for its trade.During the border conflict and since, Ethiopia has fostered militants against Eritrea (including ethnic separatists and religiously based organizations).", "Eritrea has retaliated by hosting militant groups against Ethiopia as well.", "The United Nations Security Council argues that Eritrea and Ethiopia have expanded their dispute to a second theater, Somalia.In March 2012, Ethiopia attacked Eritrean army outposts along the border.", "Addis Ababa said the assault was in retaliation for the training and support given by Asmara to subversives while Eritrea said the U.S. knew of the attacks, an accusation denied by U.S. officials.In July 2018, leaders both countries signed a peace treaty to put a formal end to a state of war between both nations paving the way for greater economic cooperation and improved ties between them.", "* Eritrea has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Asmara.28 May 1993See Eritrea–Finland relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 19933 August 1993See Eritrea–Germany relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 August 199324 May 1993See Eritrea–Israel relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 24 May 1993.Eritrea developed relations with Israel shortly after gaining its independence in 1993, despite protests among Arab countries.", "Israeli-Eritrean relations are close.", "The president of Eritrea has visited Israel for medical treatment.", "However, Eritrea condemned Israeli military action during the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict.", "Israeli-Eritrean ties are complicated by Israel's close ties to Ethiopia, who have shared an unfriendly dyad with Eritrea for a long time.24 May 1993See Eritrea–Italy relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 24 May 1993* Eritrea has an embassy in Rome and a consulate in Milan.", "* Italy has an embassy in Asmara.23 June 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 June 1993* Eritrea is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Mexico is accredited to Eritrea from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.1993Despite Pyongyang's alignment with Ethiopia during the Eritrean War of Independence, Eritrea has maintained diplomatic relations with North Korea since the 1990s.", "Covert military ties also exist between Eritrea and North Korea.8 June 1995Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 June 1995 when Ambassador of Portugal to Eritrea with residence in Nairobi Mr. José Caetano da Costa Pereira presented his credentials.5 July 1993During the 2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis, Eritrea refused a request by Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates to cut relations with Qatar, citing its \"strong ties with the brother people of Qatar.", "\"24 May 1993See Eritrea–Russia relations*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 May 199324 May 1993, diplomatic relations were broken from 5 December 1994 to 2 May 1999Eritrea broke diplomatic relations with the Sudan in December 1994.This action was taken after a long period of increasing tension between the two countries due to a series of cross-border incidents involving the Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ).", "Although the attacks did not pose a threat to the stability of the Government of Eritrea (the infiltrators have generally been killed or captured by government forces), the Eritreans believe the National Islamic Front (NIF) in Khartoum supported, trained, and armed the insurgents.", "After many months of negotiations with the Sudanese to try to end the incursions, the Government of Eritrea concluded that the NIF did not intend to change its policy and broke relations.", "Subsequently, the Government of Eritrea hosted a conference of Sudanese opposition leaders in June 1995 in an effort to help the opposition unite and to provide a credible alternative to the present government in Khartoum.", "Eritrea resumed diplomatic relations with Sudan on December 10, 2005.Since then, Sudan has accused Eritrea, along with Chad, of supporting rebels.The undemarcated border with Sudan previously posed a problem for Eritrean external relations.After a high-level delegation to the Sudan from the Eritrean Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ties are being normalized.", "While normalization of ties continues, Eritrea has been recognized as a broker for peace between the separate factions of the Sudanese civil war.", "\"It is known that Eritrea played a role in bringing about the peace agreement between the Southern Sudanese and Government,\" while the Sudanese Government and Eastern Front rebels have requested Eritrea to mediate peace talks.The Eritrean President, Isaias Afewerki, and his Sudanese counterpart Omar Al-Bashir held talks in Asmara on a number of bilateral issues of mutual concern to the two East African countries.", "The talks dealt with enhancing bilateral ties and cooperation including making their shared border more open.", "Sudan and Eritrea agreed to abolish entry visa requirements, opening their common borders for free movement of both nationals.", "In 2011, Eritrea and Sudan cooperated in the building of the Kassala-Al Lafa Highway linking the two countries.19 July 1993See also Eritrea–Turkey relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 19 July 1993* The Embassy of Eritrea in Doha is accredited to Turkey.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Asmara.", "* Trade volume between the two countries was US$13.9 million in 2019.28 June 1993The United Arab Emirates are a member of the Saudi-led coalition against Houthi rebels in Yemen.", "Foreign Minister Osman Saleh Mohammed is quoted stating the UAE are using \"logistical facilities at the port and airport\" in the southern city of Assab.", "Human Rights Watch reported that the UAE maintains a detention facility at the Assab base, where it may have transferred high-profile prisoners out of Yemen.11 June 1993See Eritrea–United States relationsDiplomatic relations between the United States and the State of Eritrea were established on June 11, 1993.", "* Eritrea has an embassy in Washington, D.C.* The United States has an embassy in Asmara.24 May 1993A dispute with Yemen over the Hanish Islands in 1996 resulted in a brief war.", "As part of an agreement to cease hostilities, the nations agreed to refer the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague.", "At the conclusion of the proceedings, both nations acquiesced to the 1998 decision which said sovereignty should be shared." ], [ "See also", "* Arab–Eritrean relations* Eritrea–United States relations* Denmark–Eritrea relations* List of diplomatic missions in Eritrea* List of diplomatic missions of Eritrea" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Estonia" ], [ "Introduction", "Between 57.3 and 59.5 latitude and 21.5 and 28.1 longitude, Estonia lies on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea on the level northwestern part of the rising East European Platform.", "Estonia's continental mainland is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland (part of the Baltic Sea) across from Finland, to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia, and to the south by Latvia.", "Besides the part of the European continent, Estonian territory also includes the larger islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa, and over 2,200 other islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, off the western and northern shores of the country's mainland.Average elevation in Estonia reaches .", "The climate is maritime, wet, with moderate winters and cool summers.", "Oil shale and limestone deposits, along with forests which cover 47% of the land, play key economic roles in this generally resource-poor country.", "Estonia boasts over 1,500 lakes, numerous bogs, and 3,794 kilometers of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets." ], [ "Geographic features", "Map of EstoniaEstonia is a flat country covering , of which internal waters comprise 4.6%.", "Estonia has a long, shallow coastline () along the Baltic Sea, with 1,520 islands dotting the shore.", "The two largest islands are Saaremaa (literally, island land), at , and Hiiumaa, at .", "The two islands are favorite Estonian vacation spots.", "The country's highest point, Suur Munamägi (Egg Mountain), is in the hilly southeast and reaches above sea level.", "Estonia is covered by about of forest.", "Arable land amounts to about .", "Meadows cover about , and pastureland covers about .", "There are more than 1,400 natural and artificial lakes in Estonia.", "The largest of them, Lake Peipus (), forms much of the border between Estonia and Russia.", "Located in central Estonia, Võrtsjärv is the second-largest lake ().", "The Narva and Emajõgi are among the most important of the country's many rivers.A small, recent cluster of meteorite craters, the largest of which is called Kaali are found on the Estonian island of Saaremaa.", "The impact may have been witnessed by the Iron Age inhabitants of the area.Estonia has a temperate climate, with four seasons of near-equal length.", "Average temperatures range from on the Baltic islands to inland in July, the warmest month, and from on the Baltic islands to inland in February, the coldest month.", "Precipitation averages per year and is heaviest in late summer.Estonia's land border with Latvia runs ; the Russian border runs .", "From 1920 to 1945, Estonia's border with Russia, set by the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty, extended beyond the Narva river in the northeast and beyond the town of Petseri in the southeast.", "This territory, amounting to some , was transferred to Soviet Russia at the end of World War II." ], [ "Fauna", "There live 65 different species of mammals in the Estonian forests.", "There are an estimated 700 brown bears, over 150 wolves, 400 lynxes, 14,000–16,000 beavers, 3,400 wild boars, 10,000–11,000 moose and 120,000–130,000 deer.", "There are also red deer and other wild animals." ], [ "Flora", "In Laelatu meadow, there have been found 76 species of plants in 1 m2.That is the 2nd largest number of species per m2 in the world." ], [ "Environmental issues", "The Soviet army used the Pakri Islands as sites for aerial bombardment.", "The collection and destruction of thousands of Soviet explosive devices was mostly complete by 1997.One of the most burdensome legacies of the 1944–1991 Soviet occupation of Estonia is widespread environmental pollution.", "The worst offender in this regard was the Soviet army.", "Across military installations covering more than of Estonian territory, the army dumped hundreds of thousands of tons of jet fuel into the ground, improperly disposed of toxic chemicals, and discarded outdated explosives and weapons in coastal and inland waters.", "In the 1990s, during the army's withdrawal from Estonia, extensive damage was done to discarded buildings and equipment.", "In October 1993, the Estonian Ministry of Environment issued a preliminary report summing up part of the degradation it had surveyed thus far.", "The report described the worst damage as having been done to Estonia's topsoil and underground water supply by the systematic dumping of jet fuel at six Soviet army air bases.", "At the air base near Tapa, site of the worst damage, officials estimated that of land were covered by a layer of fuel; of underground water were said to be contaminated.", "The water in the surrounding area was undrinkable, and was sometimes set fire by locals to provide heat during the winter.", "With Danish help, Estonian crews began cleaning up the site, although they estimated the likely cost to be as much as 4 million EEK.", "The Ministry of Environment assigned a monetary cost of more than 10 billion EEK to the damage to the country's topsoil and water supply.", "However, the ministry was able to allocate only 5 million EEK in 1993 for cleanup operations.In a 1992 government report to the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development, Estonia detailed other major environmental concerns.", "For instance, for several consecutive years Estonia had led the world in the production of sulfur dioxide per capita.", "Nearly 75% of Estonia's air pollution was reported to come from two oil shale-based thermal power stations operating near Narva.", "The mining of oil shale in northeastern Estonia has also left large mounds of limestone tailings dotting the region.", "Near the town of Sillamäe, site of a former uranium enrichment plant, about 1,200 tons of uranium and about 750 tons of thorium had been dumped into a reservoir on the shore of the Gulf of Finland.", "This was said to have caused severe health problems among area residents.", "In the coastal town of Paldiski, the removal of waste left by Soviet army nuclear reactors was also a major concern.", "The combined cost of environmental cleanup at both towns was put at more than EEK3.5 billion.", "'''Natural hazards:''' flooding occurs frequently in the spring in certain areas'''''''''Environment – current issues:''' air polluted with sulfur dioxide from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; however, the amounts of pollutants emitted to the air have fallen dramatically and the pollution load of wastewater at purification plants has decreased substantially due to improved technology and environmental monitoring; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and manmade lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas need to be monitored; coastal seawater is polluted in certain locations.", "'''''''''Environment – international agreements:'''''party to:'' Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Heavy Metals, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping-London Protocol, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 2006, Wetlands, Whaling''''''" ], [ "Area and boundaries", "Hellamaa bay in Hiiumaa.", "'''Area:'''''total:'' ''land:'' ''water:'' ''note:'' includes 1,520 islands in the Baltic Sea'''Land boundaries:'''''total:'' ''border countries:'' Latvia , Russia '''Coastline:''' '''Maritime claims:'''''territorial sea:'' ''exclusive economic zone:'' limits as agreed to by Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Sweden, and Russia'''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:'' Baltic Sea 0 m''highest point:'' Suur Munamägi ===Geographical (landscape) areas===*Northern Estonia (roughly equivalent to ''Põhja-Eesti maastikuvaldkond'' (:et), which includes the capital city Tallinn)*Southern Estonia*Western Estonia*Eastern Estonia" ], [ "Resources and land use", "Forests cover more than half of the territory of Estonia.", "'''Natural resources:''' oil shale (kukersite), peat, rare earth elements, phosphorite, clay, limestone, sand, dolomite, arable land, sea mud'''''''''Land use (2018 est.", "):'''* agricultural land: 22.2% (14% arable land, 0.1% permanent crops, 7.2% permanent pasture)* forest: 52.1%* other: 25.7%'''Irrigated land:''' '''''''''Total renewable water resources:''' (2017 est.)''''''" ], [ "See also", "* Extreme points of Estonia* Climate of Estonia" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Estonia" ], [ "Introduction", "Estonia animated population pyramidThe '''demographics of Estonia''' in the 21st century result from historical trends over more than a thousand years, as with most European countries, but have been disproportionately influenced by events in the second half of the 20th century.", "The Soviet occupation (1944–1991), extensive immigration from Russia and other parts of the former USSR, and the eventual restoration of independence of Estonia, have all had a major effect on Estonia's current ethnic makeup.Languages spoken in Estonia largely reflect the composition of the indigenous and immigrant ethnic groups residing in Estonia, and thus have changed with historical trends affecting the ethnic makeup of the country.", "Similarly to other northern European peoples, religion plays a rather small part in the lives of most Estonians.Overall, the quality-of-life indices for Estonia indicate a modern industrial state.", "The population declined annually from 1991 until 2016, except for a brief pause in 2010.Since 2016 immigration has exceeded emigration, making the overall population grow." ], [ "Population", "According to the preliminary data of Statistics Estonia, on 1 January 2024, the population of Estonia was '''1,366,491 persons'''.", "On 1 January 2023, the population was '''1,365,884'''.The population increased from 1,351,640 in January 1970 to 1,570,599 in January 1990.After 1990, Estonia lost about 15% of its population (230,000 people).", "The population decreased to 1,294,455 by December 2011, a figure lower than that recorded in 1970.", "* 1,331,824 (2021 Population and Housing Census) * 1,294,455 (2011 Population Count and Housing Census) * 1,370,052 (2000 Population Count and Housing Census) Decreasing population pressures are explained by a higher death than birth rate and periods of an excess of emigrants over immigrants.Since 2015 the country has experienced population growth.", "The population mainly increased as a result of net immigration of European Union citizens.", "Citizens of Russia and Ukraine made up the bulk of non-EU immigration.", "The increase was detected through methodological changes in data collection.", "Initially a population decrease had been reported.=== Age structure ===Age structure of Estonia from 1970 to 2010.Data is taken from Statistics Estonia.Between 1970 and 1990 the age structure of Estonia was rather stable with around 22% of the population in the age group 0–14 years, 66% between 15 and 65, while 12% were 65 years or older.", "Due to the low birth rates after 1990, the proportion of the population 0–14 years of age dropped to 15% in 2009, while the proportion of 65 years or older gradually increased to 17% in 2009.The proportion of the age group 15–64 also slightly increased to 68% in 2009.=== Births and deaths ===Live births by age group in EstoniaFrom 1947 to 1989 the number of births was higher than the number of deaths, but from 1990 onwards the number of deaths outnumbered the number of births.", "The crude birth rate of 2011 was 10.96 (14,679 births) and the crude death rate of 2011 was 11.38 (15,244 deaths), making the rate of natural increase −0.42 (−565).", "For more detailed historic data, see the table of birth and death rates below.=== Total fertility rate ===Between 1970 and 1990, the total fertility rate (TFR) was little over 2 children born per woman.", "A fast decrease of the TFR occurred after independence.", "In 1998 the lowest rate was recorded: 1.28 children born per woman.", "The TFR slightly recovered in the subsequent years.", "The TFR was 1.66 in 2008 and 1.52 in 2011.=== Infant mortality rate ===The infant mortality rate in Estonia has decreased considerably during the past decades.", "In 1970 the rate was 17.7 per 1,000 live births.", "The rate decreased to 17.1 in 1980, 12.3 in 1990 and 8.4 in 2000.The lowest infant mortality rate was recorded in 2011: 2.6.=== Life expectancy at birth ===Development of life expectancy in EstoniaLife expectancy in Estonia is lower than in most Western European countries.", "During the Soviet era life expectancy in males was between 64 and 66 years and in females between 73 and 75 years.", "After the independence, life expectancy decreased for a number of years.", "In 1994, the lowest life expectancy was recorded: 60.5 years in males and 72.8 in females.", "After 1994, life expectancy gradually increased to reach 68.3 years in males and 79.2 in females in 2012.PeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195561.771955–1960 66.921960–1965 69.381965–1970 70.311970–1975 70.271975–1980 69.431980–1985 69.321985–1990 70.341990–1995 68.501995–2000 69.422000–2005 71.592005–2010 73.772010–2015 76.762020 78.80By data from Statistics Estonia life expectancy at birth in both 2019 and 2020 was 74.4 years for males and 82.8 years for females, on average for all 78,8 years.", "Life expectancy has increased during last years for both sexes, men are expected to live disability-free for 54.1 years and women for 57.6 years.", "Males live 72.7 percent of their life in good health and females 70 percent.For comparison, in 2018 the average life expectancy for men in Europe was 78.3 years and for women 83.6 years." ], [ "Immigration", "As the cumulative negative natural growth was about 82,000 during 1991–2010, the remainder of the population decline of Estonia since 1990 (230,000 people in total) was caused by emigration (150,000 people or about 10% of the population of Estonia in 1990).", "Mainly ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians emigrated.", "Consequently, the proportion of these ethnic groups decreased as can be seen in the results of the 2000 census (see below).", "Data from 2000 to 2009 also shows that the number of emigrants is larger than the number of immigrants, but on a much lower lever than in the 1990s.", "'''Foreign-born population by census in 2000, 2011 and 2021:''' Country of birth 2000 20112021 Number % Number %Number% 184,795 13.49 134,948 10.43110,1618.27 25,185 1.84 21,156 1.6328,6212.15 14,883 1.09 11,593 0.9010,3260.77 4,326 0.32 3,859 0.306,3750.48 1,381 0.10 2,173 0.17 6,1300.46 3,841 0.28 3,710 0.293,8020.29 978 0.07 1,240 0.092,5360.19 2,101 0.15 1,816 0.142,0140.15 1,449 0.10 1,450 0.111,8280.14 1,586 0.12 1,449 0.111,7940.13 Other countries 16,497 1.20 8,969 0.6927,6782.08 Foreign-born total 257,022 18.76 192,363 14.86201,26515.11 1,113,030 81.24 1,102,092 85.141,130,55984.89 Population total 1,370,052 100.00 1,294,455 100.001,331,824100.00There were a total of 201,265 foreign-born people in Estonia at 31 December 2021, representing 15% of the population.", "55% of them were born in Russia, and a total of 82% in a Post-Soviet countries.In 2022, according to the data on registered migration (from the Population Register), 49,414 persons immigrated to Estonia and 9,657 persons emigrated from Estonia.", "Net migration was positive, 39,757 persons more staying than leaving Estonia.", "Both registered immigration and net migration were several times bigger than the average of recent years, due to the arrival of war refugees from Ukraine.", "Based on citizenship, the largest number of immigrants settling in Estonia had Ukrainian citizenship (33,217).In 2021, the population of Estonia decreased by 5,315 persons due to negative natural increase and increased by 7,043 persons as a result of positive net migration – 19,524 persons immigrated to Estonia and 12,481 persons emigrated from Estonia (In 2020: 16,209 persons immigrated and 12,427 persons emigrated).", "The destination countries for migration were Finland, Ukraine and Russia in both directions." ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Share of ethnic Estonians by Estonian localityToday, Estonia is an ethnically fairly diverse country, ranking 97th out of 239 countries and territories in 2001 study by Kok Kheng Yeoh.", "In 2008, thirteen of Estonia's fifteen counties were over 80% ethnic Estonian.", "The counties with the highest percentage Estonians are Hiiu County (98.4%) and Saare County (98.3%).", "However, in Harju County (which includes the national capital, Tallinn) and Ida-Viru County, ethnic Estonians make up only 59.6% (55.0% in Tallinn) and 19.7% of the population, respectively.", "In those two counties, Russians account for 32.4% (36.4% in Tallinn) and 71.2% of the population, respectively.", "In the nation as a whole, Russians make up 23% of the total population.After gaining independence following World War I a population census was held in 1922 and 1934.At that time Estonians were still the predominant ethnic group, while all others constituted 12% of the population of Estonia.Major Jewish communities were present in Estonia between 1918 and 1940 in Tallinn, Pärnu, Kilingi-Nõmme, Narva, Tartu, Valga, and Võru.", "'''Population of Estonia by ethnic group 1897–2021'''+ Ethnicgroup census 1897 census 19221 census 19341 census 19592 census 19703 census 19794 census 19895 census 20006 census 2011 census 2021 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Estonians 867,79490.6 969,97687.6 992,52088.1 892,65374.6 925,15768.2 947,81264.7 963,28161.5 930,21967.9 902,54769.7 919,71169.1 Russians 37,5993.9 91,1098.2 92,6568.2 240,22720.1 334,62024.7 408,77827.9 474,83430.3 351,17825.6 326,23525.2 315,25223.6 Ukrainians 5040.1 — 920.0 15,7691.3 28,0862.1 36,0442.5 48,2713.1 29,0122.1 22,5731.7 27,8282.1 Belarusians 2720.0 — — 10,930 0.9 18,732 1.4 23,461 1.6 27,711 1.8 17,241 1.3 12,5791.0 11,6060.9 Finns 3620.0 401 0.0 1,088 0.1 16,699 1.4 18,537 1.4 17,753 1.2 16,622 1.1 11,837 0.9 7,5890.6 8,5430.6 Latvians 5,4700.6 1,966 0.2 5,435 0.5 2,888 0.2 3,286 0.2 3,963 0.3 3,135 0.2 2,330 0.2 1,7640.1 3,8270.3 Germans 33,3623.5 18,319 1.7 16,346 1.5 670 0.1 7,850 0.6 3,944 0.3 3,466 0.2 1,870 0.1 1,5440.1 2,7010.2 Lithuanians 440.0 4360.0 253 0.0 1,616 0.1 2,356 0.2 2,379 0.2 2,568 0.2 2,116 0.2 1,7270.1 2,0970.2 Tatars 360.0 — 166 0.0 1,534 0.1 2,204 0.2 3,195 0.2 4,058 0.3 2,582 0.2 1,9930.2 1,9380.1 Jews 3,8370.4 4,566 0.4 4,434 0.4 5,433 0.5 5,282 0.4 4,954 0.3 4,613 0.3 2,145 0.2 1,9730.2 1,8520.1 Poles 1,9410.2 969 0.1 1,608 0.1 2,256 0.2 2,651 0.2 2,897 0.2 3,008 0.2 2,193 0.2 1,6640.1 1,8450.1 Swedes 6,0830.6 7,850 0.7 7,641 0.7 — 435 0.0 254 0.0 297 0.0 300 0.0 380 0.0 811 Armenians — — — — — — — — 1,4280.1 1,6660.1 Azerbaijanis — — — — — — — — 940 0.0 1,5460.1 French people — — — — — — — — 117 0.0 1,2750.0 Italians — — — — — — — — 230 0.0 1,1810.0 Hindus — — — — — — — — 90 0.0 1,1650.0 Englishmen — — — — — — — — 270 0.0 9990.0 Georgians — — — — — — — — 490 0.0 9460.0 Spaniards — — — — — — — — 100 0.0 7670.0 Turkish people — — — — — — — — 86 0.0 7630.0 Moldavians — — — — — — — — 511 0.0 7300.0 Romani people — — — — — — — — 482 0.0 6760.0 Americans — — — — — — — — 2450.0 6450.0 Pakistanis — — — — — — — — 270.0 5600.0 Romanians — — — — — — — — 910.0 5170.0 Arabs — — — — — — — — 800.0 4890.0 Brazilians — — — — — — — — 290.0 4600.0 Chinese — — — — — — — — 900.0 4270.0 Persians — — — — — — — — 230.0 4260.0Other 1,0470.1 11,467 1.0 4,266 0.4 6,116 0.5 6,883 0.5 9,042 0.6 13,798 0.9 19,174 1.4 7,5380.6 24,3361.8 Total 958,351 1,107,059 1,126,413 1,196,791 1,356,079 1,464,476 1,565,662 1,370,052 1,294,455 1,331,824As a result of the Soviet occupation from 1944 to 1991 and Soviet policies, the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within currently defined boundaries of Estonia dropped to 61.5% in 1989, compared to 88% in 1934.But in the decade following the restoration of independence, large scale emigration by ethnic Russians, as well as ethnic groups of other former Soviet countries, and the removal of the Russian military bases in 1994 caused the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61.5% in 1989 to 68.7% in 2008.In the same period the proportion of ethnic Russians decreased from 30.0% to 25.6%, the proportion of ethnic Ukrainians decreased from 3.1% to 2.1%, and the proportion of ethnic Belarusians decreased from 1.8% to 1.2%.320pxCitizenship of the population of Estonia in 2010.Data is taken from Statistics Estonia.In 2008, the largest ethnic groups in Estonia were Estonians 68.7%, Russians 25.6%, Ukrainians 2.1%, Belarusians 1.2%, and Finns 0.8%.", "These five groups made up 98.4% of Estonia's population.The numbers had changed a little by the time of the 2021 census, when they were reported as Estonians 69.1%, Russians 23.6%, Ukrainians 2.1%, Belarusians 0.9%, and Finns 0.6%.File:Estonians population pyramid in Estonia in 2021.svg|EstoniansFile:Russian population pyramid in Estonia in 2021.svg|Russian" ], [ "Languages", "Total knowledge (native + foreign) of different languages in Estonia, by age group, 2011Population of Estonia and share of Estonians (years 1–2020)Many languages are spoken in Estonia, including Estonian (official), Võro, Russian, Ukrainian, English, Finnish, German and others.", "According to the census of 2000, 109 languages were spoken natively in Estonia.", "By 2011, the number of languages spoken natively had increased to 157, mainly due to new immigrants.", "However, most of these languages were used only between relatives or compatriots, while only 30 languages were spoken on a daily basis in families.Estonian and Finnish are closely related, belonging to the same Finnic branch of the Uralic language family.", "The two languages are only partially mutually intelligible, although learning to comprehend and speak each other's languages is fairly easy for native speakers.", "Estonian and Finnish are only distantly related to the Hungarian language.Written with the Latin script, Estonian is the language of the Estonian people and the official language of the country.", "One-third of the standard vocabulary is derived from adding suffixes to root words.", "The oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th century chronicles.", "During the Soviet era, the Russian language was imposed in parallel to, and often instead of, Estonian in official use.+'''Population of Estonia by first language''' Language 2000 census 2011 census2021 census Number % Number %Number% Estonian 921,817 67.28 887,216 68.54895,49367.23 Russian 406,755 29.69 383,118 29.60379,21028.47 Ukrainian 12,299\t 0.90 8,016 0.6212,4310.93 Finnish 4,932\t 0.36 2,621 0.204,2760.32 Belarusian 5,197\t 0.38 1,664 0.131,6500.12 Latvian 1,389\t 0.10 999 0.082,5100.19 Lithuanian 1,198\t 0.09 905 0.071,1100.08 English 248 0.02 878 0.073,8790.29 Tatar 1,251\t 0.09 806 0.066450.05 Armenian 719 0.05 717 0.068420.06 Azerbaijani 592 0.04 656 0.051,1180.08 German 557 0.04 522 0.041,8340.14 Polish 674 0.05 435 0.036930.05 Other 3,235 0.24 2,891 0.2217,9571.35 Unknown 9,189 0.67 1,723 0.13 8,176 0.61 '''Total''' '''1,370,052''' '''1,294,455''' '''1,331,824''''''Population of Estonia by command of foreign languages (as not the first language)''' Language 2000 census 2011 census 2021 census Number % Number % Number % English 345,854 25.2 495,420 37.8 622,560\t 46.7 Russian 578,004 42.1 545,537\t 41.5 508,060\t 38.1 Estonian 167,804\t 12.2 177,286 13.7 223,950\t 16.8 Finnish 138,354\t\t 10 167,315\t 12.7 138,300\t 10.4 German 140,004 10.2 130,191 10.0 89,650\t 6.7 French 9,912 0.7 18,677 1.4 18,540\t 1.4 Swedish 9,345\t 0.6 13,990 1.1 14,540\t 1.1 Other 20,385 1.5 39,761 2.8 33,150\t 2.5Census data show that in 2021 an estimated 76% of Estonia’s population speak a foreign language.", "While 10 years ago the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia was Russian, today it is English.", "Estonian is spoken by 84% of the population: 67% speak it as a mother tongue and 17% as a foreign language." ], [ "Religion", "Religious people in EstoniaBiggest religion in Estonia.", "Notice the plurality of Orthodoxy in many traditionally Lutheran areas due to the trend towards irreligion among ethnic Estonians.According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 18% of Estonian residents responded that \"they believe there is a God\", whereas 50% answered that \"they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force\" and 29% that \"they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force\".", "This, according to the survey, would have made Estonians the most non-religious people in the then 27-member European Union.", "A survey conducted in 2006–2008 by Gallup showed that 14% of Estonians answered positively to the question: \"Is religion an important part of your daily life?", "\", which was the lowest among 143 countries polled.In 2000, according to the census, 29.2% of the population considered themselves to be related to any religion, thereof:* 13.6% Lutheran Christians* 12.8% Orthodox Christians* 6,009 Baptists* 5,745 Roman Catholics* 4,254 Jehovah's Witnesses* 2,648 Pentecostals* 2,515 Old Believers* 1,561 Adventists* 1,455 Methodists* 1,387 Muslims* 5,008 followers of other religionsIn 2011, according to the census, 29.31% of the population considered themselves to be related to any religion:* 16.15% Orthodox Christians* 9.91% Lutheran Christians* 0,41% Baptists* 0,41% Roman Catholics* 0,36% Jehovah's Witnesses* 0,24% Old Believers* 0,17% Pentecostals* 0,14% Muslims* 0,11% Adventists* 0,10% Methodists* 3.25% Other religionsThere are also a number of smaller Jewish, and Buddhist groups.", "The organisation Maavalla Koda (Taaraism) unites adherents of animist traditional religions.", "The Russian neopagan organisation \"Vene Rahvausu Kogudus Eestis\" is registered in Tartu.The irrereligiousity of Estonians is a relic of Soviet occupation time, but culturally Estonia still belongs to the Lutheran culture sphere, like most of Northern Europe." ], [ "Vital statistics", "Marriages and divorces in Estonia over time=== Vital statistics for the Governorate of Estonia ===The Governorate of Estonia comprised the northern part of present-day Estonia.", "The southern part was part of the Governorate of Livonia.Average population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000) 1900 428,00012,4878,2274,26029.219.210.0 1901 430,00012,7038,4284,27529.519.69.9 1902 434,00013,1017,7245,37730.217.812.4 1903 440,00012,7048,0044,70028.918.210.7 1904 446,00012,7538,2794,47428.618.610.0 1905 449,00011,9919,6942,29726.721.65.1 1906 452,00012,4178,8423,57527.419.57.9 1907 455,00012,3048,7303,57427.019.27.9 1908 459,00011,8618,4953,36625.818.57.3 1909 464,00011,9708,2973,67325.817.97.9 1910 466,00012,1938,2043,98926.217.68.6 1911 472,00011,7498,9762,77324.919.05.9 1912 480,00011,9008,4313,46924.817.67.2 1913 491,00011,6539,0892,56423.718.55.2 1914 506,00011,8549,2122,64223.418.25.2=== Present Estonia ===Source: Statistics Estonia Average population Live births Deaths Natural change Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000) Crude migration change (per 1000) Total fertility rate Infant mortality rate19141,197,000 26,86520,8825,98322.417.45.0 -12.519151,188,00024,68021,8412,83920.818.42.4 -31.919161,154,00021,28225,429 4,14718.422.0 3.6 -25.919171,120,00018,33327,336 9,00316.424.4 8.0 -22.419181,086,00021,659 32,488 10,82919.929.9 10.0 -10.319191,064,00018,45628,800 10,34417.327.1 9.7 13.519201,068,00019,62521,363 1,73818.420.0 1.6 19.419211,087,00022,06717,1434,92420.315.84.5 9.319221,102,00022,25518,4013,85420.216.73.5 4.719231,111,00022,34716,6305,71720.115.05.1 -0.619241,116,00021,44116,9184,52319.215.24.1 -3.299.919251,117,00020,44516,6803,76518.314.93.4 -3.495.719261,117,00019,97718,0471,90017.916.21.7 -2.6101.819271,116,00019,70519,35650017.717.30.4 -0.4114.619281,116,00020,06417,7852,27918.015.92.0 -2.0103.619291,116,00019,11020,178 1,06817.118.1 1.0 1.0110.519301,116,00019,47116,6102,86117.414.92.6 -0.8100.119311,118,00019,50918,0771,43217.416.21.3 2.3102.819321,122,00019,74216,6413,10117.614.82.8 -1.096.819331,124,00018,20816,4721,73616.214.71.5 0.394.019341,126,00017,30515,8531,45215.414.11.3 1.491.119351,129,00017,89116,8641,02715.814.90.9 089.319361,130,00018,22217,59462816.115.60.6 0.389.219371,131,00018,19016,6141,57616.114.71.4 0.490.719381,133,00018,45316,4961,95716.314.61.7 -6.177.519391,128,00018,47517,1011,37416.415.21.2 -29.678.819401,096,00018,40719,024 61716.817.4 0.6 -46.883.719411,044,00019,57423,702 4,12818.822.7 4.0 -21.919421,017,00019,24220,276 1,03418.919.9 1.0 -9.891.819431,006,00016,00118,120 2,11915.918.0 2.1 -13.81944990,00015,18024,700 9,52015.324.9 9.6 -102.51945 879,00014,96820,708 5,74017.023.6 6.5 62.2124.81946928,00019,40819,969 56120.921.5 0.6 53.496.81947977,00022,72121,4921,22923.322.01.3 48.9121.419481,026,00021,77717,5494,22821.217.14.1 42.784.219491,074,00021,77016,7305,04020.315.64.7 20.482.419501,101,00020,27915,8174,46218.414.44.1 7.7 81.219511,114,00020,73015,3545,37618.613.74.8 6.076.219521,126,00021,11115,8175,29418.714.04.7 8.064.919531,138,00020,14614,4205,72617.712.75.0 4.752.219541,149,00020,90913,9816,92818.212.26.0 3.649.519551,160,00020,78613,6387,14817.9 11.86.2 3.351.619561,171,00019,66012,7486,91216.810.95.9 2.641.219571,181,00019,50913,0266,48316.511.05.5 3.840.119581,192,00019,59812,9716,62716.410.95.6 3.639.919591,203,00019,93813,1306,80816.510.95.7 5.131.719601,216,00020,18712,7387,44916.610.56.1 4.6 1.9531.119611,229,00020,23013,0367,19416.510.65.9 5.51.9728.019621,243,00019,95913,4956,46416.110.95.2 6.91.9525.219631,258,00019,27513,2516,02415.310.54.8 9.51.9126.019641,276,00019,62912,7546,87515.410.05.4 6.41.9425.419651,291,00018,90913,5205,38914.610.54.2 5.11.9020.319661,303,00018,62913,8004,82914.310.63.7 4.71.8520.019671,314,00018,67113,6994,97214.210.43.8 6.11.8619.219681,327,00019,78214,2255,55714.910.74.2 9.42.0318.019691,345,00020,78115,1505,63115.511.34.2 7.02.1116.719701,360,00021,55215,1866,36615.811.24.7 7.82.1617.719711,377,00022,11815,0387,08016.110.95.1 6.52.1917.519721,393,00021,75715,5206,23715.611.14.5 4.82.1415.919731,406,00021,23915,5735,66615.111.14.0 4.52.0715.919741,418,00021,46115,3936,06815.110.94.3 3.52.0717.619751,429,00021,36016,5724,78814.911.63.4 4.32.0418.219761,440,00021,80117,3514,45015.112.03.1 3.82.0617.519771,450,00021,97717,0944,88315.211.83.4 3.52.0617.519781,460,00021,84217,8124,03015.012.22.8 2.72.0216.519791,468,00021,87918,0623,81714.912.32.6 3.52.0118.319801,477,00022,20418,1994,00515.012.32.7 4.72.0217.119811,488,00022,93718,3494,58815.412.33.1 3.62.0717.019821,498,00023,12817,8935,23515.411.93.5 3.82.0817.219831,509,00024,15518,1905,96516.012.14.0 2.62.1616.119841,519,00024,23419,0865,14816.012.63.4 3.22.1713.619851,529,00023,63019,3434,28715.512.72.8 4.42.1214.119861,540,00024,10617,9866,12015.711.74.0 3.82.1715.919871,552,00025,08618,2796,80716.211.84.4 2.02.2616.019881,562,00025,06018,5516,50916.011.94.2 -0.42.2612.419891,568,00024,31818,5365,76215.511.83.7 -3.12.2214.819901,569,00022,30419,5312,77814.212.41.8 -6.92.0512.319911,561,00019,41319,715 30212.412.6 0.2 -17.71.8013.319921,533,00018,03820,126 2,08811.813.1 1.4 -24.01.7115.719931,494,00015,25321,286 6,03310.214.2 4.0 -16.71.4915.619941,463,00014,17622,212 8,0369.715.2 5.5 -12.31.4214.419951,437,00013,50920,828 7,3199.414.5 5.1 -9.51.3814.919961,416,00013,24219,020 5,7789.413.4 4.1 -7.21.3710.519971,400,00012,57718,572 5,9959.013.3 4.3 -5.71.3210.019981,386,000 12,16719,445 7,2788.814.0 5.3 -1.9 1.289.419991,376,00012,42518,447 6,0229.013.4 4.4 19.71.329.620001 1,397,00013,06718,403 5,3369.413.2 3.8 -2.61.358.420011,388,00012,632 18,516 5,8849.1 13.2 4.2 -2.31.318.820021,379,00013,001 18,355 5,3549.413.3 3.9 -1.91.365.720031,371,00013,03618,152 5,1169.513.2 3.7 -2.11.367.020041,363,00013,992 17,685 3,69310.313.0 2.7 -3.21.476.420051,355,00014,35017,316 2,96610.612.8 2.2 -3.71.525.420061,347,00014,87717,316 2,43911.012.9 1.8 -2.71.584.420071,341,00015,77517,409 1,63411.813.0 1.2 -1.81.695.020081,337,00016,02816,675 64712.012.5 0.5 -1.01.725.020091,335,00015,76316,081 31811.812.1 0.2 -2.01.703.620101,332,00015,82515,790 3511.911.9 0.0 -3.81.723.320111,327,00014,67915,244 56511.011.4 0.4 -2.61.612.520121,323,00014,05615,450 1,39410.611.7 1.1 -2.71.563.620131,318,00013,53115,244 1,71310.311.6 1.3 -1.71.522.120141,314,00013,55115,484 1,93310.311.8 1.5 1.51.542.720151,314,00013,907 15,243 1,336 10.611.6 1.0 2.51.582.520161,316,00014,053 15,392 1,33910.711.7 1.0 1.81.602.320171,317,00013,784 15,543 1,75910.511.8 1.3 5.11.592.320181,322,00014,367 15,751 1,38410.911.9 1.0 4.81.671.620191,327,00014,09915,401 1,30210.611.6 1.0 2.51.661.620201,329,00013,20915,811 2,6029.911.9 2.0 3.51.581.420211,331,00013,27218,587 5,31510.014.0 4.0 17.51.612.220221,349,00011,64617,315 5,6698.612.8 4.2 16.71.412.2202321,366,000 10,72115,832 5,1117.811.6 3.7According to the preliminary data of Statistics Estonia, 1,366,491 persons lived in Estonia on 1 January 2024.This is 607 persons more than at the same time a year ago.", "In 2023, there were 10,721 births and 15,832 deaths in Estonia.", "Based on the data on registered migration, 20,209 persons immigrated to Estonia and 14,491 persons emigrated from Estonia.", "Compared with a year earlier, the number of births, deaths and immigrants has fallen, while the number of emigrants has risen.By the data of Statistics Estonia, 1,365,884 persons lived in Estonia on 1 January 2023.At 1 January 2022 lived in Estonia 1,331,796 persons, increase in 2022 34,088 persons (1,330,068 at 1 January 2021, increase in 2021 1,728 persons).1 Population figures from 2000 on were revised based on the 2011 Estonian census and various registers.2 2023 data is preliminary registration data.===Current vital statistics===The data is based on registrations of births and deaths.+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January 2023''' 890 1,639 749 '''January 2024''' 887 1,642 755 '''Difference''' 3 (0.34%) 3 (0.18%) 6===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 630 081 699 398 1 329 479 100 0–4 36 496 34 282 70 778 5.32 5–9 36 943 35 192 72 135 5.43 10–14 38 862 36 812 75 674 5.69 15–19 32 557 31 056 63 613 4.78 20–24 32 304 30 481 62 785 4.72 25–29 41 090 37 598 78 688 5.92 30–34 53 536 47 937 101 473 7.63 35–39 49 887 46 058 95 945 7.22 40–44 47 106 44 160 91 266 6.86 45–49 46 552 45 084 91 636 6.89 50–54 41 680 42 995 84 675 6.37 55–59 41 167 45 436 86 603 6.51 60–64 38 495 47 293 85 788 6.45 65-69 32 536 45 680 78 216 5.88 70-74 24 568 39 996 64 564 4.86 75-79 16 040 31 412 47 452 3.57 80-84 12 326 30 478 42 804 3.22 85-89 5 683 17 620 23 303 1.75 90-94 1 960 7 968 9 928 0.75 95-99 278 1 724 2 002 0.15 100+ 15 136 151 0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 112 301 106 286 218 587 16.44 15–64 424 374 418 098 842 472 63.37 65+ 93 406 175 014 268 420 20.19" ], [ "See also", "* Estonization* Baltic Germans* Estonian Swedes* Russians in Estonia* Võros* Aging of Europe" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Estonia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Politics in Estonia''' takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Estonia is the head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "Legislative power is vested in the Estonian parliament.", "Executive power is exercised by the government, which is led by the prime minister.", "The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.", "Estonia is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, and NATO." ], [ "History", "German translation of the Constitution of the Republic of EstoniaThe Estonian Declaration of Independence was issued on 21 February 1918.A parliamentary republic was formed by the Estonian Constituent Assembly and the first Constitution of Estonia was adopted on 15 June 1920.The Parliament of Estonia (State Assembly) elected a Riigivanem who acted both as Head of Government and Head of State.", "During the Era of Silence, political parties were banned and the parliament was not in session between 1934 and 1938 because the country was ruled by decree of Konstantin Päts, who was elected as the first President of Estonia in 1938.In 1938 a new constitution was passed and the Parliament of Estonia was convened once again, this time bicamerally, consisting of Riigivolikogu (lower house) and Riiginõukogu (upper house), both meaning State Council in direct translation.", "In 1940, Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union.", "It was soon followed by the German occupation of 1941–1944.During the course of the two occupations, legal institutions, elected according to the Estonian constitution, were removed from power.", "In September 1944, after German forces left, legal power was briefly restored, as Otto Tief formed a new government in accordance with the 1938 constitution.", "The Tief government lasted for only five days, as Estonia was again occupied by the Soviet Union.", "Estonia declared independence in 1991 as the Republic of Estonia on the basis of continuity of the constitution prior to 1938, putting into motion the transition from a state socialist economy to a capitalist market economy; in 1992, the public approved a new constitution.", "On 1 May 2004, Estonia was accepted into the European Union.", "On 1 January 2011, Estonia joined the eurozone and adopted the EU single currency as the first former Soviet Union state.=== Recent political developments ===The leader of the Reform Party Andrus Ansip was the Prime Minister of Estonia since 2005 until 2014.By the end of his nine-year tenure he was the longest-serving prime minister in the European Union.", "In August 2011, President of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves, in office since 2006, was re-elected.", "In March 2014, after the resignation of Ansip, Taavi Rõivas of the Reform Party became new prime minister.", "34-year-old Rõivas was the youngest prime minister in Europe at that time.", "In March 2015, the ruling Reform party, led by Prime Minister Taavi Rõivas, won the parliamentary election In October 2016, Estonian parliament elected Kersti Kaljulaid as the new President of Estonia.", "She was the first female president of Estonia.", "In November 2016, the new chairman of the Centre Party Jüri Ratas became the new Prime Minister of Estonia.", "He succeeded prime minister Rõivas whose government lost a parliamentary vote of no-confidence.In the parliamentary election of 2019, five parties gained seats at Riigikogu.", "The head of the Centre Party, Jüri Ratas, formed the government together with Conservative People's Party and Isamaa, while Reform Party and Social Democratic Party became the opposition.", "On January 13, 2021 Ratas resigned as prime minister in the wake of a corruption scandal.On 26 January 2021, Reform Party leader Kaja Kallas became Estonia's first female prime minister, making Estonia the only country in the world to currently be led by both a female President and Prime Minister.", "The new government was a two-party coalition between country's two biggest political parties Reform Party and Centre Party.", "However, Alar Karis was sworn in as Estonia's sixth President on October 11, 2021.In July 2022, Prime Minister Kaja Kallas formed a new three-party coalition by her liberal Reform Party, the Social Democrats and the conservative Isamaa party.", "Her previous government had lost its parliamentary majority after the center-left Center Party left the coalition.In March 2023, the Reform party, led by Prime Minister Kaja Kallas, won the parliamentary election, taking 31,4% of the vote.", "Far-right Conservative People's Party came second with 16,1 % and the third was the Centre Party with 15% of the vote.", "In April 2023, Kallas formed her third government, which included, in addition to Reform Party, also the liberal Estonia 200 and the Social Democratic (SDE) parties.According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Estonia was 2023 the 5th most electoral democratic country in the world." ], [ "Institutions", "The framework for the political institutions of Estonia is provided by the Constitution of Estonia ().", "The constitution follows the principle of separation of powers.", "Legislative power is wielded by the Parliament, executive power by the Government and judicial power by the courts.", "Each institution is further defined by their respective legislative acts.===Parliament===The Riigikogu (Parliament of Estonia) in the Toompea Castle of Tallinn, Estonia.The ''Riigikogu'' is the representative legislative authority of the Republic of Estonia.", "It comprises 101 members who are elected at free elections for a four-year term according to the principle of proportional representation.", "The work of the Parliament is coordinated by the Board of the ''Riigikogu'', which is led by the President of the ''Riigikogu'' and is elected for a term of one year.", "There are also factions within the Parliament, which carry out the programmes of their respective political parties.", "The work of the Parliament is supported by various committees, which are staffed by members of the factions.", "They prepare draft legislation and exercise parliamentary control over their fields of activity.", "The Chancellery of the ''Riigikogu'' is tasked with servicing the Parliament.", "It is headed by the Secretary General of the ''Riigikogu'', who is appointed by the Board of the ''Riigikogu''.", "Legislation is passed by an open majority vote.", "The quorum for the Parliament is provided in the ''Riigikogu'' Rules of Procedure and Internal Rules Act.Citizens of Estonia who are at least 21 years of age and are eligible to vote may stand to be elected to the Parliament of Estonia.", "Citizens who are at least 18 years of age and are not convicted of a criminal offence have the right to participate in the voting for the Parliament of Estonia.", "Elections are called by the President of the Republic.", "After the election of the Parliament, the first sitting is convened by the President of the Republic, where the members of the Parliament will take an oath of office and then elect the President and Vice Presidents of the Parliament.", "After the election of the President and Vice Presidents, who are nominated by members of the Parliament, the Prime Minister announces the resignation of the Government so a new one could take its place.", "The procedure of elections is defined in the ''Riigikogu'' Election Act.=== Head of State ===The President is the head of state of the Republic of Estonia and serves as the highest representative of the state.", "Furthermore, the President can have limited participation in legislation by issuing decrees, resolutions and directives.", "Presidential legislation is administered by the Government of the Republic.", "In addition, the President can refuse to proclaim a law and return it to the Parliament for review.", "The President is assisted by the Office of the President, which is managed by the Head of the Office of the President.", "There are also several institutions under the jurisdiction of the President.", "These include: President's Academic Advisory Board, Roundtable on Regional Development, Estonian Memory Institute, Cultural Foundation of the President, Estonian Cooperation Assembly and National Defence Council.", "The mandate of the President is determined by the President of the Republic Work Procedure Act.The President is elected by the Parliament of Estonia for a five-year term, but no more than two terms.", "If the Parliament does not secure at least two-thirds of the votes after three rounds of balloting, then an Electoral College (made up of the Parliament and representatives of local authority councils) elects the president, choosing between the two candidates with the largest percentage of votes.", "The President candidate is nominated with at least one-fifth support by members of the Parliament.", "Candidates have to be citizens of Estonia by birth and at least 40 years of age.", "The procedure for election of the President is provided in the President of the Republic Election Act.", "The President of the ''Riigikogu'' can also perform the duties of the President of the Republic in cases outlined in the constitution.===Government===The Government of the Republic () is the executive authority of the Republic of Estonia.", "Its main task is governing the state and implementing policies.", "It comprises the Prime Minister of Estonia and ministers, who also serve as representatives in the Council of the European Union.", "The Prime Minister is the head of Government who represents the institution and directs its activities.", "Different areas of government are managed by various ministries, each of which is headed by a minister.", "Ministries are further divided into departments, divisions and bureaus.", "The work of the ministry is managed by a secretary general, who is recommended by the minister and appointed by the Government.", "Executive power is also exercised by executive agencies and inspectorates under the authority of a ministry.", "The Government of the Republic is assisted by the Government Office, which is led by the State Secretary.", "The State Secretary is appointed by the Prime Minister.", "The activities and organisation of the Government is regulated in the Government of the Republic Act.After the appointment of the Parliament, the Prime Minister candidate is nominated by the President.", "The Parliament then decides whether to authorise the candidate to form the Government.", "If approved, the candidate presents a list of members of the Government to the President, who appoints the Government within three days.", "The Government of the Republic assumes office by taking an oath before the Parliament.===Central Bank===The Bank of Estonia () is the central bank of the Republic of Estonia.", "Its mission is to maintain the stability of the Estonian financial system.", "It administers the circulation of currency, implements monetary policy, advises the Government and reports to the Parliament.", "However, it operates independently of other national government agencies.", "It is a member of the European System of Central Banks and may receive instructions from the European Central Bank.", "It is overseen by the Supervisory Board, which includes a Chairman together with seven members.", "The Chairman of the Supervisory Board is recommended by the President and appointed by the Parliament for a term of five years.", "The Bank of Estonia is headed by the Governor of the Bank of Estonia, who is recommended by the Supervisory Board and appointed by the President for a term of five years, but no more than one consecutive term.", "The Governor is also the Chairman of the Executive Board, which is responsible for planning and organising the work of the institution.", "Furthermore, the Governor represents the Republic of Estonia in the Board of Governors of the International Monetary Fund.", "The Bank of Estonia is governed by strict confidentiality rules regarding banking secrets.", "The organisation and activities of the Bank of Estonia is regulated by the Bank of Estonia Act.===National Audit Office===The National Audit Office () is an independent public body that carries out audits concerning public spending and assets, including the use of European Union funds.", "It mainly reports to the Parliament, but can and does share information with the Government and the public.", "It is headed by the Auditor General, who is recommended by the President and appointed by the Parliament for a term of five years.", "Every year the Auditor General presents reports about public assets to the Parliament, which are also made public.", "The National Audit Office has two main departments, the Audit Department and Development and Administrative Service.", "The Audit Department carries out various audits and the Development and Administrative Service supports its function.", "The National Audit Office also cooperates with the European Court of Auditors.", "The organisation and activities of the National Audit Office is regulated by the National Audit Office Act.===Chancellor of Justice===The Chancellor of Justice () is a public official who is tasked with supervising the conformity of legislation with the Constitution of Estonia and laws, protecting fundamental rights, performing the functions of the Ombudsman for Children and solving discrimination disputes.", "Anybody can turn to the Chancellor of Justice with issues of fundamental rights and freedoms or conformance of an act or legislation with the constitution or law.", "Every year a report is presented to the Parliament about the activities of the Chancellor of Justice.", "If the Chancellor of Justice finds that some legislation is not in conformance with the constitution or law, then it can be sent back to the body that passed it to be brought into conformity.", "If the legislation is not brought in conformity within 20 days, then the Chancellor of Justice can make a proposal to the Supreme Court to repeal it.", "The Chancellor of Justice also regularly inspects places of detention to prevent and protect detainees of ill-treatment.", "The working body of the Chancellor of Justice is the Office of Chancellor of Justice.", "The Chancellor of Justice is recommended by the President and appointed to office by the Parliament for a term of seven years.", "The status and the organisation of the office of the Chancellor of Justice is determined by the Chancellor of Justice Act.===Courts===Courts form the judiciary of the Republic of Estonia, which consists of three instances.", "The first instance courts include county and city courts and administrative courts.", "Circuit courts are the second instance and review the rulings of the courts of first instance on appeal.", "The Supreme Court () is the highest court instance and reviews rulings of other courts upon request for a motion to quash, but also acts as a constitutional court.", "The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is recommended by the President and appointed by the Parliament.", "Justices of the Supreme Court are recommended by the Chief Justice and appointed by the Parliament.", "Other judges are recommended by the Supreme Court and appointed to office for life by the President.", "First and second instance courts are administered by the Ministry of Justice with the support of Council for Administration of Courts.", "The Supreme Court administers itself with the aid of self-government bodies.", "These include: Court ''en banc'', Council for Administration of Courts, Disciplinary Chamber, Judge's examination committee and Judicial Training Council.", "First and second order courts are headed by Chairmen, who are elected from among judges for a term of seven years.", "The organisation of the courts and their rules of procedure are established in the Courts Act.===Local government===The local self-government () is the authority responsible for all local matters.", "They are based on rural municipalities and cities.", "The local authority is represented by its council, which is elected for a term of four years on free local elections, in conformance with the Municipal Council Election Act.", "The council can have no less than seven members.", "The work of the council is managed by the chairman, who is elected from among the members of the council.", "The executive body of the local authority is the municipal administration (government).", "The municipal administration is formed and managed by the mayor, who is appointed by the council.", "The mayor is also tasked with representing the local authority.", "The council has the right to impose taxes, duties and regulations according to law.", "These are only valid within the administrative territory of the local government.", "The council may also decide to form committees, law enforcement units and other administrative agencies.", "Residents of the municipality have the right to initiate passage, amendment or repeal of legislation of the local authority.", "Issues in the domain of the council are decided by an open vote.", "The functions, responsibility and organisation of local governments is determined by the Local Government Organisation Act.===Political parties===Estonia has a multi-party system in which parties usually need to form coalition governments.", "However, some local self-governments have been formed by a single party.", "Parties gain authority for implementing their policies by participating in local self-government council, state parliament and/or European Parliament elections.", "The political landscape is relatively stable, though fractured, and polarization on the left-right scale tends to be fairly weak.", "Most of the polarization is centered on ethnicity, which is infused with conflict over Estonia's history and identity inherited from the Soviet Union.A party is founded by a memorandum of association as a non-profit association.", "It needs to have at least 1000 members and a platform approved by the leadership to be registered.", "Parties receive funding through donations and from state budget if they are either represented in the state parliament or managed to receive at least one percent of the votes in the elections of the parliament.", "Funding is reviewed by the political party funding supervision committee, which consists of members appointed for a term of five years by the Chancellor of Justice, Auditor General, National Electoral Committee and political parties represented in the parliament.", "Any Estonian citizen or a citizen of European Union with permanent residence in Estonia who is at least 18 years old can become a member of a political party.", "The organisation and activities of political parties is regulated by the Political Parties Act and Non-profit Associations Act." ], [ "Policies", "Mandate to implement policies is attained through elections.", "Political parties determine their program based on their platform and the input of members.", "Parties that get elected to a position of authority then have a chance to deliberate with other elected parties to decide which policies to implement and how.===Elections===Preliminary elections to European parliament in Tallinn.There are four types of public elections in Estonia: local government council elections, state parliament elections, European Parliament elections and referendums.", "Referendums can be initiated by the Parliament.", "The rules of procedure for elections are established in the Municipal Council Election Act, ''Riigikogu'' Election Act, European Parliament Election Act and Referendum Act.", "Elections are overseen by the National Electoral Committee and managed by the State Electoral Office, county heads of elections and voting district committees.", "Members of the National Electoral Committee, which is established for a term of four years, are appointed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Chancellor of Justice, Auditor General, Chief Public Prosecutor, State Secretary and Board of Auditors.", "The State Electoral Office is part of the Chancellery of the ''Riigikogu'' and its members are appointed by the Secretary General of the Parliament.", "It organises electronic voting and supervises the election managers.", "County heads of elections manage elections in the county by instructing and supervising voting district committees.", "They are either the county secretary or someone recommended by the country secretary and appointed by the Head of the State Electoral Office.", "A voting district committee is formed by the municipal council and comprises at least five members, with half of the members being presented by the municipal secretary and half by participating political parties.", "The activities of the National Electoral Committee and election managers can be observed by everyone.Electronic voting was first used in Estonia during the municipal council elections of 2005.Since then the share of people voting electronically has continuously risen.", "Electronic voting is managed by the State Electoral Office, which establishes the technical requirements and organisation of electronic voting.", "Voting is based on the Estonian ID card.", "Every voter has the right to verify and change their vote electronically.", "If the voter has also voted with a ballot paper, then only the ballot paper will be taken into account.Residents without Estonian citizenship may not elect the Riigikogu.", "Residents without citizenship of any European Union member state may not elect the European Parliament.", "All permanent residents, regardless of citizenship, are eligible to vote in the Estonian municipal elections.===Finance and the national budget===Estonia operates an advanced free-market economy, which is integrated into the wider European economy by being part of the European Union and the Eurozone.", "The Estonian monetary system is managed by the Estonian Central Bank, the national budget is drafted by the Government of the Republic and approved by the Parliament.", "The draft must be presented to the Parliament at least three months before the beginning of the budget year.", "The rules for drafting and passage of the state budget are described in the State Budget Act.", "Financial supervision is provided by the Financial Supervision Authority.", "It supervises securities market, banks, insurance providers, insurance mediators, investment associations and management companies.Drafting of the national budget is annually co-ordinated by the Ministry of Finance and supported by other ministries.", "The ministries prepare plans for at least the next three years and then negotiate the draft budget with the Ministry of Finance, while the Government of the Republic acts as a mediator.", "After the draft has been finalized by the Government of the Republic, it is then presented to the Parliament for approval.", "The implementation of the budget is then organized by the Ministry of Finance.", "Rearrangement of the budget, so that the total revenues and expenses don't change, is passed as amendments, but changes to the total revenues and expenses have to be made through an additional budget.", "Revenues and expenses are accounted by the State Treasury.Estonia has one of the lowest national debts in Europe.", "Part of the reason is that the State Budget Act requires the structural budget position to be in balance.", "There has also traditionally been a general political consensus over keeping the budget in balance and holding a decent reserve.", "The Estonian economy is frequently rated as one of the freest in the world and maintains a stable international credit rating.", "High efficiency is provided through an advanced internet banking system and e-governance.===Foreign relations and international treaties===Foreign relations are managed mainly by the Parliament, the Government of the Republic (including various ministries) and the President of the Republic, who mostly serves a representative role.", "The government can enter into international agreements and present them to the parliament for ratification.", "Agreements that are in conflict with the Constitution can not be ratified.", "One notable example of such a case was when Estonia decided to join the European Union, which required the amendment of the Constitution in order to ratify the Accession Treaty.", "The mandate for the amendment of the Constitution was gained through a public referendum.Estonia's main foreign policy goals are to maintain national security and stability of international relations, ensuring the functioning of Estonian economy, protecting citizens abroad, maintaining good influence and reputation, and promoting democracy, human rights, rule of law and economic freedom.", "To achieve these goals, Estonia has set its priorities on involvement and integration into the European Union and NATO, and forming strong relations with countries that share its values, especially its close Baltic and Nordic neighbours.", "Baltic and Nordic cooperation is coordinated through such formats as: Baltic Council of Ministers, Baltic Assembly, Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB8), Council of the Baltic Sea States and Nordic Council of Ministers.", "Estonia is also a member of the UN, OECD, OSCE and WTO, among others.Treaties can be initiated or concluded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.", "Other ministries and the State Chancellery can make proposals on treaties to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which then reviews the proposals.", "If the submission meets requirements, the ministry can then send it to the Government of the Republic for approval.", "Ratification of treaties is performed by the parliament.", "The performance of treaties is guaranteed by the Government of the Republic.", "The procedures pertaining to foreign relations are described in the Foreign Relations Act.After decades of Soviet occupation, Estonia decided to re-establish its independence in 1991.Because the annexation of Estonia was never recognized, and on the basis of the historical continuity of statehood, the state inherited the full responsibility for the rights and obligations of the Republic of Estonia that existed before the occupation.", "This means, that multilateral treaties, which were approved before the occupation, were considered to be still in effect.", "Thus, Estonia has re-assumed its international obligations through the restoration of old treaties.===National defence===Estonia's national defence is based on initial self-defence capability and membership in NATO.", "Estonia's security policy utilizes a broad concept of security, similar to the concept of total defence in several Nordic countries, in which all sectors of society are involved.", "According to the constitution, all citizens of Estonia have a duty to participate in national defence.", "Male citizens between the ages of 17-27 must partake in 8-12 month military service, though female citizens are also free to serve.", "Peace-time and war-time organisation of national defence is determined by the National Defence Act.The supreme commander of national defence is the President of the Republic.", "The president is advised by the National Defence Council, which consists of the President of the Parliament, Chairman of the National Defence Committee, Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee, the Prime Minister with other ministers and the Commander of the Defence Forces.", "Planning, development and organisation of national defence is coordinated by the Security Committee of the Government of the Republic.", "Management of defence readiness, state of emergency and state of war are directed by the Prime Minister.", "Increase of defence readiness needs to be approved by the parliament.", "Beginning and end of state of war and mobilisation is proposed by the president and declared by the parliament.", "In case of aggression against the Republic of Estonia, state of war can be declared by the president without a corresponding resolution from the parliament.", "Use of the Defence forces in international cooperation is decided by the parliament.", "The activities of the Defence Forces are directed and organised by the Commander of the Estonian Defence Forces." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Pettai, Vello and Marcus Kreuzer, \"Party Politics in the Baltic States: Social Bases and Institutional Context,\" East European Politics and Societies, 13.1 (1999)." ], [ "External links", "* Erik Herron's Guide to Politics of East Central Europe and Eurasia* Estonica : Estonia in brief : Political system:" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Estonia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Estonia''' is an advanced economy and the country is a member of the European Union and the eurozone.", "Estonia's economy is heavily influenced by developments in the Finnish and Swedish economies." ], [ "Overview", "Before the Second World War, Estonia's economy was based on agriculture, but there was a significant knowledge sector, with the university city of Tartu known for scientific contributions, and a growing industrial sector, similar to that of neighbouring Finland.", "Products, such as butter, milk, and cheese were widely known in the west European markets.", "The main markets were Germany and the United Kingdom, and only 3% of all commerce was with the neighbouring USSR.", "Estonia and Finland had a relatively similar standard of living.The USSR's occupation and annexation of Estonia in 1940 and the ensuing Nazi German and Stalinist Soviet destruction during World War II crippled the Estonian economy.", "The subsequent Soviet occupation and post-war Sovietization of life continued with the integration of Estonia's economy and industry into the USSR's centrally planned structure.After Estonia moved away from communism in the late 1980s, restored its independence in 1991 and became a market economy, it emerged as a pioneer in the global economy.", "In 1992, the country adopted the Estonian kroon as its own currency, and this greatly stabilised the economy.", "In 1994, it became one of the first countries in the world to adopt a flat tax, with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income.", "Estonia received more foreign investment per capita in the second half of the 1990s than any other country in Central and Eastern Europe.", "Between 2005 and 2008, the personal income tax rate was reduced from 26% to 21% in several steps.The country has been quickly catching up with the EU-15; its GDP per capita having grown from 34.8% of the EU-15 average in 1996 to 65% in 2007, similar to that of Central European countries.", "It is already rated a high-income country by the World Bank.", "The GDP (PPP) per capita of the country, a good indicator of wealth, was $35,974 in 2018 according to the World Bank, between that of Lithuania and Cyprus, but below that of most long-time EU members such as Spain or Italy.", "Because of its economic performance after regaining independence in 1991, Estonia has been termed one of the Baltic Tigers.In 2008, Estonia was ranked 12th of 162 countries in the Index of Economic Freedom 2008, the best of any post-Soviet states.", "The same year, the country was at the bottom of the list of European states by labour market freedom, but the government is drafting improvements.For Estonia, the financial crisis of 2007–2008 was comparatively easier to weather, because Estonia's budget has consistently been kept balanced, and this meant that Estonia's public debt relative to the country's GDP has remained the lowest in Europe.", "The economy recovered in 2010.On 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted the euro, and became the first ex-Soviet republic to join the eurozone.In 2013, the World Bank Group rated Estonia as 21st on the Ease of Doing Business Index." ], [ "History", "===Early history===Until the early 13th century, the territory that is now known as Estonia was independent.", "The economy was largely an agricultural one, but Estonia being a country with a long coastline, there were also many maritime activities.", "Autonomous development was brought to an end by the Northern Crusades undertaken by the King of Denmark, the German Livonian and the Teutonic military orders.", "The Estonian world was transformed by military conquest.", "The war against the invaders lasted from 1208 to 1227.The last Estonian county to fall was the island of Saaremaa in 1261.Thereafter, through many centuries until WWI, Estonian agriculture consisted of native peasants working large feudal-type estates held by ethnic German landlords.", "In the decades prior to independence, centralised Czarist rule had created a rather large industrial sector dominated by the Kreenholm Manufacturing Company, then the world's largest cotton mill.===Independence===After declaring independence in 1918, the Estonian War of Independence and the subsequent signing of the Treaty of Tartu in 1920, the new Estonian state inherited a ruined post-war economy and an inflated ruble currency.", "Despite considerable hardship, dislocation, and unemployment, Estonia spent the first decade of independence entirely transforming its economy.", "In 1918, The Czarist ruble was replaced by the Estonian mark, which was in circulation until 1927.By 1929, a stable currency, the kroon, had been established.", "It was issued by the Bank of Estonia, the country's central bank.", "Compensating the German landowners for their holdings, the government confiscated the estates and divided them into small farms, which subsequently formed the basis of Estonian prosperity.", "Trade focused on the local market and the West, particularly Germany and the United Kingdom.", "Only 3% of all commerce was with the USSR.===Soviet occupation===The USSR's forcible annexation of Estonia in 1940 and the ensuing Nazi and Soviet destruction during World War II crippled the Estonian economy.", "Post-war Soviet occupation and Sovietisation of life continued with the integration of Estonia's economy and industry into the USSR's centrally planned structure.", "More than 56% of Estonian farms were collectivised in the month of April 1949 alone after mass deportations to Siberia the previous month.", "Moscow expanded on those Estonian industries which had locally available raw materials, such as oil shale mining and phosphorites.===Restoration of independence, modernisation and liberalisation===Maakri has become the Central business district of Tallinn in the 21st centuryReal GDP per capita development of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania\"Since reestablishing independence, Estonia has styled itself as the gateway between East and West and pursued economic reform and integration with the West.\"", "Estonia's market reforms put it among the economic leaders in the former COMECON area.", "A balanced budget, almost non-existent public debt, flat-rate income tax, free trade regime, fully convertible currency backed by a currency board and a strong peg to the euro, competitive commercial banking sector, hospitable environment for foreign investment, innovative e-Services and mobile-based services are all hallmarks of Estonia's free-market-based economy.In June 1992, Estonia replaced the ruble with its own freely convertible currency, the kroon (EEK).", "A currency board was created and the new currency was pegged to the German Mark at the rate of 8 Estonian kroons for 1 Deutsche Mark.", "When Germany introduced the euro the peg was changed to 15.6466 kroons for 1 euro.Estonia was set to adopt the euro in 2008, but due to the inflation rate being above the required 3%, the adoption date was delayed to 2011.On 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted the euro and became the 17th eurozone member state.The privatisation of state-owned firms is virtually complete, with only the port and the main power plants remaining in government hands.The constitution requires a balanced budget, and the protection afforded by Estonia's intellectual property laws is on a par of that of Europe's.In early 1992, both liquidity problems and structural weakness stemming from the communist era precipitated a banking crisis.", "As a result, effective bankruptcy legislation was enacted and privately owned; well-managed banks emerged as market leaders.", "Today, near-ideal conditions for the banking sector exist.", "Foreigners are not restricted from buying bank shares or acquiring majority holdings.The fully electronic Tallinn Stock Exchange opened in early 1996, and was purchased by Finland's Helsinki Stock Exchange in 2001.Estonia joined the World Trade Organization in 1999.From the early 2000s to the latter part of that decade, the Estonian economy experienced considerable growth.", "In the year 2000, Estonian GDP grew by 6.4%.Upon accession to the European Union in 2004, double-digit growth was soon after observed.GDP grew by 7.9% in 2007 alone.", "Increases in labor costs, the imposition of tax on tobacco, alcohol, electricity, fuel, gas, and other external pressures (growing prices of oil and food on the global market) were expected to inflate price levels by 10% in the first months of 2009.===The 2008 financial crisis, response and recovery===Real GDP growth in Estonia, 2002–2012.The financial crisis of 2007–2008 has had a deep effect on the Estonian economy, primarily as a result of an investment and consumption slump that followed the burst of the real estate market bubble that had been building up during the preceding years.After a long period of very high growth of GDP, the GDP of Estonia decreased.", "In the first quarter 2008, GDP grew only 0.1%, and then decreased: negative growth was −1.4% in the 2nd quarter, a little over −3% (on a year-to-year basis) in the 3rd quarter, and −9.4% in the 4th quarter of that year.The government made a supplementary negative budget, which was passed by the Riigikogu.", "The revenue of the budget was decreased for 2008 by EEK 6.1 billion and the expenditure by EEK 3.2 billion.", "A current account-deficit was extant, but began to shrink in the last months of 2008, and had been expected to continue to do so in the near future.In 2009, the Estonian economy further contracted by 15.1% in the first quarter.", "Low domestic and foreign demand had depressed the economy's overall output.", "The Estonian economy's 33.7% industrial production drop was the sharpest decrease in industrial production in the entire European Union.", "That year, Estonia was one of the five worst-performing economies in the world in terms of annual GDP growth rate, and had one of the greatest rates of unemployment in the EU, which rose from 3.9% in May 2008 to 15.6% in May 2009.In December 2008, Estonia became one of the donor countries to the IMF-led rescue package for Latvia.", "In response to the crisis, the Ansip government opted for fiscal consolidation and retrenchment by maintaining fiscal discipline and a balanced budget in combination with austerity packages: The government increased taxes, and reduced public spending by slashing expenditures and public salaries across the board.In July 2009, the value-added tax was increased from 18% to 20%.", "The recorded budget deficit for 2009 was just 1.7% of GDP.The result was, that Estonia was one of only five EU countries in 2009 that had met the Maastricht criteria for debt and deficit, and had the third-lowest deficit after Luxembourg and Sweden.", "Neither did Estonia need to ask help from the IMF.", "Despite the third-largest drop in GDP, the country had the lowest budget deficit and the lowest public debt among Central and Eastern European countries.In 2009, the Estonian economy began to rebound, and economic growth resumed in the second half of 2010.The country's unemployment rate has since dropped significantly to pre-recession levels.", "To top it off, Estonia was granted permission in 2010 to join the eurozone in 2011.===Joining the euro===Before joining the eurozone, the Estonian kroon had been pegged to the euro at a rate of 15.64664 EEK to one euro; before then, the kroon was pegged to the German mark at approximately 8 EEK to 1 DEM.The design of Estonian euro coins was finalized in late 2004.Estonia's journey towards the euro took longer than originally projected, owing to the inflation rate continually being above the required 3% before 2010, which prevented the country from fulfilling the entry criteria.", "The country originally planned to adopt the euro on 1 January 2007 and officially changed its target date twice: first to 1 January 2008, and later to 1 January 2011.On 12 May 2010, the European Commission announced that Estonia had met all criteria to join the eurozone.", "On 8 June 2010, EU finance ministers.", "On 13 July 2010, Estonia received the final approval from ECOFIN to adopt the euro onwards from 1 January 2011.The switchover to the euro took place on 1 January 2011.With that, Estonia became one of the first post-Soviet states to join the eurozone.On 9 August 2011, just days after Standard & Poor's raised Estonia's credit rating from A to AA-.", "Among the factors, S&P cited as contributing to its decision was confidence in Estonia's ability to \"sustain strong economic growth.\"", "Estonia's GDP growth rate in 2011 was above 8%, despite having negative population growth." ], [ "The economy today", "In the second quarter of 2013, the average monthly gross wage in Estonia was €976 (15,271 kroons, US$1,328).", "This figure has grown consistently to €1,310 (20,497 kroons, US$1,473) as of 2018 and to €1,586 (20,816 kroons, US$1,876) as of June 2021.The Estonian economy was hit by the COVID-19 recession before bouncing back with an 8.6% rise in GDP in 2021, this was followed by the economic effect of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 resulting in a fall in GDP of 1.3% in 2022 and high inflation which hit 24.2% in 2022 before falling to single digits in 2023.===Future projections===Long-term prospects for the Estonian economy remain among the most promising in Europe.", "In 2011, the real GDP growth in Estonia was 8.0%, and according to projections made by CEPII, the GDP per capita could rise to the level of Nordic economies of Sweden, Finland, Denmark, and Norway by 2025.According to the same projections, by 2050, Estonia could become the most productive country in the EU, after Luxembourg, and thus join the top five most productive nations in the world.", "According to the Ministry of Environment, has committed to developing a circular economy strategic document and action plan by the end of 2021 which focuses on developing circular economy indicators by 2019 and mapping the current situation of Estonian circular economy, compiling a strategic document and action plan for circular economy in Estonia, and stakeholder involvement throughout the process as of 2020–2021.In March 2020, Margit Rüütelmann, executive of Estonian Circular Economy Industries Association, specified that the new Circular Economy Action Plan followed through the European Commission persisted to depend totally on fossil fuels and non-renewable herbal assets with inside the framework of the substantial improvement model, then through 2050, the sector could be the usage of assets as though it had 3 planets to make use of.", "She further added, the EU may even make investments withinside the financial system.", "This method that now's the best time to stimulate a round financial system and spend money on modern trends and technologies, which, in turn, reduces the carbon footprint of merchandise in the course of their beneficial lifestyles and extensively extends the duration of use of substances already in circulation." ], [ "Employment participation", "Unemployment rate as a percentage of the labor force in Estonia according to Statistics Estonia.Estonia has around 600,000 employees, yet the country has a shortage of skilled labor, and since skill shortages are experienced everywhere in Europe, the government has increased working visa quota for non-EEA citizens, although it has nevertheless been criticized for being inadequate for addressing the shortages.The late-2000s recession in the world, the near-concurrent local property bust with changes in Estonian legislation to increase labour market flexibility (making it easier for companies to lay off workers) saw Estonia's unemployment rate shoot up to 18.8% throughout the duration of the crisis, then stabilise to 13.8% by summer 2011, as the economy recovered on the basis of strong exports.", "Internal consumption, and therefore imports, plummeted; and cuts were made in public finances.", "Some of the reduction in unemployment has been attributed to some Estonians' emigrating for employment to Finland, the UK, Australia, and elsewhere.After the recession, the unemployment rate went lower, and throughout 2015 and 2016, the rate stayed near the levels that preceded the economic downturn, staying at just above 6%.", "In 2020-2023 the unemployment rate moved around between 5.2% and 7.7%." ], [ "Sectors", "Tallinn has emerged as the country's financial center.", "According to Invest in Estonia, advantages of Estonian financial sector are unbureaucratic cooperation between companies and authorities, and relative abundance of educated people although young educated Estonians tend to emigrate to western Europe for greater income.", "The largest banks are Swedbank, SEB Pank, and Nordea.", "Several IPOs have been made recently on the Tallinn Stock Exchange, a member OMX system.The Estonian service sector employs over 60% of workforce.", "Estonia has a strong information technology (IT) sector, partly due to the Tiigrihüpe project undertaken in mid-1990s, and has been mentioned as the most \"wired\" and advanced country in Europe in the terms of e-government.Farming, which had been forcibly collectivized for decades until the transition era of 1990–1992, has become privatized and more efficient, and the total farming area has increased in the period following Estonia's restoration of independence.", "The share of agriculture in the gross domestic product decreased from 15% to 3.3% during 1991–2000, while employment in agriculture decreased from 15% to 5.2%.The mining industry makes up 1% of the GDP.", "Mined commodities include oil shale, peat, and industrial minerals, such as clays, limestone, sand and gravel.", "Soviets created badly polluting industry in the early 1950s, concentrated in the north-east of the country.", "Socialist economy and military areas left the country highly polluted, and mainly because of oil shale industry in Ida-Virumaa, sulfur dioxide emissions per person are almost as high as in the Czech Republic.", "The coastal seawater is polluted in certain locations, mainly the east.", "The government is looking for ways to reduce pollution further.Main resource: '' State of Environment in Estonia on Threshold of XXI Century'' In 2000, the emissions were 80% smaller than in 1980, and the amount of unpurified wastewater discharged to water bodies was 95% smaller than in 1980.Estonian productivity is experiencing rapid growth, and consequently wages are also rising quickly, with a rise in private consumption of about 8% in 2005.According to Estonian Institute of Economic Research, the largest contributors to GDP growth in 2005 were processing industry, financial intermediation, retailing and wholesale trade, transport and communications.===Agriculture===Estonia produced in 2018:* 450 thousand tons of wheat;* 347 thousand tons of barley;* 113 thousand tons of rapeseed;* 88 thousand tons of potato;* 78 thousand tons of oat;* 53 thousand tons of pea;* 29 thousand tons of rye;In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.===Largest companies by revenue=== Company Revenue(EUR millions)Tallink Grupp967.0Ericsson Eesti815.4Eesti Energia754.0Tallinna Kaubamaja Group651.3Maxima Eesti464.4Manoir Energy423.1BLRT Grupp399.9Rimi Eesti Food377.6Orlen Eesti370.8Swedbank367.1===Largest companies by profit=== Company Profit(EUR millions)Swedbank190.6Eesti Energia101.0SEB Pank85.3Tallink Grupp53.6Stora Enso Eesti43.5State Forest Management Centre43.2Telia Eesti33.3Olympic Entertainment Group30.0Tallinna Kaubamaja Group29.8Harju Elekter29.1In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Estonia is Services with 144,514 companies followed by Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate and Retail Trade with 47,001 and 26,635 companies respectively." ], [ "Infrastructure", "Oil shale supplies around 70% of the country's primary energy.", "Oil shale extraction in VKG Ojamaa mine.Railway transport dominates the cargo sector, comprising 70% of all carried goods, domestic and international.", "Road transport is the one that prevails in the passenger sector, accounting for over 90% of all transported passengers.", "5 major cargo ports offer easy navigational access, deep waters, and good ice conditions.", "There are 12 airports and 1 heliport in Estonia.", "Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport is the largest airport in Estonia, with 1,73 million passengers and 22,764 tons of cargo (annual cargo growth 119.7%) in 2007.International flight companies such as SAS, Finnair, Lufthansa, EasyJet, and Nordic Aviation Group provide direct flights to 27 destinations.Approximately 7.5% of the country's workforce is employed in transportation and the sector contributes over 10% of GDP.", "Estonia is getting much business from traffic between European Union and Russia, especially oil cargo through Estonian ports.", "Transit trade's share of GDP is disputed, but many agree that Russia's increased hostility is decreasing the share.Instead of coal, electricity is generated by burning oil shale, with largest stations in Narva.", "Oil shale supplies around 70% of the country's primary energy.", "Other energy sources are natural gas imported from Russia, wood, motor fuels, and fuel oils.Wind power in Estonia amounts to 58.1 megawatts, whilst roughly 399 megawatts worth of projects are currently being developed.", "Estonian energy liberalization is lagging far behind the Nordic energy market.", "During the accession negotiations with the EU, Estonia agreed that at least 35% of the market are opened before 2009 and all of non-household market, which totals around 77% of consumption, before 2013.Estonia is concerned that Russia could use energy markets to bully it.", "In 2009, the government considered granting permits to nuclear power companies, and there were plans for a shared nuclear facility with Latvia and Lithuania.", "Those plans were shelved after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011.Estonia has high Internet penetration, and connections are available throughout most of the country." ], [ "Trade", "CountryExportImport 16%14% 19%8% 10%9% 8%8% 6%9% 5%11% 4%8%Estonia exports machinery and equipment (33% of all exports annually), wood and paper (15% of all exports annually), textiles (14% of all exports annually), food products (8% of all exports annually), furniture (7% of all exports annually), and metals and chemical products.", "Estonia also exports 1.562 million megawatt hours of electricity annually.", "Estonia imports machinery and equipment (33.5% of all imports annually), chemical products (11.6% of all imports annually), textiles (10.3'% of all imports annually), food products (9.4% of all imports annually), and transportation equipment (8.9% of all imports annually).", "Estonia imports 200 thousand megawatt hours of electricity annually." ], [ "Natural resources", " ResourceLocationReserves Oil shalenorth-east1,137,700,000 mln t Sea mud (medical) south1,356,400,000 mln t Construction sand across the country166,700,000 mln m3 Construction gravel north32,800,000 mln m3 Lake mud (medical)across the country1,133,300 mln t Lake mud (fertilizer)east170,900 t Ceramic clay across the country10,600,000 mln m3 Ceramsid clay (for gravel) across the country2,600,000 mln m3 Technological dolomite west16,600,000 mln m3 Technological limestone north13,800,000 mln m3 Decoration dolomite west2,900,000 mln m3 Construction dolomite west32,900,000 mln m3 Blue clay across the country2,044,000 mln t Granite across the country1,245,100,000 mln m3 Peat across the country230,300,000 mln t Construction limestone north110,300,000 mln m3 Limestone cement north9,400,000 mln m3 Clay cement north15,6000,000 mln m3 Graptolitic argillite north 64,000,000,000 mln t Wood across the country15,6000,000 mln m3 Technological sand north3,300,000 mln m3 Lake lime north and south 808,000 t Phosphorite northover 350,000,000 mln t (estimated) Subsoil across the country 21,1 km3" ], [ "Data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1993–2018.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)199311.27,3381.8n/a6.5%n/a199411.32.5n/a199511.78,0223.92.2%29.0%9.6%9%199612.54.8199714.45.2199815.25.6199915.35.7200017.312,1135.710.6%3.9%14.6%5%200118.86.3200220.37.4200322.39.9200424.512.2200527.719,76514.19.4%4.1%8.0%5%200631.322,60017.110.3%4.4%5.9%4%200734.625,14422.57.7%6.7%4.6%4%200833.424,32824.4−5.4%10.6%5.5%4%200928.720,94619.7−14.7%0.2%13.5%7%201029.821,72119.62.3%2.7%16.7%7%201132.623,91923.27.6%5.1%13.2%6%201234.425,49423.04.3%4.2%10.0%10%201336.226,50825.11.9%3.2%8.6%10%201438.127,85626.62.9%0.5%7.4%11%201538.428,68522.91.7%0.1%6.2%10%201641.229,68424.12.1%0.9%6.8%9%201744.731,75026.94.9%3.7%5.8%9%201847.530.6201950.331.3Gross domestic product by country+GDP per capita, eurosCounty2020Whole country20184Harju county28927..Tallinn33563Hiiu county8072Ida-Viru county11665Jõgeva county9294Järva county12609Lääne county10313Lääne-Viru county12966Põlva county7757Pärnu county11883Rapla county9540Saare county11712Tartu county19280..Tartu city22326Valga county7981Viljandi county12387Võru county8496" ], [ "See also", "* Baltic Tiger* Banking in Estonia* Economy of Europe" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Estonia" ], [ "Introduction", "The National Telecommunications act in the second period of Estonian independence granted a monopoly on international and local fixed line telephony to Estonian Telecom (Eesti Telecom).", "In the process of privatization, a concession was granted to liberalize mobile, CATV and packet-switched telecommunications.", "This concession was critical for developing a competitive market.", "Three licensed mobile operators encouraged one of the highest rates of mobile telephony penetration in the world.", "CATV licenses were granted at a local level, and while it was a more natural monopoly, pirate operators proliferated within populous cities in the 1990s.Internet penetration blossomed.", "Beginning with a satellite link and widespread undersea leased line connectivity, Estonia connected with the rest of the world.", "The concession for packet communications, perhaps against the constraint of limited international telephony competition (with the global exceptions of callback, transit and re-file arbitrage) -- created conditions in which Skype was natively created.With a population of about 1.3 million, Estonia had in 2012 about 2.07 million cellular telephones and 0.45 million fixed phones.", "In 2009 it had about 0.97 million internet users." ], [ "Digital Progress", "Estonia is a nation with a digitally advanced economy.", "In 2023, about 93% of citizens engage with e-government services, highlighting a citizen-centric governance approach.", "Access to e-health records is available to 89% of Estonians.", "In the business realm, 51% of companies have adopted cloud services.", "Supporting this digital progress, approximately 10.1% of graduates are in Information and Communication Technology (ICT)." ], [ "See also", "* Internet in Estonia" ], [ "References", "* CIA World Factbook" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Estonia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in Estonia''' relies mainly on road and rail networks." ], [ "Roads", "Estonian main and E-roads*Total: 57,565 km (including 16,465 km of national roads)*Paved: 12,926 km (including 99 km of limited-access roads)===National roads===National roads form the core of Estonian road network.", "Their total length is 16,489 km (or 28% of all roads), 67% of them are paved.", "They are divided into 4 classes according to importance:*main roads (1,607 km)*basic roads (2,406 km)*secondary roads (12,476 km)*local roads (18,455 km)+'''Main roads in Estonia''' Number E-road Route Length (km) Notes Tallinn – Narva211 expressway for 80 km out of Tallinn and 7 km between Kukruse and Johvi.", "Continues to Saint Petersburg as Russian M11 Tallinn – Tartu – Võru – Luhamaa291 expressway for 63 km out of Tallinn and 6 km near Mäo.", "Crosses Estonia in southeast direction from Tallinn to join national road 7 Jõhvi – Tartu – Valga216 continues from Valga to Riga as Latvian A3 Tallinn – Pärnu – Ikla193 expressway for 14 km out of Tallinn continues from Ikla to Riga as Latvian A1 Pärnu – Rakvere – Sõmeru184 from Pärnu via Paide to join national road 1 near Rakvere Valga – Uulu125 from Pärnu via Kilingi-Nõmme to Valga Riga – Pskov22 short section in southeast Estonia via Misso, continues as Russian A212 and Latvian A2 Tallinn – Paldiski49 via Keila, Keila-Paldiski section is part of E 265, which continues on ferry to Kapellskär Ääsmäe – Haapsalu – Rohuküla81 ferry connection from Rohuküla to Hiiumaa Risti – Virtsu – Kuivastu – Kuressaare144 ferry between Virtsu and Kuivastu (Muhumaa) Tallinn ring road38 Tartu – Viljandi – Kilingi-Nõmme130===Electric vehicle network===Estonia is the first country in the EU and in the world to introduce a nationwide, publicly serviced charging system for charging the batteries of electric vehicles.", "The 165 fast charging stations are equipped with connectors of the CHAdeMO standard.", "They are located throughout the entire country, including the islands, and have a maximum distance of 40–60 km in between.", "The charging stations can also be navigated via a smartphone app (currently only for Android).", "The relatively dense network and 30 minute quick charges are built to enable a country-wide electric vehicle network.", "The system offers a unitary booking service and several different tariffs, some of which appear attractively low priced.", "The charging station network puts Estonia at the forefront in Europe even though Norway actually has a higher penetration of electric vehicles.", "Estonia has a rate of 1 electric vehicle per 1,000 capita, whereas Norway has 4 EVs per 1,000 capita." ], [ "Railways", "*Total: 900 km common carrier lines only (1,200 km including dedicated industrial lines)*Broad gauge: 900 km or gauge (133 km electrified)=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===* Latvia – yes – same gauge* Russia – yes – same gaugeAs of 2023, the Rail Baltica project to link a high speed line through Latvia and Lithuania to Poland, is scheduled for completion in 2030, with a start of services on some of the sections in 2028." ], [ "Light rail", "Train in Tallinn in 2006There has been a growing tram network in Tallinn, Estonia since 1888, when traffic was started by horse-powered trams.", "The first line was electrified on October 28, 1925.The first electric trams were built by Dvigatel, Ltd., in Tallinn before World War II and for some years after that, the last one in 1954.In the 1920s and 1930s gas-powered trams were also used.", "Since 1955 to 1988 German-built trams were used.", "In total, there were 20 LOWA T54-B54 trams (in use from February 1955 to March 1977), 11 Gotha T57-B57 (in use from January 1958 to June 1978), 5 Gotha T59E-B59E (in use from June 1960 to February 1980), 14 Gotha T2-62 and B2-62 (in use from 1962 to 1981) and 50 Gotha G4 trams (in use from January 1965 to October 1988) trams.", "The first Czechoslovakian-built ČKD Tatra T4SU arrived in 1973.The T4SU trams were in use from May 1973 to September 2005 and there were 60 of them.", "The first KT4SU arrived in Tallinn in 1981 and was first in use on March 10, 1981.In 2007, there are 56 KT4SU, 12 KTNF6 (rebuilt KT4SUs, 10 local, one from Gera and one from Erfurt) and 23 KT4D (12 from Gera, 6 from Cottbus, 1 from Frankfurt (Oder) and 5 from Erfurt) in use.", "As of 2018, there are four lines: 1 (Kopli-Kadriorg), 2 (Kopli-Ülemiste), 3 (Tondi-Kadriorg) and 4 (Tondi-Lennujaam (Airport)).", "There have also been lines 5 (Kopli-Vana-Lõuna, shut down in 2004 because of small usage) and 6 (Kopli-Tondi, temporarily used in time of repairs)." ], [ "Ports and Harbours", "Estonia has 45 ports in the State Port Register.", "With a few exceptions, all of them are on the Baltic Sea.Largest ports are Muuga (near Tallinn), Tallinn (comprises several ports), Paldiski, Kunda, Pärnu and Sillamäe." ], [ "Merchant marine", "Since 2014, there have been no vessels over 500gt on the Estonian register.", "About 60 merchant vessels are beneficially owned in Estonia, with most of them registered in Malta.", "The government has started a drive to bring more of these vessels back into the Estonian register." ], [ "Airports", "=== Airports – with paved runways ===*total: 13 (2013)*over 3,047 m: 2*2,438 to 3,047 m: 8*1,524 m to 2,437 m : 2*914 to 1,523 m: 1Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport is the largest airport in Estonia." ], [ "Pipelines", "* Natural gas 859 km (2007)" ], [ "Waterways", "* 320 km perennially navigableCurrently operating water transport routes:* International:**Tallinn – Helsinki ferry and (seasonal) high-speed craft**Tallinn – Mariehamn (Åland) – Stockholm ferry**Paldiski – Kappelskär (Sweden) ferry**Tallinn – Visby (Gotland) (seasonal cruise) ferry* Domestic:**Western Estonia:***Rohuküla – Sviby (Vormsi Island) ferry***Rohuküla – Heltermaa (Hiiumaa Island) ferry***Sõru (Hiiumaa Island) – Triigi (Saaremaa Island) ferry***Virtsu – Kuivastu (Muhu Island) ferry***Pärnu – Kihnu Island boat-ferry***Munalaid – Kihnu Island boat-ferry***Munalaid – Manilaid Islet boat-ferry and boat***Roomassaare (Saaremaa Island) – Abruka Island boat-ferry and boat***Munalaid – Ruhnu Island (charter) ferry and (seasonal) high-speed craft-ferry***Pärnu – Ruhnu Island (seasonal) high-speed craft-ferry***Roomassaare (Saaremaa Island) – Ruhnu Island (seasonal) high-speed craft-ferry***Rohuküla – Hobulaid Islet (charter) boat**Northern Estonia:***Leppneeme – Prangli Island boat-ferry***Tallinn – Aegna Island (seasonal) boat***Tallinn – Naissaar Island (seasonal) boat***Dirhami – Osmussaar Island (seasonal) boat***Kurkse – Väike-Pakri Island (charter) boat**Lake Peipus and Emajõgi River:***Laaksaare – Piirissaar Island ferry***Kavastu (seasonal) cable ferry across Emajõgi River" ], [ "See also", "* M/S ''Estonia''* TS Laevad – ferry company serving the major islands* Kihnu Veeteed – ferry company serving mainly smaller islands* Plug-in electric vehicles in Estonia" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Estonia" ], [ "Introduction", "The Republic of Estonia gained its independence from the Russian Empire on 24 February 1918 and established diplomatic relations with many countries via membership of the League of Nations.", "The forcible incorporation of Estonia into the Soviet Union in 1940 was not generally recognised by the international community and the Estonian diplomatic service continued to operate in some countries.", "Following the restoration of independence from the Soviet Union, Russia was one of the first nations to re-recognize Estonia's independence (the first country to do so was Iceland on 22 August 1991).", "Estonia's immediate priority after regaining its independence was the withdrawal of Russian (formerly Soviet) forces from Estonian territory.", "In August 1994, this was completed.", "However, relations with Moscow have remained strained primarily because Russia decided not to ratify the border treaty it had signed with Estonia in 1999." ], [ "Trends following re-independence", "Since regaining independence, Estonia has pursued a foreign policy of close cooperation with Western European nations.", "President Toomas Hendrik Ilves and President George W. Bush, in Estonia 2006.The two most important policy objectives in this regard have been accession into NATO and the European Union, achieved in March and May 2004 respectively.", "Estonia's international realignment toward the West has been accompanied by a general deterioration in relations with Russia, most recently demonstrated by the controversy surrounding relocation of the Bronze Soldier WWII memorial in Tallinn.", "Estonia has become an increasingly strong supporter of deepening European integration.", "The decision to participate in the preparation of a financial transaction tax in 2012 reflects this shift in Estonia's EU policy.An important element in Estonia's post-independence reorientation has been closer ties with the Nordic countries, especially Finland and Sweden.", "Indeed, Estonians consider themselves a Nordic people due to being Finnic people like the Finns rather than Balts, based on their historical ties with Denmark and particularly Finland and Sweden.", "In December 1999 Estonian foreign minister (and since 2006, president of Estonia) Toomas Hendrik Ilves delivered a speech entitled \"Estonia as a Nordic Country\" to the Swedish Institute for International Affairs.", "In 2003, the foreign ministry also hosted an exhibit called \"Estonia: Nordic with a Twist\".", "And in 2005, Estonia joined the European Union's Nordic Battle Group.", "It has also shown continued interest in becoming a full member in the Nordic Council.Whereas in 1992 Russia accounted for 92% of Estonia's international trade, today there is extensive economic interdependence between Estonia and its Nordic neighbors: three-quarters of foreign investment in Estonia originates in the Nordic countries (principally Finland and Sweden), to which Estonia sends 42% of its exports (as compared to 6.5% going to Russia, 8.8% to Latvia, and 4.7% to Lithuania).", "On the other hand, the Estonian political system, its flat rate of income tax, and its non-welfare-state model distinguish it from the other Nordic states, and indeed from many other European countries.Estonia is a party to 181 international organizations, including the BIS, CBSS, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (member since 1 May 2004), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, ITUC, NATO, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNTSO, UPU, WCO, WEU (associate partner), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO." ], [ "International disputes", "===Territorial issues between Estonia and Russia===Estonian President Kersti Kaljulaid with Russian President Vladimir Putin in Moscow on 18 April 2019After the dissolution of the Soviet Union Estonia had hoped for the return of more than 2,000 square kilometers of territory annexed to Russia after World War II in 1945.The annexed land had been within the borders Estonia approved by Russia in the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty.", "However, the Boris Yeltsin government disavowed any responsibility for acts committed by the Soviet Union.After signing the border treaty by the corresponding foreign minister in 2005, it was ratified by the Estonian government and president.", "The Russian side interpreted the preamble as giving Estonia a possibility for future territorial claim, and Vladimir Putin notified Estonia that Russia will not consider these.", "Negotiations were reopened in 2012 and the Treaty was signed in February 2014.Ratification is still pending." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Estonia maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617186 September 19911920212223242526272829—30313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156—157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180181182183184185186187—188189—==Bilateral relations== ===Multilateral=== Organization Formal Relations BeganNotesSee 2004 enlargement of the European Union Estonia joined the European Union as a full member on 1 May 2004.Estonia joined NATO as a full member on 29 March 2004.===Africa=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes1937* Egypt first recognized Estonia in 1937 and re-recognized Estonia on 6 September 1991.", "* Egypt is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "* January 2005 – Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs Kristiina Ojuland's visit to Egypt* November 2005 – Prime Minister of Estonia Andrus Ansip in Barcelona at the Euromed Summit met with Egyptian Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif.", "* December 2007 – Prime Minister of Estonia Andrus Ansip met with Egyptian Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif in the framework of the EU- African Union Summit in Lisbon.", "* Estonian Ministry of foreign Affairs about the relation with Egypt* Special Mission of the Republic of Estonia to the Arab Republic of Egypt * Estonia has an embassy office in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.2012Both countries established diplomatic relations in September 2012.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Lesotho.", "* Lesotho does not have an accreditation to Estonia.", "* Estonia is accredited to Morocco from its embassy in Lisbon, Portugal.", "* Morocco is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia does not have an accredited to South Africa.", "* South Africa is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.===Americas=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes * Argentina is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Argentina.", "* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 May 1999.", "* Belize does not have an accreditation to Estonia.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Belize.", "* Bolivia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Bolivia.", "* Brazil has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonia is accredited to Brazil from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tallinn.1922* Canada has an embassy office in Tallinn.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Ottawa.See Chile–Estonia relationsChile first recognized Estonia on 22 September 1921.Chile re-recognised Estonia on 28 August 1991 and diplomatic relations between the two countries were established on 27 September 1991.An agreement on visa-free travel between Estonia and Chile came into force on 2 December 2000.The two countries also have in force a Memorandum on co-operation between the Ministries of Foreign Affairs.", "Agreements on cultural, tourism, and IT cooperation are being readied.Chile is among Estonia's most important foreign trade partners in South America.", "In 2006, Estonia and Chile issued the joint Antarctic themed stamp series, designed by Ülle Marks and Jüri Kass, bearing images of the Emperor penguin and the minke whale.", "The works of Chilean writers Isabel Allende, Pablo Neruda and José Donoso have been translated into Estonian.", "* Chile is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland and maintains an honorary consulate in Tallinn.", "* Estonia is accredited to Chile from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tallinn and maintains an honorary consulate in Santiago.", "* Colombia first recognised Estonia on 22 September 1921 and re-recognised the restored Republic of Estonia on 23 March 1994.", "* Colombia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland.", "* Estonia is accredited to Colombia from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tallinn.", "* Colombia defines Estonia as a major ally and key player on Colombia's accession into the OECD and ratification of the Colombia-European Union Trade Agreement.", "* Costa Rica does not have an accreditation to Estonia* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Costa Rica.", "* Cuba is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Cuba.", "* El Salvador is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to El Salvador.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 April 1997.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Guyana.", "* Guyana does not have an accreditation to Estonia.", "See Estonia–Mexico relations* Estonia and Mexico signed a friendship treaty on 28 January 1937.", "* Mexico was among those countries that never recognized Estonia's annexation by the Soviet Union.", "Mexico recognized the restored Republic of Estonia on 5 September 1991, while diplomatic relations were re-established on 5 December 1991.", "* Estonia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States and maintains honorary consulates in Mexico City and in Tampico.", "* Mexico is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland and maintains an honorary consulate in Tallinn.", "* Estonia is accredited to Peru from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tallinn.", "* Peru is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland and maintains an honorary consulate in Tallinn.2009Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 September 2009.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Saint Kitts and Nevis.", "* Saint Kitts and Nevis does not have an accreditation to Estonia.See Estonia–United States relations* Estonia has an embassy in Washington, D.C. and consulates-general in New York City and San Francisco.", "* United States has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Uruguay.", "* Uruguay is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland and maintains an honorary consulate in Tallinn.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Venezuela.", "* Venezuela is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Oslo, Norway.===Asia=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes * Afghanistan is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland.", "* Estonia is accredited to Afghanistan from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tallinn.", "* Armenia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland and an honorary consulate in Tallinn.", "* Estonia is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Tbilisi, Georgia and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan.", "* There are around 2,000 of Armenian descent living in Estonia.", "See Azerbaijan-Estonia relations* Estonia recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on February 20, 1992.", "* Diplomatic relations between Azerbaijan and Estonia have been established since April 20, 1992.", "* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonia has an embassy office in Baku.", "* Cambodia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation for Cambodia.", "* China has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Beijing.In June 2020, Estonia openly opposed the Hong Kong national security law* Georgia recognized Estonia on 27 August 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with GeorgiaSee Estonia–India relations* India first recognized Estonia on 22 September 1921 and re-recognized Estonia on 9 September 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in New Delhi.", "* India is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland and maintains an honorary consulate in Tallinn.", "* Estonia is accredited to Indonesia from its embassy in Singapore.", "* Indonesia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Iran recognized Estonia on 22 September 1921, Iran has never recognised the occupation of Estonia by the Soviet Union and re-recognized Estonia on 10 September 1991.Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on 18 August 1992.", "* Estonia is accredited to Iran from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.", "* Iran is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia is accredited to Iraq from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tallinn.", "* Iraq is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Israel recognized Estonia on 4 September 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "* Israel is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Nur-Sultan.", "* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonia is accredited to Kuwait from its embassy in Abu Dhabi, UAE.", "* Kuwait is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Berlin, Germany.1996* Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1996.", "* Estonia is accredited to Kyrgyzstan from its embassy in Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan.", "* Kyrgyzstan is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Minsk, Belarus.", "* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "* Malaysia recognised the independence of Estonia on 11 September 1991 shortly after the dissolution of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic on 20 August 1991.Relations between the two countries have been established since 4 November 1993.", "* Estonia is accredited to Malaysia from its embassy in New Delhi, India and maintains an honorary consul in Kuala Lumpur.", "* Malaysia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia is accredited to Mongolia from its embassy in Beijing, China and maintains an honorary consulate in Ulaanbaatar.", "* Mongolia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Neither of the nations have established diplomatic relations.", "* Estonia only recognized Republic of Korea as the sole legitimate regime in the Korean Peninsula, excluding North Korea.", "* Estonia is accredited to Oman from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.", "* Oman is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in London, United Kingdom * Estonia does not have an accreditation to Pakistan.", "* Pakistan is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland.The establishment of diplomatic relations between Estonia and the Republic of Korea began on 1991-09-17.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Seoul.", "* South Korea is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia recognized South Korea as the sole legitimate regime in the Korean Peninsula.See Estonia–Sri Lanka relations* Sri Lanka recognized Estonia on 10 October 1991.", "* Estonia is accredited to Sri Lanka from its embassy in New Delhi, India.", "* Sri Lanka is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.2006* Both countries established diplomatic relations in 2006.", "* Estonia is accredited to Tajikistan from its embassy in Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan.", "* Tajikistan is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Minsk, Belarus.", "* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "* Thailand (then Siam) first recognized Estonia on 22 October 1921.Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on 27 April 1992.", "* Estonia is accredited to Thailand through its embassy in Beijing, China.", "* Thailand is accredited to Estonia through its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "See Estonia–Turkey relations* Turkey recognized Estonia on 23 October 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Ankara.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of the NATO.", "* Estonia is an EU member and Turkey is an EU candidate.", "Estonia supports Turkey's accession negotiations to the EU, although negotiations have now been suspended.", "* Estonia is accredited to Turkmenistan from its embassy in Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan.", "* Turkmenistan is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Minsk, Belarus.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Abu Dhabi.", "* UAE is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Estonia is accredited to Uzbekistan from its embassy in Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan.", "* Uzbekistan is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Riga, Latvia.", "* Estonia is accredited to Vietnam from its embassy in Beijing, China.", "* Vietnam is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.===Europe=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes * Albania is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland.", "* Estonia is accredited to Albania from its embassy in Athens, Greece.", "* Austria recognised Estonia on 26 June 1921.", "* Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on 8 January 1992.", "* Austria has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Vienna.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "See Belarus-Estonia relations* Belarus has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Minsk.", "* Belgium is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Brussels.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Bosnia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Estonia is accredited to Bosnia from its embassy in Budapest, Hungary.See Bulgaria–Estonia relations* Bulgaria recognised Estonia on 20 May 1921 and re-recognised Estonia on 26 August 1991.", "* Bulgaria is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland and maintains an honorary consulate in Tallinn.", "* Estonia is accredited to Bulgaria from its embassy in Bucharest, Romania and has an honorary consulate in Sofia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Croatia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia is accredited to Croatia from its embassy in Prague, Czech Republic.", "* In 2000 the two countries mutually ended the visa regimes for citizens travelling between the two states.", "In September 2008, the Estonian prime minister Andrus Ansip made a state visit to Croatia in which he supported the country on its way toward NATO and EU membership.", "* Cyprus is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia is accredited to Cyprus from its embassy in Athens, Greece.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.1921See Denmark–Estonia relations* Denmark has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Estonia–Finland relations* Finland first recognised Estonia on 20 June 1920.", "* Finland has an embassy in Tallinn and an honorary consulate in Tartu.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Helsinki and six honorary consulates in Kotka, Mariehamn, Oulu, Tampere, Turku and Vaasa.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of the Baltic Sea States and of the European Union and of NATO.", "* Estonia and Finland have a joint embassy in Canberra.", "* France recognised Estonia on 26 January 1921.France never recognised the Soviet occupation of Estonia.", "France re-stated its recognition on 25 August 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Paris and 4 honorary consulates (in Lille, Lyon, Nancy and Toulouse).", "* France has its French Institute of Estonia in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "See Estonia–Germany relations * Estonia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Estonia–Greece relations* Greece recognised Estonia on 19 May 1922.Greece never recognised the Soviet annexation of Estonia.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and the European Union.", "* Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Greece* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Estonia* Estonia is accredited to the Holy See from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tallinn.", "* Holy See is accredited to Estonia from its Apostolic Nunciature in Vilnius, Lithuania.", "* In September 1993, Pope John Paul II visited Estonia.", "* Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the bilateral relations with the Vatican* Hungary recognised Estonia on 24 February 1921.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "* Estonia Ministry of Foreign affairs about relations with Hungary* Iceland was the first country to re-recognized Estonia's independence on 22 August 1991.", "* Estonia is accredited to Iceland through its embassy in Oslo, Norway and maintains an honorary consulate in Reykjavík.", "* Iceland is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO, of the Council of Europe and of the Council of the Baltic Sea States.", "* Estonia and Iceland have a joint embassy in Beijing, China.", "* Ireland recognised Estonia on 27 August 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Dublin.", "* Ireland has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Italy recognised Estonia on 26 January 1921 .", "Italy re-recognised Estonia on 27 August 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Rome.", "* Italy has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.See Estonia–Kosovo relations* Estonia recognized Kosovo on 21 February 2008.", "* Estonia is accredited to Kosovo from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.", "* Kosovo is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.See Estonia–Latvia relations* Estonia has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* The two states share 343 km of common borders.", "* They enjoy close relations sharing a common history of relations in the USSR and being neighbours.1919See Estonia–Lithuania relations* Estonia has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Until 31 July 2016 the Estonian ambassador to Lithuania was Toomas Kukk.", "* Both countries are situated in the Baltic region and are the full members of NATO and EU.", "* Luxembourg recognized Estonia on 22 February 1923 and re-recognised Estonia on 27 August 1991.Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on 29 August 1991.", "* Estonia is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium and maintains an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City.", "* Trade agreement between Estonia and Belgium and Luxembourg (1935)* Agreement on Road Transport between Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands (came into force 1 December 1994)* Agreement Between Estonia and the Belgo-Luxembourg Economic Union on the Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments (came into force 23 September 1999)* Agreement Between Estonia and the States of Benelux on Readmission of Persons (came into force 1 February 2005)* Agreement on the Avoidance of Double Taxation and the Prevention of Income and Capital Tax evasion (signed 23 May 2006) * Malta recognized Estonia on 26 August 1991.", "* Estonia is accredited to Malta from its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "* Malta is accredited to Estonia from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Valletta.", "* Malta has a honorary consulate in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Moldova recognized Estonia on 28 August 1991 and Estonia recognized Moldova on 20 February 1992.", "* Estonia haș an embassy office in Chişinău.", "* Moldova has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.", "* Estonia is accredited to Montenegro from its embassy in Budapest, Hungary.", "* Montenegro is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland.", "* The Netherlands recognized Estonia on 5 March 1921.After the end of Soviet occupation the Netherlands re-recognised Estonia on 2 September 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in The Hague.", "* Netherlands has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 March 1995.", "* Estonia is accredited to North Macedonia from its embassy in Budapest, Hungary.", "* North Macedonia has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Norway recognized Estonia on 5 February 1921.Norway never recognized the annexation of the Baltic States by the Soviet Union.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Oslo and three honorary consulates (in Trondheim, Tromsø and Stavanger).", "* Norway has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of the Baltic Sea States.See Estonia–Poland relations* Poland recognized Estonia's independence on 31 December 1920 and re-recognized it on 26 August 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Warsaw and three honorary consulates (in Szczecin, Poznań and Kraków).", "* Poland has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of the Baltic Sea States, of NATO and of the European Union.", "* Portugal recognized Estonia ''de facto'' in 1918 and de jure on 6 February 1921.Portugal never recognized the occupation of Estonia by the Soviet Union.", "Portugal re-recognized Estonia on 27 August 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Lisbon.", "* Portugal is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "* Romania recognized Estonia's independence on 26 February 1921.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Bucharest.", "* Romania has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.See Estonia–Russia relationsRussia recognized Estonia via the Tartu Peace Treaty on 2 February 1920.Russian-Estonian relations were re-established in January 1991, when leaders of the two countries, Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Arnold Rüütel of Estonia, met in Tallinn and signed a treaty on the relations of the two countries after the anticipated independence of Estonia from the Soviet Union.", "The treaty envisaged the right to freely choose their citizenship for all permanent residents of Estonia at the time.Russia re-recognized the Republic of Estonia on 24 August 1991 after the failed Soviet coup attempt, as one of the first countries to do so.", "The Soviet Union recognised the independence of Estonia on 6 September 1991.Estonia's ties with Boris Yeltsin's government weakened after the Russian president's initial show of solidarity with the Baltic states in January 1991.Issues surrounding the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Baltic countries and Estonia's denial of automatic citizenship to persons who settled in Estonia in 1940–1991 and their offspring ranked high on the list of points of contention.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Moscow and consulates-general in Pskov and Saint Petersburg.", "* Russia has an embassy in Tallinn and consulates-general in Narva and Tartu.", "* Estonia is accredited to Serbia from its embassy in Budapest, Hungary.", "* Serbia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia is an EU member and Serbia is an EU candidate.", "* Estonia recognised Slovakia on 15 January 1993.", "* Estonia is accredited to Slovakia through its embassy in Vienna, Austria.", "* Slovakia is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.See Estonia–Spain relations* Spain recognized Estonia in 1921.Spain renewed its recognition of Estonia on 27 August 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.See Estonia–Sweden relations* Estonia was under Swedish rule between 1561 and 1721.", "* Sweden re-recognized Estonia on 27 August 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Stockholm and five honorary consulates (in Eskilstuna, Gothenburg, Karlskrona, Malmö and Visby).", "* Sweden has an embassy in Tallinn and two honorary consulates (in Narva and Tartu).", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Estonia supports Sweden's NATO membership.", "* Estonia is accredited to Switzerland from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.", "* Switzerland is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Riga, Latvia.", "See Estonia–Ukraine relations* Ukraine recognised Estonia on 26 August 1991.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Kyiv.", "* Ukraine has an embassy in Tallinn.The contractual and legal framework of relations between Ukraine and Estonia covers a wide range of branches of bilateral cooperation, including political, trade and economic, scientific and technical, humanitarian, law enforcement and other spheres.", "This base is ramified and efficient enough and includes 53 bilateral documents, among which are 3 interstate agreements, 15 intergovernmental and 35 interdepartmental.Ukraine and Estonia bring together common aspirations in the political, economic, social and other spheres.", "Recognizing Ukraine as its foreign policy priority, Estonia is one of the most consistent supporters of Ukraine's European choice, supported the signing of the Agreement on the Association of Ukraine with the EU.Intensive bilateral contacts between state and non-governmental institutions are developing, and interaction within the framework of international organizations is active.", "At the state level, the important role played by Ukraine in ensuring stability and security in Europe is constantly stressed.", "Estonia supports political and socio-economic reforms in Ukraine, provides substantial humanitarian, financial and advisory and technical assistance.See Estonia–United Kingdom relations* Estonia has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are now full members of NATO.", "* Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid a state visit to Estonia in October 2006.", "* Prince Harry also made a state visit in May 2014 and paid tribute to Estonia's war dead.===Oceania=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes See Australia–Estonia relations* Australia first recognised Estonia on 22 September 1921.", "* Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on 21 November 1991.", "* Australia is accredited to Estonia through a part-time (pop-up) embassy in Tallinn since 2018.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Canberra.", "* Australia is host to one of the largest communities of Estonians abroad, with 8,232 people identifying as Estonian in the 2006 Australian Census.", "See Estonia–New Zealand relations* Estonia is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "* New Zealand is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland.2009Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 January 2009.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Samoa.", "* Samoa does not have an accreditation to Estonia.", "* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 March 2015.", "* Estonia does not have an accreditation to Tonga.", "* Tonga does not have an accreditation to Estonia." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Estonia* List of diplomatic missions of Estonia* List of ambassadors to Estonia* List of envoys of Estonia* Visa requirements for Estonian citizens" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Ethiopia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''demographics of Ethiopia''' encompass the demographic features of inhabitants in Ethiopia, including ethnicity, languages, population density, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population." ], [ "Ethnic groups", " Ethiopia's population is highly diverse, containing over 80 different ethnic groups, the four largest of which are the Oromo, Amhara, Somali and Tigrayans.", "According to the Ethiopian national census of 2007, the Oromo are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, at 34.4% of the nation's population.", "The Amhara represent 27.0% of the country's inhabitants, while Somalis and Tigrayans represent 6.2% and 6.1% of the population respectively.", "Other prominent ethnic groups are as follows: Sidama 4.0%, Gurage 2.5%, Welayta 2.3%, Afar 1.7%, Hadiya 1.7%, Gamo 1.5% and Others 12.6%.", "Afroasiatic-speaking communities make up the majority of the population.", "Among these, Semitic speakers often collectively refer to themselves as the Habesha people.", "The Arabic form of this term (''al-Ḥabasha'') is the etymological basis of \"Abyssinia\", the former name of Ethiopia in English and other European languages.", "Additionally, Nilo-Saharan-speaking ethnic minorities inhabit the southern regions of the country, particularly in areas of the Gambela Region which borders South Sudan.", "The largest ethnic groups among these include the Nuer and Anuak.The Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region, being an amalgam of the main homelands of numerous ethnicities, contains over 56 indigenous ethnic groups." ], [ "Languages", "According to the bibliographic database Glottolog, there are 109 languages spoken in Ethiopia; meanwhile, ''Ethnologue'' lists 90 individual languages spoken in the country.", "Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches, including the Oromo language, Somali, Amharic, and Tigrinya.", "Together, these four groups make up about three-quarters of Ethiopia's population.", "Other Afroasiatic languages with a significant number of speakers include the Cushitic Sidamo, Afar, Hadiyya and Agaw languages, as well as the Semitic Gurage languages, Harari, Silt'e, and Argobba languages.", "Arabic, which also belongs to the Afroasiatic family, is likewise spoken in some areas.The principal Semitic language of the north-west and centre of the country is Amharic, which is the language of the Amhara Region.", "Moreover, Amharic is also one of the official working languages of Ethiopia.Oromo serves as one of the official working languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harar and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region." ], [ "Modern contraception utilization", "Only 28.1% within the ages of 15–49 years used modern contraceptives, according to the data from 2019 Ethiopian Mini Demographic and Health Survey." ], [ "Religion", "Various religions are adhered to in Ethiopia.", "Most Christians live in the highlands, whereas Muslims mainly inhabit the lowlands.", "Adherents of traditional faiths are primarily concentrated in the southern regions.According to the Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency (2007 census), the national religious composition is Ethiopian Orthodox 43.5%, Protestantism 18.6%, Roman Catholicism 0.7%, Islam 33.9%, traditional 2.6%, and others 0.6%." ], [ "Population", "Source: Central Statistical Agency (CSA)Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world.", "Its total population has grown from 38.1 million in 1983 to 109.5 million in 2018.The population was only about nine million in the 19th century.", "The 2007 Population and Housing Census results show that the population of Ethiopia grew at an average annual rate of 2.6% between 1994 and 2007, down from 2.8% during the period 1983–1994.As of 2015, the population growth rate is among the top ten countries in the world.", "According to UN estimations, life expectancy in Ethiopia had improved over time, with male life expectancy reported to be 56 years and for women 60 years.===UN estimates===Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesAccording to , the total population was in , compared to 18,434,000 in 1950.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 41.5%, 55.8% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.3% was 65 years or older.", "The average age was 25.1.Total populationPopulation aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 195018 434 00044.152.93 195520 298 00043.953.32.8 196022 553 00043.553.82.6 196525 480 00043.553.92.6 197028 959 00044.153.32.7 197532 959 00044.552.72.8 198035 426 00044.552.62.9 198541 078 00044.652.62.9 199048 333 00045.452.12.9 199557 042 00045.951.22.9 200065 578 00045.951.13.0 200574 264 00044.552.43.1 201082 950 00041.555.23.3Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 37 217 130 36 533 802 73 750 932 100 0–4 5 482 792 5 314 230 10 797 022 14.64 5–9 6 106 788 5 874 976 11 981 764 16.25 10–14 5 412 324 4 999 913 10 412 237 14.12 15–19 4 454 710 4 293 338 8 748 048 11.86 20–24 3 098 338 3 303 747 6 402 085 8.68 25–29 2 622 759 3 039 429 5 662 188 7.68 30–34 2 088 208 2 131 858 4 220 066 5.72 35–39 1 827 296 1 949 346 3 776 642 5.12 40–44 1 464 529 1 408 451 2 872 980 3.90 45–49 1 150 017 1 097 287 2 247 304 3.05 50–54 928 294 962 472 1 890 766 2.56 55–59 634 053 536 967 1 171 020 1.59 60–64 646 359 588 641 1 235 000 1.67 65-69 446 242 359 019 805 261 1.09 70-74 359 897 316 663 676 560 0.92 75-79 203 843 146 333 350 176 0.47 80-84 159 786 127 691 287 477 0.39 85-89 62 001 38 195 100 196 0.14 90-94 38 185 26 357 64 542 0.09 95+ 30 709 18 889 49 598 0.07Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 17 001 904 16 189 119 33 191 023 45.00 15–64 18 914 563 19 311 536 38 226 099 51.83 65+ 1 300 663 1 033 147 2 333 810 3.16Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 50 501 054 50 195 689 100 696 744 100 0–4 6 928 657 6 696 036 13 624 693 13.53 5–9 6 556 462 6 386 585 12 943 045 12.85 10–14 5 953 639 5 819 250 11 772 889 11.69 15–19 5 590 667 5 450 660 11 041 324 10.96 20–24 5 047 253 4 902 329 9 949 582 9.88 25–29 4 406 798 4 348 582 8 755 379 8.69 30–34 3 687 268 3 768 246 7 455 512 7.40 35–39 2 990 405 3 135 347 6 125 754 6.08 40–44 2 394 320 2 528 749 4 923 071 4.89 45–49 1 843 822 1 962 667 3 806 489 3.78 50–54 1 472 263 1 548 292 3 020 553 3.00 55–59 1 156 765 1 177 778 2 334 541 2.32 60–64 883 392 899 303 1 782 694 1.77 65–69 639 745 643 776 1 283 523 1.27 70–74 444 339 441 554 885 894 0.88 75–79 276 955 273 976 550 928 0.55 80+ 228 308 212 565 440 871 0.44Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 19 438 758 18 901 871 38 340 629 38.08 15–64 29 472 949 29 721 947 59 194 896 58.79 65+ 1 589 347 1 571 871 3 161 218 3.14===UN projections===Below are the UN's medium variant projections:" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Registration of vital events in Ethiopia is incomplete.", "The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates:YearPopulation (thousands)Live births (thousands)Deaths (thousands)Natural change (thousands)CBRCDRNCTFRIMRLife expectancy (years)195017 710  875  494  38149.427.921.57.35199.436.351951  18 101  890  498  39249.127.521.67.30198.136.601952  18 497  899  502  39748.627.121.57.20195.436.821953  18 892  910  503  40748.126.621.57.12192.337.231954  19 292  921  505  41647.726.221.57.05189.137.541955  19 704  934  507  42847.425.721.76.99185.637.961956  20 128  951  509  44247.225.321.96.95181.938.341957  20 499  967  643  32447.231.415.86.92216.332.391958  20 817  985  636  34947.330.516.86.90211.832.941959  21 227  1 007  502  50547.423.623.86.89169.939.861960  21 740  1 032  508  52447.523.324.16.88165.840.331961  22 282  1 060  509  55147.622.924.76.88161.841.001962  22 852  1 090  516  57447.722.625.16.88158.041.401963  23 449  1 121  520  60147.822.225.66.87154.641.961964  24 074  1 157  529  62848.022.026.16.87151.642.281965  24 728  1 193  541  65248.321.926.46.86149.642.441966  25 378  1 230  607  62248.523.924.56.87160.640.151967  26 052  1 268  566  70248.721.726.96.88146.542.691968  26 779  1 308  580  72848.821.727.26.90146.242.841969  27 530  1 358  599  75949.321.827.56.94146.042.831970  28 308  1 399  618  78149.421.827.66.98145.742.821971  29 100  1 442  634  80749.521.827.77.02145.442.891972  29 891  1 481  687  79449.523.026.67.06152.041.551973  30 694  1 517  702  81549.422.926.57.09151.641.641974  31 489  1 561  783  77849.624.924.77.12163.239.451975  32 253  1 601  803  79849.624.924.77.14163.039.361976  33 062  1 644  744  90049.722.527.27.19147.941.901977  33 695  1 694  766  92949.922.527.37.26147.641.891978  34 259  1 712  774  93749.822.527.37.30147.141.901979  34 759  1 750  766  98549.821.828.07.31143.442.811980  34 945  1 764  761  1 00449.821.528.37.33141.943.221981  35 819  1 771  752  1 01849.921.228.77.36140.443.611982  37 213  1 858  782  1 07650.021.028.97.37138.643.771983  38 235  1 917  1 084  83350.228.421.87.38180.936.041984  39 203  1 985  1 088  89750.727.822.97.40177.536.431985  40 286  2 052  1 077  97451.026.824.27.38171.437.361986  41 455  2 111  1 090  1 02151.026.424.77.36167.937.811987  42 852  2 168  833  1 33550.719.531.27.34126.645.441988  44 512  2 230  877  1 35350.319.830.57.30125.145.061989  46 196  2 304  911  1 39450.019.830.27.27123.145.041990  47 878  2 389  957  1 43250.120.130.07.24122.044.561991  49 937  2 466  935  1 53149.818.930.97.21117.646.131992  52 012  2 548  950  1 59849.118.330.87.16114.346.901993  53 792  2 618  957  1 66148.717.830.97.13111.147.391994  55 620  2 677  964  1 71448.217.330.87.08107.747.861995  57 477  2 737  970  1 76747.616.930.87.01104.148.301996  59 348  2 811  968  1 84347.416.331.16.92100.548.921997  61 233  2 865  968  1 89746.815.831.06.8597.149.511998  63 136  2 895  973  1 92145.815.430.46.7593.749.931999  65 078  2 946  1 011  1 93545.315.529.76.6590.949.432000  67 032  2 984  990  1 99544.514.829.76.5687.250.542001  69 019  3 040  991  2 04844.014.429.76.4683.951.042002  71 073  3 085  992  2 09243.414.029.46.3780.351.522003  73 169  3 096  970  2 12642.313.329.06.2476.852.532004  75 301  3 138  960  2 17841.712.728.96.1173.153.242005  77 470  3 177  948  2 23041.012.228.85.9769.654.012006  79 691  3 207  920  2 28740.211.528.75.8566.355.152007  81 996  3 240  886  2 35439.510.828.75.7462.856.432008  84 357  3 245  856  2 38938.510.128.35.5759.857.592009  86 756  3 235  823  2 41237.39.527.85.3957.158.802010  89 238  3 259  803  2 45636.59.027.55.2254.459.732011  91 818  3 290  782  2 50835.88.527.35.0551.960.722012  94 451  3 289  766  2 52334.88.126.74.8849.661.542013  97 084  3 294  751  2 54333.97.726.24.7247.462.372014  99 747  3 346  748  2 59833.67.526.14.6145.262.912015  102 472  3 425  739  2 68733.47.226.24.5343.263.652016  105 293  3 507  729  2 77733.36.926.44.4741.464.392017  108 198  3 577  732  2 84433.16.826.34.3939.664.842018  111 129  3 668  730  2 93733.06.626.44.3438.065.412019  114 121  3 781  735  3 04633.16.426.74.3236.665.842020  117 191  3 842  775  3 06632.86.626.24.2435.465.372021  120 283  3 896  815  3 08132.46.825.64.1634.464.98CBR = crude birth rate (per 1,000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1,000); NC = natural change (per 1,000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1,000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1,000 birthsSource: ''UN World Population Prospects''" ], [ "Total fertility rate in Ethiopia (census 2007)", "As per 2007 Population and Housing Census of EthiopiaRegionUrban TFRRural TFR Total TFR (U+R) Ethiopia (Country Total) 2,220 4,650 4,160 Tigray Region 2,915 4,905 4,440 Affar Region 2,440 2,000 2,075 Amhara Region 2,135 4,540 4,175 Oromia Region 2,635 5,235 4,845 Somali Region 2,175 1,985 2,010 Benishangul – Gumuz Region 3,005 4,800 4,520 S.N.N.P Region 2,750 4,715 4,495 Gambella Region 2,725 2,930 2,885 Harari Region 1,725 4,725 2,885 Addis Ababa City Administration 1,485 - 1,485 Dira Dawa City Administration 2,155 5,455 2,985 Region 17 3,210 2,585 2,845File:Ethiopia regions english.png===Fertility and Births (Demographic and Health Surveys)===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 2000 41.3 5.9 (4.9) 30.7 3.3 (2.7) 42.9 6.4 (5.4) 2005 35.7 5.4 (4.0) 23.4 2.4 (1.8) 37.3 6.0 (4.5) 2011 34.5 4.8 (3.8) 26.4 2.6 36.2 5.5 2016 31.8 4.6 (3.6) 23.9 2.3 (2.1) 33.2 5.2 (4.0) 2019 26.5 4.1 24.6 3.2 27.2 4.5Fertility data as of 2011 (DHS Program): Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15–49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 Tigray 4.6 7.2 6.4 Afar 5.0 9.9 7.3 Amhara 4.2 4.7 6.9 Oromiya 5.6 8.3 7.1 Somali 7.1 12.4 7.9 Benishangul-Gumuz 5.2 10.2 6.6 SNNP 4.9 9.3 7.3 Gambela 4.0 5.7 5.6 Harari 3.8 6.7 5.5 Addis Ababa 1.5 3.6 3.3 Dire Dawa 3.4 7.2 4.8" ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2019.", "*One birth every 9 seconds\t*One death every 43 seconds\t*One net migrant every 144 minutes\t*Net gain of one person every 11 secondsThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.===Population===:116,462,712 (2023 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 12th: (estimate for )===Ethnic groups===Oromo 35.8%, Amhara 24.1%, Somali 7.2%, Tigray 5.7%, Sidama 4.1%, Guragie 2.6%, Welaita 2.3%, Afar 2.2%, Silte 1.3%, Kefficho 1.2%, other 13.5% (2022 est.", ")===Religions===Ethiopian Orthodox 43.8%, Muslim 31.3%, Protestant 22.8%, Catholic 0.7%, traditional 0.6%, other 0.8% (2016 est.", ")===Age structure===Population pyramid of Ethiopia in 2020:0-14 years: 38.91% (male 22,821,026/female 22,498,331):15-64 years: 57.55% (male 33,345,764/female 33,672,933):65 years and over: 3.54% (male 1,887,831/female 2,236,827) (2023 est.", "):0–14 years: 39.81% (male 21,657,152/female 21,381,628):15–24 years: 19.47% (male 10,506,144/female 10,542,128):25–54 years: 32.92% (male 17,720,540/female 17,867,298):55–64 years: 4.42% (male 2,350,606/female 2,433,319):65 years and over: 3.38% (male 1,676,478/female 1,977,857) (2020 est.", "):''0–14 years:'' 43.21% (male 23,494,593 /female 23,336,508):''15–24 years:'' 20.18% (male 10,857,968 /female 11,011,100):''25–54 years:'' 29.73% (male 15,978,384 /female 16,247,086):''55–64 years:'' 3.92% (male 2,059,129 /female 2,185,814):''65 years and over:'' 2.97% (male 1,445,547 /female 1,770,262) (2018 est.", "):''0–14 years:'' 43.94% (male 21,900,571/female 21,809,643):''15–24 years:'' 19.98% (male 9,865,976/female 10,009,596):''25–54 years:'' 29.31% (male 14,487,280/female 14,667,179):''55–64 years:'' 3.88% (male 1,882,315/female 1,981,762):''65 years and over:'' 2.88% (male 1,289,336/female 1,572,161) (2015 est.", ")===Population growth rate===:2.42% (2023 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 25th:2.46% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 25th:2.83% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 11th:2.89% (2015 est.", ")===Birth rate===:29.97 births/1,000 population (2023 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 29th:30.49 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 29th:36 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 17th:37.27 births/1,000 population (2015 est.", ")===Death rate===:5.6 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 176rd:5.7 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 173rd:7.5 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 110th:8.19 deaths/1,000 population (2015 est.", ")===Total fertility rate===:3.92 children born/woman (2023 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 28th:3.99 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 28th:4.91 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 15th:5.15 children born/woman (2015 est.", ")===Median age===:total: 19.8 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 197th:male: 19.6 years:female: 20.1 years (2020 est.", "):total: 18 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 213rd:male: 17.8 years :female: 18.2 years (2018 est.", "):''total:'' 17.7 years:''male:'' 17.5 years:''female:'' 17.8 years (2015 est.", ")===Net migration rate===:-0.19 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2023 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 109th:-0.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 107th===Mother's mean age at first birth===:19.3 years (2019 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 20–49:20 years (2016 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25–29===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:37.7% (2020):36.5% (2017)===Urbanization===:urban population: 23.2% of total population (2023):rate of urbanization: 4.4% annual rate of change (2020–25 est.", "):urban population: 20.8% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 4.63% annual rate of change (2015–20 est.", "):''urban population:'' 19.5% of total population (2015):''rate of urbanization:'' 4.89% annual rate of change (2010–15 est.", ")===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 75.7 (2021 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 70.2 (2021 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 5.5 (2021 est.", "):potential support ratio: 18.1 (2021 est.", ")===Sex ratio===:''at birth:'' 1.03 male(s)/female:''0-14 years:'' 1.01 male(s)/female:''15-64 years:'' 0.99 male(s)/female:''65 years and over:'' 0.84 male(s)/female:''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2023 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===Life expectancy in Ethiopia since 1950Life expectancy in Ethiopia since 1960 by gender:total population: 68.59 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 183rd:male: 66.43 years:female: 70.81 years (2023 est.", "):total population: 63 years :male: 60.5 years :female: 65.5 years (2018 est.", "):''total population:'' 61.48 years:''male:'' 59.11 years:''female:'' 63.93 years (2015 est.", ")===HIV/AIDS===:''adult prevalence rate:'' 1.15%:''people living with HIV/AIDS:'' 730,300:''deaths:'' 23,400 (2014 est.", ")===Literacy===:''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write:total population: 51.8%:male: 57.2%:female: 44.4% (2017):''total population:'' 49.1%:''male:'' 57.2%:''female:'' 41.1% (2015 est.", ")===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 8 years (2012):male: 9 years (2012):female: 8 years (2012)===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: very high (2023):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: malaria and dengue fever:water contact diseases: schistosomiasis:animal contact diseases: rabies:respiratory diseases: meningococcal meningitisnote: on 21 March 2022, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a Travel Alert for polio in Africa; Ethiopia is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV) and that has changed over time and behaves more like the wild or naturally occurring virus; this means it can be spread more easily to people who are unvaccinated against polio and who come in contact with the stool or respiratory secretions, such as from a sneeze, of an “infected” person who received oral polio vaccine; the CDC recommends that before any international travel, anyone unvaccinated, incompletely vaccinated, or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk destination, CDC recommends that adults who previously completed the full, routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine===Unemployment, youth ages 15–24===:total: 5,7 % (2021 est.)", ":male: 4.4 % (2021 est.", "):female: 7.2 % (2021 est.)" ], [ "See also", "*Habesha peoples *Urbanization in Ethiopia" ], [ "References", "'''Attribution'''*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Ethiopia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Ethiopia''' are the activities associated with the governance of Ethiopia.", "The government is structured as a federal parliamentary republic with both a President and Prime Minister.", "The legislature is multicameral, with a house of representatives and a council.", "The term '''politics of Ethiopia''' mainly relates to the political activities in Ethiopia after the late 20th century when democratization took place in the nation.", "The current political structure of Ethiopia was formed after the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) overthrew dictator President Mengistu Haile Mariam in 1991.A general election was held in June 1994 and Ethiopia has maintained a multiparty political environment till today." ], [ "Government of Ethiopia", "The government of Ethiopia is structured in the form of a federal parliamentary republic, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government.", "Executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the Parliament.", "The Judiciary is more or less independent of the executive and the legislature.", "There are 12 ethnically based administrative regions and two self-governing administrations; the capital city Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa.The president of Ethiopia is elected by the House of Peoples' Representatives for a six-year term.", "The prime minister is chosen by the parliament.", "The prime minister is designated by the party in power following legislative elections.", "The Council of Ministers, according to the 1995 constitution, is comprised by the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Ministers, various Ministers and other members as determined and approved by the House of Peoples' Representatives.", "At the current time, this includes the 20 members of Council of Ministers.The Federal Parliamentary Assembly has two chambers: the Council of People's Representatives (''Yehizbtewekayoch Mekir Bet'') with 547 members, elected for five-year terms in single-seat constituencies; and the Council of the Federation (''Yefedereshn Mekir Bet'') with 110 members, one for each nationality, and one additional representative for each one million of its population, designated by the regional councils, which may elect them themselves or through popular elections.The president and vice president of the Federal Supreme Court are recommended by the prime minister and appointed by the House of People's Representatives; for other federal judges, the prime minister submits candidates selected by the Federal Judicial Administrative Council to the People's Representatives for appointment." ], [ "Recent history", "In May 1991, a coalition of rebel forces under the name Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) overthrew the dictatorship of President Mengistu Haile Mariam.", "In July 1991, the TPLF, the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), the Ogaden National Liberation Front, Western Somali Liberation Front, Oromo People's Democratic Organization (OPDO), Amhara National Democratic Movement (ANDM) and others established the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE), which consisted of an 87-member Council of Representatives guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution.", "Since 1991, Ethiopia has established warm relations with the United States and western Europe and has sought substantial economic aid from Western countries and the World Bank.In June 1992, the OLF withdrew from the government; in March 1993, members of the Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition left the government.", "The Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), an ally in the fight against the Mengistu regime, assumed control of Eritrea and established a provisional government.", "Eritrea achieved full independence on May 24, 1993.President Meles Zenawi and members of the TGE pledged to oversee the formation of a multi-party democracy.", "The first election for Ethiopia's 547-member constituent assembly was held in June 1994.This assembly adopted the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in December 1994.The elections for Ethiopia's first popularly chosen national parliament and regional legislatures were held in May and June 1995.Most opposition parties chose to boycott these elections.", "There was a landslide victory for the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF).", "International and non-governmental observers concluded that opposition parties would have been able to participate had they chosen to do so.The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was installed in August 1995.The first President was Negasso Gidada.", "The EPRDF-led government of Prime Minister Meles promoted a policy of ethnic federalism, seemingly devolving significant powers to regional, ethnically based authorities.", "Ethiopia today has nine semi-autonomous Regions of Ethiopia that have the power to raise and spend their own revenues.In 2004, the government began a resettlement initiative to move more than two million people away from the arid highlands of the east, proposing that these resettlements would reduce food shortages.The ruling party, EPRDF was declared a winner by the election board in 2000, and then again in 2005 amidst protests and riots that led to the death of many Ethiopians.", "Hundreds of political leaders–some of whom were elected to parliamentary positions– were arrested in connection with these protests.", "The incumbent president in 2013 was Mulatu Teshome who resigned in 2018.As of February 2006, hundreds of politicians remained in custody, facing trial in March.", "About 119 people are currently facing trial, including journalists for defamation and opposition party leaders for treason.", "Human rights organisations have raised concerns over the well-being of some of these prisoners.", "However 8,000 prisoners have already been freed.", "Concerns about the implications of these trials for the freedom of the press have also been raised.", "According to the US Department of State 2009 human rights report, there are hundreds of political prisoners in Ethiopia.", "Among them is Birtukan Midekssa, the leader of Unity for Democracy and Justice, the largest opposition party.", "Fundamental freedoms, including freedom of the press, are, in practice, circumscribed.On 5 August 2016, protests broke out across the country and dozens of protesters were shot and killed by police over the following days.", "The protesters demanded an end to human rights abuses, the act of land grabbing by the ruling party members and relatives of the higher officials, the master plan intended to expand Addis Ababa onto surrounding zones of the Oromia region including the farm land of oromo people (special zones of oromia around Addis Ababa), the release of political prisoners, a fairer redistribution of the wealth generated by over a decade of economic growth, and a return of Wolqayt District to the Amhara Region.", "The events were the most violent crackdown against protesters in Sub-Saharan Africa since the Ethiopian regime killed at least 75 people during protests in the Oromia Region in November and December 2015.In the wake of significant unrest, the TPLF lost control of the EPDRF, with Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn, announcing his resignation as head of the EPDRF in 2018.Abiy Ahmed, who had become Prime Minister after winning the EPDRF leadership elections in April 2018 subsequently dissolved the EPDRF.", "He replaced it with the Prosperity Party, a coalition which includes all former members of the EPDRF but notably excluded the TPLF.", "This kickstarted a period of growing tension between the government and the TPLF, which culminated in the Tigray War that began in 2020." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "In the 2015 general election, Opposition parties lost the only seat which they still held in the House of Peoples' Representatives.", "The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front and its allies won all 547 seats.Political pressure groups include the Council of Alternative Forces for Peace and Democracy in Ethiopia (CAFPDE) Beyene Petros and the Southern Ethiopia People's Democratic Coalition (SEPDC) Beyene Petros.The coalition of opposition parties and some individuals that was established in 2009 to oust at the general election in 2010 the regime of the TPLF, Meles Zenawi's party that has been in power since 1991, published a 65-page manifesto in Addis Ababa on October 10, 2009.Some of the eight-member parties of this Ethiopian Forum for Democratic Dialogue (FDD or Medrek in Amharic) include the Oromo Federalist Congress (organized by the Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement and the Oromo People's Congress), the Arena Tigray (organized by former members of the ruling party TPLF), the Unity for Democracy and Justice (UDJ, whose leader was imprisoned), and the Coalition of Somali Democratic Forces.===2005 Ethiopian general elections===Ethiopian general election 2005.Only parties with more than 10 seats shown.Red: EPRDFGreen: CUDPurple: UEDFDark blue: SPDPOrange: OFDMLight blue: OthersEthiopia held its third general election in May 2005, which drew a record number of voters, with 90% of the electorate turning out to cast their vote.", "While the election was deemed by the European Union election observer team to fall short of international standards for fair and free elections, other teams drew different conclusions.", "The African Union report on September 14 commended \"the Ethiopian people's display of genuine commitment to democratic ideals\"; on September 15, the US Carter Center concluded that \"the majority of the constituency results based on the May 15 polling and tabulation are credible and reflect competitive conditions\".", "The US Department of State said on September 16, \"these elections stand out as a milestone in creating a new, more competitive multi-party political system in one of Africa's largest and most important countries.\"", "Even the EU preliminary statement of 2005 also said \"...the polling processes were generally positive.", "The overall assessment of the process has been rated as good in 64% of the cases, and very good in 24%\".The opposition complained that the ruling EPRDF engaged in widespread vote rigging and intimidation, alleging fraud in 299 constituencies.", "The ruling party complained that the main opposition party CUD's AEUP sub party had engaged in intimidation.", "All allegations were investigated by the National Electoral Board of Ethiopia in cooperation with election monitors, a process which delayed the release of the final results.", "In June 2005, with the results of the election still unclear, a group of university students protested these alleged discrepancies, encouraged by supporters of the Coalition for Unity opposition party, despite a ban on protests imposed by the government.", "On June 8, 26 people were killed in Addis Ababa as a result of rioting, which led to the arrest of hundreds of protesters.", "On September 5, 2005, the National Elections Board of Ethiopia released the final election results, which confirmed that the ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front retained its control of the government, but showed that opposition parties had increased their share of parliamentary seats, from 12 to 176.The Coalition for Unity and Democracy won all the seats in Addis Ababa, both for the Parliament and the City Council.Street protests broke out again when the opposition called for a general strike and boycotted the new Parliament, refusing to accept the results of the election.", "The police forces once again attempted to contain the protests, and this time, 42 people were killed in Addis Ababa, including seven policemen, and another of whom later died because of fatal injuries caused by a hand grenade detonation.", "Thousands were arrested, and were taken to various detention centers across the country.", "As of February 2006, six hundred remained in custody, facing trial in March.On 14 November, the Ethiopian Parliament passed a resolution to establish a neutral commission to investigate the incidents of June 8 and November 1 and 2.In February 2006, UK Prime Minister Blair, acknowledging that the EPRDF has won the election, said he wanted to see Ethiopia resolve its internal problems and continue on a democratic path.With Ethiopia's national election in May 2010 approaching, some opposition groups begun to hint a boycott, accusing the government of stepping up harassment against them.", "Despite growing claims of \"harassment\" and \"undemocratic actions\" perpetrated by the ruling party, the Forum for Democratic Dialogue (FDD), Ethiopia's biggest alliance of opposition political parties declared in October 2009 that it will contest in the scheduled election.Gebru Asrat, a former ally of PM Meles Zenawi, said that his party's primary efforts were ''\"to engage in negotiation with the government on key election issues\"'' ahead of the election, but he added that the government was reluctant.FDD insists to engage in a pre-election negotiation on 10 key subjects, among which the issues of access to the media for campaigning, the supremacy of law, the free access of international observers, the establishment of an independent electoral board and a stop to harassment and pressure on opposition members.===2010 Ethiopian general elections===The EPRDF won the 2010 elections by a landslide, taking 499 seats, while allied parties took a further 35.Oppositions parties took just two.", "Both opposition groups say their observers were blocked from entering polling stations during the election on Sunday, May 23, and in some cases the individuals were beaten.", "The United States and the European Union have both criticized the election as falling short of international standards.", "Additionally, the EPRDF won all but one of 1,904 council seats in regional elections." ], [ "International organization participation", "ACP, AfDB, ECA, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, United Nations, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO.Scheye wrote in 2010 that significant donor resources are being invested in security sector reform in Ethiopia because of donor national interest, even though the country's ruling group is ideologically opposed to the core principles of SSR, and showed, at that time, little interest in justice and security sector development.", "''The Guardian'' wrote just before the 2015 elections that \"..the EPRDF's relations with donors are a crucial factor in maintaining its position.", "Ethiopia remains structurally dependent on aid, with the country receiving more than $3 billion a year from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.", "However, all indications are that external support will remain strong, regardless of electoral openness.", "Ethiopia is a key partner for countries concerned about security in the region, especially the US, UK and the European Union.\"" ], [ "Royalists and government in exile", "A group of Ethiopian royalists continue to operate The Crown Council of Ethiopia as a government in exile." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Parliament of Ethiopia* Constitution of Ethiopia*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Ethiopia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Ethiopia''' is a mixed and transition economy with a large public sector.", "The government of Ethiopia is in the process of privatizing many of the state-owned businesses and moving toward a market economy.", "The banking, telecommunication and transportation sectors of the economy are dominated by government-owned companies.Ethiopia has one of the fastest-growing economies in the world and is Africa's second most populous country.", "Many properties owned by the government during the previous regime have now been privatized or are in the process of privatization and the liberalization of its financial sector in the near future.", "However, certain sectors such as telecommunications, financial and insurance services, air and land transportation services, and retail, are considered as strategic sectors and are expected to remain under state control for the foreseeable future.", "Almost 50% of Ethiopia's population is under the age of 18.Even though education enrolment at primary and tertiary level has increased significantly, job creation has not caught up with the increased output from educational institutes.", "The country must create hundreds of thousands of jobs every year just to keep up with population growth.", "In 2023 Ethiopia has reached an estimated GDP scale of 156.1 billion dollars nominal, for PPP the country's economy has reached an estimated 393.85 billion dollars.", "This mostly comes from services-based economy with agriculture.", "And in 2019 the latest data, Ethiopia's top trading partners globally included, China, the United States, UAE, France, the United Kingdom, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Germany, Japan, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Turkey, India, and Egypt.", "In 2021, agriculture makes up 37.5% of the country's economic output, while services 36.25% and industry makes up 21.85% of the economy.", "Ethiopia's economy is ranked 159th place out of 190 countries counted, in 'Ease of doing business'.", "Ethiopia is also a-part of African Continental Free Trade Area, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, the G24, and the World Trade organization as an observer, and is soon to join the BRICS economic alliance, with China, India, Russia, Brazil, South Africa and the new coming members: in January 2024.While Ethiopia does not have any stock Exchange for now, it did: previously have one during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I, called an 'ākisīyoni gebeya' it now has a commodity Exhange in Addis Ababa called the Ethiopia Commodity Exchange, which was recently established just as far as 2008.Although the Ethiopian economy has a large foreign debt, mainly to China, over 13 billion dollars, and overall external debt of over 28 billion dollars.", "The debt to GDP ratio is smaller compared to other countries at it's economic scale, or neighboring countries.", "Ethiopia also has 2.4 billion dollars of foreign reserves which is a drop comparing other previous years.Ethiopia expects itself to reach a middle-income status nation within a couple years, primarily expected to be in 2025." ], [ "History", "Development of GDP per capitaEthiopia's resources have enabled the country—unlike most sub-Saharan African countries—to maintain contacts with the outside world for centuries.", "Since ancient times, Ethiopian traders exchanged gold, ivory, musk, and wild animal skins for salt and luxury goods, such as silk and velvet.", "By the late nineteenth century, coffee had become one of Ethiopia's more important cash crops.", "At that time, most trade flowed along two major trade routes, both of which terminated in the far southwest in the Kefa-Jima region.", "From there, one route went north to Mitsiwa via Gonder and Adwa, the other along the Awash River valley to Harer and then on to Berbera or Zeila on the Red Sea.Despite its many riches, Ethiopia would stop being a great trading state after fall of Axum.", "Most Ethiopians despised traders, preferring instead to emulate the country's legendary warriors and priests.", "After establishing a foothold in the country, Greek, Armenian, and Arab traders became the economic intermediaries between Ethiopia and the outside world.", "Arabs also settled in the interior and eventually dominated all commercial activity except petty trade.When their occupation of Ethiopia ended in 1941, the Italians left behind them a country whose economic structure was much as it had been for centuries.", "There had been some improvements in communications, particularly in the area of road building, and attempts had been made to establish a few small industries and to introduce commercial farming, particularly in Eritrea, which Italy had occupied since 1890.But these changes were limited.", "With only a small proportion of the population participating in the money economy, trade consisted mostly of barter.", "Wage labor was limited, economic units were largely self-sufficient, foreign trade was negligible, and the market for manufactured goods was extremely small.During the late 1940s and 1950s, much of the economy remained unchanged.", "The government focused its development efforts on expansion of the bureaucratic structure and ancillary services.", "Most farmers cultivated small plots of land or herded cattle.", "Traditional and primitive farming methods provided the population with a subsistence standard of living.", "In addition, many nomadic peoples raised livestock and followed a life of seasonal movement in drier areas.", "The agricultural sector grew slightly, and the industrial sector represented a small part of the total economy.By the early 1950s, Emperor Haile Selassie I (reigned 1930–74) had renewed calls for a transition from a subsistence economy to an agro-industrial economy.", "To accomplish this task, Ethiopia needed an infrastructure to exploit resources, a material base to improve living conditions, and better health, education, communications, and other services.", "A key element of the emperor's new economic policy was the adoption of centrally administered development plans.The First Five-Year Plan (1957–1961) sought to develop a strong infrastructure, particularly in transportation, construction, and communications, to link isolated regions.", "The Second Five-Year Plan (1962–1967) signaled the start of a 20-year program to change Ethiopia's predominantly agricultural economy to an agro-industrial one.", "The Third Five-Year Plan (1968–1973) also sought to facilitate Ethiopia's economic well-being by raising manufacturing and agro-industrial performance.", "However, unlike its predecessors, the third plan expressed the government's willingness to expand educational opportunities and to improve peasant agriculture.During the First Five-Year Plan, the gross national product (GNP) increased at a 3.2 percent annual rate as opposed to the projected figure of 3.7 percent, and growth in economic sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, and mining failed to meet the national plan's targets.", "The Planning Commission never assessed the performance of the Second Five-Year Plan and Third Five-Year Plan, largely because of a shortage of qualified personnel.", "However, according to data from the Ethiopian government's Central Statistical Authority, during the 1960/61 to 1973/74 period the economy achieved sustained economic growth.", "Between 1960 and 1970, for example, Ethiopia enjoyed an annual 4.4 percent average growth rate in per capita gross domestic product (GDP).", "Relative to its neighbors, Ethiopia's economic performance was mixed.By the early 1970s, Ethiopia's economy not only had started to grow but also had begun to diversify into areas such as manufacturing and services.", "However, these changes failed to improve the lives of most Ethiopians.", "About four-fifths of the population were subsistence farmers who lived in poverty because they used most of their meager production to pay taxes, rents, debt payments, and bribes.The 1974 revolution resulted in the nationalization and restructuring of the Ethiopian economy.", "After the revolution, the country's economy can be viewed as having gone through four phases.", "Internal political upheaval, armed conflict, and radical institutional reform marked the 1974-78 period of the revolution.", "There was little economic growth; instead, the government's nationalization measures and the highly unstable political climate caused economic dislocation in sectors such as agriculture and manufacturing.", "As a result of these problems, GDP increased at an average annual rate of only 0.4 percent.In the second phase (1978–1980), the economy began to recover as the government consolidated power and implemented institutional reforms.", "More important, security conditions improved as internal and external threats subsided.", "GDP grew at an average annual rate of 5.7 percent.In the third phase (1980–1985), the economy experienced a setback.", "Except for Ethiopian fiscal year (EFY) 1982/83, the growth of GDP declined.", "Manufacturing took a downturn as well, and agriculture reached a crisis stage, particularly due to drought that lead to widespread famine.In the fourth period (1985–1990), the economy continued to stagnate.", "GDP and the manufacturing sector also grew during this period, GDP increasing at an average annual rate of 5 percent.", "However, the lingering effects of the 1984-85 drought undercut these achievements and contributed to the economy's overall stag.Since 1991, the Ethiopian government has embarked on a program of economic reform, including privatization of state enterprises and rationalization of government regulation.", "While the process is still ongoing, the reforms have attracted foreign direct investment.In 2015, Ethiopia has 2,700 millionaires, a number that has more than doubled since 2007.Their fortunes are mainly built-in niches of economic rents (banks, mines, etc.)", "without investing in structural and strategic sectors (industrial production, infrastructure, etc.)", "and should in no way promote economic development or represent a source of competition for Western multinationals.The Ethiopian government is stepping up its efforts to attract foreign investors, particularly in the textile sector.", "They can now import their machines without customs duties, benefit from a tax exemption for ten years, rents much lower than market prices, and almost free water and electricity.", "Major brands have established themselves in the country, such as Decathlon, H&M and Huajian.", "These companies also benefit from a cheap labor force, with a monthly salary of around 35 euros.", "Finally, trade agreements between Ethiopia and the European Union allow them to export duty-free." ], [ "Sectors", "=== Agriculture, forestry and fishing ===Coffee sorting process is huge since Ethiopia exports over a billion dollars' worth of coffee globallyMap of economic activities in Ethiopia and Eritrea (1976), agriculture accounts for almost 40.5% of GDP, 81 percent of exports, and 85 percent of the labour force.", "Many other economic activities depend on agriculture, including marketing, processing, and export of agricultural products.", "Production is overwhelmingly of a subsistence nature, and a large part of commodity exports are provided by the small agricultural cash-crop sector.", "Principal crops include coffee, pulses (e.g., beans), oilseeds, cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, and vegetables.", "Exports are almost entirely agricultural commodities, with coffee as the largest foreign exchange earner, and its flower industry becoming a new source of revenue: for 2005/2006 (the latest year available) Ethiopia's coffee exports represented 0.9% of the world exports, and oilseeds and flowers each representing 0.5%.", "Ethiopia is Africa's second biggest maize producer.", "In 2000, Ethiopia's livestock contributed to 19% of total GDP., some countries that import most of their food, such as Saudi Arabia, have begun planning the purchase and development of large tracts of arable land in developing countries such as Ethiopia.", "This land grabbing has raised fears of food being exported to more prosperous countries while the local population faces its own shortage.Forest products are mainly logs used in construction.", "The silvicutural properties are used in construction and manufacturing, and as energy sources.Ethiopia's fisheries are entirely fresh water, as it has no marine coastline.", "Although total production has been continuously increasing since 2007, the fishing industry is a very small part of the economy.", "Fishing is predominantly artisanal.", "In 2014, nearly 45,000 fishermen were employed in the sector with only 30% of them employed full-time.Ethiopia produced in 2018:* 7.3 million tons of maize (17th largest producer in the world);* 4.9 million tons of sorghum (4th largest producer in the world); * 4.2 million tons of wheat; * 2.1 million tons of barley (17th largest producer in the world); * 1.8 million tons of sweet potato (5th largest producer in the world);* 1.4 million tons of sugar cane;* 1.3 million tons of yam (5th largest producer in the world);* 988 thousand tons of broad bean;* 982 thousand tons of millet;* 743 thousand tons of potato;* 599 thousand tons of vegetable;* 515 thousand tons of chick pea (6th largest producer in the world); * 508 thousand tons of banana;* 470 thousand tons of coffee (6th largest producer in the world);* 446 thousand tons of cabbage;* 374 thousand tons of pea (20th largest producer in the world);* 322 thousand tons of onion;* 301 thousand tons of sesame seed (7th largest producer in the world);* 294 thousand tons of bell pepper;* 172 thousand tons of lentil (11th largest producer in the world);* 144 thousand tons of rice;* 143 thousand tons of peanut;* 140 thousand tons of cotton;* 124 thousand tons of garlic;* 102 thousand tons of mango (including mangosteen and guava);* 101 thousand tons of linseed (7th largest producer in the world);In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.=== Textile industry ===Employees of Ethiopian garment factories, who work for brands such as Guess, H&M or Calvin Klein, receive a monthly salary of 26 dollars per month.", "These very low wages have led to low productivity, frequent strikes and high turnover.", "Some factories have replaced all their employees on average every 12 months, according to the 2019 report of the Stern Centre for Business and Human Rights at New York UniversityThe report states: \"Rather than the docile and cheap labour force promoted in Ethiopia, foreign-based suppliers have met employees who are unhappy with their pay and living conditions and who want to protest more and more by stopping work or even quitting.", "In their eagerness to create a 'made in Ethiopia' brand, the government, global brands and foreign manufacturers did not anticipate that the base salary was simply too low for workers to make a living from.", "\"===Minerals and mining======Energy===Waterpower and forests are Ethiopia's main energy sources.", "The country derives about 90 percent of its electricity needs from hydropower, which means that electricity generation, as with agriculture, is dependent on abundant rainfall.", "Present installed capacity is rated at about 2000 megawatts, with planned expansion to 10,000 megawatts.", "In general, Ethiopians rely on forests for nearly all of their energy and construction needs; the result has been deforestation of much of the highlands during the last three decades.", "Ethiopia has set out plans to invest $40 billion to 71 energy projects by 2030Ahmed with Indian counterpart Prime Minister Narendra Modi meeting for Ethiopia's admission to the alliance Less than one-half of Ethiopia's towns and cities are connected to the national grid.", "Petroleum requirements are met via imports of refined products, although some oil is being hauled overland from Sudan.", "Oil exploration in Ethiopia has been underway for decades, ever since Emperor Haile Selassie I granted a 50-year concession to SOCONY-Vacuum in September 1945.Recent oil and gas discoveries across East Africa have seen the region emerge as a new player in the global oil and gas industry.", "As exciting as the huge gas fields of East Africa are, however, the strong decline in oil prices and expectations for an L-shaped recovery with low prices over the coming years are increasingly challenging the economic viability of the industry in this region.", "The reserves are estimated at , while exploration for gas and oil is underway in the Gambela Region bordering South Sudan.The discoveries were expected to drive billions of dollars in annual investment to the region over the next decade.", "According to BMI estimates, the findings in the last few years are more than that of any other region in the world, and the discoveries are expected to continue for the next few years.", "However, falling global oil prices are threatening the commercial viability of many of these gas prospects.===Manufacturing===A program to privatize state-owned enterprises has been underway since the late 1990s.", "There has been a large growth of manufacturing in Ethiopia.", "Several industrial parks have been built with a focus on textiles.===Transport===Prior to the outbreak of the 1998–2000 Eritrean–Ethiopian War, landlocked Ethiopia mainly relied on the seaports of Asseb and Massawa in Eritrea for international trade., Ethiopia uses the ports of Djibouti, connected to Addis Ababa by the Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway, and to a lesser extent Port Sudan in Sudan.", "In May 2005, the Ethiopian government began negotiations to use the port of Berbera in Somaliland.", "By 2030, the government expects a $74 billion investment in transportation.==== Road ====As of 2016, there are all-weather roads.==== Air ====Ethiopian Airlines, is Africa's largest and most profitable airline.", "It serves 132 destinations and has a fleet size of 141 aircraft.==== Rail ====The Ethiopian railway network has been rapidly expanding.", "In 2015, the first light rail in Africa was opening in Addis Ababa.", "In 2017, the electric Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway began operations.", "Presently, two other electric railways are under construction: Awash-Woldiya and Woldiya-Mekelle.===Telecommunications and technology===Telecommunications are provided by a state-owned monopoly, Ethio Telecom, formerly the Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation.", "Ethiopian shipment cargo ship, docked in DjiboutiIn 2020, ministers set out a national transformation strategy called Digital Ethiopia 2025.Its aim is to prepare the country for the development of an economy based on digital technology.===Tourism===Aside from wholesale and retail trade, transportation, and communications, the services sector consists almost entirely of tourism.", "Developed in the 1960s, tourism declined greatly during the later 1970s and the 1980s under the military government.", "Recovery began in the 1990s, but growth has been constrained by the lack of suitable hotels and other infrastructure, despite a boom in construction of small and medium-sized hotels and restaurants, and by the impact of drought, the 1998–2000 war with Eritrea, and the specter of terrorism.", "In 2002 more than 156,000 tourists entered the country, many of them Ethiopians visiting from abroad, spending more than US$77 million.", "In 2008, the number of tourists entering the country had increased to 330,000.A decade later, in 2019, Ethiopia registered a record of 812,000 tourists visiting the country, bringing a revenue of $3.55 bn (4.2 percent of the gross national product)." ], [ "Macroeconomic trends", "Share of world GDP (PPP)YearShare1980 0.08%1990 0.07%20000.07%20100.10%2017 0.16%The following table displays the trend of Ethiopia's gross domestic product at market prices, according to estimates by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Ethiopian Birr.", "Year Gross Domestic Product GDP (USD) US Dollar Birr (millions) per capita Exchange 1980 14,665 190 2.06 Birr 1990 25,011 257 2.06 Birr 1995 47,560 148 5.88 Birr 2000 64,398 124 8.15 Birr 2005 106,473 169 8.65 Birr 2006 131,672 202 8.39 Birr 2007 171,834 253 8.93 Birr 2008 245,973 333 9.67 Birr 2009 386,215 398 12.39 Birr 2010 427,026 361 13.33 Birr2017803,350 (est)846 (est)The current GDP (USD) per capita of Ethiopia shrank by 43% in the 1990s.", "The economy saw continuous real GDP growth of at least 5% since 2004.The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Inflation below 5% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)198010.83137.44.0%12.4%n/a198111.83357.6n/a1.9%n/a198212.63498.01.0%7.7%n/a198314.13798.97.8%3.6%n/a198414.33728.4−2.3%−0.3%n/a198513.13299.8−11.4%18.4%n/a198614.635610.29.7%5.6%n/a198717.140310.913.9%−9.1%n/a198817.840511.30.6%2.2%n/a198918.440611.9−0.5%9.6%n/a199019.641812.62.6%5.2%n/a199118.838813.9−7.2%20.9%n/a199217.534914.7−8.9%21.0%87.1%199320.33929.113.4%10.0%141.0%199421.54018.13.5%1.2%155.2%199523.34217.96.1%13.4%146.6%199626.94738.813.5%0.9%132.8%199728.14818.62.8%−7.2%80.3%199827.34537.8−4.2%3.6%89.3%199929.44757.56.3%7.9%97.8%200033.05208.29.8%0.7%93.6%200136.25548.17.4%−8.2%97.3%200237.45567.81.6%1.7%107.4%200337.35238.6−2.1%17.8%103.7%200442.858410.111.7%3.2%103.1%200549.766112.412.6%11.7%78.2%200657.074015.311.5%13.6%70.0%200765.582819.311.8%17.2%46.8%200874.292426.311.2%44.4%41.7%200982.31,00828.710.0%8.5%37.8%201092.11,11026.910.6%8.1%40.5%2011104.71,24330.511.4%33.2%45.3%2012116.01,35542.28.7%24.1%37.7%2013129.71,49146.59.9%8.1%42.9%2014145.81,65054.210.3%7.4%46.8%2015162.71,81263.110.4%10.1%54.0%2016177.61,94772.18.0%7.3%53.2%2017200.62,16576.810.9%9.9%54.2%Ethiopia's economy experienced strong, broad-based growth averaging 9.4% a year from 2010/11 to 2019/20.Ethiopia's real gross domestic product (GDP) growth slowed down to 6.1% in 2019/20 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Industry, mainly construction, and services accounted for most of the growth.", "Agriculture was not affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and its contribution to growth slightly improved in 2019/20 compared to the previous year.", "Private consumption and public investment explain demand-side growth, the latter assuming an increasingly important role.=== Poverty ===" ], [ "External trade", "Ethiopian exports in 2006Until 2013, the major agricultural export crop was coffee, providing about 26.4% of Ethiopia's foreign exchange earnings.", "In the beginning of 2014, oilseeds exports have been more important.", "Coffee is critical to the Ethiopian economy.", "More than15 million people (25% of the population) derive their livelihood from the coffee sector.Other exports include live animals, leather and leather products, chemicals, gold, pulses, oilseeds, flowers, fruits and vegetables and khat (or ''qat''), a leafy shrub which has psychotropic qualities when chewed.", "Cross-border trade by pastoralists is often informal and beyond state control and regulation.", "In East Africa, over 95% of cross-border trade is through unofficial channels and the unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep and goats from Ethiopia sold to Somalia, Kenya and Djibouti generates an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure).", "This trade helps lower food prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions and promote regional integration.", "However, there are also risks as the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allowing disease to spread more easily throughout the region.", "Furthermore, the government of Ethiopia is purportedly unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.", "Recent initiatives have sought to document and regulate this trade.Dependent on a few vulnerable crops for its foreign exchange earnings and reliant on imported oil, Ethiopia lacks sufficient foreign exchange.", "The financially conservative government has taken measures to solve this problem, including stringent import controls and sharply reduced subsidies on retail gasoline prices.", "Nevertheless, the largely subsistence economy is incapable of supporting high military expenditures, drought relief, an ambitious development plan, and indispensable imports such as oil; it therefore depends on foreign assistance.In December 1999, Ethiopia signed a $1.4 billion joint venture deal with the Malaysian oil company, Petronas, to develop a huge natural gas field in the Somali Region.", "By the year 2010, however, implementation failed to progress and Petronas lost its license to develop the field, which is now being invested in by Chinese company, Poly-GCL Petroleum.", "Ethiopia has already begun exporting electricity to Kenya, South Sudan and Djibouti.", "Earning from this has generated US$300 million annually.", "After the completion of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) total generation of exports to neighboring countries is expected to bring in us$1 billion annually to the economy.The dam will be the largest hydroelectric power plant in Africa when completed, as well as among the 20 largest in the world." ], [ "See also", "*Foreign aid to Ethiopia*Famines in Ethiopia*Growth and Transformation Plan*List of companies of Ethiopia*Special economic zone*Trade unions in Ethiopia*United Nations Economic Commission for Africa" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Fantu Cheru, Christopher Cramer, and Arkebe Oqubay (eds.).", "2019.''", "The Oxford Handbook of the Ethiopian Economy''.", "Oxford University Press.", "**" ], [ "External links", "* * Addis Fortune, an online economics and finance journal* Ethiopia latest trade data on ITC Trade Map* National Bank of Ethiopia: History of banking in Ethiopia* World Bank Ethiopia Summary Trade Statistics" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Ethiopia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Ethiopia''' is a monopoly in the control of Ethio telecom, formerly the Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation (ETC).", "As of 2012, 20.524 million cellular phones and 797,500 main line phones were in use." ], [ "Overview", "The telephone system in Ethiopia consists of open wire and microwave radio relay systems adequate for government use.", "Domestic systems are open wire; microwave radio relay; radio communication in the high frequency, very high frequency, and ultra high frequency; two domestic satellites provide the national trunk service.", "International systems are open wire to Djibouti and Sudan; microwave radio relay to Djibouti and Kenya; and satellite earth stations are 3 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean).The Ethiopian dial plan changed on 17 September 2005.City codes (''i.e.", "'', internal prefixes) changed from two digits to three (or, from outside Ethiopia, one digit to two).", "Phone numbers changed from six digits to seven.In 2007, there were 89 internet hosts.", "There were 447,300 internet users in 2009.In 2010, just 0.75 percent of the population were using the Internet, one of the lowest rates in the world.", "The internet domain in Ethiopia is .et." ], [ "History", "The first telegraph line in Ethiopia was constructed in the years 1897–1899 between the cities of Harar and the capital Addis Ababa.", "This was extended in 1904 by a line that ran from Addis Ababa through Tigray into Eritrea and to Massawa; and the next year by a line again from Addis Ababa to Gore in the province of Illubabor and Jimma in Kaffa.The first telephones were brought by Ras Makonnen from Italy in 1890, and connected between the Palace and the Imperial treasury; the sound of disembodied voices frightened the local priests, who thought it was the work of demons.", "The Emperor Menelik II responded to their protests with disdain, and later used the telephone to give orders to his provincial governors.", "Emperor Haile Selassie had begun the process of introducing radio transmitters to the country for civilian and military use in the years before the Italian invasion." ], [ "Current status", "antenna mast in MekelleAccording to the ETC, the average rural inhabitant of Ethiopia has to walk 30 kilometers to the nearest phone.", "The ETC announced 7 September 2006 a program to improve national coverage, and reduce the average distance to 5 kilometers.Since 2008 CDMA2000 and WCDMA is available in certain areas.Since 26 September 2017 until end of 2018 it was not possible to buy and use Ethio telecom SIM cards in mobile devices that have not been purchased in Ethiopia or registered with the authorities.", "Local advice suggests travellers should register their phone in the customs arrival hall at Bole Airport on arrival if they intend to use a local SIM card.", "For travellers, local prepaid SIMs are available at small shops, Ethio telecom kiosks and hotels.", "Satellite phones may require letter of permission from the ETC prior to bringing such phones through customs.Use of voice over IP services such as Skype and Google Talk was prohibited by telecommunications legislation in 2002.Personal use of these services was legalised by the Proclamation on Telecom Fraud Offences of 2012.Since the changes and upgrade of equipment in the mid-2000 the telecommunication network is frequently out of work or overloaded, callers using both the landlines and mobile network are unable to connect, the situation is made worse by inclement weather.", "The ETC has not addressed this issue publicly nor admitted that the coverage and service is below par.Ethio telecom has launched the Fourth Generation (4G) Long-Term Evolution (LTE) service on 21 March 2015 in line with the help of the Chinese company HUAWEI.Ethio telecom Corporate Compunction Officer, Abdurahim Mohammed, stated that the rural telecom access within 5 km radius service has currently reached 96 per cent.", "As part of the efforts to expand its service and improve network quality, Ethio telecom had built 725 stations in Addis Ababa alone during the past 20 years.", "Damages on fiber optic cables and power interruptions are among the challenges the service provider faced in its expansion and network quality improvement efforts." ], [ "See also", "* Internet in Ethiopia* Ethiopian Telecommunication Agency* Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation* Global Partnership for Ethiopia*Terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Ethiopia* EBC* Media in Ethiopia* Communications in Ethiopia* Telephone numbers in Ethiopia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* PanAfriL10n page on Ethiopia* \"The Internet in Ethiopia\" (2001 article)* \"Internet in Ethiopia Revisited – A Mixed Bag of Progress and Opportunities on-Hold\" (2002 update of previous article)* \"Ethiopia's digital dream\" (2005 Guardian UK article)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Ethiopia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in Ethiopia''' is overseen by the Ministry of Transport and Communications.", "Over the last years, the Ethiopian federal authorities have significantly increased funding for rail and road construction to build an infrastructure, that allows better economic development.A taxi in Addis Ababa, 2008" ], [ "Railways", "Current railways in Ethiopia:Ethiopia is building a standard gauge railway network, the National Railway Network of Ethiopia, planned to consist of up to 5,000 km of railways in a number of years.", "The railway network serves a strategic goal to allow Ethiopia a sustainable and stable economic development.", "By 2030, the Ethiopian government hopes to invest about $74 billion into its transportation.", "The railway network's primary purpose is then both to connect landlocked Ethiopia to the world market by ensuring a seamless access to one or several sea ports for trade and for transporting most imports and exports.", "The rail transport of goods appears favorable – if compared to road transport – in terms of volume, costs, safety and speed of transportation for both imports and exports.", "The primary port for Ethiopia is the Port of Djibouti in Djibouti.", "More than 95% of Ethiopia's trade passes through Djibouti.The port of Djibouti is served by one international railway, the electrified standard gauge 756 km long Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway (of which 656 km run in Ethiopia).", "This railway has officially been opened in October 2016 but it is in trial service with no regular traffic in 2017.Once operational by the end of 2017 or in 2018, it will allow passenger transport and a travel time from Addis Ababa to Djibouti City in less than twelve hours with a designated speed of 120 km/hour.Another railway, the Awash – Hara Gebeya Railway will go into trial service over its first 270 km in 2018.This second railway links Addis Ababa and the Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway with the north of Ethiopia.", "Once operational over its first 270 km, possibly 2018 or 2019, it will allow both freight and passenger transport.", "A train ride from Addis Ababa to the twin cities of Kombolcha and Dessie will be possible in around six hours with a designated speed of 120 km/hour." ], [ "Roads", "An auto transporter passes along a highway in the Lake Beseka region of central Ethiopia.Road projects now represent around a quarter of the annual infrastructure budget of the Ethiopian federal government.", "Additionally, through the Road Sector Development Program (RSDP), the government has earmarked $4 billion to construct, repair and upgrade roads over the next decade.As the first part of a 10-year Road Sector Development Program, between 1997 and 2002 the Ethiopian government began a sustained effort to improve its infrastructure of roads.", "As a result, as of 2002 Ethiopia has a total (federal and regional) 33,297 km of roads, both paved and gravel.", "The share of federally managed roads in good quality improved from 14% in 1995 to 31% in 2002 as a result of this program, and to 89% in 2009 the road density increased from 21 km per 1000 km2 (in 1995) to 889 per 1000 km2 (in 2009) however, this is much greater than the average of 50 km per 1000 km2 for Africa.The Ethiopian government had begun the second part of the Road Sector Development Program, which was completed in 2007.This had involved the upgrading or construction of over 7,500 km of roads, with the goal of improving the average road density for Ethiopia to 35 km per 1000 km2, and reducing the proportion of the country area that is more than 5 km from an all-weather road from 75% to 70%.In 2024, the Ministry of Transport and Communications announced that they will ban combustion engined vehicle imports.", "As of February 2024, the date and details of the ban have not been released.According to the Government of Ethiopia, it has spent over 600 billion birr (US$50 billion, €30 billion) on infrastructure since 1990.", "* ''total (regional and federal):'' 144,391 km (2009)* ''asphalt:'' 120,381 km (2009) (89% of the roads in Ethiopia are asphalt)* ''gravel:'' 11,023 km (2009) (11% of the roads in Ethiopia are gravel)* ''maintained by Regional government'': 86,580 km (2009)Major roads include:'''No 1''': north east from Addis Ababa 853 km via Adama and Awash to Bure on Eritrean border'''No 2''': north from Addis Ababa 1071 km via Dessie, Mek'ele and Adigrat to Axum'''No 3''': north west from Addis Ababa across the Blue Nile at Dejen and again at Bahir Dar east around Lake Tana 737 km to Gondar.", "Designated part of the Cairo-Cape Town Trans-African Highway 4 (TAH 4)'''No 4''': west from Addis Ababa 445 km via Nekemte to Gimbi'''No 5''': west from Addis Ababa 510 km via Jimma to Metu'''No 6''': south west from Jimma 216 km to Mizan Teferi'''No 7''': south from Mojo 432 km via Shashamane and Sodo to Arba Minch.", "Part of road between Mojo and Shashamane is designated part of the Cairo-Cape Town Trans-African Highway 4 (TAH 4)'''No 8''': south from Shashamane 214 km via Awasa to Hagere Mariam.", "Designated part of the Cairo-Cape Town Trans-African Highway 4 (TAH 4)'''No 9''': south from Adama 77 km to Asella'''No 10''': east from Awash 572 km via Harar and Jijiga to Degehabur===Expressways===Adama|leftThe Addis Ababa–Adama Expressway was completed in 2014 as the first expressway in Ethiopia.", "In December 2015, construction began on a second expressway between Awasa and Mojo, where it will connect to the existing expressway.In addition, the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) has undertaken a three-year project to upgrade over 370 km of roads in the country.", "Contracts have been signed with the Ethiopian Defense Construction, China Railway Engineering, Eney Construction, China Wuyi, Yotek Construction and FAL General Contractor.===Dangers of vehicular transport===It is said that Ethiopia has the highest rates of traffic fatalities per vehicle in the world.", "This is due to many factors.", "For example, the roads are poorly maintained, lightened and marked; which are major factors in road accidents.", "Another major factor is the people themselves, who ignore the rules of the road.", "Their disregard of road safety puts every other driver at risk.", "Due to this, foreigners are advised to keep a safe distance from the car in front of them because the driving is unpredictable; anything can happen in the blink of an eye.", "Even the surroundings involving transport can be incredibly dangerous.", "For example, there are instances when carjackings and robberies occur on highways or streets that are away from the public eye.", "Due to this, people are forced to be highly alert of their surroundings, such as checking to make sure no one is lurking around their vehicle before entering and avoiding nighttime travel." ], [ "Ports and harbours", "Modjo dry portEthiopia is landlocked and was by agreement with Eritrea using the ports of Asseb and Massawa until 1997; since the Eritrean-Ethiopian War, Ethiopia has used the port of Djibouti for nearly all of its imports.", "Ethiopia increasingly relies on inland dry ports for distributing cargo, after cargo arrived from Djibouti.", "The main Ethiopian dry port is Modjo dry port.=== Merchant marine ===The Baro River is the only river used for transport.", "''Total:''9 ships (with a volume of or over) / (2003 est.", ")''ships by type:''cargo ship 7; container ship 1; petroleum tanker 1; roll-on/roll-off ship 3 (1999 est.", "), 1 (2003 est.)" ], [ "Airports", "Ethiopian Airlines Boeing 757-23N at Bole International Airport, Addis Ababa (2008)As of 2021, Ethiopia has 57 airports, of which 17 have paved runways .", "The Addis Ababa Airport is the largest airport in Ethiopia and one of Africa's biggest and busiest.", "It is the main hub of Ethiopian Airlines, the national airline that serves destinations in Ethiopia and throughout the African continent, as well as nonstop service to Asia, Europe, North America and South America.", "The airport is also the base of the Ethiopian Aviation Academy.", "As of June 2018, nearly 450 flights per day were departing from and arriving at the airport.", "In 2018, about 12 million passengers were carried on domestic and international flights.", ";Paved runways''total:''14''over 3,047 m:''3''2,438 to 3,047 m:''5''1,524 to 2,437 m:''5''914 to 1,523 m:''1 (2003 est.", ");Unpaved runways''total:''68''over 3,047 m:''3''2,438 to 3,047 m:''2''1,524 to 2,437 m:''13''914 to 1,523 m:''27''under 914 m:''23 (2003 est.)" ], [ "See also", "* Road traffic accident in Ethiopia* List of airports in Ethiopia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* \"Chapter 8: Transport and Communications\" in Richard Pankhurst, ''Economic History of Ethiopia (1800–1935)'' (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University Press, 1968)." ], [ "External links", "* iEthio.com Addis Ababa Ethiopia Airport Shuttle* Ethiopian Shipping Lines, S.C.", "The Ethiopian Merchant Marine Corporation* Ethiopian Road Authority* OSAC Bureau of Diplomatic Security" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ethiopian National Defense Force" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Ethiopian National Defense Force''' ('''ENDF''') () is the military force of Ethiopia.", "Civilian control of the military is carried out through the Ministry of Defense, which oversees the Ground Forces, Air Force, Naval Force as well as the Defense Industry Sector." ], [ "History", "The Ethiopian army's origins and military traditions date back to the earliest history of Ethiopia.", "Due to Ethiopia's location between the Middle East and Africa, it has long been in the middle of Eastern and Western politics and has been subject to foreign invasion and aggression.", "In 1579, the Ottoman Empire's attempt to expand from a coastal base at Massawa during the Ottoman conquest of Habesh was defeated.", "The Army of the Ethiopian Empire was also able to defeat the Egyptians in 1876 at Gura, led by Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes IV.", "Clapham wrote in the 1980s that the \"Abyssinians had suffered from a 'superiority complex' which may be traced to Gundet, Gura and Adwa\".Following the order of the emperor of Ethiopia, Nikolay Leontiev directly organized the first battalion of the regular Ethiopian army in February 1899.Leontiev formed the first regular battalion, the kernel of which became the company of volunteers from the former Senegal shooters, which he chose and invited from Western Africa, with the training of the Russian and French officers.", "The first Ethiopian military band was organized at the same time.=== Ethiopian Empire =======Battle of Adwa====The Battle of Adwa is the best-known victory of Ethiopian forces over foreign invaders.", "It maintained Ethiopia's existence as an independent state.", "Fought on 1 March 1896 against the Kingdom of Italy near the town of Adwa, it was the decisive battle of the First Italo–Ethiopian War.", "Assisted by all of the major nobles of Ethiopia, including Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, Ras Makonnen, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, Mikael of Wollo, and Menelik II struck a powerful blow against the Italian army.The Ethiopian army had been able to execute the strategic plan of Menelik's headquarters, despite a feudal system of organization and adverse circumstances.", "A special role was played by the Russian military advisers and the volunteers of Leontiev's mission.Secondly, the Ethiopian army was based on a feudal system of organization, and as a result, nearly the entire army was a peasant militia.", "Russian military experts advising Menelik II suggested trying to achieve full battle collision with Italians, to neutralize the superior firepower of their opponent and potentially nullify their problems with arms, training, and organization, rather than engaging in a campaign of harassment.", "In the battle that ensued wave upon wave of Menelik's warriors successfully attacked the Italians.====Preserving Ethiopian independence====During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia remained the only nation that had not been colonized by European colonial powers, due in part to their defeat of Italy in the First Italo-Ethiopian War.", "However, with Ethiopia surrounded by European colonies, the necessity of ensuring that the Ethiopian army was well-maintained became apparent to the Ethiopian government.", "The Ethiopian government trained its troops to a very high degree, with Russian military officer Alexander Bulatovich writing thus:\"Many consider the Ethiopian army to be undisciplined.", "They think that it is not in any condition to withstand a serious fight with a well-organized European army, claiming that the recent war with Italy doesn't prove anything.", "I will not begin to guess the future and will say only this.", "Over the course of four months, I watched this army closely.", "It is unique in the world.", "And I can bear witness to the fact that it is not quite so chaotic as it seems at first glance, and that on the contrary, it is profoundly disciplined, though in its own unique way.", "For every Abyssinian, war is normal business, and military skills and rules of army life in the field enter in the flesh and blood of each of them, just as do the main principles of tactics.", "On the march, each soldier knows how to arrange necessary comforts for himself and to conserve his strength; but on the other hand, when necessary, he shows such endurance and is capable of action in conditions which are difficult even to imagine.You see remarkable expediency in all the actions and skills of this army, and each soldier has an amazingly intelligent attitude toward managing the mission of the battle.Despite such qualities, because of its impetuousness, it is much more difficult to control this army than a well-drilled European army, and I can only marvel at and admire the skill of its leaders and chiefs, of which there is no shortage.", "\"In obedience to the agreement with Russia and the order of Menelik II, First Ethiopian officers began to be trained at the First Russian cadet school in 1901.30 to 40 Ethiopian officers were trained in Russia from 1901 until 1913.====Under Haile Selassie I====East African Campaign.Modernization of the army took place under the regency of Tafari Mekonnen, who later reigned as Emperor Haile Selassie I.", "He created an Imperial Bodyguard, the ''Kebur Zabagna'', in 1917 from the earlier ''Mahal Safari'' who had traditionally attended the Ethiopian Emperor.", "Its elite was trained at the French military academy at Saint-Cyr or by Belgian military advisers.", "He also created his own military school at Holeta in January 1935.Ethiopian military aviation efforts were initiated in 1929 when Tafari Mekonnen hired two French pilots and purchased four French biplanes.", "By the time of the Italian invasion of 1935, the air force had four pilots and thirteen aircraft.However, these efforts were not sufficient nor instituted in enough time to stop the rising tide of Italian fascism.", "Ethiopia was invaded and occupied by Italy during the Italian invasion of Ethiopia of 1935–36, marked for Ethiopia's first time being occupied by a foreign power.", "Ethiopia's patriots managed to resist and defeat the fascist Italian force after the 1941 East African Campaign of World War II with the help of British, South African and Nigerian forces.", "This made Ethiopia the only country in Africa that has never been colonized.", "After the Italians had been driven from the country, a British Military Mission to Ethiopia (BMME), under Major General Stephen Butler, was established to reorganize the Ethiopian Army.", "The Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement of 1944 removed the BMME from the jurisdiction of East Africa Command at Nairobi and made it responsible to the Ethiopian Minister of War.Ethiopia bought twenty AH-IV tankettes from Czechoslovakia in the late 1940s.", "They were based on the Romanian R-1 variant and arrived in Djibouti on 9 May 1950 after which they were carried by rail to Addis Ababa.", "They were used until the 1980s when they participated in the fighting against Somalia.====Korean War====Ethiopian soldiers in the Korean War, 1951In keeping with the principle of collective security, for which Haile Selassie was an outspoken proponent, Ethiopia sent a contingent under General Mulugeta Buli, known as the Kagnew Battalion, to take part in the Korean War.", "It was attached to the American 7th Infantry Division, and fought in several engagements including the Battle of Pork Chop Hill.", "3,518 Ethiopian troops served in the war, of which 121 were killed and 536 wounded.On May 22, 1953, a U.S.-Ethiopian Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement was signed.", "A U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group was dispatched to Ethiopia and began its work by reorganizing the army into three divisions.", "On 25 September 1953, Selassie created the Imperial Ministry of National Defense that unified the Army, Air Force, and Navy.", "By 1956, the First Division had its headquarters at Addis Ababa (First, Second, Third Brigades, 5,300 strong); the Second Division was headquartered at Asmara, with the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, and Twelfth Brigades (4,500 strong); and Third Division Harar (with the Fourth, Ninth, Tenth, and Eleventh Brigades, 6,890 strong) respectively.", "The three divisions had a total of 16,832 troops.", "In May 1959, the Emperor established the Imperial Territorial Army as a reserve force that provided military training to civil servants.In 1960 the U.S. Army Area Handbook for Ethiopia described the very personalized command arrangements then used by the Emperor:The Emperor is by constitutional provision Commander-in-Chief, and to him are reserved all rights respecting the size of the forces and their organization and command, together with the power to appoint, promote, transfer and dismiss military officers.", "He seeks the advice and consent of Parliament in declaring war.", "Traditionally, he assumes personal command of the forces in time of war.", "'The Office of the Chief of Staff of the Imperial Ethiopian Armed Forces directed the Commanders of the Army, Air Force, and Navy, and the three army divisions were directly responsible to the Commander of the Army.", "The three divisions seemingly included the Third Division in the Ogaden, seen as a hardship post.", "While technically the Imperial Bodyguard (Kebur Zabagna) was responsible to the Army Commander, in reality, its commander received his orders directly from the Emperor.", "''Balambaras'' Abebe Aregai was one of the noted patriotic resistance leaders of Shoa (central Ethiopia) that rose to preeminence in the post-liberation period.", "He became ''Ras,'' a general and minister of defense of the Imperial Ethiopian Armed Forces until his death in the 1960 Ethiopian coup attempt.Ethiopia contributed troops for the United Nations operation in the Congo – the United Nations Operation in the Congo - from July 1960.By 20 July 1960, 3,500 troops for ONUC had arrived in the Congo.", "The 3,500 consisted of 460 troops from Ethiopia (later to grow into the Tekil Brigade) as well as troops from Ghana, Morocco and Tunisia.", "Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie raised some 3,000 Imperial Bodyguard personnel- about 10 percent of the Ethiopian army's entire strength at that time-and made it part of the UN peacekeeping force in the Congo, along with an air force squadron.", "This volunteer battalion from the Imperial Bodyguard were authorized by the Emperor.", "The Tekil (or \"Tekel\") Brigade was stationed in Stanleyville.Aman Mikael Andom commanded the Third Division during the 1964 Ethiopian–Somali Border War.", "He later became chief of staff of the Armed Forces in July 1974, and then Minister of Defense.", "He then became chairman of the Derg from September to December 1974.Emperor Haile Selassie divided the Ethiopian military into separate commands.", "The US Army Handbook for Ethiopia notes that each service was provided with training and equipped from different foreign countries \"to assure reliability and retention of power.\"", "The military consisted of the following: Imperial Bodyguard (also known as the \"First Division\", 8,000 men); three army divisions; services which included the Airborne, Engineers, and Signal Corps; the Territorial Army (5,000 men); and the police (28,000 men).Among reported U.S. equipment deliveries to Ethiopia were 120 M59 and 39 M75 armored personnel carriers.===Seizure of power by the Derg 1974 and aftermath===The Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army, or the Derg (Amharic \"Committee\"), was officially announced 28 June 1974 by a group of military officers to maintain law and order due to the powerlessness of the civilian government following widespread mutiny in the armed forces of Ethiopia earlier that year.", "Its members were not directly involved in those mutinies, nor was this the first military committee organized to support the administration of Prime Minister Endelkachew Makonnen: Alem Zewde Tessema had established the Armed Forces Coordinated Committee on 23 March.", "However, over the following month's radicals in the Ethiopian military came to believe he was acting on behalf of the hated aristocracy, and when a group of notables petitioned for the release of several government ministers and officials who were under arrest for corruption and other crimes, three days later the Derg was announced.The Derg, which originally consisted of soldiers at the capital, broadened its membership by including representatives from the 40 units of the Ethiopian Army, Air Force, Navy, Kebur Zabagna (Imperial Guard), Territorial Army and Police: each unit was expected to send three representatives, who were supposed to be privates, NCOs, and junior officers up to the rank of major.", "According to Bahru Zewde, \"senior officers were deemed too compromised by close association to the regime.", "\"The committee elected Major Mengistu Haile Mariam as its chairman and Major Atnafu Abate as its vice-chairman.", "The Derg was initially supposed to study various military units' grievances, investigate abuses by senior officers and staff, and root out corruption in the military.", "In the months following its founding, the power of the Derg steadily increased.", "In July 1974 the Derg obtained key concessions from the Emperor, Haile Selassie, which included the power to arrest not only military officers but government officials at every level.", "Soon both former Prime Ministers Tsehafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold, and Endelkachew Makonnen, along with most of their cabinets, most regional governors, many senior military officers, and officials of the Imperial court found themselves imprisoned.When the Derg gained control of Ethiopia, they lessened their reliance on the West.", "Instead, they began to draw their equipment and their sources for organizational and training methods from the Soviet Union and other Comecon countries, especially Cuba.", "During this period, Ethiopian forces were often locked in counter-insurgency campaigns against various guerrilla groups.", "They honed both conventional and guerrilla tactics during campaigns in Eritrea, and by repelling an invasion launched by Somalia in the 1977–1978 Ogaden War.The Ethiopian army grew considerably under the Derg (1974–1987), and the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia under Mengistu (1987–1991), especially during the latter regime.", "The Library of Congress estimated forces underarms in 1974 at 41,000.By July 1975 the International Institute for Strategic Studies was listing a mechanised division in addition to three infantry divisions.", "Ayele writes that in November 1975, the \"Nabalbal\" (\"Flame\") force was created, subdivided into battalion-sized units of 400.Each battalion-sized unit was known as a ''hayl'' (force), and 20 were created within sixteen months.", "The \"Nabalbal\" units entered combat in 1977.When Ethiopian intelligence sources discovered Somali planning to seize the Ogaden, militia brigades were also created; first 30, then a total of 61 brigades totaling 143,350 by 1977–78.It appears that there were five regular line divisions active by the time of the 1977 Ogaden War, and the Library of Congress estimated the force size at the time as 53,500.With significant Soviet assistance, after that point the army's size grew rapidly; in 1979 it was estimated at 65,000.The 18th and 19th Mountain Infantry Divisions were then established in 1979-80 originally to seize Nakfa, in the Sahel Mountains, one of the remaining strongholds of the Eritrean insurgents.", "By the beginning of 1981 recruitment for the 21st and 22nd Mountain Infantry Divisions was underway; soon afterward, preparations for the large Operation Red Star were stepping up.In April 1988 the Derg reorganized the army.", "The restoration of relations with Somalia meant that forces could be transferred from the First Revolutionary Army in the Ogaden, to the Second and Third Revolutionary Armies, the Third (TRA) being responsible for the provinces of Assab, Tigray, Wello, Gondar, and Gojjam.", "The very small Fourth Revolutionary Army became responsible for protecting the border with Kenya and those with Somalia and Sudan.", "In the place of the previous commands, thirteen corps were established instead, distributed amongst the army headquarters.", "Intensive efforts were made to enlist additional personnel.", "Total manpower after the reorganization reached a reported 388,000.In May 1988 the Derg decided that before it could concentrate on destroying the EPLF, it would have to first eliminate the TPLF.", "Thus Operation Adwa was devised to seize the main TPLF base at Adi Ramets in Gondar Province.", "The Third Revolutionary Army's 603rd and 604th Corps were to play the main role, while the 605th Corps secured the rear, in Wello.", "The TRA's command structure was disrupted when Major General Mulatu Negash, the army commander, was supplanted by the arrival of Mengistu's favorite, Captain Lagesse Asfaw.Cuba provided a significant influx of military advisors and troops over this period, with the largest escalation during the Ogaden War with Somalia, supported by a Soviet airlift:* 1977–1978: 17,000 (Ogaden War)* 1978: 12,000* 1984: 3,000* 1989: All forces withdrawn====1990-91 Order of Battle====Gebru Tareke listed Ethiopian ground forces in 1990 as comprising four revolutionary armies organized as task forces, eleven corps, twenty-four infantry divisions, and four mountain divisions, reinforced by five mechanized divisions, two airborne divisions, and ninety-five brigades, including four mechanized brigades, three artillery brigades, four tank brigades, twelve special commandos and para commandos brigades – including the Spartakiad, which became operational in 1987 under the preparation and guidance of North Koreans – seven BM-rocket battalions, and ten brigades of paramilitary forces.Forces underarms were estimated at 230,000 in early 1991.Mengistu's People's Militia had also grown to about 200,000 members.", "The mechanized forces of the army comprised 1,200 T-54/55, 100 T-62 tanks, and 1,100 armored personnel carriers (APCs), but readiness was estimated to be only about 30 percent operational, because of the withdrawal of financial support, lack of maintenance expertise and parts from the Soviet Union, Cuba, and other nations.Ethiopian T-62 tanks at the end of the Ethiopian Civil War.The army commands consisted of the:* First Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Harar, 1988: 601st and 602nd Corps)* Second Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Asmera, 1988: 606th-610th Corps)* Third Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Kombolcha, 1988: 603rd, 604th, 605th Corps)* Fourth Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Nekemte, 1988: 611th, 612th, 614th Corps)* Fifth Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Gondar)To these armies were assigned the operational forces of the army, comprising:* 31 infantry divisions.", "The 30th and 31st Infantry Divisions were the last formed, circa November–December 1989.There were also the 102nd Airborne Division and 103rd Commando Divisions, which began training in January 1987.", "* 32 tank battalions* 40 artillery battalions* 12 air defense battalions* 8 commando brigadesEthiopian soldiers have also committed many atrocities in the region of Tigray.", "They have used food and rape as weapons of war.===From 1991===In 1991 Mengistu's government was overcome by the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ, former EPLF), Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) and other opposition factions.", "After the defeat of the military government, the provisional government disbanded the former national army and relied on its own guerrilla fighters.", "In 1993, however, the Tigrayan-led government announced plans to create a multi-ethnic defense force.", "This process entailed the creation of a new professional army and officer class and the demobilization of many of the irregulars who had fought against the military government.", "With the collapse of the Soviet Union Ethiopia again turned to the Western powers for alliance and assistance.", "However, many Tigrayan officers remained in command positions.", "This transformation was still underway when war with Eritrea broke out in 1998, a development that saw the ranks of the armed forces swell along with defense expenditures.Although the armed forces have significant battlefield experience, their militia orientation has complicated the transition to a structured, integrated military.", "Ranks and conventional units were only adopted in 1996.A United States-assisted effort to restructure the armed forces was interrupted by mobilization for the war with Eritrea.====The Ethiopia-Eritrea war====Soldier of Ethiopian National Defense Force, 2006.The former allies EPRDF and PFDJ (former EPLF) led their countries Ethiopia and Eritrea, respectively, into the Eritrean-Ethiopian War of 1998.The war was fought over the disputed region of Badme.", "During the course of the war, some commanders and pilots from the former army and air force were recalled to duty.", "These officers helped turn the tide decisively against Eritrea in 2000.Following the war's end, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission, a body founded by the UN, established that the Badme region had in fact belonged to Eritrea.", "Although the two countries are now at peace, Ethiopia rejected the results of the international court's decision, and continued to occupy Badme.", "Most observers agree that Ethiopia's rejection of international law, coupled with the high numbers of soldiers maintained on the border by each side – a debilitatingly high number, particularly for the Eritrean side – means that the two countries are effectively still in conflict.After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Ethiopian army began to train with the U.S.", "Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) established in Djibouti.", "Ethiopia allowed the US to station military advisors at Camp Hurso.", "Part of the training at Camp Hurso has included U.S. Army elements, including 4th Battalion, 31st Infantry, training the 12th, 13th and 14th Division Reconnaissance Companies, which from July 2003 were being formed into a new Ethiopian anti-terrorism battalion.====Ogaden====Government forces have been engaged in a battle against Ogaden insurgents led by the Ogaden National Liberation Front.====Somalia====Ethiopian troops invaded Somalia in 2006 on the pretext of security concerns over Ogaden.In December 2006, the ENDF entered Somalia to confront the Islamic Courts Union, initially winning the Battle of Baidoa.", "This led to the seizure of Mogadishu by Ethiopian troops and TFG militias and subsequent heavy fighting there.", "After the Islamists split into two groups, moderate Islamists led by Sharif Sheikh Ahmed signed a UN backed peace deal with the TFG and established a larger government in Mogadishu.", "Ethiopian troops withdrew as part of the terms of the peace deal.", "Gabre Heard commanded the forces in Somalia.The force of about 3,000 Ethiopian troops faced war crimes allegations by rights groups.", "The Transitional Federal Government who invited them were also accused of human rights abuses and war crimes including murder, rape, assault, and looting by human rights groupsIn their December 2008 report 'So much to Fear' Human Rights Watch warned that since the Ethiopians had intervened in 2006 Somalia was facing a humanitarian catastrophe on a scale not witnessed since the early 1990s.", "They went on to accuse the TFG of terrorizing the citizens of Mogadishu and the Ethiopian soldiers for increasing violent criminality.Analysts suggested that the move was primarily motivated by financial considerations, with the Ethiopian forces' operational costs now slated to be under AMISOM's allowance budget.", "It is believed that the Ethiopian military's long experience in Somali territory, its equipment such as helicopters, and the potential for closer coordination will help the allied forces advance their territorial gains.", "As of 2014, the Ethiopian troops in Somalia have been integrated into the AMISOM peacekeeping force.", "According to Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson Ambassador Dina Mufti, the Ethiopian military's decision to join AMISOM is intended to render the peacekeeping operation more secure.==== The Northern War ====A destroyed ENDF armored vehicle lays in one of the main streets of Hawzen on 6 June 2021On 8 November 2020, ENDF troops backed by militias from the Amhara and the Eritrean Defence Forces regions were deployed to the Tigray Region in response to a coordinated 'preemptive strike' by TPLF against the Northern Command of ENDF.", "Since the beginning of the conflict, ENDF personnel has been accused of involvement in alleged war crimes against civilians in the Tigray Region.", "These mere accusations include rape and other gender based violence, as well as extrajudicial killings in Hagere Selam, Hitsats, Humera, Debre Abbay, and other areas where the conflict is ongoing.", "The prime minister of Ethiopia, Abiy Ahmed, has publicly acknowledged the possibility of war crimes taking place within the Tigray Region.", "Abiy did not however link these actions to the Ethiopian military, and instead cited such reports were likely \"propaganda of exaggeration\" by the Tigray People's Liberation Front, currently opposing federal forces in the northern region.The Italian weekly magazine Panorama published a graphic video in which Amharic-speaking ENDF soldiers killed a group of 9 people in Humera in August 2021 and then put their bodies on fire.", "The video also shows torturing of one man by soldiers, then tying him up, preparing to throw him in the river.The professional army of ENDF took significant casualties during the war, forcing the ENDF to rely on citizen soldiers until it was prepared for a counter-offensive, while it retreated from the northern part of Ethiopia.", "When the ENDF took high casualties and the need for more manpower arouse, the government started recruiting soldiers en-masse, with The Prime Minister himself leading by example the recruitment effort as well as the war from the frontlines, this happened during the TDF–OLA joint offensive which threatened Addis Abeba.", "Human wave attacks accusations were made during the war on the ENDF, such tactics are usually very costly in human life.", "In addition, in the lead-up and early on in the war, tigrayan military officers of the ENDF—which had constituted 80% of the officer corps of the ENDF—had defected to the TPLF.", "This greatly reducing the amount of capable COs and NCOs.", "This all indicates that the ENDF is coming out of the war enlarged in size, but with significant leadership/officer shortages that raises questions for the future, as in, can the ENDF control the regional militias that has sprung up and that could pose future threats to Ethiopia.", "With already signs of tensions arising between the central government and militias, with militias such as Fano, where the government arrested 4,000 militia members due to its \"illegal activities\".", "The ENDF has significant challenges coming out of the Northern war, such as coping with potential loss of leadership due to casualties, logistics or equipment losses." ], [ "Size and strength", "The size of the ENDF has fluctuated significantly since the end of the Ethiopia-Eritrea war in 2000.In 2002 the Ethiopian Defense Forces had a strength of approximately 250,000-350,000 troops.", "This was roughly the same number maintained during the Derg regime that fell to the rebel forces in 1991.However, that number was later reduced, and in January 2007, during the War in Somalia, Ethiopian forces were said to comprise about 300,000 troops.", "In 2012, the IISS estimated that the ground forces had 135,000 personnel and the air force 3,000.As of 2012, the ENDF consists of two separate branches: the Ground Forces and the Ethiopian Air Force.", "Ethiopia has several defense industrial organizations that produce and overhaul different weapons systems.", "Most of these were built under the Derg regime which planned a large military industrial complex.", "The ENDF relies on voluntary military service of people above 18 years of age.", "Although there is no compulsory military service, armed forces may conduct call-ups when necessary and compliance is compulsory.Modern day Ethiopia, being a landlocked country, has no active navy.", "Ethiopia reacquired a coastline on the Red Sea in 1950 and created the Ethiopian Navy in 1955.Eritrean independence in 1991 left Ethiopia landlocked again, but the Ethiopian Navy continued to operate from foreign ports until it finally was disbanded in 1996.In June 2018, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed called for the eventual reconstitution of the Ethiopian Navy as part of a wider program of security sector reforms, saying that \"we should build our naval force capacity in the future\".In March 2019, Abiy Ahmed signed defense accords with France's Emmanuel Macron, including on support in establishing a naval component.The Ethiopian Navy is based in Djibouti, and its headquarters is in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia." ], [ "Peacekeeping", "Ethiopia has served in various United Nations and African Union peacekeeping missions.", "These have included Ivory Coast, on the Burundi border, and in Rwanda.Two major previous Ethiopian missions were in Liberia and Darfur.", "The United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1509, of 19 September 2003, to support the implementation of the ceasefire agreement and the peace process, protect United Nations staff, facilities and civilians, support humanitarian and human rights activities; as well as assist in national security reform, including national police training and formation of a new, restructured military.", "In November 2007, nearly 1,800 Ethiopian troops serving with the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) were presented with UN Peacekeeping medals for their \"invaluable contribution to the peace process.\"", "Up to three Ethiopian battalions used to constitute Sector 4 of the UN Mission, covering the southern part of the country.", "The mission ended in 2018.Many thousands of Ethiopian peacekeepers were also involved in the hybrid United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) in western Sudan.", "The Security Council authorized a force of about 26,000 uniformed personnel.", "The Darfur mission was shut down in 2020–21.Ethiopia also provides the entire force for the UN's Abyei mission, the United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei.", "An Ethiopian officer commands the force." ], [ "The National Defense Day", "Defence Day 2019The National Defense Day is celebrated annually as the holiday of the ENDF on October 26.The day celebrates the establishment of Ministry of Defense for the first time in Ethiopian history, on 26 October 1907.It is celebrated for four days." ], [ "See also", "*African military systems after 1900*DAVEC*Ethiopian Air Force*Ethiopian Navy" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * Library of Congress Federal Research Division, Country Profile: Ethiopia, April 2005, accessed July 2012.", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Adejumobi and Binega, Budgeting for the Military Sector in Africa, Ch.", "3* * Bendix, Daniel ; Stanley, Ruth.", "/ Security Sector Reform in Africa.", "The Promise and the Practice of a New Donor Approach.", "In: Accord Occasional Paper Series.", "2008 ; Vol.", "3, No.", "2 - includes a note indicating British supported SSDAT/DfID/FCO/MOD defense transformation in Ethiopia.", "* Prof Laura Cleary, ''Ethiopia'', in ''Security Sector Horizon Scanning 2016 - to support Agile Warrior'' Director Strategy, British Army, Andover, c2016, * Jeffrey Isima, Report on the current position with regard to the security sector in Ethiopia, 2003* Mesfin, Berouk, ''Rebel Movements in Ethiopia,'' in Caroline Varin, Dauda Abubakar (eds) ''Violent Non-State Actors in Africa: Terrorists, Rebels and Warlords'', Springer, 2017.", "* Laurie Nathan, ''No Ownership, No Commitment'', GfN-SSR/University of Birmingham, 2007.Section on DDR Commission.", "* Colin Robinson, ''Defence Reform since 1990'' in Atieno and Robinson (eds.", "), ''Post-conflict Security, Peace and Development: Perspectives from Africa, Latin America, Europe and New Zealand'', Springer, 2018.", "* * Gebru Tareke, ''The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa,'' Yale Library of Military HistoryFurther sources on defense in Ethiopia include ''SSR in Ethiopia, A Prerequisite for Democracy''." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Ethiopia" ], [ "Introduction", "Nations with which Ethiopia has diplomatic relationsThe '''foreign relations of Ethiopia''' refers to overall diplomatic relationship of Ethiopia.", "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs oversees foreign relations and diplomatic missions of the country.Ethiopia is one of few early African countries admitted to the League of Nations, becoming a member on 28 September 1923, and was one of the founding members of the United Nations.", "During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia had maintained its full sovereignty over European colonial power and fought the First Italo-Ethiopian War in 1895–96.However, the League did not protect in accord with the envisaged \"collective security\" of the country, resulted Italy's occupation of Ethiopia for 5 years (1936–1941).From 1950s, Ethiopia participated to UN peacekeeping missions such as in Korean War and Congo Crisis.", "Virtually, Ethiopia maintains diplomatic relations to most countries, and is non-permanent member of the UN Security Council." ], [ "History", "===Antiquity=======Land of Punt====Punt (2500 BCE – 980 BCE) was predominantly a trading centre dominated by Ancient Egypt to Horn of Africa.", "Trading commodities includes exports of Egypt; one of the most essential was incense, which was mainly used for religious rituals for embalming corpse.", "Other were ivory, spices, hides and exotic animals that convey route to coast of Ethiopia, thus Ethiopia has been an integral part of Punt.", "Egyptian expedition to southeastern African region was generally commenced in the second millennium BC, after stabilizing relations with kingdoms of today's Sudan, the Kush, Napata and Meroë.====South Arabia====NASA capture of Arabic description of strait Bab el Mandeb.", "It is known for passage for South Arabian migration.Some theorists hypothesized Ancient South Arabian people migrated out of Africa to the strait Bab-el-Mandeb when its sea level decreased to current status.", "When their civilization came to appear from 4th millennium BC, onward Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf, adaptation of Semitic language was from end of Mediterranean, though they used Canaanite alphabet developed from Syria or Palestine during second millennium BC.", "Apparently, these languages similarity compared to Hebrew and Phoenician alphabets, even though lacked scholarly consensus.", "By 500 BC, it was widely spoken such as the Ge'ez language.Writing system through inscription on stone often detailed historical rival kingdoms in the region, most notability the Saba, Qataban, Himyar, Hadhramaut, Ma'in and others.", "In 1959, American archeologists collected numerous artifacts and body of inscriptions in the area, belonging to primary sources.", "The inscription not only detailed about South Arabia, but also the early Ethiopian history associated with Kingdom of Aksum and its rulers.====Kingdom of Aksum====Map of Eastern Hemisphere in the first century featuring trade route of Aksum with the rest powerful states The Kingdom of Aksum has been a great power in classic Africa; once it has been referenced by Persian prophet Mani in the 3rd century and Greco-Roman trading guide ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' in first century.", "Axum maintained well-defined foreign relations with powerful realms in the era.", "According to Stuart Munro-Hay witness, the Aksumite had several account of ambassadors that had delegation with neighboring powers.", "Occasionally, Aksumite contact with foreign powers also attested by archaeological or scarce finds.====Egypt====Aksumite relations with pre-Roman Egypt was ostensibly uncertain.", "However, it was considered that Aksumite contact were also existed during the fall of Ptolemaic dynasty with Cleopatra death in 30 BC.", "Few artifacts were uncovered from Egypt such as cippus of Horus given to Bruce, and illustrated by him, and a few amulet figurines of blue faience or cornaline found at various sites of Ethiopia.", "Other include the double-uraeus, perhaps brought from Meroë.Another discoveries are an inscription of Ptolemy III copied by Kosmas at Adulis and ankh'-sign engraved on one of the stelae.", "During King Ezana's reign, he expedited to the Nile after Meroë was entirely sacked.", "After its successor Noba emerged, it behaved badly to consign Aksumite ambassadors punished with military expedition.", "An aggressive mistreatment was objected by tribes such as the Mangurto, the Barya, and the Khasa by asking support, either regarded Aksum would an aide of Noba or possibly a suzerain.", "Ezana's expedition also attacked Kasu, the remnants of Meroitic state.", "Nuba, Kasu, and Beja were integral to Ezana's kingdom.", "Meroitic artifacts have been found in Ethiopian location Addi Galamo (Atse Dera) such as bronze bowls, which was brought from Roman Egypt.", "It was possibly made up of diorite thumb-ring found by the BIEA expedition at Aksum, and corna line amulet of Harpocrates with typical double-uraeus of the Meroites.====South Arabia====Saba, Himyar and Hadhramawit kingdom commonly known as South Arabian states—had special relations with Ethiopia.", "Culturally, linguistically, and socially, Aksumite civilization completely inspired by those overseas.", "While Aksumite intervention to states generally uncertain, it was viable to have a military expedition beginning in 3rd century.", "During the period of GDRT and Adhebah reign, (’DBH), Aksumite commenced a military treaty with Saba and then with Hadhramawit in the first half of third century.During Adhebah period, Shamir called Himyar prince Dhu-Raydan sent military aid from Aksum.", "Later, Aksumite king adopted nominally \"king of Saba and Himyar\", asserting suzerainty.", "Foreign contact also continued during the fifth and early sixth centuries between the two sides of Red Sea.", "Byzantine scholar Procopius told the voyage of crossing Red Sea for five days and nights and that \"the harbor of the Homeritae from which they are accustomed to putting to sea is called Boulikas\", presumably somewhere near Mukha, and \" at the end of the sail across the sea they always put in at the harbor of the Adulitae\" at the reign of King Kaleb.Arabian titles were experienced in South Arabia during Kaleb's reign; after his viceroy deposed by Jewish Himyar king Yusuf Asar, Yemen was no longer requisite to Aksum.", "The event led Aksumite to decline its dominion.", "An inscription dated to 543 AD mentioned that the new king named Abraha dealing with the restoration of great dam at Marib, and mentioned embassies from various foreign countries such as Aksum, Rome, Persia and various Arab groups.", "Procopius noted that Abreha was subordinated by Kaleb, a period which unbeknownst to Abreha regaining the kingdom reputations and he received little damage.===Middle Ages===\"''Preste''\" as the Emperor of Ethiopia, enthroned on a map of East Africa.", "From an atlas by the Portuguese cartographer Diogo Homem for Queen Mary, c.", "1555–1559.", "(British Library)Foreign relations in the Middle Ages have impacted by an interaction with Iberian countries—Spain and Portugal—especially the latter had considerable power on internal affairs.", "Portuguese influence spanned from 1500 to 1672, they had an interest of spreading Jesuit order from 1556 to 1632.According to their narrative effluence, the Portuguese authors underscored their involvement to Ethiopia, but overturned to smoothly decay.", "Portuguese authors works notably Francisco Álvares, Miguel de Castanhoso, and Pedro Páez survived to this day.", "Prester John, a fabulous Christian king, spurred the Portuguese to pursue Ethiopia whose kingdom they equates with Garden of Eden.", "According to the legend, he was born about 1460 and last seen in 1526.There is also speculation about his age where he lived for fifteen or twenty seven years beyond 1526.Pero da Covilhã profoundly marched overland into the Ethiopian Highlands about the end of 1492 or beginning of 1493, characterized by conquest and superiority.", "He sent an information to Lisbon a few years later that contributed Vasco da Gama mobilisation to African southern cap into the Indian Ocean.", "The Portuguese navy almost dominated the coastline of Eastern Hemisphere.In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since the Aksumite era.", "Atse Dawit I first made contact with the Republic of Venice by requesting for religious artifacts and craftsmen.", "A letter from Henry IV of England to the Ethiopian Emperor survives.", "In 1428, Yeshaq I sent two emissaries to Alfonso V of Aragon, who sent his own emissaries that failed to complete the return trip home to Aragon.The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Dawit II (Lebna Dengel), who had just inherited the throne from his father.", "In 1487, King John II of Portugal sent two emissaries to the Orient, Pero da Covilhã and Afonso de Paiva; Afonso would die on this mission.", "By the end of Middle Ages, the Ethiopian Empire was in a 13 year long war with neighboring Muslim states, and a Portuguese expedition force was sent from Goa, India to aid the Ethiopian Army due to an ongoing rivalry with the Ottoman Empire, who provided logistical support to the Adal Sultanate.===Early modern period=======Gondarine period====Emperor Susenyos I receives Latin Patriarch Afonso Mendes.", "Painted in 1713Since 16th century, Roman Catholicism and the Jesuits increasingly influenced on state power.", "Besides, the Oromo migrations had vital role in the northern Ethiopia.", "Among other Jesuit, Spanish Jesuit Pedro Paez had favorable relations to the Emperors of Ethiopia like Za Dengel and Susenyos I, the latter promulgated that Roman Catholicism state administrative to the Empire in 1622 on behalf of Orthodox Tewahedo Church, resulted in grave conflict for the years.The reign of Emperor Fasilides in 1632 arranged this status by restoring Orthodox Tewahedo state leadership and expelled Jesuits from his land.", "After founding Gondar in 1636, Ethiopia then prospered again with the beginning of \"Gondarine period\" characterized as relatively peaceful governance.", "However, few Franciscan and Capuchin friars said to be lived during the 18th century such as Franciscan Giuseppe Maria di Gerusalemme, Remedius Prutky (who left credible records to the city).Architecture of this period was slightly influenced by the remnant Jesuits, but also the presence of Arab, Indians (brought by the Jesuits) as well as Turkish in Ottoman occupied northern area had involvement.", "One of the example is castles in Fasil Ghebbi.====Post-Zemene Mesafint====British expeditionary force moving artillery across the Ethiopian HighlandsEmperor Tewodros II reinstated the imperial power and foreign relations.", "His connection of Queen Victoria and other European leaders unfavorable when he sent unresponsive letter to the Queen, eventually leading to brief war with the British Empire.", "The British sent 13,000 soldiers, 26,000 men for logistical support and 40,000 animals including war elephants from India during their expedition, resulting in Tewodros suicide at Magdala in 1868.Not only modernized the empire, but he also paved the way of coherence the succession for subsequent emperors.", "Ethiopia was briefly isolated from world power in the post-Zemene Mesafint period; Emperor Yohannes IV faced Egyptian invasion as they laid linkage of Suez Canal to Massawa, and opening road between Addi Quala and Gundet used to penetrate the Ethiopian Empire.", "Yohannes IV on other side was reluctant to improve the road from the Ethiopian Highland to the coast of Red Sea.", "According to British assistant John Kirkham, he \"preferred to keep his money hoarded up\".", "Likewise, German traveller Gerhard Rohlfs asserted that he wanted to build churches rather than roads.", "Road working, on the sides, was completed by Swedish missionaries at Monkulu.", "British traveller Augustus B. Wylde supposed that Abyssinians were \"in fear of foreign invasion\" where lastly commented \"I suppose they are right\".Wylde noted that the first Ethiopian diaspora took place in mid-1880s, who had been from Massawa to Europe, adapting European trousers.", "This was strictly outlawed by the Emperor.", "The empire nonetheless, was surged into modernization by foreign contribution, numerous missionary schools were expanded by Swedish Protestants at Monkulu and the French Lazarist at Keren, the later described by Wylde \"a very useful education\" with \"very well conducted\".", "Ethiopia had received broad European population in the 19th-century: Jean Baraglion of French origin who had lived for over a decade and according to Wylde, he enjoyed monopoly at Adwa.", "Despite rejoice, Baraglion encountered at least two rivals, a Hungarian named André who made an artificial limbs, and a Greek who have lived to Shewa over several years.===Menelik II===Ethiopia had strong diplomatic relations under Emperor Menelik II with Britain, France and Italy, the latter pursued hegemony to Ethiopian Empire after establishing colony in Eritrea (1882).", "The British and French rival with Italy due to insecurity with their respective protectorate in East Africa.", "However, both feared the process of Menelik's Expansions.", "In 1891, the British policy makers sent a circular note to the other world powers concerning the large portion of Nile Valley belonged to Ethiopia, \"the activities and the pretension of the Negus were practically enough in themselves to bring the British to the support of Italian policy in East Africa.", "\"Ethiopia in 1909 illustrated by Edward Hertslet On 2 May 1889, the Treaty of Wuchale was signed between Ethiopia and Italy with respective bilingual version.", "The treaty was signed after the Italian occupation of Eritrea and aimed to create friendship with both countries.", "The Amharic and Italian language, however confused by Article 17 in which Menelik denounced in 1893, resulting Italy's threatening over the status of newly formed boundary.", "Menelik II at the Battle of AdwaIn 1895, the First Italo-Ethiopian War began, ending with Italy's defeat at Battle of Adwa by Ethiopian troops who were assisted logistically by Menelik.", "By early 1900, European agencies opened legation in Addis Ababa and had huge impact on investment in the country's infrastructure (schools, banks, road, railway etc.", ").===Haile Selassie===During Haile Selassie coronation in 1930, emissaries from the United States, Egypt, Turkey, Sweden, Belgium, and Japan were also presented.", "Since then, he led the forefront diplomatic relations of Ethiopia with world powers.Italian artillery during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, March 1936In 1930s, Ethiopia faced Italian renewed imperialist design.", "Together with the failure of the League of Nations envision of Ethiopia's \"collective security\", Italy invaded Ethiopia again in October 1935, culminating in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War.", "In May 1936, Mussolini declared Ethiopia as part of Italian East Africa by merging with Eritrea and Somaliland.", "Haile Selassie fled to England's Fairfield House, Bath, and delivered an address that made him a worldwide figure, and the 1935 ''Time'' Man of the Year.On 10 June 1940, Mussolini declared war on France and Britain and attacked British and Commonwealth forces in Egypt, Sudan, Kenya and British Somaliland.", "In January 1941, the British army together with Arbegnoch (\"the Patriots\") and Gideon Force occupied Ethiopia.", "On 5 May, Haile Selassie with auspice of Ethiopian Free Forces entered Addis Ababa and reclaimed his throne while the war continued until November.", "After their defeat, the Italian began guerrilla offensive in Ethiopia that lasted until the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces in September 1943.Emperor Haile Selassie aboard the U.S. (13 February 1945)On 31 January 1942, the British and Ethiopia signed Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement which Britain recognized Ethiopian sovereignty, except military occupation of Ogaden with their colony in Somaliland and the former Italian colony of Somaliland, creating a single polity.", "Ethiopians discontent about the privilege of military administration of some south-eastern region until formal agreement signed on 19 December 1944 that ended British advantage in the Ethiopian regions.", "The Italian Republic signed peace treaty on 10 February 1947 that recognized Ethiopia's sovereignty with agreement to pay $25,000,000 in reparations.In 1952, Eritrea federated with Ethiopia with majority vote in the United Nations and this attitude declined by 1961, culminating in the Eritrean War of Independence since armed forces formed such as the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF).Eritrean War of Independence map in 1970sOppositions against Haile Selassie came to existence with students began marching through 1960s and early 1970s, chanting \"land for tiller\" and embracing several Marxist-Leninist theme.", "Haile Selassie deposed on 12 September 1974 by officers of Ethiopian Army led by Aman Andom named Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police and Territorial Army.", "The committee renamed itself Provisional Military Administrative Council known as the Derg after abolishing the Ethiopian Empire in March 1975.===The Derg era===The Derg aligned itself with Soviet bloc—had similar Marxist Leninist policy on Ethiopia.", "The Derg suffered from internal insurgency and ambivalent relations with neighboring countries such as Eritrea and Somalia.", "In 1977, the Ogaden War was fought between the Derg supported by Cuba, Soviet Union and South Yemen, and Somalia with the United States and Egypt.", "Although ending on 15 March 1978, the relations between Ethiopia and Somalia marred with political dispute with involvement of the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF) in relations of the disputed Ogaden region.", "Mengistu Haile Mariam (fifth in row) at SED Party Congress in Berlin, April 1986By the 1990, the Derg and Soviet Union relations was deteriorated after Mengistu Haile Mariam banned the Ethiopian media to use the term ''glasnost'' and ''perestroika'', defying Mikhail Gorbachev who was believed has not fondness for him.", "By early 1990, Mengistu helped emigration of the Ethiopian Jews to Israel by which many Jewish organizations and US Congress discerned Mengistu's task in the lobbying effort.===Federal Democratic Republic era===Prime Minister Meles Zenawi with Russian President Vladimir Putin on 3 December 2001Former US Secretary of State John Kerry with Hailemariam Desalegn in 2014Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed with Eritrean president Isaias Afwerki meeting on 3 March 2019After defeating the Derg in 1991, the newly formed coalition the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), led by President and later Prime Minister Meles Zenawi, experienced opposition from factions in Somalia as well as within the country; in May 1991, a pan-Islamist Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya (Islamic Unity) established to consolidate Somalia's power in the Greater Somalia.", "Relations with Eritrea was somewhat better intensified after its UN-sponsored session from Ethiopia in May 1993.Later in 1998, their relations was deteriorated after large-scale Eritrean mechanized force penetrated to Badme region, triggering the Eritrean–Ethiopian War.", "Both countries spent favorable amount of armaments ahead of the war and suffered reportedly 100,000 casualties combined as a direct consequence thereof, excluding indeterminate number of refugees.", "In December 2000, the two countries government signed Algiers Agreement which finalized the war and created binding judicial commissions, the Eritrea–Ethiopia Border Commission and the Eritrean–Ethiopian Claims Commissions, to oversee the disputed border and related claims.", "Since then, there was elevated tensions with border conflict and stalemate what is described \"war footing\" and \"no-war-no-peace\" with absence of foreign and domestic policy domination.", "This was ended after Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed came to power in 2018, signed the 2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia summit on 8–9 July.Meles' government relations with Djibouti was friendly as Djibouti accessed Port of Djibouti to Ethiopia.", "Ethiopia had 90% imports arrived from Port of Djibouti and 95% of Djiboutian regional exports.", "In 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) virtually controlled the whole of southern Somalia and successfully united Mogadishu and imposed Shari'a law.", "With support of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia, Ethiopia, under UN peacekeeping mission against War on Terrorism, attacked ICU.", "The ICU's split eventually led to the formation of Al-Shabaab, regrouping to continue the insurgency against TFG and Ethiopian military presence in Somalia.In May 2010, the Nile Basin Initiative was signed by five upstream countries such as Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, and Rwanda and Burundi as Egypt considerate as breach to the 1929 Anglo-Egyptian treaty that gave its right to share water.", "On 2 April 2011, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) inaugurated construction expected producing 15,000 megawatts of power within 10 years, spending 12 billion dollars of strategy to improve power generating capabilities.", "Egypt and Sudan continued objecting the filling of the dam in 2020.Under Abiy Ahmed premiership since 2018, Ethiopia repleted its relations Somalia and Eritrea.", "In October 2018, Ethiopia signed peace agreement with the rebel faction ONLF ending 34 year long conflict since 1984.ONLF has clashed with the Ethiopian troops to contain vast oil and gas deposits, where Chinese oil firms developing two gas field in the area.", "In 2007, ONLF launched deadly attack against Chinese-run oil field which killed 65 Ethiopians and 9 Chinese nationals.During the Tigray War, Ethiopia was allied to countries such as Turkey, United Arab Emirates and Iran who supplied drones to the Ethiopian government.", "With involvement of Eritrean Defence Forces (EDF), the US President Joe Biden designated six targets of sanction per Executive Order 14046, which was signed in September 2021." ], [ "Africa", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes* Algeria has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia closed its embassy in Algiers in 2021.13 July 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 July 19777 May 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 May 1966 when first Ambassador of Ethiopia to Dahomey ( resident in Lagos ) Mr. Dawit Abdou presented his credentials.11 April 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 April 1968 when the first Ethiopian ambassador to Upper Volta , Ato Haile Mechecha , has presented his credentials to President Lamizana9 June 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 June 1965 when the Burundi government has appointed its Ambassador in Addis Ababa, Pascar Bugiriza15 September 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 September 197021 October 1969Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 October 1969 when the first Ambassador of Chad to Ethiopia , M. Abdurahman Musa , presented his credentials to Emperor Haile Selassie4 March 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 March 1966 when first Ambassador of Ethiopia in Cote d'Ivoire presented his credentials* Côte d'Ivoire has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Abidjan.15 December 1979See Djibouti–Ethiopia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 December 1979.The border between the two countries is based on the Franco-Ethiopian convention of 20 March 1897, which was later finalized in a protocol dated 16 January 1954 and rendered effective on 28 February of that year.", "In October 1991, the Ethiopian and Djiboutian governments signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation further solidifying relations.", "Since 1991, the two countries have signed over 39 protocol agreements.Djibouti remains a major economic partner of Ethiopia.", "On 13 April 2002, the two countries signed an agreement concerning the use of the Port of Djibouti and the transit of cargo, which was later ratified by the Ethiopian Federal Parliamentary Assembly on 4 June of the same year.", "About 70% of the Port of Djibouti's activity consists of imports to and exports from neighboring Ethiopia, which depends on the harbour as its main maritime outlet.", "The port also serves as an international refueling center and transshipment hub.", "Additionally, both countries share ownership of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railroad.See Egypt–Ethiopia relationsAs two of the oldest independent states in Africa, both countries have an ancient relationship in many forms.", "The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was under the administration of the Coptic Orthodox Church from ancient times until 1959.Ethiopian and Egyptian armies clashed in the early 19th century over control of territory in what is modern Sudan, and Ethiopia's access to the Red Sea.", "Both countries established formal diplomatic ties in 1927.More recently, because both countries share a special relationship over the Nile basin, both are members of the Nile Basin Initiative.", "In 2010s, both countries relationship was deteriorated as a result of Ethiopia failed to reach trilateral agreement with Sudan regarding the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam project advanced.In 2021, Ethiopia closed its embassy in Cairo due to financial reasons.22 May 1993See Eritrea–Ethiopia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 22 May 1993 when first Ambassador of the Transitional Government of Ethiopia's to Eritrea Mr. Awalom Woldu Tuku presented his credentials to President Issaias Afwerki.", "Diplomatic relations were broken on 12 May 1998 when Ethiopia and Eritrea went to war over the disputed border area of Badme.", "Diplomatic relations were restored on 8 July 2018*The boundary between these two countries is based on three treaties between Ethiopia and Italy, in 1900, 1902, and 1908.However no part of the shared boundary was afterwards demarcated.", "* From 1950 until 1993, Eritrea was federated as part of Ethiopia.", "During much of this period, a number of Eritreans fought for independence from Ethiopia.", "The federation was ended with an April 1993 plebiscite which approved Eritrea's full independence.", "* Disputes over Eritrea's border alignment led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War (1998–2000), which was resolved by an independent boundary commission's delimitation decision in 2002.However, demarcation has been delayed, despite intense international intervention, by Ethiopian insistence that the decision ignored \"human geography,\" made technical errors in the delimitation, and determined that certain disputed areas, specifically Badme, fall to Eritrea.", "Eritrea meanwhile insists on not deviating from the commission's decision.", "The peacekeepers monitoring the disputed boundary were forced to withdraw in July 2008 having considered their remaining options after experiencing serious difficulties in supporting its troops.", "*In July 2018, leaders both countries signed a peace treaty to put a formal end to a state of war between both nations paving the way for greater economic cooperation and improved ties between them.1 January 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 January 1971 when the first Swaziland Ambassador to Ethiopia, Mr. Martin Ndiniso, has presented his credentials to Emperor Haile Selassie.17 October 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 October 1966* Ethiopia has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Addis Ababa.22 June 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 June 1962 when Guinea Ambassador to United Arab Republic (Egypt) Mr. Seydou Diallo was received by Emperor Haile Selassie as Ambassador also to Ethiopia26 June 1964See Ethiopia–Kenya relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 June 1964 and opened Ethiopian Embassy in Nairobi.Relations between Kenya and Ethiopia date back to the 1954, when the Ethiopian authorities under Haile Selassie I established an honorary consulate general in the British Kenya Colony.", "In 1961, prior to Kenya's independence, Ethiopia appointed its first ambassador to Kenya, and six years later Kenya opened an embassy in Addis Ababa.The border between the two countries is based on a treaty signed by Ethiopia and Kenya on 9 June 1970, which determines the present-day boundary, abrogating all previous boundary treaties.", "This border has been subjected to demarcation.11 October 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 October 1975 when first Libyan Ambassador to Ethiopia presented his credentials.30 July 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 July 1964.23 March 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 March 1964 when first Ambassador of the Republic of Mali , Mr. Modibo Diallo , has presented his credentials to Emperor Haile Selassie21 September 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 1966.5 August 1963Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 August 1963* Ethiopia has an embassy in Rabat.", "* Morocco has an embassy in Addis Ababa.Ethiopia–Namibia relations refers to the current and historical relationship between Ethiopia and Namibia.During the South African occupation of Namibia, Ethiopia was one of the country's leading proponents abroad; Ethiopia and Liberia were the first two states to bring the question of independence for then South West Africa to the United Nations.", "Namibia gained independence in 1990.In 2007, the two governments signed an agreement which expanded air travel between the two states.", "In December 2009, Namibia's Foreign Minister, Marko Hausiku met with Ethiopian Foreign Affairs Minister Seyoum Mesfin and noted the economic, science, technical and cultural agreements in place between the two countries and expressed a desire to improve the trade relations.", "* Ethiopia is accredited to Namibia from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.", "* Namibia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.6 October 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 October 1965 when first Ambassador of Ethiopia to Niger (resident in Lagos) Mr. Dawit Abdou presented his credentials* Ethiopia has an embassy in Abuja.", "* Nigeria has an embassy in Addis Ababa.26 October 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 October 1966* Ethiopia has an embassy in Dakar.", "* Senegal has an embassy in Addis Ababa.14 April 1982Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 April 198226 March 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 March 1968See Ethiopia–Somalia relationsRelations between the peoples of Somalia and Ethiopia stretch back to antiquity, to a common origin.", "The Ethiopian region is one of the proposed homelands of the Horn of Africa's various Afro-Asiatic communities.During the Middle Ages, Somali Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (Ahmad Gurey or Gragn) led a Conquest of Abyssinia (''Futuh al-Habash''), which brought three-quarters of the Christian Ethiopian Empire under the power of the Muslim Adal Sultanate.", "With an army mainly composed of Somalis, Many historians trace the origins of tensions between Somalia and Ethiopia to this war.In the 1960s and 1970s, a territorial dispute over the Ogaden region led to various armed confrontations between the Somalian and Ethiopian militaries.", "The tensions culminated in the Ogaden War, which saw the Somali army capture most of the disputed territory by September 1977, before finally being expelled by a coalition of communist forces.With changes in leadership in the early 1990s brought on by the start of the Somali Civil War and Ethiopian Civil War, respectively, relations between the Somali and Ethiopian authorities entered a new phase of military cooperation against the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) rebel group and its more radical successor Al-Shabaab.", "In October 2011, a coordinated multinational operation began against Al-Shabaab in southern Somalia; the Ethiopian military eventually joined the Transitional Federal Government-led mission the following month.The Federal Government of Somalia was later established on 20 August 2012, representing the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.", "The following month, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud was elected as the new Somali government's first President, with the Ethiopian authorities welcoming his selection and newly appointed Prime Minister of Ethiopia Hailemariam Desalegn attending Mohamud's inauguration ceremony.See Ethiopia–Somaliland relationsSomaliland has had decent economic relations with Ethiopia since the Eritrean–Ethiopian War, as a large part of Ethiopian exports have been handled via the port of Berbera, since Ethiopia can no longer use Eritrean ports of Massaua and Assab.", "These relationships stand in contrast to the “traditional hostility” towards Ethiopia felt by many Somalis in other areas, and against the background of low support among many northern Somalis for Siad Barre's Ogaden War against Ethiopia and the Somali National Movement which Ethiopia assisted financially.", "So far, however, these have not led to official Ethiopian recognition.", "On 1 January 2024, Ethiopia and Somaliland signed a pact giving Ethiopia access to the Red Sea in return for eventual recognition, making it the first UN member state to do so.6 January 1995See Ethiopia–South Africa relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 6 January 1995* Ethiopia has an embassy in Pretoria.", "* South Africa has an embassy in Addis Ababa.27 June 1956See Ethiopia–Sudan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 June 1956 when accredited first Ambassador of Ethiopia to Sudan Mr. Ato Mellas M. Andom.Alodia and the Kingdom of Makuria had some relations with Ethiopia in Medieval times.The Ethiopian Empire fought against Mahdist Sudan in the Mahdist War.Ethiopia and Sudan first established formal relations in 1956.Relations between Ethiopia and Sudan were very good following the end of the Ethiopian Civil War, due to the support that the Sudanese government had given to the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front.", "However, relations were strained for a time following the 26 June 1995 assassination attempt against Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak as he was leaving the OAU summit meeting in Addis Ababa.", "The subsequent investigation revealed that Sudan was involved in this act, forcing the Ethiopian government to take a series of steps against Sudan that September, which included closing the Sudanese consulate in Gambela, reducing the number of Sudanese embassy staff, and terminating all Sudan Airways and Ethiopian Airlines flights between the two countries.", "However the start of the Eritrean-Ethiopian War led to Sudan and Ethiopia put this conflict between them and normalizing their relations by November 1999 when president Omar Hassan al-Bashir made a formal visit to Addis Ababa.A protocol concerning Ethiopian access to Port Sudan was signed between the two countries 5 March 2000 in Khartoum, and this protocol and its subsequent amendment were ratified by the Ethiopian Federal Parliamentary Assembly on 3 July 2003.Efforts to demarcate the porous boundary with Sudan were delayed by the Second Sudanese Civil War.", "In May 2008, residents along the western Ethiopian border reportedly discovered that the government had agreed to demarcate this boundary when Sudanese soldiers forced them out of their homes.", "It was reported that as many as 2,000 people were displaced in the Gambela Region, and the Sudanese army reportedly set fire to two dozen Ethiopian farms and imprisoned 34 people in the Amhara Region.", "However, Prime Minister Meles Zenawi publicly denied that any Ethiopians had been displaced by this agreement.", "Negotiations over this boundary continues, with the twelfth meeting of the Boundary Commission announced 28 December 2009 at Mek'ele, with Ethiopian representatives from the Tigray, Benishangul-Gumuz, Amhara and Gambela Regions, and from the Sudanese side representatives of the Upper Nile, Blue Nile, Sennar and Al Qadarif Administrations.Despite these border tensions, Sudan remains a major economic partner of Ethiopia.", "According to the Ethiopian Petroleum Supplier Enterprise (EPSE), Ethiopia in April 2013 imported around $1.12 billion worth of oil from Sudan over the previous six months.", "In total, about 85% of Ethiopia's yearly oil consumption comes from Sudan via the Port of Djibouti.", "Ethiopia and Sudan are also in the process of linking their power grids.", "In 2010s, Sudan—Egypt—Ethiopia joint relations was deteriorated as a result of Ethiopia failed to reach trilateral agreement regarding the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam project advanced.", "During Tigray War in 2020, there was undissolved clash between their border, furtherly aggravated their relation.1 June 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 June 1964 when Ethiopia's Ambassador Ato Mekasha, presents his credentials* Ethiopia has an embassy in Dar-es-Salaam.", "* Tanzania has an embassy in Addis Ababa.11 December 1982Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 December 1982 when Ambassador of Ethiopia (resident in Accra) Mr. Kasate Berham Babina presented letters of credence to President of Togo Gnassingbe Eyadema.31 July 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 July 19624 June 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 June 1964 when accredited first Ambassador of Ethiopia to Uganda (resident in Nairobi) Mr. Ato Getachew Mekasha* Ethiopia has an embassy in Kampala.", "* Uganda has an embassy in Addis Ababa.8 July 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 July 1965 when Chief Mapanza has been appointed the Zambian Ambassador to Ethiopia* Ethiopia has an embassy in Harare.", "* Zimbabwe has an embassy in Addis Ababa." ], [ "Americas", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes28 March 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 March 1968* Argentina has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia is accredited to Argentina from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.8 December 1987Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 December 19879 January 1951See Brazil–Ethiopia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 9 January 1951 when was accredited first Minister of Ethiopia to Brazil Mr. Blatta Dawit Ogbazgy* Brazil has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Brasília.13 October 1965See Canada–Ethiopia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 13 October 1965* Canada has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia closed its embassy in Ottawa in 2021.", "*''See also'': Ethiopian Canadian16 October 1945Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 October 1945* Chile has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Chile30 May 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 May 196718 July 1975See Cuba–Ethiopia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 18 July 1975* Cuba has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Havana.23 January 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 January 2012* Ecuador is accredited to Ethiopia from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.", "* Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Ecuador.17 September 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 September 197920 June 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 June 201213 October 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 October 1970.5 April 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 April 1959.22 March 1966See Jamaica–Ethiopia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 22 March 1966* Jamaica has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Kingston.1 November 1949See Ethiopia–Mexico relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 November 1949* During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Mexico was one of the member states of the League of Nations to condemn the occupation of Ethiopia and support the League's sanctions against Italy.", "Since then, relations between the two nations have strengthened.", "* In Addis Ababa, Ethiopia named a square in the capital \"Mexico Square.\"", "Mexico, in turn, named a metro station in Mexico City called Metro Etiopía.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.7 May 1984Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 May 1984* Nicaragua has an embassy in Addis Ababa.17 August 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 August 196729 September 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 September 201010 September 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 September 19671 March 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 March 20173 August 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 August 200416 February 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 February 20047 July 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 July 1965 when was appointed first Ambassador of Trinidad and Tobago to Ethiopia Mr. George Daniel27 December 1903See Ethiopia–United States relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 December 1903* Ethiopia is a strategic partner of the United States in the Global War on Terrorism.", "* U.S. development assistance to Ethiopia is focused on reducing famine vulnerability, hunger, and poverty and emphasizes economic, governance, and social sector policy reforms.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and a consulate-general in Los Angeles.", "* United States has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "*''See also'': Ethiopian American23 March 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 March 2011* Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Uruguay.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Addis Ababa.20 July 1950Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 July 1950* Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Venezuela.", "* Venezuela has an embassy in Addis Ababa." ], [ "Asia", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes2 December 1993See Armenia–Ethiopia relations*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 December 1993*Armenia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "*Ethiopia is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.", "*Both nations have among the oldest Christian communities2 November 1992See Azerbaijan–Ethiopia relations* On November 2, 1992, Azerbaijan and Ethiopia signed a Protocol on the establishment of diplomatic relations.", "* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia maintains an honorary consulate in Baku, Azerbaijan.28 November 1999Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 November 199919 September 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 September 1976 when Mr. Mohammad Sultan, Bangladesh Ambassador to Egypt, has been accredited concurrently to Ethiopia.24 November 1970 See China–Ethiopia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 24 November 1970* China has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Chongqing, Guangzhou and Shanghai.", "29 June 1993See Ethiopia–Georgia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 29 June 19931 July 1948See Ethiopia–India relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 July 1948* Ethiopia has an embassy in New Delhi.", "* India has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* India trains Ethiopian personnel under its ITEC program and is Ethiopia's second largest source of Foreign Direct Investments.", "* The Second India-Africa Forum Summit was held in Addis Ababa in 2011 and India launched its Pan-African e-Network Project in Ethiopia in 2007.See Ethiopia–Indonesia relations* Ethiopia has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.14 September 1949Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 September 194924 October 1961See Ethiopia–Israel relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 24 October 1961 when Ethiopia recognized Israel de jure, and agreed to raise the consulate in Addis Ababa to the level of an embassy.", "Ethiopia severance diplomatic relations with Israel on 23 October 1973.Diplomatic relations were resumed on 3 November 1989* Ethiopia has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "* Israel has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "*''See also'': Ethiopian Jews in Israel, Operation Moses, Operation Solomon, History of the Jews in Ethiopia* Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Israel1930See Ethiopia–Japan relations* Japan and Ethiopia explored diplomatic and economic relations in the 1930s in response to perceived common interests; however these contacts lapsed with the commencement of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War* Relations were reestablished in 1955 and ambassadors exchanged in 1958.16 May 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 May 19605 September 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 September 20119 October 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 19669 December 2005Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 December 200531 July 1949Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 July 1949 when was accredited first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Ethiopia to Lebanon Mr. Fitaorari Tafesse Habte MikaelSee Ethiopia–Malaysia relations* Ethiopia has a consulate-general in Kuala Lumpur, while Malaysia doesn't have any embassy in Ethiopia.", "* Malaysia is one of the major trade partner and also one of the largest investors in Ethiopia.6 August 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 August 201815 April 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 April 19711975 Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1975.7 February 1995Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 February 199528 December 1957Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 December 1957* Ethiopia has an embassy in Islamabad.", "* Pakistan has an embassy in Addis Ababa.1989Palestine has an embassy in Addis Ababa.7 February 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 February 1977The Philippines and Ethiopia signed their first air agreement in 2014.16 July 1995See Ethiopia–Qatar relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 July 1995* Ethiopia abruptly broke diplomatic ties with Qatar in April 2008, apparently due to statements made by the Al-Jazeera news channel which is based in Qatar.25 May 1949Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 May 1949 when Minister of Ethiopia to Saudi Arabia (Resident in Cairo) Mr. Taffassa Hapte Mikael presented his credentials.23 December 1963See Ethiopia–South Korea relationsBetween The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and The Republic of Korea were established diplomatic relations on 23 December 1963.", "* Infantry men of 6,037 from Ethiopia have participated in the Korean War to help South Korea.", "* The number of South Koreans living in Ethiopia in 2016 were about 460.", "* The Republic of Korea's official development assistance from 1991 to 2014 was about 88.61m USD.", "** The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has an embassy in Seoul.", "** Since 1965 South Korea has an embassy in Addis Ababa.26 August 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 August 19801896See also Ethiopia–Turkey relations* Ethiopia has an embassy in Ankara.", "*Turkey has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "*Trade volume between the two countries was US$398.8 million in 2019 (Ethiopian exports/imports: 27.5/378.3 USD).5 May 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 May 199328 September 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 September 1961" ], [ "Europe", " Country DateNotes23 July 1948Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 July 194818 May 1994Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 May 1994* Belarus is accredited to Ethiopia from its embassy in Nairobi, Kenya.", "* Ethiopia is accredited to Belarus from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.", "25 March 1923Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 March 1923 when Consulate General of Belgium transformed into a Legation and the first Minister Plenipotentiary is Maxime Gerard 12 February 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 February 20073 July 1956Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 July 1956See Cyprus–Ethiopia relations11 February 1944Czechoslovakia and Ethiopia established diplomatic relations on 11 February 1944.The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) recognized the new Czech Republic as on January 1, 1993 and established diplomatic relations accordingly.", "* Ethiopia is accredited to the Czech Republic from its embassy in Berlin, Germany.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Addis Ababa.21 February 1950See Denmark–Ethiopia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 February 1950 when first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Denmark to Ethiopia (resident of Athens) Mr. Hubert Wichfeld presented his credentials.", "20 January 1967 both countries was raised their diplomatic missions to Embassy level* Denmark has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.23 August 2005Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 August 200517 July 1959See Ethiopia–Finland relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 17 July 1959* Ethiopia is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Finland has an embassy in Addis Ababa.20 March 1897See Ethiopia–France relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 March 1897* Ethiopia has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Addis Ababa.7 March 1905See Ethiopia–Germany relations* Both countries established diplomatic relations when signed a treaty of friendship on 7 March 1905; a German Legation was opened in Addis Ababa in 1907, and an Ethiopian embassy in Berlin the same year.", "* Germany supported Ethiopia in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Addis Ababa.See Ethiopia–Greece relations* Ethiopia is accredited to Greece from its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "* Greece has an embassy in Addis Ababa.17 November 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 November 195920 May 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 May 19681994See Ethiopia–Ireland relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1994* Ethiopia closed its embassy in Dublin in 2021.", "* Since 1994, Ireland has an embassy in Addis Ababa.24 June 1897See Ethiopia–Italy relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 24 June 1897.", "* Italy was one of the first European countries to open diplomatic relations with Ethiopia.", "* Both countries have fought two wars against each other: the First Italo-Ethiopian War and the Second Italo-Ethiopian War* Total trade volume between two countries reached 455,928,352.26 Birr in 2011.", "* Italy has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Rome.11 March 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 March 200819 October 1998Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 October 199819 March 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 March 1980 when accredited first Ambassador of Ethiopia to Luxembourg (resident in Brussels) Dr. Ghebray Berhane30 November 1982Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 November 198210 June 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 June 201117 July 2000Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 July 200014 July 1945See Ethiopia–Poland relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 July 1945* Ethiopia is accredited to Poland from its embassy in Berlin, Germany.", "* Poland has an embassy in Addis Ababa.4 July 1984Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 July 19842 July 1957Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 July 1957* Ethiopia is accredited to Romania from its Permanent Mission in Geneva, Switzerland.", "* Romania has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about bilateral relations with Romania21 April 1943 See Ethiopia–Russia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 April 1943* Russia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Moscow.", "The Ethiopian ambassador to Russia is also accredited to Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.", "* The history of this relationship has its origins in the 19th century.", "Russia supplied the mountain guns the Ethiopian army used in the Battle of Adwa.", "* More recently, the Soviet Union was a major source of military and economic aid under the Derg and during the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.", "* See also Alexander Bulatovich* Relations are somewhat unsure owing to Russia's close ties with Ethiopia's neighboring rival, Sudan.4 March 1952 See Ethiopia–Serbia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 4 March 1952* Serbia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia is accredited Serbia from its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "* Ethiopia is a strong advocate for Serbia on the issue of Kosovo.", "* The first vessel in the Ethiopian Navy was a gift from Yugoslavia.", "* The Serbian embassy is the former villa of Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito, which was given as a gift by Haile Selassie* On 27 January 2012, after traveling to Addis Ababa in order to reaffirm Ethiopia's stance on Kosovo regarding Serbia, Vuk Jeremić and Haile Mariam signed a memorandum of understanding between the two nations' ministries of foreign affairs.10 May 1995Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 May 199527 April 1951See Ethiopia–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 April 1951* Ethiopia is accredited to Spain from its embassy in Paris.", "* Spain has an embassy in Addis Ababa.See Ethiopia–Sweden relations* Ethiopia has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Addis Ababa.1 April 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 April 1993* Ethiopia is accredited to Ukraine from its embassy in Moscow.", "* Ukraine has an embassy in Addis Ababa.3 December 1903See Ethiopia–United Kingdom relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 December 1903 when appointed first Minister Plenipotentiary of United Kingdom to the Abyssinia Sir John Lane Harrington* Ethiopia has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* During the Second World War in 1941, the British army liberated Ethiopia from the Italian occupation (1936–1941)." ], [ "Oceania", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes13 December 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 December 1965 when accredited first Ambassador of Australia to Ethiopia Mr. W. R. Crocker* Australia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Canberra.6 January 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 January 20116 December 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 December 2011* Ethiopia is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "* New Zealand has an embassy in Addis Ababa.22 December 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 December 2011" ], [ "Ministry of Foreign Affairs", "Foreign relations are upheld by Ministry of Foreign Affairs with the ability and capacity to marshal strategic partners for the continent and the region; to play a central role in Ethiopia's growth into a democratic developmental state and in the achievement of peace and stability in the Horn of Africa." ], [ "United Nations", "Ethiopia was admitted to the League of Nations on 28 September 1923, becoming one of few African countries to do so due to not colonized by European powers during the 19th century Scramble for Africa.", "The League envisaged the membership for Ethiopia's \"collective security\" and protection against external attacks.", "The League however was unable to maintain Ethiopia's sovereignty as Japan invaded Manchuria, which Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1936.After its resumption of independence after World War II, Ethiopia was one of the founding members of the United Nations.", "Since the 1950s, Ethiopia has keeping UN peacekeeping missions toward Korean War and Congo Crisis and some African states like Rwanda and Burundi in 1990s.", "Ethiopia has now over 80,000 peacekeeping forces that are active.The UN delivers development and humanitarian plan in Ethiopia with 28 representatives of funds and specialized agencies in the UN Country Team (UNCT).", "Ethiopia is non-permanent member of the UN Security Council which has close cooperation with the regional organizations the African Union and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD)." ], [ "European Union", "Ethiopia has strong relations to the European Union while the EU funding financed by the European Development Fund (EDF) with objectives of resilience.", "Their relations has been defined by Cotonou Agreement article 8 to 13 with strong bilateral partners and dialogue regarding sustainable development on diverse aspect of the country.In addition, the EU is the second largest trade partner for Ethiopia with total expenditure of 4.1 billion euro; exports representing 12% while Ethiopia exports representing 26% of worldwide exports in 2016.This has been compared to China (8%), Somalia (14%) and Kuwait (13%)." ], [ "African Union", "50th anniversary of African Union Summit at Africa Hall in Addis Ababa, 2013Ethiopia is one of founding African states of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) (now the African Union) on 25 May 1963 under Emperor Haile Selassie, headquartered in Addis Ababa.", "At the time, the organization evolved up to 54 African states, except Morocco.The country is driving force of maintaining UN-AU peacekeeping missions, especially in the Horn of Africa region.", "The AU does not readily aggregate the preference of each member states.", "Therefore, every AU norms, institution and overlaps as consensus stated in the AU Constitution Act and its various decision and policy making, and implementation organs.", "As such, the AU offers for member states like Ethiopia to influence and impact on policy internally and regionally.", "Today, Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa is home of major organizations such as African Union, Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and African Standby Force." ], [ "See also", "* :Category:Ethiopian diaspora* Foreign aid to Ethiopia* List of diplomatic missions in Ethiopia* List of diplomatic missions of Ethiopia* Ministry of Foreign Affairs" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Amare Tekle, \"The Determinants of the Foreign Policy of Revolutionary Ethiopia\", ''Journal of Modern African Studies'', Vol.", "27, No.", "3 (Sep., 1989), pp.", "479–502* Orobola Fasehun, \"Nigeria and the Ethiopia-Somalia Conflict: A Case Study of Continuity in Nigerian Foreign Policy\", ''Africa Spectrum'', '''17''' (1982), pp.", "183–193" ], [ "External links", "* Ministry of Foreign Affairs for Ethiopia's webpage* A Tangled Political Landscape Raises Questions About African Ally of the U.S. by Michael Deibert, 12 June 2008* Abdul Mohammed, \"Ethiopia’s Strategic Dilemma in the Horn of Africa\", Crisis in the Horn of Africa (Social Science Research Council website)* \"U.S. to Test Soviet 'New Thinking': Talks on Africa,\" ''The Christian Science Monitor'', 4 May 1989." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Europa Island" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Europa Island''' (, ), in Malagasy '''Nosy Ampela''' is a low-lying tropical atoll in the Mozambique Channel, about a third of the way from southern Madagascar to southern Mozambique.", "The island had never been inhabited until 1820, when the French family ''Rosier'' moved to it.", "The island officially became a possession of France in 1897.The island, garrisoned by a detachment from Réunion, has a weather station and is visited by scientists.", "Though uninhabited now, it is part of the Scattered Islands of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands administrative region.Europa Island was the setting of \"Search in the Deep\", a 1968 episode of ''The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau'', partly focusing on the breeding habits of the green sea turtle." ], [ "Description", "Europa is in diameter, with a maximum altitude of , and has of coastline.", "It is surrounded by coral beaches and a fringing reef and encloses a mangrove lagoon of around and open to the sea on one side.There are no ports or harbours but anchorage is possible offshore.", "Its exclusive economic zone, contiguous with that of Bassas da India, is .", "The airstrip is metres long.===Ecology===The island is a nature reserve.", "Its vegetation consists of dry forest, scrub, ''Euphorbia'', the mangrove swamp, and the remains of a sisal plantation.", "It is one of the world's largest nesting sites for green sea turtles.", "It is also home to goats introduced by settlers in the late 18th century.The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it supports a large and diverse population of breeding seabirds and other waterbirds.", "It is the only known breeding site outside Aldabra and Madagascar for Malagasy pond herons.", "Seabirds include the second largest colony in the western Indian Ocean of great frigatebirds (with up to 1100 pairs), Audubon's shearwaters (up to 100 pairs, probably of the subspecies ''Puffinus lherminieri bailloni'' previously considered endemic to the Mascarene Islands), dimorphic egrets and Caspian terns.Europa is home to an endemic subspecies of white-tailed tropicbird (''Phaethon lepturus europae''), three kinds of landbird (including an endemic subspecies of the Malagasy white-eye) and its own species of hissing cockroach.===Climate===Europa Island's climate is affected by the Agulhas Current with water temperatures usually above , southeast trade winds during the (austral) winter and occasional cyclones.", "The climate can be described as a semi-arid and tropical combination with wet summers and dry winters." ], [ "History", "While the island has probably been sighted by navigators since at least the 16th century, it takes its name from the British ship ''Europa'', which visited it in December 1774.Ruins and graves on Europa island attest to several attempts at settlement from the 1860s to the 1920s.", "For example, the French Rosiers family moved to the island in 1860, but subsequently abandoned it.File:Europa Island.jpg|Satellite photo of Europa Island (north at top)File:Europa Island simplified land cover map-en.svg|Map of Europa IslandFile:vue aerienne europa.jpg|Aerial view of the islandFile:EuropaDunesNord.jpg|Beaches, north of the island" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Euclidean geometry" ], [ "Introduction", "Detail from Raphael's ''The School of Athens'' featuring a Greek mathematician – perhaps representing Euclid or Archimedes – using a compass to draw a geometric construction.", "'''Euclidean geometry''' is a mathematical system attributed to ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, which he described in his textbook on geometry, ''Elements''.", "Euclid's approach consists in assuming a small set of intuitively appealing axioms (postulates) and deducing many other propositions (theorems) from these.", "Although many of Euclid's results had been stated earlier, Euclid was the first to organize these propositions into a logical system in which each result is ''proved'' from axioms and previously proved theorems.The ''Elements'' begins with '''plane geometry''', still taught in secondary school (high school) as the first axiomatic system and the first examples of mathematical proofs.", "It goes on to the solid geometry of three dimensions.", "Much of the ''Elements'' states results of what are now called algebra and number theory, explained in geometrical language.For more than two thousand years, the adjective \"Euclidean\" was unnecessary becauseEuclid's axioms seemed so intuitively obvious (with the possible exception of the parallel postulate) that theorems proved from them were deemed absolutely true, and thus no other sorts of geometry were possible.", "Today, however, many other self-consistent non-Euclidean geometries are known, the first ones having been discovered in the early 19th century.", "An implication of Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity is that physical space itself is not Euclidean, and Euclidean space is a good approximation for it only over short distances (relative to the strength of the gravitational field).Euclidean geometry is an example of synthetic geometry, in that it proceeds logically from axioms describing basic properties of geometric objects such as points and lines, to propositions about those objects.", "This is in contrast to analytic geometry, introduced almost 2,000 years later by René Descartes, which uses coordinates to express geometric properties by means of algebraic formulas." ], [ "The ''Elements''", "The ''Elements'' is mainly a systematization of earlier knowledge of geometry.", "Its improvement over earlier treatments was rapidly recognized, with the result that there was little interest in preserving the earlier ones, and they are now nearly all lost.There are 13 books in the ''Elements'':Books I–IV and VI discuss plane geometry.", "Many results about plane figures are proved, for example, \"In any triangle, two angles taken together in any manner are less than two right angles.\"", "(Book I proposition 17) and the Pythagorean theorem \"In right-angled triangles the square on the side subtending the right angle is equal to the squares on the sides containing the right angle.\"", "(Book I, proposition 47)Books V and VII–X deal with number theory, with numbers treated geometrically as lengths of line segments or areas of surface regions.", "Notions such as prime numbers and rational and irrational numbers are introduced.", "It is proved that there are infinitely many prime numbers.Books XI–XIII concern solid geometry.", "A typical result is the 1:3 ratio between the volume of a cone and a cylinder with the same height and base.", "The platonic solids are constructed.===Axioms===The parallel postulate (Postulate 5): If two lines intersect a third in such a way that the sum of the inner angles on one side is less than two right angles, then the two lines inevitably must intersect each other on that side if extended far enough.Euclidean geometry is an axiomatic system, in which all theorems (\"true statements\") are derived from a small number of simple axioms.", "Until the advent of non-Euclidean geometry, these axioms were considered to be obviously true in the physical world, so that all the theorems would be equally true.", "However, Euclid's reasoning from assumptions to conclusions remains valid independently from the physical reality.Near the beginning of the first book of the ''Elements'', Euclid gives five postulates (axioms) for plane geometry, stated in terms of constructions (as translated by Thomas Heath)::Let the following be postulated:# To draw a straight line from any point to any point.# To produce (extend) a finite straight line continuously in a straight line.# To describe a circle with any centre and distance (radius).# That all right angles are equal to one another.# The parallel postulate: That, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the angles are less than two right angles.Although Euclid explicitly only asserts the existence of the constructed objects, in his reasoning he also implicitly assumes them to be unique.The ''Elements'' also include the following five \"common notions\":# Things that are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another (the transitive property of a Euclidean relation).# If equals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal (Addition property of equality).# If equals are subtracted from equals, then the differences are equal (subtraction property of equality).# Things that coincide with one another are equal to one another (reflexive property).# The whole is greater than the part.Modern scholars agree that Euclid's postulates do not provide the complete logical foundation that Euclid required for his presentation.", "Modern treatments use more extensive and complete sets of axioms.===Parallel postulate===To the ancients, the parallel postulate seemed less obvious than the others.", "They aspired to create a system of absolutely certain propositions, and to them, it seemed as if the parallel line postulate required proof from simpler statements.", "It is now known that such a proof is impossible since one can construct consistent systems of geometry (obeying the other axioms) in which the parallel postulate is true, and others in which it is false.", "Euclid himself seems to have considered it as being qualitatively different from the others, as evidenced by the organization of the ''Elements'': his first 28 propositions are those that can be proved without it.Many alternative axioms can be formulated which are logically equivalent to the parallel postulate (in the context of the other axioms).", "For example, Playfair's axiom states::In a plane, through a point not on a given straight line, at most one line can be drawn that never meets the given line.The \"at most\" clause is all that is needed since it can be proved from the remaining axioms that at least one parallel line exists.A proof from Euclid's ''Elements'' that, given a line segment, one may construct an equilateral triangle that includes the segment as one of its sides: an equilateral triangle ΑΒΓ is made by drawing circles Δ and Ε centered on the points Α and Β, and taking one intersection of the circles as the third vertex of the triangle.===Methods of proof===Euclidean Geometry is ''constructive''.", "Postulates 1, 2, 3, and 5 assert the existence and uniqueness of certain geometric figures, and these assertions are of a constructive nature: that is, we are not only told that certain things exist, but are also given methods for creating them with no more than a compass and an unmarked straightedge.", "In this sense, Euclidean geometry is more concrete than many modern axiomatic systems such as set theory, which often assert the existence of objects without saying how to construct them, or even assert the existence of objects that cannot be constructed within the theory.", "Strictly speaking, the lines on paper are ''models'' of the objects defined within the formal system, rather than instances of those objects.", "For example, a Euclidean straight line has no width, but any real drawn line will have.", "Though nearly all modern mathematicians consider nonconstructive methods just as sound as constructive ones, Euclid's constructive proofs often supplanted fallacious nonconstructive ones—e.g., some of the Pythagoreans' proofs that involved irrational numbers, which usually required a statement such as \"Find the greatest common measure of ...\"Euclid often used proof by contradiction.", "Euclidean geometry also allows the method of superposition, in which a figure is transferred to another point in space.", "For example, proposition I.4, sideangleside congruence of triangles, is proved by moving one of the two triangles so that one of its sides coincides with the other triangle's equal side, and then proving that the other sides coincide as well.", "Some modern treatments add a sixth postulate, the rigidity of the triangle, which can be used as an alternative to superposition." ], [ "Notation and terminology", "===Naming of points and figures===Points are customarily named using capital letters of the alphabet.", "Other figures, such as lines, triangles, or circles, are named by listing a sufficient number of points to pick them out unambiguously from the relevant figure, e.g., triangle ABC would typically be a triangle with vertices at points A, B, and C.=== Complementary and supplementary angles ===Angles whose sum is a right angle are called complementary.", "Complementary angles are formed when a ray shares the same vertex and is pointed in a direction that is in between the two original rays that form the right angle.", "The number of rays in between the two original rays is infinite.Angles whose sum is a straight angle are supplementary.", "Supplementary angles are formed when a ray shares the same vertex and is pointed in a direction that is in between the two original rays that form the straight angle (180 degree angle).", "The number of rays in between the two original rays is infinite.=== Modern versions of Euclid's notation ===In modern terminology, angles would normally be measured in degrees or radians.Modern school textbooks often define separate figures called lines (infinite), rays (semi-infinite), and line segments (of finite length).", "Euclid, rather than discussing a ray as an object that extends to infinity in one direction, would normally use locutions such as \"if the line is extended to a sufficient length\", although he occasionally referred to \"infinite lines\".", "A \"line\" in Euclid could be either straight or curved, and he used the more specific term \"straight line\" when necessary." ], [ "Some important or well known results", "File:pons_asinorum_dzmanto.png|The ''pons asinorum'' or ''bridge of asses theorem'' states that in an isosceles triangle, α = β and γ = δ.File:Sum_of_angles_of_triangle_dzmanto.png|The ''triangle angle sum theorem'' states that the sum of the three angles of any triangle, in this case angles α, β, and γ, will always equal 180 degrees.File:Pythagorean.svg|The ''Pythagorean theorem'' states that the sum of the areas of the two squares on the legs (''a'' and ''b'') of a right triangle equals the area of the square on the hypotenuse (''c'').File:Thales' Theorem Simple.svg|''Thales' theorem'' states that if AC is a diameter, then the angle at B is a right angle.===Pons asinorum===The pons asinorum (''bridge of asses'') states that ''in isosceles triangles the angles at the base equal one another, and, if the equal straight lines are produced further, then the angles under the base equal one another''.", "Its name may be attributed to its frequent role as the first real test in the ''Elements'' of the intelligence of the reader and as a bridge to the harder propositions that followed.", "It might also be so named because of the geometrical figure's resemblance to a steep bridge that only a sure-footed donkey could cross.===Congruence of triangles===Congruence of triangles is determined by specifying two sides and the angle between them (SAS), two angles and the side between them (ASA) or two angles and a corresponding adjacent side (AAS).", "Specifying two sides and an adjacent angle (SSA), however, can yield two distinct possible triangles unless the angle specified is a right angle.Triangles are congruent if they have all three sides equal (SSS), two sides and the angle between them equal (SAS), or two angles and a side equal (ASA) (Book I, propositions 4, 8, and 26).", "Triangles with three equal angles (AAA) are similar, but not necessarily congruent.", "Also, triangles with two equal sides and an adjacent angle are not necessarily equal or congruent.===Triangle angle sum===The sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to a straight angle (180 degrees).", "This causes an equilateral triangle to have three interior angles of 60 degrees.", "Also, it causes every triangle to have at least two acute angles and up to one obtuse or right angle.===Pythagorean theorem===The celebrated Pythagorean theorem (book I, proposition 47) states that in any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares whose sides are the two legs (the two sides that meet at a right angle).===Thales' theorem===Thales' theorem, named after Thales of Miletus states that if A, B, and C are points on a circle where the line AC is a diameter of the circle, then the angle ABC is a right angle.", "Cantor supposed that Thales proved his theorem by means of Euclid Book I, Prop.", "32 after the manner of Euclid Book III, Prop.", "31.===Scaling of area and volume===In modern terminology, the area of a plane figure is proportional to the square of any of its linear dimensions, , and the volume of a solid to the cube, .", "Euclid proved these results in various special cases such as the area of a circle and the volume of a parallelepipedal solid.", "Euclid determined some, but not all, of the relevant constants of proportionality.", "E.g., it was his successor Archimedes who proved that a sphere has 2/3 the volume of the circumscribing cylinder." ], [ "System of measurement and arithmetic", "Euclidean geometry has two fundamental types of measurements: angle and distance.", "The angle scale is absolute, and Euclid uses the right angle as his basic unit, so that, for example, a 45-degree angle would be referred to as half of a right angle.", "The distance scale is relative; one arbitrarily picks a line segment with a certain nonzero length as the unit, and other distances are expressed in relation to it.", "Addition of distances is represented by a construction in which one line segment is copied onto the end of another line segment to extend its length, and similarly for subtraction.Measurements of area and volume are derived from distances.", "For example, a rectangle with a width of 3 and a length of 4 has an area that represents the product, 12.Because this geometrical interpretation of multiplication was limited to three dimensions, there was no direct way of interpreting the product of four or more numbers, and Euclid avoided such products, although they are implied, for example in the proof of book IX, proposition 20.similar to them.", "The last figure is neither.", "Congruences alter some properties, such as location and orientation, but leave others unchanged, like distance and angles.", "The latter sort of properties are called invariants and studying them is the essence of geometry.Euclid refers to a pair of lines, or a pair of planar or solid figures, as \"equal\" (ἴσος) if their lengths, areas, or volumes are equal respectively, and similarly for angles.", "The stronger term \"congruent\" refers to the idea that an entire figure is the same size and shape as another figure.", "Alternatively, two figures are congruent if one can be moved on top of the other so that it matches up with it exactly.", "(Flipping it over is allowed.)", "Thus, for example, a 2x6 rectangle and a 3x4 rectangle are equal but not congruent, and the letter R is congruent to its mirror image.", "Figures that would be congruent except for their differing sizes are referred to as similar.", "Corresponding angles in a pair of similar shapes are equal and corresponding sides are in proportion to each other." ], [ "Euclidean geometry in engineering", "===Design and Analysis===*'''Stress Analysis''': Stress Analysis - Euclidean geometry is pivotal in determining stress distribution in mechanical components, which is essential for ensuring structural integrity and durability.Mechanical Stress*'''Gear Design''': Gear - The design of gears, a crucial element in many mechanical systems, relies heavily on Euclidean geometry to ensure proper tooth shape and engagement for efficient power transmission.Gear* '''Heat Exchanger Design''': Heat exchanger - In thermal engineering, Euclidean geometry is used to design heat exchangers, where the geometric configuration greatly influences thermal efficiency.", "See shell-and-tube heat exchangers and plate heat exchangers for more details.U-Tube Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger* '''Lens Design''': Lens - In optical engineering, Euclidean geometry is critical in the design of lenses, where precise geometric shapes determine the focusing properties.", "Geometric optics analyzes the focusing of light by lenses and mirrors.Types of Lenses=== Dynamics ===* '''Vibration Analysis''': Vibration - Euclidean geometry is essential in analyzing and understanding the vibrations in mechanical systems, aiding in the design of systems that can withstand or utilize these vibrations effectively.Vibration - Oscillations* '''Wing Design''': Aircraft Wing Design - The application of Euclidean geometry in aerodynamics is evident in aircraft wing design, airfoils, and hydrofoils where geometric shape directly impacts lift and drag characteristics.Airfoil Nomenclature* '''Satellite Orbits''': Satellite Orbits - Euclidean geometry helps in calculating and predicting the orbits of satellites, essential for successful space missions and satellite operations.", "Also see astrodynamics, celestial mechanics, and elliptic orbit.Animation of Orbit by Eccentricity===CAD Systems===*'''3D Modeling''': In CAD (computer-aided design) systems, Euclidean geometry is fundamental for creating accurate 3D models of mechanical parts.", "These models are crucial for visualizing and testing designs before manufacturing.", "* '''Design and Manufacturing''': Much of CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) relies on Euclidean geometry.", "The design geometry in CAD/CAM typically consists of shapes bounded by planes, cylinders, cones, tori, and other similar Euclidean forms.", "Today, CAD/CAM is essential in the design of a wide range of products, from cars and airplanes to ships and smartphones.", "* '''Evolution of Drafting Practices''': Historically, advanced Euclidean geometry, including theorems like Pascal's theorem and Brianchon's theorem, was integral to drafting practices.", "However, with the advent of modern CAD systems, such in-depth knowledge of these theorems is less necessary in contemporary design and manufacturing processes.3D CAD Model=== Circuit Design ===* '''PCB Layouts''': Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Design utilizes Euclidean geometry for the efficient placement and routing of components, ensuring functionality while optimizing space.", "Efficient layout of electronic components on PCBs is critical for minimizing signal interference and optimizing circuit performance.PCB of a DVD Player=== Electromagnetic and Fluid Flow Fields ===* '''Antenna Design''': Antenna Design - Euclidean geometry of antennas helps in designing antennas, where the spatial arrangement and dimensions directly affect antenna and array performance in transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves.Cassegrain, Extremely high gain ~70 dBi.", "* '''Field Theory''': Complex Potential Flow - In the study of inviscid flow fields and electromagnetic fields, Euclidean geometry aids in visualizing and solving potential flow problems.", "This is essential for understanding fluid velocity field and electromagnetic field interactions in three-dimensional space.", "The relationship of which is characterized by an irrotational solenoidal field or a conservative vector field.Circulation=== Controls ===* '''Control System Analysis''': Control Systems - The application of Euclidean geometry in control theory helps in the analysis and design of control systems, particularly in understanding and optimizing system stability and response.", "Basic feedback loop.", "* '''Calculation Tools''': Jacobian - Euclidean geometry is integral in using Jacobian matrices for transformations and control systems in both mechanical and electrical engineering fields, providing insights into system behavior and properties.", "The Jacobian serves as a linearized design matrix in statistical regression and curve fitting; see non-linear least squares.", "The Jacobian is also used in random matrices, moment, statistics, and diagnostics." ], [ "Other general applications", "Because of Euclidean geometry's fundamental status in mathematics, it is impractical to give more than a representative sampling of applications here.File:us land survey officer.jpg|A surveyor uses a levelFile:Ambersweet oranges.jpg|Sphere packing applies to a stack of oranges.File:Parabola with focus and arbitrary line.svg|A parabolic mirror brings parallel rays of light to a focus.As suggested by the etymology of the word, one of the earliest reasons for interest in and also one of the most common current uses of geometry is surveying.", "In addition it has been used in the cognitive and computational approaches to visual perception of objects.", "Certain practical results from Euclidean geometry (such as the right-angle property of the 3-4-5 triangle) were used long before they were proved formally.", "The fundamental types of measurements in Euclidean geometry are distances and angles, both of which can be measured directly by a surveyor.", "Historically, distances were often measured by chains, such as Gunter's chain, and angles using graduated circles and, later, the theodolite.An application of Euclidean solid geometry is the determination of packing arrangements, such as the problem of finding the most efficient packing of spheres in n dimensions.", "This problem has applications in error detection and correction.File:Damascus Khan asad Pacha cropped.jpg|Geometry is used in art and architecture.File:Water tower cropped.jpg|The water tower consists of a cone, a cylinder, and a hemisphere.", "Its volume can be calculated using solid geometry.File:Origami crane cropped.jpg|Geometry can be used to design origami.Geometry is used extensively in architecture.Geometry can be used to design origami.", "Some classical construction problems of geometry are impossible using compass and straightedge, but can be solved using origami." ], [ "Later history{{anchor|History}}", "===Archimedes and Apollonius===A sphere has 2/3 the volume and surface area of its circumscribing cylinder.", "A sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request.Archimedes (), a colorful figure about whom many historical anecdotes are recorded, is remembered along with Euclid as one of the greatest of ancient mathematicians.", "Although the foundations of his work were put in place by Euclid, his work, unlike Euclid's, is believed to have been entirely original.", "He proved equations for the volumes and areas of various figures in two and three dimensions, and enunciated the Archimedean property of finite numbers.Apollonius of Perga () is mainly known for his investigation of conic sections.René Descartes.", "Portrait after Frans Hals, 1648.===17th century: Descartes===René Descartes (1596–1650) developed analytic geometry, an alternative method for formalizing geometry which focused on turning geometry into algebra.In this approach, a point on a plane is represented by its Cartesian (''x'', ''y'') coordinates, a line is represented by its equation, and so on.In Euclid's original approach, the Pythagorean theorem follows from Euclid's axioms.", "In the Cartesian approach, the axioms are the axioms of algebra, and the equation expressing the Pythagorean theorem is then a definition of one of the terms in Euclid's axioms, which are now considered theorems.The equation:defining the distance between two points ''P'' = (''px'', ''py'') and ''Q'' = (''qx'', ''qy'') is then known as the ''Euclidean metric'', and other metrics define non-Euclidean geometries.In terms of analytic geometry, the restriction of classical geometry to compass and straightedge constructions means a restriction to first- and second-order equations, e.g., ''y'' = 2''x'' + 1 (a line), or ''x''2 + ''y''2 = 7 (a circle).Also in the 17th century, Girard Desargues, motivated by the theory of perspective, introduced the concept of idealized points, lines, and planes at infinity.", "The result can be considered as a type of generalized geometry, projective geometry, but it can also be used to produce proofs in ordinary Euclidean geometry in which the number of special cases is reduced.Squaring the circle: the areas of this square and this circle are equal.", "In 1882, it was proven that this figure cannot be constructed in a finite number of steps with an idealized compass and straightedge.===18th century===Geometers of the 18th century struggled to define the boundaries of the Euclidean system.", "Many tried in vain to prove the fifth postulate from the first four.", "By 1763, at least 28 different proofs had been published, but all were found incorrect.Leading up to this period, geometers also tried to determine what constructions could be accomplished in Euclidean geometry.", "For example, the problem of trisecting an angle with a compass and straightedge is one that naturally occurs within the theory, since the axioms refer to constructive operations that can be carried out with those tools.", "However, centuries of efforts failed to find a solution to this problem, until Pierre Wantzel published a proof in 1837 that such a construction was impossible.", "Other constructions that were proved impossible include doubling the cube and squaring the circle.", "In the case of doubling the cube, the impossibility of the construction originates from the fact that the compass and straightedge method involve equations whose order is an integral power of two, while doubling a cube requires the solution of a third-order equation.Euler discussed a generalization of Euclidean geometry called affine geometry, which retains the fifth postulate unmodified while weakening postulates three and four in a way that eliminates the notions of angle (whence right triangles become meaningless) and of equality of length of line segments in general (whence circles become meaningless) while retaining the notions of parallelism as an equivalence relation between lines, and equality of length of parallel line segments (so line segments continue to have a midpoint).===19th century===In the early 19th century, Carnot and Möbius systematically developed the use of signed angles and line segments as a way of simplifying and unifying results.====Higher dimensions====In the 1840s William Rowan Hamilton developed the quaternions, and John T. Graves and Arthur Cayley the octonions.", "These are normed algebras which extend the complex numbers.", "Later it was understood that the quaternions are also a Euclidean geometric system with four real Cartesian coordinates.", "Cayley used quaternions to study rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space.At mid-century Ludwig Schläfli developed the general concept of Euclidean space, extending Euclidean geometry to higher dimensions.", "He defined ''polyschemes'', later called polytopes, which are the higher-dimensional analogues of polygons and polyhedra.", "He developed their theory and discovered all the regular polytopes, i.e.", "the -dimensional analogues of regular polygons and Platonic solids.", "He found there are six regular convex polytopes in dimension four, and three in all higher dimensions.Schläfli performed this work in relative obscurity and it was published in full only posthumously in 1901.It had little influence until it was rediscovered and fully documented in 1948 by H.S.M.", "Coxeter.In 1878 William Kingdon Clifford introduced what is now termed geometric algebra, unifying Hamilton's quaternions with Hermann Grassmann's algebra and revealing the geometric nature of these systems, especially in four dimensions.", "The operations of geometric algebra have the effect of mirroring, rotating, translating, and mapping the geometric objects that are being modeled to new positions.", "The Clifford torus on the surface of the 3-sphere is the simplest and most symmetric flat embedding of the Cartesian product of two circles (in the same sense that the surface of a cylinder is \"flat\").====Non-Euclidean geometry====The century's most influential development in geometry occurred when, around 1830, János Bolyai and Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky separately published work on non-Euclidean geometry, in which the parallel postulate is not valid.", "Since non-Euclidean geometry is provably relatively consistent with Euclidean geometry, the parallel postulate cannot be proved from the other postulates.In the 19th century, it was also realized that Euclid's ten axioms and common notions do not suffice to prove all of the theorems stated in the ''Elements''.", "For example, Euclid assumed implicitly that any line contains at least two points, but this assumption cannot be proved from the other axioms, and therefore must be an axiom itself.", "The very first geometric proof in the ''Elements,'' shown in the figure above, is that any line segment is part of a triangle; Euclid constructs this in the usual way, by drawing circles around both endpoints and taking their intersection as the third vertex.", "His axioms, however, do not guarantee that the circles actually intersect, because they do not assert the geometrical property of continuity, which in Cartesian terms is equivalent to the completeness property of the real numbers.", "Starting with Moritz Pasch in 1882, many improved axiomatic systems for geometry have been proposed, the best known being those of Hilbert, George Birkhoff, and Tarski.===20th century and relativity===A disproof of Euclidean geometry as a description of physical space.", "In a 1919 test of the general theory of relativity, stars (marked with short horizontal lines) were photographed during a solar eclipse.", "The rays of starlight were bent by the Sun's gravity on their way to Earth.", "This is interpreted as evidence in favor of Einstein's prediction that gravity would cause deviations from Euclidean geometry.Einstein's theory of special relativity involves a four-dimensional space-time, the Minkowski space, which is non-Euclidean.", "This shows that non-Euclidean geometries, which had been introduced a few years earlier for showing that the parallel postulate cannot be proved, are also useful for describing the physical world.However, the three-dimensional \"space part\" of the Minkowski space remains the space of Euclidean geometry.", "This is not the case with general relativity, for which the geometry of the space part of space-time is not Euclidean geometry.", "For example, if a triangle is constructed out of three rays of light, then in general the interior angles do not add up to 180 degrees due to gravity.", "A relatively weak gravitational field, such as the Earth's or the Sun's, is represented by a metric that is approximately, but not exactly, Euclidean.", "Until the 20th century, there was no technology capable of detecting these deviations in rays of light from Euclidean geometry, but Einstein predicted that such deviations would exist.", "They were later verified by observations such as the slight bending of starlight by the Sun during a solar eclipse in 1919, and such considerations are now an integral part of the software that runs the GPS system." ], [ "As a description of the structure of space", "Euclid believed that his axioms were self-evident statements about physical reality.", "Euclid's proofs depend upon assumptions perhaps not obvious in Euclid's fundamental axioms, in particular that certain movements of figures do not change their geometrical properties such as the lengths of sides and interior angles, the so-called ''Euclidean motions'', which include translations, reflections and rotations of figures.", "Taken as a physical description of space, postulate 2 (extending a line) asserts that space does not have holes or boundaries; postulate 4 (equality of right angles) says that space is isotropic and figures may be moved to any location while maintaining congruence; and postulate 5 (the parallel postulate) that space is flat (has no intrinsic curvature).As discussed above, Albert Einstein's theory of relativity significantly modifies this view.The ambiguous character of the axioms as originally formulated by Euclid makes it possible for different commentators to disagree about some of their other implications for the structure of space, such as whether or not it is infinite (see below) and what its topology is.", "Modern, more rigorous reformulations of the system typically aim for a cleaner separation of these issues.", "Interpreting Euclid's axioms in the spirit of this more modern approach, axioms 1–4 are consistent with either infinite or finite space (as in elliptic geometry), and all five axioms are consistent with a variety of topologies (e.g., a plane, a cylinder, or a torus for two-dimensional Euclidean geometry)." ], [ "Treatment of infinity", "===Infinite objects===Euclid sometimes distinguished explicitly between \"finite lines\" (e.g., Postulate 2) and \"infinite lines\" (book I, proposition 12).", "However, he typically did not make such distinctions unless they were necessary.", "The postulates do not explicitly refer to infinite lines, although for example some commentators interpret postulate 3, existence of a circle with any radius, as implying that space is infinite.The notion of infinitesimal quantities had previously been discussed extensively by the Eleatic School, but nobody had been able to put them on a firm logical basis, with paradoxes such as Zeno's paradox occurring that had not been resolved to universal satisfaction.", "Euclid used the method of exhaustion rather than infinitesimals.Later ancient commentators, such as Proclus (410–485 CE), treated many questions about infinity as issues demanding proof and, e.g., Proclus claimed to prove the infinite divisibility of a line, based on a proof by contradiction in which he considered the cases of even and odd numbers of points constituting it.At the turn of the 20th century, Otto Stolz, Paul du Bois-Reymond, Giuseppe Veronese, and others produced controversial work on non-Archimedean models of Euclidean geometry, in which the distance between two points may be infinite or infinitesimal, in the Newton–Leibniz sense.", "Fifty years later, Abraham Robinson provided a rigorous logical foundation for Veronese's work.===Infinite processes===Ancient geometers may have considered the parallel postulate – that two parallel lines do not ever intersect – less certain than the others because it makes a statement about infinitely remote regions of space, and so cannot be physically verified.The modern formulation of proof by induction was not developed until the 17th century, but some later commentators consider it implicit in some of Euclid's proofs, e.g., the proof of the infinitude of primes.Supposed paradoxes involving infinite series, such as Zeno's paradox, predated Euclid.", "Euclid avoided such discussions, giving, for example, the expression for the partial sums of the geometric series in IX.35 without commenting on the possibility of letting the number of terms become infinite." ], [ "Logical basis", "===Classical logic===Euclid frequently used the method of proof by contradiction, and therefore the traditional presentation of Euclidean geometry assumes classical logic, in which every proposition is either true or false, i.e., for any proposition P, the proposition \"P or not P\" is automatically true.===Modern standards of rigor===Placing Euclidean geometry on a solid axiomatic basis was a preoccupation of mathematicians for centuries.", "The role of primitive notions, or undefined concepts, was clearly put forward by Alessandro Padoa of the Peano delegation at the 1900 Paris conference: That is, mathematics is context-independent knowledge within a hierarchical framework.", "As said by Bertrand Russell:Such foundational approaches range between foundationalism and formalism.===Axiomatic formulations===* Euclid's axioms: In his dissertation to Trinity College, Cambridge, Bertrand Russell summarized the changing role of Euclid's geometry in the minds of philosophers up to that time.", "It was a conflict between certain knowledge, independent of experiment, and empiricism, requiring experimental input.", "This issue became clear as it was discovered that the parallel postulate was not necessarily valid and its applicability was an empirical matter, deciding whether the applicable geometry was Euclidean or non-Euclidean.", "* Hilbert's axioms: Hilbert's axioms had the goal of identifying a ''simple'' and ''complete'' set of ''independent'' axioms from which the most important geometric theorems could be deduced.", "The outstanding objectives were to make Euclidean geometry rigorous (avoiding hidden assumptions) and to make clear the ramifications of the parallel postulate.", "* Birkhoff's axioms: Birkhoff proposed four postulates for Euclidean geometry that can be confirmed experimentally with scale and protractor.", "This system relies heavily on the properties of the real numbers.", "The notions of ''angle'' and ''distance'' become primitive concepts.", "* Tarski's axioms: Alfred Tarski (1902–1983) and his students defined ''elementary'' Euclidean geometry as the geometry that can be expressed in first-order logic and does not depend on set theory for its logical basis, in contrast to Hilbert's axioms, which involve point sets.", "Tarski proved that his axiomatic formulation of elementary Euclidean geometry is consistent and complete in a certain sense: there is an algorithm that, for every proposition, can be shown either true or false.", "(This does not violate Gödel's theorem, because Euclidean geometry cannot describe a sufficient amount of arithmetic for the theorem to apply.)", "This is equivalent to the decidability of real closed fields, of which elementary Euclidean geometry is a model." ], [ "See also", "* Absolute geometry* Analytic geometry* Birkhoff's axioms* Cartesian coordinate system* Hilbert's axioms* Incidence geometry* List of interactive geometry software* Metric space* Non-Euclidean geometry* Ordered geometry* Parallel postulate* Type theory===Classical theorems===* Angle bisector theorem* Butterfly theorem* Ceva's theorem* Heron's formula* Menelaus' theorem* Nine-point circle* Pythagorean theorem" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * In 3 vols.", ": vol.", "1 , vol.", "2 , vol.", "3 .", "Heath's authoritative translation of Euclid's Elements, plus his extensive historical research and detailed commentary throughout the text.", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Kiran Kedlaya, ''Geometry Unbound'' (a treatment using analytic geometry; PDF format, GFDL licensed)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epic poetry" ], [ "Introduction", "A tablet containing a fragment of the ''Epic of Gilgamesh''.An '''epic poem''', or simply an '''epic''', is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants." ], [ "Etymology", "The English word ''epic'' comes from Latin ''epicus'', which itself comes from the Ancient Greek adjective (''epikos''), from (''epos''),\"word, story, poem.", "\"In ancient Greek, 'epic' could refer to all poetry in dactylic hexameter (''epea''), which included not only Homer but also the wisdom poetry of Hesiod, the utterances of the Delphic oracle, and the strange theological verses attributed to Orpheus.", "Later tradition, however, has restricted the term 'epic' to ''heroic epic'', as described in this article." ], [ "Overview", "The first edition (1835) of the Finnish national epic poem ''Kalevala'' by Elias LönnrotOriginating before the invention of writing, primary epics, such as those of Homer, were composed by bards who used complex rhetorical and metrical schemes by which they could memorize the epic as received in tradition and add to the epic in their performances.", "Later writers like Virgil, Apollonius of Rhodes, Dante, Camões, and Milton adopted and adapted Homer's style and subject matter, but used devices available only to those who write.The oldest epic recognized is the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' (), which was recorded in ancient Sumer during the Neo-Sumerian Empire.", "The poem details the exploits of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk.", "Although recognized as a historical figure, Gilgamesh, as represented in the epic, is a largely legendary or mythical figure.The longest written epic from antiquity is the ancient Indian ''Mahabharata'' (–3rd century AD), which consists of 100,000 ślokas or over 200,000 verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), as well as long prose passages, so that at ~1.8 million words it is roughly twice the length of ''Shahnameh'', four times the length of the ''Rāmāyaṇa'', and roughly ten times the length of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' combined.Famous examples of epic poetry include the Sumerian ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', the ancient Indian ''Mahabharata'' and ''Rāmāyaṇa'' in Sanskrit and ''Silappatikaram'' and ''Manimekalai'' in Tamil, the Persian ''Shahnameh'', the Ancient Greek ''Odyssey'' and ''Iliad'', Virgil's ''Aeneid'', the Old English ''Beowulf'', Dante's ''Divine Comedy'', the Finnish ''Kalevala'', the German , the French ''Song of Roland'', the Spanish ''Cantar de mio Cid'', the Portuguese ''Os Lusíadas'', the Armenian ''Daredevils of Sassoun'', John Milton's ''Paradise Lost'', ''The Secret History of the Mongols'', the Kyrgyz ''Manas'', and the Malian ''Sundiata''.", "Epic poems of the modern era include Derek Walcott's ''Omeros'', Mircea Cărtărescu's ''The Levant'' and Adam Mickiewicz's ''Pan Tadeusz''.", "''Paterson'' by William Carlos Williams, published in five volumes from 1946 to 1958, was inspired in part by another modern epic, ''The Cantos'' by Ezra Pound." ], [ "Oral epics", "The first epics were products of preliterate societies and oral history poetic traditions.", "Oral tradition was used alongside written scriptures to communicate and facilitate the spread of culture.In these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and from performer to performer by purely oral means.", "Early 20th-century study of living oral epic traditions in the Balkans by Milman Parry and Albert Lord demonstrated the paratactic model used for composing these poems.", "What they demonstrated was that oral epics tend to be constructed in short episodes, each of equal status, interest and importance.", "This facilitates memorization, as the poet is recalling each episode in turn and using the completed episodes to recreate the entire epic as he performs it.", "Parry and Lord also contend that the most likely source for written texts of the epics of Homer was dictation from an oral performance.Milman Parry and Albert Lord have argued that the Homeric epics, the earliest works of Western literature, were fundamentally an oral poetic form.", "These works form the basis of the epic genre in Western literature.", "Nearly all of Western epic (including Virgil's ''Aeneid'' and Dante's ''Divine Comedy'') self-consciously presents itself as a continuation of the tradition begun by these poems." ], [ "Composition and conventions", "In his work ''Poetics'', Aristotle defines an epic as one of the forms of poetry, contrasted with lyric poetry and drama (in the form of tragedy and comedy).", ":Epic poetry agrees with Tragedy in so far as it is an imitation in verse of characters of a higher type.", "They differ in that Epic poetry admits but one kind of meter and is narrative in form.", "They differ, again, in their length: for Tragedy endeavors, as far as possible, to confine itself to a single revolution of the sun, or but slightly to exceed this limit, whereas the Epic action has no limits of time.", "This, then, is a second point of difference; though at first the same freedom was admitted in Tragedy as in Epic poetry.", ":Of their constituent parts some are common to both, some peculiar to Tragedy: whoever, therefore knows what is good or bad Tragedy, knows also about Epic poetry.", "All the elements of an Epic poem are found in Tragedy, but the elements of a Tragedy are not all found in the Epic poem.", "– Aristotle, ''Poetics'' Part VHarmon & Holman (1999) define an epic:;Epic: A long narrative poem in elevated style presenting characters of high position in adventures forming an organic whole through their relation to a central heroic figure and through their development of episodes important to the history of a nation or race.", "::: — Harmon & Holman (1999)Harmon and Holman delineate ten main characteristics of an epic:# Begins ''in medias res'' (\"in the thick of things\").# The setting is vast, covering many nations, the world or the universe.# Begins with an invocation to a muse (epic invocation).# Begins with a statement of the theme.# Includes the use of epithets.# Contains long lists, called an epic catalogue.# Features long and formal speeches.# Shows divine intervention in human affairs.# Features heroes that embody the values of the civilization.# Often features the tragic hero's descent into the underworld or hell.The hero generally participates in a cyclical journey or quest, faces adversaries that try to defeat them in their journey, and returns home significantly transformed by their journey.", "The epic hero illustrates traits, performs deeds, and exemplifies certain morals that are valued by the society the epic originates from.", "Many epic heroes are recurring characters in the legends of their native cultures.=== Conventions of the Indian Epic ===In the Indian mahākāvya epic genre, more emphasis was laid on description than on narration.", "Indeed, the traditional characteristics of a ''mahākāvya'' are listed as:* It must take its subject matter from the epics (''Ramayana'' or ''Mahabharata''), or from history,* It must help further the four goals of man (purusharthas),* It must contain descriptions of cities, seas, mountains, moonrise and sunrise, and accounts of merrymaking in gardens, of bathing parties, drinking bouts, and love-making.", "* It should tell the sorrow of separated lovers and should describe a wedding and the birth of a son.", "* It should describe a king's council, an embassy, the marching forth of an army, a battle, and the victory of a hero.=== Themes ===Classical epic poetry recounts a journey, either physical (as typified by Odysseus in the ''Odyssey'') or mental (as typified by Achilles in the ''Iliad'') or both.", "Epics also tend to highlight cultural norms and to define or call into question cultural values, particularly as they pertain to heroism.=== Conventions ======= Proem ====In the proem or preface, the poet may begin by invoking a Muse or similar divinity.", "The poet prays to the Muses to provide them with divine inspiration to tell the story of a great hero.Example opening lines with invocations::Sing goddess the baneful wrath of Achilles son of Peleus – ''Iliad'' 1.1:Muse, tell me in verse of the man of many wiles – ''Odyssey'' 1.1:From the Heliconian Muses let us begin to sing – Hesiod, ''Theogony'' 1.1:Beginning with thee, Oh Phoebus, I will recount the famous deeds of men of old – ''Argonautica'' 1.1:Muse, remember to me the causes – ''Aeneid'' 1.8:Sing Heav'nly Muse, that on the secret top:of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire – ''Paradise Lost'' 1.6–7An alternative or complementary form of proem, found in Virgil and his imitators, opens with the performative verb \"I sing\".", "Examples::I sing arms and the man – ''Aeneid'' 1.1:I sing pious arms and their captain – ''Gerusalemme liberata'' 1.1:I sing ladies, knights, arms, loves, courtesies, audacious deeds – ''Orlando Furioso'' 1.1–2This Virgilian epic convention is referenced in Walt Whitman's poem title / opening line \"I sing the body electric\".Compare the first six lines of the ''Kalevala''::Mastered by desire impulsive,:By a mighty inward urging,:I am ready now for singing,:Ready to begin the chanting:Of our nation's ancient folk-song:Handed down from by-gone ages.These conventions are largely restricted to European classical culture and its imitators.", "The ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', for example, or the ''Bhagavata Purana'' do not contain such elements, nor do early medieval Western epics that are not strongly shaped by the classical traditions, such as the ''Chanson de Roland'' or the ''Poem of the Cid''.==== In medias res ====Narrative opens \"in the middle of things\", with the hero at his lowest point.", "Usually flashbacks show earlier portions of the story.", "For example, the ''Iliad'' does not tell the entire story of the Trojan War, starting with the judgment of Paris, but instead opens abruptly on the rage of Achilles and its immediate causes.", "So too, ''Orlando Furioso'' is not a complete biography of Roland, but picks up from the plot of ''Orlando Innamorato'', which in turn presupposes a knowledge of the romance and oral traditions.==== Enumeratio ====Epic catalogues and genealogies are given, called ''enumeratio''.", "These long lists of objects, places, and people place the finite action of the epic within a broader, universal context, such as the catalog of ships.", "Often, the poet is also paying homage to the ancestors of audience members.", "Examples:* In ''The Faerie Queene'', the list of trees I.i.8–9.", "* In ''Paradise Lost'', the list of demons in Book I.", "* In the ''Aeneid'', the list of enemies the Trojans find in Etruria (Central Italy) in Book VII.", "Also, the list of ships in Book X.", "* In the ''Iliad'', the Catalogue of Ships, the most famous epic catalogue, and the Trojan Battle Order==== Stylistic features ====In the Homeric and post-Homeric tradition, epic style is typically achieved through the use of the following stylistic features:* Heavy use of repetition or stock phrases: e.g., Homer's \"rosy-fingered dawn\" and \"wine-dark sea\".", "* Epic similes=== Form ===Many verse forms have been used in epic poems through the ages, but each language's literature typically gravitates to one form, or at least to a very limited set.Ancient Sumerian epic poems did not use any kind of poetic meter and lines did not have consistent lengths;instead, Sumerian poems derived their rhythm solely through constant repetition and parallelism, with subtle variations between lines.Indo-European epic poetry, by contrast, usually places strong emphasis on the importance of line consistency and poetic meter.", "Ancient Greek epics were composed in dactylic hexameter.Very early Latin epicists, such Livius Andronicus and Gnaeus Naevius, used Saturnian meter.", "By the time of Ennius, however, Latin poets had adopted dactylic hexameter.Dactylic hexameter has been adapted by a few anglophone poets such as Longfellow in \"Evangeline\", whose first line is as follows::This is the | forest pri | meval.", "The | murmuring | pines and the | hemlocksOld English, German and Norse poems were written in alliterative verse,usually without rhyme.", "The alliterative form can be seen in the Old English \"Finnsburg Fragment\" (alliterated sounds are in bold):While the above classical and Germanic forms would be considered stichic, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese long poems favored stanzaic forms, usually written in terza rimaor especially ottava rima.", "''Terza rima'' is a rhyming verse stanza form that consists of an interlocking three-line rhyme scheme.", "An example is found in the first lines of the Divine Comedy by Dante, who originated the form:In ottava rima, each stanza consists of three alternate rhymes and one double rhyme, following the ABABABCC rhyme scheme.", "Example:From the 14th century English epic poems were written in heroic couplets,and rhyme royal,though in the 16th century the Spenserian stanzaand blank versewere also introduced.", "The French alexandrine is currently the heroic line in French literature, though in earlier literature – such as the chanson de geste – the decasyllable grouped in laisses took precedence.", "In Polish literature, couplets of Polish alexandrines (syllabic lines of 7+6 syllables) prevail.In Russian, iambic tetrameter verse is the most popular.In Serbian poetry, the decasyllable is the only form employed.Balto-Finnic (e.g.", "Estonian, Finnish, Karelian) folk poetry uses a form of trochaic tetrameter that has been called the Kalevala meter.", "The Finnish and Estonian national epics, ''Kalevala'' and ''Kalevipoeg'', are both written in this meter.", "The meter is thought to have originated during the Proto-Finnic period.In Indic epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the shloka form is used." ], [ "Genres and related forms", "The primary form of epic, especially as discussed in this article, is the '''heroic epic''', including such works as the ''Iliad'' and ''Mahabharata''.", "Ancient sources also recognized '''didactic epic''' as a category, represented by such works as Hesiod's ''Works and Days'' and Lucretius's ''De rerum natura''.A related type of poetry is the '''epyllion''' (plural: epyllia), a brief narrative poem with a romantic or mythological theme.", "The term, which means \"little epic\", came into use in the nineteenth century.", "It refers primarily to the erudite, shorter hexameter poems of the Hellenistic period and the similar works composed at Rome from the age of the neoterics; to a lesser degree, the term includes some poems of the English Renaissance, particularly those influenced by Ovid.The most famous example of classical epyllion is perhaps Catullus 64.Epyllion is to be understood as distinct from '''mock epic''', another light form.", "'''Romantic epic''' is a term used to designate works such as ''Morgante'', ''Orlando Innamorato'', ''Orlando Furioso'' and ''Gerusalemme Liberata'', which freely lift characters, themes, plots and narrative devices from the world of prose chivalric romance.", "'''Non-European forms'''Long poetic narratives that do not fit the traditional European definition of the heroic epic are sometimes known as folk epics.", "Indian folk epics have been investigated by Lauri Honko (1998), Brenda Beck (1982) and John Smith, amongst others.", "Folk epics are an important part of community identities.", "For example, in Egypt, the folk genre known as al-sira relates the saga of the Hilālī tribe and their migrations across the Middle East and north Africa, see Bridget Connelly (1986).", "In India, folk epics reflect the caste system of Indian society and the life of the lower levels of society, such as cobblers and shepherds, see C.N.", "Ramachandran, \"Ambivalence and Angst: A Note on Indian folk epics,\" in Lauri Honko (2002.p. 295).", "Some Indian oral epics feature strong women who actively pursue personal freedom in their choice of a romantic partner (Stuart, Claus, Flueckiger and Wadley, eds, 1989, p. 5).", "Japanese traditional performed narratives were sung by blind singers.", "One of the most famous, The Tale of the Heike, deals with historical wars and had a ritual function to placate the souls of the dead (Tokita 2015, p. 7).", "A variety of epic forms are found in Africa.", "Some have a linear, unified style while others have a more cyclical, episodic style (Barber 2007, p. 50).", "People in the rice cultivation zones of south China sang long narrative songs about the origin of rice growing, rebel heroes, and transgressive love affairs (McLaren 2022).", "The borderland ethnic populations of China sang heroic epics, such as the Epic of King Gesar of the Mongols, and the creation-myth epics of the Yao people of south China.==See also==" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * \"The Epic\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Carey, Karen Edwards and Oliver Taplin (''In Our Time'', 3 February 2003)* \"Epic Poem\", Main Features and Conventions of the Epic" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eocene" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Eocene''' ( ) Epoch is a geological epoch that lasted from about 56 to 33.9 million years ago (Ma).", "It is the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era.", "The name ''Eocene'' comes from the Ancient Greek (''ēṓs'', \"dawn\") and (''kainós'', \"new\") and refers to the \"dawn\" of modern ('new') fauna that appeared during the epoch.The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Paleocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch.", "The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C.", "The average temperature of Earth in the beginning of the Eocene was about 27 degrees Celsius.", "The end is set at a major extinction event called the ''Grande Coupure'' (the \"Great Break\" in continuity) or the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event, which may be related to the impact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake Bay.", "As with other geologic periods, the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified, though their exact dates are slightly uncertain." ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"Eocene\" is derived from Ancient Greek ''eos'' meaning \"dawn\", and ''kainos'' meaning \"new\" or \"recent\", as the epoch saw the dawn of recent, or modern, life.Scottish geologist Charles Lyell (ignoring the Quaternary) divided the Tertiary Epoch into the Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, and New Pliocene (Holocene) Periods in 1833.British geologist John Phillips proposed the Cenozoic in 1840 in place of the Tertiary, and Austrian paleontologist Moritz Hörnes introduced the Paleogene for the Eocene and Neogene for the Miocene and Pliocene in 1853.After decades of inconsistent usage, the newly formed International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), in 1969, standardized stratigraphy based on the prevailing opinions in Europe: the Cenozoic Era subdivided into the Tertiary and Quaternary sub-eras, and the Tertiary subdivided into the Paleogene and Neogene periods.", "In 1978, the Paleogene was officially defined as the Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene epochs; and the Neogene as the Miocene and Pliocene epochs.", "In 1989, Tertiary and Quaternary were removed from the time scale due to the arbitrary nature of their boundary, but Quaternary was reinstated in 2009." ], [ "Geology", "===Boundaries===The Eocene is a dynamic epoch that represents global climatic transitions between two climatic extremes, transitioning from the hot house to the cold house.", "The beginning of the Eocene is marked by the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, a short period of intense warming and ocean acidification brought about by the release of carbon en masse into the atmosphere and ocean systems, which led to a mass extinction of 30–50% of benthic foraminifera (single-celled species which are used as bioindicators of the health of a marine ecosystem)—one of the largest in the Cenozoic.", "This event happened around 55.8 Ma, and was one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic.The middle Eocene was characterized by the shift towards a cooler climate at the end of the EECO, around 47.8 Ma, which was briefly interrupted by another warming event called the middle Eocene climatic optimum (MECO).", "Lasting for about 400,000 years, the MECO was responsible for a globally uniform 4° to 6°C warming of both the surface and deep oceans, as inferred from foraminiferal stable oxygen isotope records.", "The resumption of a long-term gradual cooling trend resulted in a glacial maximum at the late Eocene/early Oligocene boundary.", "The end of the Eocene was also marked by the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event, also known as the ''Grande Coupure''.===Stratigraphy===The Eocene is conventionally divided into early (56–47.8 Ma), middle (47.8–38 Ma), and late (38–33.9 Ma) subdivisions.", "The corresponding rocks are referred to as lower, middle, and upper Eocene.", "The Ypresian Stage constitutes the lower, the Priabonian Stage the upper; and the Lutetian and Bartonian stages are united as the middle Eocene." ], [ "Palaeogeography and tectonics", "During the Eocene, the continents continued to drift toward their present positions.At the beginning of the period, Australia and Antarctica remained connected, and warm equatorial currents may have mixed with colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the planet and keeping global temperatures high.", "When Australia split from the southern continent around 45 Ma, the warm equatorial currents were routed away from Antarctica.", "An isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents.", "However, modeling results call into question the thermal isolation model for late Eocene cooling, and decreasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere may have been more important.", "Once the Antarctic region began to cool down, the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and icefloes north and reinforcing the cooling.The northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to fragment, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart.In western North America, the Laramide Orogeny came to an end in the Eocene, and compression was replaced with crustal extension that ultimately gave rise to the Basin and Range Province.", "The Kishenehn Basin, around 1.5 km in elevation during the Lutetian, was uplifted to an altitude of 2.5 km by the Priabonian.", "Huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts, resulting in the deposition of the Green River Formation lagerstätte.At about 35 Ma, an asteroid impact on the eastern coast of North America formed the Chesapeake Bay impact crater.The Tethys Ocean finally closed with the collision of Africa and Eurasia, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean, and created another shallow sea with island archipelagos to the north.", "Planktonic foraminifera in the northwestern Peri-Tethys are very similar to those of the Tethys in the middle Lutetian but become completely disparate in the Bartonian, indicating biogeographic separation.", "Though the North Atlantic was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar.Eurasia was separated in three different landmasses 50 Ma; Western Europe, Balkanatolia and Asia.", "About 40 Ma, Balkanatolia and Asia were connected, while Europe was connected 34 Ma.", "The Fushun Basin contained large, suboxic lakes known as the paleo-Jijuntun Lakes.India collided with Asia, folding to initiate formation of the Himalayas.", "The incipient subcontinent collided with the Kohistan–Ladakh Arc around 50.2 Ma and with Karakoram around 40.4 Ma, with the final collision between Asia and India occurring ~40 Ma." ], [ "Climate", "The Eocene Epoch contained a wide variety of different climate conditions that includes the warmest climate in the Cenozoic Era, and arguably the warmest time interval since the Permian-Triassic mass extinction and Early Triassic, and ends in an icehouse climate.", "The evolution of the Eocene climate began with warming after the end of the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) at 56 Ma to a maximum during the Eocene Optimum at around 49 Ma.", "During this period of time, little to no ice was present on Earth with a smaller difference in temperature from the equator to the poles.", "Because of this the maximum sea level was 150 meters higher than current levels.", "Following the maximum was a descent into an icehouse climate from the Eocene Optimum to the Eocene–Oligocene transition at 34 Ma.", "During this decrease, ice began to reappear at the poles, and the Eocene–Oligocene transition is the period of time when the Antarctic ice sheet began to rapidly expand.=== Early Eocene ===Greenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide and methane, played a significant role during the Eocene in controlling the surface temperature.", "The end of the PETM was met with very large sequestration of carbon dioxide into the forms of methane clathrate, coal, and crude oil at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean, that reduced the atmospheric carbon dioxide.", "This event was similar in magnitude to the massive release of greenhouse gasses at the beginning of the PETM, and it is hypothesized that the sequestration was mainly due to organic carbon burial and weathering of silicates.", "For the early Eocene there is much discussion on how much carbon dioxide was in the atmosphere.", "This is due to numerous proxies representing different atmospheric carbon dioxide content.", "For example, diverse geochemical and paleontological proxies indicate that at the maximum of global warmth the atmospheric carbon dioxide values were at 700–900 ppm, while model simulations suggest a concentration of 1,680 ppm fits best with deep sea, sea surface, and near-surface air temperatures of the time.", "Other proxies such as pedogenic (soil building) carbonate and marine boron isotopes indicate large changes of carbon dioxide of over 2,000 ppm over periods of time of less than 1 million years.", "This large influx of carbon dioxide could be attributed to volcanic out-gassing due to North Atlantic rifting or oxidation of methane stored in large reservoirs deposited from the PETM event in the sea floor or wetland environments.", "For contrast, today the carbon dioxide levels are at 400 ppm or 0.04%.", "During the early Eocene, methane was another greenhouse gas that had a drastic effect on the climate.", "Methane has 30 times more of a warming effect than carbon dioxide on a 100-year scale (i.e., methane has a global warming potential of 29.8±11).", "Most of the methane released to the atmosphere during this period of time would have been from wetlands, swamps, and forests.", "The atmospheric methane concentration today is 0.000179% or 1.79 ppmv.", "As a result of the warmer climate and the sea level rise associated with the early Eocene, more wetlands, more forests, and more coal deposits would have been available for methane release.", "If we compare the early Eocene production of methane to current levels of atmospheric methane, the early Eocene would have produced triple the amount of methane.", "The warm temperatures during the early Eocene could have increased methane production rates, and methane that is released into the atmosphere would in turn warm the troposphere, cool the stratosphere, and produce water vapor and carbon dioxide through oxidation.", "Biogenic production of methane produces carbon dioxide and water vapor along with the methane, as well as yielding infrared radiation.", "The breakdown of methane in an atmosphere containing oxygen produces carbon monoxide, water vapor and infrared radiation.", "The carbon monoxide is not stable, so it eventually becomes carbon dioxide and in doing so releases yet more infrared radiation.", "Water vapor traps more infrared than does carbon dioxide.", "At about the beginning of the Eocene Epoch (55.8–33.9 Ma) the amount of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere more or less doubled.During the warming in the early Eocene between 55 and 52 Ma, there were a series of short-term changes of carbon isotope composition in the ocean.", "These isotope changes occurred due to the release of carbon from the ocean into the atmosphere that led to a temperature increase of at the surface of the ocean.", "Recent analysis of and research into these hyperthermals in the early Eocene has led to hypotheses that the hyperthermals are based on orbital parameters, in particular eccentricity and obliquity.", "The hyperthermals in the early Eocene, notably the Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), the Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM2), and the Eocene Thermal Maximum 3 (ETM3), were analyzed and found that orbital control may have had a role in triggering the ETM2 and ETM3.An enhancement of the biological pump proved effective at sequestering excess carbon during the recovery phases of these hyperthermals.", "These hyperthermals led to increased perturbations in planktonic and benthic foraminifera, with a higher rate of fluvial sedimentation as a consequence of the warmer temperatures.", "Unlike the PETM, the lesser hyperthermals of the Early Eocene had negligible consequences for terrestrial mammals.", "These Early Eocene hyperthermals produced a sustained period of extremely hot climate known as the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO).", "During the early and middle EECO, the superabundance of the euryhaline dinocyst ''Homotryblium'' in New Zealand indicates elevated ocean salinity in the region.==== Equable climate problem ====One of the unique features of the Eocene's climate as mentioned before was the equable and homogeneous climate that existed in the early parts of the Eocene.", "A multitude of proxies support the presence of a warmer equable climate being present during this period of time.", "A few of these proxies include the presence of fossils native to warm climates, such as crocodiles, located in the higher latitudes, the presence in the high latitudes of frost-intolerant flora such as palm trees which cannot survive during sustained freezes, and fossils of snakes found in the tropics that would require much higher average temperatures to sustain them.", "TEX86 BAYSPAR measurements indicate extremely high sea surface temperatures of to at low latitudes, although clumped isotope analyses point to a maximum low latitude sea surface temperature of ± during the EECO.", "Relative to present-day values, bottom water temperatures are higher according to isotope proxies.", "With these bottom water temperatures, temperatures in areas where deep water forms near the poles are unable to be much cooler than the bottom water temperatures.An issue arises, however, when trying to model the Eocene and reproduce the results that are found with the proxy data.", "Using all different ranges of greenhouse gasses that occurred during the early Eocene, models were unable to produce the warming that was found at the poles and the reduced seasonality that occurs with winters at the poles being substantially warmer.", "The models, while accurately predicting the tropics, tend to produce significantly cooler temperatures of up to colder than the actual determined temperature at the poles.", "This error has been classified as the \"equable climate problem\".", "To solve this problem, the solution would involve finding a process to warm the poles without warming the tropics.", "Some hypotheses and tests which attempt to find the process are listed below.===== Large lakes =====Due to the nature of water as opposed to land, less temperature variability would be present if a large body of water is also present.", "In an attempt to try to mitigate the cooling polar temperatures, large lakes were proposed to mitigate seasonal climate changes.", "To replicate this case, a lake was inserted into North America and a climate model was run using varying carbon dioxide levels.", "The model runs concluded that while the lake did reduce the seasonality of the region greater than just an increase in carbon dioxide, the addition of a large lake was unable to reduce the seasonality to the levels shown by the floral and faunal data.===== Ocean heat transport =====The transport of heat from the tropics to the poles, much like how ocean heat transport functions in modern times, was considered a possibility for the increased temperature and reduced seasonality for the poles.", "With the increased sea surface temperatures and the increased temperature of the deep ocean water during the early Eocene, one common hypothesis was that due to these increases there would be a greater transport of heat from the tropics to the poles.", "Simulating these differences, the models produced lower heat transport due to the lower temperature gradients and were unsuccessful in producing an equable climate from only ocean heat transport.===== Orbital parameters =====While typically seen as a control on ice growth and seasonality, the orbital parameters were theorized as a possible control on continental temperatures and seasonality.", "Simulating the Eocene by using an ice free planet, eccentricity, obliquity, and precession were modified in different model runs to determine all the possible different scenarios that could occur and their effects on temperature.", "One particular case led to warmer winters and cooler summer by up to 30% in the North American continent, and it reduced the seasonal variation of temperature by up to 75%.", "While orbital parameters did not produce the warming at the poles, the parameters did show a great effect on seasonality and needed to be considered.===== Polar stratospheric clouds =====Another method considered for producing the warm polar temperatures were polar stratospheric clouds.", "Polar stratospheric clouds are clouds that occur in the lower stratosphere at very low temperatures.", "Polar stratospheric clouds have a great impact on radiative forcing.", "Due to their minimal albedo properties and their optical thickness, polar stratospheric clouds act similar to a greenhouse gas and traps outgoing longwave radiation.", "Different types of polar stratospheric clouds occur in the atmosphere: polar stratospheric clouds that are created due to interactions with nitric or sulfuric acid and water (Type I) or polar stratospheric clouds that are created with only water ice (Type II).Methane is an important factor in the creation of the primary Type II polar stratospheric clouds that were created in the early Eocene.", "Since water vapor is the only supporting substance used in Type II polar stratospheric clouds, the presence of water vapor in the lower stratosphere is necessary where in most situations the presence of water vapor in the lower stratosphere is rare.", "When methane is oxidized, a significant amount of water vapor is released.", "Another requirement for polar stratospheric clouds is cold temperatures to ensure condensation and cloud production.", "Polar stratospheric cloud production, since it requires the cold temperatures, is usually limited to nighttime and winter conditions.", "With this combination of wetter and colder conditions in the lower stratosphere, polar stratospheric clouds could have formed over wide areas in Polar Regions.To test the polar stratospheric clouds effects on the Eocene climate, models were run comparing the effects of polar stratospheric clouds at the poles to an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide.", "The polar stratospheric clouds had a warming effect on the poles, increasing temperatures by up to 20 °C in the winter months.", "A multitude of feedbacks also occurred in the models due to the polar stratospheric clouds' presence.", "Any ice growth was slowed immensely and would lead to any present ice melting.", "Only the poles were affected with the change in temperature and the tropics were unaffected, which with an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide would also cause the tropics to increase in temperature.", "Due to the warming of the troposphere from the increased greenhouse effect of the polar stratospheric clouds, the stratosphere would cool and would potentially increase the amount of polar stratospheric clouds.While the polar stratospheric clouds could explain the reduction of the equator to pole temperature gradient and the increased temperatures at the poles during the early Eocene, there are a few drawbacks to maintaining polar stratospheric clouds for an extended period of time.", "Separate model runs were used to determine the sustainability of the polar stratospheric clouds.", "It was determined that in order to maintain the lower stratospheric water vapor, methane would need to be continually released and sustained.", "In addition, the amounts of ice and condensation nuclei would need to be high in order for the polar stratospheric cloud to sustain itself and eventually expand.=== Middle Eocene ===The Eocene is not only known for containing the warmest period during the Cenozoic; it also marked the decline into an icehouse climate and the rapid expansion of the Antarctic ice sheet.", "The transition from a warming climate into a cooling climate began at around 49 Ma.", "Isotopes of carbon and oxygen indicate a shift to a global cooling climate.", "The cause of the cooling has been attributed to a significant decrease of >2,000 ppm in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.", "One proposed cause of the reduction in carbon dioxide during the warming to cooling transition was the azolla event.", "With the equable climate during the early Eocene, warm temperatures in the arctic allowed for the growth of azolla, which is a floating aquatic fern, on the Arctic Ocean.", "The significantly high amounts of carbon dioxide also acted to facilitate azolla blooms across the Arctic Ocean.", "Compared to current carbon dioxide levels, these azolla grew rapidly in the enhanced carbon dioxide levels found in the early Eocene.", "The isolation of the Arctic Ocean, evidenced by euxinia that occurred at this time, led to stagnant waters and as the azolla sank to the sea floor, they became part of the sediments on the seabed and effectively sequestered the carbon by locking it out of the atmosphere for good.", "The ability for the azolla to sequester carbon is exceptional, and the enhanced burial of azolla could have had a significant effect on the world atmospheric carbon content and may have been the event to begin the transition into an ice house climate.", "The azolla event could have led to a draw down of atmospheric carbon dioxide of up to 470 ppm.", "Assuming the carbon dioxide concentrations were at 900 ppmv prior to the Azolla Event they would have dropped to 430 ppmv, or 30 ppmv more than they are today, after the Azolla Event.", "This cooling trend at the end of the EECO has also been proposed to have been caused by increased siliceous plankton productivity and marine carbon burial, which also helped draw carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.", "Cooling after this event, part of a trend known as the Middle-Late Eocene Cooling (MLEC), continued due to continual decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide from organic productivity and weathering from mountain building.", "Many regions of the world became more arid and cold over the course of the stage, such as the Fushun Basin.", "In East Asia, lake level changes were in sync with global sea level changes over the course of the MLEC.Global cooling continued until there was a major reversal from cooling to warming in the Bartonian.", "This warming event, signifying a sudden and temporary reversal of the cooling conditions, is known as the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum (MECO).", "At around 41.5 Ma, stable isotopic analysis of samples from Southern Ocean drilling sites indicated a warming event for 600,000 years.", "A similar shift in carbon isotopes is known from the Northern Hemisphere in the Scaglia Limestones of Italy.", "Oxygen isotope analysis showed a large negative change in the proportion of heavier oxygen isotopes to lighter oxygen isotopes, which indicates an increase in global temperatures.", "The warming is considered to be primarily due to carbon dioxide increases, because carbon isotope signatures rule out major methane release during this short-term warming.", "A sharp increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide was observed with a maximum of 4,000 ppm: the highest amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide detected during the Eocene.", "Other studies suggest a more modest rise in carbon dioxide levels.", "The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide has also been hypothesised to have been driven by increased seafloor spreading rates and metamorphic decarbonation reactions between Australia and Antarctica and increased amounts of volcanism in the region.", "One possible cause of atmospheric carbon dioxide increase could have been a sudden increase due to metamorphic release due to continental drift and collision of India with Asia and the resulting formation of the Himalayas; however, data on the exact timing of metamorphic release of atmospheric carbon dioxide is not well resolved in the data.", "Recent studies have mentioned, however, that the removal of the ocean between Asia and India could have released significant amounts of carbon dioxide.", "Another hypothesis still implicates a diminished negative feedback of silicate weathering as a result of continental rocks having become less weatherable during the warm Early and Middle Eocene, allowing volcanically released carbon dioxide to persist in the atmosphere for longer.", "Yet another explanation hypothesises that MECO warming was caused by the simultaneous occurrence of minima in both the 400 kyr and 2.4 Myr eccentricity cycles.", "During the MECO, sea surface temperatures in the Tethys Ocean jumped to 32–36 °C, and Tethyan seawater became more dysoxic.", "A decline in carbonate accumulation at ocean depths of greater than three kilometres took place synchronously with the peak of the MECO, signifying ocean acidification took place in the deep ocean.", "On top of that, MECO warming caused an increase in the respiration rates of pelagic heterotrophs, leading to a decreased proportion of primary productivity making its way down to the seafloor and causing a corresponding decline in populations of benthic foraminifera.", "An abrupt decrease in lakewater salinity in western North America occurred during this warming interval.", "This warming is short lived, as benthic oxygen isotope records indicate a return to cooling at ~40 Ma.=== Late Eocene ===At the end of the MECO, the MLEC resumed.", "Cooling and the carbon dioxide drawdown continued through the late Eocene and into the Eocene–Oligocene transition around 34 Ma.", "The post-MECO cooling brought with it a major aridification trend in Asia, enhanced by retreating seas.", "The cooling during the initial stages of the opening of the Drake Passage ~38.5 Ma was not global, as evidenced by an absence of cooling in the North Atlantic.", "During the cooling period, benthic oxygen isotopes show the possibility of ice creation and ice increase during this later cooling.", "The end of the Eocene and beginning of the Oligocene is marked with the massive expansion of area of the Antarctic ice sheet that was a major step into the icehouse climate.", "Multiple proxies, such as oxygen isotopes and alkenones, indicate that at the Eocene–Oligocene transition, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration had decreased to around 750–800 ppm, approximately twice that of present levels.", "Along with the decrease of atmospheric carbon dioxide reducing the global temperature, orbital factors in ice creation can be seen with 100,000-year and 400,000-year fluctuations in benthic oxygen isotope records.", "Another major contribution to the expansion of the ice sheet was the creation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.", "The creation of the Antarctic circumpolar current would isolate the cold water around the Antarctic, which would reduce heat transport to the Antarctic along with creating ocean gyres that result in the upwelling of colder bottom waters.", "The issue with this hypothesis of the consideration of this being a factor for the Eocene-Oligocene transition is the timing of the creation of the circulation is uncertain.", "For Drake Passage, sediments indicate the opening occurred ~41 Ma while tectonics indicate that this occurred ~32 Ma.", "Solar activity did not change significantly during the greenhouse-icehouse transition across the Eocene-Oligocene boundary." ], [ "Flora", "Eocene vegetation of the Clarno Nut Beds in John Day Fossil Beds National Monument was humid subtropical forest vegetation of high diversity dominated by angiosperms.Heinrich Harder's reconstruction of ''Arsinoitherium'' shows it in an open landscape dominated by PoalesDuring the early-middle Eocene, forests covered most of the Earth including the poles.", "Tropical forests extended across much of modern Africa, South America, Central America, India, South-east Asia and China.", "Paratropical forests grew over North America, Europe and Russia, with broad-leafed evergreen and broad-leafed deciduous forests at higher latitudes.Polar forests were quite extensive.", "Fossils and even preserved remains of trees such as swamp cypress and dawn redwood from the Eocene have been found on Ellesmere Island in the Arctic.", "Even at that time, Ellesmere Island was only a few degrees in latitude further south than it is today.", "Fossils of subtropical and even tropical trees and plants from the Eocene also have been found in Greenland and Alaska.", "Tropical rainforests grew as far north as northern North America and Europe.Palm trees were growing as far north as Alaska and northern Europe during the early Eocene, although they became less abundant as the climate cooled.", "Dawn redwoods were far more extensive as well.The earliest definitive ''Eucalyptus'' fossils were dated from 51.9 Ma, and were found in the Laguna del Hunco deposit in Chubut province in Argentina.Cooling began mid-period, and by the end of the Eocene continental interiors had begun to dry, with forests thinning considerably in some areas.", "The newly evolved grasses were still confined to river banks and lake shores, and had not yet expanded into plains and savannas.The cooling also brought seasonal changes.", "Deciduous trees, better able to cope with large temperature changes, began to overtake evergreen tropical species.", "By the end of the period, deciduous forests covered large parts of the northern continents, including North America, Eurasia and the Arctic, and rainforests held on only in equatorial South America, Africa, India and Australia.Antarctica began the Eocene fringed with a warm temperate to sub-tropical rainforest.", "Pollen found in Prydz Bay from the Eocene suggest taiga forest existed there.", "It became much colder as the period progressed; the heat-loving tropical flora was wiped out, and by the beginning of the Oligocene, the continent hosted deciduous forests and vast stretches of tundra." ], [ "Fauna", "During the Eocene, plants and marine faunas became quite modern.", "Many modern bird orders first appeared in the Eocene.", "The Eocene oceans were warm and teeming with fish and other sea life.===Mammals===French National Museum of Natural History, ParisThe oldest known fossils of most of the modern mammal orders appear within a brief period during the early Eocene.", "At the beginning of the Eocene, several new mammal groups arrived in North America.", "These modern mammals, like artiodactyls, perissodactyls, and primates, had features like long, thin legs, feet, and hands capable of grasping, as well as differentiated teeth adapted for chewing.", "Dwarf forms reigned.", "All the members of the new mammal orders were small, under 10 kg; based on comparisons of tooth size, Eocene mammals were only 60% of the size of the primitive Palaeocene mammals that preceded them.", "They were also smaller than the mammals that followed them.", "It is assumed that the hot Eocene temperatures favored smaller animals that were better able to manage the heat.Both groups of modern ungulates (hoofed animals) became prevalent because of a major radiation between Europe and North America, along with carnivorous ungulates like ''Mesonyx''.", "Early forms of many other modern mammalian orders appeared, including horses (most notably the ''Eohippus''), bats, proboscidians (elephants), primates, and rodents.", "Older primitive forms of mammals declined in variety and importance.", "Important Eocene land fauna fossil remains have been found in western North America, Europe, Patagonia, Egypt, and southeast Asia.", "Marine fauna are best known from South Asia and the southeast United States.Established megafauna of the Eocene include the ''Uintatherium'', ''Arsinoitherium'', and brontotheres, in which the former two, unlike the latter, did not belong to ungulates but groups that became extinct shortly after their establishments.Reconstruction of ''Andrewsarchus'', Dinosaurier Museum Altmühltal, GermanyLarge terrestrial mammalian predators began to take form as the terrestrial carnivores like the ''Hyaenodon'' and ''Daphoenus'' (the earliest lineage of a once-successful predatory family known as bear dogs).", "Entelodonts meanwhile established themselves as some of the largest omnivores.", "The first nimravids, including Dinictis, established themselves as amongst the first feliforms to appear.", "Their groups became highly successful and continued to live past the Eocene.", "''Basilosaurus'' is a very well-known Eocene whale, but whales as a group had become very diverse during the Eocene, which is when the major transitions from being terrestrial to fully aquatic in cetaceans occurred.", "The first sirenians were evolving at this time, and would eventually evolve into the extant manatees and dugongs.It is thought that millions of years after the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event, brain sizes of mammals now started to increase, \"likely driven by a need for greater cognition in increasingly complex environments\".===Birds===''Primobucco'', an early relative of the rollerEocene birds include some enigmatic groups with resemblances to modern forms, some of which continued from the Paleocene.", "Bird taxa of the Eocene include carnivorous psittaciforms, such as Messelasturidae, Halcyornithidae, large flightless forms such as ''Gastornis'' and ''Eleutherornis'', long legged falcon ''Masillaraptor'', ancient galliforms such as Gallinuloides, putative rail relatives of the family Songziidae, various pseudotooth birds such as ''Gigantornis'', the ibis relative ''Rhynchaeites'', primitive swifts of the genus ''Aegialornis'', and primitive penguins such as ''Archaeospheniscus'' and ''Inkayacu''.===Reptiles===Reptile fossils from this time, such as fossils of pythons and turtles, are abundant.===Insects and arachnids===Several rich fossil insect faunas are known from the Eocene, notably the Baltic amber found mainly along the south coast of the Baltic Sea, amber from the Paris Basin, France, the Fur Formation, Denmark, and the Bembridge Marls from the Isle of Wight, England.", "Insects found in Eocene deposits mostly belong to genera that exist today, though their range has often shifted since the Eocene.", "For instance the bibionid genus ''Plecia'' is common in fossil faunas from presently temperate areas, but only lives in the tropics and subtropics today." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Moeritherium lyonsi (fossil mammal) (Eocene) (32167459460).jpg|''Moeritherium''File:Hyracotherium vasacciense (fossil horse) (Huerfano Formation, Lower Eocene; Huerfano Basin, Colorado, USA) 3 (32380466091).jpg|''Hyracotherium''File:Brontotherium skull IMG 4441.jpg|''Brontotherium'' File:Basilosaurus isis fossil, Nantes History Museum 03.jpg|''Basilosaurus''File:Andrewsarchus mongoliensis.jpg|''Andrewsarchus''File:Borealosuchus wilsoni (15529256785).jpg|''Borealosuchus''File:Diatrymaskeleton.JPG|''Gastornis''File:Pakicetus Canada.jpg|''Pakicetus''File:Hyracodon nebraskensis.jpg|''Hyracodon''File:Eocene Turtle Fossil.jpg|Eocene turtle fossilFile:Leptictidium auderiense skeleton.JPG|''Leptictidium''File:Peratherium skull.jpg|''Peratherium''File:Hesperocyon skull Smithsonian.jpg|''Hesperocyon''File:Tritemnodon skull.jpg|''Tritemnodon''File:Coryphodon skull.jpg|''Coryphodon''File:Pseudocrypturus Smithsonian fossil.jpg|''Pseudocrypturus''" ], [ "See also", "* Bolca in Italy* List of fossil sites ''(with link directory)''* London Clay* Messel pit in Germany* Wadi El Hitan in Egypt" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, ''Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)'' Global Stratotype Sections and Points Accessed April 30, 2006.", "*Stanley, Steven M. ''Earth System History.''", "New York: W.H.", "Freeman and Company, 1999." ], [ "External links", "* PaleoMap Project* Paleos Eocene page* PBS Deep Time: Eocene* Eocene and Oligocene Fossils* The UPenn Fossil Forest Project, focusing on the Eocene polar forests in Ellesmere Island, Canada* Basilosaurus Primitive Eocene Whales* Basilosaurus - The plesiosaur that wasn't....* Detailed maps of Tertiary Western North America* Map of Eocene Earth* Eocene Microfossils: 60+ images of Foraminifera*Eocene Epoch.", "(2011).", "In Encyclopædia Britannica.", "Retrieved from Eocene Epoch | geochronology" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eindhoven" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eindhoven''' (; literally \"Last Hooves\") is a city and municipality of the Netherlands, located in the southern province of North Brabant of which it is its largest and is also located in the Dutch part of the natural region the Campine.", "With a population of 238,326 on 1 January 2022, it is the fifth-largest city of the Netherlands and the largest outside the Randstad conurbation.Eindhoven was originally located at the confluence of the Dommel and Gender.", "A municipality since the 13th century, Eindhoven witnessed rapid growth starting in the 1900s by textile and tobacco industries.", "Two well known companies: DAF Trucks and Philips were founded in the city; Philips would go on to become a major multinational conglomerate while based in Eindhoven.", "Apart from Philips, Eindhoven also contains the globally famous Design Academy Eindhoven.Neighbouring cities and towns include Son en Breugel, Nuenen, Geldrop-Mierlo, Helmond, Heeze-Leende, Waalre, Veldhoven, Eersel, Oirschot and Best.", "The agglomeration has a population of .", "The metropolitan area consists of inhabitants.", "The city region has a population of 753,426.The Brabantse Stedenrij combined metropolitan area has about two million inhabitants." ], [ "Etymology", "The name may derive from the contraction of the regional words ''eind'' (meaning \"last\" or \"end\") and ''hove'' (or ''hoeve'', a section of some 14 hectares of land).", "Toponymically, ''eind'' occurs commonly as a prefix and postfix in local place- and street names.", "A \"hove\" comprised a parcel of land which a local lord might lease to private persons (such as farmers).", "Given that a string of such parcels existed around Woensel, the name ''Eindhoven'' may have originated with the meaning \"last hoves on the land of Woensel\".Another explanation is that \"Eind\" is derived from \"Gender\", the city is located at the end of this little river.", "Genderhoven phonetically would have changed to Endehoven.", "'Ende' is also the old spelling and pronunciation of the word 'eind', which would explain the change from 'Gender' to 'Eind'." ], [ "History", "=== 13th–15th centuries ===The written history of Eindhoven started in 1232, when Duke Hendrik I of Brabant granted city rights to ''Eindhoven'', then a small town right on the confluence of the Dommel and Gender streams.", "At the time of granting of its charter, Eindhoven had approximately 170 houses enclosed by a rampart.", "Just outside the city walls stood a small castle.", "The city was also granted the right to organize a weekly market and the farmers in nearby villages were obliged to come to Eindhoven to sell their produce.", "Another factor in its establishment was its location on the trade route from Holland to Liège.Around 1388, the city's fortifications were strengthened further.", "And between 1413 and 1420, a new castle was built within the city walls.", "In 1486, Eindhoven was plundered and burned by troops from Guelders.=== 16th–18th centuries ===Jacob van Deventer: Map of \"Eyndhoven\" with castle Haghe, around 1550.capture of Eindhoven in 1583, by Frans HogenbergThe reconstruction of Eindhoven was finished in 1502, with a stronger rampart and a new castle.", "However, in 1543 it fell again, its defense works having been neglected due to poverty.A big fire in 1554 destroyed 75% of the houses but by 1560 these had been rebuilt with the help of William I of Orange.", "During the Dutch Revolt, Eindhoven changed hands between the Dutch and the Spanish several times during which it was burned down by renegade Spanish soldiers, until finally in 1583 it was captured once more by Spanish troops and its city walls were demolished.Eindhoven did not become part of the Netherlands until 1629.During the French occupation, Eindhoven suffered again with many of its houses destroyed by the invading forces.", "Eindhoven remained a minor city after that until the start of the Industrial Revolution.=== 19th century ===The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century provided a major growth impulse.", "Canals, roads and railroads were constructed.", "Eindhoven was connected to the major Zuid-Willemsvaart canal through the Eindhovens Kanaal branch in 1843 and was connected by rail to Tilburg, 's-Hertogenbosch, Venlo and Belgium between 1866 and 1870.Industrial activities initially centred around tobacco and textiles and boomed with the rise of lighting and electronics giant Philips, which was founded as a light bulb manufacturing company in Eindhoven in 1891.Industrialisation brought population growth to Eindhoven.", "On the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, Eindhoven had 2,310 inhabitants.=== 20th century ===By 1920, the population was 47,946; by 1925 it was 63,870 and in 1935 that had ballooned to 103,030.The explosive growth of industry in the region and the subsequent housing needs of workers called for radical changes in administration, as the City of Eindhoven was still confined to its medieval moat city limits.", "In 1920, the five neighbouring municipalities of Woensel (to the north), Tongelre (northeast and east), Stratum (southeast), Gestel en Blaarthem (southwest) and Strijp (west), which already bore the brunt of the housing needs and related problems, were incorporated into the new Groot-Eindhoven (\"Greater Eindhoven\") municipality.", "The prefix \"Groot-\" was later dropped.The National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands, Eindhoven in April 1941After the incorporation of 1920, the five former municipalities became districts of the Municipality of Eindhoven, with Eindhoven-Centrum (the City proper) forming the sixth.", "Since then, an additional seventh district has been formed by dividing the largest district, that of Woensel, into Woensel-Zuid and Woensel-Noord.The early 20th century saw additions in technical industry with the advent of car and truck manufacturing company Van Doorne's Aanhangwagenfabriek (Trailer factory) (DAF) which was later renamed to Van Doorne's Automobiel Fabriek and the subsequent shift towards electronics and engineering, with the traditional tobacco and textile industries waning and finally disappearing in the 1970s.People of Eindhoven (during World War II) watching Allied forces entering the city following its liberation from Axis forces on 19 September 1944.rightA first air raid in World War II was flown by the RAF on 6 December 1942 targeting the Philips factory downtown, in which 148 civilians died, even though the attack was carried out on a Sunday by low-flying Mosquito bombers.", "Large-scale air raids, including the bombing by the Luftwaffe on 19 September 1944 during Operation Market Garden, destroyed large parts of the city and killed 227 civilians while leaving 800 wounded.", "The reconstruction that followed left very little historical remains and the postwar reconstruction period saw drastic renovation plans in highrise style, some of which were implemented.", "At the time, there was little regard for historical heritage.", "During the 1960s, a new city hall was built and its Neo-gothic predecessor (1867) demolished to make way for a planned arterial road that never materialised.The 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s saw large-scale housing developments in the districts of Woensel-Zuid and Woensel-Noord, making Eindhoven the fifth-largest city in the Netherlands.=== 21st century ===At the start of the 21st century, a whole new housing development called Meerhoven was constructed at the site of the old airport of Welschap, west of Eindhoven.", "The airport itself, now called Eindhoven Airport, had moved earlier to a new location, paving the way for much-needed new houses.", "Meerhoven is part of the Strijp district and is partially built on lands annexed from the municipality of Veldhoven." ], [ "Geography", "Topographic map of Eindhoven (city), 2022The villages and city that make up modern Eindhoven were originally built on sandy elevations between the Dommel, Gender and Tongelreep rivers.", "Beginning in the 19th century, the basins of the rivers themselves have also been used as housing land, resulting in occasional flooding in the city centre.", "Partly to reduce flooding, the bed of the Gender stream, which flowed directly through the city centre, was dammed off and filled up after the War, and the course of the Dommel was regulated.", "New ecological and socio-historical insights have led to parts of the Dommel's course being restored to their original states, and plans to have the Gender flow through the centre once again.The large-scale housing developments of the 20th century saw residential areas being built on former agricultural lands and woods, former heaths that had been turned into cultivable lands in the 19th century.The city is currently divided into seven districts:* 1.Centrum* 2.Woensel-Noord* 3.Woensel-Zuid* 4.Tongelre* 5.Stratum* 6.Gestel* 7.Strijp===Climate===Eindhoven has an oceanic climate with slightly warmer summers and colder winters than the coastal parts of the Netherlands.", "Its all-time record is set on 25 July 2019 and set on 13 January 1968, while winter lows have dipped below during extreme cold snaps.", "Although frosts are frequent in winter, there is no lasting snow cover in a normal winter due to the mild daytime temperatures." ], [ "Demographics", "The (now monumental) former building of the Boerenleenbank in the Raiffeisenstraat (in the Centrum).===Population===, the population of Eindhoven consisted of 235,691 people (according to AlleCijfers.nl).", "Of these, 38.5% or some 90,788 people were of (partial) foreign descent.People are classified as being of foreign descent when they were born outside of the Netherlands, or when at least one of their parents was born outside of the Netherlands.", "Population in 2020 by country of birth of parent (mother, or - if mother is Dutch - father) (2020) '''Country/Territory''' '''Population''' Netherlands 160,420 (61.48%) Turkey 10,337 (4.7%)\t Indonesia 6,248 (2.9%)\t\t Morocco 5,907 (2.7%)\t Germany 5,115 (2.4%) Suriname 3,771 (1.7%) China 3,452 (1.6%) Poland 2,956 (1.2%) Dutch Caribbean 2,704 (1.2%)\t Belgium 2,651 (1.2%)\t India 2,088\t(0.7%) Soviet Union 1,534\t(0.6%) Great Britain 1,410 (0.6%) Yugoslavia 1,386 (0.6%) Spain 1,226 (0.5%)The municipal agglomeration of Eindhoven (an administrative construct which includes only some of the surrounding towns and villages) has 327,245 inhabitants as of 1 January 2010.The spoken language is a combination of Kempenlands (a Dutch dialect spoken in a large area east and south east of the city, including Arendonk and Lommel in Belgium) and North Meierijs (between the south of Den Bosch and into Eindhoven).", "Both dialects belong to the East Brabantian dialect group), which is very similar to colloquial Dutch).", "Urban development Year Population 1996 197,374 2000 201,728 2005 208,455 2010 213,809 2015 223,209 2020 234,394 2021 235,691 2022 238,326=== Inhabitants by origin ===2020Numbers%Dutch natives146,44362.48%Western migration background36,05715.38%Non-Western migration background51,89422.14%''Turkey''11,2954.82%''Morocco''6,4512.75%''Indonesia''5,934''Suriname''3,748''Netherlands Antilles and Aruba''2,925Total234 394100%===Districts===Of all Eindhoven districts, the historical centre is by far the smallest in size and population, numbering only 5,419 in 2006.Woensel-Noord is the largest, having been the city's main area of expansion for several decades.Population figures for all districts, as of 1 January 2008, ranked by size:#Woensel-Noord (65,429)#Woensel-Zuid (35,789)#Stratum (31,778)#Gestel (26,590)#Strijp (25,402)#Tongelre (19,680)#Centrum (5,757)===Religion===Eindhoven is located in the southeast of the province of North Brabant.", "This area is historically Catholic and the population of Eindhoven was similarly mostly Catholic for a very long time until the late 1970s.", "However, the internationalizing influence of the university, Philips and other companies have created a more mixed population over the last few decades.The spiritual needs of the Eindhoven population are tended to by a steadily shrinking number of churches, two mosques and one synagogue.===Crime===In research by the Dutch newspaper Algemeen Dagblad based on the police's statistical data on crime rates, Eindhoven was found to have the highest crime rate in the Netherlands for 2006, 2007, 2009, and 2010.In 2011, Eindhoven has slipped down the list to number six.In 2009, in the Eindhoven agglomeration, the following numbers of crimes were recorded:CategoryNumberTotal61,539Monetary (including burglary, theft)37,266Destruction and public disorder9,861Violent crime5,568Other crimes (criminal code)562Traffic crimes6,665Drug related1,094(Fire)arms related343Environmental19Other crimes (other laws)161===Languages===* Standard Dutch* Eindhoven does not have its own, uniform dialect.", "Varieties of the Brabantian dialect used to be spoken in the former villages of Gestel, Woensel and Stratum, but are now almost extinct.", "The closest city to Eindhoven in which Brabantian is spoken is Helmond." ], [ "Economy", "Eindhoven has grown from a little town in 1232 to one of the biggest cities in the Netherlands with over 240,000 inhabitants in 2022.Much of its growth is due to Philips, DAF Trucks and Brabantia.", "Among recent high-tech companies based in Eindhoven are NXP Semiconductors, Sendcloud, and Signify.After the resurrection of the Netherlands in 1815 and the end of the Belgian Revolution, Eindhoven was a small village of some 1250 people in an economically backward and mostly agricultural area.", "Cheap land, cheap labor and the existence of pre-industrial homesourcing (''huisnijverheid'' in Dutch) made Eindhoven an attractive area for the developing industries which were being stimulated by the government of King William I.", "During the 19th century, Eindhoven grew into an industrial town with factories for textile weaving, cigar manufacturing, match making and hat making.", "Most of these industries disappeared again after World War II, though.", "in 2000.In 1891, brothers Gerard and Anton Philips founded the small light bulb factory that would grow into one of the largest electronics firms in the world.", "Philips' presence is probably the largest single contributing factor to the major growth of Eindhoven in the 20th century.", "It attracted and spun off many hi-tech companies, making Eindhoven a major technology and industrial hub.", "In 2005, a full third of the total amount of money spent on research in the Netherlands was spent in or around Eindhoven.", "A quarter of the jobs in the region are in technology and ICT, with companies such as FEI Company (once Philips Electron Optics), NXP Semiconductors (formerly Philips Semiconductors), ASML, ALTEN, Simac, Neways Electronics and the aforementioned Philips and DAF.Eindhoven has long been a centre of cooperation between research institutes and industry.", "This tradition started with Philips (the NatLab was a physical expression of this) and has since expanded to large cooperative networks.", "The Eindhoven University of Technology hosts an incubator for technology startups and the NatLab has developed into the High Tech Campus Eindhoven.", "Also, TNO has opened a branch on the university campus.", "This tradition has also fostered inter-industry cooperation in the region; one example of this is the announcement in September 2010 of a new research lab for high-grade packaging materials, a cooperation of IPS Packaging and Thales Cryogenics.This cooperative tradition has also developed into a different direction than the traditional technology research done at the university.", "Starting in 2002, the university, the Catharina hospital, Philips Medical and the University of Maastricht joined forces and started joint research into biomedical science, technology and engineering.", "Within Eindhoven, this research has been concentrated in a new university faculty (BioMedical Technology or BMT).", "This development has also made Eindhoven a biomedical technology hub within the country and its (European) region.The Evoluon building initially hosted a science museum; it is now a conference center.Prime examples of industrial heritage in Eindhoven are the renovated Witte Dame (''\"White Lady\"'') complex, a former Philips lamp factory; and the Admirant building (informally known as Bruine Heer or ''\"Brown Gentleman\"'' in reference to the Witte Dame across the street), the former Philips main offices.", "The Witte Dame currently houses the municipal library, the Design Academy and a selection of shops.", "The Admirant has been renovated into an Office building for small companies.", "Across the street from the Witte Dame and next to the Admirant is Philips' first light bulb factory (nicknamed Roze Baby, or ''\"Pink Baby\"'', in reference to its pink colour and much smaller size when compared to the \"White Lady\" and \"Brown Gentleman\").", "The small building now houses the \"Centrum Kunstlicht in de Kunst\" (centre artificial light in art) and the \"Philips Incandescent Lamp Factory of 1891\" museum.===Knowledge economy initiatives===Due to its high-tech environment, Eindhoven is part of several initiatives to develop, foster and increase a knowledge economy.", "Chief among these are:*Brainport Top Technology Region, a cooperative initiative of local government, industry and the Eindhoven University of Technology to develop the local knowledge economy of the Eindhoven region.", "*Brainport Development, an extension of the Top Technology Region, Brainport Development serves as the Eindhoven's regional innovation agency to maintain its position as an innovation hub.", "*Samenwerkingsverband Regio Eindhoven, a cooperative agreement among the municipalities in the Eindhoven metropolitan area.", "*The Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen triangle, a cooperation agreement between the universities and surrounding regions of Eindhoven, Leuven (Belgium) and Aachen (Germany).The Intelligent Community Forum named the Eindhoven metro region the No.", "21 intelligent community in 2008 and the No.", "7 intelligent community in 2009 and 2010.In 2011, the ICF named Eindhoven the Intelligent Community of the Year.", "Since 2012, Eindhoven has vanished from the top 7 of intelligent communities.===EIT co-location===Eindhoven is one of the co-location centres of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT).", "It hosts two Knowledge and Innovation Communities (KICs): Innoenergy (Sustainable Energy) and EIT ICT Labs (Information and Communication Technology).", "The co-locations are on the High Tech Campus Eindhoven." ], [ "Education", "Eindhoven, being a city with a 240,000+ population, is served by a large number of schools both at primary and secondary education levels.", "In addition, Eindhoven is a higher-education hub within the southern Netherlands, with several institutes of higher education that serve students from the extended region of North Brabant, Zeeland, Limburg and parts of the surrounding provinces.===Primary education===Primary education is provided to the children aged 4 to 12 in Eindhoven through a large number of primary schools:AreaGestelStratumStrijpTongelreWoenselSchools*SALTO school De Hobbitstee*SKPO school De Kameleon*SKPO school De Springplank*SALTO school De Trinoom*SKPO school De Troubadour*SALTO school Hanevoet*SKPO school Karel de Grote*The Regional international school*SKPO school 't Startblok*SKPO school Beppino Sarto*SALTO school De Hasselbraam*SALTO school De Klimboom*VSEZ school De Regenboog*SKPO school De Talisman*SKPO school De Wilakkers*SALTO school De Zevensprong*SALTO school basisschool Floralaan*SALTO school De Bergen*SKPO school De Schakel*SALTO school De Startbaan*SALTO school Drents Dorp*SKPO school 't Slingertouw*SKPO school Theresia*SKPO school Trudo*SKPO school De Boog*SALTO school De Driesprong*SALTO school Nutsschool Reigerlaan*SKPO school BoschAkker*SALTO school 't Karregat*SKPO school Atalanta*SALTO school Cornelis Jetses*SKPO school De Bijenkorf*SKPO school De Boschuil*SALTO school De Driestam*SKPO school De Handreiking*SALTO school De Klapwiek*SKPO school De Korenaar*SALTO school De Ontmoeting*SALTO school De Opbouw*SKPO school De Schelp*SALTO school De Tempel*SALTO school De Vuurvlinder*SEOO school Evangelische Basisschool Online*SKPO school Fellenoord*SKPO school Gunterslaer*SKPO school Klimwijs*SALTO school Louis Buelens*SKPO school Onder de Wieken*SKPO school Rapenland*SKPO school St. Antonius Abt*SKPO school 't Palet*Islamic school Tarieq Ibnoe Ziyad*SKPO school Tweelingen*VSB school Vrije School Brabant*SKPO school Wethouder van Eupen*Special needs primary education:**SALTO school Jan Nieuwenhuizen**SKPO school De Reis van Brandaan**SKPO school Petraschool**SALTO school De Vijfkamp===Secondary education===Secondary education is provided to the children aged 12 to 18 in Eindhoven through several highschools:AreaGestelStratumStrijpTongelreWoenselSchools*Huygens Lyceum*Aloysius/De Roosten*Van Maerlant Lyceum*Heliconopleidingen \"Groenschool\"*SG Augustinianum*De Burgh *Sint-Joris College*Sint Lucas Eindhoven*Montessori College ROC Eindhoven*Olympia*Lorentz Casimir Lyceum*Frits Philips Lyceum *Eckartcollege*Novalis College*De Rooi Pannen*Stedelijk College Eindhoven*International Secondary School EindhovenSpecial needs secondary education:*Sondervickcollege, Locatie de Stolberg*De Korenaer*Mgr.", "Bekkers*De Beemden*Mytylschool*Antoon Schellens College*Praktijkschool Eindhoven*VSO Ekkersbeek*Instituut 'St.", "Marie'===Higher and adult education===Eindhoven hosts four different public institutions for higher and adult education, as well as a number of private institutions offering courses and trainings.", "The public institutions hosted in Eindhoven are:*The Design Academy.", "*The Eindhoven University of Technology.", "*The Fontys University of Applied Sciences (Eindhoven branch).", "*The Tio University**The Open University also has a study center in Eindhoven.Among the private institutions is the Centrum voor Kunsten Eindhoven, which offers art-related courses to adults (including a DJ-education)." ], [ "Politics", "=== Municipal council ===The municipal council is the legislative council at the municipal level in Eindhoven; its existence is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands.", "The Eindhoven city council consists of 45 elected representatives from the Eindhoven municipality.", "These are elected during municipal elections from candidates running in Eindhoven.", "Eindhoven politics consists of local branches of the national political parties and purely local parties with strictly local interests.", "The city council reflects this mix in its makeup.The division of the municipal seats in the Eindhoven city council after the elections is shown below: Percentages Seats Party 2002 2006 2010 2014 2018 2022 2002 2006 2010 2014 2018 2022 Party GreenLeft 7.3 7.1 8.9 7.6 14.5 18.5 3 3 4 4 7 9 GreenLeft CDA 18.6 14.6 11.5 8.1 11.5 11.9 9 7 6 4 6 6 CDA VVD 12.4 11.8 15.7 13.4 14.8 11.5 6 6 8 6 7 6 VVD PvdA 18.1 27.0 20.6 16.0 12.3 10.8 9 14 10 8 6 5 PvdA D66 6.1 3.3 12.2 14.8 11.7 9.7 3 1 6 7 6 5 D66 SP 7.5 12.9 8.7 14.4 8.0 5.9 3 6 4 7 4 3 SP Volt 5.6 3 Volt Senior Appeal (Heart for) Eindhoven 4.2 4.9 6.2 9.7 5.6 5.6 2 2 3 5 2 3 Senior Appeal (Heart for) Eindhoven Party for the Animals 4.7 2 Party for the Animals Pim Fortuyn List (Eindhoven) 2.3 4.6 3.8 4.0 3.4 1 2 1 2 1 Pim Fortuyn List (Eindhoven) Forum for Democracy 3.0 1 Forum for Democracy 50PLUS 3.9 2.3 2 1 50PLUS DENK 3.5 1.8 1 0 DENK ChristianUnion 1.9 2.2 1.8 2.0 2.4 1.8 0 1 0 1 1 0 ChristianUnion Ordinary Eindhoven 1.6 0 Ordinary Eindhoven Pirate Party 1.4 0 Pirate Party The Party Party (DFP) 0.5 0 The Party Party (DFP) Livable Eindhoven 19.2 6.9 3.2 4.0 2.8 9 3 1 2 1 Livable Eindhoven Wide Left Movement 1.9 0 Wide Left Movement Forum040 1.2 0 Forum040 Stratum's Interest 1.2 0 Stratum's Interest Future Party (PvdT) 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.9 0 0 0 0 Future Party (PvdT) Blank list, 1th cand.", "M. Leenders 1.5 0 Blank list, 1th cand.", "M. Leenders Disappointed Citizens 1.5 0 Disappointed Citizens Together Eindhoven 1.1 0 Together Eindhoven Unity Party 0.8 0 Unity Party OPA Eindhoven 0.7 0 OPA Eindhoven The Greens 0.1 0 The Greens Proud of the Netherlands / List Rita Verdonk 2.8 1 Proud of the Netherlands / List Rita Verdonk City Party 3.6 2.4 1.4 1 1 0 City Party Eindhoven Now 1.2 0 Eindhoven Now Human and Spirit Party 0.5 0 Human and Spirit Party Students List Eindhoven 1.7 0 Students List Eindhoven New Right 1.0 0 New Right Liberal Eindhoven 0.9 0 Liberal Eindhoven List Resink 1.0 0 List Resink Turnout / total 48.3 47.7 43.6 44.7 46.4 41.8 45 45 45 45 45 45 Turnout / total=== Municipal executive ======= Alder(wo)men ====The executive council in Dutch municipalities is called the ''College of the Mayor and Aldermen'' (Dutch: ''College van Burgemeester en Wethouders'' or ''College van B&W'' for short).", "The mayor is appointed by the monarch, but the council of aldermen is composed as a result of the formation of a local coalition government.", "This coalition is formed in such a way as to be able to rely on a majority of the votes in the city council.", ";2014 – 2018In May 2014, a coalition was formed between PvdA, D66, SP, and GreenLeft.", "Together they had 26 seats in the city council.", "The council of alder(wo)men consisted of the following people:* Staf Depla (PvdA): economy, work and income and vocational education* Yasin Torunoglu (PvdA): living, boroughs, space and citizen participation* Marco van Dorst replaced by Wilbert Seuren in July 2015 (both D66): spatial planning and treasury* Mary-Ann Schreurs (D66): innovation and design, sustainability and culture* Bianca van Kaathoven (SP): active city, diversity and permits*Jannie Visscher (SP): youth, education, traffic and transport* Lenie Scholten (GreenLeft): health care and WIJeindhoven;2018 – 2022In May 2018, a coalition was formed existing of VVD, GreenLeft, PvdA, and CDA.", "They had 26 seats together.", "The alder(wo)men were:* Monique List (VVD)* Marcel Oosterveer (VVD)* Renate Richters (GreenLeft)* Jan van der Veer replaced by Rik Thijs in June 2019 (both GreenLeft)* Yasin Torunoglu (PvdA)* Stijn Steenbakkers (CDA);2022 – 2026In June 2022, a coalition has been formed existing of GreenLeft, CDA, PvdA, and D66, having 25 seats together.", "Their alder(wo)men have been:* Saskia Lammers (GreenLeft): well-being, work, poverty, culture and design* Rik Thijs (GreenLeft): climate, energy, soil and greening* Samir Toub (GreenLeft): diversity, care, youth and social support* Maes van Lanschot (CDA): finance, sport, heritage and regional cooperation* Stijn Steenbakkers (CDA): brainport, economy, education, KnoopXL and Eindhoven-Northwest* Mieke Verhees (PvdA): housing, neighbourhoods, space and services* Monique Esselbrugge (D66): higher and vocational education, mobility, city center and Design District==== Mayor ====Current mayor Jeroen DijsselbloemThe mayors of the Netherlands are not elected but appointed by the crown.", "Nevertheless, there has been a movement over the last few years to give the municipalities more say in who will be their mayor, which has resulted in consultative referendums being held in the larger cities to \"suggest\" a candidate for the post.", "This was also tried in Eindhoven.On 23 January 2008, a referendum to elect a mayor was held in Eindhoven.", "This referendum, the second of its kind in the Netherlands, was attended by 24.6% of the inhabitants.", "This was less than the required 30% needed to make a referendum binding.", "Nevertheless, the city council would choose the winner of the referendum as the preferred candidate.", "The main reason for the low attendance was that the candidates, Leen Verbeek and Rob van Gijzel, were from the same party (PvdA).", "Rob van Gijzel won the referendum with 61.8% of the votes and was appointed the city's new mayor.The mayor is the chairman of the Council of B&W.", "He also has responsibility for a number of specific posts (like the aldermen).", "For example, in the executive council of 2014-2018 mayor Van Gijzel held responsibility for the post of communication.If unavailable, the mayor is temporarily replaced by one of the aldermen.Rob van Gijzel was succeeded by John Jorritsma (VVD) on 13 September 2016.Jorritsma has been succeeded by Jeroen Dijsselbloem (PvdA) on 13 September 2022." ], [ "Culture and recreation", "Culturally and recreationally, Eindhoven was formed by two forces:*Being a university city, Eindhoven has a large student population.", "The students from the Eindhoven University of Technology and a number of undergraduate schools give Eindhoven a young population, whose recreational needs are catered to by several different festivals, clubs and such.", "*For a long time Eindhoven was the main location of Philips.", "The Philips company undertook a lot of effort in the \"cultural formation\" of its workforce and has given the city both cultural institutions (such as the former POC and the Muziekcentrum Frits Philips) and sporting institutions (notably PSV).Eindhoven is also known as the City of Light, due to Philips originating from there and because of several projects involving lighting up buildings of the city.", "During Carnival, Eindhoven is rechristened ''Lampegat'' (Hamlet of Lamps, although for the ironic purposes of carnival the translation ''Hole in the ground with lamps'' is closer to the mark); this refers again to the important role of Philips in the Eindhoven community.===Cultural institutions===There are several cultural institutions in and around the city.====Museums==== *There are two museums dedicated to the major topics of the city's industrial heritage: the DAF Museum has a collection of DAF cars and the Philips Gloeilampenfabriekje anno 1891 (across the street from the Kempenland) documents the early lightbulb industry.", "*The former district court house now houses the Designhuis, a public podium and interaction area for modern design and innovation.", "*The Eindhoven Museum is an archaeological open-air museum which focuses on the region's Iron Age and Middle Ages.", "It merged in 2011 with Museum Kempenland which was a regional museum, which documents the history of the Kempenland region in objects, documents, paintings and educational activities.", "Museum Kempenland's old location, the Steentjeskerk, is closed.", "*The Inkijkmuseum (the ''Look-In museum''; housed in an old linen factory in the Dommelstraat) is a small but special museum: it offers ever-changing exhibits, which are to be viewed through the building's windows.", "*The Van Abbemuseum has a collection of modern and contemporary art, including works by Picasso, Kandinsky, Mondriaan and Chagall.", "* De '''Ontdekfabriek''' (Discovery Factory) children's museum at Strijp-SEindhoven was home to the Evoluon science museum, sponsored by Philips.", "The Evoluon building has evolved into a conference centre.====Open-air art====The Eindhoven public space contains many forms of artistic expression (a book published by the Eindhoven tourist board records 550 and more have been added since), with high \"concentrations\" of them in the parks.", "The Stadswandelpark for instance, contains over 30 works of modern art.", "There are also several other works of art on permanent display throughout the city, such as ''Flying Pins'' (by Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen, who considered the location on the southern stretch of the John F. Kennedylaan to be like a bowling alley) and ''Swing'' (a construct on the Karel de Grotelaan, which morphs into different geometric shapes as you move around it).", "There are also a number of statues of famous city inhabitants, such as Jan van Hooff (by Auke Hettema, 1992) and Frits Philips (by Kees Verkade) on the Market Square.", "There is a statue of Anton Philips in front of the central railway station.Piazza Centre as seen from DemerEindhoven is also, to some degree, open to forms of impromptu and alternative art.", "For example, the Berenkuil is a freezone for graffiti artists in the city.=====Light art=====Strijp-S is a place for experimentation with LED lighting, which keeps the historic connection with Philips' past.", "Some light art includes the project '''Fakkel''' by Har Hollands.", "In the underground passage to NatLab artist Daan Roosegaarde installed his project '''Crystal'''.Strijp-S is a regular location for the light festival '''GLOW'''.====Music and theatre====The Effenaar music venue.The Effenaar is a popular music venue and cultural center in Eindhoven, and is located at the Dommelstraat.In 1992, the Muziekcentrum Frits Philips was opened as a stage for classical and popular music in Eindhoven, reviewed by critics as a concert hall with acoustics that rival the best halls in Europe.", "Before that, Philips sponsored the POC.Parktheater Eindhoven is Eindhoven's stage for opera, cabaret, ballet etc.", "Opened in 1964, it has received over 250,000 visitors every year.", "With its 1,000 m2 it has one of the largest stages in the Netherlands.", "With a major renovation ending in 2007, the new Parktheater will receive an estimated 300,000 visitors a year.Eindhoven's Plaza Futura is now a cinema featuring cultural movies, lectures and special cultural events.Especially for students, Studium Generale Eindhoven organizes \"socially, culturally and intellectually formative events\".", "From within the student body, two Tunas provide entertainment from time to time at university and city events: Tuna Ciudad de Luz (''Tuna of the City of Light'') and the ladies tuna La Tuniña.The general music and theatre scene in Eindhoven (in the broadest sense) is supported by a foundation called PopEi.", "The purpose of this foundation is to support artistic groups with facilities, especially rehearsal stages and areas (housed in the old Philips location of Strijp-S) but also storage facilities.", "PopEi also provides a working environment for groups (through cafeteria facilities in Strijp-S, so groups can have real working days) and provides some logistical support for organizing events.===Recreation===Eindhoven has a lively recreational scene.", "For going out, there are numerous bars on the Market square, Stratumseind (Stratum's End) which is the largest pub-street in the Netherlands, Dommelstraat, Wilhelmina square and throughout the rest of the city.", "In addition to the more culturally oriented Plaza Futura, there are three cinemas in the centre of town (\"Servicebioscoop Zien\", \"Vue\" and Pathé Eindhoven, which offers THX sound, IMAX screens and 3D movie viewing).Eindhoven also hosts a large number of cultural and entertainment-oriented festivals.", "The biggest festivals in Eindhoven are:*ABlive, popfestival ''(September)''*Carnaval, ''(February)''*Koningsdag, National Day ''(27 April)''*Muziek op de Dommel, classical music festival ''(June)''*EDIT, festival ''(June)''*Fiesta del Sol, street- and music acts ''(June)''*UCI ProTour – Eindhoven Team Time Trial, international cycling tour ''(June)''*Virus Festival, alternative music festival ''(last edition in 2007, inactive at the moment)''*Dynamo Metal Fest ''(July)''*Park Hilaria, fun fair ''(August)''*Folkwoods, folk festival ''(August)''*Reggae Sundance, reggae festival ''(August)''*Lichtjesroute, 15-mile-tour of light ornaments, commemorating the liberation of Eindhoven (from ''18 September'')*Eindhoven Marathon, ''(October)''*Dutch Design Week, international school festival ''(October)''*GLOW Festival Eindhoven*TROMP international music competition & Festival, international classical music competition & festival (15–23 November 2008: String quartet, Nov 2010: Percussion)* STRP Festival, art & technology festival ''(23–25 November 2007)''===Parks===Eindhoven contains several parks and a lot of open, green space.", "Of the five largest cities in the Netherlands, it has the highest percentage of green area (encompassing about ⅓ of all public space).", "It is also the greenest of the five largest cities in North Brabant.", "The green area per house is about .Some of the major parks in Eindhoven are the Stadswandelpark, Genneper Parken, the Philips van Lenneppark, Philips de Jongh Wandelpark and the Henri Dunantpark.", "There is also a green area surrounding the Karpendonkse Plas (a water area).", "The combination of park area, water and general atmosphere got the Ooievaarsnest neighborhood elected the \"Best large-city neighborhood of the Netherlands\" by the NRC Handelsblad in 1997.===Sport===Philips Stadion.", "*The premier sporting club of the city is PSV Eindhoven, the professional football club playing in the Eredivisie.", "Their home base is the Philips Stadion.", "PSV won the 1988 European Cup as well as 24 Dutch championships.", "*FC Eindhoven is another football club based in Eindhoven, currently playing in the Eerste Divisie.", "*HC Oranje-Rood is the biggest field hockey club in Eindhoven and in fact one of the biggest clubs in the Netherlands.", "It is a combination of former clubs Oranje Zwart and EMHC.", "Oranje Zwart's men's team was the reigning Dutch champion for the past 3 years (14/15/16).", "They also won the EHL in 2015.", "*Eindhoven Kemphanen is the major ice hockey club in the city.", "They play in IJssportcentrum Eindhoven and compete in the North Sea Cup.", "*Eindhoven High Techs are the minor league affiliate of the Eindhoven Kemphanen and play in the Eerste Divisie.", "*Swimming pool complex De Tongelreep houses various pools for recreation, training and sports research supported by the Eindhoven University of Technology and several top sporting institutions.", "Its \"Pieter van den Hoogenband Swimming Stadium\" hosted the 2008 European Championships Swimming, Diving and Synchronised Swimming, the 2010 IPC Swimming World Championships, the 2010 European Short Course Swimming Championships, the 2012 European Championships Waterpolo, Diving and Synchronised Swimming, the 2013 FINA Swimming World Cup, the 2014 IPC European Swimming Championships, the 2017 FINA Swimming World Cup and the 2018 FINA Swimming World Cup.", "*Eindhoven houses Europe's largest indoor skateboard park Area 51 (skatepark) and is home of a lively skateboard culture.", "*Eindhoven has two boxing clubs, The Golden Gloves and Muscle Fit.", "*Eindhoven hosted the 1999 World Table Tennis Championships.", "*Eindhoven Shamrocks Gaelic Football Club are an amateur sports team.", "The club was founded in 2013 and is based at Oude Bosschebaan 32, 5624 AA in Eindhoven.", "The club is affiliated to the European County Board of the Gaelic Athletic Association.", "The Shamrocks have won the Benelux Shield Competition in 2017.", "*Eindhoven has a baseball club called PSV, which plays at the stadium which co-hosted the 2005 IBAF Baseball World Cup.", "*Eindhoven has an American Football team, , which plays at the 1st division in the Dutch American Football League.", "*Strijp-S is a magnet for '''urban sports''' like skateboarding, BMX and bouldering as well as bootcamp classes.", "*Eindhoven has two Rugby union Clubs a student rugby club associated with the Eindhoven University of Technology and formerly known as RCE/PSV.===Adult-orientated entertainment===The centre of town features two casinos (one branch of Holland Casino and the independent Casino4Events).", "At the A67 a Jack's casino is located.There is a red light district on the Baekelandplein, as well as four brothels throughout the city.", "There is also a blue movie theater.===Strijp-S===The old Philips factory complex has been transformed into a multi-purpose cultural and residential complex called Strijp-S.", "This includes conference and event space, space for concerts and events, art of lighting, space for sports such as BMX, bouldering, and more, a walking promenade, etc." ], [ "Media", "Eindhoven features several print media.", "The local newspaper, called the Eindhovens Dagblad, is a daily newspaper with over 110,000 subscribers in the Samenwerkingsverband Regio Eindhoven region.", "It has a national and international section, as well as a section dedicated to regional news; the editorial department is located in Eindhoven.In addition to the newspaper, Eindhoven is served by a number of weekly door-to-door publications.", "Chief among these is ''Groot Eindhoven'' (which carries publications of the city council, as well as other articles and advertisements).", "Other than that there are ''de Trompetter'', ''de Weekendkrant'' and the ''ZondagsNieuws''.", "The first two are delivered midweek, the last two are weekend publications.There are several regional and municipal radio stations.", "The local radio station is Studio040, whereas Omroep Brabant and RoyaalFM provide regional radio.Local television is provided by Studio040.Omroep Brabant broadcasts regionally from its television studio in Son.Internet, television and telephone connectivity is available via cable television, optic fiber and ADSL." ], [ "Transport", "Eindhoven AirportEindhoven Airport===Air traffic===Eindhoven Airport is the closest airport, located approximately from the town centre.", "The airport serves as a military air base and a civilian commercial airport.", "Eindhoven Airport is the second-busiest in the Netherlands (after Schiphol).", "Ryanair serves London Stansted Airport, Dublin, Kyiv, Rome, Milan, Pisa, Bordeaux, Marseille, Glasgow, Madrid, Valencia, Stockholm, Kaunas, Malta, Sofia and Barcelona.", "Wizz air serves Belgrade, Brno, Bucharest-Otopeni, Budapest, Cluj-Napoca, Debrecen, Gdańsk, Katowice, Prague, Riga, Sofia, Timișoara, Vilnius, Wrocław.", "In the summer season, Reykjavík is served with 2 weekly flights operated by Iceland Express.", "Transavia services Alicante, Antalya, Athens, Bodrum, Corfu, Dalaman, Faro, Gran Canaria, Innsbruck, Málaga, Majorca, Munich, Prague, Rhodes and Salzburg, though some destinations are served only seasonally.", "Eindhoven Airport served more than 6.2 million passengers in 2018.=== Rail traffic ===Eindhoven is a rail transport hub.", "Eindhoven Centraal railway station is the main station in Eindhoven.", "It has connections in the directions of:*Tilburg – Breda – Rotterdam – Delft – The Hague*'s-Hertogenbosch – Utrecht – Amsterdam – Alkmaar/Enkhuizen*'s-Hertogenbosch – Utrecht – Amsterdam Zuid – Schiphol Airport*Helmond – Venlo-(international connections into Germany)*Weert – Roermond – Sittard – Maastricht/HeerlenEindhoven Centraal is served by both intercity and local services while the smaller station, Eindhoven Strijp-S is only served by local trains.", "Towards 's-Hertogenbosch, Utrecht and Amsterdam trains run every ten minutes, on every day of the week.", "Eindhoven Stadion is a small station that serves Philips Stadion in the event of football matches or other special events at the stadium.", "It is located 900m west of the main station.Up until World War II, a train service connected Amsterdam to Liège via Eindhoven and Valkenswaard, but the service was discontinued and the line broken up.", "Recently, talks have resumed to have a service to Neerpelt, Belgium via Weert.=== Roads and highways ===The A2/E25 motorway from Amsterdam to Luxembourg passes Eindhoven to the west and south of the city.", "The A2 connects to the highway A58 to Tilburg and Breda just north of the city.", "Just south of Eindhoven, the A2 connects to the A67 / E34 between Antwerp and Duisburg.", "In 2006, the A50 was completed connecting Eindhoven to Nijmegen and Zwolle.=== Local public transit ===The public transport of Eindhoven consists of more than 20 city bus lines, which also serve neighbouring villages such as Veldhoven, Geldrop and Nuenen.", "Nine of these buslines (400–408) are marketed as high quality public transport and run with 43 electric articulated buses.", "Two specially built separated busways (HOV1 & HOV2) are used by lines 400 to 408.Line 401 to the airport runs almost completely on separated busways.", "Apart from the city lines there are some 30 regional and rush-hour lines.===Bicycle infrastructure===Akin to all large Dutch cities, Eindhoven has an extensive network of bicycle paths.", "Since 2012, the Eindhoven bicycle path network has incorporated the Hovenring." ], [ "Medical care", "Eindhoven has two hospitals in three locations: the Catharina Hospital and the Máxima Medisch Centrum, which has a branch in Woensel-Zuid (the old Diaconessenhuis) and one in Veldhoven (the old Sint Joseph Hospital).", "These three have an extensive cooperation and have divided specialties among each other.", "Emergency medicine, for example, is concentrated in the MMC Veldhoven branch and the Catharina Hospital, the MMC Eindhoven branch has no emergency department.", "Cardiac procedures are done in the Catharina.Catharina is also an academic and research hospital and participates in a shared research program with Philips Medical, the Eindhoven University of Technology and the Maastricht University into biomedical science, technology and engineering." ], [ "People", "Statue of Frits Philips in Eindhoven* Kees Bol (1916–2009), painter and art educator* Jan de Bont (born 1943), film director* Pieter Celie (born 1942), Dutch artist* Hugo Brandt Corstius (1935–2014), writer* Rene Daniels (born 1950), painter* Cor Dillen (1920-2009), businessman, former Philips CEO in South America* Lonneke Engel (born 1981), fashion model* Jalila Essaïdi (born 1980), artist and entrepreneur* Jan van Hooff (1755–1816), statesman* Nicole van den Hurk (1980–95), homicide victim* Ton de Leeuw, (born 1941), organizational theorist * Theo Maassen (born 1966), comedian and actor* Tom van den Nieuwenhuijzen (born 1982), politician* Frits Philips (1905–2005), businessman, son of Anton Philips* Gerard Philips (1858–1942) and Anton Philips (1874–1951), founders of the Philips brand name* Bas Rutten (born 1965), MMA sportsman, color commentator, actor;Music* Brooks (born 1995), DJ and record producer* Maddix (DJ) (born 1990), DJ and record producer* Patrick van Deurzen (born 1964), composer* Sander van Doorn (born 1979), Techno/Trance music DJ and producer* Peter Koelewijn (born 1940), musician and record producer* Lenny Kuhr (born 1950), singer-songwriter* Party In Backyard, YouTuber and record producer* Piet Souer (born 1945), record producer;Sport* Peter Aerts (born 1970), kickboxer* Christijan Albers (born 1979), Formula One racing driver* Imke Bartels (born 1977), equestrian* Tineke Bartels (born 1951), equestrian* Arthur Borren (born 1949), field hockey player* Jan Borren (born 1947), field hockey player and coach* Phillip Cocu (born 1970), football player* Coen Dillen, (1926-1990), former PSV Eindhoven footballer* Cody Gakpo (born 1999), football player* Paul Haarhuis (born 1966), tennis player* François van Kruijsdijk (born 1952), medley swimmer* Patrick Lodewijks (born 1967), football goalkeeper* Rob Reckers (born 1981), (field) hockey player* Rik Smits (born 1966), basketball player* Margje Teeuwen (born 1974), field hockey midfielder* Rick VandenHurk (born 1985), baseball player* Tisha Volleman (born 1999), artistic gymnast* Cor Vriend (born 1949), long-distance runner, currently manager for long-distance runner* Remmert Wielinga (born 1978), professional road bicycle racer* Robert de Wit (born 1962), decathlete and bobsledder* Klaas-Erik Zwering (born 1981), swimmer" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Eindhoven is twinned with:* Bayeux, France* Białystok, Poland* Chinandega, Nicaragua* Kadoma, Japan* Minsk, Belarus* Nanjing, China" ], [ "See also", "*List of cities in the Netherlands by province#North Brabant*Jewish Eindhoven*BrabantStad" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "External links", "* Official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Helsingør" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Helsingør''' ( , ; ), classically known in English as '''Elsinore''' ( ), is a city in eastern Denmark.", "Helsingør Municipality had a population of 63,399 on 1 January 2023.Helsingør and Helsingborg in Sweden together form the northern reaches of the Øresund Region, centered on Copenhagen and Malmö.", "The HH Ferry route connects Helsingør with Helsingborg, 4 km (2.5 miles) across the Øresund.Its castle Kronborg was used by William Shakespeare as the setting for his play ''Hamlet.''" ], [ "History", "Kronborg CastleHelsingør portAn alley in HelsingørThe name ''Helsingør'' has been believed to be derived from the word ''hals'' meaning \"neck\" or \"narrow strait,\" referring to the narrowest point of the ''Øresund'' (Øre Sound) between what is now Helsingør and Helsingborg, Sweden.", "The people were mentioned as ''Helsinger'' (which may mean \"the people of the strait\") for the first time in King Valdemar the Victorious's ''Liber Census Daniæ'' from 1231 (not to be confused with the Helsings of Hälsingland in Sweden).", "Place names show that the Helsinger may have had their main fort at Helsingborg and a fortified landing place at Helsingør, to control the ferry route across the strait.", "The particularly-19th-century tradition to explain toponymies, place names, with features of the landscape does not necessarily exclude the much older tradition of reading place names as eponymous.", "Although an obscure legendary character, or several, Helsing is quite abundantly present in traces of lost legends in the Nordic countries.Although probably not the first Helsing, one of the three sons of Gandalf Alfgeirsson (the antagonist of Halfdan the Black, who was father of King Harald Fairhair, the semi-legendary, historical first king of a feudalist Norway) is called Helsing.", "He was brother to Hake and Hysing Gandalfson.", "Also Helsingfors/Helsinki in Finland and Hälsingland in Norrland, Sweden, refers to Helsing, as \"the Land of the Helsing/Helsinger,\" which makes the landscape-theory of the name of Helsingør less likely.Helsingør as it is known today was founded in the 1420s by Danish King Eric of Pomerania.", "He established the Sound Dues in 1429, which made all foreign ships passing through the strait pay a toll, which constituted up to two-thirds of Denmark's state income.", "With the income, Eric built the Krogen Castle Krogen, which was expanded in the 1580s and renamed Kronborg.", "All ships had to stop in Helsingør to get their cargo taxed and pay a toll to the Danish Crown, which generated a significant trade for the town.", "In 1672, Helsingør had grown to be the third-largest town in Denmark.", "The Sound Dues were abolished in 1857 with the Copenhagen Convention in which all naval nations agreed to pay a one-time fee.The oldest known fortified building of Helsingør is ''Flynderborg'', an early medieval fortress on a hill just south of the medieval city.Around 1200, the first church, Saint Olaf's Church, was built.", "A number of convents once surrounded the church, but now all that remains is the church building, today the cathedral of the Diocese of Helsingør.", "The oldest parts of the cathedral of Helsingør date back to the 13th century and show that the fishing village, as Helsingør was then, had grown to a town of importance.Johan Isaksson Pontanus (''Rerum Danicarum Historica'', 1631) attributes a long and partially-fictitious history to Helsingør.During World War II, Helsingør was among the most important transport points for the rescue of Denmark's Jewish population during the Holocaust.", "Adolf Hitler had ordered that all Danish Jews were to be arrested and deported to the concentration camps on Rosh HaShanah, the Jewish New Year, which fell on 2 October 1943.When Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz, a diplomatic attaché of Nazi Germany to Denmark, received word of the order on 28 September 1943, he shared it with political and Jewish community leaders.", "Using the name Elsinore Sewing Club (Danish: ''Helsingør Syklub'') as a cover for messages, the Danish population formed an underground railroad of sorts that moved Jews away from the closely watched Copenhagen docks to spots further away, especially Helsingør, just two miles across the Øresund to Helsingborg, in neutral Sweden.", "Hundreds of civilians hid their fellow Danish Jewish citizens in their houses, farm lofts and churches until they could board them onto Danish fishing boats, personal pleasure boats and ferry boats.", "Over the course of three nights, Danes had smuggled over 7,200 Jews and 680 non-Jews (family members of Jews or political activists) across the Øresund to safety in Helsingborg and Malmö in Sweden." ], [ "Transport", "The car ferry line between Helsingør and Helsingborg, Scania, Sweden is the busiest in the world with more than 70 departures in each direction every day.", "The route is known as the HH Ferry route and has been sailed by several shipping lines throughout history.", "The car ferry terminal is connected to the town's main railway station.", "From the station, trains depart to Copenhagen every 20 minutes.", "Trains also depart to Hillerød and Gilleleje.", "There are another six stations or train stops within the city and connected suburbs.", "Apart from ''Helsingør Station and Ferry Terminal'' also ''Snekkersten station'', ''Espergærde station'', ''Mordrup station'' and the train stops at the line to Gilleleje, ''Grønnehave'', ''Marienlyst'' and ''Højstrup''.The E47 motorway towards Copenhagen begins just outside the city limits.", "The town and surrounding areas also have a network of local and regional buses." ], [ "Industrialisation", "For a century the Helsingør Værft or Elsinore shipyard was a prominent landmark, which covered the whole area between the town and Kronborg Castle.", "It was founded in 1882.At its height in 1957, it had 3,600 employees.", "The last ship left the shipyard in 1983 and it closed the same year following substantial losses.The Wiibroe brewery, founded in 1840, was the second brewery in Denmark to ship bottled beer, just three years after Carlsberg.", "The last beer was brewed at Wiibroe in Helsingør in 1998.Carlsberg continues to brew beer under the Wiibroe Årgangsøl label." ], [ "Post-industrialisation", "Culture Harbour KronborgAfter the end of the industrial era, the town of Helsingør had to redefine itself, and came up with an ambitious project: Kulturhavn Kronborg, literally \"Culture-harbour of Kronborg\".", "It officially opened on 26 May 2013, intended to appeal to tourists with an interest in culture.", "The main attraction of Kulturhavn Kronborg is Kronborg Castle, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "Besides the historical attractions of the site, William Shakespeare's play ''Hamlet'' has been performed annually in its courtyard since 1937.There is a longstanding tradition of performing the play in English, and notable actors in the title role have included Laurence Olivier, John Gielgud, Christopher Plummer, Derek Jacobi, and in 2009 Jude Law.", "At the heart of Kulturhavn Kronborg lies kulturværftet or The Culture Yard, a new cultural centre and a public library located in the old dockyard.", "It opened in 2010.The former dry dock now houses the Danish Maritime Museum.In the centre of the harbour basin stands the polished steel sculpture ''Han'' (''He'') by artist duo Elmgreen and Dragset, commissioned by the City of Helsingør in 2012.It was inaugurated by then Minister of culture, Uffe Elbæk, in June 2012.It is seen as the counterpart (and even little brother) to Edvard Eriksen's world-famous ''The Little Mermaid'' statue in Copenhagen, and has caused both praise and protests among locals.The Swedish city of Helsingborg lies a short distance across the Øresund from Helsingør, approximately .", "European route E55 joins the two cities; ferries connect the two sides." ], [ "Music", "Buxtehude playing a violDieterich Buxtehude organist and composer of the Baroque period.", "He was born Diderich Buxtehude presumably in Helsingborg, he serving as organist from 1660 to 1668 in Helsingør as his father that held the position as organist at St. Olaf's cathedral.Diderich Buxtehude's compositions and style became of significant influence, among others, on his student Johann Sebastian Bach." ], [ "Architecture", "Helsingør City HallThe new Danish Maritime Museum was designed by Danish prize-winning architects Bjarke Ingels Group (BIG).Jørn Utzon lived in Helsingør in his youth because his father was an engineer at Helsingør Værft.", "Utzon designed : His own house (1952), The Kingo Houses (1956–60) and The Hammershøj Care Centre (1962) in the city.", "The project was completed by Birger Schmidt (1966) after Utzon moved to Sydney to work on the Sydney Opera House." ], [ "Notable people", "=== Public service ===Johan Isaksen Pontanus* Christiern Pedersen (c.1480–1554) canon, humanist scholar, writer and publisher* Johannes Isacius Pontanus (1571–1639) Dutch historiographer.", "* Niels Claussøn Senning (c.1580–1617) Danish/Norwegian clergyman, Bishop of Oslo* Hans Ulrik Gyldenløve (1615–1645) illegit.", "son of King Christian IV of Denmark and Navy officer* Jørgen Iversen Dyppel (1638–1683), first governor of the Danish West Indies 1672/1680.", "* Christian de Meza (1792–1865) commanded the Danish Army in the Second Schleswig War* Robert Cleaver Chapman (1803–1902), pastor, teacher and evangelist, the ''apostle of Love''* Olivia Nielsen (1852–1910), a Danish trade unionist and politician* Hans Wright (1854-1925) city architect in Copenhagen from 1904 to 1925* William Thalbitzer (1873–1958) a philologist and professor of Eskimo studies* Morten Løkkegaard (born 1964) Danish politician and MEP.=== Arts ===Ove Verner Hansen 2013Jan Grarup, 2017* Pieter Isaacsz (1569–1625), a Danish-born Dutch Golden Age painter.", "* Bernhard Keil (1624–1687) Danish Baroque painter, became a pupil of Rembrandt.", "* Johan Frederik Møller (1797–1871) Danish painter and photographer.", "* Anton Melbye (1818–1875), Vilhelm Melbye (1824–1882) & Fritz Melbye (1826–1869), brothers and Danish marine artists * August Schiøtt (1823–1895) Danish portrait painter.", "* Peter Elfelt (1866–1931) photographer and cinema pioneer, made early Danish films * Harald Moltke (1871–1960) a painter, author and explorer on four Arctic expeditions* Alfred Lind (1879–1959) cinematographer, screenwriter and silent era film director * Valdemar Andersen (1889–1956) screenwriter and film director for Nordisk Film* Ove Verner Hansen (1932–2016) Danish opera singer and actor * Erik Wedersøe (1938–2011) a Danish actor, director and author * Birte Tove (1945-2016) a Danish actress* Morten Rudå (born 1960) a Norwegian actor * Fredrik Lundin (born 1963) jazz saxophonist and bandleader, brought up in Helsingør* Martin Glyn Murray (born 1966) a Danish-born British actor * Jan Grarup (born 1968 in Kvistgaard) a photojournalist, does war and conflict photography* Helle Fagralid (born 1976) Danish actress of Faroese descent * Vicki Berlin (born 1977) a Danish actress * Susanne Grinder (born 1981) principal dancer with the Royal Danish Ballet=== Science and business ===Sophie Brahe, 1602* Sophia Brahe (1559–1643) a Danish noble woman and horticulturalist with knowledge of astronomy, chemistry, and medicine; lived in Helsingør from 1616* Stephen Hansen (1701–1770) industrialist, businessman and General War Commissioner* Jean Abraham Grill (1736–1792), merchant, director of the Swedish East India Company.", "* Hans Christian Amberg (1749–1815) a Danish lexicographer* Hartvig Marcus Frisch (1754–1816) director of the Royal Greenland Trading Department* Sir Edward Knox (1819–1901) Danish-born Australian politician, sugar refiner and banker.", "* Ludvig Lorenz (1829–1891), physicist and mathematician, named the Lorenz gauge condition* Jens Levin Tvede (1830-1891) a Danish distiller, industrialist and politician; member of Helsingør City Council from 1857 and of the Landstinget* Gordon Norrie (1855–1941) Danish surgeon and ophthalmologist, named Norrie disease* Wilhelm Johannsen (1857–1927) Danish botanist, plant physiologist and geneticist* Simon Spies (1921–1984) Danish tycoon.", "* Steen Rasmussen (born 1955), a physicist, works on artificial life and complex systems* Mette Blomsterberg (born 1970) Danish pastry chef, restaurateur and cookbook writer=== Sport ===Mikkel Hansen, 2016* Fairfax Fenwick (1852–1920) a New Zealand cricketer * Edgar Aabye (1865–1941) a Danish athlete and journalist, team gold medallist in the tug of war at the 1900 Summer Olympics* August Sørensen (1896–1979) track and field athlete, competed in the 1920 Summer Olympics* Willy Hansen (1906–1978) a Danish track cyclist, silver medallist at the 1924 Summer Olympics and gold and bronze medallist at the 1928 Summer Olympics* Jørn Steffensen (born 1944) a modern pentathlete, competed at the 1968, 1972 and 1976 Summer Olympics * Mads Vibe-Hastrup (born 1978) Danish professional golfer* Tobias Mikkelsen (born 1986) a footballer with over 250 club caps and 8 for Denmark* Mikkel Hansen (born 1987), handball player who won the IHF World Player of the Year 2011, 2015, 2018" ], [ "Districts", "Centrum* '''North:''' Grønnehave (Green Gardens), Højstrup and Marienlyst, Hellebæk, Højstrup, Ålsgårde and Hornbæk* '''West:''' Sundparken, Grøningen, Nøjsomheden and Vapnagård Gurre, Tikøb* '''South:''' Skotterup and Snekkersten and Espergærde" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Helsingør practices twinning on the municipal level.", "For the twin towns, see twin towns of Helsingør Municipality." ], [ "In fiction and popular culture", "* William Shakespeare's play ''Hamlet'' (whence the English spelling \"Elsinore\" derives) takes place mostly at Kronborg Castle in Helsingør.", "* In the 1983 comedy ''Strange Brew'', which is loosely based on ''Hamlet'', the protagonists are given jobs at Elsinore Brewery.", "* In Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey–Maturin series, Helsingør fires mortar shells at the heroes in book seven, The Surgeon's Mate, as they sail past on their way to a rendezvous in the Baltic.", "*In the second chapter of Philip Roth's novel ''Our Gang'' (1971), Trick E. Dixon in a fictive speech tries to claim Helsingør as US-territory and tries to convince the audience to occupy the area* In Bret Easton Ellis's novel ''Lunar Park'', the street on which the character Bret Easton Ellis lives, with his own haunting father-son issues, is called Helsingør Lane.", "* Several stories written by the Danish author Karen Blixen (or Isak Dinesen) take place in Helsingør, including \"The Supper at Elsinore\" in her first published volume of stories, ''Seven Gothic Tales''.", "* A well-known poem by the Portuguese surrealist poet Mário Cesariny is named \"You are welcome to Helsingør\".", "* Children's author Richard Scarry depicted Helsingør as \"A Castle in Denmark\" in the book ''Busy, Busy World''.", "* Indie-rock band The Essex Green recorded a song titled \"Elsinore\" for their 2006 album ''Cannibal Sea''.", "* In David Brin's novel ''The Postman'', the first chapter features an apparition that appears to protagonist Gordon Krantz.", "It is described as an \"Elsinorian figure\" and greets Gordon with \"Alas, poor Gordon!", "\", both allusions to ''Hamlet''.", "* Surrealist artist René Magritte has a painting named after the city, depicting a castle, which might be modelled on Elsinore Castle.", "* The detective show ''The Sommerdahl Murders'' is set in Helsingør" ], [ "See also", "* Elsinore municipality* Carmelite Priory, Helsingør* Hellebæk* Ålsgårde* Tourism in Denmark" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Helsingør Tourist Bureau website * * Port of Helsingør * Helsingør municipality's official website * Helsingør Leksikon: Local history wiki" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "European route E4" ], [ "Introduction", "'''European route E4''' passes from north to south through Sweden from the border with Finland, with a total length of .", "The Finnish part lies entirely within Tornio in northern Finland, and is only long.", "The Swedish part traverses most of Sweden except the extreme north and the west coast region, and is commonly considered the highway backbone of Sweden, since it passes in the vicinity of many of its largest cities and through the capital Stockholm.", "In particular, it is the mainline road used by most vehicle traffic, both cars and lorries, between the north (Norrland) and south of Sweden or beyond.From Haparanda on the Finnish border, it stretches south along the Gulf of Bothnia to Gävle, then on a more inland route southwards.", "It ends in Helsingborg in Sweden, at the port for the ferry to Helsingør in Denmark.", "The route intersects with European route E6 just outside Helsingborg, which continues to Trelleborg on the southern coast of Sweden." ], [ "History and naming", "The International E-road network convention was signed in 1950, with E4 routed Lisbon-Madrid-Barcelona-Nimes-Geneva-Basel-Frankfurt-Hamburg-Helsingør-Stockholm-Haparanda-Helsinki.", "The part in Sweden was signposted E4 in 1962.Until 1962, the road Helsingborg–Stockholm was called highway 1, and Stockholm–Haparanda highway 13.Under the new system of European routes which was decided in 1975, but introduced in Sweden in 1992, it was planned to have been a part of E55, but it remains in the pre-1992 designation (E4) within Sweden, because the expenses connected with re-signing this long road portion would be too great.", "Besides the signs along the road, there are thousands of signs, especially in cities, showing how to reach the E4 road.", "The road is now fully authorised as E4 by the relevant authority, not as E55." ], [ "Route", "North of Gävle the road is of mixed standard.", "Depending on the fashion at the time of construction, it is either a single standard carriageway road, usually wide, or a 2+1 road, a wide road with two lanes in one direction and one in the other with a steel wire barrier in between, or sometimes a motorway with two lanes in each direction.", "North of Sundsvall, the road passes through several of the larger cities as city streets.", "South of Gävle, the road becomes an almost continuous motorway, with the only non-motorway part being a long section past Ljungby, currently a 2+1 limited-access road.", "Upgrade to motorway standard will start in 2018.Construction was restarted in 2022, with the expectation to finish it in 2024.With the exception of the Ljungby bypass, the final stretch of the motorway to be opened was the road between Uppsala and Mehedeby, which was inaugurated on 17 October 2007.South of Gävle, the speed limit is on 60% and on 30% of the road.", "North of Gävle there are varying speed limits, with as the most common.", "The speed limits on the main roads in Sweden were changed on many stretches in October 2008, which saw the introduction of the 120 km/h limit.The E4 is the fastest road to go from Germany/Denmark to areas north of the Arctic Circle, including places in Norway such as Tromsø or the North Cape.The route passes through or nearby the citiesTornio,Haparanda,Luleå,Piteå,Skellefteå,Umeå,Örnsköldsvik,Härnösand,Sundsvall,Hudiksvall,Söderhamn,Gävle,Uppsala,Stockholm,Södertälje,Nyköping,Norrköping,Linköping,Jönköping,Värnamo,Ljungby,and Helsingborg.E4 landsväg.jpg|E4 near Örnsköldsvik.", "A common standard between Tornio and Gävle.", "Some roads of this standard have been converted to 2+1 road with a barrier.E4Lpb.jpg|E4 near Linköping, Sweden.Brahehus in Sweden.jpg|E4 180 m above Lake Vättern.", "Ruins of Brahehus." ], [ "Detailed route", "RegionNationalroadnumberSectionJunctionNorthbound destinationsSouthbound destinationsLaplandKemi-Tornio sub-region50x50px National Road 29Tornio28x28px Tornio28x28px N21 Pello, KilpisjärviKemiRovaniemiHaparanda, Luleå ()Norrbotten County/Haparanda - Luleå28x28px Haparanda28x28px N99 Karesuando, Övertorneå, Haparanda-Centrum28x28px Sangis28x28px N398 Hedenäset, Övertorneå, Björkfors25x25px Vånafjärden, KarlsborgKarlsborg28x28px Kalix28x28px Stråkanäs28x28px Månsbyn25x25px Morjärv28x28px Töre25x25px E10 Töre, Morjärv, Överkalix, Gällivare, Kiruna25x25px Jämtön, Vitå, Avafors, Rörbäck28x28px Strömsund25x25px Råneå, Kängsön, Niemisel25x25px Råneå, Prästholmen28x28px N383 Boden, Smedsbyn25x25px Bensbyn, Brändön, Persön25x25px Rutvik, Luleå28x28px N97 Jokkmokk, Boden, Gammelstaden, LuleåHaparanda, Tornio ()LuleåSundsvallLuleå - Jävre25x25px Luleå-Industry (only southbound)25x25px Luleå-Industry, Luleå Airport25x25px Luleå, Luleå Airport, Bergnäset25x25px Måttsund28x28px N94 Arvidsjaur, Älvsbyn, Antnäs, Kallax, Måttsund25x25px Sjulsmark, Alhamn, Mörön, Vallen, Ersnäs25x25px Älvsbyn, Öjebyn N28x28px N374 Piteå, Öjebyn25x25px Piteå-Industry (only northbound)25x25px Piteå, Munksund, Öjebyn28x28px N373 Arvidsjaur, Långträsk, Bergsviken25x25px Jävre N, Hemmingsmark25x25px Jävre S28x28px JävrebodarnaLuleåHaparandaKirunaSkellefteåSundsvallVästerbotten CountyJävre - Skellefteå28x28px Kinnbäck25x25px Alund, Renholmen, Åbyn25x25px Tåme, Tåmeträsk25x25px Byske, Fällfors25x25px Byske, Lundback25x25px Stavaträsk, Drängsmark, Ostvik, Ostänbäck25x25px Ostänbäck, Frostkåge, Ostvik25x25px Spisen, Brännäset25x25px Kåge N, Ersmark, Jörn25x25px Kåge S25x25px Boviken25x25px Solbacken28x28px N95 Arvidsjaur, Skellefteå, Bodø ()28x28px SkellefteåLuleåKirunaSkellefteåUmeåSundsvallSkellefteå - Umeå28x28px N364 Skellefteå Airport, Burträsk28x28px Tjärn25x25px Tjärn, Innervik, Yttervik25x25px Skelleftehamn, Innervik, Yttervik28x28px Bureå28x28px Ljusvattnet28x28px Övre Bäck28x28px Mångbyn28x28px Lövånger28x28px Västanbyn28x28px Ånäset28x28px Gumboda28x28px Sikeå28x28px Bygdeå28x28px Djäkneboda25x25px Sävar, Skeppsvik, Holmöarna25x25px Sävar, Bullmark, Täfteå28x28px Anumark28x28px E12, N92 Umeå-Centrum, Dorotea, Vännäs, Lycksele, Mo i Rana ()25x25px Umeå28x28px UmeåLuleåSkellefteåUmeåSundsvallUmeå - Rundvik28x28px E12 Holmsund, Umeå Airport, Vaasa ()28x28px E12 Umeå-Centrum, Dorotea, Vännäs, Lycksele, Haparanda, Mo i Rana ()25x25px Norrmjöle, Stöcksjö28x28px Ansmark28x28px Sörmjöle28x28px Hörnefors25x25px Levar, Nordmaling N, Gräsmyr25x25px Nordmaling C25x25px N353 Nordmaling S, Bjurholm, Norrfors, Olofsfors25x25px Lögdeälven Rastplats25x25px Rundvik, Lögdeå25x25px Lögdeå, Långron (only northbound)SkellefteåUmeåÖrnsköldsvikSundsvallVästernorrland CountyRundvik - Örnsköldsvik28x28px Saluböle25x25px Dombäck, Husum, Björna, Gideå, Örnsköldsvik Airport28x28px Gideåbacka28x28px Kasa25x25px Mosjön Rastplats28x28px Ovansjö25x25px Arnäsvall, Gideå, Örnsköldsvik Airport28x28px N352 Fredrika, Björna, Örnsköldsvik Hospital28x28px ÖrnsköldsvikÖrnsköldsvik - Sundsvall25x25px Domsjö, Själevad28x28px N335, N348 Åsele, Bredbyn, Mellansel, Sollefteå, Sidensjö25x25px Skorped, Sidensjö, Köpmanholmen, Bjästa28x28px Docksta28x28px Skoved28x28px Sjöland28x28px Ullånger25x25px N332 Lunde, Herrskog, Gallsäter, Kramfors, Höga Kusten Airport (only southbound)25x25px Nordingrå25x25px Tjärned25x25px Gräta25x25px Klockestrand, Skullersta25x25px Lunde, Nyadal, Lövvik25x25px Rastplats28x28px N90 Lunde, Kramfors, Sollefteå25x25px Utansjö, Vålånger28x28px Älandsbro25x25px Djuphamnen, Saltvik, Bondsjöhöjden28x28px Härnösand25x25px Viksjö25x25px Härnösand-Centrum25x25px Härnösand-Centrum (only northbound)25x25px Rastplats Bölesjön25x25px Torsboda, Söråker, Stavreviken25x25px Söråker, Stavreviken, Åstön, Tynderö, Hamn25x25px Sundsvall–Timrå Airport28x28px N331 Sollefteå, Viksjö, Bergeforsen, Sörberge25x25px Timrå N28x28px Timrå25x25px Timrå-Centrum25x25px Rastplats25x25px Alnön, Bergsåker, Sundsbruk25x25px Sundsbruk, Birsta (only northbound)25x25px Bosvedjan, Ortviken, Tunadalshamnen28x28px Sundsvall25x25px Sundsvall-Centrum N, Haga, SkönsbergÖrnsköldsvikUmeåSundsvallGävleSundsvall - Gnarp25x25px E14 Sundsvall-Centrum S, Östersund, Trondheim ()25x25px Kvissleby, Svartvik, Bredsand, Stockvik25x25px Matfors, Nolby25x25px Lörudden, Ängom, Njurundabommen25x25px Rastplats ArmsjönÖrnsköldsvikSundsvallGävleUppsalaStockholmGävleborg CountyGnarp - Gävle28x28px Gnarp28x28px N307 Hassela, Bergsjö28x28px Harmånger28x28px Vattrång25x25px Bergsjö, Ilsbo, Hudiksvall Airport28x28px N84 Hudiksvall, Ljusdal, Sveg25x25px Rastplats Largeyan (only southbound)25x25px Iggesund25x25px Rastplats (only northbound)25x25px Njutånger, Nianfors25x25px Enånger25x25px Lindefallet, Boda Bruk, Långvind25x25px Kungsgården, Långvind25x25px Rastplats Alebosjön (only southbound)25x25px Kungsgården, Trönö, Skärså, Vågbro25x25px Söderhamn (only southbound)28x28px N50 Söderhamn, Falun, Bollnäs, Sandarne, E-Center, Söderhamn Airport25x25px Söderala25x25px Vallvik, Ljusne, Bergvik25x25px Rastplats Norrbränningen (only southbound)25x25px Rastplats Sörbränningens (only southbound)28x28px N83 Ljusdal, Järvsö, Bollnäs, Tönnebro25x25px Rastplats Högbacka (only southbound)25x25px Rastplats Stensjön (only northbound)28x28px N303 Bergby, Ockelbo, Norrsundet, Hamrånge25x25px Rastplats Skarvberget25x25px Gävle-N28x28px GävleGävle - Mehedeby28x28px 199 E16, N56, N68 Västerås, Örebro, Sandviken, Falun, Borlänge, Gävle–Sandviken Airport, Oslo ()25x25px 199b Gävle-Centrum25x25px 198 Rastplats Gävle25x25px 197 N76 Östhammar, Hedesunda, Gävle-SSundsvallGävleUppsalaStockholmUppsala CountyMehedeby - Uppsala25x25px 196 Älvkarleby, Älvkarleö25x25px 195 N291 Älvkarleby, Mehedeby25x25px 194 Söderfors, Mehedeby25x25px 193 N292 Hargshamn, Gimo, Söderfors, Tierp25x25px 192 Östervåla, Månkarbo25x25px 191 Örbyhus, Husby25x25px 190 Vattholma, Björklinge25x25px Rastplats Tre Ängar (only northbound)25x25px Rastplats Torsberget25x25px 189 N290 Storvreta, Gamla Uppsala, Österbybruk25x25px 188 N55, N72, N288 Uppsala N, Strängnäs, Östhammar, Västerås, Enköping25x25px 187 N282 Uppsala S, Edsbro, Almunge25x25px 186 Uppsala S - Centrum (only northbound)Uppsala - Knivsta25x25px Rastplats Mora Stenar (only northbound)25x25px 184 N77 Norrtälje, Knivsta, Kapellskär, Mariehamn (), Paldiski ()SundsvallGävleUppsalaStockholmStockholm CountyKnivsta - Stockholm25x25px 182 Stockholm Arlanda Airport, Märsta N - Centrum, Arlandastad N V25x25px 181 N263, N273 Sigtuna, Märsta S, Arlandastad S25x25px 180 Arlandastad-Centrum25x25px 179 Rosersberg25x25px Rastplats Stora Wäsby25x25px 176 N268 Vallentuna, Upplands Väsby N - Centrum25x25px 175 Upplands Väsby S25x25px 174 N267, E18 Enköping, Rotebro25x25px 173 N265, N262, E18 Täby, Danderyd, Norrtälje, Sollentuna25x25px 172 N275 Vällingby, Sollentuna-Centrum, Kista N28x28px 171 E18 Kista S, Stockholm Bromma Airport, Västerås, Örebro, Karlstad, Oslo ()25x25px 170 Helenelund, Silverdal (only northbound)25x25px 169, 168 E18 Frösunda, Norrtälje, Mariehamn (), Paldiski ()25x25px 167 Sundbyberg, Solna-Centrum25x25px 165, 164 Solna S, Karolinska University Hospital28x28px E20, N277 Lidingö, Stockholm N63x63px E20Stockholm Ring RoadStockholm25x25px 163 Stockholm-Centrum25x25px 162 Sundbyberg, Solna (only northbound)25x25px 161 N275 Vällingby, Hornsberg, Stockholm Bromma Airport25x25px 160b N275 Vällingby, Stockholm Bromma Airport (only northbound)25x25px 160a Stockholm-Centrum, Fridhemsplan25x25px 158 Stora Essingen25x25px 157 Gröndal (only southbound)25x25px 156 Aspudden, Liljeholmen (only southbound)25x25px 155 N75 , N222, N226 Arsta, Älvsjö, Nynäshamn, Värmdö, Visby, Ventspils (), Gdańsk ()GothenburgHelsingborgSödertälje63x63px E20Stockholm - Södertälje25x25px 154 Hägerstensåsen, Midsommarkransen, Västberga25x25px 153 N271 Västertorp, Hägersten, Fruängen25x25px 152 Segeltorp, Sätra, Bredäng, Mälarhöjden25x25px 151 Skärholmen N - Centrum, Kungens Kurva N - Centrum, Vårberg25x25px 150 Skärholmen S, Kungens Kurva S25x25px 148 N259 Huddinge-Centrum, Flemingsberg, Vårby (only southbound)25x25px 147 N259 Haninge, Ekerö25x25px 146a Hallunda25x25px 146b N258 Tumba, Alby25x25px 145 Rönninge, Salem25x25px 144 N225 Södertälje N, Nynäshamn, Visby, Ventspils (), Gdańsk ()28x28px E20 Gothenburg, Strängnäs, Södertälje-Centrum, Eskilstuna, Örebro, Karlstad, Oslo ()Stockholm/Södertälje - Vagnhärad25x25px 142 Södertälje S, Hamnen25x25px 141 N57 Katrineholm, Gnesta, Järna25x25px 139 Hölö, Mörkö, Tullgarns slottSödertäljeStockholmNorrköpingHelsingborgSödermanland CountyVagnhärad - Strömsfors25x25px 138 N218, N219 Vagnhärad, Studsvik, Trosa, Tullgarns slott25x25px Rastplats Sillekrog25x25px 137 N224 Lästringe, Gnesta (only southbound)25x25px 136 N224 Lästringe, Gnesta (only northbound)25x25px 135 Tystberga, Stendörrens naturreservat, Nynäs slott25x25px 134 Nyköping Ö, Rosvalla Nyköping Eventcenter25x25px 133 N52, N53 Nyköping-Centrum, Örebro, Eskilstuna, Stockholm Skavsta Airport25x25px 132 N53 Nyköping V, Oxelösund25x25px 131 Enstaberga, Bergshammar (only southbound)25x25px Rastplats Nyköpingsbro25x25px 129 Arkösund, Jönåker25x25px 128 N216 Katrineholm, Björkvik, Alberga25x25px 127 StavsjöÖstergötland CountyStrömsfors - Norrköping25x25px 126 Getå, Krokek, Kolmården Wildlife Park, Strömsfors25x25px 125 Getå (only northbound)25x25px 124 N55, N56 Åby, Katrineholm, Händelö, Jursla25x25px 123 N55, N56 Åby, Katrineholm, Strängnäs, Västerås (only northbound)25x25px 122 N55, N56 Norrköping N-Centrum (only southbound)25x25px 121 N51 Örebro, FinspångNorrköping - Linköping28x28px 119 E22, N209 Norrköping S, Kalmar, Arkösund, Söderköping, Västervik, Norrköping Airport25x25px 118 Skärblacka25x25px 117 Kimstad, Löfstad slott25x25px 116 Norsholm, Västerby (only southbound)25x25px 115 N210, N215 Norsholm, Söderköping, Finspång, Linghem, Löfstad slott25x25px Rastplats Herrbeta25x25px 113 N35 Linköping Ö-Centrum, Västervik, Åtvidaberg, Linköping/Saab Airport25x25px 112 Linköping N-Centrum, BergNorrköpingStockholmLinköpingHelsingborgLinköping - Gränna25x25px 111 N34 Linköping V, Vimmerby, Motala25x25px 110 N206 Vadstena, Skänninge, Mantorp25x25px Rastplats Svartåns (only soutbound)25x25px 109 Mjölby Ö-Centrum25x25px 108 N32, N50 Mjölby V, Vetlanda, Tranås, Boxholm, Örebro, Motala25x25px 107 Väderstad25x25px 106 Vadstena, Ödeshög25x25px 105 Vida VätternLinköpingStockholmJönköpingGothenburgHelsingborgJönköping CountyGränna - Jönköping25x25px Rastplats Brahehus25x25px 104 N133 Tranås, Gränna, Visingsö25x25px 103 Gyllene Uttern25x25px Rastplats Gunneryd (only southbound)25x25px 102 Ölmstad, Vätterleden25x25px Rastplats Vista Kulle25x25px 101 132N Aneby, Brunstop Norrängen25x25px 100 Huskvarna Centrum, Fabriksmusem, Öxnehaga25x25px 99 Österängen, Rosenlund, Elmia, Vättersnäs25x25px 98a 31Ö, 40Ö, 47Ö Nässjö, Västervik, Oskarshamn25x25px 98b Jönköping Centrum25x25px 97 A6 Center25x25px 96 Ljungarum N, Ryhov hospital, Solås Center25x25px 95a Jönköping Centrum28x28px 95b 40N, 26N, 47N, 195N Jönköping V, Gothenburg, Borås, Skövde, Trollhättan, Jönköping AirportJönköping - Värnamo25x25px 94 Norrahammar, Barnarp25x25px 93 Taberg, Barnarp, Torsvik N25x25px 92 Lovsjö, Torsvik S25x25px 91 N30 Växjö, Vrigstad25x25px 90 Vaggeryd N-Centrum, Bondstorp, Byarum25x25px 89 Vaggeryd S, Götafors25x25px 88 Skillingaryd N, Götaström, Båramo25x25px 87 152N Skillingaryd S, Bredaryd, Hillerstorp, Tofteryd25x25px 86 Hörle, Klevshult, Hagshult25x25px Rastplats Hörle25x25px 85 127N, 151N Värnamo N-Centrum, Vetlanda, Hestra, Gnosjö25x25px 84 N27, N153 Värnamo S, Gothenburg, Borås, Växjö, Karlskrona, Kalmar, VarbergJönköpingStockholmHelsingborgMalmöKronoberg CountyVärnamo - Markaryd25x25px 83 Vittaryd, Dörarp, Tånnö, Toftaholm25x25px 82 Åby25x25px Rastplats Laganrasten25x25px 81 Lagan, Bolmsö28x28px 80 N25 Ljungby Centrum, Växjö, Kalmar, Karlskrona25x25px 79 N25 Ljungby S, Halmstad25x25px 78 Hamneda, Hornsborg, Nöttja25x25px 77 N120 Tingsryd, Älmhult, Traryd25x25px Rastplats Sjöboda25x25px 76 N120 Tingsryd, Traryd, Strömsnäsbruk, Hinneryd25x25px 75 N15 Markaryd N-Centrum, Halmstad, Karlshamn, Osby, Timsfors, Karlskrona25x25px 74 N117 Markaryd S-Centrum, HässleholmSkåne CountyMarkaryd - Helsingborg25x25px 73 Skånes-Fagerhult25x25px 72 N24, N108 Laholm, Örkelljunga, Perstorp, Halmstad, Hässleholm, Kristianstad25x25px 71 Eket25x25px 70 Eket25x25px 69 Stidsvig25x25px 68 N13 Östra Ljungby, Ängelholm, Höör, Klippan25x25px 67 N21, N112 Åstorp N-Centrum, Kristianstad, Höganäs25x25px 66 Åstorp S, Nyvång25x25px 65 E6, N110 Bjuv, Hyllinge, Halmstad, Gothenburg, Oslo ()28x28px 30 E6, E20 Helsingborg S, Malmö, Trelleborg, Gothenburg, Ängelholm, Oslo (), Copenhagen ()25x25px IKEA Helsingborg28x28px N111 Höganäs, Råå, Helsingborg S, Helsingør ()28x28px Helsingborg" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* UN Economic Commission for Europe: Overall Map of E-road Network (2007)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ericsson" ], [ "Introduction", " (), commonly known as '''Ericsson''', is a Swedish multinational networking and telecommunications company headquartered in Stockholm.", "The company sells infrastructure, software, and services in information and communications technology for telecommunications service providers and enterprises, including, among others, 3G, 4G, and 5G equipment, and Internet Protocol (IP) and optical transport systems.", "The company employs around 100,000 people and operates in more than 180 countries.", "Ericsson has over 57,000 granted patents.Ericsson has been a major contributor to the development of the telecommunications industry and is one of the leaders in 5G.The company was founded in 1876 by Lars Magnus Ericsson and is jointly controlled by the Wallenberg family through its holding company Investor AB, and the universal bank Handelsbanken through its investment company Industrivärden.", "The Wallenbergs and the Handelsbanken sphere acquired their voting-strong A-shares, and thus the control of Ericsson, after the fall of the Kreuger empire in the early 1930s.Ericsson is the inventor of Bluetooth technology." ], [ "History", "===Foundation===Lars Magnus EricssonLars Magnus Ericsson began his association with telephones in his youth as an instrument maker.", "He worked for a firm that made telegraph equipment for the Swedish government agency Telegrafverket.", "In 1876, at the age of 30, he started a telegraph repair shop with help from his friend Carl Johan Andersson in central Stockholm and repaired foreign-made telephones.", "In 1878, Ericsson began making and selling his own telephone equipment.", "His telephones were not technically innovative.", "In 1878, he agreed to supply telephones and switchboards to Sweden's first telecommunications operating company, Stockholms Allmänna Telefonaktiebolag.===International expansion===An early, wooden, Ericsson telephone, made by the Ericsson Telephone Co. Ltd., of Nottingham, England, it is now in the collection of Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum.As production grew in the late 1890s, and the Swedish market seemed to be reaching saturation, Ericsson expanded into foreign markets through a number of agents.", "The UK (Ericsson Telephones Ltd.) and Russia were early markets, where factories were later established to improve the chances of gaining local contracts and augment the output of the Swedish factory.", "In the UK, the National Telephone Company was a major customer; by 1897 sold 28% of its output in the UK.", "The Nordic countries were also Ericsson customers; they were encouraged by the growth of telephone services in Sweden.Other countries and colonies were exposed to Ericsson products through the influence of their parent countries.", "These included Australia and New Zealand, which by the late 1890s were Ericsson's largest non-European markets.", "Mass production techniques were now firmly established; telephones were losing some of their ornate finish and decoration.Despite their successes elsewhere, Ericsson did not make significant sales in the United States.", "The Bell Group, Kellogg and Automatic Electric dominated the market.", "Ericsson eventually sold its U.S. assets.", "Sales in Mexico led to inroads into South American countries.", "South Africa and China were also generating significant sales.", "With his company now multinational, Lars Ericsson stepped down from the company in 1901.===Automatic equipment===The LM Ericsson building, the company's former headquarters at Telefonplan in StockholmEricsson ignored the growth of automatic telephony in the United States and concentrated on manual exchange designs.", "Their first dial telephone was produced in 1921, although sales of the early automatic switching systems were slow until the equipment had proven itself on the world's markets.", "Telephones of this period had a simpler design and finish, and many of the early automatic desk telephones in Ericsson's catalogues were magneto styles with a dial on the front and appropriate changes to the electronics.", "Elaborate decals decorated the cases.", "World War I, the subsequent Great Depression and the loss of its Russian assets after the Revolution slowed the company's development while sales to other countries fell by about half.===Shareholding changes===The acquisition of other telecommunications companies put pressure on Ericsson's finances; in 1925, Karl Fredric Wincrantz took control of the company by acquiring most of the shares.", "Wincrantz was partly funded by Ivar Kreuger, an international financier.", "The company was renamed ''Telefonaktiebolaget L M Ericsson''.", "Kreuger started showing interest in the company, being a major owner of Wincrantz holding companies.===Wallenberg era begins===Ericsson was saved from bankruptcy and closure with the help of banks including Stockholms Enskilda Bank (now Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken) and other Swedish investment banks controlled by the Wallenberg family, and some Swedish government backing.", "Marcus Wallenberg Jr. negotiated a deal with several Swedish banks to rebuild Ericsson financially.", "The banks gradually increased their possession of LM Ericsson \"A\" shares, while ITT was still the largest shareholder.", "In 1960, the Wallenberg family bought ITT's shares in Ericsson, and has since controlled the company.===Market development===The Ericsson DBH1001 (1931) was the first combined telephone set with a housing and handset made from Bakelite.", "The design is attributed to Jean Heiberg.The Ericsson DBH15 telephone, a successor of the DBH 1001 and redesigned in 1947 by Gerard KiljanIn the 1920s and 1930s, the world telephone markets were being organized and stabilized by many governments.", "The fragmented town-by-town systems serviced by small, private companies that had evolved were integrated and offered for lease to a single company.", "Ericsson obtained some leases, which represented further sales of equipment to the growing networks.", "Ericsson got almost one-third of its sales under the control of its telephone operating companies.===Further development===Ericsson introduced the world's first fully automatic mobile telephone system, MTA, in 1956.It released one of the world's first hands-free speaker telephones in the 1960s.", "In 1954, it released the Ericofon.", "Ericsson crossbar switching equipment was used in telephone administrations in many countries.", "In 1983 the company introduced the ERIPAX suite of network products and services.===Emergence of the Internet (1995–2003)===In the 1990s, during the emergence of the Internet, Ericsson was regarded as slow to realize its potential and falling behind in the area of IP technology.", "But the company had established an Internet project in 1995 called Infocom Systems to exploit opportunities leading from fixed-line telecom and IT.", "CEO Lars Ramqvist wrote in the 1996 annual report that in all three of its business areas – Mobile Telephones and Terminals, Mobile Systems, and Infocom Systems – \"we will expand our operations as they relate to customer service and Internet Protocol (IP) access (Internet and intranet access)\".An Ericsson GH337 (1995) and Ericsson T28 (1999) mobile phonesThe growth of GSM, which became a ''de facto'' world standard, combined with Ericsson's other mobile standards, such as D-AMPS and PDC, meant that by the start of 1997, Ericsson had an estimated 40% share of the world's mobile market, with around 54 million subscribers.", "There were also around 188 million AXE lines in place or on order in 117 countries.", "Telecom and chip companies worked in the 1990s to provide Internet access over mobile telephones.", "Early versions such as Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) used packet data over the existing GSM network, in a form known as GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), but these services, known as 2.5G, were fairly rudimentary and did not achieve much mass-market success.The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) had prepared the specifications for a 3G mobile service that included several technologies.", "Ericsson pushed hard for the WCDMA (wideband CDMA) form based on the GSM standard and began testing it in 1996.Japanese operator NTT Docomo signed deals to partner with Ericsson and Nokia, who came together in 1997 to support WCDMA over rival standards.", "DoCoMo was the first operator with a live 3G network, using its own version of WCDMA called FOMA.", "Ericsson was a significant developer of the WCDMA version of GSM, while US-based chip developer Qualcomm promoted the alternative system CDMA2000, building on the popularity of CDMA in the US market.", "This resulted in a patent infringement lawsuit that was resolved in March 1999 when the two companies agreed to pay each other royalties for the use of their respective technologies and Ericsson purchased Qualcomm's wireless infrastructure business and some R&D resources.Ericsson issued a profit warning in March 2001.Over the coming year, sales to operators halved.", "Mobile telephones became a burden; the company's telephones unit made a loss of SEK 24 billion in 2000.A fire in a Philips chip factory in New Mexico in March 2000 caused severe disruption to Ericsson's phone production, dealing a ''coup de grâce'' to Ericsson's mobile phone hopes.", "Mobile phones would be spun off into a joint venture with Sony, Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications, in October 2001.Ericsson launched several rounds of restructuring, refinancing and job-cutting; during 2001, staff numbers fell from 107,000 to 85,000.A further 20,000 went the next year, and 11,000 more in 2003.A new rights issue raised SEK 30 billion to keep the company afloat.", "The company had survived as mobile Internet started growing.", "With record profits, it was in better shape than many of its competitors.===Rebuilding and growing (2003–2018)===The emergence of full mobile Internet began a period of growth for the global telecom industry, including Ericsson.", "After the launch of 3G services in 2003, people started to access the Internet using their telephones.Ericsson was working on ways to improve WCDMA as operators were buying and rolling it out; it was the first generation of 3G access.", "New advances included IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem) and the next evolution of WCDMA, called High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA).", "It was initially deployed in the download version called HSDPA; the technology spread from the first test calls in the US in late 2005 to 59 commercial networks in September 2006.HSPA would provide the world's first mobile broadband.In July 2016, Hans Vestberg stepped down as Ericsson's CEO after heading the company for six years.", "Jan Frykhammar, who had been working for the company since 1991 stepped in as interim CEO while Ericsson searched for a full-time replacement.", "On 16 January 2017, following Ericsson's announcement on 26 October 2016, new CEO Börje Ekholm started and interim CEO Jan Frykhammar stepped down the following day.In June 2018, Ericsson, Inc. and Ericsson AB have agreed to pay $145,893 to settle potential civil liability for an apparent violation of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) and the Sudanese Sanctions Regulations, 31 C.F.R.", "part 538 (SSR).1===Acquisitions and cooperation===Around 2000, companies and governments began to push for standards for mobile Internet.", "In May 2000, the European Commission created the Wireless Strategic Initiative, a consortium of four telecommunications suppliers in Europe – Ericsson, Nokia, Alcatel (France) and Siemens (Germany) – to develop and test new prototypes for advanced wireless communications systems.", "Later that year, the consortium partners invited other companies to join them in a Wireless World Research Forum in 2001.In December 1999, Microsoftand Ericsson announced a strategic partnership to combine the former's web browser and server software with the latter's mobile-internet technologies.", "In 2000, the Dot-com bubble burst with marked economic implications for Sweden.", "Ericsson, the world's largest producer of mobile telecommunications equipment, shed thousands of jobs, as did the country's Internet consulting firms and dot-com start-ups.", "In the same year, Intel, the world's largest semiconductor chip manufacturer, signed a $1.5 billion deal to supply flash memory to Ericsson over the next three years.The short-lived partnership, called Ericsson Microsoft Mobile Venture, owned 70/30 percent by Ericsson and Microsoft respectively, ended in October 2001 when Ericsson announced it would absorb the former joint venture and adopt a licensing agreement with Microsoft instead.", "The same month, Ericsson and Sony announced the creation of the mobile phone manufacturing joint venture: Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications.", "Ten years later, in February 2012, Ericsson sold its stake in the joint venture; Ericsson said it wanted to focus on the global wireless market as a whole.Lower stock prices and job losses affected many telecommunications companies in 2001.The major equipment manufacturers – Motorola (U.S.), Lucent Technologies (U.S.), Cisco Systems (U.S.), Marconi (UK), Siemens (Germany), Nokia (Finland), as well as Ericsson – all announced job cuts in their home countries and subsidiaries around the world.", "Ericsson's workforce worldwide fell during 2001 from 107,000 to 85,000.In September 2001, Ericsson purchased the remaining shares in EHPT from Hewlett-Packard.", "Founded in 1993, Ericsson Hewlett Packard Telecom (EHPT) was a joint venture made up of 60% Ericsson interests and 40% Hewlett-Packard interests.In 2002, ICT investor losses topped $2 trillion and share prices fell by 95% until August that year.", "More than half a million people lost their jobs in the global telecom industry over the two years.", "The collapse of U.S. carrier WorldCom, with more than $107 billion in assets, was the biggest in U.S. history.", "The sector's problems caused bankruptcies and job losses, and led to changes in the leadership of several major companies.", "Ericsson made 20,000 more staff redundant and raised about $3 billion from its shareholders.", "In June 2002, Infineon Technologies (then the sixth-largest semiconductor supplier and a subsidiary of Siemens) bought Ericsson's microelectronics unit for $400 million.Ericsson was an official backer in the 2005 launch of the .mobi top-level domain created specifically for the mobile internet.Co-operation with Hewlett-Packard did not end with EHPT; in 2003 Ericsson outsourced its IT to HP, which included Managed Services, Help Desk Support, Data Center Operations, and HP Utility Data Center.", "The contract was extended in 2008.In October 2005, Ericsson acquired the bulk of the troubled UK telecommunications manufacturer Marconi Company, including its brand name that dates back to the creation of the original Marconi Company by the \"father of radio\" Guglielmo Marconi.", "In September 2006, Ericsson sold the greater part of its defense business Ericsson Microwave Systems, which mainly produced sensor and radar systems, to Saab AB, which renamed the company to Saab Microwave Systems.In 2007, Ericsson acquired carrier edge-router maker Redback Networks, and then Entrisphere, a US-based company providing fiber-access technology.", "In September 2007, Ericsson acquired an 84% interest in German customer-care and billing software firm LHS, a stake later raised to 100%.", "In 2008, Ericsson sold its enterprise PBX division to Aastra Technologies, and acquired Tandberg Television, the television technology division of Norwegian company Tandberg.", "==In 2009, Ericsson bought the CDMA2000 and LTE business of Nortel's carrier networks division for US$1.18 billion; Bizitek, a Turkish business support systems integrator; the Estonian manufacturing operations of electronic manufacturing company Elcoteq; and completed its acquisition of LHS.", "Acquisitions in 2010 included assets from the Strategy and Technology Group of inCode, a North American business and consulting-services company; Nortel's majority shareholding (50% plus one share) in LG-Nortel, a joint venture between LG Electronics and Nortel Networks providing sales, R&D and industrial capacity in South Korea, now known as Ericsson-LG; further Nortel carrier-division assets, relating from Nortel's GSM business in the United States and Canada; Optimi Corporation, a U.S.–Spanish telecommunications vendor specializing in network optimization and management; and Pride, a consulting and systems-integration company operating in Italy.In 2011, Ericsson acquired manufacturing and research facilities, and staff from the Guangdong Nortel Telecommunication Equipment Company (GDNT) as well as Nortel's Multiservice Switch business.", "Ericsson acquired U.S. company Telcordia Technologies in January 2012, an operations and business support systems (OSS/BSS) company.", "In March, Ericsson announced it was buying the broadcast-services division of Technicolor, a media broadcast technology company.", "In April 2012 Ericsson completed the acquisition of BelAir Networks a strong Wi-Fi network technology company.On 3 May 2013, Ericsson announced it would divest its power cable operations to Danish company NKT Holding.", "On 1 July 2013, Ericsson announced it would acquire the media management company Red Bee Media, subject to regulatory approval.", "The acquisition was completed on 9 May 2014.In September 2013, Ericsson completed its acquisition of Microsoft's Mediaroom business and televisions services, originally announced in April the same year.", "The acquisition makes Ericsson the largest provider of IPTV and multi-screen services in the world, by market share; it was renamed Ericsson Mediaroom.", "In September 2014, Ericsson acquired majority stake in Apcera for cloud policy compliance.", "In October 2015, Ericsson completed the acquisition of Envivio, a software encoding company.", "In April 2016, Ericsson acquired Polish and Ukrainian operations of software development company Ericpol, a long-time supplier to Ericsson.", "Approximately 2,300 Ericpol employees joined Ericsson, bringing software development competence in radio, cloud, and IP.On 20 June 2017, Bloomberg disclosed that Ericsson hired Morgan Stanley to explore the sale of its media businesses.", "The Red Bee Media business was kept in-house as an independent subsidiary company, as no suitable buyer was found, but a 51% stake of the remainder of the Media Solution division was sold to private equity firm One Equity Partners, the new company being named MediaKind.", "The transaction was completed on 31 January 2019.In February 2018, Ericsson acquired the location-based mobile data management platform Placecast.", "Ericsson has since integrated Placecast's platform and capabilities with its programmatic mobile ad subsidiary, Emodo.", "In May 2018, SoftBank partnered with Ericsson to trial new radio technology.", "In September 2020, Ericsson acquired US-based carrier equipment manufacturer Cradlepoint for $1.1 billion.In November 2021, Ericsson announced it had reached an agreement to acquire Vonage for $6.2 billion.", "The acquisition completed in July 2022.In January 2024, Ericson and MTN Group announced expansion of their partnership to boost their mobile financial services on Africa market, as the company appointed Michael Wallis-Brown as vice president responsible for global mobile financial services." ], [ "Corporate governance", ", members of the board of directors of LM Ericsson were: Leif Johansson, Jacob Wallenberg, Kristin S. Rinne, Helena Stjernholm, Sukhinder Singh Cassidy, Börje Ekholm, Ulf J. Johansson, Mikael Lännqvist, Zlatko Hadzic, Kjell-Åke Soting, Nora Denzel, Kristin Skogen Lund, Pehr Claesson, Karin Åberg and Roger Svensson." ], [ "Research and development", "Ericsson has structured its R&D in three levels depending on when products or technologies will be introduced to customers and users.", "Its research and development organization is part of 'Group Function Technology' and addresses several facets of network architecture: wireless access networks; radio access technologies; broadband technologies; packet technologies; multimedia technologies; services software; EMF safety and sustainability; security; and global services.", "The head of research since 2012 is Sara Mazur.Group Function Technology holds research co-operations with several major universities and research institutes including Lund University in Sweden, Eötvös Loránd University in Hungary and Beijing Institute of Technology in China.", "Ericsson also holds research co-operations within several European research programs such as GigaWam and OASE.", "Ericsson holds 33,000 granted patents and is the number-one holder of GSM/GPRS/EDGE, WCDMA/HSPA, and LTE essential patents.", "In 2021, the WIPO's annual World Intellectual Property Indicators report ranked Ericsson's number of patent applications published under the PCT System as 6th in the world, with 1,989 patent applications being published during 2020.This position is up from their previous ranking as 7th in 2019 with 1,698 applications.Ericsson hosts a developer program called Ericsson Developer Connection designed to encourage development of applications and services.", "Ericsson also has an open innovation initiative for beta applications and beta API's & tools called Ericsson Labs.", "The company hosts several internal innovation competitions among its employees.In May 2022, it was announced that Ericsson and Intel are pooling R&D excellence to create high-performing Cloud RAN solutions.", "The organisations have pooled to launch a tech hub in California, USA.", "The hub focuses on the benefits that Ericsson Cloud RAN and Intel technology can bring to: improving energy efficiency and network performance, reducing time to market, and monetizing new business opportunities such as enterprise applications." ], [ "Products and services", "Ericsson's business includes technology research, development, network systems and software development, and running operations for telecom service providers.", "and software Ericsson offers end-to-end services for all major mobile communication standards, and has three main business units.===Business Area Networks===Business Area Networks, previously called Business Unit Networks, develop network infrastructure for communication needs over mobile and fixed connections.", "Its products include radio base stations, radio network controllers, mobile switching centers and service application nodes.", "Operators use Ericsson products to migrate from 2G to 3G and, most recently, to 4G networks.The company's network division has been described as a driver in the development of 2G, 3G, 4G/LTE and 5G technology, and the evolution towards all-IP, and it develops and deploys advanced LTE systems, but it is still developing the older GSM, WCDMA, and CDMA technologies.", "The company's networks portfolio also includes microwave transport, Internet Protocol (IP) networks, fixed-access services for copper and fiber, and mobile broadband modules, several levels of fixed broadband access, radio access networks from small pico cells to high-capacity macro cells and controllers for radio base stations.====Network services====Ericsson's network rollout services employ in-house capabilities, subcontractors and central resources to make changes to live networks.", "Services such as technology deployment, network transformation, support services and network optimization are also provided.===Business Area Digital Services ===This unit provides core networks, Operations Support Systems such as network management and analytics, and Business Support Systems such as billing and mediation.", "Within the Digital Services unit, there is an '''m-Commerce''' offering, which focuses on service providers and facilitates their working with financial institutions and intermediaries.", "Ericsson has announced m-commerce deals with Western Union and African wireless carrier MTN.===Business Area Managed Services===The unit is active in 180 countries; it supplies managed services, systems integration, consulting, network rollout, design and optimization, broadcast services, learning services and support.The company also works with television and media, public safety, and utilities.", "Ericsson claims to manage networks that serve more than 1 billion subscribers worldwide, and to support customer networks that serve more than 2.5 billion subscribers.===Broadcast services===Ericsson's Broadcast Services unit was evolved into a unit called Red Bee Media, which has been spun out into a joint venture.", "It deals with the playout of live and pre-recorded, commercial and public service television programmes, including presentation (continuity announcements), trailers, and ancillary access services such as closed-caption subtitles, audio description and in-vision sign language interpreters.", "Its media management services consist of Managed Media Preparation and Managed Media Internet Delivery." ], [ "Divested businesses", "Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB (Sony Ericsson) was a joint venture with Sony that merged the previous mobile telephone operations of both companies.", "It manufactured mobile telephones, accessories and personal computer (PC) cards.", "Sony Ericsson was responsible for product design and development, marketing, sales, distribution and customer services.", "On 16 February 2012, Sony announced it had completed the full acquisition of Sony Ericsson, after which it changed name to Sony Mobile Communications, and nearly a year later it moved headquarters from Sweden to Japan.===Mobile phones===As a joint venture with Sony, Ericsson's mobile telephone production was moved into the company Sony Ericsson in 2001.The following is a list of mobile phones marketed under the brand name Ericsson.GF 768* Ericsson GS88 – Cancelled mobile telephone Ericsson invented the \"Smartphone\" name for* Ericsson GA628 – Known for its Z80 CPU* Ericsson SH888 – First mobile telephone to have wireless modem capabilities* Ericsson A1018 – Dualband cellphone, notably easy to hack* Ericsson A2618 & Ericsson A2628 – Dualband cellphones.", "Use graphical LCD display based on PCF8548 I²C controller.", "* Ericsson PF768* Ericsson GF768* Ericsson DH318 - One of the earliest TDMA/AMPS phones in the USA* Ericsson GH388* Ericsson T10 – Colourful cellphone* Ericsson T18 – Business model of the T10, with active flip* Ericsson T28 – Very slim telephone.", "Uses lithium polymer batteries.", "''Ericsson T28'' FAQ use graphical LCD display based on PCF8558 I²C controller.", "* Ericsson T20s* Ericsson T29s – Similar to the T28s, but with WAP support* Ericsson T29m – Pre-alpha prototype for the T39m* Ericsson T36m – Prototype for the T39m.", "Announced in yellow and blue.", "Never hit the market due to release T39m* Ericsson T39 – Similar to the T28, but with a GPRS modem, Bluetooth and triband capabilities* Ericsson T65* Ericsson T66* Ericsson T68m – The first Ericsson handset to have a color display, later branded as Sony Ericsson T68i* Ericsson R250s Pro – Fully dust- and water resistant telephone* Ericsson R310s* Ericsson R320s* Ericsson R320s Titan – Limited Edition with titanium front* Ericsson R320s GPRS – Prototype for testing GPRS networks* Ericsson R360m – Pre-alpha prototype for the R520m* Ericsson R380 – First cellphone to use the Symbian OS* Ericsson R520m – Similar to the T39, but in a candy bar form factor and with added features such as a built-in speakerphone and an optical proximity sensor* Ericsson R520m UMTS – Prototype to test UMTS networks* Ericsson R520m SyncML – Prototype to test the SyncML implementation* Ericsson R580m – Announced in several press releases.", "Supposed to be a successor of the R380s without external antenna and with color display* Ericsson R600===Telephones===* Ericsson Dialog* Ericofon===Ericsson Mobile Platforms===Ericsson Mobile Platforms existed for eight years; on 12 February 2009, Ericsson announced it would be merged with the mobile platform company of STMicroelectronics, ST-NXP Wireless, to create a 50/50 joint venture owned by Ericsson and STMicroelectronics.This joint venture was divested in 2013 and remaining activities can be found in Ericsson Modems and STMicroelectronics.", "Ericsson Mobile Platform ceased being a legal entity early 2009.===Ericsson Enterprise===Starting in 1983 Ericsson Enterprise provided communications systems and services for businesses, public entities and educational institutions.", "It produced products for voice over Internet protocol (VoIP)-based private branch exchanges (PBX), wireless local area networks (WLAN), and mobile intranets.Ericsson Enterprise operated mainly from Sweden but also operated through regional units and other partners/distributors.", "In 2008 it was sold to Aastra." ], [ "Corruption", "On 7 December 2019, Ericsson agreed to pay more than $1.2 billion (€1.09 billion) to settle U.S. Department of Justice FCPA criminal and civil investigations into foreign corruption.", "US authorities accused the company of conducting a campaign of corruption between 2000 and 2016 across China, Indonesia, Vietnam, Kuwait and Djibouti.", "Ericsson admitted to paying bribes, falsifying books and records and failing to implement reasonable internal accounting controls in an attempt to strengthen its position in the telecommunications industry.In 2022, an internal investigation into corruption inside the company was leaked by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists.", "It detailed corruption in at least 10 countries.", "Ericsson has admitted \"serious breaches of compliance rules\".The leak also revealed that some subcontractors working on behalf of Ericsson paid bribes to the Islamic State in order to continue operating the telecom network in occupied regions of Iraq." ], [ "See also", "* Cedergren* Damovo* Ericsson Nikola Tesla* Erlang (programming language)* Investor AB* List of networking hardware vendors* List of Sony Ericsson products* Red Jade* Tandberg Television" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* John Meurling & Richard Jeans (1994) ''A switch in time: AXE – creating a foundation for the information age''.", "London: Communications Week International.", ".", "* John Meurling & Richard Jeans (1997).", "''The ugly duckling''.", "Stockholm: Ericsson Mobile Communications.", ".", "* John Meurling & Richard Jeans (2000).", "''The Ericsson Chronicle: 125 years in telecommunications''.", "Stockholm: Informationsförlaget.", ".", "* ''The Mobile Phone Book: The Invention of the Mobile Telephone Industry''.", "* Mobile media and applications – from concept to cash: successful service creation and launch.", "* Anders Pehrsson (1996).", "''International Strategies in Telecommunications''.", "London: Routledge Research." ], [ "External links", "** * General reference to all chapters on the Ericsson history: * Ericsson Logo" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ethology" ], [ "Introduction", "Honeybee workers perform the waggle dance to indicate the range and direction of food.Great crested grebes perform a complex synchronised courtship display.Male impalas fighting during the rut '''Ethology''' is a branch of zoology that studies the behaviour of non-human animals.", "It has its scientific roots in the work of Charles Darwin and of American and German ornithologists of the late 19th and early 20th century, including Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, and Wallace Craig.", "The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of the Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen and the Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, the three winners of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.", "Ethology combines laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to neuroanatomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology." ], [ "Etymology", "The modern term ''ethology'' derives from the Greek language: ἦθος, ''ethos'' meaning \"character\" and , ''-logia'' meaning \"the study of\".", "The term was first popularized by the American entomologist William Morton Wheeler in 1902." ], [ "History", "=== The beginnings of ethology ===Charles Darwin (1809–1882) explored the expression of emotions in animals.Ethologists have been concerned particularly with the evolution of behaviour and its understanding in terms of natural selection.", "In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose 1872 book ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'' influenced many ethologists.", "He pursued his interest in behaviour by encouraging his protégé George Romanes, who investigated animal learning and intelligence using an anthropomorphic method, anecdotal cognitivism, that did not gain scientific support.Other early ethologists, such as Eugène Marais, Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, Wallace Craig and Julian Huxley, instead concentrated on behaviours that can be called instinctive in that they occur in all members of a species under specified circumstances.", "Their starting point for studying the behaviour of a new species was to construct an ethogram, a description of the main types of behaviour with their frequencies of occurrence.", "This provided an objective, cumulative database of behaviour.=== Growth of the field ===Due to the work of Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen, ethology developed strongly in continental Europe during the years prior to World War II.", "After the war, Tinbergen moved to the University of Oxford, and ethology became stronger in the UK, with the additional influence of William Thorpe, Robert Hinde, and Patrick Bateson at the University of Cambridge.Lorenz, Tinbergen, and von Frisch were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973 for their work of developing ethology.Ethology is now a well-recognized scientific discipline, with its own journals such as ''Animal Behaviour'', ''Applied Animal Behaviour Science'', ''Animal Cognition'', ''Behaviour'', ''Behavioral Ecology'' and ''Ethology''.", "In 1972, the International Society for Human Ethology was founded along with its journal, ''The Human Ethology Bulletin''.=== Social ethology ===In 1972, the English ethologist John H. Crook distinguished comparative ethology from social ethology, and argued that much of the ethology that had existed so far was really comparative ethology—examining animals as individuals—whereas, in the future, ethologists would need to concentrate on the behaviour of social groups of animals and the social structure within them.E.", "O. Wilson's book ''Sociobiology: The New Synthesis'' appeared in 1975, and since that time, the study of behaviour has been much more concerned with social aspects.", "It has been driven by the Darwinism associated with Wilson, Robert Trivers, and W. D. Hamilton.", "The related development of behavioural ecology has helped transform ethology.", "Furthermore, a substantial rapprochement with comparative psychology has occurred, so the modern scientific study of behaviour offers a spectrum of approaches.", "In 2020, Tobias Starzak and Albert Newen from the Institute of Philosophy II at the Ruhr University Bochum postulated that animals may have beliefs." ], [ "Determinants of behaviour", "Behaviour is determined by three major factors, namely inborn '''instincts''', '''learning''', and '''environmental factors'''.", "The latter include abiotic and biotic factors.", "Abiotic factors such as temperature or light conditions have dramatic effects on animals, especially if they are ectothermic or nocturnal.", "Biotic factors include members of the same species (e.g.", "sexual behavior), predators (fight or flight), or parasites and diseases.=== Instinct ===Kelp gull chicks peck at red spot on mother's beak to stimulate regurgitating reflex''Webster's Dictionary'' defines instinct as \"A largely inheritable and unalterable tendency of an organism to make a complex and specific response to environmental stimuli without involving reason\".==== Fixed action patterns ====An important development, associated with the name of Konrad Lorenz though probably due more to his teacher, Oskar Heinroth, was the identification of fixed action patterns.", "Lorenz popularized these as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of identifiable stimuli called sign stimuli or \"releasing stimuli\".", "Fixed action patterns are now considered to be instinctive behavioural sequences that are relatively invariant within the species and that almost inevitably run to completion.One example of a releaser is the beak movements of many bird species performed by newly hatched chicks, which stimulates the mother to regurgitate food for her offspring.", "Other examples are the classic studies by Tinbergen on the egg-retrieval behaviour and the effects of a \"supernormal stimulus\" on the behaviour of graylag geese.One investigation of this kind was the study of the waggle dance (\"dance language\") in bee communication by Karl von Frisch.=== Learning ======= Habituation ====Habituation is a simple form of learning and occurs in many animal taxa.", "It is the process whereby an animal ceases responding to a stimulus.", "Often, the response is an innate behavior.", "Essentially, the animal learns not to respond to irrelevant stimuli.", "For example, prairie dogs (''Cynomys ludovicianus'') give alarm calls when predators approach, causing all individuals in the group to quickly scramble down burrows.", "When prairie dog towns are located near trails used by humans, giving alarm calls every time a person walks by is expensive in terms of time and energy.", "Habituation to humans is therefore an important adaptation in this context.==== Associative learning ====Associative learning in animal behaviour is any learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus.", "The first studies of associative learning were made by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who observed that dogs trained to associate food with the ringing of a bell would salivate on hearing the bell.==== Imprinting ====Imprinting in a moose.Imprinting enables the young to discriminate the members of their own species, vital for reproductive success.", "This important type of learning only takes place in a very limited period of time.", "Konrad Lorenz observed that the young of birds such as geese and chickens followed their mothers spontaneously from almost the first day after they were hatched, and he discovered that this response could be imitated by an arbitrary stimulus if the eggs were incubated artificially and the stimulus were presented during a critical period that continued for a few days after hatching.==== Cultural learning ========= Observational learning ========== Imitation =====Imitation is an advanced behavior whereby an animal observes and exactly replicates the behavior of another.The National Institutes of Health reported that capuchin monkeys preferred the company of researchers who imitated them to that of researchers who did not.", "The monkeys not only spent more time with their imitators but also preferred to engage in a simple task with them even when provided with the option of performing the same task with a non-imitator.", "Imitation has been observed in recent research on chimpanzees; not only did these chimps copy the actions of another individual, when given a choice, the chimps preferred to imitate the actions of the higher-ranking elder chimpanzee as opposed to the lower-ranking young chimpanzee.===== Stimulus and local enhancement =====Animals can learn using observational learning but without the process of imitation.", "One way is ''stimulus enhancement'' in which individuals become interested in an object as the result of observing others interacting with the object.", "Increased interest in an object can result in object manipulation which allows for new object-related behaviours by trial-and-error learning.", "Haggerty (1909) devised an experiment in which a monkey climbed up the side of a cage, placed its arm into a wooden chute, and pulled a rope in the chute to release food.", "Another monkey was provided an opportunity to obtain the food after watching a monkey go through this process on four occasions.", "The monkey performed a different method and finally succeeded after trial-and-error.", "Another example familiar to some cat and dog owners is the ability of their animals to open doors.", "The action of humans operating the handle to open the door results in the animals becoming interested in the handle and then by trial-and-error, they learn to operate the handle and open the door.In local enhancement, a demonstrator attracts an observer's attention to a particular location.", "Local enhancement has been observed to transmit foraging information among birds, rats and pigs.", "The stingless bee (''Trigona corvina'') uses local enhancement to locate other members of their colony and food resources.===== Social transmission =====A well-documented example of social transmission of a behaviour occurred in a group of macaques on Hachijojima Island, Japan.", "The macaques lived in the inland forest until the 1960s, when a group of researchers started giving them potatoes on the beach: soon, they started venturing onto the beach, picking the potatoes from the sand, and cleaning and eating them.", "About one year later, an individual was observed bringing a potato to the sea, putting it into the water with one hand, and cleaning it with the other.", "This behaviour was soon expressed by the individuals living in contact with her; when they gave birth, this behaviour was also expressed by their young—a form of social transmission.==== Teaching ====Teaching is a highly specialized aspect of learning in which the \"teacher\" (demonstrator) adjusts their behaviour to increase the probability of the \"pupil\" (observer) achieving the desired end-result of the behaviour.", "For example, orcas are known to intentionally beach themselves to catch pinniped prey.", "Mother orcas teach their young to catch pinnipeds by pushing them onto the shore and encouraging them to attack the prey.", "Because the mother orca is altering her behaviour to help her offspring learn to catch prey, this is evidence of teaching.", "Teaching is not limited to mammals.", "Many insects, for example, have been observed demonstrating various forms of teaching to obtain food.", "Ants, for example, will guide each other to food sources through a process called \"tandem running,\" in which an ant will guide a companion ant to a source of food.", "It has been suggested that the pupil ant is able to learn this route to obtain food in the future or teach the route to other ants.", "This behaviour of teaching is also exemplified by crows, specifically New Caledonian crows.", "The adults (whether individual or in families) teach their young adolescent offspring how to construct and utilize tools.", "For example, ''Pandanus'' branches are used to extract insects and other larvae from holes within trees." ], [ "Mating and the fight for supremacy", "Courtship display of a sarus crane Individual reproduction is the most important phase in the proliferation of individuals or genes within a species: for this reason, there exist complex mating rituals, which can be very complex even if they are often regarded as fixed action patterns.", "The stickleback's complex mating ritual, studied by Tinbergen, is regarded as a notable example.Often in social life, animals fight for the right to reproduce, as well as social supremacy.", "A common example of fighting for social and sexual supremacy is the so-called pecking order among poultry.", "Every time a group of poultry cohabitate for a certain time length, they establish a pecking order.", "In these groups, one chicken dominates the others and can peck without being pecked.", "A second chicken can peck all the others except the first, and so on.", "Chickens higher in the pecking order may at times be distinguished by their healthier appearance when compared to lower level chickens.", "While the pecking order is establishing, frequent and violent fights can happen, but once established, it is broken only when other individuals enter the group, in which case the pecking order re-establishes from scratch." ], [ "Social behaviour", "Several animal species, including humans, tend to live in groups.", "Group size is a major aspect of their social environment.", "Social life is probably a complex and effective survival strategy.", "It may be regarded as a sort of symbiosis among individuals of the same species: a society is composed of a group of individuals belonging to the same species living within well-defined rules on food management, role assignments and reciprocal dependence.When biologists interested in evolution theory first started examining social behaviour, some apparently unanswerable questions arose, such as how the birth of sterile castes, like in bees, could be explained through an evolving mechanism that emphasizes the reproductive success of as many individuals as possible, or why, amongst animals living in small groups like squirrels, an individual would risk its own life to save the rest of the group.", "These behaviours may be examples of altruism.", "Not all behaviours are altruistic, as indicated by the table below.", "For example, revengeful behaviour was at one point claimed to have been observed exclusively in ''Homo sapiens''.", "However, other species have been reported to be vengeful including chimpanzees, as well as anecdotal reports of vengeful camels.+ Classification of social behaviours Type of behaviour Effect on the donor Effect on the receiver Egoistic Neutral to Increases fitness Decreases fitness Cooperative Neutral to Increases fitness Neutral to Increases fitness Altruistic Decreases fitness Neutral to Increases fitness Revengeful Decreases fitness Decreases fitnessAltruistic behaviour has been explained by the gene-centred view of evolution.=== Benefits and costs of group living ===One advantage of group living is decreased predation.", "If the number of predator attacks stays the same despite increasing prey group size, each prey has a reduced risk of predator attacks through the dilution effect.", "Further, according to the selfish herd theory, the fitness benefits associated with group living vary depending on the location of an individual within the group.", "The theory suggests that conspecifics positioned at the centre of a group will reduce the likelihood predations while those at the periphery will become more vulnerable to attack.", "In groups, prey can also actively reduce their predation risk through more effective defence tactics, or through earlier detection of predators through increased vigilance.Another advantage of group living is an increased ability to forage for food.", "Group members may exchange information about food sources, facilitating the process of resource location.", "Honeybees are a notable example of this, using the waggle dance to communicate the location of flowers to the rest of their hive.", "Predators also receive benefits from hunting in groups, through using better strategies and being able to take down larger prey.Some disadvantages accompany living in groups.", "Living in close proximity to other animals can facilitate the transmission of parasites and disease, and groups that are too large may also experience greater competition for resources and mates.=== Group size ===Theoretically, social animals should have optimal group sizes that maximize the benefits and minimize the costs of group living.", "However, in nature, most groups are stable at slightly larger than optimal sizes.", "Because it generally benefits an individual to join an optimally-sized group, despite slightly decreasing the advantage for all members, groups may continue to increase in size until it is more advantageous to remain alone than to join an overly full group." ], [ "Tinbergen's four questions for ethologists", "Niko Tinbergen argued that ethology needed to include four kinds of explanation in any instance of behaviour:* Function – How does the behaviour affect the animal's chances of survival and reproduction?", "Why does the animal respond that way instead of some other way?", "* Causation – What are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning?", "* Development – How does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the animal to display the behaviour?", "* Evolutionary history – How does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have begun through the process of phylogeny?These explanations are complementary rather than mutually exclusive—all instances of behaviour require an explanation at each of these four levels.", "For example, the function of eating is to acquire nutrients (which ultimately aids survival and reproduction), but the immediate cause of eating is hunger (causation).", "Hunger and eating are evolutionarily ancient and are found in many species (evolutionary history), and develop early within an organism's lifespan (development).", "It is easy to confuse such questions—for example, to argue that people eat because they are hungry and not to acquire nutrients—without realizing that the reason people experience hunger is because it causes them to acquire nutrients." ], [ "See also", "* Animal behavior consultant* Anthrozoology* Behavioral ecology* Cognitive ethology* Deception in animals* Human ethology* List of abnormal behaviours in animals* Tool use by non-human animals" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Burkhardt, Richard W. Jr. \"On the Emergence of Ethology as a Scientific Discipline.\"", "Conspectus of History 1.7 (1981)." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electromagnetic radiation" ], [ "Introduction", "linearly polarized electromagnetic wave going in the z-axis, with E denoting the electric field and perpendicular B denoting magnetic field|400x200pxIn physics, '''electromagnetic radiation''' ('''EMR''') consists of waves of the electromagnetic (EM) field, which propagate through space and carry momentum and electromagnetic radiant energy.", "Types of EMR include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, (visible) light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays, all of which are part of the electromagnetic spectrum.Classically, electromagnetic radiation consists of '''electromagnetic waves''', which are synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields.", "In a vacuum, electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, commonly denoted ''c''.", "There, depending on the frequency of oscillation, different wavelengths of electromagnetic spectrum are produced.", "In homogeneous, isotropic media, the oscillations of the two fields are on average perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation, forming a transverse wave.", "The position of an electromagnetic wave within the electromagnetic spectrum can be characterized by either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength.", "Electromagnetic waves of different frequency are called by different names since they have different sources and effects on matter.", "In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.Electromagnetic waves are emitted by electrically charged particles undergoing acceleration, and these waves can subsequently interact with other charged particles, exerting force on them.", "EM waves carry energy, momentum, and angular momentum away from their source particle and can impart those quantities to matter with which they interact.", "Electromagnetic radiation is associated with those EM waves that are free to propagate themselves (\"radiate\") without the continuing influence of the moving charges that produced them, because they have achieved sufficient distance from those charges.", "Thus, EMR is sometimes referred to as the far field.", "In this language, the near field refers to EM fields near the charges and current that directly produced them, specifically electromagnetic induction and electrostatic induction phenomena.In quantum mechanics, an alternate way of viewing EMR is that it consists of photons, uncharged elementary particles with zero rest mass which are the quanta of the electromagnetic field, responsible for all electromagnetic interactions.", "Quantum electrodynamics is the theory of how EMR interacts with matter on an atomic level.", "Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the transition of electrons to lower energy levels in an atom and black-body radiation.", "The energy of an individual photon is quantized and is greater for photons of higher frequency.", "This relationship is given by Planck's equation ''E'' = ''hf'', where ''E'' is the energy per photon, ''f'' is the frequency of the photon, and ''h'' is the Planck constant.", "A single gamma ray photon, for example, might carry ~100,000 times the energy of a single photon of visible light.The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms depend both upon the radiation's power and its frequency.", "EMR of visible or lower frequencies (i.e., visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves) is ''non-ionizing'' because its photons do not individually have enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules or to break chemical bonds.", "The effect of non-ionizing radiation on chemical systems and living tissue is primarily simply heating, through the combined energy transfer of many photons.", "In contrast, high frequency ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays are ''ionizing'' – individual photons of such high frequency have enough energy to ionize molecules or break chemical bonds.", "Ionizing radiation can cause chemical reactions and damage living cells beyond simply heating, and can be a health hazard and dangerous" ], [ "Physics", "=== Theory ===light (blue, green, and red) with a distance scale in micrometers along the x-axis==== Maxwell's equations ====James Clerk Maxwell derived a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations, thus uncovering the wave-like nature of electric and magnetic fields and their symmetry.", "Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the measured speed of light, Maxwell concluded that light itself is an EM wave.", "Maxwell's equations were confirmed by Heinrich Hertz through experiments with radio waves.==== Near and far fields ====In electromagnetic radiation (such as microwaves from an antenna, shown here) the term ''radiation'' applies only to the parts of the electromagnetic field that radiate into infinite space and decrease in intensity by an inverse-square law of power, such that the total energy that crosses through an imaginary sphere surrounding the source is the same regardless of the size of the sphere.", "Electromagnetic radiation thus reaches the ''far'' part of the electromagnetic field around a transmitter.", "A part of the ''near'' field (close to the transmitter) includes the changing ''electromagnetic field'', but that is not electromagnetic ''radiation''.Maxwell's equations established that some charges and currents (''sources'') produce local electromagnetic fields near them that do not radiate.", "Currents directly produce magnetic fields, but such fields of a magnetic-dipole–type that dies out with distance from the current.", "In a similar manner, moving charges pushed apart in a conductor by a changing electrical potential (such as in an antenna) produce an electric-dipole–type electrical field, but this also declines with distance.", "These fields make up the ''near'' field.", "Neither of these behaviours is responsible for EM radiation.", "Instead, they only efficiently transfer energy to a receiver very close to the source, such as inside a transformer.", "The near field has strong effects its source, with any energy withdrawn by a receiver causing increased ''load'' (decreased electrical reactance) on the source.", "The near field does not propagate freely into space, carrying energy away without a distance limit, but rather oscillates, returning its energy to the transmitter if it is not absorbed by a receiver.By contrast, the ''far'' field is composed of ''radiation'' that is free of the transmitter, in the sense that the transmitter requires the same power to send changes in the field out regardless of whether anything absorbs the signal, e.g.", "a radio station does not need to increase its power when more receivers use the signal.", "This far part of the electromagnetic field ''is'' electromagnetic radiation.", "The far fields propagate (radiate) without allowing the transmitter to affect them.", "This causes them to be independent in the sense that their existence and their energy, after they have left the transmitter, is completely independent of both transmitter and receiver.", "Due to conservation of energy, the amount of power passing through any spherical surface drawn around the source is the same.", "Because such a surface has an area proportional to the square of its distance from the source, the power density of EM radiation from an isotropic source decreases with the inverse square of the distance from the source; this is called the inverse-square law.", "This is in contrast to dipole parts of the EM field, the near field, which varies in intensity according to an inverse cube power law, and thus does ''not'' transport a conserved amount of energy over distances but instead fades with distance, with its energy (as noted) rapidly returning to the transmitter or absorbed by a nearby receiver (such as a transformer secondary coil).In the Liénard–Wiechert potential formulation of the electric and magnetic fields due to motion of a single particle (according to Maxwell's equations), the terms associated with acceleration of the particle are those that are responsible for the part of the field that is regarded as electromagnetic radiation.", "By contrast, the term associated with the changing static electric field of the particle and the magnetic term that results from the particle's uniform velocity are both associated with the near field, and do not comprise electromagnetic radiation.=== Properties ===Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields.", "This 3D animation shows a plane linearly polarized wave propagating from left to right.", "The electric and magnetic fields in such a wave are in-phase with each other, reaching minima and maxima together.Electric and magnetic fields obey the properties of superposition.", "Thus, a field due to any particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field contributes to the fields present in the same space due to other causes.", "Further, as they are vector fields, all magnetic and electric field vectors add together according to vector addition.", "For example, in optics two or more coherent light waves may interact and by constructive or destructive interference yield a resultant irradiance deviating from the sum of the component irradiances of the individual light waves.The electromagnetic fields of light are not affected by traveling through static electric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum.", "However, in nonlinear media, such as some crystals, interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields—these interactions include the Faraday effect and the Kerr effect.In refraction, a wave crossing from one medium to another of different density alters its speed and direction upon entering the new medium.", "The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the degree of refraction, and is summarized by Snell's law.", "Light of composite wavelengths (natural sunlight) disperses into a visible spectrum passing through a prism, because of the wavelength-dependent refractive index of the prism material (dispersion); that is, each component wave within the composite light is bent a different amount.EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and particle properties at the same time (see wave-particle duality).", "Both wave and particle characteristics have been confirmed in many experiments.", "Wave characteristics are more apparent when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances while particle characteristics are more evident when measuring small timescales and distances.", "For example, when electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter, particle-like properties will be more obvious when the average number of photons in the cube of the relevant wavelength is much smaller than 1.It is not so difficult to experimentally observe non-uniform deposition of energy when light is absorbed, however this alone is not evidence of \"particulate\" behavior.", "Rather, it reflects the quantum nature of ''matter''.", "Demonstrating that the light itself is quantized, not merely its interaction with matter, is a more subtle affair.Some experiments display both the wave and particle natures of electromagnetic waves, such as the self-interference of a single photon.", "When a single photon is sent through an interferometer, it passes through both paths, interfering with itself, as waves do, yet is detected by a photomultiplier or other sensitive detector only once.A quantum theory of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter such as electrons is described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics.Electromagnetic waves can be polarized, reflected, refracted, or diffracted, and can interfere with each other.=== Wave model ===Representation of the electric field vector of a wave of circularly polarized electromagnetic radiation In homogeneous, isotropic media, electromagnetic radiation is a transverse wave, meaning that its oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer and travel.", "It comes from the following equations:These equations predicate that any electromagnetic wave must be a transverse wave, where the electric field and the magnetic field are both perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.The electric and magnetic parts of the field in an electromagnetic wave stand in a fixed ratio of strengths to satisfy the two Maxwell equations that specify how one is produced from the other.", "In dissipation-less (lossless) media, these '''E''' and '''B''' fields are also in phase, with both reaching maxima and minima at the same points in space (see illustrations).", "In the far-field EM radiation which is described by the two source-free Maxwell curl operator equations, a time-change in one type of field is proportional to the curl of the other.", "These derivatives require that the '''E''' and '''B''' fields in EMR are in-phase (see mathematics section below).An important aspect of light's nature is its frequency.", "The frequency of a wave is its rate of oscillation and is measured in hertz, the SI unit of frequency, where one hertz is equal to one oscillation per second.", "Light usually has multiple frequencies that sum to form the resultant wave.", "Different frequencies undergo different angles of refraction, a phenomenon known as dispersion.A monochromatic wave (a wave of a single frequency) consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the wavelength.", "Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves longer than a continent to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei.", "Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation:: where ''v'' is the speed of the wave (''c'' in a vacuum or less in other media), ''f'' is the frequency and ''λ'' is the wavelength.", "As waves cross boundaries between different media, their speeds change but their frequencies remain constant.Electromagnetic waves in free space must be solutions of Maxwell's electromagnetic wave equation.", "Two main classes of solutions are known, namely plane waves and spherical waves.", "The plane waves may be viewed as the limiting case of spherical waves at a very large (ideally infinite) distance from the source.", "Both types of waves can have a waveform which is an arbitrary time function (so long as it is sufficiently differentiable to conform to the wave equation).", "As with any time function, this can be decomposed by means of Fourier analysis into its frequency spectrum, or individual sinusoidal components, each of which contains a single frequency, amplitude and phase.", "Such a component wave is said to be ''monochromatic''.", "A monochromatic electromagnetic wave can be characterized by its frequency or wavelength, its peak amplitude, its phase relative to some reference phase, its direction of propagation, and its polarization.Interference is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern.", "If the fields have components in the same direction, they constructively interfere, while opposite directions cause destructive interference.", "An example of interference caused by EMR is electromagnetic interference (EMI) or as it is more commonly known as, radio-frequency interference (RFI).", "Additionally, multiple polarization signals can be combined (i.e.", "interfered) to form new states of polarization, which is known as parallel polarization state generation.The energy in electromagnetic waves is sometimes called radiant energy.=== Particle model and quantum theory ===An anomaly arose in the late 19th century involving a contradiction between the wave theory of light and measurements of the electromagnetic spectra that were being emitted by thermal radiators known as black bodies.", "Physicists struggled with this problem unsuccessfully for many years, and it later became known as the ultraviolet catastrophe.", "In 1900, Max Planck developed a new theory of black-body radiation that explained the observed spectrum.", "Planck's theory was based on the idea that black bodies emit light (and other electromagnetic radiation) only as discrete bundles or packets of energy.", "These packets were called quanta.", "In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that light quanta be regarded as real particles.", "Later the particle of light was given the name photon, to correspond with other particles being described around this time, such as the electron and proton.", "A photon has an energy, ''E'', proportional to its frequency, ''f'', by: where ''h'' is the Planck constant, is the wavelength and ''c'' is the speed of light.", "This is sometimes known as the Planck–Einstein equation.", "In quantum theory (see first quantization) the energy of the photons is thus directly proportional to the frequency of the EMR wave.Likewise, the momentum ''p'' of a photon is also proportional to its frequency and inversely proportional to its wavelength:: The source of Einstein's proposal that light was composed of particles (or could act as particles in some circumstances) was an experimental anomaly not explained by the wave theory: the photoelectric effect, in which light striking a metal surface ejected electrons from the surface, causing an electric current to flow across an applied voltage.", "Experimental measurements demonstrated that the energy of individual ejected electrons was proportional to the ''frequency'', rather than the ''intensity'', of the light.", "Furthermore, below a certain minimum frequency, which depended on the particular metal, no current would flow regardless of the intensity.", "These observations appeared to contradict the wave theory, and for years physicists tried in vain to find an explanation.", "In 1905, Einstein explained this puzzle by resurrecting the particle theory of light to explain the observed effect.", "Because of the preponderance of evidence in favor of the wave theory, however, Einstein's ideas were met initially with great skepticism among established physicists.", "Eventually Einstein's explanation was accepted as new particle-like behavior of light was observed, such as the Compton effect.As a photon is absorbed by an atom, it excites the atom, elevating an electron to a higher energy level (one that is on average farther from the nucleus).", "When an electron in an excited molecule or atom descends to a lower energy level, it emits a photon of light at a frequency corresponding to the energy difference.", "Since the energy levels of electrons in atoms are discrete, each element and each molecule emits and absorbs its own characteristic frequencies.", "Immediate photon emission is called fluorescence, a type of photoluminescence.", "An example is visible light emitted from fluorescent paints, in response to ultraviolet (blacklight).", "Many other fluorescent emissions are known in spectral bands other than visible light.", "Delayed emission is called phosphorescence.=== Wave–particle duality ===The modern theory that explains the nature of light includes the notion of wave–particle duality.=== Wave and particle effects of electromagnetic radiation ===Together, wave and particle effects fully explain the emission and absorption spectra of EM radiation.", "The matter-composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption and emission spectrum.", "These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms.", "Dark bands in the absorption spectrum are due to the atoms in an intervening medium between source and observer.", "The atoms absorb certain frequencies of the light between emitter and detector/eye, then emit them in all directions.", "A dark band appears to the detector, due to the radiation scattered out of the light beam.", "For instance, dark bands in the light emitted by a distant star are due to the atoms in the star's atmosphere.", "A similar phenomenon occurs for emission, which is seen when an emitting gas glows due to excitation of the atoms from any mechanism, including heat.", "As electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum is emitted that represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons, but lines are seen because again emission happens only at particular energies after excitation.", "An example is the emission spectrum of nebulae.", "Rapidly moving electrons are most sharply accelerated when they encounter a region of force, so they are responsible for producing much of the highest frequency electromagnetic radiation observed in nature.These phenomena can aid various chemical determinations for the composition of gases lit from behind (absorption spectra) and for glowing gases (emission spectra).", "Spectroscopy (for example) determines what chemical elements comprise a particular star.", "Spectroscopy is also used in the determination of the distance of a star, using the red shift.=== Propagation speed ===When any wire (or other conducting object such as an antenna) conducts alternating current, electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the current.As a wave, light is characterized by a velocity (the speed of light), wavelength, and frequency.", "As particles, light is a stream of photons.", "Each has an energy related to the frequency of the wave given by Planck's relation ''E = hf'', where ''E'' is the energy of the photon, ''h'' is the Planck constant, 6.626 × 10−34 J·s, and ''f'' is the frequency of the wave.In a medium (other than vacuum), velocity factor or refractive index are considered, depending on frequency and application.", "Both of these are ratios of the speed in a medium to speed in a vacuum." ], [ "History of discovery", "Electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths other than those of visible light were discovered in the early 19th century.", "The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to astronomer William Herschel, who published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London.", "Herschel used a glass prism to refract light from the Sun and detected invisible rays that caused heating beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded with a thermometer.", "These \"calorific rays\" were later termed infrared.In 1801, German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter discovered ultraviolet in an experiment similar to Herschel's, using sunlight and a glass prism.", "Ritter noted that invisible rays near the violet edge of a solar spectrum dispersed by a triangular prism darkened silver chloride preparations more quickly than did the nearby violet light.", "Ritter's experiments were an early precursor to what would become photography.", "Ritter noted that the ultraviolet rays (which at first were called \"chemical rays\") were capable of causing chemical reactions.James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)In 1862–64 James Clerk Maxwell developed equations for the electromagnetic field which suggested that waves in the field would travel with a speed that was very close to the known speed of light.", "Maxwell therefore suggested that visible light (as well as invisible infrared and ultraviolet rays by inference) all consisted of propagating disturbances (or radiation) in the electromagnetic field.", "Radio waves were first produced deliberately by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, using electrical circuits calculated to produce oscillations at a much lower frequency than that of visible light, following recipes for producing oscillating charges and currents suggested by Maxwell's equations.", "Hertz also developed ways to detect these waves, and produced and characterized what were later termed radio waves and microwaves.Wilhelm Röntgen discovered and named X-rays.", "After experimenting with high voltages applied to an evacuated tube on 8 November 1895, he noticed a fluorescence on a nearby plate of coated glass.", "In one month, he discovered X-rays' main properties.The last portion of the EM spectrum to be discovered was associated with radioactivity.", "Henri Becquerel found that uranium salts caused fogging of an unexposed photographic plate through a covering paper in a manner similar to X-rays, and Marie Curie discovered that only certain elements gave off these rays of energy, soon discovering the intense radiation of radium.", "The radiation from pitchblende was differentiated into alpha rays (alpha particles) and beta rays (beta particles) by Ernest Rutherford through simple experimentation in 1899, but these proved to be charged particulate types of radiation.", "However, in 1900 the French scientist Paul Villard discovered a third neutrally charged and especially penetrating type of radiation from radium, and after he described it, Rutherford realized it must be yet a third type of radiation, which in 1903 Rutherford named gamma rays.", "In 1910 British physicist William Henry Bragg demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914 Rutherford and Edward Andrade measured their wavelengths, finding that they were similar to X-rays but with shorter wavelengths and higher frequency, although a 'cross-over' between X and gamma rays makes it possible to have X-rays with a higher energy (and hence shorter wavelength) than gamma rays and vice versa.", "The origin of the ray differentiates them, gamma rays tend to be natural phenomena originating from the unstable nucleus of an atom and X-rays are electrically generated (and hence man-made) unless they are as a result of bremsstrahlung X-radiation caused by the interaction of fast moving particles (such as beta particles) colliding with certain materials, usually of higher atomic numbers." ], [ "Electromagnetic spectrum", "Electromagnetic spectrum with visible light highlighted.", "The bottom graph (visible spectrum) shows wavelength in units of nanometres (nm).", "'''Legend:'''γ = Gamma raysHX = Hard X-raysSX = Soft X-RaysEUV = Extreme-ultravioletNUV = Near-ultravioletVisible light (colored bands)NIR = Near-infraredMIR = Mid-infraredFIR = Far-infraredEHF = Extremely high frequency (microwaves)SHF = Super-high frequency (microwaves)UHF = Ultrahigh frequency (radio waves)VHF = Very high frequency (radio)HF = High frequency (radio)MF = Medium frequency (radio)LF = Low frequency (radio)VLF = Very low frequency (radio)VF = Voice frequencyULF = Ultra-low frequency (radio)SLF = Super-low frequency (radio)ELF = Extremely low frequency (radio)EM radiation (the designation 'radiation' excludes static electric and magnetic and near fields) is classified by wavelength into radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.", "Arbitrary electromagnetic waves can be expressed by Fourier analysis in terms of sinusoidal waves (monochromatic radiation), which in turn can each be classified into these regions of the EMR spectrum.For certain classes of EM waves, the waveform is most usefully treated as ''random'', and then spectral analysis must be done by slightly different mathematical techniques appropriate to random or stochastic processes.", "In such cases, the individual frequency components are represented in terms of their ''power'' content, and the phase information is not preserved.", "Such a representation is called the power spectral density of the random process.", "Random electromagnetic radiation requiring this kind of analysis is, for example, encountered in the interior of stars, and in certain other very wideband forms of radiation such as the Zero point wave field of the electromagnetic vacuum.The behavior of EM radiation and its interaction with matter depends on its frequency, and changes qualitatively as the frequency changes.", "Lower frequencies have longer wavelengths, and higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and are associated with photons of higher energy.", "There is no fundamental limit known to these wavelengths or energies, at either end of the spectrum, although photons with energies near the Planck energy or exceeding it (far too high to have ever been observed) will require new physical theories to describe.=== Radio and microwave ===When radio waves impinge upon a conductor, they couple to the conductor, travel along it and induce an electric current on the conductor surface by moving the electrons of the conducting material in correlated bunches of charge.", "Such effects can cover macroscopic distances in conductors (such as radio antennas), since the wavelength of radio waves is long.Electromagnetic radiation phenomena with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter are called microwaves; with frequencies between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz.At radio and microwave frequencies, EMR interacts with matter largely as a bulk collection of charges which are spread out over large numbers of affected atoms.", "In electrical conductors, such induced bulk movement of charges (electric currents) results in absorption of the EMR, or else separations of charges that cause generation of new EMR (effective reflection of the EMR).", "An example is absorption or emission of radio waves by antennas, or absorption of microwaves by water or other molecules with an electric dipole moment, as for example inside a microwave oven.", "These interactions produce either electric currents or heat, or both.=== Infrared ===Like radio and microwave, infrared (IR) also is reflected by metals (and also most EMR, well into the ultraviolet range).", "However, unlike lower-frequency radio and microwave radiation, Infrared EMR commonly interacts with dipoles present in single molecules, which change as atoms vibrate at the ends of a single chemical bond.", "It is consequently absorbed by a wide range of substances, causing them to increase in temperature as the vibrations dissipate as heat.", "The same process, run in reverse, causes bulk substances to radiate in the infrared spontaneously (see thermal radiation section below).Infrared radiation is divided into spectral subregions.", "While different subdivision schemes exist, the spectrum is commonly divided as near-infrared (0.75–1.4 μm), short-wavelength infrared (1.4–3 μm), mid-wavelength infrared (3–8 μm), long-wavelength infrared (8–15 μm) and far infrared (15–1000 μm).=== Visible light ===Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum.", "EM radiation with a wavelength between approximately 400 nm and 700 nm is directly detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light.", "Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.As frequency increases into the visible range, photons have enough energy to change the bond structure of some individual molecules.", "It is not a coincidence that this happens in the visible range, as the mechanism of vision involves the change in bonding of a single molecule, retinal, which absorbs a single photon.", "The change in retinal causes a change in the shape of the rhodopsin protein it is contained in, which starts the biochemical process that causes the retina of the human eye to sense the light.Photosynthesis becomes possible in this range as well, for the same reason.", "A single molecule of chlorophyll is excited by a single photon.", "In plant tissues that conduct photosynthesis, carotenoids act to quench electronically excited chlorophyll produced by visible light in a process called non-photochemical quenching, to prevent reactions that would otherwise interfere with photosynthesis at high light levels.Animals that detect infrared make use of small packets of water that change temperature, in an essentially thermal process that involves many photons.Infrared, microwaves and radio waves are known to damage molecules and biological tissue only by bulk heating, not excitation from single photons of the radiation.Visible light is able to affect only a tiny percentage of all molecules.", "Usually not in a permanent or damaging way, rather the photon excites an electron which then emits another photon when returning to its original position.", "This is the source of color produced by most dyes.", "Retinal is an exception.", "When a photon is absorbed, the retinal permanently changes structure from cis to trans, and requires a protein to convert it back, i.e.", "reset it to be able to function as a light detector again.Limited evidence indicate that some reactive oxygen species are created by visible light in skin, and that these may have some role in photoaging, in the same manner as ultraviolet A.=== Ultraviolet ===As frequency increases into the ultraviolet, photons now carry enough energy (about three electron volts or more) to excite certain doubly bonded molecules into permanent chemical rearrangement.", "In DNA, this causes lasting damage.", "DNA is also indirectly damaged by reactive oxygen species produced by ultraviolet A (UVA), which has energy too low to damage DNA directly.", "This is why ultraviolet at all wavelengths can damage DNA, and is capable of causing cancer, and (for UVB) skin burns (sunburn) that are far worse than would be produced by simple heating (temperature increase) effects.", "This property of causing molecular damage that is out of proportion to heating effects, is characteristic of all EMR with frequencies at the visible light range and above.", "These properties of high-frequency EMR are due to quantum effects that permanently damage materials and tissues at the molecular level.At the higher end of the ultraviolet range, the energy of photons becomes large enough to impart enough energy to electrons to cause them to be liberated from the atom, in a process called photoionisation.", "The energy required for this is always larger than about 10 electron volt (eV) corresponding with wavelengths smaller than 124 nm (some sources suggest a more realistic cutoff of 33 eV, which is the energy required to ionize water).", "This high end of the ultraviolet spectrum with energies in the approximate ionization range, is sometimes called \"extreme UV.\"", "Ionizing UV is strongly filtered by the Earth's atmosphere.=== X-rays and gamma rays ===Electromagnetic radiation composed of photons that carry minimum-ionization energy, or more, (which includes the entire spectrum with shorter wavelengths), is therefore termed ionizing radiation.", "(Many other kinds of ionizing radiation are made of non-EM particles).", "Electromagnetic-type ionizing radiation extends from the extreme ultraviolet to all higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths, which means that all X-rays and gamma rays qualify.", "These are capable of the most severe types of molecular damage, which can happen in biology to any type of biomolecule, including mutation and cancer, and often at great depths below the skin, since the higher end of the X-ray spectrum, and all of the gamma ray spectrum, penetrate matter." ], [ "Atmosphere and magnetosphere", "opacity) of various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiationMost UV and X-rays are blocked by absorption first from molecular nitrogen, and then (for wavelengths in the upper UV) from the electronic excitation of dioxygen and finally ozone at the mid-range of UV.", "Only 30% of the Sun's ultraviolet light reaches the ground, and almost all of this is well transmitted.Visible light is well transmitted in air, as it is not energetic enough to excite nitrogen, oxygen, or ozone, but too energetic to excite molecular vibrational frequencies of water vapor.Absorption bands in the infrared are due to modes of vibrational excitation in water vapor.", "However, at energies too low to excite water vapor, the atmosphere becomes transparent again, allowing free transmission of most microwave and radio waves.", "Finally, at radio wavelengths longer than 10 m or so (about 30 MHz), the air in the lower atmosphere remains transparent to radio, but plasma in certain layers of the ionosphere begins to interact with radio waves (see skywave).", "This property allows some longer wavelengths (100 m or 3 MHz) to be reflected and results in shortwave radio beyond line-of-sight.", "However, certain ionospheric effects begin to block incoming radiowaves from space, when their frequency is less than about 10 MHz (wavelength longer than about 30 m)." ], [ "Thermal and electromagnetic radiation as a form of heat", "The basic structure of matter involves charged particles bound together.", "When electromagnetic radiation impinges on matter, it causes the charged particles to oscillate and gain energy.", "The ultimate fate of this energy depends on the context.", "It could be immediately re-radiated and appear as scattered, reflected, or transmitted radiation.", "It may get dissipated into other microscopic motions within the matter, coming to thermal equilibrium and manifesting itself as thermal energy, or even kinetic energy, in the material.", "With a few exceptions related to high-energy photons (such as fluorescence, harmonic generation, photochemical reactions, the photovoltaic effect for ionizing radiations at far ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma radiation), absorbed electromagnetic radiation simply deposits its energy by heating the material.", "This happens for infrared, microwave and radio wave radiation.", "Intense radio waves can thermally burn living tissue and can cook food.", "In addition to infrared lasers, sufficiently intense visible and ultraviolet lasers can easily set paper afire.Ionizing radiation creates high-speed electrons in a material and breaks chemical bonds, but after these electrons collide many times with other atoms eventually most of the energy becomes thermal energy all in a tiny fraction of a second.", "This process makes ionizing radiation far more dangerous per unit of energy than non-ionizing radiation.", "This caveat also applies to UV, even though almost all of it is not ionizing, because UV can damage molecules due to electronic excitation, which is far greater per unit energy than heating effects.Infrared radiation in the spectral distribution of a black body is usually considered a form of heat, since it has an equivalent temperature and is associated with an entropy change per unit of thermal energy.", "However, \"heat\" is a technical term in physics and thermodynamics and is often confused with thermal energy.", "Any type of electromagnetic energy can be transformed into thermal energy in interaction with matter.", "Thus, ''any'' electromagnetic radiation can \"heat\" (in the sense of increase the thermal energy temperature of) a material, when it is absorbed.The inverse or time-reversed process of absorption is thermal radiation.", "Much of the thermal energy in matter consists of random motion of charged particles, and this energy can be radiated away from the matter.", "The resulting radiation may subsequently be absorbed by another piece of matter, with the deposited energy heating the material.The electromagnetic radiation in an opaque cavity at thermal equilibrium is effectively a form of thermal energy, having maximum radiation entropy." ], [ "Biological effects", "Bioelectromagnetics is the study of the interactions and effects of EM radiation on living organisms.", "The effects of electromagnetic radiation upon living cells, including those in humans, depends upon the radiation's power and frequency.", "For low-frequency radiation (radio waves to visible light) the best-understood effects are those due to radiation power alone, acting through heating when radiation is absorbed.", "For these thermal effects, frequency is important as it affects the intensity of the radiation and penetration into the organism (for example, microwaves penetrate better than infrared).", "It is widely accepted that low frequency fields that are too weak to cause significant heating could not possibly have any biological effect.Some research suggests that weaker ''non-thermal'' electromagnetic fields (including weak ELF magnetic fields, although the latter does not strictly qualify as EM radiation) and modulated RF and microwave fields can have biological effects, though the significance of this is unclear.The World Health Organization has classified radio frequency electromagnetic radiation as Group 2B – possibly carcinogenic.", "This group contains possible carcinogens such as lead, DDT, and styrene.", "For example, epidemiological studies looking for a relationship between cell phone use and brain cancer development have been largely inconclusive, save to demonstrate that the effect, if it exists, cannot be a large one.At higher frequencies (visible and beyond), the effects of individual photons begin to become important, as these now have enough energy individually to directly or indirectly damage biological molecules.", "All UV frequencies have been classed as Group 1 carcinogens by the World Health Organization.", "Ultraviolet radiation from sun exposure is the primary cause of skin cancer.Thus, at UV frequencies and higher (and probably somewhat also in the visible range), electromagnetic radiation does more damage to biological systems than simple heating predicts.", "This is most obvious in the \"far\" (or \"extreme\") ultraviolet.", "UV, with X-ray and gamma radiation, are referred to as ionizing radiation due to the ability of photons of this radiation to produce ions and free radicals in materials (including living tissue).", "Since such radiation can severely damage life at energy levels that produce little heating, it is considered far more dangerous (in terms of damage-produced per unit of energy, or power) than the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.=== Use as a weapon ===The heat ray is an application of EMR that makes use of microwave frequencies to create an unpleasant heating effect in the upper layer of the skin.", "A publicly known heat ray weapon called the Active Denial System was developed by the US military as an experimental weapon to deny the enemy access to an area.", "A death ray is a theoretical weapon that delivers heat ray based on electromagnetic energy at levels that are capable of injuring human tissue.", "An inventor of a death ray, Harry Grindell Matthews, claimed to have lost sight in his left eye while working on his death ray weapon based on a microwave magnetron from the 1920s (a normal microwave oven creates a tissue damaging cooking effect inside the oven at around 2 kV/m)." ], [ "Derivation from electromagnetic theory", "Electromagnetic waves are predicted by the classical laws of electricity and magnetism, known as Maxwell's equations.", "There are nontrivial solutions of the homogeneous Maxwell's equations (without charges or currents), describing ''waves'' of changing electric and magnetic fields.", "Beginning with Maxwell's equations in free space:where* and are the electric field (measured in V/m or N/C) and the magnetic field (measured in T or Wb/m2), respectively;* yields the divergence and the curl of a vector field * and are partial derivatives (rate of change in time, with location fixed) of the magnetic and electric field;* is the permeability of a vacuum (4 × 10−7 H/m), and is the permittivity of a vacuum (8.85 × 10−12 F/m);Besides the trivial solutionuseful solutions can be derived with the following vector identity, valid for all vectors in some vector field:Taking the curl of the second Maxwell equation () yields:Evaluating the left hand side of () with the above identity and simplifying using (), yields:Evaluating the right hand side of () by exchanging the sequence of derivatives and inserting the fourth yields:Combining () and () again, gives a vector-valued differential equation for the electric field, solving the homogeneous Maxwell equations:Taking the curl of the fourth Maxwell equation () results in a similar differential equation for a magnetic field solving the homogeneous Maxwell equations:Both differential equations have the form of the general wave equation for waves propagating with speed where is a function of time and location, which gives the amplitude of the wave at some time at a certain location:This is also written as: where denotes the so-called d'Alembert operator, which in Cartesian coordinates is given as:Comparing the terms for the speed of propagation, yields in the case of the electric and magnetic fields:This is the speed of light in vacuum.", "Thus Maxwell's equations connect the vacuum permittivity , the vacuum permeability , and the speed of light, ''c''0, via the above equation.", "This relationship had been discovered by Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch prior to the development of Maxwell's electrodynamics, however Maxwell was the first to produce a field theory consistent with waves traveling at the speed of light.These are only two equations versus the original four, so more information pertains to these waves hidden within Maxwell's equations.", "A generic vector wave for the electric field has the formHere, is a constant vector, is any second differentiable function, is a unit vector in the direction of propagation, and is a position vector.", "is a generic solution to the wave equation.", "In other words,for a generic wave traveling in the direction.From the first of Maxwell's equations, we getThus,which implies that the electric field is orthogonal to the direction the wave propagates.", "The second of Maxwell's equations yields the magnetic field, namely,Thus,The remaining equations will be satisfied by this choice of .The electric and magnetic field waves in the far-field travel at the speed of light.", "They have a special restricted orientation and proportional magnitudes, , which can be seen immediately from the Poynting vector.", "The electric field, magnetic field, and direction of wave propagation are all orthogonal, and the wave propagates in the same direction as .", "Also, '''E''' and '''B''' far-fields in free space, which as wave solutions depend primarily on these two Maxwell equations, are in-phase with each other.", "This is guaranteed since the generic wave solution is first order in both space and time, and the curl operator on one side of these equations results in first-order spatial derivatives of the wave solution, while the time-derivative on the other side of the equations, which gives the other field, is first-order in time, resulting in the same phase shift for both fields in each mathematical operation.From the viewpoint of an electromagnetic wave traveling forward, the electric field might be oscillating up and down, while the magnetic field oscillates right and left.", "This picture can be rotated with the electric field oscillating right and left and the magnetic field oscillating down and up.", "This is a different solution that is traveling in the same direction.", "This arbitrariness in the orientation with respect to propagation direction is known as polarization.", "On a quantum level, it is described as photon polarization.", "The direction of the polarization is defined as the direction of the electric field.More general forms of the second-order wave equations given above are available, allowing for both non-vacuum propagation media and sources.", "Many competing derivations exist, all with varying levels of approximation and intended applications.", "One very general example is a form of the electric field equation, which was factorized into a pair of explicitly directional wave equations, and then efficiently reduced into a single uni-directional wave equation by means of a simple slow-evolution approximation." ], [ "See also", "* Antenna measurement* Bioelectromagnetics* Bolometer* CONELRAD* Electromagnetic pulse* Electromagnetic radiation and health* Evanescent wave coupling* Finite-difference time-domain method* Gravitational wave* Helicon* Impedance of free space* Radiation reaction* Health effects of sunlight exposure* Sinusoidal plane-wave solutions of the electromagnetic wave equation" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol.", "I Ch.", "28: Electromagnetic Radiation* * ''Electromagnetic Waves from Maxwell's Equations'' on Project PHYSNET.", "* \"Electromagnetic radiation\" in the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ernest Hemingway" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ernest Miller Hemingway''' (; July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American novelist, short-story writer, and journalist.", "His economical and understated style—which included his iceberg theory—had a strong influence on 20th-century fiction, while his adventurous lifestyle and public image brought him admiration from later generations.", "Hemingway produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s, and he was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in Literature.", "He published seven novels, six short-story collections, and two nonfiction works.", "Three of his novels, four short-story collections, and three nonfiction works were published posthumously.", "Many of his works are considered classics of American literature.Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois.", "After high school, he was a reporter for a few months for ''The Kansas City Star'' before leaving for the Italian Front to enlist as an ambulance driver in World War I.", "In 1918, he was seriously wounded and returned home.", "His wartime experiences formed the basis for his novel ''A Farewell to Arms'' (1929).In 1921, he married Hadley Richardson, the first of four wives.", "They moved to Paris, where he worked as a foreign correspondent for the ''Toronto Star'' and fell under the influence of the modernist writers and artists of the 1920s' \"Lost Generation\" expatriate community.", "Hemingway's debut novel ''The Sun Also Rises'' was published in 1926.He divorced Richardson in 1927, and married Pauline Pfeiffer.", "They divorced after he returned from the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), which he covered as a journalist and which was the basis for his novel ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' (1940).", "Martha Gellhorn became his third wife in 1940.He and Gellhorn separated after he met Mary Welsh in London during World War II.", "Hemingway was present with Allied troops as a journalist at the Normandy landings and the liberation of Paris.He maintained permanent residences in Key West, Florida in the 1930s and in Cuba in the 1940s and 1950s.", "On a 1954 trip to Africa, he was seriously injured in two plane accidents on successive days, leaving him in pain and ill health for much of the rest of his life.", "In 1959, he bought a house in Ketchum, Idaho, where, in mid-1961, he died by suicide." ], [ "Life and career", "Hemingway was the second child and first son born to Clarence and Grace.The Hemingway family in 1905 (from the left to right): Marcelline, Sunny, Clarence, Grace, Ursula, and ErnestErnest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, an affluent suburb just west of Chicago, to Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, a physician, and Grace Hall Hemingway, a musician.", "His parents were well-educated and well-respected in Oak Park, a conservative community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said, \"So many churches for so many good people to go to.\"", "When Clarence and Grace Hemingway married in 1896, they lived with Grace's father, Ernest Miller Hall, after whom they named their first son, the second of their six children.", "His sister Marcelline preceded him in 1898, followed by Ursula in 1902, Madelaine in 1904, Carol in 1911, and Leicester in 1915.Grace followed the Victorian convention of not differentiating children's clothing by gender.", "With only a year separating the two, Ernest and Marcelline resembled one-another strongly.", "Grace wanted them to appear as twins, so in Ernest's first three years she kept his hair long and dressed both children in similarly frilly feminine clothing.Hemingway's mother, a well-known musician in the village, taught her son to play the cello despite his refusal to learn; though later in life he admitted the music lessons contributed to his writing style, evidenced for example in the \"contrapuntal structure\" of ''For Whom the Bell Tolls''.", "As an adult Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael S. Reynolds points out that he shared similar energies and enthusiasms.", "Each summer the family traveled to Windemere on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, Michigan.", "There young Ernest joined his father and learned to hunt, fish, and camp in the woods and lakes of Northern Michigan, early experiences that instilled a life-long passion for outdoor adventure and living in remote or isolated areas.Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School in Oak Park from 1913 until 1917.He was an accomplished athlete involved with a number of sports, including boxing, track and field, water polo, and football.", "He performed in the school orchestra for two years with his sister Marcelline, and received good grades in English classes.", "During his last two years at high school he edited the ''Trapeze'' and ''Tabula'' (the school's newspaper and yearbook), where he imitated the language of sportswriters and used the pen name Ring Lardner Jr.—a nod to Ring Lardner of the ''Chicago Tribune'' whose byline was \"Line O'Type\".", "Like Mark Twain, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser, and Sinclair Lewis, Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist.", "After leaving high school, he went to work for ''The Kansas City Star'' as a cub reporter.", "Although he stayed there for only six months, he relied on the ''Star''s style guide as a foundation for his writing, such as \"Use short sentences.", "Use short first paragraphs.", "Use vigorous English.", "Be positive, not negative.", "\"===World War I===Hemingway in uniform in alt= photograph of a young man dressed in a military uniformHemingway in Red Cross Hospital in July 1918In December 1917, after being rejected by the U.S. Army for poor eyesight, Hemingway responded to an International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement recruitment effort and signed on to be an ambulance driver with the American Red Cross Motor Corps in Italy.", "In May 1918, he sailed from New York, and arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German artillery.", "That June he arrived at the Italian Front.", "On his first day in Milan, he was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion to join rescuers retrieving the shredded remains of female workers.", "He described the incident in his 1932 non-fiction book ''Death in the Afternoon'': \"I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments.\"", "A few days later, he was stationed at Fossalta di Piave.On July 8, he was seriously wounded by mortar fire, having just returned from the canteen bringing chocolate and cigarettes for the men at the front line.", "Despite his wounds, Hemingway assisted Italian soldiers to safety, for which he was decorated with the Italian War Merit Cross, the ''Croce al Merito di Guerra''.", "He was still only 18 at the time.", "Hemingway later said of the incident: \"When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality.", "Other people get killed; not you ... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you.\"", "He sustained severe shrapnel wounds to both legs, underwent an immediate operation at a distribution center, and spent five days at a field hospital before he was transferred for recuperation to the Red Cross hospital in Milan.", "He spent six months at the hospital, where he met and formed a strong friendship with \"Chink\" Dorman-Smith that lasted for decades and shared a room with future American foreign service officer, ambassador, and author Henry Serrano Villard.While recuperating he fell in love with Agnes von Kurowsky, a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior.", "When Hemingway returned to the United States in January 1919, he believed Agnes would join him within months and the two would marry.", "Instead, he received a letter in March with her announcement that she was engaged to an Italian officer.", "Biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes Agnes's rejection devastated and scarred the young man; in future relationships, Hemingway followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him.Hemingway returned home early in 1919 to a time of readjustment.", "Before the age of 20, he had gained from the war a maturity that was at odds with living at home without a job and with the need for recuperation.", "As Reynolds explains, \"Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he thought when he saw his bloody knee.\"", "He was not able to tell them how scared he had been \"in another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not.", "\"In September, he took a fishing and camping trip with high school friends to the back-country of Michigan's Upper Peninsula.", "The trip became the inspiration for his short story \"Big Two-Hearted River\", in which the semi-autobiographical character Nick Adams takes to the country to find solitude after returning from war.", "A family friend offered him a job in Toronto, and with nothing else to do, he accepted.", "Late that year he began as a freelancer and staff writer for the ''Toronto Star Weekly''.", "He returned to Michigan the following June and then moved to Chicago in September 1920 to live with friends, while still filing stories for the ''Toronto Star''.", "In Chicago, he worked as an associate editor of the monthly journal ''Cooperative Commonwealth'', where he met novelist Sherwood Anderson.When St. Louis native Hadley Richardson came to Chicago to visit the sister of Hemingway's roommate, Hemingway became infatuated.", "He later claimed, \"I knew she was the girl I was going to marry.\"", "Hadley, red-haired, with a \"nurturing instinct\", was eight years older than Hemingway.", "Despite the age difference, Hadley, who had grown up with an overprotective mother, seemed less mature than usual for a young woman her age.", "Bernice Kert, author of ''The Hemingway Women'', claims Hadley was \"evocative\" of Agnes, but that Hadley had a childishness that Agnes lacked.", "The two corresponded for a few months and then decided to marry and travel to Europe.", "They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to visit Paris instead, writing letters of introduction for the young couple.", "They were married on September 3, 1921; two months later Hemingway was hired as a foreign correspondent for the ''Toronto Star'', and the couple left for Paris.", "Of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: \"With Hadley, Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in Europe.", "\"===Paris===Toronto Star Weekly''.|alt=Passport photographPauline Hemingway in Paris in 1927Carlos Baker, Hemingway's first biographer, believes that while Anderson suggested Paris because \"the monetary exchange rate\" made it an inexpensive place to live, more importantly it was where \"the most interesting people in the world\" lived.", "In Paris, Hemingway met American writer and art collector Gertrude Stein, Irish novelist James Joyce, American poet Ezra Pound (who \"could help a young writer up the rungs of a career\") and other writers.The Hemingway of the early Paris years was a \"tall, handsome, muscular, broad-shouldered, brown-eyed, rosy-cheeked, square-jawed, soft-voiced young man.\"", "He and Hadley lived in a small walk-up at 74 rue du Cardinal Lemoine in the Latin Quarter, and he worked in a rented room in a nearby building.", "Stein, who was the bastion of modernism in Paris, became Hemingway's mentor and godmother to his son Jack; she introduced him to the expatriate artists and writers of the Montparnasse Quarter, whom she referred to as the \"Lost Generation\"—a term Hemingway popularized with the publication of ''The Sun Also Rises''.", "A regular at Stein's salon, Hemingway met influential painters such as Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró, and Juan Gris.", "He eventually withdrew from Stein's influence, and their relationship deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades.", "While living in Paris in 1922, Hemingway befriended artist Henry Strater who painted two portraits of him.Ezra Pound met Hemingway by chance at Sylvia Beach's bookshop Shakespeare and Company in 1922.The two toured Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924.They forged a strong friendship, and in Hemingway, Pound recognized and fostered a young talent.", "Pound introduced Hemingway to James Joyce, with whom Hemingway frequently embarked on \"alcoholic sprees\".During his first 20 months in Paris, Hemingway filed 88 stories for the ''Toronto Star'' newspaper.", "He covered the Greco-Turkish War, where he witnessed the burning of Smyrna, and wrote travel pieces such as \"Tuna Fishing in Spain\" and \"Trout Fishing All Across Europe: Spain Has the Best, Then Germany\".Hemingway was devastated on learning that Hadley had lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the Gare de Lyon as she was traveling to Geneva to meet him in December 1922.In the following September the couple returned to Toronto, where their son John Hadley Nicanor was born on October 10, 1923.During their absence, Hemingway's first book, ''Three Stories and Ten Poems'', was published.", "Two of the stories it contained were all that remained after the loss of the suitcase, and the third had been written early the previous year in Italy.", "Within months a second volume, ''in our time'' (without capitals), was published.", "The small volume included six vignettes and a dozen stories Hemingway had written the previous summer during his first visit to Spain, where he discovered the thrill of the ''corrida''.", "He missed Paris, considered Toronto boring, and wanted to return to the life of a writer, rather than live the life of a journalist.Hemingway, Hadley, and their son (nicknamed Bumby) returned to Paris in January 1924 and moved into a new apartment on the rue Notre-Dame des Champs.", "Hemingway helped Ford Madox Ford edit ''The Transatlantic Review'', which published works by Pound, John Dos Passos, Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, and Stein, as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories such as \"Indian Camp\".", "When ''In Our Time'' was published in 1925, the dust jacket bore comments from Ford.", "\"Indian Camp\" received considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer, and critics in the United States praised Hemingway for reinvigorating the short story genre with his crisp style and use of declarative sentences.", "Six months earlier, Hemingway had met F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the pair formed a friendship of \"admiration and hostility\".", "Fitzgerald had published ''The Great Gatsby'' the same year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided his next work had to be a novel.With his wife Hadley, Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona, Spain, in 1923, where he became fascinated by bullfighting.", "It is at this time that he began to be referred to as \"Papa\", even by much older friends.", "Hadley would much later recall that Hemingway had his own nicknames for everyone and that he often did things for his friends; she suggested that he liked to be looked up to.", "She did not remember precisely how the nickname came into being; however, it certainly stuck.", "The Hemingways returned to Pamplona in 1924 and a third time in June 1925; that year they brought with them a group of American and British expatriates: Hemingway's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith, Donald Ogden Stewart, Lady Duff Twysden (recently divorced), her lover Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb.", "A few days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday (July 21), he began to write the draft of what would become ''The Sun Also Rises'', finishing eight weeks later.", "A few months later, in December 1925, the Hemingways left to spend the winter in Schruns, Austria, where Hemingway began revising the manuscript extensively.", "Pauline Pfeiffer, who was from a wealthy Catholic family in Arkansas and had moved to Paris to work for ''Vogue'' magazine where she met the Hemingways, joined them in January.", "Against Hadley's advice, Pfeiffer urged Hemingway to sign a contract with Scribner's.", "He left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers and, on his return, began an affair with Pfeiffer during a stop in Paris, before returning to Schruns to finish the revisions in March.", "The manuscript arrived in New York in April; he corrected the final proof in Paris in August 1926, and Scribner's published the novel in October.", "''The Sun Also Rises'' epitomized the post-war expatriate generation, received good reviews and is \"recognized as Hemingway's greatest work\".", "Hemingway himself later wrote to his editor Max Perkins that the \"point of the book\" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that \"the earth abideth forever\"; he believed the characters in ''The Sun Also Rises'' may have been \"battered\" but were not lost.Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on ''The Sun Also Rises''.", "In early 1926, Hadley became aware of his affair with Pfeiffer, who came to Pamplona with them that July.", "On their return to Paris, Hadley asked for a separation; in November she formally requested a divorce.", "They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the proceeds from ''The Sun Also Rises''.", "The couple were divorced in January 1927, and Hemingway married Pfeiffer in May.Before his marriage to Pfeiffer, Hemingway converted to Catholicism.", "They honeymooned in Le Grau-du-Roi, where he contracted anthrax, and he planned his next collection of short stories, ''Men Without Women'', which was published in October 1927, and included his boxing story \"Fifty Grand\".", "''Cosmopolitan'' magazine editor-in-chief Ray Long praised \"Fifty Grand\", calling it, \"one of the best short stories that ever came to my hands ... the best prize-fight story I ever read ... a remarkable piece of realism.", "\"By the end of the year Pauline, who was pregnant, wanted to move back to America.", "John Dos Passos recommended Key West, and they left Paris in March 1928.Hemingway suffered a severe injury in their Paris bathroom when he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain.", "This left him with a prominent forehead scar, which he carried for the rest of his life.", "When Hemingway was asked about the scar, he was reluctant to answer.", "After his departure from Paris, Hemingway \"never again lived in a big city\".=== Key West and the Caribbean ===Hemingway House in Key West, Florida, where he lived between 1931 and 1939 and where he wrote ''To Have and Have Not''|alt=photograph of a houseErnest, Pauline, Bumby, Patrick, and Gloria Hemingway pose with marlins after a fishing trip in Bimini in 1935|alt=photograph of a man, a woman, and three boysHemingway and Pauline traveled to Kansas City, Missouri, where their son Patrick was born on June 28, 1928.Pauline had a difficult delivery; Hemingway fictionalized a version of the event as a part of ''A Farewell to Arms''.", "After Patrick's birth, Pauline and Hemingway traveled to Wyoming, Massachusetts, and New York.", "On December 6, 1928, he was in New York with Bumby, about to board a train to Florida, when he received a cable telling him that his father Clarence had killed himself.", "Hemingway was devastated, having earlier written to his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide.", "He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father's suicide in 1903, and he commented, \"I'll probably go the same way.", "\"Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on the draft of ''A Farewell to Arms'' before leaving for France in January.", "He had finished it in August but delayed the revision.", "The serialization in ''Scribner's Magazine'' was scheduled to begin in May, but as late as April, Hemingway was still working on the ending, which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times.", "The completed novel was published on September 27.Biographer James Mellow believes ''A Farewell to Arms'' established Hemingway's stature as a major American writer and displayed a level of complexity not apparent in ''The Sun Also Rises''.", "(The story was turned into a play by war veteran Laurence Stallings that was the basis for the film starring Gary Cooper.)", "In Spain in mid-1929, Hemingway researched his next work, ''Death in the Afternoon''.", "He wanted to write a comprehensive treatise on bullfighting, explaining the ''toreros'' and ''corridas'' complete with glossaries and appendices, because he believed bullfighting was \"of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death.", "\"During the early 1930s, Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where he found \"the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West\" and hunted deer, elk, and grizzly bear.", "He was joined there by Dos Passos, and in November 1930, after bringing Dos Passos to the train station in Billings, Montana, Hemingway broke his arm in a car accident.", "The surgeon tended the compound spiral fracture and bound the bone with kangaroo tendon.", "Hemingway was hospitalized for seven weeks, with Pauline tending to him; the nerves in his writing hand took as long as a year to heal, during which time he suffered intense pain.His third child, Gloria Hemingway, was born a year later on November 12, 1931, in Kansas City as \"Gregory Hancock Hemingway\".", "Pauline's uncle bought the couple a house in Key West with a carriage house, the second floor of which was converted into a writing studio.", "While in Key West, Hemingway frequented the local bar Sloppy Joe's.", "He invited friends—including Waldo Peirce, Dos Passos, and Max Perkins—to join him on fishing trips and on an all-male expedition to the Dry Tortugas.", "Meanwhile, he continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba, and—although in 1933 he wrote of Key West, \"We have a fine house here, and kids are all well\"—Mellow believes he \"was plainly restless\".In 1933, Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to Kenya.", "The 10-week trip provided material for ''Green Hills of Africa'', as well as for the short stories \"The Snows of Kilimanjaro\" and \"The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber\".", "The couple visited Mombasa, Nairobi, and Machakos in Kenya; then moved on to Tanganyika Territory, where they hunted in the Serengeti, around Lake Manyara, and west and southeast of present-day Tarangire National Park.", "Their guide was the noted \"white hunter\" Philip Percival who had guided Theodore Roosevelt on his 1909 safari.", "During these travels, Hemingway contracted amoebic dysentery that caused a prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi, an experience reflected in \"The Snows of Kilimanjaro\".", "On Hemingway's return to Key West in early 1934, he began work on ''Green Hills of Africa'', which he published in 1935 to mixed reviews.Hemingway bought a boat in 1934, named it the ''Pilar'', and began sailing the Caribbean.", "In 1935 he first arrived at Bimini, where he spent a considerable amount of time.", "During this period he also worked on ''To Have and Have Not'', published in 1937 while he was in Spain, the only novel he wrote during the 1930s.=== Spanish Civil War ===Hemingway (center) with Dutch filmmaker Joris Ivens and German writer Ludwig Renn serving as an International Brigades officer during the Spanish Civil War in Spain in 1937|alt=photograph of three menIn 1937, Hemingway left for Spain to cover the Spanish Civil War for the North American Newspaper Alliance (NANA), despite Pauline's reluctance to have him working in a war zone.", "He and Dos Passos both signed on to work with Dutch filmmaker Joris Ivens as screenwriters for ''The Spanish Earth''.", "Dos Passos left the project after the execution of José Robles, his friend and Spanish translator, which caused a rift between the two writers.Hemingway was joined in Spain by journalist and writer Martha Gellhorn, whom he had met in Key West a year earlier.", "Like Hadley, Martha was a St. Louis native and, like Pauline, she had worked for ''Vogue'' in Paris.", "Of Martha, Kert explains, \"she never catered to him the way other women did\".", "In July 1937 he attended the Second International Writers' Congress, the purpose of which was to discuss the attitude of intellectuals to the war, held in Valencia, Barcelona and Madrid and attended by many writers including André Malraux, Stephen Spender and Pablo Neruda.", "Late in 1937, while in Madrid with Martha, Hemingway wrote his only play, ''The Fifth Column'', as the city was being bombarded by Francoist forces.", "He returned to Key West for a few months, then back to Spain twice in 1938, where he was present at the Battle of the Ebro, the last republican stand, and he was among the British and American journalists who were some of the last to leave the battle as they crossed the river.=== Cuba ===In early 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana.", "This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline, which began when Hemingway met Martha Gellhorn.", "Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they rented \"Finca Vigía\" (\"Lookout Farm\"), a property from Havana.", "Pauline and the children left Hemingway that summer, after the family was reunited during a visit to Wyoming; when his divorce from Pauline was finalized, he and Martha were married on November 20, 1940, in Cheyenne, Wyoming.Hemingway moved his primary summer residence to Ketchum, Idaho, just outside the newly built resort of Sun Valley, and moved his winter residence to Cuba.", "He had been disgusted when a Parisian friend allowed his cats to eat from the table, but he became enamored of cats in Cuba and kept dozens of them on the property.", "Descendants of his cats live at his Key West home.Gellhorn inspired him to write his most famous novel, ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'', which he began in March 1939 and finished in July 1940.It was published in October 1940.His pattern was to move around while working on a manuscript, and he wrote ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' in Cuba, Wyoming, and Sun Valley.", "It became a Book-of-the-Month Club choice, sold half a million copies within months, was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize and, in the words of Meyers, \"triumphantly re-established Hemingway's literary reputation\".In January 1941, Martha was sent to China on assignment for ''Collier's'' magazine.", "Hemingway went with her, sending in dispatches for the newspaper ''PM'', but in general he disliked China.A 2009 book by former KGB officer Alexander Vassiliev suggests during that period he may have been recruited to work for NKVD \"on ideological grounds\" under the code name \"Argo\".They returned to Cuba before the declaration of war by the United States that December, when he convinced the Cuban government to help him refit the ''Pilar'', which he intended to use to ambush German submarines off the coast of Cuba.=== World War II ===Col.", "Charles \"Buck\" Lanham in Germany during the fighting in Hürtgenwald in 1944, after which he became ill with pneumonia|alt=photograph of two menHemingway was in Europe from May 1944 to March 1945.When he arrived in London, he met ''Time'' magazine correspondent Mary Welsh, with whom he became infatuated.", "Martha had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because Hemingway refused to help her get a press pass on a plane, and she arrived in London to find him hospitalized with a concussion from a car accident.", "She was unsympathetic to his plight; she accused him of being a bully and told him that she was \"through, absolutely finished\".", "The last time that Hemingway saw Martha was in March 1945 as he was preparing to return to Cuba, and their divorce was finalized later that year.", "Meanwhile, he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third meeting.Hemingway accompanied the troops to the Normandy Landings wearing a large head bandage, according to Meyers, but he was considered \"precious cargo\" and not allowed ashore.", "The landing craft came within sight of Omaha Beach before coming under enemy fire and turning back.", "Hemingway later wrote in ''Collier's'' that he could see \"the first, second, third, fourth and fifth waves of landing troops lay where they had fallen, looking like so many heavily laden bundles on the flat pebbly stretch between the sea and first cover\".", "Mellow explains that, on that first day, none of the correspondents were allowed to land and Hemingway was returned to the ''Dorothea Dix''.Late in July, he attached himself to \"the 22nd Infantry Regiment commanded by Col. Charles \"Buck\" Lanham, as it drove toward Paris\", and Hemingway became de facto leader to a small band of village militia in Rambouillet outside of Paris.", "Paul Fussell remarks: \"Hemingway got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a correspondent is not supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well.\"", "This was in fact in contravention of the Geneva Convention, and Hemingway was brought up on formal charges; he said that he \"beat the rap\" by claiming that he only offered advice.On August 25, he was present at the liberation of Paris as a journalist; contrary to the Hemingway legend, he was not the first into the city, nor did he liberate the Ritz.", "In Paris, he visited Sylvia Beach and Pablo Picasso with Mary Welsh, who joined him there; in a spirit of happiness, he forgave Gertrude Stein.", "Later that year, he observed heavy fighting in the Battle of Hürtgen Forest.", "On December 17, 1944, he had himself driven to Luxembourg in spite of illness to cover The Battle of the Bulge.", "As soon as he arrived, however, Lanham handed him to the doctors, who hospitalized him with pneumonia; he recovered a week later, but most of the fighting was over.In 1947, Hemingway was awarded a Bronze Star for his bravery during World War II.", "He was recognized for having been \"under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of conditions\", with the commendation that \"through his talent of expression, Mr. Hemingway enabled readers to obtain a vivid picture of the difficulties and triumphs of the front-line soldier and his organization in combat\".=== Cuba and the Nobel Prize ===Hemingway and Mary in Africa before the two plane accidentsHemingway in the cabin of his boat ''Pilar'', off the coast of alt=photograph of a manHemingway said he \"was out of business as a writer\" from 1942 to 1945 during his residence in Cuba.", "In 1946 he married Mary, who had an ectopic pregnancy five months later.", "The Hemingway family suffered a series of accidents and health problems in the years following the war: in a 1945 car accident, he \"smashed his knee\" and sustained another \"deep wound on his forehead\"; Mary broke first her right ankle and then her left in successive skiing accidents.", "A 1947 car accident left Patrick with a head wound and severely ill. Hemingway sank into depression as his literary friends began to die: in 1939 William Butler Yeats and Ford Madox Ford; in 1940 F. Scott Fitzgerald; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce; in 1946 Gertrude Stein; and the following year in 1947, Max Perkins, Hemingway's long-time Scribner's editor, and friend.", "During this period, he suffered from severe headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes—much of which was the result of previous accidents and many years of heavy drinking.", "Nonetheless, in January 1946, he began work on ''The Garden of Eden'', finishing 800 pages by June.", "During the post-war years, he also began work on a trilogy tentatively titled \"The Land\", \"The Sea\" and \"The Air\", which he wanted to combine in one novel titled ''The Sea Book''.", "However, both projects stalled, and Mellow says that Hemingway's inability to continue was \"a symptom of his troubles\" during these years.In 1948, Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe, staying in Venice for several months.", "While there, Hemingway fell in love with the then 19-year-old Adriana Ivancich.", "The platonic love affair inspired the novel ''Across the River and into the Trees'', written in Cuba during a time of strife with Mary, and published in 1950 to negative reviews.", "The following year, furious at the critical reception of ''Across the River and Into the Trees'', he wrote the draft of ''The Old Man and the Sea'' in eight weeks, saying that it was \"the best I can write ever for all of my life\".", "''The Old Man and the Sea'' became a book-of-the-month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity, and won the Pulitzer Prize in May 1953, a month before he left for his second trip to Africa.In January 1954, while in Africa, Hemingway was almost fatally injured in two successive plane crashes.", "He chartered a sightseeing flight over the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary.", "On their way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and \"crash landed in heavy brush\".", "Hemingway's injuries included a head wound, while Mary broke two ribs.", "The next day, attempting to reach medical care in Entebbe, they boarded a second plane that exploded at take-off, with Hemingway suffering burns and another concussion, this one serious enough to cause leaking of cerebral fluid.", "They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway's death.", "He briefed the reporters and spent the next few weeks recuperating and reading his erroneous obituaries.", "Despite his injuries, Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but pain caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with.", "When a bushfire broke out, he was again injured, sustaining second-degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.", "Months later in Venice, Mary reported to friends the full extent of Hemingway's injuries: two cracked discs, a kidney and liver rupture, a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull.", "The accidents may have precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow.", "After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who had been \"a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life, drank more heavily than usual to combat the pain of his injuries.", "\"In October 1954, Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature.", "He modestly told the press that Carl Sandburg, Isak Dinesen and Bernard Berenson deserved the prize, but he gladly accepted the prize money.", "Mellow says Hemingway \"had coveted the Nobel Prize\", but when he won it, months after his plane accidents and the ensuing worldwide press coverage, \"there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's decision.\"", "Because he was suffering pain from the African accidents, he decided against traveling to Stockholm.", "Instead he sent a speech to be read, defining the writer's life:From the end of the year in 1955 to early 1956, Hemingway was bedridden.", "He was told to stop drinking to mitigate liver damage, advice he initially followed but then disregarded.", "In October 1956, he returned to Europe and met Basque writer Pio Baroja, who was seriously ill and died weeks later.", "During the trip, Hemingway became sick again and was treated for \"high blood pressure, liver disease, and arteriosclerosis\".In November 1956, while staying in Paris, he was reminded of trunks he had stored in the Ritz Hotel in 1928 and never retrieved.", "Upon re-claiming and opening the trunks, Hemingway discovered they were filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years.", "Excited about the discovery, when he returned to Cuba in early 1957, he began to shape the recovered work into his memoir ''A Moveable Feast''.", "By 1959 he ended a period of intense activity: he finished ''A Moveable Feast'' (scheduled to be released the following year); brought ''True at First Light'' to 200,000 words; added chapters to ''The Garden of Eden''; and worked on ''Islands in the Stream''.", "The last three were stored in a safe deposit box in Havana, as he focused on the finishing touches for ''A Moveable Feast''.", "Author Michael Reynolds claims it was during this period that Hemingway slid into depression, from which he was unable to recover.The Finca Vigía became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway, beginning to become unhappy with life there, considered a permanent move to Idaho.", "In 1959 he bought a home overlooking the Big Wood River, outside Ketchum, and left Cuba—although he apparently remained on easy terms with the Castro government, telling ''The New York Times'' he was \"delighted\" with Castro's overthrow of Batista.", "He was in Cuba in November 1959, between returning from Pamplona and traveling west to Idaho, and the following year for his 61st birthday; however, that year he and Mary decided to leave after hearing the news that Castro wanted to nationalize property owned by Americans and other foreign nationals.", "On July 25, 1960, the Hemingways left Cuba for the last time, leaving art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana.", "After the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Finca Vigía was expropriated by the Cuban government, complete with Hemingway's collection of \"four to six thousand books\".", "President Kennedy arranged for Mary Hemingway to travel to Cuba where she met Fidel Castro and obtained her husband's papers and painting in return for donating Finca Vigía to Cuba.=== Idaho and suicide ===Silver Creek, near Picabo, Idaho in January 1959; with him are Gary Cooper and Bobbie Powell|alt=photograph of two men and womanThe Hemingway Memorial in Sun Valley, IdahoHemingway continued to rework the material that was published as ''A Moveable Feast'' through the 1950s.", "In mid-1959, he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles commissioned by ''Life'' magazine.", "''Life'' wanted only 10,000 words, but the manuscript grew out of control.", "He was unable to organize his writing for the first time in his life, so he asked A. E. Hotchner to travel to Cuba to help him.", "Hotchner helped him trim the ''Life'' piece down to 40,000 words, and Scribner's agreed to a full-length book version (''The Dangerous Summer'') of almost 130,000 words.", "Hotchner found Hemingway to be \"unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused\", and suffering badly from failing eyesight.Hemingway and Mary left Cuba for the last time on July 25, 1960.He set up a small office in his New York City apartment and attempted to work, but he left soon after.", "He then traveled alone to Spain to be photographed for the front cover of ''Life'' magazine.", "A few days later, the news reported that he was seriously ill and on the verge of dying, which panicked Mary until she received a cable from him telling her, \"Reports false.", "Enroute Madrid.", "Love Papa.\"", "He was, in fact, seriously ill, and believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown.", "Feeling lonely, he took to his bed for days, retreating into silence, despite having the first installments of ''The Dangerous Summer'' published in ''Life'' in September 1960 to good reviews.", "In October, he left Spain for New York, where he refused to leave Mary's apartment, presuming that he was being watched.", "She quickly took him to Idaho, where physician George Saviers met them at the train.Hemingway was constantly worried about money and his safety.", "He worried about his taxes and that he would never return to Cuba to retrieve the manuscripts that he had left in a bank vault.", "He became paranoid, thinking that the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum.", "The FBI had opened a file on him during World War II, when he used the ''Pilar'' to patrol the waters off Cuba, and J. Edgar Hoover had an agent in Havana watch him during the 1950s.", "Unable to care for her husband, Mary had Saviers fly Hemingway to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota at the end of November for hypertension treatments, as he told his patient.", "The FBI knew that Hemingway was at the Mayo Clinic, as an agent later documented in a letter written in January 1961.Hemingway was checked in under Saviers's name to maintain anonymity.", "Meyers writes that \"an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo\" but confirms that he was treated with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) as many as 15 times in December 1960 and was \"released in ruins\" in January 1961.Reynolds gained access to Hemingway's records at the Mayo, which document ten ECT sessions.", "The doctors in Rochester told Hemingway the depressive state for which he was being treated may have been caused by his long-term use of Reserpine and Ritalin.", "Of the ECT therapy, Hemingway told Hotchner, \"What is the sense of ruining my head and erasing my memory, which is my capital, and putting me out of business?", "It was a brilliant cure, but we lost the patient.", "\"Hemingway was back in Ketchum in April 1961, three months after being released from the Mayo Clinic, when Mary \"found Hemingway holding a shotgun\" in the kitchen one morning.", "She called Saviers, who sedated him and admitted him to the Sun Valley Hospital and once the weather cleared Saviers flew again to Rochester with his patient.", "Hemingway underwent three electroshock treatments during that visit.", "He was released at the end of June and was home in Ketchum on June 30.Two days later he \"quite deliberately\" shot himself with his favorite shotgun in the early morning hours of July 2, 1961.He had unlocked the basement storeroom where his guns were kept, gone upstairs to the front entrance foyer, and shot himself with the \"double-barreled shotgun that he had used so often it might have been a friend\", which was purchased from Abercrombie & Fitch.Mary was sedated and taken to the hospital, returning home the next day where she cleaned the house and saw to the funeral and travel arrangements.", "Bernice Kert writes that it \"did not seem to her a conscious lie\" when she told the press that his death had been accidental.", "In a press interview five years later, Mary confirmed that he had shot himself.Family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral, officiated by the local Catholic priest, who believed that the death had been accidental.", "An altar boy fainted at the head of the casket during the funeral, and Hemingway's brother Leicester wrote: \"It seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all.\"", "He is buried in the Ketchum cemetery.Hemingway's behavior during his final years had been similar to that of his father before he killed himself; his father may have had hereditary hemochromatosis, whereby the excessive accumulation of iron in tissues culminates in mental and physical deterioration.", "Medical records made available in 1991 confirmed that Hemingway had been diagnosed with hemochromatosis in early 1961.His sister Ursula and his brother Leicester also killed themselves.", "Hemingway's health was further complicated by heavy drinking throughout most of his life.A memorial to Hemingway just north of Sun Valley is inscribed on the base with a eulogy Hemingway had written for a friend several decades earlier::''Best of all he loved the fall'':''the leaves yellow on cottonwoods'':''leaves floating on trout streams'':''and above the hills'':''the high blue windless skies'':...''Now he will be a part of them forever.''" ], [ "Writing style", "''The New York Times'' wrote in 1926 of Hemingway's first novel, \"No amount of analysis can convey the quality of ''The Sun Also Rises''.", "It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame.\"", "''The Sun Also Rises'' is written in the spare, tight prose that made Hemingway famous, and, according to James Nagel, \"changed the nature of American writing\".", "In 1954, when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, it was for \"his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style.", "\"Henry Louis Gates believes Hemingway's style was fundamentally shaped \"in reaction to his experience of world war\".", "After World War I, he and other modernists \"lost faith in the central institutions of Western civilization\" by reacting against the elaborate style of 19th-century writers and by creating a style \"in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silences—a fiction in which nothing crucial—or at least very little—is stated explicitly.", "\"Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker believes Hemingway learned to \"get the most from the least, how to prune language, how to multiply intensities and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth.\"", "Hemingway called his style the iceberg theory: the facts float above water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out of sight.", "The concept of the iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the \"theory of omission\".", "Hemingway believed the writer could describe one thing (such as Nick Adams fishing in \"Big Two-Hearted River\") though an entirely different thing occurs below the surface (Nick Adams concentrating on fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about anything else).", "Paul Smith writes that Hemingway's first stories, collected as ''In Our Time'', showed he was still experimenting with his writing style, and when he wrote about Spain or other countries he incorporated foreign words into the text, which sometimes appears directly in the other language (in italics, as occurs in ''The Old Man and the Sea'') or in English as literal translations.", "He also often used bilingual puns and crosslingual wordplay as stylistic devices.", "In general, he avoided complicated syntax.", "About 70 percent of the sentences are simple sentences without subordination—a simple childlike grammar structure.Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in general—not only about his life.", "For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with \"what if\" scenarios: \"what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night?", "What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?\"", "Writing in \"The Art of the Short Story\", Hemingway explains: \"A few things I have found to be true.", "If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened.", "If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless.", "The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit.", "\"The simplicity of the prose is deceptive.", "Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to Henry James's observation that World War I had \"used up words\".", "Hemingway offers a \"multi-focal\" photographic reality.", "His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he builds.", "The syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentences.", "The photographic \"snapshot\" style creates a collage of images.", "Many types of internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences.", "The sentences build on each other, as events build to create a sense of the whole.", "Multiple strands exist in one story; an \"embedded text\" bridges to a different angle.", "He also uses other cinematic techniques of \"cutting\" quickly from one scene to the next; or of \"splicing\" a scene into another.", "Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author and create three-dimensional prose.Hemingway habitually used the word \"and\" in place of commas.", "This use of polysyndeton may serve to convey immediacy.", "Hemingway's polysyndetonic sentence—or in later works his use of subordinate clauses—uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images.", "Benson compares them to haikus.", "Many of Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his lead and frowned upon all expression of emotion; Saul Bellow satirized this style as \"Do you have emotions?", "Strangle them.\"", "However, Hemingway's intent was not to eliminate emotion, but to portray it more scientifically.", "Hemingway thought it would be easy, and pointless, to describe emotions; he sculpted collages of images in order to grasp \"the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely enough, always\".", "This use of an image as an objective correlative is characteristic of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Marcel Proust.", "Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's ''Remembrance of Things Past'' several times over the years, and indicate he read the book at least twice." ], [ "Themes", "Hemingway's writing includes themes of love, war, travel, wilderness, and loss.", "Critic Leslie Fiedler sees the theme he defines as \"The Sacred Land\"—the American West—extended in Hemingway's work to include mountains in Spain, Switzerland and Africa, and to the streams of Michigan.", "The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the \"Hotel Montana\" in ''The Sun Also Rises'' and ''For Whom the Bell Tolls''.", "According to Stoltzfus and Fiedler, in Hemingway's work, nature is a place for rebirth and rest; and it is where the hunter or fisherman might experience a moment of transcendence at the moment they kill their prey.", "Nature is where men exist without women: men fish; men hunt; men find redemption in nature.", "Although Hemingway does write about sports, such as fishing, Carlos Baker notes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the sport.", "At its core, much of Hemingway's work can be viewed in the light of American naturalism, evident in detailed descriptions such as those in \"Big Two-Hearted River\".Hemingway often wrote about Americans abroad.", "In ''Hemingway’s Expatriate Nationalism'', Jeffrey Herlihy describes \"Hemingway's Transnational Archetype\" as one that involves characters who are \"multilingual and bicultural, and have integrated new cultural norms from the host community into their daily lives by the time plots begin.\"", "In this way, \"foreign scenarios, far from being mere exotic backdrops or cosmopolitan milieus, are motivating factors in-character action.\"", "Donald Monk comments that Hemingway's use of \"expatriation comes to be not so much a psychological as a metaphysical reality.", "It guarantees his world-view of his heroes, based on a type of rootless outsider.", "\"Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil \"Dark Woman\" versus the good \"Light Woman\".", "The dark woman—Brett Ashley of ''The Sun Also Rises''—is a goddess; the light woman—Margot Macomber of \"The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber\"—is a murderess.", "Robert Scholes says early Hemingway stories, such as \"A Very Short Story\", present \"a male character favorably and a female unfavorably\".", "According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics lauded his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into \"castrators or love-slaves\".", "Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as \"public enemy number one\", although more recent re-evaluations of his work \"have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and their strengths) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine.\"", "Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber \"are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.The theme of women and death is evident in stories as early as \"Indian Camp\".", "The theme of death permeates Hemingway's work.", "Young believes the emphasis in \"Indian Camp\" was not so much on the woman who gives birth or the father who kills himself, but on Nick Adams who witnesses these events as a child, and becomes a \"badly scarred and nervous young man\".", "Hemingway sets the events in \"Indian Camp\" that shape the Adams persona.", "Young believes \"Indian Camp\" holds the \"master key\" to \"what its author was up to for some thirty-five years of his writing career\".", "Stoltzfus considers Hemingway's work to be more complex with a representation of the truth inherent in existentialism: if \"nothingness\" is embraced, then redemption is achieved at the moment of death.", "Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life.", "Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity.", "In his paper ''The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field'', Timo Müller writes that Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an \"authentic life\", and the \"soldiers, fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature\".The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, notably in ''God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen'' and ''The Sun Also Rises''.", "Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained emancipation.", "This also applies to the minor character, Frances Clyne, Cohn's girlfriend in the beginning of ''The Sun Also Rises''.", "Her character supports the theme not only because the idea was presented early on in the novel but also the impact she had on Cohn in the start of the book while only appearing a small number of times.", "In ''God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen'', the emasculation is literal, and related to religious guilt.", "Baker believes Hemingway's work emphasizes the \"natural\" versus the \"unnatural\".", "In \"An Alpine Idyll\" the \"unnaturalness\" of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the \"unnaturalness\" of the peasant who allowed his wife's dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter.", "The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the \"natural\" spring for redemption.Descriptions of food and drink feature prominently in many of Hemingway's works.", "In the short story \"Big Two-Hearted River\" Hemingway describes a hungry Nick Adams cooking a can of pork and beans and a can of spaghetti over a fire in a heavy cast iron pot.", "The primitive act of preparing the meal in solitude is a restorative act and one of Hemingway's narratives of post-war integration.Susan Beegel reports that Charles Stetler and Gerald Locklin read Hemingway's ''The Mother of a Queen'' as both misogynistic and homophobic, and Ernest Fontana thought that a \"horror of homosexuality\" drove the short story \"A Pursuit Race\".", "Beegel found that \"despite the academy's growing interest in multiculturalism ... during the 1980s ... critics interested in multiculturalism tended to ignore the author as 'politically incorrect., listing just two \"apologetic articles on his handling of race\".", "Barry Gross, comparing Jewish characters in literature of the period, commented that \"Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew.\"" ], [ "Influence and legacy", "A life-sized statue of Hemingway by José Villa Soberón at El Floridita, a bar in HavanaHemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers who came after him either emulated or avoided it.", "After his reputation was established with the publication of ''The Sun Also Rises'', he became the spokesperson for the post-World War I generation, having established a style to follow.", "His books were burned in Berlin in 1933, \"as being a monument of modern decadence\", and disavowed by his parents as \"filth\".", "Reynolds asserts the legacy is that \"Hemingway left stories and novels so starkly moving that some have become part of our cultural heritage.", "\"Benson believes the details of Hemingway's life have become a \"prime vehicle for exploitation\", resulting in a Hemingway industry.", "Hemingway scholar Hallengren believes the \"hard-boiled style\" and the machismo must be separated from the author himself.", "Benson agrees, describing him as introverted and private as J. D. Salinger, although Hemingway masked his nature with braggadocio.", "During World War II, Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom he acknowledged as an influence.", "In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger claimed their talks \"had given him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war\" and jokingly \"named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs\".The extent of his influence is seen from the enduring and varied tributes to Hemingway and his works.", "3656 Hemingway, a minor planet discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh, was named for Hemingway, and in 2009, a crater on Mercury was also named in his honor.", "''The Kilimanjaro Device'' by Ray Bradbury featured Hemingway being transported to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro, while the 1993 motion picture ''Wrestling Ernest Hemingway'' explored the friendship of two retired men, played by Robert Duvall and Richard Harris, in a seaside Florida town.", "His influence is further evident from the many restaurants bearing his name and the proliferation of bars called \"Harry's\", a nod to the bar in ''Across the River and Into the Trees''.", "Hemingway's son Jack (Bumby) promoted a line of furniture honoring his father, Montblanc created a Hemingway fountain pen, and multiple lines of clothing inspired by Hemingway have been produced.", "In 1977, the International Imitation Hemingway Competition was created to acknowledge his distinct style and the comical efforts of amateur authors to imitate him; entrants are encouraged to submit one \"really good page of really bad Hemingway\" and the winners are flown to Harry's Bar in Italy.Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation in 1965, and in the 1970s she donated her husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library.", "In 1980, a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, \"committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship\", publishing ''The Hemingway Review''.", "Numerous awards have been established in Hemingway's honor to recognize significant achievement in the arts and culture, including the Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award and the Hemingway Award.In 2012, he was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame.Almost exactly 35 years after Hemingway's death, on July 1, 1996, his granddaughter Margaux Hemingway died in Santa Monica, California.", "Margaux was a supermodel and actress, co-starring with her younger sister Mariel in the 1976 movie ''Lipstick''.", "Her death was later ruled a death by suicide.Three houses associated with Hemingway are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places: the Ernest Hemingway Cottage on Walloon Lake, Michigan, designated in 1968; the Ernest Hemingway House in Key West, designated in 1968; and the Ernest and Mary Hemingway House in Ketchum, designated in 2015.Hemingway's childhood home in Oak Park and his Havana residence were also converted into museums.On April 5, 2021, ''Hemingway'', a three-episode, six-hour documentary, a recapitulation of Hemingway's life, labors, and loves, debuted on PBS.", "It was co-produced and directed by Ken Burns and Lynn Novick." ], [ "Selected works", "The following is the list of books that Ernest Hemingway completed during his lifetime.", "While much of his work was published posthumously, they were finished without his supervision, unlike the works listed below.", "* ''Three Stories and Ten Poems'' (1923)* ''in our time'' (1924)* ''In Our Time'' (1925)* ''The Torrents of Spring'' (1926)* ''The Sun Also Rises'' (1926)* ''Men Without Women'' (1927)* ''A Farewell to Arms'' (1929)* ''Death in the Afternoon'' (1932)* ''Winner Take Nothing'' (1933)* ''Green Hills of Africa'' (1935)* ''To Have and Have Not'' (1937)* ''The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories'' (1938)*''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' (1940) * ''Across the River and into the Trees'' (1950)* ''The Old Man and the Sea'' (1952)" ], [ "See also", "* Family tree showing Ernest Hemingway's parents, siblings, wives, children and grandchildren" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* Baker, Carlos.", "(1969).", "''Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story''.", "New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.", "* Baker, Carlos.", "(1972).", "''Hemingway: The Writer as Artist''.", "Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.", "* Baker, Carlos.", "(1981).", "\"Introduction\" in ''Ernest Hemingway Selected Letters 1917–1961''.", "New York: Scribner's.", "* Banks, Russell.", "(2004).", "\"PEN/Hemingway Prize Speech\".", "''The Hemingway Review''.", "Volume 24, issue 1.53–60* Baym, Nina.", "(1990).", "\"Actually I Felt Sorry for the Lion\", in Benson, Jackson J.", "(ed.", "), ''New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway''.", "Durham, NC: Duke University Press.", "* Beegel, Susan.", "(1996).", "\"Conclusion: The Critical Reputation\", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.", "), ''The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press.", "* Beegel, Susan (2000).", "\"Eye and Heart: Hemingway's Education as a Naturalist\", in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed.", "), ''A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Benson, Jackson.", "(1989).", "\"Ernest Hemingway: The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life\".", "''American Literature''.", "Volume 61, issue 3.354–358* Benson, Jackson.", "(1975).", "''The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: Critical Essays''.", "Durham, NC: Duke University Press.", "* Burwell, Rose Marie.", "(1996).", "''Hemingway: the Postwar Years and the Posthumous Novels''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press.", "* Desnoyers, Megan Floyd.", "\"Ernest Hemingway: A Storyteller's Legacy\" .", "John F. Kennedy Presidential Library Online Resources.", "John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.", "Retrieved November 30, 2011.", "* Fiedler, Leslie.", "(1975).", "''Love and Death in the American Novel''.", "New York: Stein and Day.", "* Gladstein, Mimi.", "(2006).", "\"Bilingual Wordplay: Variations on a Theme by Hemingway and Steinbeck\" ''The Hemingway Review'' Volume 26, issue 1.81–95.", "* Griffin, Peter.", "(1985).", "''Along with Youth: Hemingway, the Early Years''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Hemingway, Ernest.", "(1929).", "''A Farewell to Arms''.", "New York: Scribner's.", "* Hemingway, Ernest.", "(1975).", "\"The Art of the Short Story\", in Benson, Jackson (ed.", "), ''New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway''.", "Durham, NC: Duke University Press.", "* Hemingway, Leicester.", "(1996).", "''My Brother, Ernest Hemingway''.", "New York: World Publishing Company.", "* Herlihy, Jeffrey.", "(2011).", "''Hemingway's Expatriate Nationalism''.", "Amsterdam: Rodopi.", "* Herlihy-Mera, Jeffrey.", "(2017).", "\"Cuba in Hemingway\" ''The Hemingway Review'' Volume 36, Number 2.8–41.", "* Hoberek, Andrew.", "(2005).", "''Twilight of the Middle Class: Post World War II fiction and White Collar Work''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press.", "* Josephs, Allen.", "(1996).", "\"Hemingway's Spanish Sensibility\", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.", "), ''The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press.", "* Kert, Bernice.", "(1983).", "''The Hemingway Women''.", "New York: Norton.", "* Koch, Stephen.", "(2005).", "''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''.", "New York: Counterpoint.", "* Long, Ray – editor.", "(1932).", "\"Why Editors Go Wrong: 'Fifty Grand' by Ernest Hemingway\", ''20 Best Stories in Ray Long's 20 Years as an Editor''.", "New York: Crown Publishers.", "1–3* Lynn, Kenneth.", "(1987).", "''Hemingway''.", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.", "* McCormick, John (1971).", "''American Literature 1919–1932''.", "London: Routledge.", "* Mellow, James.", "(1992).", "''Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences''.", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin.", "* Mellow, James.", "(1991).", "''Charmed Circle: Gertrude Stein and Company''.", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin.", "* Meyers, Jeffrey.", "(1985).", "''Hemingway: A Biography''.", "New York: Macmillan.", "* Miller, Linda Patterson.", "(2006).", "\"From the African Book to Under Kilimanjaro\".", "''The Hemingway Review'', Volume 25, issue 2.78–81* Müller, Timo.", "(2010).", "\"The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, 1926–1936\".", "''Journal of Modern Literature''.", "Volume 33, issue 1.28–42* Nagel, James.", "(1996).", "\"Brett and the Other Women in ''The Sun Also Rises''\", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.", "), ''The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press.", "* Oliver, Charles.", "(1999).", "''Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work''.", "New York: Checkmark Publishing.", "* Reynolds, Michael (2000).", "\"Ernest Hemingway, 1899–1961: A Brief Biography\", in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed.", "), ''A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Reynolds, Michael.", "(1999).", "''Hemingway: The Final Years''.", "New York: Norton.", "* Reynolds, Michael.", "(1989).", "''Hemingway: The Paris Years''.", "New York: Norton.", "* Reynolds, Michael.", "(1998).", "''The Young Hemingway''.", "New York: Norton.", "* Robinson, Daniel.", "(2005).", "\"My True Occupation is That of a Writer: Hemingway's Passport Correspondence\".", "''The Hemingway Review''.", "Volume 24, issue 2.87–93* Trogdon, Robert W. \"Forms of Combat: Hemingway, the Critics and Green Hills of Africa\".", "''The Hemingway Review''.", "Volume 15, issue 2.1–14* Sanderson, Rena.", "(1996).", "\"Hemingway and Gender History\", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.", "), ''The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press.", "* Scholes, Robert.", "(1990).", "\"New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway\", in Benson, Jackson J., ''Decoding Papa: 'A Very Short Story' as Work and Text''.", "33–47.Durham, NC: Duke University Press.", "* Smith, Paul (1996).", "\"1924: Hemingway's Luggage and the Miraculous Year\", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.", "), ''The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press.", "* Stoltzfus, Ben.", "(2005).", "\"Sartre, \"Nada,\" and Hemingway's African Stories\".", "''Comparative Literature Studies''.", "Volume 42, issue 3.205–228* Svoboda, Frederic.", "(2000).", "\"The Great Themes in Hemingway\", in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed.", "), ''A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Thomas, Hugh.", "(2001).", "''The Spanish Civil War''.", "New York: Modern Library.", "* Trodd, Zoe.", "(2007).", "\"Hemingway's Camera Eye: The Problems of Language and an Interwar Politics of Form\".", "''The Hemingway Review''.", "Volume 26, issue 2.7–21* Wells, Elizabeth J.", "(1975).", "\"A Statistical Analysis of the Prose Style of Ernest Hemingway: ''Big Two-Hearted River''\", in Benson, Jackson (ed.", "), ''The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: Critical Essays''.", "Durham, NC: Duke University Press.", "* Young, Philip.", "(1964).", "''Ernest Hemingway''.", "St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota." ], [ "External links", ";Digital collections* * * * * ;Physical collections* Audre Hanneman was a biographer of Ernest Hemingway.", "Her papers can be found at the University of Maryland Libraries.", "* Ernest Hemingway Collection at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum* Ernest Hemingway collection at the University of Maryland Libraries* Ernest Hemingway Collection.", "Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.", "* Ernest Hemingway's Collection at The University of Texas at Austin* Finding aid to Adele C. Brockhoff letters, including Hemingway correspondence, at Columbia University.", "Rare Book & Manuscript Library.", "* Hemingway legal files collection, 1899–1971 Manuscripts and Archives, New York Public Library.", "* Maurice J. Speiser papers at the University of South Carolina Department of Rare Books and Special Collections;Journalism* \"The Art of Fiction No.", "21.", "''The Paris Review''.", "Spring 1958.", "* Ernest Hemingway's journalism at The Archive of American Journalism;Biographical and other information* * FBI Records: The Vault, Subject: Ernest Hemingway" ] ]
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[ [ "Young and Innocent" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Young and Innocent''''', released in the US as '''''The Girl Was Young''''', is a 1937 British crime thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock and starring Nova Pilbeam and Derrick De Marney.", "Based on the 1936 novel ''A Shilling for Candles'' by Josephine Tey, the film is about a young man on the run from a murder charge who enlists the help of a woman who must put herself at risk for his cause.", "An elaborately staged crane shot Hitchcock devised, which appears towards the end of the film, identifies the real murderer." ], [ "Plot", "On a stormy night, at a retreat on the English coast, Christine Clay (Pamela Carme), a successful actress, argues passionately with her jealous ex-husband Guy (George Curzon).", "Not accepting her Reno divorce as valid, he accuses her of having an affair.", "Finally, she slaps him and he leaves the room.", "While they had been arguing, his eyes twitched violently; they continue to do so when, once outside, he turns angrily to look at the closed door behind him.The next morning, Robert Tisdall (Derrick De Marney) happens to be walking along the seaside when Christine's dead body washes ashore.", "He recognizes her, and runs for help.", "Two young women arrive just in time to see him racing away from the corpse.", "The police quickly decide that Tisdall is the only suspect.", "Christine was strangled with the belt from a raincoat; his raincoat is missing and he says it was recently stolen.", "He admits knowing the victim for three years since he sold her a story but the authorities assume the two have been having an affair.", "When they learn that she has left him money in her will (unbeknownst to him), they feel they have hit upon a motive and Tisdall is arrested.Scotland Yard detectives grill him all night.", "The next morning, he faints and is revived with the aid of Erica Burgoyne (Nova Pilbeam), daughter of the local police Chief Constable.", "Tisdall is assigned an incompetent solicitor, and is taken into court for his formal arraignment.", "Doubting if his innocence will ever be established, he takes advantage of overcrowding in the courthouse to escape, wearing the solicitor's eyeglasses as a disguise.", "He gets away by riding on the running board of Erica's Morris car, revealing himself to her after the car runs out of petrol.He helps push the car to a filling station, pays for petrol, and convinces her to give him a ride.", "Though she is initially fearful and unsure about her passenger, Erica eventually becomes convinced of his innocence and decides to help him in any way that she can.", "They are eventually spotted together, forcing both to stay on the run from the police.", "Tisdall tries to prove his innocence by tracking down the stolen coat: if it still has its belt, the one found next to Christine's body must not be his.The duo succeed in tracing Tisdall's coat to Old Will (Edward Rigby), a homeless, but sociable, china-mender.", "But Will was not the thief; he was given the coat by a man with \"twitchy eyes\", and with its belt already missing.After becoming separated from the others, Erica is taken in by the police.", "Upon realizing that his daughter has fully allied herself with a murder suspect, her father chooses to resign his position as Chief Constable rather than arrest her for assisting a felon.", "Though mutually undeclared, by this point she and Tisdall are in love, Tisdall sneaks into their house to see her, intending to surrender and assert he kidnapped her, to save her honour and her father's reputation.", "But she mentions that the coat had a box of matches from the Grand Hotel in a pocket.", "As Tisdall has never been there, he surmises perhaps the murderer has a connection to the hotel.The following evening, Erica and Will go to the hotel together, hoping to find him.", "In a memorably long, continuous sequence, the camera pans right from their entrance to the hotel and then moves forward from the very back of the hotel ballroom, finally focusing in extreme closeup on the drummer in a dance band performing in blackface.", "His eyes are twitching.", "He is Guy, the murderer.Recognizing Old Will in the audience, and seeing policemen nearby (who have actually followed Will hoping he'll lead them to Tisdall), Guy performs poorly due to fear.", "He is berated by the conductor and, during a break, takes medicine to try to control the twitching, but it makes him very sleepy.", "Eventually, in mid-performance, Guy passes out, drawing the attention of Erica and the police.", "Immediately after being revived and confronted, he confesses his crime and begins laughing hysterically.Reunited once again with Tisdall, Erica then tells her father that she thinks it is time they invited him to their home for dinner." ], [ "Main cast", "* Nova Pilbeam as Erica Burgoyne* Derrick De Marney as Robert Tisdall* Percy Marmont as Colonel Burgoyne* Edward Rigby as Old Will* Mary Clare as Erica's aunt Margaret* John Longden as Inspector Kent* George Curzon as Guy* Basil Radford as Erica's uncle Basil* Pamela Carme as Christine Clay* George Merritt as Detective Sergeant Miller* J. H. Roberts as the Solicitor, Henry Briggs* Jerry Verno as Lorry Driver* H. F. Maltby as Police Sergeant* John Miller as Police Constable* Syd Crossley as Policeman* Torin Thatcher as the owner of Nobby's Lodging House* Anna Konstam as Bathing Girl * Bill Shine as Manager of Tom's Hat Cafe * Beatrice Varley as Accused Man's Wife * Peter Thompson as Erica Burgoyne's bespectacled brother" ], [ "Reception", "''Variety'' called the film a \"Pleasing, artless vehicle\" for Nova Pilbeam, who was \"charming\" in her role and concluded, \"If the pic is not Hitchcock's best effort, it is by no means unworthy of him.\"", "Frank Nugent of ''The New York Times'' called it a \"crisply paced, excellently performed film.\"", "''The Monthly Film Bulletin'' wrote, \"Innumerable small touches show Hitchcock's keen and penetrating observation and his knowledge of human nature.", "Comedy, romance, and thrills are skilfully blended.\"", "''Harrison's Reports'' wrote, \"Good melodramatic entertainment.", "Because of the novelty of the story, the interesting plot developments, and the expert direction by Alfred Hitchcock, one's attention is held from the beginning to the end.\"", "John Mosher of ''The New Yorker'' wrote that it was \"rather exasperating and disappointing to me.", "It begins with a smart murder, but wanders off through the English rural landscape in a fashion so lacking in that sound common sense we like in our mysteries, or like to feel is there anyhow, that one's interest fades away.", "\"Aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports 100% approval of ''Young and Innocent'', with an average rating of 7.6/10." ], [ "Changes from the novel", "American theatrical release poster with alternate titleSignificant changes were made in adapting the book for the film.", "The novel is a whodunit centred on the Scotland Yard inspector, who is Tey's regular character Alan Grant.", "The storyline involving Robert Tisdall, Erica Burgoyne, and the missing coat is similar to the film story, but in the novel it is only a subplot and ends part way through the book when Erica finds the coat and it is intact.", "Grant then focuses on other suspects, none of whom (including the actual murderer in the novel) appear in the film.", "Christine Clay in the novel is not divorced, but is in an unconventional marriage to an aristocrat." ], [ "Hitchcock's cameo", "Alfred Hitchcock's cameo is a signature occurrence in most of his films.", "He can be seen outside the courthouse, holding a camera, at 14 minutes into the film." ], [ "Copyright status and home media", "''Young and Innocent'' is copyrighted worldwide but has been heavily bootlegged for home video.", "Despite this, licensed releases have appeared on Blu-ray, DVD and video on demand services worldwide from the likes of Network Distributing in the UK, MGM and The Criterion Collection in the US, and others." ], [ "References", ";Citations;Bibliography* *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * ''Alfred Hitchcock Collectors’ Guide: Young and Innocent'' at Brenton Film" ] ]
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[ [ "The Time in Between" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''The Time in Between''''' is a novel by Canadian author David Bergen.", "It deals with a man, who mysteriously returns to Vietnam, where he had been a soldier earlier in his life, followed by his children, who also go to Vietnam to search for him.", "The novel was the recipient of the Scotiabank Giller Prize and the McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award in 2005." ], [ "Plot", "Charles Boatman, an army veteran suddenly disappears and his daughter Ada and her younger brother Jon on finding some clues go looking out for him in Danang, Vietnam.", "The novel mixes various stories from different timeframes narrating Charles's days in Washington when he was young.", "He married Sara and had daughter Ada while living in Fraser Valley of British Columbia.", "He gets posted in the wartime era to Vietnam and serves there and upon arrival discovers his wife's infidelity.", "Sara dies early and by then they also had a son Jon.", "Charles keeps getting nightmares of his Vietnam days on how he killed an innocent civilian boy in one of the operations and this keeps haunting him.", "On the other hand, Ada is on a mission to find her father and is helped by a local guy Yen who becomes her guide and guardian in the new country.", "She engages in a sexual relationship with an older man, Hoang Vu who is an artist by profession.", "Jon indulges in the nightlife of Vietnam, and Ada keeps getting closer to her father as she travels across the country.", "Charles discovers author Dang Tho's novel chronicling wartime and this helps him find some peace." ], [ "Publication and development", "The book is author David Bergen's fifth novel.", "Although generally called a war novel, the author states that he \"doesn't see ''The Time in Between'' as a war novel\".", "The book was released as Audio book by Blackstone Audio in December 2005 and was narrated by Anna Fields, better known as Kate Fleming." ], [ "Reviews and reception", "''Kirkus reviews'' called the novel a \"beautifully composed, unflinching and harrowing story\".", "Nicholas Dinka in their ''Quill & Quire'' review mentions that the novel has \"much decency and intelligence\" and both the stories of the novel are \"entirely plausible\" but criticises for \"remarkable dourness of its prose\".", "While Dennis Lythgoe of ''Deseret News'' noted that \"Bergen's book lives and breathes the Vietnam experience\"; Ron Charles in his ''The Washington Post'' review mentioned that \"Bergen's ability to dramatize trauma-induced disaffection is undeniable; whether readers will want to sink down that hole with his characters is less clear\".", "Irene Wanner of ''The Seattle Times'' appreciated the novel for its writing.The novel won the Scotiabank Giller Prize in 2005 while being nominated along with ''Luck'' (by Joan Barfoot), ''Sweetness in the Belly'' (by Camilla Gibb), ''Alligator'' (by Lisa Moore), and ''A Wall of Light'' (by Edeet Ravel).", "The judges Warren Cariou, Elizabeth Hay, and Richard B. Wright noted \"''The Time in Between'' explores our need to understand the relationship between love and duty....", "This is a subtle and elegantly written novel by an author in complete command of his talent\".", "It also won the McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award in 2005.Bergen had earlier won the award in 1996 for ''A Year of Lesser'' and later again won in 2009 for ''The Retreat''.", "Dan Zigmond of ''SFGate'' reviews the novel as \"a rich and rewarding novel\"." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Spain in Flames" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Spain in Flames''''' is a 1937 compilation film made by Helen van Dongen during the Spanish Civil War.", "Hal Erickson has written that the film \"... is remarkable in its willingness to offer both sides of the conflict -- though its sympathies are firmly with the Loyalists.\"", "The film consists of two parts.", "The first, \"The Fight for Freedom\", was based on film footage from a Spanish government documentary ''Spain and the Fight for Freedom''.", "A foreword by the then Spanish Ambassador to the United States, Fernando de los Ríos, began one of the film's screenings in New York in 1937.The second part, \"They Shalt Not Pass\", was based on a short film ''No Pasaran!''", "done by the Artkino Film Company of the Soviet Union, where van Dongen was working at the time the film was made.", "John Dos Passos narrated parts of the film, and the commentary was written by Dos Passos, Ernest Hemingway, Archibald MacLeish, and Prudencio de Pareda.", "Erickson writes that, \"The horrendous images of battlefield carnage, not to mention the close-ups of suffering and dying Spanish children, still pack a wallop when seen today.", "\"Later, Hemingway, Dos Passos, Lillian Hellman and others founded the company Contemporary Historians, which produced another film called ''The Spanish Earth'' (1937), directed by Joris Ivens and edited by van Dongen.", "''Spain in Flames'' was banned in New Brunswick, New Jersey and Waterbury, Connecticut.", "A screening of the film, accompanied by a speech from Granville Hicks, was also banned in Provincetown, Massachusetts." ], [ "See also", "*''The Spanish Earth'' (1937)*''España 1936'' (1937)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "****" ] ]
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[ [ "The Downward Spiral" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''The Downward Spiral''''' is the second studio album by the American industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails, released on March 8, 1994, by Nothing Records in the United States and Island Records in Europe.", "It is a concept album detailing the self-destruction of a man from the beginning of his misanthropic \"downward spiral\" to his suicidal breaking point.", "The album was a commercial success and established Nine Inch Nails as a reputable force in the 1990s music scene, with its sound being widely imitated, and the band receiving media attention and multiple honors.The Nine Inch Nails singer, Trent Reznor, had moved to 10050 Cielo Drive in Benedict Canyon, Los Angeles, the site of the murder of actress Sharon Tate by members of the Manson Family in 1969; it was transformed into a studio for recording the ''Broken'' EP (1992) and subsequently ''The Downward Spiral''.", "The album features elements of industrial rock, techno, metal and ambient soundscapes, in contrast to the band's synth-pop-influenced debut album ''Pretty Hate Machine'' (1989).", "Reznor was strongly influenced by David Bowie's ''Low'' and Pink Floyd's ''The Wall'' for their themes of introspection and dissociation, and their focus on texture and space.", "''The Downward Spiral'' has been regarded by music critics and audiences as one of the most important albums of the 1990s, and was praised for its abrasive and eclectic nature and dark themes, although it was sensationalized by social conservatives for some of its lyrics.", "The album spawned two lead singles, \"March of the Pigs\" and \"Closer\", in addition to the promotional singles \"Piggy\" and \"Hurt\".", "The lead singles were accompanied by music videos, with the former shot twice and the latter being heavily censored.", "A remix album titled ''Further Down the Spiral'' was released in 1995." ], [ "Writing and recording", "Adrian Belew in 2006.Belew's approach to guitar parts on the album improved Reznor's confidence in the instrument.Reznor conceived of ''The Downward Spiral'' after Nine Inch Nails' run in the lineup of the Lollapalooza festival tour, feeling increasingly alienated and disinterested.", "The band's concerts were known for their radical onstage dynamic in which members acted aggressively, injured themselves, destroyed instruments and polluted stages.", "Reznor had begun to feud with TVT Records, resulting in him co-founding Nothing Records with his then-manager John Malm, Jr. as a subsidiary of Interscope.", "Simultaneously, he began fleshing out the concept for ''The Downward Spiral'', focusing on the life and death of a misanthropic man who rebels against humanity, and kills God before attempting suicide.", "Reznor frequently struggled with drug addiction and depression, and the themes of the album gradually allegorized his living situation.", "His peers at some point recommended him the antidepressant Prozac, but he declined to be medicated.Reznor wanted the album's sound to diverge from the abrasion of ''Broken'', emphasizing mood, texture, restraint and subtlety, although he was unsure about its musical direction.", "He decided to utilize \"full range\" sound, focusing on texture and space, and avoiding conventional usage of guitars or synthesizers with a recognizable sound palette.", "Subsequently, he mainly worked with a Macintosh computer, using music editor programs on the computer to distort frequencies in guitar and bass parts as a form of sound design, and creating collages of sounds with Pro Tools.Reznor searched for and moved to 10050 Cielo Drive in 1992 for recording ''Broken'' and ''The Downward Spiral'', a decision made against his initial choice to record the album in New Orleans.", "10050 Cielo Drive is referred to as the \"Tate House\" since Sharon Tate was murdered by members of the Manson Family in 1969; Reznor named the studio \"Le Pig\" after the message that was scrawled on the front door with Tate's blood by her murderers, and stayed there with Malm for 18 months.", "He called his first night in 10050 Cielo Drive \"terrifying\" because he already knew it and read books related to the incident.", "Reznor chose the Tate house to calibrate his engineering skills and the band bought a large console and two Studer machines as resources, a move that he believed was cheaper than renting.Reznor collaborated with the Jane's Addiction and Porno for Pyros drummer Stephen Perkins, the progressive rock guitarist Adrian Belew, and the Nine Inch Nails drummer Chris Vrenna.", "Belew's first visit to the studio involved playing the guitar parts in \"Mr.", "Self-Destruct\", and he was told to play freely, think on reacting to melodies, concentrate on rhythm, and use noise.", "This approach improved Reznor's confidence in the instrument: he found it to be more expressive than the keyboard due to the interface.", "Belew praised Reznor for his \"command of technology,\" and commented that the music of Nine Inch Nails made innovations \"that are in his realm.\"", "Vrenna and Perkins played drum parts recorded live in the studio; the tracks were rendered into looped samples.", "Reznor took a similar approach to recording guitar parts: he would tape 20- to 25-minute-long sessions of himself playing guitars on a hard disc recorder with the Studio Vision sequencer.Reznor frequently sampled excerpts from his guitar session tracks and processed them to sporadic and expressive points to convey the album's themes, also doing the same with drum parts.", "Digidesign's TurboSynth and Zoom 9030 effects unit were used extensively to process guitar tracks, often in conjunction with a Marshall JMP-1 preamp; Zoom 9030 was also used to distort vocals.", "Acoustic drums in various settings, as well as Roland's TR-808 and R-70 drum machines were sampled through multiple Akai S1000s and a Kurzweil K2000.Additionally, Vrenna had compiled various movie samples on Digital Audio Tapes for Reznor to sample, which were gradually identified by fans in the decades following the album's release.", "Other equipments and software Reznor used for recording the album include Oberheim OB-Mx, Minimoog, Prophet VS keyboard, Eventide H3000 Harmonizer, Pro Tools and various Jackson and Gibson guitars.In December 1993, Reznor was confronted by Patti Tate, who asked if he was exploiting Sharon Tate's death in the house.", "Reznor responded that he was interested in the house as her death happened there.", "He later made a statement about this encounter during a 1997 interview with ''Rolling Stone'':The British producer and engineer Flood, known for engineering and producing U2 and Depeche Mode albums, was employed as co-producer on ''The Downward Spiral''; it became his last collaboration with Nine Inch Nails due to creative differences.", "For instance, a \"very dangerously self-destructive\" yet humorous short song written for the album, \"Just Do It\", was not included in the final version, criticized by Flood who said that Reznor had \"gone too far.\"", "Reznor completed the last song written for the album, \"Big Man with a Gun\", in late 1993.After the album's recording, Reznor moved out and the house was demolished shortly thereafter.", "''The Downward Spiral'' entered its mixing and mastering processes, done at the Record Plant and A&M Studios with Alan Moulder, who subsequently took on more extensive production duties for future album releases." ], [ "Music and lyrics", "Numerous layers of metaphors are present throughout ''The Downward Spiral'', leaving it open to wide interpretation.", "The album relays nihilism and is defined by a prominent theme of self-abuse and self-control.", "It is a semi-autobiographical concept album, in which the overarching plot follows the protagonist's descent into madness in his own inner solipsistic world through a metaphorical \"downward spiral\", dealing with religion, dehumanization, violence, disease, society, drugs, sex, and finally, suicide.", "Reznor described the concept as consisting of \"someone who sheds everything around them to a potential nothingness, but through career, religion, relationship, belief and so on.\"", "Media journalists like ''The New York Times'' writer Jon Pareles noted the album's theme of angst had already been used by grunge bands like Nirvana, and that Nine Inch Nails' depiction was more generalized.Using elements of genres such as techno, dance, electronic, heavy metal, and hard rock, ''The Downward Spiral'' is considered an industrial rock, alternative rock, industrial metal, industrial, and art rock album.", "Reznor regularly uses noise and distortion in his song arrangements that do not follow verse–chorus form, and incorporates dissonance with chromatic melody or harmony (or both).", "The treatment of metal guitars in ''Broken'' is carried over to ''The Downward Spiral'', which includes innovative techniques such as expanded song structures and unconventional time signatures.", "The album features a wide range of textures and moods to illustrate the mental progress of the central protagonist.", "Reznor's singing follows a similar pattern from beginning to end, frequently moving from whispers to screams.", "These techniques are all used in the song \"Hurt\", which features a highly dissonant tritone played on guitar during the verses, a B5#11, emphasized when Reznor sings the eleventh note on the word \"I\" every time the B/E# dyad is played.\"Mr.", "Self Destruct\", a song about a powerful person, follows a build-up sampled from the 1971 film ''THX 1138'' with an \"industrial roar\" and is accompanied by an audio loop of a pinion rotating.", "\"The Becoming\" expresses the state of being dead and the protagonist's transformation into a non-human organism.", "\"Closer\" concludes with a chromatic piano motif: The melody is introduced during the second verse of \"Piggy\" on organ, then reappears in power chords at drop D tuning throughout the chorus of \"Heresy\", and recurs for the final time on \"The Downward Spiral\".", "The album was chiefly inspired by David Bowie's ''Low'', an experimental rock album which Reznor related to on songwriting, mood, and structures, as well as progressive rock group Pink Floyd's ''The Wall'', a concept album featuring themes of abuse, isolation, and mental instability." ], [ "Packaging", "''Committere'', an installation featuring artwork and sketches for ''The Downward Spiral'', \"Closer\" and \"March of the Pigs\" by Russell Mills was displayed at the Glasgow School of Art.", "Mills explained the ideas and materials that made up the painting (titled \"Wound\") that was used for the album's cover art:" ], [ "Promotion", "===Singles===\"March of the Pigs\" and \"Closer\" were released as singles; two other songs, \"Hurt\" and \"Piggy\", were issued to radio without a commercial single release.", "\"March of the Pigs\" has an unusual meter, alternating three bars of 7/8 time with one of 8/8.The song's music video was directed by Peter Christopherson and was shot twice; the first version scrapped due to Reznor's involvement, and the released second version being a live performance.", "\"Closer\" features a heavily modified bass drum sample from the Iggy Pop song \"Nightclubbing\" from his album ''The Idiot''.", "Lyrically, it is a meditation on self-hatred and obsession, but to Reznor's dismay, the song was widely misinterpreted as a lust anthem due to its chorus, which included the line \"I wanna fuck you like an animal\".", "The music video for \"Closer\" was directed by Mark Romanek and received frequent rotation on MTV, though the network heavily censored the original version, which they perceived to be too graphic.", "The video shows events in a laboratory dealing with religion, sexuality, animal cruelty, politics, and terror; controversial imagery included a nude bald woman with a crucifix mask, a monkey tied to a cross, a pig's head spinning on a machine, a diagram of a vulva, Reznor wearing an S&M mask while swinging in shackles, and of him wearing a ball gag.", "A radio edit that partially censored the song's explicit lyrics also received extensive airtime.", "The video has since been made part of the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.", "\"Piggy\" uses \"nothing can stop me now\", a line that recurs in \"Ruiner\" and \"Big Man with a Gun\".", "The frantic drumming on the song's outro is Reznor's only attempt at performing drums on the record, and one of the few \"live\" drum performances on the album.", "He had stated that the recording was from him testing the microphone setup in studio, but he liked the sound too much not to include it.", "It was released as a promotional single in December 1994 and reached the Top 20 on the ''Billboard'' Modern Rock Tracks chart.Released in 1995, \"Hurt\" includes references to self-harm and heroin addiction.===Tour===Reznor performing during the Self Destruct tour, circa 1994–1995The Nine Inch Nails live band embarked on the Self Destruct tour in support of ''The Downward Spiral''.", "Chris Vrenna and James Woolley performed drums and keyboards respectively, Robin Finck replaced Richard Patrick on guitar and the bassist Danny Lohner was added to the line-up.", "The stage set-up consisted of dirty curtains which would be pulled down and up for visuals shown during songs such as \"Hurt\".", "The back of the stage was littered with darker and standing lights, along with very few actual ones.", "The tour debuted the band's grungy and messy image in which they would come out in ragged clothes slathered in corn starch.", "The concerts were violent and chaotic, with band members often injuring themselves.", "They would frequently destroy their instruments at the end of concerts, attack each other, and stage-dive into the crowd.The tour included a set at Woodstock '94 broadcast on pay-per-view and seen in as many as 24 million homes.", "The band being covered in mud was a result of pre-concert backstage play, contrary to the belief that it was an attention-grabbing ploy, thus making it difficult for Reznor to navigate the stage: Reznor pushed Lohner into the mud pit as the concert began and saw mud from his hair entering his eyes while performing.", "Nine Inch Nails was widely proclaimed to have \"stolen the show\" from its popular contemporaries, mostly classic rock bands, and its fan base expanded.", "The band received considerable mainstream success thereafter, performing with significantly higher production values and the addition of various theatrical visual elements.", "Its performance of \"Happiness in Slavery\" from the Woodstock concert earned the group a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1995.", "''Entertainment Weekly'' commented about the band's Woodstock '94 performance: \"Reznor unstrings rock to its horrifying, melodramatic core—an experience as draining as it is exhilarating\".", "Despite this acclaim, Reznor attributed his dislike of the concert to its technical difficulties.The main leg of the tour featured Marilyn Manson as the supporting act, who featured the bassist Jeordie White (then playing under the pseudonym \"Twiggy Ramirez\"); White later played bass with Nine Inch Nails from 2005 to 2007.After another tour leg supporting the remix album ''Further Down the Spiral'', Nine Inch Nails contributed to the Alternative Nation Festival in Australia and subsequently embarked on the Dissonance Tour, which included 26 separate performances with co-headliner David Bowie on his Outside Tour.", "Nine Inch Nails was the opening act for the tour, and its set transitioned into Bowie's set with joint performances of both bands' songs.", "However, the crowds reportedly did not respond positively to the pairing due to their creative differences.", "Despite this, in a 2012 ''Rolling Stone'' readers' poll, the tour (pairing Nine Inch Nails with Bowie) was named one of the top 10 opening acts in rock history.The tour concluded with \"Nights of Nothing\", a three-night showcase of performances from Nothing Records bands Marilyn Manson, Prick, Meat Beat Manifesto, and Pop Will Eat Itself, which ended with an 80-minute set from Nine Inch Nails.", "''Kerrang!''", "described the Nine Inch Nails set during the Nights of Nothing showcase as \"tight, brash and dramatic\", but was disappointed at the lack of new material.", "On the second of the three nights, Richard Patrick was briefly reunited with the band and contributed guitar to a performance of \"Head Like a Hole\".", "After the Self Destruct tour, Chris Vrenna, who had been a member of the live band since 1988 and frequent contributor to Nine Inch Nails studio recordings, left the act permanently to pursue a career in producing and to form Tweaker." ], [ "Release and reception", "''The Downward Spiral''s release date was delayed at various times to slow down Reznor's intended pace of the album's recording.", "The first delay caused the process of setting up Le Pig to take longer than he expected, and its release was postponed again as he was educating himself different ways to write songs that did not resemble those on ''Broken'' and ''Pretty Hate Machine''.", "He considered delivering the album to Interscope in early 1993, only to experience a writer's block as he was unable to produce any satisfactory material.", "Interscope grew impatient and concerned with this progress, but Reznor was not forced by their demands of expediency despite crediting the label for giving him creative freedom.", "He told the producer Rick Rubin that his motivation for creating the album was to get it finished, thus Rubin responded that Reznor might not do so until he makes music that is allowed to be heard.", "Reznor realized that he was in the most fortunate situation he imagined when the album was recorded with a normal budget, \"cool\" equipment, and a studio to work at.Released on March 8, 1994, to instant success, ''The Downward Spiral'' debuted at number two on the US ''Billboard'' 200, selling nearly 119,000 copies in its first week.", "On October 28, 1998, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album quadruple platinum, and by December 2011, it had sold 3.7 million copies in the United States.", "The album peaked at number nine on the UK Albums Chart, and on July 22, 2013, it was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), denoting shipments in excess of 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom.", "It reached number 13 on the Canadian ''RPM'' albums chart and received a triple platinum certification from the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) for shipping 200,000 copies in Canada.", "A group of early listeners of the album viewed it as \"commercial suicide\", but Reznor did not make it for profit as his goal was to slightly broaden Nine Inch Nails' scope.", "Reznor felt that the finished product he delivered to Interscope was complete and faithful to his vision and thought its commercial potential was limited, but after its release he was surprised by the success and received questions about a follow-up single with a music video to be shown on MTV.", "The album has since sold over four million copies worldwide.Many music critics and audiences praised ''The Downward Spiral'' for its abrasive, eclectic nature and dark themes and commented on the concept of a destruction of a man.", "''The New York Times'' writer Jon Pareles' review of the album found the music to be highly abrasive.", "Pareles asserted that unlike other electro-industrial groups like Ministry and Nitzer Ebb, \"Reznor writes full-fledged tunes\" with stronger use of melodies than riffs.", "He noticed criticisms of Nine Inch Nails from industrial purists for popularizing the genre and the album's transgression.", "''Village Voice'' critic Robert Christgau gave it an \"honorable mention\" in his capsule review column and summed the record up as, \"musically, Hieronymus Bosch as postindustrial atheist; lyrically, Transformers as kiddie porn.\"", "Jonathan Gold, writing for ''Rolling Stone'', likened the album to cyberpunk fiction.", "''Entertainment Weekly'' reviewer Tom Sinclair commented: \"Reznor's pet topics (sex, power, S&M, hatred, transcendence) are all here, wrapped in hooks that hit your psyche with the force of a blowtorch.", "\"===Accolades===''The Downward Spiral'' has been listed on several publications' best album lists.", "In 2003, the album was ranked number 200 on ''Rolling Stone'' magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, then was re-ranked 201 in a 2012 revised list.", "The ''Rolling Stone'' staff wrote: \"Holing up in the one-time home of Manson-family victim Sharon Tate, Trent Reznor made an overpowering meditation on NIN's central theme: control.\"", "It moved up to 122 on the magazine's revised list in 2020.The album was placed 10th on ''Spin''s ''125 Best Albums of the Past 25 Years'' list; the ''Spin'' staff quoted Ann Powers' review that appreciated its bleak, aggressive style.", "It was ranked number 488 in the book ''The Top 500 Heavy Metal Albums of All Time'' by heavy metal music critic Martin Popoff.", "In 2001, ''Q'' named ''The Downward Spiral'' as one of the ''50 Heaviest Albums of All Time''; in 2010, the album was ranked number 102 on their ''250 Best Albums of Q's Lifetime (1986–2011)'' list.", "''The Downward Spiral'' was featured in Robert Dimery's book ''1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die''.", "In May 2014, ''Loudwire'' placed ''The Downward Spiral'' at number two on its \"10 Best Hard Rock Albums of 1994\" list.", "In July 2014, ''Guitar World'' placed ''The Downward Spiral'' at number 43 in their \"Superunknown: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994\" list." ], [ "Legacy", "The immediate success of ''The Downward Spiral'' established Nine Inch Nails as a reputable force in the 1990s.", "The band's image and musical style became so recognizable that a Gatorade commercial featured a remix of \"Down in It\" without their involvement.", "Reznor felt uncomfortable with the media hype and success the band earned, received false reports of his death, depression, and was falsely reported to have had a relationship with serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer, and was depicted as a sex icon due to his visual appearance.", "Nine Inch Nails received several honors, including Grammy Award nominations for Best Alternative Performance for ''The Downward Spiral'' and Best Rock Song for \"Hurt\".", "After the release of ''The Downward Spiral'', many bands such as Gravity Kills, Stabbing Westward, Filter, and Mötley Crüe made albums that imitated the sound of Nine Inch Nails.Reznor interpreted ''The Downward Spiral'' as an extension of himself that \"became the truth fulfilling itself,\" as he experienced personal and social issues presented in the album after its release.", "He had already struggled with social anxiety disorder and depression and started his abuse of narcotics including cocaine while he went on an alcohol binge.", "Around this time, his studio perfectionism, struggles with addiction, and bouts of writer's block prolonged the production of ''The Fragile'', and Reznor completed rehabilitation from drugs in 2001.One year after ''The Downward Spiral''’s release, the band released an accompanying remix album titled ''Further Down the Spiral''.", "It features contributions from Coil with Danny Hyde, J. G. Thirlwell, electronic musician Aphex Twin, producer Rick Rubin, and Jane's Addiction guitarist Dave Navarro.", "The album peaked at number 23 on the ''Billboard'' 200 and received mixed reviews.", "''Recoiled'', a remix EP of \"Gave Up\", \"Closer\", \"The Downward Spiral\", and \"Eraser\" by Coil, was released on February 24, 2014, via British record label Cold Spring.Retrospective reviews regard ''The Downward Spiral'' as one of the most important albums of the 1990s and Reznor's greatest work.", "The 2004 edition of ''The New Rolling Stone Album Guide'' gave the album five out of five stars and called it \"a powerful statement, and one of the landmark albums of the Nineties.\"", "Writing for ''Entertainment Weekly'', Kyle Anderson remembered watching the music video of \"Closer\" on MTV as an adolescent and expressed that the album changed his perception of popular music from that of songs heard on the radio to albums with cover art.", "''Stereogum''s Tom Breihan remains favorable toward the album since influenced youth culture, with teenagers wearing ripped fish nets on their arms.", "The album was also included in the book ''1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die''." ], [ "Controversies", "===\"Big Man with a Gun\" lyrics===''The Downward Spiral''s emphasis on transgressive themes drew criticism from American social conservatives.", "Senator Bob Dole, then the head of the Republican Party, sharply denounced Time Warner, the former owner of Interscope's former parent company Warner Music Group, after a meeting between Michael J. Fuchs (head of WMG), William Bennett, and C. Delores Tucker.", "During the meeting, Tucker and Bennett demanded that Fuchs recite lyrics from \"Big Man with a Gun\".", "Interscope had previously been blamed for releasing gangsta rap albums by rappers such as Dr. Dre, Tupac Shakur and Snoop Dogg that were deemed objectionable.", "Reznor called Tucker (who erroneously referred to Nine Inch Nails as a gangsta rap act) \"such a fucking idiot\", and claimed that the song was actually a satire of the gangsta rap genre as a whole and was originally about madness.", "Reznor conceded ''The Downward Spiral'' could be \"harmful, through implying and subliminally suggesting things\", whereas hardcore hip hop could be \"cartoonish\".", "Robert Bork also repeatedly referenced \"Big Man with a Gun\" in his book ''Slouching Toward Gomorrah'' as evidence of a supposed cultural decline.===Alleged contribution to the Columbine shooting===Before the Columbine High School massacre, perpetrator Dylan Klebold referenced lyrics from Nine Inch Nails songs multiple times in his journal.", "Klebold heavily identified with the protagonist of ''The Downward Spiral'' as a symbol of his own depression.", "On May 4, 1999, a hearing on the marketing and distribution practices of violent content to minors by the television, music, film, and video game industries was conducted before the United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation.", "The committee heard testimony from cultural observers, professors, and mental health professionals, that included conservative William Bennett and the Archbishop of Denver, Reverend Charles J. Chaput.", "Participants criticized the album, Nine Inch Nails' label-mate Marilyn Manson, and the 1999 film ''The Matrix'' for their alleged contribution to the environment that made incidents like Columbine possible.", "The committee requested that the Federal Trade Commission and the United States Department of Justice investigate the entertainment industry's marketing practices to minors.===iPhone application refusal===In 2009, Apple rejected a proposal for a Nine Inch Nails iPhone software application, citing objectionable content in the title track.", "Days later, Apple reversed the decision, but refused to explain its reasoning." ], [ "Track listing", "===Original release==='''Notes'''* The opening sounds of \"Mr. Self Destruct\" are a sample from the film ''THX 1138'' in which a man is being beaten by a prison guard.", "* The sample of screams that plays throughout \"The Becoming\" is from the film ''Robot Jox'', when a giant robot falls on a crowd of spectators.", "* The sample at the beginning of \"Big Man with a Gun\" comes from a studio-altered recording of a porn star having an orgasm.", "According to the album booklet, this \"sample\" is titled \"Steakhouse\" and is credited to Tommy Lee.", "* Japanese pressings of the album contain a cover of Joy Division's song \"Dead Souls\", originally included on the soundtrack to the film ''The Crow''.", "The track is placed in between \"Big Man with a Gun\" and \"A Warm Place\".", "* The break in \"Reptile\" contains an audio sample (starting at 5:06) of a woman falling down a hill from the 1974 film ''The Texas Chain Saw Massacre''.", "* The first Australian pressing has track length errors.", "Affected tracks do not play at their beginnings when selected individually (\"Big Man with a Gun\" has the beginning of \"A Warm Place\" tacked on, likewise all the songs up to \"Hurt\" start 41 seconds earlier than they should.", "\"Hurt\" itself has 44 seconds of silence on the end as a result); however, the disc plays and flows correctly as a whole.===Deluxe edition (Halo 8 DE)===To mark the album's tenth anniversary, ''The Downward Spiral'' was re-released on November 23, 2004, in high-resolution SACD and DualDisc formats.", "Disc one of the album's deluxe edition re-release is nearly identical to the original version; track anomalies such as sounds from previous tracks creeping up on start of tracks are fixed, and it includes a stereo and multi-channel SACD layer.", "The second bonus disc is a collection of remixes and B-sides and also includes a stereo SACD layer in addition to the Redbook CD layer.", "The last three tracks on the bonus disc are previously unreleased demo recordings from the original album.", "'''''DualDisc'' (Halo 8 DVD-A)'''The DualDisc edition of ''The Downward Spiral'' contains the same CD content on Side A as the Deluxe Edition, with a DVD-Audio layer on Side B.", "When played on DVD-Video players a Dolby Digital 5.1 multi-channel or Dolby Digital 2.0 stereo mix of ''The Downward Spiral'' can be selected, along with videos of \"March of the Pigs\", \"Hurt\" and an uncensored video of \"Closer\".", "There is also an interactive discography and an image gallery.", "High resolution 24-bit/48 kHz 5.1 Surround sound and stereo versions of ''The Downward Spiral'' can be played on a DVD-Audio player, allowing the user a similar high fidelity experience as the SACD layer of the Deluxe Edition.", "The DualDisc release does not contain the additional B-sides and demo tracks." ], [ "Personnel", "Credits adapted from the liner notes of ''The Downward Spiral''.", "* Trent Reznor – vocals, all instruments except where noted, arranger, producer (all tracks), mixing (track 14)* Mark \"Flood\" Ellis – producer (tracks 1, 2, 5-7, 10-12), hi-hat (track 5), ARP 2600 synthesizer (track 7)* Chris Vrenna – drums (track 14), programming, additional sampling, additional drums (on \"Burn\"), additional engineering* Adrian Belew – texture generating guitar (track 1), ring mod guitar (track 7)* Danny Lohner – additional guitar (track 9)* Andy Kubiszewski – drums (track 13)* Stephen Perkins – drum loops (track 8)* Charlie Clouser – programming, continuity* Alan Moulder – mixing engineer (tracks 1-8, 10-13), additional engineering* John Aguto – additional engineering* Brian Pollack – additional engineering* Sean Beavan – mixing engineer (track 9), additional engineering* Bill Kennedy – mixing engineer (track 9), additional engineering* Tom Baker – mastering* Bob Ludwig – high-resolution mastering (reissue)* James Brown – 5.1 mix (reissue)* Neal Ferrazzani – assistance (reissue)* Russell Mills – paintings* David Buckland – photography* Gary Talpas – package* Rob Sheridan – package, additional photography (reissue)" ], [ "Charts", "===Weekly charts=== Chart (1994) Peakposition European Albums (''Music & Media'') 38 Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista) 34===Year-end charts=== Chart (1994) Position Canada Top Albums/CDs (''RPM'') 92 US ''Billboard'' 200 59 Chart (1995) Position US ''Billboard'' 200 69" ], [ "Certifications" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* *" ], [ "External links", "* Album review — By AbsolutePunk* Album review — By ''Alternative Press''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Egyptian Lover" ], [ "Introduction", "A concert ticket from a 1987 Egyptian Lover performance in Lafayette, Louisiana.", "'''Gregory James Broussard''' (born August 31, 1963), better known by his stage name '''Egyptian Lover''', is an American musician, vocalist, producer and DJ, and was a part of the L.A. dance music, electro, and rap scene in the early 1980s." ], [ "History", "The Egyptian Lover was born in Los Angeles, California, and started out there as a DJ with Uncle Jamm's Army, DJing dances as large as the L.A. Sports Arena with 10,000 people.", "He began recording around Los Angeles in 1982 as a member of the Radio Crew, as well as Uncle Jamm's Army.", "Members of Uncle Jamm's Army and the World Class Wreckin' Cru, including Dr. Dre, The Unknown DJ, Egyptian Lover, Ice-T and Kid Frost would later go on to help define the early West Coast Hip-Hop sound throughout the 1980s.Most of the Egyptian Lover's successful recordings were 12\" singles.", "\"Egypt, Egypt\" was one of the most popular, which was called part of the \"b-boy canon.\"", "He eventually released some of the earliest rap LPs, but they were less popular commercially than his singles.", "On the strength of an alternate mix of his most popular single \"Egypt, Egypt\", 1984's ''On the Nile'' was moderately successful, reaching the Billboard Top 200.It was called \"one of the first hip-hop records to come out of the left coast\".", "He also collaborated with several other hip-hop and dance music artists.", "After a break in the early 1990s, Egyptian Lover returned in 1994 with ''Back from the Tomb'', his first full-length album in over ten years.The Egyptian Lover also established his own record company, Egyptian Empire Records, which included artists such as Rodney O & Joe Cooley, 2 O'Clock & Te & Joezee.His 2015 release, ''1984'', continues his tradition of using all analog equipment, including the Roland TR-808, along with much of the same gear used on his recordings of the 1980s.", "The name \"1984\" refers to his earlier albums.", "The album was recorded at Skip Saylor, Encore Studios, and at RUSK Studios, the same studio where ''On The Nile'' was recorded in 1984.It is widely available on double gatefold LP, CD and cassette tape.=== 2000s ===* 2005 – New single \"Party\", backed with \"Dancefloor\"* February 2006 – ''Platinum Pyramids'' was released* End of 2006 – Recorded \"UFO\" and \"Futuristic\" with Jamie Jupiter for Jupiter's new 12\" single (never released)* 2007 – Remade \"Modernaire\" by Dez Dickerson (from the film ''Purple Rain'') for the label Citinite* 2007 – Collaborated with Clone Machine and Egypt Ear Werk* December 2008 – Released exclusive songs on iTunes: \"Electro Pharaoh\", \"Freaky D.J.", "\", and \"Scandinavian Summer\"* 2008 – Joined Who Cares on the song \"They Killed the Radio\"* 2008 – Worked with Jamie Jones on the song \"Galactic Space Bar\"* 2008 – Worked with M.I.A.", "on \"Rock off Shake off\" for new artist Rye Rye* May 2009 – Collaborated with Debonaire on \"Do U Wanna Get Down?\"", "for a new Street Sounds compilation* May 2009 – New video \"Freaky D.J.\"", "with producer/director Victor Brooks a.k.a.", "Who007* 2009 – New album that included songs \"Electro Pharaoh\", \"U.F.O.", "\", \"Freaky D.J.", "\", \"BellyDance\", \"Scandinavian Summer\", and \"Do U Wanna Get Down?", "\"* June 2009 – Remix of James Pants's Cosmic Rapp was released* 2011 – work on new album entitled ''1984'' begins* 2014 – Collaborated with Dye on the song \"She's Bad\"* 2015 – 1984 released=== Touring ===The Egyptian Lover began touring again in 2004 throughout Europe, Asia, and North America.", "His performances often begin with mixing records on turntables before segueing into his original compositions.In 2008, he supported M.I.A.", "in her People vs. Money Tour." ], [ "Discography", "===Albums===YearAlbumChart positions US USR&B 1984 ''On the Nile'' 146 44 1986 ''One Track Mind'' – 37 1988 ''Filthy'' – 99 1989 ''King of Ecstasy'' – – 1990 ''Get Into It'' – 72 1993 ''Pyramix'' – – 1994 ''Back from the Tomb'' – – 1998 ''Get Into It'' – – 2006 ''Platinum Pyramids'' – – 2015 ''1984'' – – 2018 ''1985'' – –2021 ''1986'' – –===EPs===* 1984 – \"Egypt, Egypt EP\"* 2009 – \"Electro Pharaoh\"* 2009 – \"James Pants Meets Egyptian Lover\" (split 12\" with James Pants)===Compilation albums===* 2016 – ''1983-1988''===Charted singles=== Year Title Chart positions USDance USR&B 1984 \"Egypt, Egypt\" – 671987 \"The Lover\" – 50 \"Freakaholic\" 43 52" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Westcoastpioneers Biography page* * Egyptian Lover on MySpace" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electrical telegraph" ], [ "Introduction", "Cooke and Wheatstone's five-needle telegraph from 1837Morse TelegraphHughes telegraph, an early (1855) teleprinter built by Siemens and Halske'''Electrical telegraphs''' were point-to-point text messaging systems, primarily used from the 1840s until the late 20th century.", "It was the first electrical telecommunications system and the most widely used of a number of early messaging systems called ''telegraphs'', that were devised to communicate text messages quicker than physical transportation.", "Electrical telegraphy can be considered to be the first example of electrical engineering.", "Text telegraphy consisted of two or more geographically separated stations, called telegraph offices.", "The offices were connected by wires, usually supported overhead on utility poles.", "Many different electrical telegraph systems were invented, but the ones that became widespread fit into two broad categories.", "The first category consists of needle telegraphs in which a needle pointer is made to move electromagnetically with an electric current sent down the telegraph line.", "Early systems used multiple needles requiring multiple wires.", "The first commercial system, and the most widely used needle telegraph, was the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, invented in 1837.The second category consists of armature systems in which the current activates a telegraph sounder that makes a click.", "The archetype of this category was the Morse system, invented by Samuel Morse in 1838.In 1865, the Morse system became the standard for international communication using a modified code developed for German railways.Electrical telegraphs were used by the emerging railway companies to develop train control systems, minimizing the chances of trains colliding with each other.", "This was built around the signalling block system with signal boxes along the line communicating with their neighbouring boxes by telegraphic sounding of single-stroke bells and three-position needle telegraph instruments.In the 1840s, the electrical telegraph superseded optical telegraph systems, becoming the standard way to send urgent messages.", "By the latter half of the century, most developed nations had created commercial telegraph networks with local telegraph offices in most cities and towns, allowing the public to send messages called telegrams addressed to any person in the country, for a fee.", "Beginning in 1850, submarine telegraph cables allowed for the first rapid communication between continents.", "Electrical telegraph networks permitted people and commerce to transmit messages across both continents and oceans almost instantly, with widespread social and economic impacts.", ", the electric telegraph led to Guglielmo Marconi's invention of wireless telegraphy, the first means of radiowave telecommunication.", "In the early 20th century, manual telegraphy was slowly replaced by teleprinter networks.", "Increasing use of the telephone pushed telegraphy into a few specialist uses.", "Use by the general public was mainly special occasion telegram greetings.", "The rise of the Internet and usage of email in the 1990s largely put an end to dedicated telegraphy networks." ], [ "History", "=== Precursors ===Prior to the electric telegraph, visual systems were used, including beacons, smoke signals, flag semaphore, and optical telegraphs for visual signals to communicate over distances of land.", "An auditory predecessor was West African talking drums.", "In the 19th century, Yoruba drummers used talking drums to mimic human tonal language to communicate complex messages - usually regarding news of birth, ceremonies, and military conflict - over 4-5 mile distances.===Early work===Sömmering's electric telegraph in 1809From early studies of electricity, electrical phenomena were known to travel with great speed, and many experimenters worked on the application of electricity to communications at a distance.", "All the known effects of electricity—such as sparks, electrostatic attraction, chemical changes, electric shocks, and later electromagnetism—were applied to the problems of detecting controlled transmissions of electricity at various distances.", "In 1753, an anonymous writer in the ''Scots Magazine'' suggested an electrostatic telegraph.", "Using one wire for each letter of the alphabet, a message could be transmitted by connecting the wire terminals in turn to an electrostatic machine, and observing the deflection of pith balls at the far end.", "The writer has never been positively identified, but the letter was signed C.M.", "and posted from Renfrew leading to a Charles Marshall of Renfrew being suggested.", "Telegraphs employing electrostatic attraction were the basis of early experiments in electrical telegraphy in Europe, but were abandoned as being impractical and were never developed into a useful communication system.In 1774, Georges-Louis Le Sage realised an early electric telegraph.", "The telegraph had a separate wire for each of the 26 letters of the alphabet and its range was only between two rooms of his home.In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile, providing a continuous current of electricity for experimentation.", "This became a source of a low-voltage current that could be used to produce more distinct effects, and which was far less limited than the momentary discharge of an electrostatic machine, which with Leyden jars were the only previously known human-made sources of electricity.", "Another very early experiment in electrical telegraphy was an \"electrochemical telegraph\" created by the German physician, anatomist and inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmering in 1809, based on an earlier 1804 design by Spanish polymath and scientist Francisco Salva Campillo.", "Both their designs employed multiple wires (up to 35) to represent almost all Latin letters and numerals.", "Thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to a few kilometers (in von Sömmering's design), with each of the telegraph receiver's wires immersed in a separate glass tube of acid.", "An electric current was sequentially applied by the sender through the various wires representing each letter of a message; at the recipient's end, the currents electrolysed the acid in the tubes in sequence, releasing streams of hydrogen bubbles next to each associated letter or numeral.", "The telegraph receiver's operator would watch the bubbles and could then record the transmitted message.", "This is in contrast to later telegraphs that used a single wire (with ground return).", "Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that an electric current produces a magnetic field that will deflect a compass needle.", "In the same year Johann Schweigger invented the galvanometer, with a coil of wire around a compass, that could be used as a sensitive indicator for an electric current.", "Also that year, André-Marie Ampère suggested that telegraphy could be achieved by placing small magnets under the ends of a set of wires, one pair of wires for each letter of the alphabet.", "He was apparently unaware of Schweigger's invention at the time, which would have made his system much more sensitive.", "In 1825, Peter Barlow tried Ampère's idea but only got it to work over and declared it impractical.", "In 1830 William Ritchie improved on Ampère's design by placing the magnetic needles inside a coil of wire connected to each pair of conductors.", "He successfully demonstrated it, showing the feasibility of the electromagnetic telegraph, but only within a lecture hall.", "In 1825, William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet, with a single winding of uninsulated wire on a piece of varnished iron, which increased the magnetic force produced by electric current.", "Joseph Henry improved it in 1828 by placing several windings of insulated wire around the bar, creating a much more powerful electromagnet which could operate a telegraph through the high resistance of long telegraph wires.", "During his tenure at The Albany Academy from 1826 to 1832, Henry first demonstrated the theory of the 'magnetic telegraph' by ringing a bell through of wire strung around the room in 1831.In 1835, Joseph Henry and Edward Davy independently invented the mercury dipping electrical relay, in which a magnetic needle is dipped into a pot of mercury when an electric current passes through the surrounding coil.", "In 1837, Davy invented the much more practical metallic make-and-break relay which became the relay of choice in telegraph systems and a key component for periodically renewing weak signals.", "Davy demonstrated his telegraph system in Regent's Park in 1837 and was granted a patent on 4 July 1838.Davy also invented a printing telegraph which used the electric current from the telegraph signal to mark a ribbon of calico infused with potassium iodide and calcium hypochlorite.===First working systems===Revolving alphanumeric dial created by Francis Ronalds as part of his electric telegraph (1816)The first working telegraph was built by the English inventor Francis Ronalds in 1816 and used static electricity.", "At the family home on Hammersmith Mall, he set up a complete subterranean system in a long trench as well as an long overhead telegraph.", "The lines were connected at both ends to revolving dials marked with the letters of the alphabet and electrical impulses sent along the wire were used to transmit messages.", "Offering his invention to the Admiralty in July 1816, it was rejected as \"wholly unnecessary\".", "His account of the scheme and the possibilities of rapid global communication in ''Descriptions of an Electrical Telegraph and of some other Electrical Apparatus'' was the first published work on electric telegraphy and even described the risk of signal retardation due to induction.", "Elements of Ronalds' design were utilised in the subsequent commercialisation of the telegraph over 20 years later.Pavel Schilling, an early pioneer of electrical telegraphyThe Schilling telegraph, invented by Baron Schilling von Canstatt in 1832, was an early needle telegraph.", "It had a transmitting device that consisted of a keyboard with 16 black-and-white keys.", "These served for switching the electric current.", "The receiving instrument consisted of six galvanometers with magnetic needles, suspended from silk threads.", "The two stations of Schilling's telegraph were connected by eight wires; six were connected with the galvanometers, one served for the return current and one for a signal bell.", "When at the starting station the operator pressed a key, the corresponding pointer was deflected at the receiving station.", "Different positions of black and white flags on different disks gave combinations which corresponded to the letters or numbers.", "Pavel Schilling subsequently improved its apparatus by reducing the number of connecting wires from eight to two.", "On 21 October 1832, Schilling managed a short-distance transmission of signals between two telegraphs in different rooms of his apartment.", "In 1836, the British government attempted to buy the design but Schilling instead accepted overtures from Nicholas I of Russia.", "Schilling's telegraph was tested on a experimental underground and underwater cable, laid around the building of the main Admiralty in Saint Petersburg and was approved for a telegraph between the imperial palace at Peterhof and the naval base at Kronstadt.", "However, the project was cancelled following Schilling's death in 1837.Schilling was also one of the first to put into practice the idea of the binary system of signal transmission.", "His work was taken over and developed by Moritz von Jacobi who invented telegraph equipment that was used by Tsar Alexander III to connect the Imperial palace at Tsarskoye Selo and Kronstadt Naval Base.", "In 1833, Carl Friedrich Gauss, together with the physics professor Wilhelm Weber in Göttingen, installed a wire above the town's roofs.", "Gauss combined the Poggendorff-Schweigger multiplicator with his magnetometer to build a more sensitive device, the galvanometer.", "To change the direction of the electric current, he constructed a commutator of his own.", "As a result, he was able to make the distant needle move in the direction set by the commutator on the other end of the line.Diagram of alphabet used in a 5-needle Cooke and Wheatstone Telegraph, indicating the letter GAt first, Gauss and Weber used the telegraph to coordinate time, but soon they developed other signals and finally, their own alphabet.", "The alphabet was encoded in a binary code that was transmitted by positive or negative voltage pulses which were generated by means of moving an induction coil up and down over a permanent magnet and connecting the coil with the transmission wires by means of the commutator.", "The page of Gauss' laboratory notebook containing both his code and the first message transmitted, as well as a replica of the telegraph made in the 1850s under the instructions of Weber are kept in the faculty of physics at the University of Göttingen, in Germany.Gauss was convinced that this communication would be of help to his kingdom's towns.", "Later in the same year, instead of a voltaic pile, Gauss used an induction pulse, enabling him to transmit seven letters a minute instead of two.", "The inventors and university did not have the funds to develop the telegraph on their own, but they received funding from Alexander von Humboldt.", "Carl August Steinheil in Munich was able to build a telegraph network within the city in 1835–1836.In 1838, Steinheil installed a telegraph along the Nuremberg–Fürth railway line, built in 1835 as the first German railroad, which was the first earth-return telegraph put into service.By 1837, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone had co-developed a telegraph system which used a number of needles on a board that could be moved to point to letters of the alphabet.", "Any number of needles could be used, depending on the number of characters it was required to code.", "In May 1837 they patented their system.", "The patent recommended five needles, which coded twenty of the alphabet's 26 letters.Morse key and sounderSamuel Morse independently developed and patented a recording electric telegraph in 1837.Morse's assistant Alfred Vail developed an instrument that was called the register for recording the received messages.", "It embossed dots and dashes on a moving paper tape by a stylus which was operated by an electromagnet.", "Morse and Vail developed the Morse code signalling alphabet.", "The first telegram in the United States was sent by Morse on 11 January 1838, across of wire at Speedwell Ironworks near Morristown, New Jersey, although it was only later, in 1844, that he sent the message \"WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT\" over the from the Capitol in Washington to the old Mt.", "Clare Depot in Baltimore." ], [ "Commercial telegraphy", "===Cooke and Wheatstone system===GWR Cooke and Wheatstone double needle telegraph instrumentThe first commercial electrical telegraph was the Cooke and Wheatstone system.", "A demonstration four-needle system was installed on the Euston to Camden Town section of Robert Stephenson's London and Birmingham Railway in 1837 for signalling rope-hauling of locomotives.", "It was rejected in favour of pneumatic whistles.", "Cooke and Wheatstone had their first commercial success with a system installed on the Great Western Railway over the from Paddington station to West Drayton in 1838.This was a five-needle, six-wire system.", "A major advantage of this system was it displayed the letter being sent so operators did not need to learn a code.", "This system suffered from failing insulation on the underground cables.", "When the line was extended to Slough in 1843, the telegraph was converted to a one-needle, two-wire system with uninsulated wires on poles.", "The cost of installing wires was ultimately more economically significant than the cost of training operators.", "The one-needle telegraph proved highly successful on British railways, and 15,000 sets were still in use at the end of the nineteenth century.", "Some remained in service in the 1930s.", "The Electric Telegraph Company, the world's first public telegraphy company was formed in 1845 by financier John Lewis Ricardo and Cooke.===Wheatstone ABC telegraph===A magneto-powered Wheatstone A.", "B. C. telegraph with the horizontal \"communicator\" dial, the inclined \"indicator\" dial and crank handle for the magneto that generated the electrical signal.Wheatstone developed a practical alphabetical system in 1840 called the A.B.C.", "System, used mostly on private wires.", "This consisted of a \"communicator\" at the sending end and an \"indicator\" at the receiving end.", "The communicator consisted of a circular dial with a pointer and the 26 letters of the alphabet (and four punctuation marks) around its circumference.", "Against each letter was a key that could be pressed.", "A transmission would begin with the pointers on the dials at both ends set to the start position.", "The transmitting operator would then press down the key corresponding to the letter to be transmitted.", "In the base of the communicator was a magneto actuated by a handle on the front.", "This would be turned to apply an alternating voltage to the line.", "Each half cycle of the current would advance the pointers at both ends by one position.", "When the pointer reached the position of the depressed key, it would stop and the magneto would be disconnected from the line.", "The communicator's pointer was geared to the magneto mechanism.", "The indicator's pointer was moved by a polarised electromagnet whose armature was coupled to it through an escapement.", "Thus the alternating line voltage moved the indicator's pointer on to the position of the depressed key on the communicator.", "Pressing another key would then release the pointer and the previous key, and re-connect the magneto to the line.", "These machines were very robust and simple to operate, and they stayed in use in Britain until well into the 20th century.===Morse system===the first long-distance message – \"WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT\" – on 24 May, 1844The Morse system uses a single wire between offices.", "At the sending station, an operator taps on a switch called a telegraph key, spelling out text messages in Morse code.", "Originally, the armature was intended to make marks on paper tape, but operators learned to interpret the clicks and it was more efficient to write down the message directly.In 1851, a conference in Vienna of countries in the German-Austrian Telegraph Union (which included many central European countries) adopted the Morse telegraph as the system for international communications.", "The international Morse code adopted was considerably modified from the original American Morse code, and was based on a code used on Hamburg railways (Gerke, 1848).", "A common code was a necessary step to allow direct telegraph connection between countries.", "With different codes, additional operators were required to translate and retransmit the message.", "In 1865, a conference in Paris adopted Gerke's code as the International Morse code and was henceforth the international standard.", "The US, however, continued to use American Morse code internally for some time, hence international messages required retransmission in both directions.In the United States, the Morse/Vail telegraph was quickly deployed in the two decades following the first demonstration in 1844.The overland telegraph connected the west coast of the continent to the east coast by 24 October 1861, bringing an end to the Pony Express.===Foy–Breguet system===Foy–Breguet telegraph displaying the letter \"Q\"France was slow to adopt the electrical telegraph, because of the extensive optical telegraph system built during the Napoleonic era.", "There was also serious concern that an electrical telegraph could be quickly put out of action by enemy saboteurs, something that was much more difficult to do with optical telegraphs which had no exposed hardware between stations.", "The Foy-Breguet telegraph was eventually adopted.", "This was a two-needle system using two signal wires but displayed in a uniquely different way to other needle telegraphs.", "The needles made symbols similar to the Chappe optical system symbols, making it more familiar to the telegraph operators.", "The optical system was decommissioned starting in 1846, but not completely until 1855.In that year the Foy-Breguet system was replaced with the Morse system.===Expansion===As well as the rapid expansion of the use of the telegraphs along the railways, they soon spread into the field of mass communication with the instruments being installed in post offices.", "The era of mass personal communication had begun.", "Telegraph networks were expensive to build, but financing was readily available, especially from London bankers.", "By 1852, National systems were in operation in major countries: + Extent of the telegraph in 1852CountryCompany or systemMiles or kilometersof wirerefUnited StatesUnited KingdomElectric Telegraph Company, Magnetic Telegraph Company, and others|Prussia AustriaCanada France The New York and Mississippi Valley Printing Telegraph Company, for example, was created in 1852 in Rochester, New York and eventually became the Western Union Telegraph Company.", "Although many countries had telegraph networks, there was no ''worldwide'' interconnection.", "Message by post was still the primary means of communication to countries outside Europe.+ Worldwide postal speeds in 1852A letter by post from London took days to reach 12 New York in the United States 13 Alexandria in Egypt 19 Constantinople in Ottoman Turkey 33 Bombay in India (west coast of India) 44 Calcutta in Bengal (east coast of India) 45 Singapore 57 Shanghai in China 73 Sydney in AustraliaTelegraphy was introduced in Central Asia during the 1870s.===Telegraphic improvements===Wheatstone automated telegraph network equipmentA continuing goal in telegraphy was to reduce the cost per message by reducing hand-work, or increasing the sending rate.", "There were many experiments with moving pointers, and various electrical encodings.", "However, most systems were too complicated and unreliable.", "A successful expedient to reduce the cost per message was the development of telegraphese.The first system that did not require skilled technicians to operate was Charles Wheatstone's ABC system in 1840 in which the letters of the alphabet were arranged around a clock-face, and the signal caused a needle to indicate the letter.", "This early system required the receiver to be present in real time to record the message and it reached speeds of up to 15 words a minute.In 1846, Alexander Bain patented a chemical telegraph in Edinburgh.", "The signal current moved an iron pen across a moving paper tape soaked in a mixture of ammonium nitrate and potassium ferrocyanide, decomposing the chemical and producing readable blue marks in Morse code.", "The speed of the printing telegraph was 16 and a half words per minute, but messages still required translation into English by live copyists.", "Chemical telegraphy came to an end in the US in 1851, when the Morse group defeated the Bain patent in the US District Court.For a brief period, starting with the New York–Boston line in 1848, some telegraph networks began to employ sound operators, who were trained to understand Morse code aurally.", "Gradually, the use of sound operators eliminated the need for telegraph receivers to include register and tape.", "Instead, the receiving instrument was developed into a \"sounder\", an electromagnet that was energized by a current and attracted a small iron lever.", "When the sounding key was opened or closed, the sounder lever struck an anvil.", "The Morse operator distinguished a dot and a dash by the short or long interval between the two clicks.", "The message was then written out in long-hand.Royal Earl House developed and patented a letter-printing telegraph system in 1846 which employed an alphabetic keyboard for the transmitter and automatically printed the letters on paper at the receiver, and followed this up with a steam-powered version in 1852.Advocates of printing telegraphy said it would eliminate Morse operators' errors.", "The House machine was used on four main American telegraph lines by 1852.The speed of the House machine was announced as 2600 words an hour.A Baudot keyboard, 1884David Edward Hughes invented the printing telegraph in 1855; it used a keyboard of 26 keys for the alphabet and a spinning type wheel that determined the letter being transmitted by the length of time that had elapsed since the previous transmission.", "The system allowed for automatic recording on the receiving end.", "The system was very stable and accurate and became accepted around the world.The next improvement was the Baudot code of 1874.French engineer Émile Baudot patented a printing telegraph in which the signals were translated automatically into typographic characters.", "Each character was assigned a five-bit code, mechanically interpreted from the state of five on/off switches.", "Operators had to maintain a steady rhythm, and the usual speed of operation was 30 words per minute.By this point, reception had been automated, but the speed and accuracy of the transmission were still limited to the skill of the human operator.", "The first practical automated system was patented by Charles Wheatstone.", "The message (in Morse code) was typed onto a piece of perforated tape using a keyboard-like device called the 'Stick Punch'.", "The transmitter automatically ran the tape through and transmitted the message at the then exceptionally high speed of 70 words per minute.====Teleprinters====Phelps' Electro-motor Printing Telegraph from , the last and most advanced telegraphy mechanism designed by George May PhelpsA Creed Model 7 teleprinter in 1930Teletype Model 33 ASR (Automatic Send and Receive)An early successful teleprinter was invented by Frederick G. Creed.", "In Glasgow he created his first keyboard perforator, which used compressed air to punch the holes.", "He also created a reperforator (receiving perforator) and a printer.", "The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals onto paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper.", "This was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System, which could run at an unprecedented 200 words per minute.", "His system was adopted by the ''Daily Mail'' for daily transmission of the newspaper contents.With the invention of the teletypewriter, telegraphic encoding became fully automated.", "Early teletypewriters used the ITA-1 Baudot code, a five-bit code.", "This yielded only thirty-two codes, so it was over-defined into two \"shifts\", \"letters\" and \"figures\".", "An explicit, unshared shift code prefaced each set of letters and figures.", "In 1901, Baudot's code was modified by Donald Murray.In the 1930s, teleprinters were produced by Teletype in the US, Creed in Britain and Siemens in Germany.By 1935, message routing was the last great barrier to full automation.", "Large telegraphy providers began to develop systems that used telephone-like rotary dialling to connect teletypewriters.", "These resulting systems were called \"Telex\" (TELegraph EXchange).", "Telex machines first performed rotary-telephone-style pulse dialling for circuit switching, and then sent data by ITA2.This \"type A\" Telex routing functionally automated message routing.The first wide-coverage Telex network was implemented in Germany during the 1930s as a network used to communicate within the government.At the rate of 45.45 (±0.5%) baud – considered speedy at the time – up to 25 telex channels could share a single long-distance telephone channel by using ''voice frequency telegraphy multiplexing'', making telex the least expensive method of reliable long-distance communication.Automatic teleprinter exchange service was introduced into Canada by CPR Telegraphs and CN Telegraph in July 1957 and in 1958, Western Union started to build a Telex network in the United States.====The harmonic telegraph====The most expensive aspect of a telegraph system was the installation – the laying of the wire, which was often very long.", "The costs would be better covered by finding a way to send more than one message at a time through the single wire, thus increasing revenue per wire.", "Early devices included the duplex and the quadruplex which allowed, respectively, one or two telegraph transmissions in each direction.", "However, an even greater number of channels was desired on the busiest lines.", "In the latter half of the 1800s, several inventors worked towards creating a method for doing just that, including Charles Bourseul, Thomas Edison, Elisha Gray, and Alexander Graham Bell.One approach was to have resonators of several different frequencies act as carriers of a modulated on-off signal.", "This was the harmonic telegraph, a form of frequency-division multiplexing.", "These various frequencies, referred to as harmonics, could then be combined into one complex signal and sent down the single wire.", "On the receiving end, the frequencies would be separated with a matching set of resonators.With a set of frequencies being carried down a single wire, it was realized that the human voice itself could be transmitted electrically through the wire.", "This effort led to the invention of the telephone.", "(While the work toward packing multiple telegraph signals onto one wire led to telephony, later advances would pack multiple voice signals onto one wire by increasing the bandwidth by modulating frequencies much higher than human hearing.", "Eventually, the bandwidth was widened much further by using laser light signals sent through fiber optic cables.", "Fiber optic transmission can carry 25,000 telephone signals simultaneously down a single fiber.", ")===Oceanic telegraph cables===Major telegraph lines in 1891Soon after the first successful telegraph systems were operational, the possibility of transmitting messages across the sea by way of submarine communications cables was first proposed.", "One of the primary technical challenges was to sufficiently insulate the submarine cable to prevent the electric current from leaking out into the water.", "In 1842, a Scottish surgeon William Montgomerie introduced gutta-percha, the adhesive juice of the ''Palaquium gutta'' tree, to Europe.", "Michael Faraday and Wheatstone soon discovered the merits of gutta-percha as an insulator, and in 1845, the latter suggested that it should be employed to cover the wire which was proposed to be laid from Dover to Calais.", "Gutta-percha was used as insulation on a wire laid across the Rhine between Deutz and Cologne.", "In 1849, C. V. Walker, electrician to the South Eastern Railway, submerged a wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully.John Watkins Brett, an engineer from Bristol, sought and obtained permission from Louis-Philippe in 1847 to establish telegraphic communication between France and England.", "The first undersea cable was laid in 1850, connecting the two countries and was followed by connections to Ireland and the Low Countries.The Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed in London in 1856 to undertake to construct a commercial telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean.", "It was successfully completed on 18 July 1866 by the ship SS ''Great Eastern'', captained by Sir James Anderson, after many mishaps along the away.", "John Pender, one of the men on the Great Eastern, later founded several telecommunications companies primarily laying cables between Britain and Southeast Asia.", "Earlier transatlantic submarine cables installations were attempted in 1857, 1858 and 1865.The 1857 cable only operated intermittently for a few days or weeks before it failed.", "The study of underwater telegraph cables accelerated interest in mathematical analysis of very long transmission lines.", "The telegraph lines from Britain to India were connected in 1870.", "(Those several companies combined to form the ''Eastern Telegraph Company'' in 1872.)", "The HMS ''Challenger'' expedition in 1873–1876 mapped the ocean floor for future underwater telegraph cables.Australia was first linked to the rest of the world in October 1872 by a submarine telegraph cable at Darwin.", "This brought news reports from the rest of the world.", "The telegraph across the Pacific was completed in 1902, finally encircling the world.From the 1850s until well into the 20th century, British submarine cable systems dominated the world system.", "This was set out as a formal strategic goal, which became known as the All Red Line.", "In 1896, there were thirty cable laying ships in the world and twenty-four of them were owned by British companies.", "In 1892, British companies owned and operated two-thirds of the world's cables and by 1923, their share was still 42.7 percent.===Cable and Wireless Company===The Eastern Telegraph Company network in 1901Cable & Wireless was a British telecommunications company that traced its origins back to the 1860s, with Sir John Pender as the founder, although the name was only adopted in 1934.It was formed from successive mergers including: *The Falmouth, Malta, Gibraltar Telegraph Company*The British Indian Submarine Telegraph Company*The Marseilles, Algiers and Malta Telegraph Company*The Eastern Telegraph Company*The Eastern Extension Australasia and China Telegraph Company*The Eastern and Associated Telegraph Companies" ], [ "Telegraphy and longitude", "Main article § Section: .The telegraph was very important for sending time signals to determine longitude, providing greater accuracy than previously available.", "Longitude was measured by comparing local time (for example local noon occurs when the sun is at its highest above the horizon) with absolute time (a time that is the same for an observer anywhere on earth).", "If the local times of two places differ by one hour, the difference in longitude between them is 15° (360°/24h).", "Before telegraphy, absolute time could be obtained from astronomical events, such as eclipses, occultations or lunar distances, or by transporting an accurate clock (a chronometer) from one location to the other.The idea of using the telegraph to transmit a time signal for longitude determination was suggested by François Arago to Samuel Morse in 1837, and the first test of this idea was made by Capt.", "Wilkes of the U.S. Navy in 1844, over Morse's line between Washington and Baltimore.", "The method was soon in practical use for longitude determination, in particular by the U.S. Coast Survey, and over longer and longer distances as the telegraph network spread across North America and the world, and as technical developments improved accuracy and productivityThe \"telegraphic longitude net\" soon became worldwide.", "Transatlantic links between Europe and North America were established in 1866 and 1870.The US Navy extended observations into the West Indies and Central and South America with an additional transatlantic link from South America to Lisbon between 1874 and 1890.British, Russian and US observations created a chain from Europe through Suez, Aden, Madras, Singapore, China and Japan, to Vladivostok, thence to Saint Petersburg and back to Western Europe.Australia was linked to Singapore via Java in 1871 and the web circled the globe in 1902 with the connection of Australia and New Zealand to Canada via the All Red Line.", "The double determination of longitudes from east to west and from west to east agreed within one second of arc ( second of time – less than 30 metres)." ], [ "Telegraphy in war", "The ability to send telegrams brought obvious advantages to those conducting war.", "Secret messages were encoded, so interception alone would not be sufficient for the opposing side to gain an advantage.", "There were also geographical constraints on intercepting the telegraph cables that improved security, however once radio telegraphy was developed interception became far more widespread.===Crimean War===The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use telegraphs and was one of the first to be documented extensively.", "In 1854, the government in London created a military Telegraph Detachment for the Army commanded by an officer of the Royal Engineers.", "It was to comprise twenty-five men from the Royal Corps of Sappers & Miners trained by the Electric Telegraph Company to construct and work the first field electric telegraph.Journalistic recording of the war was provided by William Howard Russell (writing for ''The Times'' newspaper) with photographs by Roger Fenton.", "News from war correspondents kept the public of the nations involved in the war informed of the day-to-day events in a way that had not been possible in any previous war.", "After the French extended the telegraph to the coast of the Black Sea in late 1854, the news reached London in two days.", "When the British laid an underwater cable to the Crimean peninsula in April 1855, news reached London in a few hours.", "The daily news reports energised public opinion, which brought down the government and led to Lord Palmerston becoming prime minister.===American Civil War===During the American Civil War the telegraph proved its value as a tactical, operational, and strategic communication medium and an important contributor to Union victory.", "By contrast the Confederacy failed to make effective use of the South's much smaller telegraph network.", "Prior to the War the telegraph systems were primarily used in the commercial sector.", "Government buildings were not inter-connected with telegraph lines, but relied on runners to carry messages back and forth.", "Before the war the Government saw no need to connect lines within city limits, however, they did see the use in connections between cities.", "Washington D.C. being the hub of government, it had the most connections, but there were only a few lines running north and south out of the city.", "It was not until the Civil War that the government saw the true potential of the telegraph system.", "Soon after the shelling of Fort Sumter, the South cut telegraph lines running into D.C., which put the city in a state of panic because they feared an immediate Southern invasion.Within 6 months of the start of the war, the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps (USMT) had laid approximately of line.", "By war's end they had laid approximately of line, 8,000 for military and 5,000 for commercial use, and had handled approximately 6.5 million messages.", "The telegraph was not only important for communication within the armed forces, but also in the civilian sector, helping political leaders to maintain control over their districts.Even before the war, the American Telegraph Company censored suspect messages informally to block aid to the secession movement.", "During the war, Secretary of War Simon Cameron, and later Edwin Stanton, wanted control over the telegraph lines to maintain the flow of information.", "Early in the war, one of Stanton's first acts as Secretary of War was to move telegraph lines from ending at McClellan's headquarters to terminating at the War Department.", "Stanton himself said \"telegraphy is my right arm\".", "Telegraphy assisted Northern victories, including the Battle of Antietam (1862), the Battle of Chickamauga (1863), and Sherman's March to the Sea (1864).The telegraph system still had its flaws.", "The USMT, while the main source of telegraphers and cable, was still a civilian agency.", "Most operators were first hired by the telegraph companies and then contracted out to the War Department.", "This created tension between generals and their operators.", "One source of irritation was that USMT operators did not have to follow military authority.", "Usually they performed without hesitation, but they were not required to, so Albert Myer created a U.S. Army Signal Corps in February 1863.As the new head of the Signal Corps, Myer tried to get all telegraph and flag signaling under his command, and therefore subject to military discipline.", "After creating the Signal Corps, Myer pushed to further develop new telegraph systems.", "While the USMT relied primarily on civilian lines and operators, the Signal Corp's new field telegraph could be deployed and dismantled faster than USMT's system.===First World War===During World War I, Britain's telegraph communications were almost completely uninterrupted, while it was able to quickly cut Germany's cables worldwide.", "The British government censored telegraph cable companies in an effort to root out espionage and restrict financial transactions with Central Powers nations.", "British access to transatlantic cables and its codebreaking expertise led to the Zimmermann Telegram incident that contributed to the US joining the war.", "Despite British acquisition of German colonies and expansion into the Middle East, debt from the war led to Britain's control over telegraph cables to weaken while US control grew.===Second World War===German Lorenz SZ42 teleprinter attachment (left) and Lorenz military teleprinter (right) at The National Museum of Computing on Bletchley Park, EnglandWorld War II revived the 'cable war' of 1914–1918.In 1939, German-owned cables across the Atlantic were cut once again, and, in 1940, Italian cables to South America and Spain were cut in retaliation for Italian action against two of the five British cables linking Gibraltar and Malta.", "Electra House, Cable & Wireless's head office and central cable station, was damaged by German bombing in 1941.Resistance movements in occupied Europe sabotaged communications facilities such as telegraph lines, forcing the Germans to use wireless telegraphy, which could then be intercepted by Britain.The Germans developed a highly complex teleprinter attachment (German: ''Schlüssel-Zusatz'', \"cipher attachment\") that was used for enciphering telegrams, using the Lorenz cipher, between German High Command (OKW) and the army groups in the field.", "These contained situation reports, battle plans, and discussions of strategy and tactics.", "Britain intercepted these signals, diagnosed how the encrypting machine worked, and decrypted a large amount of teleprinter traffic." ], [ "End of the telegraph era", "In America, the end of the telegraph era can be associated with the fall of the Western Union Telegraph Company.", "Western Union was the leading telegraph provider for America and was seen as the best competition for the National Bell Telephone Company.", "Western Union and Bell were both invested in telegraphy and telephone technology.", "Western Union's decision to allow Bell to gain the advantage in telephone technology was the result of Western Union's upper management's failure to foresee the surpassing of the telephone over the, at the time, dominant telegraph system.", "Western Union soon lost the legal battle for the rights to their telephone copyrights.", "This led to Western Union agreeing to a lesser position in the telephone competition, which in turn led to the lessening of the telegraph.While the telegraph was not the focus of the legal battles that occurred around 1878, the companies that were affected by the effects of the battle were the main powers of telegraphy at the time.", "Western Union thought that the agreement of 1878 would solidify telegraphy as the long-range communication of choice.", "However, due to the underestimates of telegraph's future and poor contracts, Western Union found itself declining.", "AT&T acquired working control of Western Union in 1909 but relinquished it in 1914 under threat of antitrust action.", "AT&T bought Western Union's electronic mail and Telex businesses in 1990.Although commercial \"telegraph\" services are still available in many countries, transmission is usually done via a computer network rather than a dedicated wired connection." ], [ "See also", "* 92 Code* Aurora#Historically significant events* American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T)* Bell Canada* Geomagnetically induced current* Great Northern Telegraph Company* Neutral direct-current telegraph system* Western Electric Company" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "**Bowers, Brian, ''Sir Charles Wheatstone: 1802–1875'', IET, 2001 * * * * * * * Holzmann, Gerard J.; Pehrson, Björn, ''The Early History of Data Networks'', Wiley, 1995 * * Attributed to * * * Mercer, David, ''The Telephone: The Life Story of a Technology'', Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006 *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Cooke, W.F., ''The Electric Telegraph, Was it invented by Prof.", "Wheatstone?", "'', London 1856.", "* * Gauß, C. F., ''Works'', Göttingen 1863–1933.", "* Howe, Daniel Walker, ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848'', Oxford University Press, 2007 .", "* Peterson, M.J.", "Roots of Interconnection: Communications, Transportation and Phases of the Industrial Revolution, International Dimensions of Ethics Education in Science and Engineering Background Reading, Version 1; February 2008.", "* Steinheil, C.A., ''Ueber Telegraphie'', München 1838.", "* Yates, JoAnne.", "The Telegraph's Effect on Nineteenth Century Markets and Firms, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, pp.", "149–163." ], [ "External links", "* Morse Telegraph Club, Inc. (The Morse Telegraph Club is an international non-profit organization dedicated to the perpetuation of the knowledge and traditions of telegraphy.", ")* * Shilling's telegraph, an exhibit of the A.S. Popov Central Museum of Communications* History of electromagnetic telegraph* The first electric telegraphs* The Dawn of Telegraphy * Pavel Shilling and his telegraph- article in ''PCWeek'', Russian edition.", "* Distant Writing – The History of the Telegraph Companies in Britain between 1838 and 1868* NASA – Carrington Super Flare NASA 6 May 2008* How Cables Unite The World – a 1902 article about telegraph networks and technology from the magazine ''The World's Work''* * Indiana telegraph and telephone collection, Rare Books and Manuscripts, Indiana State Library*'' Wonders of electricity and the elements, being a popular account of modern electrical and magnetic discoveries, magnetism and electric machines, the electric telegraph and the electric light, and the metal bases, salt, and acids'' from Science History Institute Digital Collections*'' The electro magnetic telegraph: with an historical account of its rise, progress, and present condition'' from Science History Institute Digital Collections" ] ]
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[ [ "Event" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Event''' may refer to:" ], [ "Gatherings of people", "* Ceremony, an event of ritual significance, performed on a special occasion* Convention (meeting), a gathering of individuals engaged in some common interest* Event management, the organization of events* Festival, an event that celebrates some unique aspect of a community* Happening, a type of artistic performance* Media event, an event created for publicity* Party, a social, recreational or corporate events held* Sporting event, at which athletic competition takes place* Virtual event, a gathering of individuals within a virtual environment" ], [ "Science, technology, and mathematics", "* Event (computing), a software message indicating that something has happened, such as a keystroke or mouse click* Event (philosophy), an object in time, or an instantiation of a property in an object* Event (probability theory), a set of outcomes to which a probability is assigned* Event (relativity), a point in space at an instant in time, i.e.", "a location in spacetime* Event (synchronization primitive), a type of synchronization mechanism* Event (UML), in Unified Modeling Language, a notable occurrence at a particular point in time* Event (particle physics), refers to the results just after a fundamental interaction took place between subatomic particles* Event horizon, a boundary in spacetime, typically surrounding a black hole, beyond which events cannot affect an exterior observer* Extinction event, a sharp decrease in the number of extant species in a short period of time* Impact event, in which an extraterrestrial object impacts planet* Mental event, something that happens in the mind, such as a thought" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* Event film, a term used to describe highly-anticipated blockbusters* ''The Event'', an American conspiracy thriller television series for NBC* ''The Event'' (2003 film), directed by Thom Fitzgerald* ''The Event'' (2015 film), directed by Sergei Loznitsa* ''Derren Brown: The Events'', a Channel 4 television series* ''Event'', a literary magazine published by Douglas College" ], [ "Business", "* Event Communications, a London-based museum design consultancy" ], [ "See also", "* Accident, an accident is an unintended, normally unwanted event that was not directly caused by humans.", "* Competition, a contest between organisms, animals, individuals, groups, etc.", "* Disaster, an event causing significant damage or destruction, loss of life, or change to the environment* Event chain methodology, in project management* Eventing, an equestrian event comprising dressage, cross-country and show-jumping* Eventive (disambiguation)* Grouped events, in philosophy, the experience of two or more events that occur in sequence or concurrently that can be subsequently categorized* ''Event'' (yacht), a yacht built by Amels Holland B.V.* News, new information or information on current events* Phenomenon, any observable occurrence* Portal:Current events, (Wikipedia portal)* Sequence of events* Sustainable event management or event greening* The Event (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Establishing shot" ], [ "Introduction", "An opening shot of the Brooklyn Bridge establishes the setting and trajectory of the film ''Saturday Night Fever''.An '''establishing shot''' in filmmaking and television production sets up, or establishes, the context for a scene by showing the relationship between its important figures and objects.", "It is generally a long or extreme-long shot at the beginning of a scene indicating where, and sometimes when, the remainder of the scene takes place.Establishing shots were more common during the classical era of filmmaking than they are now.", "Today's filmmakers tend to skip the establishing shot in order to move the scene along more quickly, or merely mention the setting in on-screen text (as is done in the ''Law & Order'' franchise).", "In addition, the expositional nature of the shot may be unsuitable to scenes in mysteries, where details are intentionally obscured or left out." ], [ "Use of establishing shots", ";Location: Establishing shots may use famous landmarks to indicate the city where the action is taking place or has moved.", ";Time of day: Sometimes the viewer is guided in their understanding of the action.", "For example, an exterior shot of a building at night followed by an interior shot of people talking implies that the conversation is taking place at night inside that building – the conversation may in fact have been filmed on a studio set far from the apparent location, because of budget, permits, time limitations or convenience.", "In the series ''JAG'', 24-hour Coordinated Universal Time was used for these scenes to reinforce the military setting of the series.", ";Relationship: An establishing shot might be a long shot of a room that shows all the characters from a particular scene.", "For example, a scene about a murder in a college lecture hall might begin with a shot that shows the entire room, including the lecturing professor and the students taking notes.", "A close-up shot can also be used at the beginning of a scene to establish the setting (such as, for the lecture hall scene, a shot of a pencil writing notes).", ";Concept: An establishing shot may also establish a concept, rather than a location.", "For example, opening with a martial arts drill visually establishes the theme of martial arts.", "A shot of rain falling could be an establishing shot, followed by more and more detailed look at the rain, culminating with individual raindrops falling." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Etruscan language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Etruscan''' ( ) was the language of the Etruscan civilization in the ancient region of Etruria, in Etruria Padana and Etruria Campana in what is now Italy.", "Etruscan influenced Latin but was eventually completely superseded by it.", "The Etruscans left around 13,000 inscriptions that have been found so far, only a small minority of which are of significant length; some bilingual inscriptions with texts also in Latin, Greek, or Phoenician; and a few dozen purported loanwords.", "Attested from 700 BC to AD 50, the relation of Etruscan to other languages has been a source of long-running speculation and study, with it mostly being referred to as one of the Tyrsenian languages, at times as an isolate and a number of other less well-known theories.The consensus among linguists and Etruscologists is that Etruscan was a Pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European language, closely related to the Raetic language that was spoken in the Alps, and to the Lemnian language, attested in a few inscriptions on Lemnos.The Etruscan alphabet is similar to the Greek one.", "Therefore, linguists have been able to read the inscriptions in the sense of knowing roughly how they would have been pronounced, but have not yet understood their meaning.A comparison between the Etruscan and Greek alphabets reveals how accurately the Etruscans preserved the Greek alphabet.", "The Etruscan alphabet contains letters that have since been dropped from the Greek alphabet, such as the digamma, sampi and qoppa.Grammatically, the language is agglutinating, with nouns and verbs showing suffixed inflectional endings and some gradation of vowels.", "Nouns show five cases, singular and plural numbers, with a gender distinction between animate and inanimate in pronouns.Etruscan appears to have had a cross-linguistically common phonological system, with four phonemic vowels and an apparent contrast between aspirated and unaspirated stops.", "The records of the language suggest that phonetic change took place over time, with the loss and then re-establishment of word-internal vowels, possibly due to the effect of Etruscan's word-initial stress.Etruscan religion influenced that of the Romans, and many of the few surviving Etruscan-language artifacts are of votive or religious significance.", "Etruscan was written in an alphabet derived from the Greek alphabet; this alphabet was the source of the Latin alphabet, as well as other alphabets in Italy and probably beyond.", "The Etruscan language is also believed to be the source of certain important cultural words of Western Europe such as ''military'' and ''person'', which do not have obvious Indo-European roots." ], [ "History of Etruscan literacy", "Drawing of the inscriptions on the Liver of Piacenza; see ''haruspex''Etruscan literacy was widespread over the Mediterranean shores, as evidenced by about 13,000 inscriptions (dedications, epitaphs, etc.", "), most fairly short, but some of considerable length.", "They date from about 700 BC.The Etruscans had a rich literature, as noted by Latin authors.", "Livy and Cicero were both aware that highly specialized Etruscan religious rites were codified in several sets of books written in Etruscan under the generic Latin title .", "The dealt with divination by reading entrails from a sacrificed animal, while the expounded the art of divination by observing lightning.", "A third set, the , might have provided a key to Etruscan civilization: its wider scope embraced Etruscan standards of social and political life, as well as ritual practices.", "According to the 4th-century AD Latin writer Maurus Servius Honoratus, a fourth set of Etruscan books existed, dealing with animal gods, but it is unlikely that any scholar living in that era could have read Etruscan.", "However, only one book (as opposed to inscription), the ''Liber Linteus'', survived, and only because the linen on which it was written was used as mummy wrappings.By 30 BC, Livy noted that Etruscan was once widely taught to Roman boys, but had since become replaced by the teaching of Greek, while Varro noted that theatrical works had once been composed in Etruscan.===Demise===The date of extinction for Etruscan is held by scholarship to have been either in the late first century BC, or the early first century AD.", "Freeman's analysis of inscriptional evidence would appear to imply that Etruscan was still flourishing in the 2nd century BC, still alive in the first century BC, and surviving in at least one location in the beginning of the first century AD; however, the replacement of Etruscan by Latin likely occurred earlier in southern regions closer to Rome.In southern Etruria, the first Etruscan site to be Latinized was Veii, when it was destroyed and repopulated by Romans in 396 BC.", "Caere (Cerveteri), another southern Etruscan town on the coast 45 kilometers from Rome, appears to have shifted to Latin in the late 2nd century BC.", "In Tarquinia and Vulci, Latin inscriptions coexisted with Etruscan inscriptions in wall paintings and grave markers for centuries, from the 3rd century BC until the early 1st century BC, after which Etruscan is replaced by the exclusive use of Latin.In northern Etruria, Etruscan inscriptions continue after they disappear in southern Etruria.", "At Clusium (Chiusi), tomb markings show mixed Latin and Etruscan in the first half of the 1st century BC, with cases where two subsequent generations are inscribed in Latin and then the third, youngest generation, surprisingly, is transcribed in Etruscan.", "At Perugia, monolingual monumental inscriptions in Etruscan are still seen in the first half of the 1st century BC, while the period of bilingual inscriptions appears to have stretched from the 3rd century to the late 1st century BC.", "The isolated last bilinguals are found at three northern sites.", "Inscriptions in Arezzo include one dated to 40 BC followed by two with slightly later dates, while in Volterra there is one dated to just after 40 BC and a final one dated to 10–20 AD; coins with written Etruscan near Saena have also been dated to 15 BC.", "Freeman notes that in rural areas the language may have survived a bit longer, and that a survival into the late 1st century AD and beyond \"cannot wholly be dismissed\", especially given the revelation of Oscan writing in Pompeii's walls.Despite the apparent extinction of Etruscan, it appears that Etruscan religious rites continued much later, continuing to use the Etruscan names of deities and possibly with some liturgical usage of the language.", "In late Republican and early Augustan times, various Latin sources including Cicero noted the esteemed reputation of Etruscan soothsayers.", "An episode where lightning struck an inscription with the name Caesar, turning it into Aesar, was interpreted to have been a premonition of the deification of Caesar because of the resemblance to Etruscan , meaning 'gods', although this indicates knowledge of a single word and not the language.", "Centuries later and long after Etruscan is thought to have died out, Ammianus Marcellinus reports that Julian the Apostate, the last pagan Emperor, apparently had Etruscan soothsayers accompany him on his military campaigns with books on war, lightning and celestial events, but the language of these books is unknown.", "According to Zosimus, when Rome was faced with destruction by Alaric in 408 AD, the protection of nearby Etruscan towns was attributed to Etruscan pagan priests who claimed to have summoned a raging thunderstorm, and they offered their services \"in the ancestral manner\" to Rome as well, but the devout Christians of Rome refused the offer, preferring death to help by pagans.", "Freeman notes that these events may indicate that a limited theological knowledge of Etruscan may have survived among the priestly caste much longer.", "One 19th-century writer argued in 1892 that Etruscan deities retained an influence on early modern Tuscan folklore.Around 180 AD, the Latin author Aulus Gellius mentions Etruscan alongside the Gaulish language in an anecdote.", "Freeman notes that although Gaulish was clearly still alive during Gellius' time, his testimony may not indicate that Etruscan was still alive because the phrase could indicate a meaning of the sort of \"it's all Greek (incomprehensible) to me\".At the time of its extinction, only a few educated Romans with antiquarian interests, such as Marcus Terentius Varro, could read Etruscan.", "The Roman emperor Claudius (10 BC – AD 54) is considered to have possibly been able to read Etruscan, and authored the Tyrrhenika, a (now lost) treatise on Etruscan history; a separate dedication made by Claudius implies a knowledge from \"diverse Etruscan sources\", but it is unclear if any were fluent speakers of Etruscan.", "Plautia Urgulanilla, the emperor's first wife, had Etruscan roots.Etruscan had some influence on Latin, as a few dozen Etruscan words and names were borrowed by the Romans, some of which remain in modern languages, among which are possibly 'vulture', 'trumpet', 'sheath', 'people'.Maximum extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "Inscriptions have been found in northwest and west-central Italy, in the region that even now bears the name of the Etruscan civilization, Tuscany (from Latin 'Etruscans'), as well as in modern Latium north of Rome, in today's Umbria west of the Tiber, in the Po Valley to the north of Etruria, and in Campania.", "This range may indicate a maximum Italian homeland where the language was at one time spoken.Outside Italy, inscriptions have been found in Corsica, Gallia Narbonensis, Greece, the Balkans.", "But by far the greatest concentration is in Italy." ], [ "Classification", "===Tyrsenian family hypothesis===Tyrrhenian language family tree as proposed by de Simone and Marchesini (2013)In 1998, Helmut Rix put forward the view that Etruscan is related to other extinct languages such as Raetic, spoken in ancient times in the eastern Alps, and Lemnian, to which other scholars added Camunic language, spoken in the Central Alps.Rix's Tyrsenian language family has gained widespread acceptance among scholars, being confirmed by Stefan Schumacher, Norbert Oettinger, Carlo De Simone, and Simona Marchesini.", "Common features between Etruscan, Raetic, and Lemnian have been found in morphology, phonology, and syntax, but only a few lexical correspondences are documented, at least partly due to the scant number of Raetic and Lemnian texts.", "On the other hand, the Tyrsenian family, or Common Tyrrhenic, is often considered to be Paleo-European and to predate the arrival of Indo-European languages in southern Europe.", "Several scholars believe that the Lemnian language could have arrived in the Aegean Sea during the Late Bronze Age, when Mycenaean rulers recruited groups of mercenaries from Sicily, Sardinia and various parts of the Italian peninsula.", "Scholars such as Norbert Oettinger, Michel Gras and Carlo De Simone think that Lemnian is the testimony of an Etruscan commercial settlement on the island that took place before 700 BC, not related to the Sea Peoples.==== Archeogenetic studies ====A 2021 archeogenetic analysis of Etruscan individuals, who lived between 800 BC and 1 BC, concluded that the Etruscans were autochthonous and genetically similar to the Early Iron Age Latins, and that the Etruscan language, and therefore the other languages of the Tyrrhenian family, may be a surviving language of the ones that were widespread in Europe from at least the Neolithic period before the arrival of the Indo-European languages, as already argued by German geneticist Johannes Krause who concluded that it is likely that the Etruscan language (as well as Basque, Paleo-Sardinian and Minoan) \"developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution\".", "The lack of recent Anatolian-related admixture and Iranian-related ancestry among the Etruscans, who genetically joined firmly to the European cluster, might also suggest that the presence of a handful of inscriptions found at Lemnos, in a language related to Etruscan and Raetic, \"could represent population movements departing from the Italian peninsula\".=== Superseded theories and fringe scholarship ===For many hundreds of years the classification of Etruscan remained problematic for historical linguists, though it was almost universally agreed upon that Etruscan was a language unlike any other in Europe.", "Before it gained currency as one of the Tyrrhenian languages, Etruscan was commonly treated as a language isolate.", "Over the centuries many hypotheses on the Etruscan language have been developed, most of which have not been accepted or have been considered highly speculative since they were published.", "The major consensus among scholars is that Etruscan, and therefore all the languages of the Tyrrhenian family, is neither Indo-European nor Semitic, and may be a Pre–Indo-European and Paleo-European language.", "At present the major consensus is that Etruscan's only kinship is with the Raetic and Lemnian languages.==== Pre-Greek substrate hypothesis ====The idea of a relation between the language of the Minoan Linear A scripts was taken into consideration as the main hypothesis by Michael Ventris before he discovered that, in fact, the language behind the later Linear B script was Mycenean, a Greek dialect.", "It has been proposed to possibly be part of a wider Paleo-European \"Aegean\" language family, which would also include Minoan, Eteocretan (possibly descended from Minoan) and Eteocypriot.", "This has been proposed by Giulio Mauro Facchetti, a researcher who has dealt with both Etruscan and Minoan, and supported by S. Yatsemirsky, referring to some similarities between Etruscan and Lemnian on one hand, and Minoan and Eteocretan on the other.It has also been proposed that this language family is related to the pre-Indo-European languages of Anatolia, based upon place name analysis.", "The relationship between Etruscan and Minoan, and hypothetical unattested pre-Indo-European languages of Anatolia, is considered unfounded.==== Anatolian Indo-European family hypothesis ====Some have suggested that Tyrsenian languages may yet be distantly related to early Indo-European languages, such as those of the Anatolian branch.", "More recently, Robert S. P. Beekes argued in 2002 that the people later known as the Lydians and Etruscans had originally lived in northwest Anatolia, with a coastline to the Sea of Marmara, whence they were driven by the Phrygians ''circa'' 1200 BC, leaving a remnant known in antiquity as the Tyrsenoi.", "A segment of this people moved south-west to Lydia, becoming known as the Lydians, while others sailed away to take refuge in Italy, where they became known as Etruscans.", "This account draws on the well-known story by Herodotus (I, 94) of the Lydian origin of the Etruscans or Tyrrhenians, famously rejected by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (book I), partly on the authority of Xanthus, a Lydian historian, who had no knowledge of the story, and partly on what he judged to be the different languages, laws, and religions of the two peoples.", "In 2006, Frederik Woudhuizen went further on Herodotus' traces, suggesting that Etruscan belongs to the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European family, specifically to Luwian.", "Woudhuizen revived a conjecture to the effect that the Tyrsenians came from Anatolia, including Lydia, whence they were driven by the Cimmerians in the early Iron Age, 750–675 BC, leaving some colonists on Lemnos.", "He makes a number of comparisons of Etruscan to Luwian and asserts that Etruscan is modified Luwian.", "He accounts for the non-Luwian features as a Mysian influence: \"deviations from Luwian ... may plausibly be ascribed to the dialect of the indigenous population of Mysia.\"", "According to Woudhuizen, the Etruscans were initially colonizing the Latins, bringing the alphabet from Anatolia.", "For historical, archaeological, genetic, and linguistic reasons, a relationship between Etruscan and the Indo-European Anatolian languages (Lydian or Luwian) and the idea that the Etruscans initially colonized the Latins, bringing the alphabet from Anatolia, have not been accepted, since the account by Herodotus is no longer considered reliable.====Other theories ====The interest in Etruscan antiquities and the Etruscan language found its modern origin in a book by a Renaissance Dominican friar, Annio da Viterbo, a cabalist and orientalist now remembered mainly for literary forgeries.", "In 1498, Annio published his antiquarian miscellany titled (in 17 volumes) where he put together a theory in which both the Hebrew and Etruscan languages were said to originate from a single source, the \"Aramaic\" spoken by Noah and his descendants, founders of the Etruscan city Viterbo.The 19th century saw numerous attempts to reclassify Etruscan.", "Ideas of Semitic origins found supporters until this time.", "In 1858, the last attempt was made by Johann Gustav Stickel, Jena University in his .", "A reviewer concluded that Stickel brought forward every possible argument which would speak for that hypothesis, but he proved the opposite of what he had attempted to do.", "In 1861, Robert Ellis proposed that Etruscan was related to Armenian.", "Exactly 100 years later, a relationship with Albanian was to be advanced by Zecharia Mayani, a theory regarded today as disproven and discredited.Several theories from the late 19th and early 20th centuries connected Etruscan to Uralic or even Altaic languages.", "In 1874, the British scholar Isaac Taylor brought up the idea of a genetic relationship between Etruscan and Hungarian, of which also Jules Martha would approve in his exhaustive study (1913).", "In 1911, the French orientalist Baron Carra de Vaux suggested a connection between Etruscan and the Altaic languages.", "The Hungarian connection was revived by Mario Alinei, Emeritus Professor of Italian Languages at the University of Utrecht.", "Alinei's proposal has been rejected by Etruscan experts such as Giulio M. Facchetti, Finno-Ugric experts such as Angela Marcantonio, and by Hungarian historical linguists such as Bela Brogyanyi.", "Another proposal, pursued mainly by a few linguists from the former Soviet Union, suggested a relationship with Northeast Caucasian (or Nakh-Daghestanian) languages.", "None of these theories has been accepted nor enjoys consensus." ], [ "Writing system", "===Alphabet===''The Orator'', ca.", "100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze sculpture depicting Aule Metele (Latin: ''Aulus Metellus''), an Etruscan man of Roman senatorial rank, engaging in rhetoric.", "The statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabetThe Latin script owes its existence to the Etruscan alphabet, which was adapted for Latin in the form of the Old Italic script.", "The Etruscan alphabet employs a Euboean variant of the Greek alphabet using the letter digamma and was in all probability transmitted through Pithecusae and Cumae, two Euboean settlements in southern Italy.", "This system is ultimately derived from West Semitic scripts.The Etruscans recognized a 26-letter alphabet, which makes an early appearance incised for decoration on a small bucchero terracotta lidded vase in the shape of a cockerel at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, ca.", "650–600 BC.", "The full complement of 26 has been termed the model alphabet.", "The Etruscans did not use four letters of it, mainly because Etruscan did not have the voiced stops ''b'', ''d'' and ''g''; the ''o'' was also not used.", "They innovated one letter for ''f'' ().===Text===Writing was from right to left except in archaic inscriptions, which occasionally used boustrophedon.", "An example found at Cerveteri used left to right.", "In the earliest inscriptions, the words are continuous.", "From the 6th century BC, they are separated by a dot or a colon, which might also be used to separate syllables.", "Writing was phonetic; the letters represented the sounds and not conventional spellings.", "On the other hand, many inscriptions are highly abbreviated and often casually formed, so the identification of individual letters is sometimes difficult.", "Spelling might vary from city to city, probably reflecting differences of pronunciation.===Complex consonant clusters===Speech featured a heavy stress on the first syllable of a word, causing syncopation by weakening of the remaining vowels, which then were not represented in writing: ''Alcsntre'' for ''Alexandros'', ''Rasna'' for ''Rasena''.", "This speech habit is one explanation of the Etruscan \"impossible\" consonant clusters.", "Some of the consonants, especially resonants, however, may have been syllabic, accounting for some of the clusters (see below under Consonants).", "In other cases, the scribe sometimes inserted a vowel: Greek ''Hēraklēs'' became ''Hercle'' by syncopation and then was expanded to ''Herecele''.", "Pallottino regarded this variation in vowels as \"instability in the quality of vowels\" and accounted for the second phase (e.g.", "''Herecele'') as \"vowel harmony, i.e., of the assimilation of vowels in neighboring syllables\".===Phases===The writing system had two historical phases: the archaic from the seventh to fifth centuries BC, which used the early Greek alphabet, and the later from the fourth to first centuries BC, which modified some of the letters.", "In the later period, syncopation increased.The alphabet went on in modified form after the language disappeared.", "In addition to being the source of the Roman and early Oscan and Umbrian alphabets, it has been suggested that it passed northward into Veneto and from there through Raetia into the Germanic lands, where it became the Elder Futhark alphabet, the oldest form of the runes." ], [ "Corpus", "The Etruscan corpus is edited in the ''Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum'' (CIE) and ''Thesaurus Linguae Etruscae'' (TLE).The Pyrgi Tablets, laminated sheets of gold with a treatise both in Etruscan and the Phoenician language, in the Etruscan Museum in Rome===Bilingual text===The Pyrgi Tablets are a bilingual text in Etruscan and Phoenician engraved on three gold leaves, one for the Phoenician and two for the Etruscan.", "The Etruscan language portion has 16 lines and 37 words.", "The date is roughly 500 BC.The tablets were found in 1964 by Massimo Pallottino during an excavation at the ancient Etruscan port of Pyrgi, now Santa Severa.", "The only new Etruscan word that could be extracted from close analysis of the tablets was the word for 'three', .===Longer texts===According to Rix and his collaborators, only two unified (though fragmentary) long texts are available in Etruscan:* The ''Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis'', which was later used for mummy wrappings in Egypt.", "Roughly 1,200 words of readable (but not fully translatable) text, mainly repetitious prayers probably comprising a kind of religious calendar, yielded about 50 lexical items.", "* The ''Tabula Capuana'' (the inscribed tile from Capua) has about 300 readable words in 62 lines, dating to the fifth century BC.", "It again seems to be a religious calendar.Some additional longer texts are:* The inscription of 59 words on the Sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas, also known as The Magistrate, dating from the third century bce, discovered in Tarquinia, now residing in Museo Nazionale Archeologico (Tarquinia, Viterbo, Lazio, Italy).", "* The lead foils of Punta della Vipera have about 40 legible words having to do with ritual formulae.", "It is dated to about 500 BC.", "* The Cippus Perusinus, a stone slab (cippus) found at Perugia, which probably functioned as a border marker, contains 46 lines and about 130 words.", "The cippus is assumed to be a text dedicating a legal contract between the Etruscan families of Velthina (from Perugia) and Afuna (from Chiusi), regarding the sharing or use of a property, including water rights, upon which there was a tomb belonging to the noble Velthinas.", "* The Piacenza Liver, a bronze model of a sheep's liver representing the sky, has the engraved names of the gods ruling different sections.", "* The Tabula Cortonensis, a bronze tablet from Cortona, is believed to record a legal contract between Cusu family and Petru Scevas and his wife concerning a real estate settlement of some sort, with about 200 words.", "Discovered in 1992, this new tablet contributed the word for 'lake', , but not much else.", "* The Vicchio stele, found in the 21st season of excavation at the Etruscan Sanctuary at Poggio Colla, is believed to be connected with the cult of the goddess Uni, with about 120 letters.", "Only discovered in 2016, it is still in the process of being deciphered.", "As an example of difficulties in reading this badly damaged monument, here is Maggiani's attempt at a transliteration and translation of a bit from the beginning of the third block of text (III, 1-3): (vacat) tinaś: θ(?", ")anuri: unial(?", ")/ ẹ ṿ ị: zal / ame (akil??)", "\"for Tinia in the xxxx of Uni/xxxx(objects) two / must (akil ?)", "be...\"* The badly damaged Saint Marinella lead sheet contains traces of 80 words, only half of which can be completely read with certainty, many of which can also be found in the Liber Linteus.", "It was discovered during the 1963-1964 excavations at a sanctuary near Saint Marinella near Pyrgi, now in the Villa Giulia Museum in Rome.", "* The Lead Plaque of Magliano contains 73 words, including many names of deities.", "It seems to be a series of dedications to various gods and ancestors.===Inscriptions on monuments===Tumulus on a street at Banditaccia, the main necropolis of CaereThe main material repository of Etruscan civilization, from the modern perspective, is its tombs, all other public and private buildings having been dismantled and the stone reused centuries ago.", "The tombs are the main source of Etruscan portables, provenance unknown, in collections throughout the world.", "Their incalculable value has created a brisk black market in Etruscan ''objets d'art'' – and equally brisk law enforcement effort, as it is illegal to remove any objects from Etruscan tombs without authorization from the Italian government.The magnitude of the task involved in cataloguing them means that the total number of tombs is unknown.", "They are of many types.", "Especially plentiful are the hypogeal or \"underground\" chambers or system of chambers cut into tuff and covered by a tumulus.", "The interior of these tombs represents a habitation of the living stocked with furniture and favorite objects.", "The walls may display painted murals, the predecessor of wallpaper.", "Tombs identified as Etruscan date from the Villanovan period to about 100 BC, when presumably the cemeteries were abandoned in favor of Roman ones.", "Some of the major cemeteries are as follows:* Caere or Cerveteri, a UNESCO site.", "Three complete necropoleis with streets and squares.", "Many hypogea are concealed beneath tumuli retained by walls; others are cut into cliffs.", "The Banditaccia necropolis contains more than 1,000 tumuli.", "Access is through a door.", "* Tarquinia, Tarquinii or Corneto, a UNESCO site: Approximately 6,000 graves dating from the Villanovan (ninth and eighth centuries BC) distributed in ''necropoleis'', the main one being the Monterozzi hypogea of the sixth–fourth centuries BC.", "About 200 painted tombs display murals of various scenes with call-outs and descriptions in Etruscan.", "Elaborately carved sarcophagi of marble, alabaster, and nenfro include identificatory and achievemental inscriptions.", "The Tomb of Orcus at the Scatolini necropolis depicts scenes of the Spurinna family with call-outs.", "* Inner walls and doors of tombs and sarcophagi, including the Golini Tomb and the Tomb of Orcus* Engraved steles (tombstones)* ossuaries===Inscriptions on portable objects=======Votives====''See'' Votive gifts.One example of an early (pre-fifth century BC) votive inscription is on a bucchero oinochoe (wine vase): ''ṃiṇi mulvaṇịce venalia ṡlarinaṡ.", "en mipi kapi ṃi(r) ṇuṇai'' = “Venalia Ṡlarinaṡ gave me.", "Do not touch me (?", "), I (am) ''nunai'' (an offering?).\"", "This seems to be a rare case from this early period of a female (Venalia) dedicating the votive.====Specula====A speculum is a circular or oval hand-mirror used predominantly by Etruscan women.", "is Latin; the Etruscan word is or .", "Specula were cast in bronze as one piece or with a tang into which a wooden, bone, or ivory handle fitted.", "The reflecting surface was created by polishing the flat side.", "A higher percentage of tin in the mirror improved its ability to reflect.", "The other side was convex and featured intaglio or cameo scenes from mythology.", "The piece was generally ornate.About 2,300 specula are known from collections all over the world.", "As they were popular plunderables, the provenance of only a minority is known.", "An estimated time window is 530–100 BC.", "Most probably came from tombs.Many bear inscriptions naming the persons depicted in the scenes, so they are often called picture bilinguals.", "In 1979, Massimo Pallottino, then president of the ''Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici'' initiated the Committee of the ''Corpus Speculorum Etruscanorum'', which resolved to publish all the specula and set editorial standards for doing so.Since then, the committee has grown, acquiring local committees and representatives from most institutions owning Etruscan mirror collections.", "Each collection is published in its own fascicle by diverse Etruscan scholars.====Cistae====A cista is a bronze container of circular, ovoid, or more rarely rectangular shape used by women for the storage of sundries.", "They are ornate, often with feet and lids to which figurines may be attached.", "The internal and external surfaces bear carefully crafted scenes usually from mythology, usually intaglio, or rarely part intaglio, part cameo.Cistae date from the Roman Republic of the fourth and third centuries BC in Etruscan contexts.", "They may bear various short inscriptions concerning the manufacturer or owner or subject matter.", "The writing may be Latin, Etruscan, or both.", "Excavations at Praeneste, an Etruscan city which became Roman, turned up about 118 cistae, one of which has been termed \"the Praeneste cista\" or \"the Ficoroni cista\" by art analysts, with special reference to the one manufactured by Novios Plutius and given by Dindia Macolnia to her daughter, as the archaic Latin inscription says.", "All of them are more accurately termed \"the Praenestine cistae\".====Rings and ringstones====Among the most plunderable portables from the Etruscan tombs of Etruria are the finely engraved gemstones set in patterned gold to form circular or ovoid pieces intended to go on finger rings.", "Around one centimeter in size, they are dated to the Etruscan apogee from the second half of the sixth to the first centuries BC.", "The two main theories of manufacture are native Etruscan and Greek.", "The materials are mainly dark red carnelian, with agate and sard entering usage from the third to the first centuries BC, along with purely gold finger rings with a hollow engraved bezel setting.", "The engravings, mainly cameo, but sometimes intaglio, depict scarabs at first and then scenes from Greek mythology, often with heroic personages called out in Etruscan.", "The gold setting of the bezel bears a border design, such as cabling.====Coins====Etruscan-minted coins can be dated between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC.", "Use of the 'Chalcidian' standard, based on the silver unit of 5.8 grams, indicates that this custom, like the alphabet, came from Greece.", "Roman coinage later supplanted Etruscan, but the basic Roman coin, the ''sesterce'', is believed to have been based on the 2.5-denomination Etruscan coin.", "Etruscan coins have turned up in caches or individually in tombs and in excavations seemingly at random, and concentrated, of course, in Etruria.Etruscan coins were in gold, silver, and bronze, the gold and silver usually having been struck on one side only.", "The coins often bore a denomination, sometimes a minting authority name, and a cameo motif.", "Gold denominations were in units of silver; silver, in units of bronze.", "Full or abbreviated names are mainly Pupluna (Populonia), Vatl or Veltuna (Vetulonia), Velathri (Volaterrae), Velzu or Velznani (Volsinii) and Cha for Chamars (Camars).", "Insignia are mainly heads of mythological characters or depictions of mythological beasts arranged in a symbolic motif: Apollo, Zeus, Culsans, Athena, Hermes, griffin, gorgon, male sphinx, hippocamp, bull, snake, eagle, or other creatures which had symbolic significance.===Functional categories===Wallace et al.", "include the following categories, based on the uses to which they were put, on their site: abecedaria (alphabets), artisans' texts, boundary markers, construction texts, dedications, didaskalia (instructional texts), funerary texts, legal texts, other/unclear texts, prohibitions, proprietary texts (indicating ownership), religious texts, tesserae hospitales (tokens that establish \"the claim of the bearer to hospitality when travelling\")." ], [ "Phonology", "In the tables below, conventional letters used for transliterating Etruscan are accompanied by likely pronunciation in IPA symbols within the square brackets, followed by examples of the early Etruscan alphabet which would have corresponded to these sounds.===Vowels===The Etruscan vowel system consisted of four distinct vowels.", "The vowels ''o'' and ''u'' appear to have not been phonetically distinguished based on the nature of the writing system, as only one symbol is used to cover both in loans from Greek (e.g.", "Greek > Etruscan 'pitcher').Before the front vowels is used, while and are used before respectively unrounded and rounded back vowels.", "Vowels FrontBackunroundedrounded Close iI oU Open eEaA===Consonants=======Table of consonants==== Bilabial Dental Palatal Velar GlottalNasalmMnNPlosivepPφΦtTθΘc, k, qC K Qχx16pxAffricate zZFricative p²FsSśŚ ŚhHApproximantlLiIvVRhoticrREtruscan also might have had consonants ʧ and ʧʰ, as they might be represented in the writing by using two letters, like in the word ('great-nephew' or 'great-grandson').", "However, this theory is not widely accepted.====Absence of voiced stops====The Etruscan consonant system primarily distinguished between aspirated and non-aspirated stops.", "There were no voiced stops.", "When words from foreign languages were borrowed into Etruscan, voiced stops typically became unvoiced stops; one example is Greek , which became Etruscan and Latin .", "Such a lack of voiced stops is not particularly unusual; it is found e.g.", "in modern Icelandic, in Scottish Gaelic, and in most Chinese languages.", "Even in English, aspiration is often more important than voice in the distinction of fortis-lenis pairs.====Syllabic theory====Based on standard spellings by Etruscan scribes of words without vowels or with unlikely consonant clusters (e.g.", "'of this (gen.)' and 'freeman'), it is likely that were sometimes syllabic sonorants (cf.", "English ''litt'''le''''', ''butto'''n''''').", "Thus and .Rix postulates several syllabic consonants, namely and palatal as well as a labiovelar fricative , and some scholars such as Mauro Cristofani also view the aspirates as palatal rather than aspirated but these views are not shared by most Etruscologists.", "Rix supports his theories by means of variant spellings such as ''/'', ''/'', ''/''." ], [ "Morphology", "Etruscan was an agglutinative language, varying the endings of nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs with discrete endings for each function.", "It also had adverbs and conjunctions, whose endings did not vary.===Nouns===Etruscan substantives had five cases—nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and locative—and two numbers: singular and a plural.", "Not all five cases are attested for every word.", "Nouns merge the nominative and accusative; pronouns do not generally merge these.", "Gender appears in personal names (masculine and feminine) and in pronouns (animate and inanimate); otherwise, it is not marked.Unlike the Indo-European languages, Etruscan noun endings were more agglutinative, with some nouns bearing two or three agglutinated suffixes.", "For example, where Latin would have distinct nominative plural and dative plural endings, Etruscan would suffix the case ending to a plural marker: Latin nominative singular , 'son', plural , dative plural , but Etruscan , and .", "Moreover, Etruscan nouns could bear multiple suffixes from the case paradigm alone: that is, Etruscan exhibited ''Suffixaufnahme''.", "Pallottino calls this phenomenon \"morphological redetermination\", which he defines as \"the typical tendency ... to redetermine the syntactical function of the form by the superposition of suffixes.\"", "His example is , 'in the sanctuary of Juno', where'' -al'' is a genitive ending and ''-θi'' a locative.Steinbauer says of Etruscan, \"there can be more than one marker ... to design a case, and ... the same marker can occur for more than one case.", "\"; Nominative/accusative case : No distinction is made between nominative and accusative of nouns.", "The nominative/accusative could act as the subject of transitive and intransitive verbs, but also as the object of transitive verbs, and it was also used to indicate duration of time (e.g., 'for three years').", ": Common nouns use the unmarked root.", "Names of males may end in ''-e'': (Hercules), (Achilles), (Titus); of females, in ''-i'', ''-a'', or ''-u'': (Juno), (Minerva), or .", "Names of gods may end in ''-s'': '','' ; or they may be the unmarked stem ending in a vowel or consonant: (Apollo), (Bacchus), or .", "; Genitive case : The genitive case had two main functions in Etruscan: the usual meaning of possession (along with other forms of dependency such as family relations), and it could also mark the recipient (indirect object) in votive inscriptions.", ": Pallottino defines two declensions based on whether the genitive ends in ''-s/-ś'' or ''-l''.", "In the ''-s'' group are most noun stems ending in a vowel or a consonant: ''/'''','' ''/''.", "In the second are names of females ending in ''i'' and names of males that end in ''s'', ''th'' or ''n'': ''/'''','' ''/'''','' ''/''.", "After ''l'' or ''r'' ''-us'' instead of ''-s'' appears: ''/''.", "Otherwise, a vowel might be placed before the ending: instead of .", ":According to Rex Wallace, \"A few nouns could be inflected with both types of endings without any difference in meaning.", "Consider, for example, the genitives 'fortress (?)'", "and .", "Why this should be the case is not clear.", "\": There is a patronymic ending: ''-sa'' or ''-isa'', 'son of', but the ordinary genitive might serve that purpose.", "In the genitive case, morphological redetermination becomes elaborate.", "Given two male names, ''Vel'' and ''Avle'', means 'Vel son of Avle'.", "This expression in the genitive become ''Vel-uś Avles-la''.", "Pallottino's example of a three-suffix form is .", "; Dative case : Besides the usual function as indirect object ('to/for'), this case could be used as the agent ('by') in passive clauses, and occasionally as a locative.", "The dative ending is ''-si'': ''/''.", "(Wallace uses the term 'pertinentive' for this case.", "); Locative case : The locative ending is -θi: ''/''.", "; Plural number : Nouns semantically +human had the plural marking ''-ar'' : , 'son', as , 'sons'.", "This shows both umlaut and an ending ''-ar''.", "Plurals for cases other than nominative are made by agglutinating the case ending on .", "Nouns semantically -human used the plural ''-chve'' or one of its variants: ''-cva'' or ''-va'': 'year', 'years'; ' (pig?", ")‐offering', '''zusle''‐offerings'.===Pronouns===Personal pronouns refer to persons; demonstrative pronouns point out English ''this'', ''that'', ''there''.====Personal====The first-person personal pronoun has a nominative ('I') and an accusative ('me').", "The third person has a personal form ('he' or 'she') and an inanimate ('it').", "The second person is uncertain but some scholars, such as the Bonfantes, have claimed a dative singular ('to thee') and an accusative singular ('thee').====Demonstrative====The demonstratives, and , are used without distinction for 'that' or 'this'.", "The nominative–accusative singular forms are: '','' '','' '','' '','' ; the plural: '','' .", "There is a genitive singular: '','' '','' and plural .", "The accusative singular: '','' '','' '','' '','' '','' ; plural 'these/those'.", "Locative singular: ; plural .===Adjectives===Though uninflected for number, adjectives were inflected for case, agreeing with their noun: 'good' versus genitive 'of (the) good...'Adjectives fall into a number of types formed from nouns with a suffix:* quality, -''u, -iu'' or -''c'': , 'god/divine'; , 'gold/golden'* possession or reference, -''na, -ne, -ni:'' , 'Bacchus, Bacchic'; , 'family/familiar' (in the sense of servant)* collective, -''cva, -chva, -cve, -χve, -ia'': : 'figure/figured'; , 'slave/servile'===Adverbs===Adverbs are unmarked: , 'again'; , 'now, here'; , 'at first' (compare 'one').", "Most Indo-European adverbs are formed from the oblique cases, which become unproductive and descend to fixed forms.", "Cases such as the ablative are therefore called adverbial.", "If there is any such widespread system in Etruscan, it is not obvious from the relatively few surviving adverbs.The negative adverb is (for examples, see below in Imperative moods) .===Conjunctions===The two enclitic coordinate conjunctions ''‐ka/‐ca/‐c'' 'and' and ''-um/‐m'' 'and, but' coordinated phrases and clauses, but phrases could also be coordinated without any conjunction (asyndetic).", "===Verbs===Verbs had an indicative mood, an imperative mood and others.", "Tenses were present and past.", "The past tense had an active voice and a passive voice.====Present active====Etruscan used a verbal root with a zero suffix or ''-a'' without distinction to number or person: '','' , 'he, she, we, you, they make'.====Past or preterite active====Adding the suffix to the verb root produces a third-person singular active, which has been called variously a \"past\", a \"preterite\", a \"perfect.\"", "In contrast to Indo-European, this form is not marked for person.", "Examples: 'gives, dedicates' versus 'gave, dedicated'; 'lives' versus 'lived'.====Past passive====The third-person past passive is formed with -che: , 'offers/offered/was offered'.====Imperative mood====The imperative was formed with the simple, uninflected root of the verb: 'dedicate!", "', 'put!", "', 'speak!'", "and 'invoke!').", "The imperative 'take, steal' is found in so‐called anti‐theft inscriptions: :: (Cm 2.13; fifth century BC)::'I (am) the bowl of Cupe Althr̥na.", "Don’t '''steal''' me!", "'====Other modals====Verbs with the suffix ''‐a'' indicated the jussive mood, with the force of commanding, or exhorting (within a subjunctive framework).", "::::'No one '''should put/make''' (?)", "anything here ().", "'Verbs ending in ''‐ri'' referred to obligatory activities:::::'On September twenty six, victims must be '''offered''' (?)", "and '''sacrificed''' (?)", "to Nethuns.", "'====Participles====Verbs formed participles in a variety of ways, among the most frequently attested being ''-u'' in 'dead' from 'die'.Participles could also be formed with ''‐θ''.", "These referred to activities that were contemporaneous with that of the main verb: '(while) speaking', '(while) invoking', and '(while) pouring (?", ")'.===Postpositions===Typical of SOV agglutinative languages, Etruscan had postpositions rather than prepositions, each governing a specific case.===Syntax===Etruscan is considered to have been a SOV language with postpositions, but the word order was not strict and the orders OVS and OSV are, in fact, more frequent in commemorative inscriptions from the archaic period, presumably as a stylistic feature of the genre.", "Adjectives were usually placed after the noun." ], [ "Vocabulary", "===Borrowings from Etruscan===Only a few hundred words of the Etruscan vocabulary are understood with some certainty.", "The exact count depends on whether the different forms and the expressions are included.", "Below is a table of some of the words grouped by topic.Some words with corresponding Latin or other Indo-European forms are likely loanwords to or from Etruscan.", "For example, 'nephew', is probably from Latin (Latin '','' ; this is a cognate of German , Old Norse ).", "A number of words and names for which Etruscan origin has been proposed survive in Latin.At least one Etruscan word has an apparent Semitic/Aramaic origin: 'girl', that could have been transmitted by Phoenicians or by the Greeks (Greek: ).", "The word 'house' is a false cognate to the Coptic 'house'.In addition to words believed to have been borrowed into Etruscan from Indo-European or elsewhere, there is a corpus of words such as which seem to have been borrowed into Latin from the older Etruscan civilization as a superstrate influence.", "Some of these words still have widespread currency in English and Latin-influenced languages.", "Other words believed to have a possible Etruscan origin include:; arena : from 'arena' hold office praetor unknown magistratesor magistracies priest village priest?", "tomb priest tomb priest priest of the citadel-s/hilltop-s local priest?", "arch-priest?", "Etruscan EnglishTime day; cf.", "''Tinia'' morning, day; cf.", "''Thesan'' at noon month, moon year at the age of March April May June August or summer?", "September October unknown month?Nature northwind, eagle (Latin: ) sparrow-hawk, falcon (possibly Greek ) monkey falcon sky screech-owl lion (Latin: ) stars horse bull (Latin: ) lake moon water sun (Latin: ); Cf.", "Usil fireVessels Greek ἄσκος 'wineskin' olive oil flask container (perhaps Latin 'take' or 'one-handled bowl') urn Umbrian , a basin or basket κύλιξ, a large wine-cup or Latin , English ''cup'' λήκυθος, a small bottle a small lechtum , a bowl , a ewer κώθων, a vessel of Laconia small qutum chalice derived from 'water'Common verbs to make (an offering...) to be to make sacred to dedicate (is) obtained to make, construct to place, lay, deposit to die (over)see; reflect?", "make (a dedication?)", "to offer, give invoke, offer make (an offering) (compare above) carry out a sacred act; consecrate make good, finish (compare \"(proper) use\") to live establish, erect to say officiate to give to work, decorate to live to write, engrave" ], [ "Sample texts", "From Tabula Capuana:(/ indicates line break; text from Alessandro Morandi ''Epigrafia Italica'' Rome, 1982, p.40) '''First section''' probably for '''March''' (lines 1–7): :: :: :: ::: :: :: ::: :: '''Start of second section''' for '''April''' () (starting on line 8)::: ::: :: :::: :::: :: ::: :::" ], [ "See also", "* Combinatorial method (linguistics)* ''Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum''* Etruscan alphabet* Etruscan civilization* Etruscan documents** ''Liber Linteus'' – An Etruscan linen book that ended as mummy wraps in Egypt.", "** ''Tabula Cortonensis'' – An Etruscan inscription.", "** ''Cippus perusinus'' – An Etruscan inscription.", "** ''Pyrgi Tablets'' – Bilingual Etruscan-Phoenician golden leaves.", "* Etruscan mythology* Etruscan numerals* Lemnian language* List of English words of Etruscan origin* Raetic language* Helmut Rix* Tyrsenian languages" ], [ "Notes and references", "===Notes======References======Bibliography===* Available for preview on Google Books.", "* * }* * * * * * * * * * Facchetti, G. (2000) ''Frammenti di diritto privato etrusco'' Florence: Olschki.", "* Hadas-Lebel, J.", "(2016).", "''Les cas locaux en étrusque''.", "Rome.", "* Maras, Daniele (2013).", "\"Numbers and reckoning: A whole civilization founded upon divisions\", in ''The Etruscan World''.", "Ed.", "Jean MacIntosh Turfa.", "Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 478–91.", "* Pallottino, M.", "(ed.)", "(1954) ''Testimonia Linguae Etruscae''.", "Firenze.", "* * Penney, John H. (2009).", "\"The Etruscan language and its Italic context\", in ''Etruscan by Definition''.", "Eds.", "Judith Swaddling & Philip Perkins.", "London: British Museum, pp. 88–93.", "* Pfiffig, A.J.", "(1969) ''Die etruskische Sprache,'' Graz.", "* 2 vols.", "* Whatmough, M.M.T.", "(1997) \"Studies in the Etruscan loanwords in Latin\" (Biblioteca di 'Studi Etruschi' 33), Firenze.", "* Rix, Helmut (1998).", "''Rätisch und Etruskisch''.", "Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft.", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "===General===* Etruscan News Online, the Newsletter of the American Section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies.", "* Etruscan News back issues, Center for Ancient Studies at New York University.", "* Etruscology at Its Best, the website of Dr. Dieter H. Steinbauer, in English.", "Covers origins, vocabulary, grammar and place names.", "* .", "* The Etruscan Language , the linguistlist.org site.", "Links to many other Etruscan language sites.", "* Materials for the Study of the Etruscan Language prepared by Murray Fowler and Richard George Wolfe.", "University of Wisconsin Press: 1965.===Inscriptions===* TM Texts Etruscan A list of all texts in Trismegistos.", "* ETP: Etruscan Texts Project A searchable database of Etruscan texts.", "* '' Etruscan Inscriptions in the Royal Ontario Museum'', article by Rex Wallace displayed at the umass.edu site.===Lexical items===* Etruscan Vocabulary, a vocabulary organized by topic by Dieter H. Steinbauer, in English.", "* .", "A short, one-page glossary with numerals as well.", "* .", "An extensive lexicon compiled from other lexicon sites.", "Links to the major Etruscan glossaries on the Internet are included.", "* Paleoglot: Online Etruscan-English dictionary; summary of Etruscan grammar.", "A searchable Etruscan-to-English dictionary applet and a summary of Etruscan grammar.===Font===* Etruscan font download site with unicode information* Etruscan and Early Italic Fonts by James F. Patterson" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Election" ], [ "Introduction", "A ballot box used in FranceAn '''election''' is a formal group decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold public office.Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operated since the 17th century.", "Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the executive and judiciary, and for regional and local government.", "This process is also used in many other private and business organisations, from clubs to voluntary associations and corporations.The global use of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern representative democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic archetype, ancient Athens, where the elections were considered an oligarchic institution and most political offices were filled using sortition, also known as allotment, by which officeholders were chosen by lot.Electoral reform describes the process of introducing fair electoral systems where they are not in place, or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing systems.", "Psephology is the study of results and other statistics relating to elections (especially with a view to predicting future results).", "Election is the fact of electing, or being elected.To ''elect'' means \"to select or make a decision\", and so sometimes other forms of ballot such as referendums are referred to as elections, especially in the United States." ], [ "History", "Roman coin depicting electionA British election campaign leaflet with an illustration of an example ballot paper, 1880Elections were used as early in history as ancient Greece and ancient Rome, and throughout the Medieval period to select rulers such as the Holy Roman Emperor (see imperial election) and the pope (see papal election).The Pala King Gopala (ruled  – 770s CE) in early medieval Bengal was elected by a group of feudal chieftains.", "Such elections were quite common in contemporary societies of the region.", "In the Chola Empire, around 920 CE, in Uthiramerur (in present-day Tamil Nadu), palm leaves were used for selecting the village committee members.", "The leaves, with candidate names written on them, were put inside a mud pot.", "To select the committee members, a young boy was asked to take out as many leaves as the number of positions available.", "This was known as the ''Kudavolai'' system.The first recorded popular elections of officials to public office, by majority vote, where all citizens were eligible both to vote and to hold public office, date back to the Ephors of Sparta in 754 BC, under the mixed government of the Spartan Constitution.", "Athenian democratic elections, where all citizens could hold public office, were not introduced for another 247 years, until the reforms of Cleisthenes.", "Under the earlier Solonian Constitution (), all Athenian citizens were eligible to vote in the popular assemblies, on matters of law and policy, and as jurors, but only the three highest classes of citizens could vote in elections.", "Nor were the lowest of the four classes of Athenian citizens (as defined by the extent of their wealth and property, rather than by birth) eligible to hold public office, through the reforms of Solon.", "The Spartan election of the Ephors, therefore, also predates the reforms of Solon in Athens by approximately 180 years.Mannerheim resigned as president of Finland, and the parliament of Finland elected elected prime minister Paasikivi to succeed him, with 159 votes.Questions of suffrage, especially suffrage for minority groups, have dominated the history of elections.", "Males, the dominant cultural group in North America and Europe, often dominated the electorate and continue to do so in many countries.", "Early elections in countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States were dominated by landed or ruling class males.", "However, by 1920 all Western European and North American democracies had universal adult male suffrage (except Switzerland) and many countries began to consider women's suffrage.", "Despite legally mandated universal suffrage for adult males, political barriers were sometimes erected to prevent fair access to elections (see civil rights movement)." ], [ "Contexts of elections", "Elections are held in a variety of political, organizational, and corporate settings.", "Many countries hold elections to select people to serve in their governments, but other types of organizations hold elections as well.", "For example, many corporations hold elections among shareholders to select a board of directors, and these elections may be mandated by corporate law.", "In many places, an election to the government is usually a competition among people who have already won a primary election within a political party.", "Elections within corporations and other organizations often use procedures and rules that are similar to those of governmental elections." ], [ "Electorate", "===Suffrage===The question of who may vote is a central issue in elections.", "The electorate does not generally include the entire population; for example, many countries prohibit those who are under the age of majority from voting.", "All jurisdictions require a minimum age for voting.In Australia, Aboriginal people were not given the right to vote until 1962 (see 1967 referendum entry) and in 2010 the federal government removed the rights of prisoners serving for three years or more to vote (a large proportion of which were Aboriginal Australians).Suffrage is typically only for citizens of the country, though further limits may be imposed.However, in the European Union, one can vote in municipal elections if one lives in the municipality and is an EU citizen; the nationality of the country of residence is not required.", "Campaigners working on posters in Milan, Italy, 2004In some countries, voting is required by law.", "Eligible voters may be subject to punitive measures such as a fine for not casting a vote.", "In Western Australia, the penalty for a first time offender failing to vote is a $20.00 fine, which increases to $50.00 if the offender refused to vote prior.===Voting population===Historically the size of eligible voters, the electorate, was small having the size of groups or communities of privileged men like aristocrats and men of a city (citizens).With the growth of the number of people with bourgeois citizen rights outside of cities, expanding the term citizen, the electorates grew to numbers beyond the thousands.Elections with an electorate in the hundred thousands appeared in the final decades of the Roman Republic, by extending voting rights to citizens outside of Rome with the Lex Julia of 90 BC, reaching an electorate of 910,000 and estimated voter turnout of maximum 10% in 70 BC, only again comparable in size to the first elections of the United States.", "At the same time the Kingdom of Great Britain had in 1780 about 214,000 eligible voters, 3% of the whole population." ], [ "Candidates", "A representative democracy requires a procedure to govern nomination for political office.", "In many cases, nomination for office is mediated through preselection processes in organized political parties.Non-partisan systems tend to be different from partisan systems as concerns nominations.", "In a direct democracy, one type of non-partisan democracy, any eligible person can be nominated.", "Although elections were used in ancient Athens, in Rome, and in the selection of popes and Holy Roman emperors, the origins of elections in the contemporary world lie in the gradual emergence of representative government in Europe and North America beginning in the 17th century.", "In some systems no nominations take place at all, with voters free to choose any person at the time of voting—with some possible exceptions such as through a minimum age requirement—in the jurisdiction.", "In such cases, it is not required (or even possible) that the members of the electorate be familiar with all of the eligible persons, though such systems may involve indirect elections at larger geographic levels to ensure that some first-hand familiarity among potential electees can exist at these levels (i.e., among the elected delegates)." ], [ "Electoral systems", "lower or sole (unicameral) house of national legislatures, : Electoral systems are the detailed constitutional arrangements and voting systems that convert the vote into a political decision.", "The first step is for voters to cast the ballots, which may be simple single-choice ballots, but other types, such as multiple choice or ranked ballots may also be used.", "Then the votes are tallied, for which various vote counting systems may be used.", "and the voting system then determines the result on the basis of the tally.", "Most systems can be categorized as either proportional, majoritarian or mixed.", "Among the proportional systems, the most commonly used are party-list proportional representation (list PR) systems, among majoritarian are first-past-the-post electoral system (single winner plurality voting) and different methods of majority voting (such as the widely used two-round system).", "Mixed systems combine elements of both proportional and majoritarian methods, with some typically producing results closer to the former (mixed-member proportional) or the other (e.g.", "parallel voting).", "Many countries have growing electoral reform movements, which advocate systems such as approval voting, single transferable vote, instant runoff voting or a Condorcet method; these methods are also gaining popularity for lesser elections in some countries where more important elections still use more traditional counting methods.While openness and accountability are usually considered cornerstones of a democratic system, the act of casting a vote and the content of a voter's ballot are usually an important exception.", "The secret ballot is a relatively modern development, but it is now considered crucial in most free and fair elections, as it limits the effectiveness of intimidation." ], [ "Campaigns", "When elections are called, politicians and their supporters attempt to influence policy by competing directly for the votes of constituents in what are called campaigns.", "Supporters for a campaign can be either formally organized or loosely affiliated, and frequently utilize campaign advertising.", "It is common for political scientists to attempt to predict elections via political forecasting methods.The most expensive election campaign included US$7 billion spent on the 2012 United States presidential election and is followed by the US$5 billion spent on the 2014 Indian general election." ], [ "Election timing", "The nature of democracy is that elected officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their mandate to continue in office.", "For that reason, most democratic constitutions provide that elections are held at fixed regular intervals.", "In the United States, elections for public offices are typically held between every two and six years in most states and at the federal level, with exceptions for elected judicial positions that may have longer terms of office.", "There is a variety of schedules, for example, presidents: the President of Ireland is elected every seven years, the President of Russia and the President of Finland every six years, the President of France every five years, President of the United States every four years.Pre-decided or fixed election dates have the advantage of fairness and predictability.", "However, they tend to greatly lengthen campaigns, and make dissolving the legislature (parliamentary system) more problematic if the date should happen to fall at a time when dissolution is inconvenient (e.g.", "when war breaks out).", "Other states (e.g., the United Kingdom) only set maximum time in office, and the executive decides exactly when within that limit it will actually go to the polls.", "In practice, this means the government remains in power for close to its full term, and chooses an election date it calculates to be in its best interests (unless something special happens, such as a motion of no-confidence).", "This calculation depends on a number of variables, such as its performance in opinion polls and the size of its majority.", "'''Rolling elections''' are elections in which all representatives in a body are elected, but these elections are spread over a period of time rather than all at once.", "Examples are the presidential primaries in the United States, Elections to the European Parliament (where, due to differing election laws in each member state, elections are held on different days of the same week) and, due to logistics, general elections in Lebanon and India.", "The voting procedure in the Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic are also a classical example.In rolling elections, voters have information about previous voters' choices.", "While in the first elections, there may be plenty of hopeful candidates, in the last rounds consensus on one winner is generally achieved.", "In today's context of rapid communication, candidates can put disproportionate resources into competing strongly in the first few stages, because those stages affect the reaction of latter stages." ], [ "Non-democratic elections", "Buenos Aires 1892: \"The rival voters were kept back by an armed force of police out of sight to others.", "Only batches of two or three were allowed to enter the polling office at a time.", "Armed sentries guarded the gates and the doors.\"", "Godefroy Durand, ''The Graphic'', 21 May 1892.In many of the countries with weak rule of law, the most common reason why elections do not meet international standards of being \"free and fair\" is interference from the incumbent government.", "Dictators may use the powers of the executive (police, martial law, censorship, physical implementation of the election mechanism, etc.)", "to remain in power despite popular opinion in favour of removal.", "Members of a particular faction in a legislature may use the power of the majority or supermajority (passing criminal laws, and defining the electoral mechanisms including eligibility and district boundaries) to prevent the balance of power in the body from shifting to a rival faction due to an election.Non-governmental entities can also interfere with elections, through physical force, verbal intimidation, or fraud, which can result in improper casting or counting of votes.", "Monitoring for and minimizing electoral fraud is also an ongoing task in countries with strong traditions of free and fair elections.", "Problems that prevent an election from being \"free and fair\" take various forms.===Lack of open political debate or an informed electorate===The electorate may be poorly informed about issues or candidates due to lack of freedom of the press, lack of objectivity in the press due to state or corporate control, and/or lack of access to news and political media.", "Freedom of speech may be curtailed by the state, favouring certain viewpoints or state propaganda.===Unfair rules===Gerrymandering, exclusion of opposition candidates from eligibility for office, needlessly high restrictions on who may be a candidate, like ballot access rules, and manipulating thresholds for electoral success are some of the ways the structure of an election can be changed to favour a specific faction or candidate.", "Scheduling frequent elections can also lead to voter fatigue.===Interference with campaigns===Those in power may arrest or assassinate candidates, suppress or even criminalize campaigning, close campaign headquarters, harass or beat campaign workers, or intimidate voters with violence.", "Foreign electoral intervention can also occur, with the United States interfering between 1946 and 2000 in 81 elections and Russia/USSR in 36.In 2018 the most intense interventions, utilizing false information, were by China in Taiwan and by Russia in Latvia; the next highest levels were in Bahrain, Qatar and Hungary.===Tampering with the election mechanism===This can include falsifying voter instructions,violation of the secret ballot, ballot stuffing, tampering with voting machines,destruction of legitimately cast ballots,voter suppression, voter registration fraud, failure to validate voter residency, fraudulent tabulation of results, and use of physical force or verbal intimation at polling places.", "Other examples include persuading candidates not to run, such as through blackmailing, bribery, intimidation or physical violence.=== Sham election ===A '''sham election''', or '''show election''', is an election that is held purely for show; that is, without any significant political choice or real impact on the results of the election.Sham elections are a common event in dictatorial regimes that feel the need to feign the appearance of public legitimacy.", "Published results usually show nearly 100% voter turnout and high support (typically at least 80%, and close to 100% in many cases) for the prescribed or for the referendum choice that favours the political party in power.", "Dictatorial regimes can also organize sham elections with results simulating those that might be achieved in democratic countries.Sometimes, only one government-approved candidate is allowed to run in sham elections with no opposition candidates allowed, or opposition candidates are arrested on false charges (or even without any charges) before the election to prevent them from running.Ballots may contain only one \"yes\" option, or in the case of a simple \"yes or no\" question, security forces often persecute people who pick \"no\", thus encouraging them to pick the \"yes\" option.", "In other cases, those who vote receive stamps in their passport for doing so, while those who did not vote (and thus do not receive stamps) are persecuted as enemies of the people.Sham elections can sometimes backfire against the party in power, especially if the regime believes they are popular enough to win without coercion, fraud or suppressing the opposition.", "The most famous example of this was the 1990 Myanmar general election, in which the government-sponsored National Unity Party suffered a landslide defeat by the opposition National League for Democracy and consequently, the results were annulled.1936 elections in Nazi Germany1938 elections in Nazi Germany asking voters to approve the new Reichstag and the Anschluss.", "The \"no\" box was made significantly smaller than the \"yes\" box.Examples of sham elections include: the presidential and parliamentary elections of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the 1929 and 1934 elections in Fascist Italy, the 1942 general election in Imperial Japan, those in Nazi Germany, East Germany, the 1940 elections of Stalinist \"People's Parliaments\" to legitimise the Soviet occupation of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, those in Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser, Anwar Sadat, Hosni Mubarak and Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, those in Russia under Vladimir Putin, the 2018 Venezuelan presidential election, the 1928, 1935, 1942, 1949, 1951 and 1958 elections in Portugal, the 1991 and 2019 Kazakh presidential elections, those in North Korea, the 1995 and 2002 presidential referendums in Saddam Hussein's Iraq and the 2021 Hong Kong legislative election.In Mexico, all of the presidential elections from 1929 to 1982 are considered to be sham elections, as the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and its predecessors governed the country in a ''de facto'' single-party system without serious opposition, and they won all of the presidential elections in that period with more than 70% of the vote.", "The first seriously competitive presidential election in modern Mexican history was that of 1988, in which for the first time the PRI candidate faced two strong opposition candidates, though it is believed that the government rigged the result.", "The first fair election was held in 1994, though the opposition did not win until 2000.A predetermined conclusion is permanently established by the regime through suppression of the opposition, coercion of voters, vote rigging, reporting several votes received greater than the number of voters, outright lying, or some combination of these.", "In an extreme example, Charles D. B.", "King of Liberia was reported to have won by 234,000 votes in the 1927 general election, a \"majority\" that was over fifteen times larger than the number of eligible voters." ], [ "Elections as aristocratic", "Scholars argue that the predominance of elections in modern liberal democracies masks the fact that they are actually aristocratic selection mechanisms that deny each citizen an equal chance of holding public office.", "Such views were expressed as early as the time of Ancient Greece by Aristotle.", "According to French political scientist Bernard Manin, the inegalitarian nature of elections stems from four factors: the unequal treatment of candidates by voters, the distinction of candidates required by choice, the cognitive advantage conferred by salience, and the costs of disseminating information.", "These four factors result in the evaluation of candidates based on voters' partial standards of quality and social saliency (for example, skin color and good looks).", "This leads to self-selection biases in candidate pools due to unobjective standards of treatment by voters and the costs (barriers to entry) associated with raising one's political profile.", "Ultimately, the result is the election of candidates who are superior (whether in actuality or as perceived within a cultural context) and ''objectively unlike'' the voters they are supposed to represent.Additionally, evidence suggests that the concept of electing representatives was originally conceived to be ''different'' from democracy.", "Prior to the 18th century, some societies in Western Europe used sortition as a means to select rulers, a method which allowed regular citizens to exercise power, in keeping with understandings of democracy at the time.", "However, the idea of what constituted a legitimate government shifted in the 18th century to include consent, especially with the rise of the enlightenment.", "From this point onwards, sortition fell out of favor as a mechanism for selecting rulers.", "On the other hand, elections began to be seen as a way for the masses to express popular consent repeatedly, resulting in the triumph of the electoral process until the present day.This conceptual misunderstanding of elections as open and egalitarian when they are not innately so may thus be a root cause of the problems in contemporary governance.", "Those in favor of this view argue that the modern system of elections was never meant to give ordinary citizens the chance to exercise power - merely privileging their right to consent to those who rule.", "Therefore, the representatives that modern electoral systems select for are too disconnected, unresponsive, and elite-serving.", "To deal with this issue, various scholars have proposed alternative models of democracy, many of which include a return to sortition-based selection mechanisms.", "The extent to which sortition should be the dominant mode of selecting rulers or instead be hybridised with electoral representation remains a topic of debate." ], [ "See also", "*Ballot access*Concession (politics)*Demarchy — \"democracy without elections\"*Electoral calendar*Electoral integrity*Electoral system*Election law*Election litter*Elections by country*Electronic voting*Fenno's paradox*Full slate*Garrat Elections*Gerontocracy*Issue voting*Landslide election*Meritocracy*Multi-party system*Nomination rules*Party system*Pluralism (political philosophy)*Political polarization*Political science*Polling station*Proportional representation*Re-election*Slate*Stunning elections*Two-party system*Voter turnout*Voting system" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Arrow, Kenneth J.", "1963.", "''Social Choice and Individual Values''.", "2nd ed.", "New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.", "* Benoit, Jean-Pierre and Lewis A. Kornhauser.", "1994.", "\"Social Choice in a Representative Democracy\".", "''American Political Science Review'' 88.1: 185–192.", "* Corrado Maria, Daclon.", "2004.", "''US Elections and War On Terrorism – Interview With Professor Massimo Teodori'' Analisi Difesa, n. 50* Farquharson, Robin.", "1969.", "''A Theory of Voting''.", "New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.", "* Mueller, Dennis C.", "1996.", "''Constitutional Democracy''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Owen, Bernard, 2002.", "\"Le système électoral et son effet sur la représentation parlementaire des partis: le cas européen\", LGDJ;* Riker, William.", "1980.", "''Liberalism Against Populism: A Confrontation Between the Theory of Democracy and the Theory of Social Choice''.", "Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.", "* Thompson, Dennis F.", "2004.", "''Just Elections: Creating a Fair Electoral Process in the U.S.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "* Ware, Alan.", "1987.", "''Citizens, Parties and the State''.", "Princeton: Princeton University Press." ], [ "External links", "* ===Election counts===* PARLINE database on national parliaments.", "Results for all parliamentary elections since 1966* \"Psephos\", archive of recent electoral data from 182 countries* ElectionGuide.org — Worldwide Coverage of National-level Elections* parties-and-elections.de: Database for all European elections since 1945* Angus Reid Global Monitor: Election Tracker===Election organizations===* ACE Electoral Knowledge Network — electoral encyclopedia and related resources from a consortium of electoral agencies and organizations.", "* International Foundation for Electoral Systems* International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance* European Conferences of Electoral Management Bodies (Council of Europe)* OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR)* European Election Law Association (Eurela), closed in 2008* List of Local Elected Offices in the United States* Caltech/ MIT Voting Technology Project" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Enniskillen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enniskillen''' ( , from , 'Ceithlenn's island') is the largest town in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland.", "It is in the middle of the county, between the Upper and Lower sections of Lough Erne.", "It had a population of 14,086 at the 2011 Census.", "Enniskillen Castle was built in the 15th century as a stronghold of the Maguires, before coming under English control in the early 17th century.", "The castle and town were expanded during the Plantation of Ulster.", "It was the seat of local government for the former Fermanagh District Council, and is the county town of Fermanagh." ], [ "Toponymy", "The town's name comes from the .", "This refers to Cethlenn, a figure in Irish mythology who may have been a goddess.", "Local legend has it that Cethlenn was wounded in battle by an arrow and attempted to swim across the River Erne, which surrounds the island, but she never reached the other side, so the island was named in reference to her.", "It has been anglicised many ways over the centuries – ''Iniskellen'', ''Iniskellin'', ''Iniskillin'', ''Iniskillen'', ''Inishkellen'', ''Inishkellin'', ''Inishkillin'', ''Inishkillen'' and so on." ], [ "History", "The town's oldest building is Enniskillen Castle, built by Hugh (Maguire) the Hospitable who died in 1428.An earthwork, the Skonce on the shore of Lough Erne, may be the remains of an earlier motte.", "The castle was the stronghold of the junior branch of the Maguires.", "The first watergate was built around 1580 by Cú Chonnacht Maguire, though subsequent lowering of the level of the lough has left it without water.", "The strategic position of the castle made its capture important for the English in 1593, to support their plans for the control of Ulster.", "The castle was besieged three times in 1594–95.The English, led by a Captain Dowdall, captured it in February 1594.Maguire then laid siege to it, and defeated a relieving force at the Battle of the Ford of the Biscuits at Drumane Bridge on the Arney River.", "Although the defenders were relieved, Maguire gained possession of the castle from 1595 to 1598 and it was not finally captured by the English until 1607.This was part of a wider campaign to bring the province of Ulster under English control; the final capture of Enniskillen Castle in 1607 was followed by the Plantation of Ulster, during which the lands of the native Irish were seized and handed over to planters loyal to the English Crown.", "The Maguires were supplanted by William Cole, originally from Devon, who was appointed by James I to build an English settlement there in 1612.Captain Cole was installed as Constable and strengthened the castle wall and built a \"fair house\" on the old foundation as the centre point of the county town.", "The first Protestant parish church was erected on the hilltop in 1627.By 1630 the town had around 180 inhabitants, mostly comprising English and Scottish settlers.", "The Royal Free School of Fermanagh was moved onto the island in 1643.The first bridges were drawbridges; permanent bridges were not installed before 1688.By 1689 the town had grown significantly.", "During the conflict which resulted from the ousting of King James II by his Protestant rival, William III, Enniskillen and Derry were the focus of Williamite resistance in Ireland, including the nearby Battle of Newtownbutler.Enniskillen and Derry were the two garrisons in Ulster that were not wholly loyal to James II, and it was the last town to fall before the Siege of Derry.", "As a direct result of this conflict, Enniskillen developed not only as a market town but also as a garrison, which became home to two regiments.The current site of Fermanagh College (now part of the South West College) was the former Enniskillen Gaol.", "Many people were tried and hanged in the square during the times of public execution.", "Part of the old Gaol is still used by the college.", "Enniskillen Town Hall was designed by William Scott and completed in 1901.=== Military history ===Enniskillen is the site of the foundation of two British Army regiments:* Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers* The Inniskillings (6th Dragoons)The town's name (with the archaic spelling) continues to form part of the title to The Royal Irish Regiment (27th (Inniskilling) 83rd and 87th and Ulster Defence Regiment).", "Enniskillen Castle features on the cap badge of both regiments.=== The Troubles ===Enniskillen was the site of several events during The Troubles, the most notable being the Remembrance Day bombing in which 11 people were killed.", "Bill Clinton opened The Clinton Centre in 2002 on the site of the bombing.", "The Provisional Irish Republican Army claimed responsibility for the attack.=== Alleged sexual abuse and assault ===In 2019, at least nine men reported to the police and the press and said in public forums that, in the 1980s and 90s, when they were children, they were repeatedly molested and raped by a paedophile ring of at least 20 men in the Enniskillen area.", "Investigations are continuing.=== Miscellaneous ===* The Enniskillen Dragoon is a famous Irish folk song associated with the Inniskilling Dragoons Regiment.", "Tommy Makem wrote additional verses and renamed the song Fare Thee Well, Enniskillen.", "* The Chieftains sing a song that mentions Enniskillen titled \"North Amerikay\".", "* Jim Kerr of Simple Minds was so moved by the horror of the Enniskillen bombing in 1987 that he wrote new words to the traditional folk song \"She Moved Through The Fair\" and the group recorded it with the name \"Belfast Child\".", "The recording reached No.", "1 in the UK Charts, Ireland and several other countries in 1989.The single was taken from the album ''Street Fighting Years''; the single version was released on the \"Ballad of the Streets\" EP.", "The video of the song was shot in black and white and displays poignant footage of children and the destruction of the bombing.", "Similarly, U2 held a concert the same day as the bombing; during a performance of their song \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\", singer Bono passionately condemned the bombing, stating \"fuck the revolution\" in his mid-song speech.", "The footage is included in U2's rockumentary ''Rattle and Hum''.", "* Neil Hannon also mentions Enniskillen in his song \"Sunrise\".", "* Bill Fay also mentions Enniskillen in his song ''In Human Hands''.", "* The Guardian noted that residential areas including Cooper Crescent and Chanterhill Road - inner suburbs just North of the town centre - were the 'poshest' with much of the fine housing stock located outside of the town centre.", "* The Irish language novel ''Mo Dhá Mhicí'' by Séamus Mac Annaidh is set in Enniskillen." ], [ "Demography", "===2021 Census===On Census day 2021 there were 14,086 people living in Enniskillen.", "Of these:* 61.52% (8,666) belong to or were brought up in the Catholic Christian faith and 29.09% (4,097) belong to or were brought up in various 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' denominations.", "2.2% (310) belong to other religions and 7.19% (1,013) had no religious background.", "* 22.8% (3,212) indicated that they had a British only identity, 34.68% (4,885) had an Irish only identity and 26.4% (3,179) had a Northern Irish only identity (respondents could indicate more than one national identity)===2011 Census===On Census day (27 March 2011) there were 13,823 people living in Enniskillen (5,733 households), accounting for 0.76% of the NI total and representing an increase of 1.6% on the Census 2001 population of 13,599.Of these:* 19.76% were aged under 16 years and 15.59% were aged 65 and over;* 51.80% of the usually resident population were female and 48.20% were male;* 61.62% belong to or were brought up in the Catholic Christian faith and 33.55% belong to or were brought up in various 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' denominations* 35.59% indicated that they had a British national identity, 33.77% had an Irish national identity and 30.35% had a Northern Irish national identity (respondents could indicate more than one national identity)* 39 years was the average (median) age of the population* 13.03% had some knowledge of Irish (Gaelic) and 3.65% had some knowledge of Ulster-Scots" ], [ "Places of interest", "===Churches===There are four churches in the town centre.", "These are:* St. Macartin's Cathedral (Church of Ireland) - This church dates from 1840.It was built on the site of an earlier Plantation church.", "* St. Michael's Church (Catholic) - This church dates from 1875 although an earlier church on the site dates from 1803.", "* Enniskillen Methodist Church - This church opened in 1867.It has a Palladian facade.", "* Enniskillen Presbyterian Church - The current church was erected in 1897 although there is evidence of a building dating back to 1700.There are several other churches outside the town centre.===Historic Buildings===Some of these buildings are outside the town.", "* Castle Coole* Colebrooke House, Brookeborough - eleven miles east of Enniskillen; built 1820* Cole's Monument* Enniskillen Castle* Enniskillen Town Hall* Enniskillen Courthouse - built 1785* Florence Court - eight miles outside Enniskillen; 18th century * Monea Castle* Portora Castle * The Regimental Museum of the Inniskilling Regiment===Natural Phenomena===* The Marble Arch Caves* Cuilcagh Mountain Global Geo-Park* Lough Navar and the Cliffs of Magho===Other===* Ardhowen Theatre* The Clinton Centre* The Round O* William Blake's pub - historic public house" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Enniskillen Castle by Paride.JPG|Enniskillen CastleFile:Enniskillen, Co. Fermanagh, late 19th century (7595791674).jpg|Enniskillen in the late 19th centuryFile:Enniskillen Registry Office - geograph.org.uk - 485072.jpg|Enniskillen Town HallFile:Enniskillen St. Michael's Church NW 2012 09 17.jpg|St.", "Michael's Church, EnniskillenFile:Methodist Church, Enniskillen - geograph.org.uk - 1370358.jpg|Methodist Church, EnniskillenFile:Cole Monument at Fort Hill Park, Enniskillen - geograph.org.uk - 1361418.jpg|Cole's Monument, EnniskillenFile:Enniskillen Courthouse - geograph.org.uk - 928129.jpg|Enniskillen CourthouseFile:Portora Castle.jpg|Portora CastleFile:ArdhowenTheatre, Enniskillen - geograph.org.uk - 789403.jpg|ArdhowenTheatre, EnniskillenFile:William Blake Pub, Enniskillen - geograph.org.uk - 928131.jpg|William Blake Pub, Enniskillen" ], [ "Sports", "===Association football===As of season 2023/24, the town has five association football teams, Enniskillen Rangers, Enniskillen Town United F.C., Enniskillen Athletic, Enniskillen Galaxy and Enniskillen Rovers.", "Founded in 1953, Enniskillen Rangers are the oldest and most successful of these, having won the Irish Junior Cup four times, most recently in season 2018/19, when they defeated Tummery Athletic 1-0 in the National Football Stadium at Windsor Park, the Fermanagh & Western Division One title 18 times and the Mulhern Cup 16 times.", "They play their home games at The Ball Range.", "Enniskillen Rangers have several notable former players including Sandy Fulton and Jim Cleary.Enniskillen Town United F.C.", "currently play in the Fermanagh & Western 1st Division.", "Their most notable former player is Michael McGovern who won 32 senior caps for Northern Ireland and as of January 2024 was on loan at Livingston F.C.", "from parent club Heart of Midlothian F.C.. Enniskillen Town United F.C.", "currently play their home games at St Michael's GS Pavilion in Enniskillen.===Rugby===Enniskillen Rugby Football Club was founded in 1925 and plays its home games at Mullaghmeen.", "The club currently fields 4 senior men's teams, a senior ladies' team, a range of male and female youth teams, a vibrant mini section and a disability tag team called The Enniskillen Elks.", "Enniskillen XV won the Ulster Towns Cup in the 2018/19 season, defeating Ballyclare 19–0.The team currently play in Kukri Ulster Rugby Championship Division 1.The rugby club was formed on 28 August 1925, when 37 attended a meeting in Enniskillen Town Hall.", "The name Enniskillen Rugby Club was agreed and the club adopted the rules of the Dublin University Football Club.", "The first match was played on 30 September 1925 against Ballyshannon in County Donegal.===Gaelic games===Enniskillen Gaels is a Gaelic Athletic Association club founded in 1927.It is based at Brewster Park, Enniskillen.", "The club has had success in both Gaelic football and hurling winning in both county and provincial competitions." ], [ "International events", "Enniskillen was the venue of the 39th G8 summit which was held on 17 and 18 June 2013.It was held at the Lough Erne Resort, a five-star hotel and golf resort on the shore of Lough Erne.", "The gathering was the biggest international diplomatic gathering ever held in Northern Ireland.", "Among the G8 leaders who attended were British Prime Minister David Cameron, United States President Barack Obama, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, and Russian President Vladimir Putin.In the past, Enniskillen has hosted an array of international events, most notably stages of the World Waterski World Cup, annually from 2005 to 2007 at the Broadmeadow.", "Despite its success, Enniskillen was not chosen as a World Cup Stop for 2008.In January 2009, Enniskillen hosted the ceremonial start of Rally Ireland 2009, the first stage of the WRC FIA World Rally Championship 2009 Calendar.Enniskillen has hosted the Happy Days arts festival since 2012, which celebrates \"the work and influence of Nobel Prize-winning writer Samuel Beckett\" and is the \"first annual, international, multi-arts festival to be held in Northern Ireland since the launch of the Ulster Bank Belfast Festival at Queen's in 1962\"." ], [ "Notable natives and residents", "===Arts and Media===* Samuel Beckett, playwright, educated at Portora Royal School* Nathan Carter, singer* Charles Duff, Irish author of books on language learning and other subjects* Adrian Dunbar, actor, born and brought up in Enniskillen* Nial Fulton, film and television producer, educated at Portora Royal School* Neil Hannon, lead singer/composer of the pop band The Divine Comedy, educated at Portora Royal School* Charles Lawson, most notable for playing Jim McDonald in ''Coronation Street''* Lisa McHugh, country music singer; born in Glasgow, Scotland, she moved to Enniskillen as an adult.", "* Fearghal McKinney, journalist, former UTV broadcaster and member of the Northern Ireland Assembly* Nigel McLoughlin, poet, editor of ''Iota'' poetry journal and Professor of Creativity and Poetics, University of Gloucestershire* Ciarán McMenamin, television actor and author* Frank Ormsby, poet* David Robinson, photographer and publisher, educated at Portora Royal School* William Scott, artist* Mick Softley singer and songwriter for Bob Dylan and Donovan, lived in the town at the time of his death* Joan Trimble, pianist and composer* Oscar Wilde, satirist and playwright, educated at Portora Royal School* Ron Wilson, a news anchor with Network Ten in Australia===Business===* James Gamble, co-founder of Procter & Gamble, educated at Portora Royal School===Medicine and Science===* Denis Burkitt, FRS, surgeon and epidemiologist===Military===* Eric Bell, recipient of the Victoria Cross* Henry Hartigan, recipient of the Victoria Cross* James McGuire, recipient of the Victoria Cross* George Nurse, recipient of the Victoria Cross===Politics===* Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, brought up at the family's estate at Ely Lodge* Gordon Wilson, Irish senator and peace campaigner, who lived on Cooper Crescent===Religion===* Edward Cooney, evangelist and early leader of the Cooneyite and Go-Preacher sects, educated at Portora Royal School* Edward Kernan, a Roman Catholic bishop* Henry Francis Lyte, hymn composer, most notably of \"Abide with Me\", educated at Portora Royal School* John McElroy (1782–1877), Jesuit priest, founder of Boston College===Sports===* Robert Baloucoune, rugby union player, was born and grew up in Enniskillen, learned his rugby at Portora Royal School and made his international debut for Ireland in July 2021* Declan Burns, Irish kayaking athlete, three-time Irish Olympic representative and former World Superstars runner-up* Roy Carroll, goalkeeper who played for a number of prefessional clubs, most notably Manchester United F. C. and who was capped 45 times by Northern Ireland* Timothy Cathcart, rally driver* Harry Chatton, football player, from the 1920s and 1930s, who was a dual international for both the IFA and FAI Irish international teams* Jim Cleary, former Glentoran footballer and member of Northern Ireland's 1982 World Cup squad* William Emerson, football player who won 11 caps for Ireland between 1919 and 1923* Gordon Ferris, Northern Irish former heavyweight boxer who was both Irish and British champion in the early 1980s* Frank Hoy, professional wrestler, was born in the town* Ted Keenan, record-breaking long distance swimmer, inducted in 1984 into the Fort Lauderdale International Swimming Hall of Fame* Robert Kerr, Olympic 100m gold medalist in the 1908 Olympics for Canada* Kyle Lafferty, striker, professional football player for a number of clubs, most notably Rangers F. C., with 89 Northern Ireland international caps* Andrew Little, former professional football player and Northern Ireland international, educated at Portora Royal School* J. J. McCoy (rugby union), from nearby Monea, Jimmy first played rugby for Portora Royal School, Enniskillen* Michael McGovern, former Northern Ireland international goalkeeper, currently on loan to Livingston F. C. from parent club Heart of Midlothian F. C.* Harry Mercer, former player for Enniskillen Corinthians F.C.", "who, while with Linfield F.C., won a senior Ireland cap while still an amateur* Holly Nixon, former member of Portora Boat Club and World Champion oarswoman* Gavin Noble, Irish international triathlete, educated at Portora Royal School* Dick Rowley, football player who won six caps for Ireland between 1929 and 1931" ], [ "Education", "The old Enniskillen Model School, now used as the Fermanagh office of the Western Education and Library Board (WELB)There are numerous schools and colleges in and around the Enniskillen area, from primary level to secondary level, including some further education colleges such as the technical college.=== Primary level ===* Enniskillen Integrated Primary school* Model primary school* Holy Trinity Primary School* Jones Memorial Primary School* Mullnaskea Primary School=== Secondary level ===* Erne Integrated College* Devenish College* Enniskillen Royal Grammar School* Mount Lourdes Enniskillen; convent girls' grammar school* St Michael's College; boys' grammar school* St Fanchea's College* St Joseph's College=== Colleges ===* Enniskillen Campus of the College of Agriculture, Food and Rural Enterprise (CAFRE)* Enniskillen Campus South West College" ], [ "Transport", "=== Rail – historic ===Railway lines from Enniskillen railway station linked the town with Derry from 1854, Dundalk from 1861, Bundoran from 1868 and Sligo from 1882.By 1883 the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) absorbed all the lines except the Sligo, Leitrim and Northern Counties Railway, which remained independent throughout its existence.", "In October 1957 the Government of Northern Ireland closed the GNR line, which made it impossible for the SL&NCR to continue and forced it also to close.=== Rail – current ===The nearest railway station to Enniskillen is Sligo station which is served by multiple trains to Dublin Connolly and is operated by Iarnród Éireann.", "The Dublin-Sligo railway line has a two-hourly service run by Iarnród Éireann.", "A connecting bus from Sligo via Manorhamilton to Enniskillen is operated by Bus Éireann.=== Bus ===Bus service to Enniskillen is provided by both Ulsterbus and Bus Éireann, from Enniskillen bus station.", "Number 261, 261b and X261 Goldline buses run from Belfast to Enniskillen.", "Bus Éireann Route 30 runs from Donegal to Dublin Airport/Dublin City via Enniskillen.=== Air ===Enniskillen has a World War II-era airport, Enniskillen/St Angelo Airport.", "The airport had scheduled flights in the past but now serves mainly private traffic.=== Road ===The town is on the main A4/N16 route linking Belfast and Sligo, and on the main Dublin to Ballyshannon route, the N3/A46/A509." ], [ "Twinning", "Enniskillen was originally twinned with Brackwede – a Bielefeld suburb – where the Inniskilling Dragoon Guards were stationed in the late 1950s when the twinning was initiated; however, this suburb was incorporated into Stadt Bielefeld in 1973, the city with which Enniskillen is now officially twinned.Though the twinning arrangements are still operational, at a meeting of the Regeneration and Community Committee, in February 2018, it was agreed that the twinning arrangements would be formally terminated at the end of the Council term in June 2018.However, Fermanagh and Omagh District Council still have plans to send representatives to Brackwede for the 60th-anniversary celebrations of the twinning.", "Therefore, the future of the twinning is now somewhat unclear." ], [ "Climate", "Enniskillen has a maritime climate with a narrow range of temperatures and rainfall.", "The nearest official Met Office weather station for which online records are available is at Lough Navar Forest, about northwest of Enniskillen.", "Data has also more recently been collected from Enniskillen/St Angelo Airport, under north of the town centre, which should in time give a more accurate representation of the climate of the Enniskillen area.The absolute maximum temperature is , recorded during July 2006.In an 'average' year, the warmest day is and only 2.4 days a year should rise to or above.", "The respective absolute maximum for St Angelo is The absolute minimum temperature is , recorded during January 1984.In an 'average' year, the coldest night should fall to .", "Lough Navar is a frosty location, with some 76 air frosts recorded in a typical year.", "It is likely that Enniskillen town centre is significantly less frosty than this.", "The absolute minimum at St Angelo is , reported during the record cold month of December 2010.The warmest month on record at St Angelo was August 1995 with a mean temperature of (mean maximum , mean minimum ), while the coldest month was December 2010, with a mean temperature of (mean maximum , mean minimum ).Rainfall is high, averaging over 1500 mm.", "212 days of the year report at least 1 mm of precipitation, ranging from 15 days during April, May and June, to 20 days in October, November, December, January and March.The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate is \"Cfb\" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate)." ], [ "See also", "* List of civil parishes of County Fermanagh* List of localities in Northern Ireland by population" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Enniskillen.Com* BBC short on Enniskillen's forgotten streets." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Longest word in English" ], [ "Introduction", "The identity of the longest word in English depends on the definition of a word and of length.Words may be derived naturally from the language's roots or formed by coinage and construction.", "Additionally, comparisons are complicated because place names may be considered words, technical terms may be arbitrarily long, and the addition of suffixes and prefixes may extend the length of words to create grammatically correct but unused or novel words.", "Different dictionaries include and omit different words.The ''length'' of a word may also be understood in multiple ways.", "Most commonly, length is based on orthography (conventional spelling rules) and counting the number of written letters.", "Alternate, but less common, approaches include phonology (the spoken language) and the number of phonemes (sounds).Word LettersMeaning Claim Dispute189,819The chemical composition of titin, the largest known proteinLongest known word overall by magnitudes.", "Attempts to say the entire word have taken two to three and a half hours.Technical; not in dictionary; whether this should actually be considered a word is disputed1,909The chemical name of ''E.", "coli'' TrpA ()Longest published wordTechnical183A fictional dish of foodLongest word coined by a major author, the longest word ever to appear in literatureContrived nonce word; not in dictionary; Ancient Greek transliteration45The disease silicosisLongest word in a major dictionaryContrived coinage to make it the longest word; technical, but only mentioned and never actually used in communication34Unclear – generally understood as a positive adjective or a nonsense wordMade popular in the ''Mary Poppins'' film and musicalContrived coinage30A hereditary medical disorderLongest non-contrived word in a major dictionary Technical28The political position of opposing disestablishmentLongest non-contrived and nontechnical wordNot all dictionaries accept it due to lack of usage.27The state of being able to achieve honorsLongest word in Shakespeare's works; longest word in the English language featuring alternating consonants and vowelsLatin" ], [ "Major dictionaries", "The longest word in any of the major English language dictionaries is ''pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis'' (45 letters), a word that refers to a lung disease contracted from the inhalation of very fine silica particles, specifically from a volcano; medically, it is the same as silicosis.", "The word was deliberately coined to be the longest word in English, and has since been used in a close approximation of its originally intended meaning, lending at least some degree of validity to its claim.The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' contains ''pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism'' (30 letters).", "''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'' does not contain ''antidisestablishmentarianism'' (28 letters), as the editors found no widespread, sustained usage of the word in its original meaning.", "The longest word in that dictionary is ''electroencephalographically'' (27 letters).The longest non-technical word in major dictionaries is ''floccinaucinihilipilification'' at 29 letters.", "Consisting of a series of Latin words meaning \"nothing\" and defined as \"the act of estimating something as worthless\"; its usage has been recorded as far back as 1741.Ross Eckler has noted that most of the longest English words are not likely to occur in general text, meaning non-technical present-day text seen by casual readers, in which the author did not specifically intend to use an unusually long word.", "According to Eckler, the longest words likely to be encountered in general text are ''deinstitutionalization'' and ''counterrevolutionaries'', with 22 letters each.A computer study of over a million samples of normal English prose found that the longest word one is likely to encounter on an everyday basis is ''uncharacteristically'', at 20 letters.The word ''internationalization'' is abbreviated \"i18n\", the embedded number representing the number of letters between the first and the last." ], [ "Creations of long words", "=== Coinages ===In his play ''Assemblywomen'' (''Ecclesiazousae''), the ancient Greek comedic playwright Aristophanes created a word of 171 letters (183 in the transliteration below), which describes a dish by stringing together its ingredients::Lopadotemachoselachogaleokranioleipsanodrimhypotrimmatosilphiokarabomelitokatakechymenokichlepikossyphophattoperisteralektryonoptekephalliokigklopeleiolagoiosiraiobaphetraganopterygon.Henry Carey's farce ''Chrononhotonthologos'' (1743) holds the opening line: \"Aldiborontiphoscophornio!", "Where left you Chrononhotonthologos?", "\"Thomas Love Peacock put these creations into the mouth of the phrenologist Mr. Cranium in his 1816 book ''Headlong Hall'': ''osteosarchaematosplanchnochondroneuromuelous'' (44 characters) and ''osseocarnisanguineoviscericartilaginonervomedullary'' (51 characters).James Joyce made up nine 100-letter words plus one 101-letter word in his novel ''Finnegans Wake'', the most famous of which is Bababadalgharaghtakamminarronnkonnbronntonnerronntuonnthunntrovarrhounawnskawntoohoohoordenenthurnuk.", "Appearing on the first page, it allegedly represents the symbolic thunderclap associated with the fall of Adam and Eve.", "As it appears nowhere else except in reference to this passage, it is generally not accepted as a real word.", "Sylvia Plath made mention of it in her semi-autobiographical novel ''The Bell Jar'', when the protagonist was reading ''Finnegans Wake''.", "\"Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious\", the 34-letter title of a song from the movie ''Mary Poppins'', does appear in several dictionaries, but only as a proper noun defined in reference to the song title.", "The attributed meaning is \"a word that you say when you don't know what to say.\"", "The idea and invention of the word is credited to songwriters Robert and Richard Sherman.=== Agglutinative constructions ===The English language permits the legitimate extension of existing words to serve new purposes by the addition of prefixes and suffixes.", "This is sometimes referred to as agglutinative construction.", "This process can create arbitrarily long words: for example, the prefixes ''pseudo'' (false, spurious) and ''anti'' (against, opposed to) can be added as many times as desired.", "More familiarly, the addition of numerous \"great\"s to a relative, such as \"great-great-great-great-grandparent\", can produce words of arbitrary length.", "In musical notation, an 8192nd note may be called a ''''.", "''Antidisestablishmentarianism'' is the longest common example of a word formed by agglutinative construction.=== Technical terms ===Parastratiosphecomyia stratiosphecomyioides''A number of scientific naming schemes can be used to generate arbitrarily long words.The IUPAC nomenclature for organic chemical compounds is open-ended, giving rise to the 189,819-letter chemical name ''Methionylthreonylleucine'' for the protein also known as titin, which is involved in striated muscle formation.", "In nature, DNA molecules can be much bigger than protein molecules and therefore potentially be referred to with much longer chemical names.", "For example, the wheat chromosome 3B contains almost 1 billion base pairs, so the sequence of one of its strands, if written out in full like ''Adenilyladenilylguanilylcystidyl'', would be about 8billion letters long.", "The longest published word, ''Acetylseryltyrosylseryl'', referring to the coat protein of a certain strain of tobacco mosaic virus (), is 1,185 letters long, and appeared in the American Chemical Society's Chemical Abstracts Service in 1964 and 1966.In 1965, the Chemical Abstracts Service overhauled its naming system and started discouraging excessively long names.", "In 2011, a dictionary broke this record with a 1909-letter word describing the ''trpA'' protein ().John Horton Conway and Landon Curt Noll developed an open-ended system for naming powers of 10, in which one '''', coming from the Latin name for 6560, is the name for 103(6560+1) = 1019683.Under the long number scale, it would be 106(6560) = 1039360.''''", "is sometimes cited as the longest binomial name—it is a kind of amphipod.", "However, this name, proposed by B. Dybowski, was invalidated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature in 1929 after being petitioned by Mary J. Rathbun to take up the case.", "''Myxococcus llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogochensis'' is the longest accepted binomial name for an organism.", "It is a bacterium found in soil collected at Llanfairpwllgwyngyll (discussed below).", "''Parastratiosphecomyia stratiosphecomyioides'' is the longest accepted binomial name for any animal, or any organism visible with the naked eye.", "It is a species of soldier fly.", "The genus name ''Parapropalaehoplophorus'' (a fossil glyptodont, an extinct family of mammals related to armadillos) is two letters longer, but does not contain a similarly long species name.", "'''', at 52 letters, describing the spa waters at Bath, England, is attributed to Dr. Edward Strother (1675–1737).", "The word is composed of the following elements:* Aequeo: equal (Latin, aequo)* Salino: containing salt (Latin, salinus)* Calcalino: calcium (Latin, calx)* Ceraceo: waxy (Latin, ''cera'')* Aluminoso: alumina (Latin)* Cupreo: from \"copper\"* Vitriolic: resembling vitriol" ], [ "Notable long words", "=== Place names === in North WalesThe longest officially recognized place name in an English-speaking country is (85 letters), which is a hill in New Zealand.", "The name is in the Māori language.", "A widely recognized version of the name is Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateaturipukakapikimaungahoronukupokaiwhenuakitanatahu (85 letters), which appears on the signpost at the location (see the photo on this page).", "In Māori, the digraphs ''ng'' and ''wh'' are each treated as single letters.In Canada, the longest place name is ''Dysart, Dudley, Harcourt, Guilford, Harburn, Bruton, Havelock, Eyre and Clyde'', a township in Ontario, at 61 letters or 68 non-space characters.The 58-letter name ''Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch'' is the name of a town on Anglesey, an island of Wales.", "In terms of the traditional Welsh alphabet, the name is only 51 letters long, as certain digraphs in Welsh are considered as single letters, for instance ''ll'', ''ng'' and ''ch''.", "It is generally agreed, however, that this invented name, adopted in the mid-19th century, was contrived solely to be the longest name of any town in Britain.", "The official name of the place is ''Llanfairpwllgwyngyll'', commonly abbreviated to ''Llanfairpwll'' or ''Llanfair PG''.The longest non-contrived place name in the United Kingdom which is a single non-hyphenated word is Cottonshopeburnfoot (19 letters) and the longest which is hyphenated is Sutton-under-Whitestonecliffe (29 characters).The longest place name in the United States (45 letters) is '''', a lake in Webster, Massachusetts.", "It means \"Fishing Place at the Boundaries – Neutral Meeting Grounds\" and is sometimes facetiously translated as \"you fish your side of the water, I fish my side of the water, nobody fishes the middle\".", "The lake is also known as Webster Lake.", "The longest hyphenated names in the U.S. are ''Winchester-on-the-Severn'', a town in Maryland, and ''Washington-on-the-Brazos'', a notable place in Texas history.", "The longest single-word town names in the U.S. are Kleinfeltersville, Pennsylvania and Mooselookmeguntic, Maine.The longest official geographical name in Australia is .", "It has 26 letters and is a Pitjantjatjara word meaning \"where the Devil urinates\".Liechtenstein is the longest single-word country name in English, and the second-longest is Turkmenistan.=== Personal names ===''Guinness World Records'' formerly contained a category for longest personal name used.", "* From about 1975 to 1985, the recordholder was Adolph Blaine Charles David Earl Frederick Gerald Hubert Irvin John Kenneth Lloyd Martin Nero Oliver Paul Quincy Randolph Sherman Thomas Uncas Victor William Xerxes Yancy Zeus Senior (746 letters), also known as Wolfe+585, Senior.", "* After 1985 Guinness briefly awarded the record to a newborn girl with a longer name.", "The category was removed shortly afterward.Long birth names are often coined in protest of naming laws or for other personal reasons.", "* The naming law in Sweden was challenged by parents Lasse Diding and Elisabeth Hallin, who proposed the given name \"Brfxxccxxmnpcccclllmmnprxvclmnckssqlbb11116\" for their child (pronounced , 43 characters), which was rejected by a district court in Halmstad, southern Sweden.=== Words with certain characteristics of notable length ===* ''Schmaltzed'' and ''strengthed'' (10 letters) appear to be the longest monosyllabic words recorded in ''The Oxford English Dictionary'', while ''scraunched'' and ''scroonched'' appear to be the longest monosyllabic words recorded in ''Webster's Third New International Dictionary''; but ''squirrelled'' (11 letters) is the longest if pronounced as one syllable only (as permitted in ''The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary'' and ''Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary'' at ''squirrel'', and in ''Longman Pronunciation Dictionary'').", "''Schtroumpfed'' (12 letters) was coined by Umberto Eco, while ''broughammed'' (11 letters) was coined by William Harmon after ''broughamed'' (10 letters) was coined by George Bernard Shaw.", "* ''Strengths'' is the longest word in the English language containing only one vowel letter.", "* ''Euouae'', a medieval musical term, is the longest English word consisting only of vowels, and the word with the most consecutive vowels.", "However, the \"word\" itself is simply a mnemonic consisting of the vowels to be sung in the phrase \"seculorum Amen\" at the end of the lesser doxology.", "(Although ''u'' was often used interchangeably with ''v'', and the variant \"Evovae\" is occasionally used, the ''v'' in these cases would still be a vowel.", ")* The longest words with no repeated letters are ''dermatoglyphics'' and ''uncopyrightable''.", "* The longest word whose letters are in alphabetical order is the eight-letter ''Aegilops'', a grass genus.", "However, this is arguably a proper noun.", "There are several six-letter English words with their letters in alphabetical order, including ''abhors'', ''almost'', ''begins'', ''biopsy'', ''chimps'' and ''chintz''.", "There are few 7-letter words, such as \"billowy\" and \"beefily\".", "The longest words whose letters are in reverse alphabetical order are ''sponged'', ''wronged'' and ''trollied''.", "* The longest words recorded in OED with each vowel only once, and in order, are ''abstemiously'', ''affectiously'', and '''' (OED).", "''Fracedinously'' and ''gravedinously'' (constructed from adjectives in OED) have thirteen letters; ''Gadspreciously'', constructed from ''Gadsprecious'' (in OED), has fourteen letters.", "''Facetiously'' is among the few other words directly attested in OED with single occurrences of all six vowels (counting ''y'' as a vowel).", "* The longest single palindromic word in English is ''rotavator'', another name for a rotary tiller for breaking and aerating soil.==== Typed words ====* The longest words typable with only the left hand using conventional hand placement on a QWERTY keyboard are ''tesseradecades'', ''aftercataracts'', ''dereverberated'', ''dereverberates'' and the more common but sometimes hyphenated ''sweaterdresses''.", "Using the right hand alone, the longest word that can be typed is ''johnny-jump-up'', or, excluding hyphens, ''monimolimnion'' and ''phyllophyllin''.", "* The longest English word typable using only the top row of letters has 11 letters: ''rupturewort''.", "The word ''teetertotter'' (used in North American English) is longer at 12 letters, although it is usually spelled with a hyphen.", "* The longest using only the middle row is ''shakalshas'' (10 letters).", "Nine-letter words include ''flagfalls''; eight-letter words include ''galahads'' and ''alfalfas''.", "* Since the bottom row contains no vowels, no standard words can be formed.", "* The longest word typable by alternating left and right hands is ''antiskepticism''.", "* On a Dvorak keyboard, the longest \"left-handed\" words are ''epopoeia'', ''jipijapa'', ''peekapoo'', and ''quiaquia''.", "Other such long words are ''papaya'', ''Kikuyu'', ''opaque'', and ''upkeep''.", "''Kikuyu'' is typed entirely with the index finger, and so the longest one-fingered word on the Dvorak keyboard.", "There are no vowels on the right-hand side, and so the longest \"right-handed\" word is crwths." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A Collection of Word Oddities and Trivia – Long words** Long words (chemical names)** Long words (place names)* ''What is the longest English word?", "'', AskOxford.com \"Ask the Experts\"* ''What is the Longest Word?", "'', Fun-With-Words.com* Full chemical name of titin.", "* Taxonomy of Wordplay" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eric S. Raymond" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eric Steven Raymond''' (born December 4, 1957), often referred to as '''ESR''', is an American software developer, open-source software advocate, and author of the 1997 essay and 1999 book ''The Cathedral and the Bazaar''.", "He wrote a guidebook for the Roguelike game ''NetHack''.", "In the 1990s, he edited and updated the Jargon File, published as ''The New Hacker's Dictionary''." ], [ "Early life", "Raymond was born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1957, and lived in Venezuela as a child.", "His family moved to Pennsylvania in 1971.He developed cerebral palsy at birth; his weakened physical condition motivated him to go into computing." ], [ "Career", "Raymond began his programming career writing proprietary software, between 1980 and 1985.In 1990, noting that the Jargon File had not been maintained since about 1983, he adopted it, but not without criticism; Paul Dourish maintains an archived original version of the Jargon File, because, he says, Raymond's updates \"essentially destroyed what held it together.", "\"In 1996 Raymond took over development of the open-source email software \"popclient\", renaming it to Fetchmail.", "Soon after this experience, in 1997, he wrote the essay \"The Cathedral and the Bazaar\", detailing his thoughts on open-source software development and why it should be done as openly as possible (the \"bazaar\" approach).", "The essay was based in part on his experience in developing Fetchmail.", "He first presented his thesis at the annual Linux Kongress on May 27, 1997.He later expanded the essay into a book, ''The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary'', in 1999.The essay has been widely cited.", "The internal white paper by Frank Hecker that led to the release of the Mozilla (then Netscape) source code in 1998 cited ''The Cathedral and the Bazaar'' as \"independent validation\" of ideas proposed by Eric Hahn and Jamie Zawinski.", "Hahn would later describe the 1999 book as \"clearly influential\".From the late 1990s onward, due in part to the popularity of his essay, Raymond became a prominent voice in the open source movement.", "He co-founded the Open Source Initiative (OSI) in 1998, taking on the self-appointed role of ambassador of open source to the press, business and public.", "He remains active in OSI, but stepped down as president of the initiative in February 2005.In early March 2020, he was removed from two Open Source Initiative mailing lists due to posts that violated the OSI's Code of Conduct.In 1998 Raymond received and published a Microsoft document expressing worry about the quality of rival open-source software.", "He named this document, together with others subsequently leaked, \"''The Halloween Documents''\".In 2000–2002 he created Configuration Menu Language 2 (CML2), a source code configuration system; while originally intended for the Linux operating system, it was rejected by kernel developers.", "(Raymond attributed this rejection to \"kernel list politics\", but Linus Torvalds said in a 2007 mailing list post that as a matter of policy, the development team preferred more incremental changes.)", "Raymond's 2003 book ''The Art of Unix Programming'' discusses user tools for programming and other tasks.Some versions of ''NetHack'' still include Raymond's guide.", "He has also contributed code and content to the free software video game ''The Battle for Wesnoth''.Raymond is the main developer of NTPsec, a \"secure, hardened replacement\" for the Unix utility NTP." ], [ "Views on open source", "Raymond at the SouthEast LinuxFest in 2019Raymond coined an aphorism he dubbed Linus's law, inspired by Linus Torvalds: \"Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow\".", "It first appeared in his book ''The Cathedral and the Bazaar''.Raymond has refused to speculate on whether the \"bazaar\" development model could be applied to works such as books and music, saying that he does not want to \"weaken the winning argument for open-sourcing software by tying it to a potential loser\".Raymond has had a number of public disputes with other figures in the free software movement.", "As head of the Open Source Initiative, he argued that advocates should focus on the potential for better products.", "The \"very seductive\" moral and ethical rhetoric of Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation fails, he said, \"not because his principles are wrong, but because that kind of language ... simply does not persuade anybody\".In a 2008 essay he defended programmers' right to issue work under proprietary licenses: \"I think that if a programmer wants to write a program and sell it, it's neither my business nor anyone else's but his customer's what the terms of sale are.\"", "In the same essay he said that the \"logic of the system\" puts developers into \"dysfunctional roles\", with bad code the result." ], [ "Political beliefs and activism", "Raymond is a member of the Libertarian Party and a gun rights advocate.", "He has endorsed the open source firearms organization Defense Distributed, calling them \"friends of freedom\" and writing \"I approve of any development that makes it more difficult for governments and criminals to monopolize the use of force.", "As 3D printers become less expensive and more ubiquitous, this could be a major step in the right direction.", "\"In 2015 Raymond accused the Ada Initiative and other women in tech groups of attempting to entrap male open source leaders and accuse them of rape, saying \"Try to avoid even being alone, ever, because there is a chance that a 'women in tech' advocacy group is going to try to collect your scalp.", "\"Raymond has claimed that \"Gays experimented with unfettered promiscuity in the 1970s and got AIDS as a consequence\", and that \"Police who react to a random black male behaving suspiciously who might be in the critical age range as though he is an near-imminent lethal threat, are being rational, not racist.\"", "A progressive campaign, \"The Great Slate\", was successful in raising funds for candidates in part by asking for contributions from tech workers in return for not posting similar quotes by Raymond.", "Matasano Security employee and Great Slate fundraiser Thomas Ptacek said, \"I've been torturing Twitter with lurid Eric S. Raymond quotes for years.", "Every time I do, 20 people beg me to stop.\"", "It is estimated that, as of March 2018, over $30,000 has been raised in this way." ], [ "Religious beliefs", "Raymond describes himself as neo-pagan." ], [ "Bibliography", "* Hamerly, Jim, Paquin, Tom and Walton, Susan;'' Freeing the Source: The Story of Mozilla'', in ''Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution'', O'Reilly, 1999.280 pp, * Wayner, Peter; '' Free for All: How LINUX and the Free Software Movement Undercut the High-Tech Titans'', HarperCollins, 2000, 340 pp, * Suarez-Potts, Louis;'' Interview: Frank Hecker'', Community Articles, May 1, 2001, www.openoffice.org, OpenOffice website* Moody, Glyn; ''Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution'', Basic Books 2002, 342 pp, === By Eric Raymond ======= Books ====* ''The New Hacker's Dictionary'' (editor MIT Press ) – printed version of the Jargon File with Raymond listed as the editor.", "* ''The Cathedral and the Bazaar'' (O'Reilly; hardcover , 1999) – includes \"The Cathedral and the Bazaar\", \"Homesteading the Noosphere\", \"The Magic Cauldron\" and \"Revenge of the Hackers\"* ''The Art of Unix Programming'' (Addison-Wesley, 2003; )* ''Learning GNU Emacs'' (3rd Edition; editors Debra Cameron, James Elliott, Marc Loy, Eric, Raymond, and Bill Rosenblatt (O'Reilly Media, 2004; )==== Writings posted or archived on his website ====* '' The Art of Unix Usability'', the book about programming and user interface philosophy in UNIX* '' How to Ask Questions the Smart Way'', mirrored on personal site* '' Release Early, Release Often'', excerpt from ''The Cathedral and the Bazaar'', mirrored on personal site* '' Eric Raymond's FAQ collection'', mirrored on his personal site.", "Includes links to Linux Documentation Project." ], [ "See also", "* ''Revolution OS'' (film)* Hacker ethic* Halloween documents* Release early, release often" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Blog (\"Armed and Dangerous\")* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Externalization (psychology)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Externalization''' is a term used in psychoanalytic theory which describes the tendency to project one's internal states onto the outside world.", "It is generally regarded as an unconscious defense mechanism, thus the person is unaware they are doing it.", "Externalization takes on a different meaning in narrative therapy, where the client is encouraged to externalize a problem in order to gain a new perspective on it." ], [ "Psychoanalysis", "In Freudian psychology, externalization (or '''externalisation''') is a defense mechanism by which an individual projects their own internal characteristics onto the outside world, particularly onto other people.", "For example, a patient who is overly argumentative might instead perceive others as argumentative and themselves as blameless.Like other defense mechanisms, externalization can be a protection against anxiety and is, therefore, part of a healthy, normally functioning mind.", "However, if taken to excess, it can lead to the development of a neurosis." ], [ "Narrative therapy", "Michael White states that the problem of the client is externalized, to alter the client's point of view." ], [ "Neuroscience of externalization", "Problems with self-regulation, including impulsivity, violence, sensation-seeking, and rule-breaking, are indicative of an externalizing risk pathway.", "A discrepancy exists between bottom-up reward-related circuitry, such as the ventral striatum, and top-down inhibitory control circuitry, which is located in the prefrontal cortex, linking externalizing behaviors.", "Externalization is often related to substance use disorders.", "In particular, alcohol use disorder is one of disorders that much externalization research has been dedicated to.", "Often, issues within the externalizing risk pathway, namely vulnerabilities in self-regulation, may impact the development of alcohol use disorder differently across stages of the addiction cycle.", "Likewise, marijuana use has been linked to an externalizing pathway that highlights aggressive and delinquent behavior.", "Another type of disorder that is linked to the externalizing pathway is Antisocial Personality Disorder due to its tendency to relate by lack of constraint.", "Much research has examined the similarities of antisocial personality disorder and substance use disorder in relation to externalizing behaviors." ], [ "See also", "* Internalization" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Euro" ], [ "Introduction", "Euro Monetary policyThe '''euro''' (symbol: '''€'''; currency code: '''EUR''') is the official currency of 20 of the member states of the European Union.", "This group of states is officially known as the euro area or, commonly, the eurozone, and includes about 344 million citizens .", "The euro is divided into 100 euro cents.The currency is also used officially by the institutions of the European Union, by four European microstates that are not EU members, the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, as well as unilaterally by Montenegro and Kosovo.", "Outside Europe, a number of special territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency.", "Additionally, over 200 million people worldwide use currencies pegged to the euro.The euro is the second-largest reserve currency as well as the second-most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar.", "with more than €1.3 trillion in circulation, the euro has one of the highest combined values of banknotes and coins in circulation in the world.The name ''euro'' was officially adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid.", "The euro was introduced to world financial markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999, replacing the former European Currency Unit (ECU) at a ratio of 1:1 (US$1.1743 at the time).", "Physical euro coins and banknotes entered into circulation on 1 January 2002, making it the day-to-day operating currency of its original members, and by March 2002 it had completely replaced the former currencies.Between December 1999 and December 2002, the euro traded below the US dollar, but has since traded near parity with or above the US dollar, peaking at US$1.60 on 18 July 2008 and since then returning near to its original issue rate.", "On 13 July 2022, the two currencies hit parity for the first time in nearly two decades due in part to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Administration===European Central Bank seat in Frankfurt am MainThe euro is managed and administered by the European Central Bank (ECB, Frankfurt am Main) and the Eurosystem, composed of the central banks of the eurozone countries.", "As an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy.", "The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of euro banknotes and coins in all member states, and the operation of the eurozone payment systems.The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, although not all participating states have done so.", "Denmark has negotiated exemptions, while Sweden (which joined the EU in 1995, after the Maastricht Treaty was signed) turned down the euro in a 2003 non-binding referendum, and has circumvented the obligation to adopt the euro by not meeting the monetary and budgetary requirements.", "All nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course.", "The Maastricht Treaty was amended by the 2001 Treaty of Nice, which closed the gaps and loopholes in the Maastricht and Rome Treaties." ], [ "Countries that use Euro", "===Eurozone members===The 20 participating members are * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Special territories of members of the European Economic Area==='''EU Outermost Regions:'''******* Martinique **************'''Overseas Territories:'''***** Saint Barthélemy** Saint Pierre and Miquelon'''Special Territories:'''* *** ****===Other users==='''Microstates with a monetary agreement''':* * * * '''British Overseas Territory:''' * '''Unilateral adopters:''' * *" ], [ "EU members not using the Euro", "===Obliged to adopt the euro===The following EU member states are legally obligated to adopt the euro, though they do not have a deadline for adoption.", "Bulgaria and Romania are actively working to adopt the euro, while the remaining states do not plan to switch in the near future.", "* : The government of Bulgaria aims to replace the Bulgarian lev by the euro on 1 January 2025.In November 2023, Bulgarian euro coin design has been revealed and approved by the Bulgarian National Bank.", "* * * * : The government of Romania aims for the Romanian leu to be replaced by the euro on 1 January 2026.", "* ===Opt-out===The government of Denmark negotiated an opt-out to retain its currency.", "*" ], [ "Coins and banknotes", "===Coins===The euro is divided into 100 cents (also referred to as ''euro cents'', especially when distinguishing them from other currencies, and referred to as such on the common side of all cent coins).", "In Community legislative acts the plural forms of ''euro'' and ''cent'' are spelled without the ''s'', notwithstanding normal English usage.", "Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as ''centime'' in France.All circulating coins have a ''common side'' showing the denomination or value, and a map in the background.", "Due to the linguistic plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of ''euro'' is used (as opposed to the less common Greek or Cyrillic) and Arabic numerals (other text is used on national sides in national languages, but other text on the common side is avoided).", "For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, the map only showed the 15 member states of the union as of 2002.Beginning in 2007 or 2008 (depending on the country), the old map was replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the EU.", "The 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, however, keep their old design, showing a geographical map of Europe with the EU member states as of 2002, raised somewhat above the rest of the map.", "All common sides were designed by Luc Luycx.", "The coins also have a ''national side'' showing an image specifically chosen by the country that issued the coin.", "Euro coins from any member state may be freely used in any nation that has adopted the euro.The coins are issued in denominations of €2, €1, 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c.", "To avoid the use of the two smallest coins, some cash transactions are rounded to the nearest five cents in the Netherlands and Ireland (by voluntary agreement) and in Finland and Italy (by law).", "This practice is discouraged by the commission, as is the practice of certain shops of refusing to accept high-value euro notes.Commemorative coins with €2 face value have been issued with changes to the design of the national side of the coin.", "These include both commonly issued coins, such as the €2 commemorative coin for the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Rome, and nationally issued coins, such as the coin to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics issued by Greece.", "These coins are legal tender throughout the eurozone.", "Collector coins with various other denominations have been issued as well, but these are not intended for general circulation, and they are legal tender only in the member state that issued them.====Coin minting====A number of institutions are authorised to mint euro coins:* Bayerisches Hauptmünzamt, Munich (Mint mark: D)* Currency Centre* Fábrica Nacional de Moneda y Timbre* Hamburgische Münze (J)* Imprensa Nacional Casa da Moeda SA* Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato* Koninklijke Nederlandse Munt* Koninklijke Munt van België/Monnaie Royale de Belgique* Mincovňa Kremnica* Monnaie de Paris* Münze Österreich* Rahapaja Oy/Myntverket i Finland Ab* Staatliche Münze Berlin (A)* Staatliche Münze Karlsruhe (G)* Staatliche Münze Stuttgart (F)* Lithuanian Mint* Croatian Mint===Banknotes===Euro coins and banknotes of various denominationsThe design for the euro banknotes has common designs on both sides.", "The design was created by the Austrian designer Robert Kalina.", "Notes are issued in €500, €200, €100, €50, €20, €10, and €5.Each banknote has its own colour and is dedicated to an artistic period of European architecture.", "The front of the note features windows or gateways while the back has bridges, symbolising links between states in the union and with the future.", "While the designs are supposed to be devoid of any identifiable characteristics, the initial designs by Robert Kalina were of specific bridges, including the Rialto and the Pont de Neuilly, and were subsequently rendered more generic; the final designs still bear very close similarities to their specific prototypes; thus they are not truly generic.", "The monuments looked similar enough to different national monuments to please everyone.The Europa series, or second series, consists of six denominations and no longer includes the €500 with issuance discontinued as of 27 April 2019.However, both the first and the second series of euro banknotes, including the €500, remain legal tender throughout the euro area.In December 2021, the ECB announced its plans to redesign euro banknotes by 2024.A theme advisory group, made up of one member from each euro area country, was selected to submit theme proposals to the ECB.", "The proposals will be voted on by the public; a design competition will also be held.====Issuing modalities for banknotes====Since 1 January 2002, the national central banks (NCBs) and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis.", "Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated.", "The ECB issues 8% of the total value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem.", "In practice, the ECB's banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs, thereby incurring matching liabilities vis-à-vis the ECB.", "These liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB.", "The other 92% of euro banknotes are issued by the NCBs in proportion to their respective shares of the ECB capital key, calculated using national share of European Union (EU) population and national share of EU GDP, equally weighted.====Banknote printing====Member states are authorised to print or to commission bank note printing.", ", these are the printers:* Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato* Banco de Portugal* Bank of Greece* * Bundesdruckerei* Central Bank of Ireland* De La Rue* Fábrica Nacional de Moneda y Timbre* François-Charles Oberthur* Giesecke & Devrient* Royal Joh.", "Enschedé* National Bank of Belgium* Oesterreichische Nationalbank* Setec Oy===Payments clearing, electronic funds transfer===Capital within the EU may be transferred in any amount from one state to another.", "All intra-Union transfers in euro are treated as domestic transactions and bear the corresponding domestic transfer costs.", "This includes all member states of the EU, even those outside the eurozone providing the transactions are carried out in euro.", "Credit/debit card charging and ATM withdrawals within the eurozone are also treated as domestic transactions; however paper-based payment orders, like cheques, have not been standardised so these are still domestic-based.", "The ECB has also set up a clearing system, TARGET, for large euro transactions." ], [ "History", "===Introduction===The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 Maastricht Treaty.", "To participate in the currency, member states are meant to meet strict criteria, such as a budget deficit of less than 3% of their GDP, a debt ratio of less than 60% of GDP (both of which were ultimately widely flouted after introduction), low inflation, and interest rates close to the EU average.", "In the Maastricht Treaty, the United Kingdom and Denmark were granted exemptions per their request from moving to the stage of monetary union which resulted in the introduction of the euro.The name \"euro\" was officially adopted in Madrid on 16 December 1995.Belgian Esperantist Germain Pirlot, a former teacher of French and history, is credited with naming the new currency by sending a letter to then President of the European Commission, Jacques Santer, suggesting the name \"euro\" on 4 August 1995.Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits, all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro.", "The ''definitive'' values of one euro in terms of the exchange rates at which the currency entered the euro are shown in the table.The rates were determined by the Council of the European Union, based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on 31 December 1998.They were set so that one European Currency Unit (ECU) would equal one euro.", "The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU, based on the currencies of the member states; it was not a currency in its own right.", "They could not be set earlier, because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non-euro currencies (principally pound sterling) that day.The procedure used to fix the conversion rate between the Greek drachma and the euro was different since the euro by then was already two years old.", "While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced, the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand.The currency was introduced in non-physical form (traveller's cheques, electronic transfers, banking, etc.)", "at midnight on 1 January 1999, when the national currencies of participating countries (the eurozone) ceased to exist independently.", "Their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other.", "The euro thus became the successor to the European Currency Unit (ECU).", "The notes and coins for the old currencies, however, continued to be used as legal tender until new euro notes and coins were introduced on 1 January 2002.The changeover period during which the former currencies' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, until 28 February 2002.The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state.", "The earliest date was in Germany, where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001, though the exchange period lasted for two months more.", "Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from several years to indefinitely (the latter for Austria, Germany, Ireland, Estonia and Latvia in banknotes and coins, and for Belgium, Luxembourg, Slovenia and Slovakia in banknotes only).", "The earliest coins to become non-convertible were the Portuguese escudos, which ceased to have monetary value after 31 December 2002, although banknotes remained exchangeable until 2022.===Currency sign===The euro sign; logotype and handwrittenA special euro currency sign (€) was designed after a public survey had narrowed ten of the original thirty proposals down to two.", "The President of the European Commission at the time (Jacques Santer) and the European Commissioner with responsibility for the euro (Yves-Thibault de Silguy) then chose the winning design.Regarding the symbol, the European Commission stated on behalf of the European Union:The European Commission also specified a euro logo with exact proportions.", "Placement of the currency sign relative to the numeric amount varies from state to state, but for texts in English published by EU institutions, the symbol (or the ISO-standard \"EUR\") should precede the amount.===Eurozone crisis===European 10 year bonds, before the Great Recession in Europe bonds floated together in parityBudget deficit of the eurozone compared to the United States and the United Kingdom.Following the U.S. financial crisis in 2008, fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed in 2009 among investors concerning some European states, with the situation becoming particularly tense in early 2010.Greece was most acutely affected, but fellow Eurozone members Cyprus, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, and Spain were also significantly affected.", "All these countries used EU funds except Italy, which is a major donor to the EFSF.", "To be included in the eurozone, countries had to fulfil certain convergence criteria, but the meaningfulness of such criteria was diminished by the fact it was not enforced with the same level of strictness among countries.According to the Economist Intelligence Unit in 2011, \"If the euro area is treated as a single entity, its economic and fiscal position looks no worse and in some respects, rather better than that of the US or the UK\" and the budget deficit for the euro area as a whole is much lower and the euro area's government debt/GDP ratio of 86% in 2010 was about the same level as that of the United States.", "\"Moreover\", they write, \"private-sector indebtedness across the euro area as a whole is markedly lower than in the highly leveraged Anglo-Saxon economies\".", "The authors conclude that the crisis \"is as much political as economic\" and the result of the fact that the euro area lacks the support of \"institutional paraphernalia (and mutual bonds of solidarity) of a state\".The crisis continued with S&P downgrading the credit rating of nine euro-area countries, including France, then downgrading the entire European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) fund.A historical parallel – to 1931 when Germany was burdened with debt, unemployment and austerity while France and the United States were relatively strong creditors – gained attention in summer 2012 even as Germany received a debt-rating warning of its own." ], [ "Direct and indirect usage", "===Agreed direct usage with minting rights===The euro is the sole currency of 20 EU member states: Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain.", "These countries constitute the \"eurozone\", some 347 million people in total .", "According to bilateral agreements with the EU, the euro has also been designated as the sole and official currency in a further four European microstates awarded minting rights (Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City).", "All but one (Denmark) EU members are obliged to join when economic conditions permit, together with future members of the EU.===Agreed direct usage without minting rights===The euro is also the sole currency in three overseas territories of France that are not themselves part of the EU, namely Saint Barthélemy, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, as well as in the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia.===Unilateral direct usage===The euro has been adopted unilaterally as the sole currency of Montenegro and Kosovo.", "It has also been used as a foreign trading currency in Cuba since 1998, Syria since 2006, and Venezuela since 2018.In 2009, Zimbabwe abandoned its local currency and introduced major global convertible currencies instead, including the euro and the United States dollar.", "The direct usage of the euro outside of the official framework of the EU affects nearly 3 million people.===Currencies pegged to the euro===Worldwide use of the euro and the US dollar:Note: The Belarusian rouble is pegged to the euro, Russian rouble and US dollar in a currency basket.Outside the eurozone, two EU member states have currencies that are pegged to the euro, which is a precondition to joining the eurozone.", "The Danish krone and Bulgarian lev are pegged due to their participation in the ERM II.Additionally, a total of 21 countries and territories that do not belong to the EU have currencies that are directly pegged to the euro including 14 countries in mainland Africa (CFA franc), two African island countries (Comorian franc and Cape Verdean escudo), three French Pacific territories (CFP franc) and two Balkan countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark) and North Macedonia (Macedonian denar).", "On 1 January 2010, the dobra of São Tomé and Príncipe was officially linked with the euro.", "Additionally, the Moroccan dirham is tied to a basket of currencies, including the euro and the US dollar, with the euro given the highest weighting.These countries generally had previously implemented a currency peg to one of the major European currencies (e.g.", "the French franc, Deutsche Mark or Portuguese escudo), and when these currencies were replaced by the euro their currencies became pegged to the euro.", "Pegging a country's currency to a major currency is regarded as a safety measure, especially for currencies of areas with weak economies, as the euro is seen as a stable currency, prevents runaway inflation, and encourages foreign investment due to its stability.In total, , 182 million people in Africa use a currency pegged to the euro, 27 million people outside the eurozone in Europe, and another 545,000 people on Pacific islands.Since 2005, stamps issued by the Sovereign Military Order of Malta have been denominated in euros, although the Order's official currency remains the Maltese scudo.", "The Maltese scudo itself is pegged to the euro and is only recognised as legal tender within the Order.The currency of a number of states is pegged to the euro.", "These states are:'''Europe'''* (Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark, )* (Bulgarian lev, )* (Danish krone, )* (Macedonian denar, )* (Maltese scudo)'''Oceania'''* (CFP franc, )* (CFP franc)* (CFP franc)'''Africa'''* (Cape Verdean escudo, )* (Central African CFA franc, )* (Central African CFA franc)* (Central African CFA franc)* (Central African CFA franc)* (Central African CFA franc)* (Central African CFA franc)* (Comorian franc, )* (Djibouti franc, )* (Gambian dalasi, )* (Malagasy ariary, )* (Sahrawi peseta)* (São Tomé and Príncipe dobra, )* (Sierra Leonean leone, )* (West African CFA franc, )* (West African CFA franc) * (West African CFA franc) * (West African CFA franc) * (West African CFA franc) * (West African CFA franc) * (West African CFA franc) * (West African CFA franc)===Use as reserve currency===Since its introduction in 1999, the euro has been the second most widely held international reserve currency after the U.S. dollar.", "The share of the euro as a reserve currency increased from 18% in 1999 to 27% in 2008.Over this period, the share held in U.S. dollar fell from 71% to 64% and that held in RMB fell from 6.4% to 3.3%.", "The euro inherited and built on the status of the Deutsche Mark as the second most important reserve currency.", "The euro remains underweight as a reserve currency in advanced economies while overweight in emerging and developing economies: according to the International Monetary Fund the total of euro held as a reserve in the world at the end of 2008 was equal to $1.1 trillion or €850 billion, with a share of 22% of all currency reserves in advanced economies, but a total of 31% of all currency reserves in emerging and developing economies.The possibility of the euro becoming the first international reserve currency has been debated among economists.", "Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan gave his opinion in September 2007 that it was \"absolutely conceivable that the euro will replace the US dollar as reserve currency, or will be traded as an equally important reserve currency\".", "In contrast to Greenspan's 2007 assessment, the euro's increase in the share of the worldwide currency reserve basket has slowed considerably since 2007 and since the beginning of the worldwide credit crunch related recession and European sovereign-debt crisis." ], [ "Economics", "===Optimal currency area===In economics, an optimum currency area, or region (OCA or OCR), is a geographical region in which it would maximise economic efficiency to have the entire region share a single currency.", "There are two models, both proposed by Robert Mundell: the stationary expectations model and the international risk sharing model.", "Mundell himself advocates the international risk sharing model and thus concludes in favour of the euro.", "However, even before the creation of the single currency, there were concerns over diverging economies.", "Before the late-2000s recession it was considered unlikely that a state would leave the euro or the whole zone would collapse.", "However the Greek government-debt crisis led to former British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw claiming the eurozone could not last in its current form.", "Part of the problem seems to be the rules that were created when the euro was set up.", "John Lanchester, writing for ''The New Yorker'', explains it: ===Transaction costs and risks===The most obvious benefit of adopting a single currency is to remove the cost of exchanging currency, theoretically allowing businesses and individuals to consummate previously unprofitable trades.", "For consumers, banks in the eurozone must charge the same for intra-member cross-border transactions as purely domestic transactions for electronic payments (e.g., credit cards, debit cards and cash machine withdrawals).Financial markets on the continent are expected to be far more liquid and flexible than they were in the past.", "The reduction in cross-border transaction costs will allow larger banking firms to provide a wider array of banking services that can compete across and beyond the eurozone.", "However, although transaction costs were reduced, some studies have shown that risk aversion has increased during the last 40 years in the Eurozone.===Price parity===Another effect of the common European currency is that differences in prices—in particular in price levels—should decrease because of the law of one price.", "Differences in prices can trigger arbitrage, i.e., speculative trade in a commodity across borders purely to exploit the price differential.", "Therefore, prices on commonly traded goods are likely to converge, causing inflation in some regions and deflation in others during the transition.", "Some evidence of this has been observed in specific eurozone markets.===Macroeconomic stability===Before the introduction of the euro, some countries had successfully contained inflation, which was then seen as a major economic problem, by establishing largely independent central banks.", "One such bank was the Bundesbank in Germany; the European Central Bank was modelled on the Bundesbank.The euro has come under criticism due to its regulation, lack of flexibility and rigidity towards sharing member states on issues such as nominal interest rates.Many national and corporate bonds denominated in euro are significantly more liquid and have lower interest rates than was historically the case when denominated in national currencies.", "While increased liquidity may lower the nominal interest rate on the bond, denominating the bond in a currency with low levels of inflation arguably plays a much larger role.", "A credible commitment to low levels of inflation and a stable debt reduces the risk that the value of the debt will be eroded by higher levels of inflation or default in the future, allowing debt to be issued at a lower nominal interest rate.There is also a cost in structurally keeping inflation lower than in the United States, United Kingdom, and China.", "The result is that seen from those countries, the euro has become expensive, making European products increasingly expensive for its largest importers; hence export from the eurozone becomes more difficult.In general, those in Europe who own large amounts of euro are served by high stability and low inflation.A monetary union means states in that union lose the main mechanism of recovery of their international competitiveness by weakening (depreciating) their currency.", "When wages become too high compared to productivity in the exports sector, then these exports become more expensive and they are crowded out from the market within a country and abroad.", "This drives the fall of employment and output in the exports sector and fall of trade and current account balances.", "Fall of output and employment in the tradable goods sector may be offset by the growth of non-exports sectors, especially in construction and services.", "Increased purchases abroad and negative current account balances can be financed without a problem as long as credit is cheap.", "The need to finance trade deficit weakens currency, making exports automatically more attractive in a country and abroad.", "A state in a monetary union cannot use weakening of currency to recover its international competitiveness.", "To achieve this a state has to reduce prices, including wages (deflation).", "This could result in high unemployment and lower incomes as it was during the European sovereign-debt crisis.====Trade====The euro increased price transparency and stimulated cross-border trade.", "A 2009 consensus from the studies of the introduction of the euro concluded that it has increased trade within the eurozone by 5% to 10%, although one study suggested an increase of only 3% while another estimated 9 to 14%.", "However, a meta-analysis of all available studies suggests that the prevalence of positive estimates is caused by publication bias and that the underlying effect may be negligible.", "Although a more recent meta-analysis shows that publication bias decreases over time and that there are positive trade effects from the introduction of the euro, as long as results from before 2010 are taken into account.", "This may be because of the inclusion of the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 and ongoing integration within the EU.", "Furthermore, older studies based on certain methods of analysis of main trends reflecting general cohesion policies in Europe that started before, and continue after implementing the common currency find no effect on trade.", "These results suggest that other policies aimed at European integration might be the source of observed increase in trade.", "According to Barry Eichengreen, studies disagree on the magnitude of the effect of the euro on trade, but they agree that it did have an effect.====Investment====Physical investment seems to have increased by 5% in the eurozone due to the introduction.", "Regarding foreign direct investment, a study found that the intra-eurozone FDI stocks have increased by about 20% during the first four years of the EMU.", "Concerning the effect on corporate investment, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has resulted in an increase in investment rates and that it has made it easier for firms to access financing in Europe.", "The euro has most specifically stimulated investment in companies that come from countries that previously had weak currencies.", "A study found that the introduction of the euro accounts for 22% of the investment rate after 1998 in countries that previously had a weak currency.====Inflation====Euro Zone inflationThe introduction of the euro has led to extensive discussion about its possible effect on inflation.", "In the short term, there was a widespread impression in the population of the eurozone that the introduction of the euro had led to an increase in prices, but this impression was not confirmed by general indices of inflation and other studies.", "A study of this paradox found that this was due to an asymmetric effect of the introduction of the euro on prices: while it had no effect on most goods, it had an effect on cheap goods which have seen their price round up after the introduction of the euro.", "The study found that consumers based their beliefs on inflation of those cheap goods which are frequently purchased.", "It has also been suggested that the jump in small prices may be because prior to the introduction, retailers made fewer upward adjustments and waited for the introduction of the euro to do so.====Exchange rate risk====One of the advantages of the adoption of a common currency is the reduction of the risk associated with changes in currency exchange rates.", "It has been found that the introduction of the euro created \"significant reductions in market risk exposures for nonfinancial firms both in and outside Europe\".", "These reductions in market risk \"were concentrated in firms domiciled in the eurozone and in non-euro firms with a high fraction of foreign sales or assets in Europe\".====Financial integration====The introduction of the euro increased European financial integration, which helped stimulate growth of a European securities market (bond markets are characterized by economies of scale dynamics).", "According to a study on this question, it has \"significantly reshaped the European financial system, especially with respect to the securities markets ...", "However, the real and policy barriers to integration in the retail and corporate banking sectors remain significant, even if the wholesale end of banking has been largely integrated.\"", "Specifically, the euro has significantly decreased the cost of trade in bonds, equity, and banking assets within the eurozone.", "On a global level, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has led to an integration in terms of investment in bond portfolios, with eurozone countries lending and borrowing more between each other than with other countries.", "Financial integration made it cheaper for European companies to borrow.", "Banks, firms and households could also invest more easily outside of their own country, thus creating greater international risk-sharing.====Effect on interest rates====Secondary market yields of government bonds with maturities of close to 10 yearsAs of January 2014, and since the introduction of the euro, interest rates of most member countries (particularly those with a weak currency) have decreased.", "Some of these countries had the most serious sovereign financing problems.The effect of declining interest rates, combined with excess liquidity continually provided by the ECB, made it easier for banks within the countries in which interest rates fell the most, and their linked sovereigns, to borrow significant amounts (above the 3% of GDP budget deficit imposed on the eurozone initially) and significantly inflate their public and private debt levels.", "Following the financial crisis of 2007–2008, governments in these countries found it necessary to bail out or nationalise their privately held banks to prevent systemic failure of the banking system when underlying hard or financial asset values were found to be grossly inflated and sometimes so nearly worthless there was no liquid market for them.", "This further increased the already high levels of public debt to a level the markets began to consider unsustainable, via increasing government bond interest rates, producing the ongoing European sovereign-debt crisis.====Price convergence====The evidence on the convergence of prices in the eurozone with the introduction of the euro is mixed.", "Several studies failed to find any evidence of convergence following the introduction of the euro after a phase of convergence in the early 1990s.", "Other studies have found evidence of price convergence, in particular for cars.", "A possible reason for the divergence between the different studies is that the processes of convergence may not have been linear, slowing down substantially between 2000 and 2003, and resurfacing after 2003 as suggested by a recent study (2009).====Tourism====A study suggests that the introduction of the euro has had a positive effect on the amount of tourist travel within the EMU, with an increase of 6.5%." ], [ "Exchange rates", "===Flexible exchange rates===The ECB targets interest rates rather than exchange rates and in general, does not intervene on the foreign exchange rate markets.", "This is because of the implications of the Mundell–Fleming model, which implies a central bank cannot (without capital controls) maintain interest rate and exchange rate targets simultaneously, because increasing the money supply results in a depreciation of the currency.", "In the years following the Single European Act, the EU has liberalised its capital markets and, as the ECB has inflation targeting as its monetary policy, the exchange-rate regime of the euro is floating.===Against other major currencies===The euro is the second-most widely held reserve currency after the U.S. dollar.", "After its introduction on 4 January 1999 its exchange rate against the other major currencies fell reaching its lowest exchange rates in 2000 (3 May vs sterling, 25 October vs the U.S. dollar, 26 October vs Japanese yen).", "Afterwards it regained and its exchange rate reached its historical highest point in 2008 (15 July vs US dollar, 23 July vs Japanese yen, 29 December vs sterling).", "With the advent of the global financial crisis the euro initially fell, to regain later.", "Despite pressure due to the European sovereign-debt crisis the euro remained stable.", "In November 2011 the euro's exchange rate index – measured against currencies of the bloc's major trading partners – was trading almost two percent higher on the year, approximately at the same level as it was before the crisis kicked off in 2007.In mid July, 2022, the euro equalled the US dollar for a short period of time.", "*Current and historical exchange rates against 32 other currencies (European Central Bank): '' link''" ], [ "Political considerations", "Besides the economic motivations to the introduction of the euro, its creation was also partly justified as a way to foster a closer sense of joint identity between European citizens.", "Statements about this goal were for instance made by Wim Duisenberg, European Central Bank Governor, in 1998, Laurent Fabius, French Finance Minister, in 2000, and Romano Prodi, President of the European Commission, in 2002.However, 15 years after the introduction of the euro, a study found no evidence that it has had any effect on a shared sense of European identity." ], [ "''Euro'' in various official EU languages", "The formal titles of the currency are ''euro'' for the major unit and ''cent'' for the minor (one-hundredth) unit and for official use in most eurozone languages; according to the ECB, all languages should use the same spelling for the nominative singular.", "This may contradict normal rules for word formation in some languages.Bulgaria has negotiated an exception; ''euro'' in the Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet is spelled () and not ('''') in all official documents.", "In the Greek script the term () is used; the Greek \"cent\" coins are denominated in ().", "Official practice for English-language EU legislation is to use the words euro and cent as both singular and plural, although the European Commission's Directorate-General for Translation states that the plural forms ''euros'' and ''cents'' should be used in English.The word 'euro' is pronounced differently according to pronunciation rules in the individual languages applied; in German , in English , in French , etc.In summary: Language(s) Name IPA In most EU languages euro , , , , , , , , , or , , Bulgarian ''evro'' German Greek Hungarian or Latvian ''euro'' or Lithuanian Maltese Slovene For local phonetics, cent, use of plural and amount formatting (€6,00 or 6.00 €), see Language and the euro." ], [ "See also", "* Captain Euro, ''The Raspberry Ice Cream War''* Causes of the European debt crisis* Controversies surrounding the eurozone crisis* Currency union* Digital euro* Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union* European debt crisis* European integration* History of the European Union* List of acronyms associated with the eurozone crisis* List of currencies in Europe* Proposed long-term solutions for the eurozone crisis* Withdrawal from the eurozone" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* European Union – Euro* European Commission – Euro Area* European Central Bank – Euro* European Central Bank – Euro Exchange Rates" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "European Central Bank" ], [ "Introduction", "Euro Monetary policySeat of the European Central Bankupright=1.2The '''European Central Bank''' ('''ECB''') is the prime component of the Eurosystem and the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) as well as one of seven institutions of the European Union.", "It is one of the world's most important central banks.The ECB Governing Council makes monetary policy for the Eurozone and the European Union, administers the foreign exchange reserves of EU member states, engages in foreign exchange operations, and defines the intermediate monetary objectives and key interest rate of the EU.", "The ECB Executive Board enforces the policies and decisions of the Governing Council, and may direct the national central banks when doing so.", "The ECB has the exclusive right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes.", "Member states can issue euro coins, but the volume must be approved by the ECB beforehand.", "The bank also operates the TARGET2 payments system.The ECB was established by the Treaty of Amsterdam in May 1999 with the purpose of guaranteeing and maintaining price stability.", "On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon became effective and the bank gained the official status of an EU institution.", "When the ECB was created, it covered a Eurozone of eleven members.", "Since then, Greece joined in January 2001, Slovenia in January 2007, Cyprus and Malta in January 2008, Slovakia in January 2009, Estonia in January 2011, Latvia in January 2014, Lithuania in January 2015 and Croatia in January 2023.The current President of the ECB is Christine Lagarde.", "Seated in Frankfurt, Germany, the bank formerly occupied the Eurotower prior to the construction of its new seat.The ECB is directly governed by European Union law.", "Its capital stock, worth €11 billion, is owned by all 27 central banks of the EU member states as shareholders.", "The initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the states' population and GDP, but the capital key has been readjusted since.", "Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral." ], [ "History", "Euro Zone inflation=== Early years of the ECB (1998–2007) ===Wim Duisenberg, first President of the ECBThe European Central Bank is the ''de facto'' successor of the European Monetary Institute (EMI).", "The EMI was established at the start of the second stage of the EU's Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) to handle the transitional issues of states adopting the euro and prepare for the creation of the ECB and European System of Central Banks (ESCB).", "The EMI itself took over from the earlier European Monetary Cooperation Fund (EMCF).The ECB formally replaced the EMI on 1 June 1998 by virtue of the Treaty on European Union (TEU, Treaty of Maastricht), however it did not exercise its full powers until the introduction of the euro on 1 January 1999, signalling the third stage of EMU.", "The bank was the final institution needed for EMU, as outlined by the EMU reports of Pierre Werner and President Jacques Delors.", "It was established on 1 June 1998 The first President of the Bank was Wim Duisenberg, the former president of the Dutch central bank and the European Monetary Institute.", "While Duisenberg had been the head of the EMI (taking over from Alexandre Lamfalussy of Belgium) just before the ECB came into existence, the French government wanted Jean-Claude Trichet, former head of the French central bank, to be the ECB's first president.", "The French argued that since the ECB was to be located in Germany, its president should be French.", "This was opposed by the German, Dutch and Belgian governments who saw Duisenberg as a guarantor of a strong euro.", "Tensions were abated by a gentleman's agreement in which Duisenberg would stand down before the end of his mandate, to be replaced by Trichet.Trichet replaced Duisenberg as president in November 2003.Until 2007, the ECB had very successfully managed to maintain inflation close but below 2%.Mario Draghi, President of the ECB between 2011 and 2019=== The ECB's response to the financial crises (2008–2014) ===The European Central Bank underwent a deep internal transformation as it faced the 2007–2008 financial crisis and the European debt crisis.==== Early response to the Eurozone debt crisis ====The European debt crisis began after Greece's new elected government uncovered the real level indebtedness and budget deficit and warned EU institutions of the imminent danger of a Greek sovereign default.Foreseeing a possible sovereign default in the eurozone, the general public, international and European institutions, and the financial community reassessed the economic situation and creditworthiness of some Eurozone member states.", "Consequently, sovereign bonds yields of several Eurozone countries started to rise sharply.", "This provoked a self-fulfilling panic on financial markets: the more Greek bonds yields rose, the more likely a default became possible, the more bond yields increased in turn.This panic was also aggravated because of the reluctance of the ECB to react and intervene on sovereign bond markets for two reasons.", "First, because the ECB's legal framework normally forbids the purchase of sovereign bonds in the primary market (Article 123.TFEU), Secondly a decision by the ECB made in 2005 introduced a bond credit rating for all Eurozone sovereign bonds to be eligible as collateral to the ECB's open market operations.", "This meant, that if a credit rating agency was to downgrade a government bond below that threshold, many banks would suddenly loose market liquidity and so lose access to ECB refinancing operations.", "According to former member of the governing council of the ECB Athanasios Orphanides, this change in the ECB's collateral framework \"planted the seed\" of the euro crisis.Faced with those regulatory constraints, the ECB led by Jean-Claude Trichet in 2010 was reluctant to intervene to calm down financial markets.", "Up until 6 May 2010, Trichet formally denied at several press conferences the possibility of the ECB to embark into sovereign bonds purchases, even though Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Spain and Italy faced waves of credit rating downgrades and increasing interest rate spreads.==== ECB's market interventions (2010–2011) ====ECB Securities Markets Programme (SMP) covering bond purchases since May 2010In a remarkable u-turn, the ECB announced on 10 May 2010, the launch of a \"Securities Market Programme\" (SMP) which involved the discretionary purchase of sovereign bonds in secondary markets.", "Extraordinarily, the decision was taken by the Governing Council during a teleconference call only three days after the ECB's usual meeting of 6 May (when Trichet still denied the possibility of purchasing sovereign bonds).", "The ECB justified this decision by the necessity to \"address severe tensions in financial markets.\"", "The decision also coincided with the EU leaders decision of 10 May to establish the European Financial Stabilisation mechanism, which would serve as a crisis fighting fund to safeguard the euro area from future sovereign debt crisis.Although at first limited to the debt of Greece, Ireland and Portugal, the bulk of the ECB's bond buying eventually consisted of Spanish and Italian debt.", "These purchases were intended to dampen international speculation against stressed countries, and thus avoid a contagion of the Greek crisis towards other Eurozone countries.", "The assumption—largely justified—was that speculative activity would decrease over time and the value of the assets increase.Although SMP purchases did inject liquidity into financial markets, all of these injections were \"sterilized\" through weekly liquidity absorption.", "So the operation was net neutral in liquidity terms (though this was of little practical importance since normal monetary policy operations were ensuring unlimited supplies of liquidity at the main policy interest rate).In September 2011, ECB's Board member Jürgen Stark, resigned in protest against the \"Securities Market Programme\" which involved the purchase of sovereign bonds from Southern member states, a move that he considered as equivalent to monetary financing, which is prohibited by the EU Treaty.", "The ''Financial Times Deutschland'' referred to this episode as \"the end of the ECB as we know it\", referring to its hitherto perceived \"hawkish\" stance on inflation and its historical Deutsche Bundesbank influence.As of 18 June 2012, the ECB in total had spent €212.1bn (equal to 2.2% of the Eurozone GDP) for bond purchases covering outright debt, as part of the Securities Markets Programme.", "Controversially, the ECB made substantial profits out of SMP, which were largely redistributed to Eurozone countries.", "In 2013, the Eurogroup decided to refund those profits to Greece, however, the payments were suspended from 2014 until 2017 over the conflict between Yanis Varoufakis and ministers of the Eurogroup.", "In 2018, profits refunds were reinstalled by the Eurogroup.", "However, several NGOs complained that a substantial part of the ECB profits would never be refunded to Greece.====Role in the Troika (2010–2015) ====European 10 year bonds, before the Great Recession in Europe bonds floated together in parityThe ECB played a controversial role in the \"Troika\" by rejecting most forms of debt restructuring of public and bank debts, and pressing governments to adopt bailout programmes and structural reforms through secret letters to Italian, Spanish, Greek and Irish governments.", "It has further been accused of interfering in the Greek referendum of July 2015 by constraining liquidity to Greek commercial banks.In November 2010, reflecting the huge increase in borrowing, including the cover the cost of having guaranteed the liabilities of banks, the cost of borrowing in the private financial markets had become prohibitive for the Irish government.", "Although it had deferred the cash cost of recapitalising the failing Anglo Irish Bank by nationalising it and issuing it with a \"promissory note\" (an IOU), the Government also faced a large deficit on its non-banking activities, and it therefore turned to the official sector for a loan to bridge the shortfall until its finances were credibly back on a sustainable footing.", "(Meanwhile, Anglo used the promissory note as collateral for its emergency loan (ELA) from the Central Bank.", "This enabled Anglo was able to repay its depositors and bondholders.It became clear later that the ECB played a key role in making sure the Irish government did not let Anglo default on its debts, to avoid financial instability risks.", "On 15 October and 6 November 2010, the ECB President Jean-Claude Trichet sent two secret letters to the Irish finance Minister which essentially informed the Irish government of the possible suspension of ELA's credit lines, unless the government requested a financial assistance programme to the Eurogroup under the condition of further reforms and fiscal consolidation.In addition, the ECB insisted that no debt restructuring (or bail-in) should be applied to the nationalized banks' bondholders, a measure which could have saved Ireland 8 billion euros.During 2012, the ECB pressed for an early end to the ELA, and this situation was resolved with the liquidation of the successor institution IBRC in February 2013.The promissory note was exchanged for much longer term marketable floating rate notes which were disposed of by the Central Bank over the following decade.In April 2011, the ECB raised interest rates for the first time since 2008 from 1% to 1.25%, with a further increase to 1.50% in July 2011.However, in 2012–2013 the ECB sharply lowered interest rates to encourage economic growth, reaching the historically low 0.25% in November 2013.Soon after the rates were cut to 0.15%, then on 4 September 2014 the central bank reduced the rates by two-thirds from 0.15% to 0.05%.", "Recently, the interest rates were further reduced reaching 0.00%, the lowest rates on record.In a report adopted on 13 March 2014, the European Parliament criticized the \"potential conflict of interest between the current role of the ECB in the Troika as 'technical advisor' and its position as a creditor of the four Member States, as well as its mandate under the Treaty\".", "The report was led by Austrian right-wing MEP Othmar Karas and French Socialist MEP Liem Hoang Ngoc.====The ECB's response under Mario Draghi (2012–2015)====ECB balance sheetECB deposit facilityCurrent accounts at the ECBOn 1 November 2011, Mario Draghi replaced Jean-Claude Trichet as President of the ECB.", "This change in leadership also marks the start of a new era under which the ECB will become more and more interventionist and eventually ended the Eurozone sovereign debt crisis.Draghi's presidency started with the impressive launch of a new round of 1% interest loans with a term of three years (36 months) – the '''Long-term Refinancing operations (LTRO)'''.", "Under this programme, 523 Banks tapped as much as €489.2 bn (US$640 bn).", "Observers were surprised by the volume of loans made when it was implemented.", "By far biggest amount of was tapped by banks in Greece, Ireland, Italy and Spain.", "Although those LTROs loans did not directly benefit EU governments, it effectively allowed banks to do a carry trade, by lending off the LTROs loans to governments with an interest margin.", "The operation also facilitated the rollover of of maturing bank debts in the first three months of 2012.===== \"Whatever it takes\" (26 July 2012) =====Facing renewed fears about sovereigns in the eurozone continued Mario Draghi made a decisive speech in London, by declaring that the ECB \"...is ready to do '''''whatever it takes''''' to preserve the Euro.", "And believe me, it will be enough.\"", "In light of slow political progress on solving the eurozone crisis, Draghi's statement has been seen as a key turning point in the eurozone crisis, as it was immediately welcomed by European leaders, and led to a steady decline in bond yields for eurozone countries, in particular Spain, Italy and France.Following up on Draghi's speech, on 6 September 2012 the ECB announced the '''Outright Monetary Transactions''' programme (OMT).", "Unlike the previous SMP programme, OMT has no ex-ante time or size limit.", "However, the activation of the purchases remains conditioned to the adherence by the benefitting country to an adjustment programme to the ESM.", "The program was adopted with near unanimity, the Bundesbank president Jens Weidmann being the sole member of the ECB's Governing Council to vote against it.Even if OMT was never actually implemented until today, it made the \"Whatever it takes\" pledge credible and significantly contributed to stabilizing financial markets and ending the sovereign debt crisis.", "According to various sources, the OMT programme and \"whatever it takes\" speeches were made possible because EU leaders previously agreed to build the banking union.=== Low inflation and quantitative easing (2015–2019) ===In November 2014, the bank moved into its new premises, while the Eurotower building was dedicated to hosting the newly established supervisory activities of the ECB under European Banking Supervision.Although the sovereign debt crisis was almost solved by 2014, the ECB started to face a repeated decline in the Eurozone inflation rate, indicating that the economy was going towards a deflation.", "Responding to this threat, the ECB announced on 4 September 2014 the launch of two bond buying purchases programmes: the Covered Bond Purchasing Programme (CBPP3) and Asset-Backed Securities Programme (ABSPP).On 22 January 2015, the ECB announced an extension of those programmes within a full-fledge \"quantitative easing\" programme which also included sovereign bonds, to the tune of 60 billion euros per month up until at least September 2016.The programme was started on 9 March 2015.On 8 June 2016, the ECB added corporate bonds to its asset purchases portfolio with the launch of the corporate sector purchase programme (CSPP).", "Under this programme, it conducted the net purchase of corporate bonds until January 2019 to reach about €177 billion.", "While the programme was halted for 11 months in January 2019, the ECB restarted net purchases in November 2019.the size of the ECB's quantitative easing programme had reached 2947 billion euros.==== Long Term Refinancing Operations (LTRO) ====The long term refinancing operations (LTRO) are regular open market operations providing financing to credit institutions for periods up to four years.", "They aim at favoring lending conditions to the private sector and more generally stimulating bank lending to the real economy, thereby fostering growth.In December 2011 and January 2012, in the aftermath of the Global Financial Crisis, the ECB implemented two LTROs, injecting over €1000 billions of liquidity in the Eurozone financial system.", "They were later criticized for their inability to revive growth and to help truly revive the real economy, despite having stabilized the Eurozone's financial institutions.", "Further, these operations were devoid of monitoring from the ECB regarding the use made of these liquidities and it appeared that banks had significantly used these funds to pursue carry-trade strategies, purchasing sovereign bonds with higher rates and corresponding maturity to generate profits, instead of increasing private lending.These critics and deficiencies brought the ECB to instigate targeted long term refinancing operations (TLTROs), first in September and later in December 2014.These complementary programs imposed conditionality on the LTROs.", "The TLTROs provided low cost financing to participating banks, under the condition that they reached certain targets in terms of lending to firms and households.", "The participating banks were thus more incited to lend to the real economy.", "A third wave of TLTRO's was announced on 7 March 2019, namely the TLTRO III.=== Christine Lagarde's era (2019– ) ===In July 2019, EU leaders nominated Christine Lagarde to replace Mario Draghi as ECB President.", "Lagarde resigned from her position as managing director of the International Monetary Fund in July 2019 and formally took over the ECB's presidency on 1 November 2019.Lagarde immediately signalled a change of style in the ECB's leadership.", "She embarked the ECB on a strategic review of the ECB's monetary policy strategy, an exercise the ECB had not done for 17 years.", "As part of this exercise, Lagarde committed the ECB to look into how monetary policy could contribute to address climate change, and promised that \"no stone would be left unturned.\"", "The ECB president also adopted a change of communication style, in particular in her use of social media to promote gender equality, and by opening dialogue with civil society stakeholders.=== COVID-19 ===The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic has precipitated an unprecedented crisis, profoundly impacting global public health, economies, and societal structures on an unparalleled scale.", "The COVID-19 crisis stands in contrast to the 2007–2008 Global Financial Crisis as it represents an exogenous shock to the real economy, stemming from measures implemented to mitigate the public health emergency, distinct from the internal financial origins of the preceding crisis that transposed repercussions onto the real economy.", "Following the measures implemented by all governments to counter the spread of COVID-19 across Europe, investors fled to safety, which caused the risk of fire sales in asset markets, illiquidity spirals, credit spikes and discontinuities associated with market freezes.", "The flight-to-safety also encouraged the fear that after the COVID-19 crisis was over, the stronger economies would emerge even stronger, while the weak economies would get even weaker.", "Thanks to the more stringent banking regulations implemented after the Global Financial Crisis, a financial crisis was avoided as banks could cope better with the crisis and complementary measures were taken by the EU and national governments.==== Pandemic Emergency Purchase Programme (PEPP) ====The Pandemic Asset Purchase Programme (PEPP) is an asset purchase programme initiated by the ECB to counter the detrimental effects to the Euro Area economy caused by the COVID-19 crisis.To counter the COVID-19 crisis the ECB has established the Pandemic Emergency Purchase Programme (PEPP), in which the ECB is able to purchase securities from the private and public sector in a flexible manner, with the purpose to prevent sovereign debt spreads to reach the same levels as during the European debt crisis.", "It is a quantitative easing unconventional monetary policy, based on the principles of the Asset Purchases Program (APP) which is a similar programme established by the ECB in mid-2014.Asset purchase programmes are intended to bring down risk premia or term premia.", "However, the PEPP is not entirely the same as the APP, as it can deviate from the capital key strategy followed by the APP.", "Second, the PEPP-envelope does not need to be used in full.", "The PEPP is established as a separate purchase programme from and in addition to the APP with the sole purpose to respond to the economic and financial consequences of the COVID-19 crisis.", "Following Philip R. Lane, chief economist of the ECB, the PEPP plays a dual role in the COVID-19 crisis: (i) ensuring price stability and at the same time (ii) stabilizing the market using the flexibility of the programme to prevent market fragmentation.", "National central banks are the main purchasers of the bonds under the principle of risk sharing: private bonds fall completely under the risk of national central banks, while only 20% of public bonds are subject to risk sharing.", "These purchases under the PEPP eventually follow the capital key used in the APP.The flexibility to deviate from the capital key is key for the PEPP: because of the uncertainty caused by COVID-19 it was needed to prevent tightening financial conditions.", "They prevent yield spreads between the bonds of different member states, caused by the flight-to-safety of investors.", "The flexibility in asset purchases allows for fluctuations in the distribution of purchases across asset classes and among jurisdictions to prevent market fragmentation.", "Following this strategy, the PEPP distributed the money among countries in need.", "The APP follows the capital key strategy, from which no deviations are possible.", "This makes the APP not able to counter the crisis effectively.", "Margrethe Vestager, European Commissioner for Competition argued \"We will need to distribute in order to recover together.", "These increasing asymmetries will otherwise fragment the single market to a level otherwise none of us is willing to accept,....\", as economists feared that the strong economies would come out of the crisis stronger while weak economies would deteriorate because of the crisis.", "The PEPP is thus a tool used by the ECB to purchase both private and public securities according to the specific needs of EU-countries caused by the COVID-19-crisis.", "The temporal flexibility from the capital key meant that the ECB could especially prevent the rise of Italian and Spanish yield spreads.===== Assets eligible under the PEPP =====Assets meeting the eligibility criteria of the APP were also eligible under the PEPP.", "However, the PEPP complemented the APP eligibility framework given the specificity of the PEPP-context of crisis requiring a more tailored response.", "Among the distinctions is that for the first time since the Greek government-debt crisis, Greek debt is given a waiver under the PEPP so that it could be purchased by the ECB under this programme.", "This waiver was given based on several considerations from the ECB: there was a need to alleviate the pressures stemming from the pandemic on the Greek financial markets; Greece was already and would be closely monitored by giving the waiver; and Greece regained market access.", "This proved to be controversial, as Greece is the eurozone's riskiest issuer.", "Non-financial commercial paper with a remaining maturity of at least 28 days was also eligible for purchase under the PEPP.", "The maturity criteria for public sector ranges form 70 days up to 30 years and 364 days.", "As the PEPP can deviate from the capital key strategy, there is also no hard limit on the 33% of a single security per issuer or 33% of a member state's total outstanding security.===== Timeline of the PEPP and TLTRO announcements and purchases =====On 12 March 2020, Christine Lagarde announced in a press conference a set of policy measures to support the European economy in the rising wake of the pandemic, saying that \"all the flexibilities that are embedded in the framework of the asset purchase programme ...\" but at the same time she stated that the ECB \"... is not here to close spreads.\"", "This left markets disappointed and let to a particular widening yield spreads in Spain, Italy and Greece.", "However, the Governing Council announced firstly to provide immediate liquidity through conducting additional LTROs; secondly, to provide more favorable terms on the TLTRO III operations outstanding in the period between June 2020 and June 2021; and thirdly, to announce an additional package of net asset purchases of €120 billion by the end of 2020 under the already existing APP.A day later, on 13 March 2020, the WHO declared Europe the centre of the pandemic.By 17 March, a week after the press conference given by Ms. Lagarde, stock index plateaued while the interest rate spread kept on rising over 2.8%.On 18 March 2020, 6 days after the previous press conference, the ECB announced the launch of the PEPP worth €750 billion to boost liquidity in the European economy and to contain any sharp increases in sovereign yield spreads.", "This announcement led to an immediate reboot in stock prices and came one day after the spike of sovereign risk spreads.", "The PEPP became effective as from 24 March 2020, six days after the announcement of the PEPP.", "By announcing the PEPP the ECB deviated from its pattern of prodding fiscal authorities into action before announcing any monetary stimulus.", "Together with the additional €120 billion announced on 12 March, the PEPP amounted up to 7.3% of the euro-area GDP.On 30 April 2020, the ECB Governing council introduced the Pandemic Emergency Longer-Term Refinancing Operations (PELTROs), with an interest rate of 25bp below the average rate applied in LTROs and for the first time negative.On 4 June 2020, the ECB announced it would expand the PEPP by another €600 billion, as it became clear that the pandemic would continue to harm European economies increasing the total emergency package up to €1.350 trillion.", "Following Carsten Brzeski, chief economist at ING, dents this ECB decision \"... any further speculation about whether or not the ECB is willing to play its role of lender of last resort for the eurozone.\"", "The expansion showed that the ECB is committed to achieve the price stability objective.", "However the ECB reiterated that additional fiscal measures should be taken, as the PEPP cannot deliver economic recovery on its own.Half a year later, on 10 December 2020, the ECB announced its final expansion of the PEPP worth another €500 billion, totalling the final PEPP to €1.850 trillion, corresponding to 15.4% of the euro-area GDP of 2019.At the same press conference, the ECB announced that it expected to extend the horizon for net purchases of the PEPP until at least the end of March 2022.Gross securities purchases by the ECB under the PEPPIn December 2021 the ECB announced that it would discontinue net purchases under the PEPP as from the end of March 2022 and that it intended to reinvest the principal payments from maturing securities at least until the end of 2024.On 31 March 2022, at the end of the net purchases, the net purchases amounted to €1.718 billion euros, of which €1.665 billion is invested in public sector securities and €52 billion in private sector securities.", "Of the total €1.850 billion available under the PEPP, 93% of the full envelope wase used, due to indications of decreased financial stress in the Euro Area, mainly thanks to relaxation of COVID restrictions and the reopening of European markets.+Cumulative PEPP purchases in million eurosPrivate sectorsecuritiesPublic sectorsecuritiesTotalsecuritiesAdditional PEPP commitmentby ECBTotal PEPPcommitment by the ECBMar–May 2020           48,062.00              186,603.00              234,665.00              750,000.00                    750,000.00Jun–Jul           55,592.00              384,817.00              440,409.00              600,000.00                 1,350,000.00Aug–Sep           55,534.00              511,649.00              567,183.00                            –                   1,350,000.00Oct–Nov           48,194.00              651,809.00              700,003.00                            –                   1,350,000.00Dec–Jan 2021           42,064.00              768,148.00              810,212.00              500,000.00                 1,850,000.00Feb–Mar           43,916.00              899,731.00              943,647.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Apr–May           39,696.00           1,064,769.00           1,104,465.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Jun–Jul           42,989.00           1,229,199.00           1,272,189.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Aug–Sep           46,640.00           1,365,650.00           1,412,290.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Oct–Nov           50,089.00           1,498,100.00           1,548,189.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Dec–Jan 2022           50,384.00           1,597,293.00           1,647,677.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Feb–Mar           52,439.00           1,665,635.00           1,718,075.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Apr–May           52,441.00           1,665,618.00           1,718,061.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Jun–Jul           52,437.00           1,664,913.00           1,717,352.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Aug–Sep           52,440.00           1,660,593.00           1,713,035.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Oct–Nov           52,440.00           1,660,312.00           1,712,753.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Dec–Jan 2023           52,440.00           1,661,204.00           1,713,645.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Feb–Mar           52,440.00           1,661,077.00           1,713,518.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Apr–May           52,393.00           1,660,634.00           1,713,028.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Jun–Jul           52,443.00           1,660,307.00           1,712,752.00                            –                   1,850,000.00Aug–Sep           52,464.00           1,659,969.00           1,712,435.00                            –                   1,850,000.00===== Supports and critiques =====On 13 March, after Ms. Lagarde stated that the ECB is \"not here to close spreads\", Italian sovereign yield spreads spiked.", "Italian prime minister Conte stated it would not accept formal and abstract interpretations of the situation.", "\"... the job of the central bank should be not to hinder but to help such containment measures by creating favorable financial conditions for them member states.\"", "Lagarde then replied by stating that the ECB was \"fully committed to avoid any fragmentation ....\" In the following week, the PEPP was welcomed by both the prime minister of Italy and Spain as well as by the president of France.", "They all mostly praise the action of the ECB, and put this as a question of European solidarity.", "Chief economist at Berenberg also welcomed the measures undertaken by the ECB, stating that \"the authorities would not allow the pandemic shock to the real economy to trigger a financial crisis which, in turn, would exacerbate the economic damage.\"", "The governor of the Banque de France warned the ECB that it probably needed \"... to go even further.", "\"Following Italian lawmaker for the European Parliament Carlo Calenda there is widespread strong anti-German and anti-Dutch sentiment in the South of Europe, as it seems they \"... are taking advantage of being strong in a Europe lacking solidarity.\"", "These comments are backed by Dutch MEP Paul Tang: \"If we fail to take action at European level, we risk disintegrating the single market and intensifying the antagonism between North and South.", "\"At the same time, the ECB risks being accused of financing governments if it let the PEPP last for multiple years.==== PEPP challenged before the German Federal Constitutional Court ====On 5 May 2020, the Court ordered the Bundestag and the Bundesregierung to ensure the ECB had carried out a proportionality assessment of the vast purchases of government debt in the Public Sector Purchase Programme (PSPP) to ensure the economic and fiscal policy effects do not outweigh its policy objectives.", "The PSPP-implementing decision has been considered an act ultra vires by the ECB as it was too arbitrary and lacks reasoning in ints proportionality assessment.", "This ruling by the German Constitutional Court comes at a difficult time for the ECB as it was at the time considering expanding the PEPP.", "The ruling also reflects the mistrust within some parts of Germany in the ECB, which is seen there s an institution that bails out profligate Southern European countries.", "Moreover this ruling also highlights the vital problem on the euro area architecture, as the range of instruments can use to fulfil its mandate remains unclear.", "The ruling on the legality of the PSPP could have severe implications on the legality of the PEPP, as it the PEPP has characteristics in common with the PSPP.", "In March 2021, the PEPP was challenged before the German Federal Constitutional Court.", "'''COVID-19, TLTRO III and PELTROs'''When the COVID-19 pandemic broke out and spread to the old continent, the ECB's monetary policy response had to guarantee favorable borrowing conditions to firms and households of the euro area.", "For a significant portion of companies, especially the small and medium-sized, survival was basically at stake.", "Oftentimes, loans are indeed their only source of finance.", "In this context of uncertainty, a substantial segment of the ECB response was to adapt the existing TLTRO III, by providing banks with funding at favorable conditions, to further enhance access to credit for undertakings and households.In this endeavor, the ECB had to ensure a high degree of participation from the banks.", "Hence, on 30 April 2020 the Governing Council of the ECB adopted a package of temporary measures that made several adjustments to the framework of its TLTRO III.", "An important feature of this response was that the ECB made temporary alterations to its collateral framework by widening the set of assets that could be mobilized as collateral in the liquidity-providing operations and by easing the requirements in this regard.", "Furthermore, a key change was that the ECB also reduced the interest rate applied to these open market operations to a rate going as low as −1% for the banks meeting the lending threshold of 0%.", "With the TLTRO III, the participating banks were thus enabled to borrow at lower interest rates than those paid on their excess reserve, that is to say, the liquidities held in their accounts in their respective central banks.", "This scheme was scheduled until June 2022.Furthermore, the banks' repayment options were loosened, along with the participation modalities.", "Regarding the latter, the ECB anticipated future potential falls in the ratings of some assets, and therefore established that if the requirements of collateral eligibility had been met prior to 7 April 2020, these assets would remain eligible in the collateral framework, as long as their rating remained above or at a given threshold (credit quality step 5).", "The ECB also expanded bank's borrowing allowance under TLTRO III from 30% to 50%, then up to 55% of their portfolio of loans to firms and households.Another important facet of the ECB policy response was the launching of pandemic emergency long-term refinancing operations (PELTROs).", "These are complements to the multiple recalibrations of the TLTRO III.", "On 30 April 2020, the ECB Governing Council announced these additional long-term loans programs.", "They are similar to the TLTRO III in their aim of ensuring liquidity in the market and smoothening borrowing conditions in these times of pandemic.", "For this purpose, the PELTRO's also provide collateral easing measures and negative interest rates.", "On 10 December 2020, the ECB issued four additional PELTRO's, taking place on a quarterly basis during 2021.During the pandemic, these monetary responses proved essential to counter the loss of revenue suffered by firms and the spurt of demand for loans that naturally ensued.", "In their absence, a credit crunch would normally have taken place.", "Indeed, increase in demand traditionally translates in a rise of borrowing costs.", "However, ECB easing measures allowed banks to lend massively without an increase of the rates.", "Empirical evidence is paramount in order to properly assess if the effects on the real economy of those cheaper fundings offered to banks have indeed matched the intention of the European Central Bank (stimulate the granting of loans to undertakings and households).", "Reports from various member states central banks on the matter indicate that loans supply by participating banks has indeed expanded, in line with the ECB policy.", "Accordingly, thorough academic studies have confirmed the actual enhancement of financing conditions and the avoidance of credit scarcity.", "In fact, the credit to firms attained unprecedented levels when from March to May 2020, it increased by €250 billion on aggregate.In addition, the massive involvement of banks in the TLTROs and PELTROs had an important positive side effect.", "There was a reduction in the issuance of bonds by banks, that usually showed a preference for central bank liquidity for their financing.", "This, in turn, prevented the cost of issuance of such bonds from surging, which suggests that even non-participating banks (to the TLTROs and PELTROs) benefited from it in parallel manners.", "The downward pressure on bonds yields also implies that banks having a bigger fraction of the assets side of their balance sheet composed of outstanding bonds were those that benefited the most from the TLTROs and their decrease of funding cost.Furthermore, the question of \"zombie firms\" has been raised.", "These refer to unprofitable businesses that only survive by perpetuating their indebtedness.", "The pandemic, along with the accommodating funding costs (notably brought through the readjustment of the TLTRO III), could have led to an increased number of those under-competitive firms allowed to survive by successive credits.", "Yet, scientific studies have shown that this increase was very limited from 2019 to 2020.==== Transmission Protection instrument (TPI) ====The Transmission Protection Instrument (TPI) is a tool the ECB could use to ensure monetary policy decisions are smoothly transmitted across all euro area countries, introduced on 21 July 2022.Under the TPI, the ECB would be able to purchase securities in the secondary market, to counter against \"unwanted, disorderly market dynamics\", self fulfilling crises market expectations that do not reflect reality, thus not justified by \"country specific fundamentals.\"", "The TPI thus enables the ECB to control the difference between borrowing costs across the euro area, thereby reducing fragmentation risk across the euro area.", "By not letting interfere market dynamics that do not reflect economic reality, the ECB fulfils its secondary mandate under the TFEU, namely \"to support the general economic policies of the Union.\"", "Although PEPP would remain the first line of defence to counter for transmission risks, the TPI should be seen as an addition to the ECB's toolkit.===== Eligible securities under the TPI =====Contrary to the PEPP and the APP, the TPI does not have an ''ex ante'' upper limit on the purchase of securities.", "Although the ECB has stated it would primarily buy only government bonds on the secondary market maturing between 1 and 10 years, the bonds purchased fall under the complete discretion of the ECB and does not necessarily follow the capital key, and private securities could be considered as well.", "However, there are four conditions that need to be met before securities are eligible for purchasing under TPI:# Compliance with the fiscal framework of the EU and not be involved in the excessive deficit procedure;# Absence of macroeconomic imbalances and not being involved in an excessive macroeconomic imbalance procedure, demonstrating that it is in compliance with the Commission's recommendations;# Sovereign debt trajectory must be sustainable, assessed by the ECB and other relevant bodies;# Stick to commitments made under the Recovery and Resilience Facility, proving that the government follows sound and sustainable macroeconomic policies.The conditions for government bonds to be eligible under the TPI draw heavily on the macroeconomic governance, and making sure that politicians do not take decisions that facilitate speculation.", "The decision by the ECB to support a country by using the TPI will depend on the severity of the risks a country faces.", "Government debt should thus be sustainable to be eligible for TPI purchases.If the aforementioned conditions are met, the ECB could decide to activate the TPI.", "Purchases will be ended under the TPI either due to increased transmission of monetary policy or the risks have proven to be country-specific.", "So far, the TPI has not been deployed yet.===== Effects of and critiques on the TPI =====The TPI enables the Governing Council to a more rapid increase in interest rate, the first raise in interest rates by the ECB in 11 years.", "and the unpredictable nature of market sentiment could justify the reason for ECB-intervention to stabilise the monetary union, more or less the same reasoning as for the PEPP.However, the relationship between the PEPP and the TPI raises questions as the PEPP would remain the first line of defence against transmission risks.", "The creation of the TPI seems legally vulnerably: problems in the Euro Area are common and recurring, but it is not automatically the argument to invent a whole new anti-fragmentation tool.", "With the TPI, the ECB can put pressure on countries by assessing publicly if they are eligible for the TPI, that is assessing whether the government has conducted adequate fiscal policies and structural reforms to deserve the support of the ECB.", "This endangers the politic neutrality of the ECB.", "If ever deployed, the usage of the TPI will spark controversy as the conditions to be deployed are not watertight.===== Strategy Review =====As a consequence of the COVID-19 crisis, the ECB extended the duration of the strategy review until September 2021.On 13 July 2021, the ECB presented the outcomes of the strategy review, with the main following announcements:* The ECB announced a new inflation target of 2% instead of its \"close but below two per cent\" inflation target.", "The ECB also made it clear it could overshoot its target under certain circumstances.", "* The ECB announced it would try to incorporate the cost of housing (imputed rents) into its inflation measurement* The ECB announced an action plan on climate changeThe ECB also said it would carry out another strategy review in 2025.=== Inflation surge of 2021 ===In the summer of 2021, coinciding with the European Central Bank's announcement of its revised monetary policy framework and its initiative for climate action, the eurozone witnessed a notable inflationary surge.", "This resurgence of inflation continued to escalate over the following year, culminating in inflation rates reaching double digits for the first time since the 1970s, a year after the ECB's strategic updates.", "The inflation rate reached an unprecedented peak of 4.9% in November 2021, marking the highest level since the introduction of the euro.==== Framing of the crisis ====The new era of inflation prompted a significant shift in the European Central Bank's framing compared to its stance in the 2000s.", "Initially, from its inception until the 2007–2009 financial crisis, the ECB's primary objective was price stability, adhering to strict institutional rules that minimized policy trade-offs with other goals beyond price stability.", "This approach was rooted in the \"Central Bank Independence template\", advocating that central bank's limited role to price stability and its independence were optimal.However, the post-financial crisis landscape, especially during the sovereign debt crisis of the 2010s and subsequent economic stagnation era, necessitated a substantial revision in the ECB's strategy.", "The ECB moved away from its original Central Bank Independence template, leading to a blurring of its objective hierarchy.", "It adopted new strategies such as acting as a lender of last resort for the banking system and fostering growth through very low interest rates and extensive asset purchase programs, which were designed to help stabilizing specific market segments and in the end revive growth.In 2021, the European Central Bank embraced a significant strategic pivot by adopting its Climate Action Plan along with a new monetary policy strategy.", "This shift aimed to institutionalize the ECB's evolving role, moving beyond the singular focus on price stability—a policy shaped largely by the aftermath of the European sovereign debt crisis.", "Instead, the ECB began acknowledging its multifaceted responsibilities, which now include maintaining financial stability, supporting economic growth, and addressing climate-related objectives.", "However, with the surging of inflation in 2021, some wondered as to whether the European Central Bank would revert to its foundational role, predominantly focused on chasing the \"inflation monsters\".", "The term \"inflation monsters\" echoes the 2010 video of the ECB where two young people are facing a blue inflation monster unleashing banknotes and threatening to wreck the economy.", "Nevertheless, ECB policymakers effectively drew connections between the Central Bank Independence (CBI) framework and the experiences of the stagflation era to rationalize their decision to increase interest rates, avoiding the need for a discourse on regime change.", "In doing so, they recognized the complex trade-offs inherent in balancing various macroeconomic objectives and the challenging decisions they had to face.It was with this new monetary strategy that the eurozone found itself facing rising inflation in 2021.Recent studies stated that key debate among policymakers centered on whether this inflationary trend would be transitory or permanent.", "Paul Krugman argued that the current inflationary surge would prove to be transitory, whereas other economists such as Olivier Blanchard and Larry Summers had issued warnings regarding the possible persistence of this inflation.", "Initially, both the European Central Bank and the Federal Reserve misjudged the situation, assuming the inflation spike to be temporary and expecting a swift return to their inflation target.", "This misperception led to the ECB's initial inaction regarding its monetary policy.==== Response to the 2021 inflation crisis ====After big increases in the inflation rates throughout 2021 and 2022, the European Central Bank and the FED finally decided to raise their interest rates and abandon their very low interest rates, for the first time since the sovereign debt crisis and the end of the CBI era, as it had become clear the inflationary trend wasn't temporary.", "This decision came in late July 2022 for the ECB, when the inflation rate in the eurozone was already at 8.9% and had been higher than the 2% target for more than a year, and in March 2022 for the FED.", "The European Central Bank's response to the Federal Reserve's actions can partly be attributed to concerns about imported inflation from the USA.", "Specifically, if the FED increases its policy rates while the ECB remains static, it could lead to a depreciation of the euro against the dollar.", "Such a scenario would likely result in higher import costs for the eurozone, as many global trade goods are priced in dollars.", "On the other hand, this would benefit the US economy by making imports from the eurozone cheaper.Furthermore, the impact of US dollar appreciation, following the FED's policy rate hikes, tends to be more pronounced in the international inflation rates of energy and food.", "These commodities are commonly priced in US dollars, making their inflation rates more sensitive to exchange rate variations.", "In the European Union, public inflation expectations are significantly influenced by the prices of energy and food.", "Thus, this form of imported inflation can further exacerbate overall inflation levels of the eurozone.The ECB also declared its intention to systematically diminish net asset purchases within their asset purchase program (APP) and end them under the pandemic emergency purchase program (PEPP) launched during the COVID crisis by the first trimester of 2022.On the other hand, the Federal Reserve initiated the reduction of its asset purchase program in November 2021, to finally stop it by March 2022.The Asset Purchase Programs of the ECB initially boosted asset values on bank balance sheets and led to expectations of lower future short short-term interest rates.", "These programs also raised inflation expectations, eventually reanchoring long-term inflation expectations.", "Phasing out the Asset Purchase Programs thus signals alignment with the different policy rate hikes in an attempt to cool down the economy and demonstrates a commitment to combating inflation.Research indicates that the European Central Bank responded to the escalating inflation more slowly and cautiously than the FED, showing hopes that a moderate tightening of monetary policy would suffice.", "The ECB was notably slower in acknowledging the mistaken nature of its initial assumption that the inflationary trend would be transitory.", "The transition away from extremely low interest rates was soon accompanied by various rate increases, culminating in the ECB's main rate reaching 4% by the end of September.", "In contrast, the FED's latest rate hike elevated the Effective Federal Funds Rate to 5.33% in August, underscoring a more aggressive and rapid tightening of monetary policy compared to the ECB's approach.", "However, the global monetary tightening cycle turned out to be the most synchronized one in the past half-century.", "By February 2023, more than 90% of economies had hiked their policy rates.", "The latest peak of highly synchronized action by central banks was during the 1970s and the oil prices shocks where 70% of them had raised their interest rates.==== Critics regarding the new monetary policy ====Criticism first emerged regarding the methodologies used for inflation estimation and their failure to anticipate the inflation surge.", "A primary critique focused on the inadequacy of traditional tools like the Phillips Curve, which examines the relationship between inflation and certain economic activity indicators, for accurately forecasting inflation.", "During the 1970s, the Phillips Curve also faced significant criticism for its inability to accurately predict the inflation experienced in that decade.", "This period marked a critical reassessment of the curve's predictive capacity, particularly in the context of the economic phenomena of the time.", "Traditional indicators used for forecasting economic dynamics, such as the output and unemployment gaps, were found to be inadequate in signaling the overheating of the economy and the prevailing tight labor market conditions.", "Moreover, the important belief among central banks that sustained inflationary increases are a consequence of unanchored long-term inflation expectations was challenged during 2021-2022.During this period, inflation expectations remained relatively stable, leading to the misinterpretations by the European Central Bank and other monetary authorities regarding the inflationary trend's nature.", "Both the FED and the ECB argued that the rise in inflation was only temporary and was the sole result of post-pandemic supply disruptions on a few selected goods and services (food and energy).", "The FED and the ECB then maintained their expansionary monetary policy, keeping interest rates low.Some critics have also emerged saying that it was complicated for independent central banks, including the ECB, to accurately assess during a synchronized policy rate hike the potential spillovers of cross-countries monetary policy on the inflation.", "This might lead to excessive monetary tightening (higher interest rates) in unusual circumstances.Concerns have also been raised about the European Central Bank's effectiveness in addressing the recent surge in energy prices.", "Some experts suggest that the eurozone should be viewed as a small open economy, implying that changes in its demand may not significantly impact global prices.", "Moreover, they argue that monetary policy might have minimal influence on the global demand for energy.", "This is because household demand for essentials like heating and transportation is believed to be relatively insensitive to price changes.", "Additionally, while a stronger euro could theoretically lead to lower import prices, it's uncertain whether these savings would be effectively passed on to consumers.However, recent studies contradict these views by highlighting the significant role of energy prices in the transmission of monetary policy within the eurozone.", "An increase in the ECB's policy rates tends to appreciate the euro against the dollar.", "This appreciation can lead to higher local energy costs but may also reduce demand, potentially lowering global energy prices.", "These studies support the ECB's decision to follow the Federal Reserve's lead in raising policy rates, which appears to have been a strategic move to curb imported inflation and address the spike in energy prices.==== Effects of the monetary tightening ====The implementing a of tighter monetary policy has emerged as the eurozone solution to fight the latest inflationary pressure.", "However, this approach bears the risk of hindering the progress of the economic revival post-COVID.", "Evolution of the MRO rate and the HICP for the EU.Raising interest rates is a strategic move by the ECB with specific aims: to decelerate economic activity, stabilize inflation expectations, and steer towards lower inflation levels.", "Studies have shown that as interest rates rise, the price on the world market does not really change.", "However, the Euro becomes more attractive to investors, leading to its appreciation against other currencies.", "This change benefits households paying for gas in Euros, as it translates into lower prices for dollar-traded oil.On the other hand, the increase in interest rates, while helping to suppress prices, also places strains on the manufacturing sector and the labor market.", "The aftermath of this shock sees tighter financing conditions and a dip in demand, resulting in a slight uptick in unemployment rates, going beyond 0.1 percentage points.", "Although the study shows that manufacturing sector quickly rebounds, returning to its pre-shock state within about three months, the impact on unemployment rates lingers for a longer period." ], [ "Mandate and inflation target", "Euro banknotesThe ECB has one primary objective – price stability – subject to which it may pursue secondary objectives.=== Primary mandate ===The primary objective of the European Central Bank, set out in Article 127(1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, is to maintain price stability within the Eurozone.", "However the EU Treaties do not specify exactly how the ECB should pursue this objective.", "The European Central Bank has ample discretion over the way it pursues its price stability objective, as it can self-decide on the inflation target, and may also influence the way inflation is being measured.Since 2021, the ECB has defined its objective as targeting an '''inflation rate of 2% over the medium term'''.", "Before that, the precise formulation of the price stability objective has changed over the years:The Governing Council in October 1998 defined price stability as inflation of under 2%, \"a year-on-year increase in the Harmonised Index of Consumer Prices (HICP) for the euro area of below 2%\" and added that price stability \"was to be maintained over the medium term\".", "In May 2003, following a thorough review of the ECB's monetary policy strategy, the Governing Council clarified that \"in the pursuit of price stability, it aims to maintain inflation rates below, but close to, 2% over the medium term\".", "In 2016, the European Central Bank's president has further adjusted its communication, by introducing the notion of \"symmetry\" in its definition of its target, thus making it clear that the ECB should respond both to inflationary pressures and to deflationary pressures.", "As Draghi once said \"symmetry meant not only that we would not accept persistently low inflation, but also that there was no cap on inflation at 2%.", "\"On 8 July 2021, as a result of the strategic review led by the new president Christine Lagarde, the ECB officially abandoned the \"below but close to two per cent\" definition and adopted instead a 2% symmetric target.=== Secondary mandate ===Without prejudice to the objective of price stability, the Treaty (127 TFEU) also provides room for the ECB to pursue other objectives:Without prejudice to the objective of price stability, the ESCB shall support the general economic policies in the Union with a view to contributing to the achievement of the objectives of the Union as laid down in Article 3 of the Treaty on European Union.This legal provision is often considered to provide a \"secondary mandate\" to the ECB and offers ample justifications for the ECB to also prioritize other considerations such as full employment or environmental protection, which are mentioned in the Article 3 of the Treaty on the European Union.", "At the same time, economists and commentators are often divided on whether and how the ECB should pursue those secondary objectives, in particular the environmental impact.", "ECB official have also frequently pointed out the possible contradictions between those secondary objectives.", "To better guide the ECB's action on its secondary objectives, it has been suggested that closer consultation with the European Parliament would be warranted.", "In 2023, the ECB recognised the possible role of the European Parliament in the prioritisation of its secondary objectives.===Tasks===To carry out its main mission, the ECB's tasks include:* Defining and implementing '''monetary policy'''* Managing '''foreign exchange operations'''* '''Maintaining the payment system''' to promote smooth operation of the financial market infrastructure under the TARGET2 payments system and being currently developed technical platform for the settlement of securities in Europe (TARGET2 Securities).", "* '''Consultative role:''' by law, the ECB's opinion is required on any national or EU legislation that falls within the ECB's competence.", "* '''Collection and establishment of''' '''statistics'''* '''International cooperation''' * '''Issuing banknotes:''' the ECB holds the exclusive right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes.", "Member states can issue euro coins, but the amount must be authorised by the ECB beforehand (upon the introduction of the euro, the ECB also had exclusive right to issue coins).", "* '''Financial stability and prudential policy'''* '''Banking supervision:''' since 2013, the ECB has been put in charge of supervising systemically relevant banks.===Monetary policy tools===The principal monetary policy tool of the European central bank is collateralised borrowing or repo agreements.", "The collateral used by the ECB is typically high quality public and private sector debt.All lending to credit institutions must be collateralised as required by Article 18 of the Statute of the ESCB.The criteria for determining \"high quality\" for public debt have been preconditions for membership in the European Union: total debt must not be too large in relation to a gross domestic product, for example, and deficits in any given year must not become too large.", "Though these criteria are fairly simple, a number of accounting techniques may hide the underlying reality of fiscal solvency—or the lack of the same.+Monetary policy instruments of the ECB (June 2023)Type of instrumentName of instrumentMaintenance periodRateVolume (millions)'''Standing facilities'''(rate corridor)Marginal lending facility Overnight4%Deposit facilityOvernight 3.25%'''Refinancing operations'''(collateralized repos)Main refinancing operations (MROs)7 days3.75%Long-term refinancing operations (LTROs)3 months up to 3 yearsAverage MRO rateTargeted-Long Term Refinancing Operations (TLTROs)Up to 4 years −0.5% or less'''Asset purchases'''Asset-backed securities purchase programme (ABSPP)n/an/a18,491Covered bonds purchase programme (CBPP)n/an/a298,627Corporate sector purchase programme (CSPP)n/an/a341,574Public sector purchase programme (PSPP)n/an/a2,557,798Pandemic emergency purchase programme (PEPP)n/an/a1,676,941Securities markets programme (SMP) – Terminatedn/an/a2,875'''Reserve requirements'''Minimum reserves0%N/A===Difference with US Federal Reserve===In the United States Federal Reserve Bank, the Federal Reserve buys assets: typically, bonds issued by the Federal government.", "There is no limit on the bonds that it can buy and one of the tools at its disposal in a financial crisis is to take such extraordinary measures as the purchase of large amounts of assets such as commercial paper.", "The purpose of such operations is to ensure that adequate liquidity is available for the functioning of the financial system.The Eurosystem, on the other hand, uses collateralized lending as a default instrument.", "There are about 1,500 eligible banks which may bid for short-term repo contracts.", "The difference is that banks in effect borrow cash from the ECB and must pay it back; the short durations allow interest rates to be adjusted continually.", "When the repo notes come due the participating banks bid again.", "An increase in the number of notes offered at auction allows an increase in liquidity in the economy.", "A decrease has the contrary effect.", "The contracts are carried on the asset side of the European Central Bank's balance sheet and the resulting deposits in member banks are carried as a liability.", "In layman's terms, the liability of the central bank is money, and an increase in deposits in member banks carried as a liability by the central bank, means that more money has been put into the economy.To qualify for participation in the auctions, banks must be able to offer proof of appropriate collateral in the form of loans to other entities.", "These can be the public debt of member states, but a fairly wide range of private banking securities are also accepted.", "The fairly stringent membership requirements for the European Union, especially with regard to sovereign debt as a percentage of each member state's gross domestic product, are designed to ensure that assets offered to the bank as collateral are, at least in theory, all equally good, and all equally protected from the risk of inflation." ], [ "Organization", "The ECB has four decision-making bodies, that take all the decisions with the objective of fulfilling the ECB's mandate:* the Executive Board,* the Governing Council,* the General Council, and* the Supervisory Board.===Decision-making bodies=======Executive Board====Jean-Claude Trichet, the second President of the European Central BankThe Executive Board is responsible for the implementation of monetary policy (defined by the Governing Council) and the day-to-day running of the bank.", "It can issue decisions to national central banks and may also exercise powers delegated to it by the Governing Council.", "Executive Board members are assigned a portfolio of responsibilities by the President of the ECB.", "The executive board normally meets every Tuesday.It is composed of the President of the Bank (currently Christine Lagarde), the vice-president (currently Luis de Guindos) and four other members.", "They are all appointed by the European Council for non-renewable terms of eight years.", "Members of the executive board of the ECB are appointed \"from among persons of recognised standing and professional experience in monetary or banking matters by common accord of the governments of the Member States at the level of Heads of State or Government, on a recommendation from the Council, after it has consulted the European Parliament and the Governing Council of the ECB\".José Manuel González-Páramo, a Spanish member of the executive board since June 2004, was due to leave the board in early June 2012, but no replacement had been named as of late May.", "The Spanish had nominated Barcelona-born Antonio Sáinz de Vicuña – an ECB veteran who heads its legal department – as González-Páramo's replacement as early as January 2012, but alternatives from Luxembourg, Finland, and Slovenia were put forward and no decision made by May.", "After a long political battle and delays due to the European Parliament's protest over the lack of gender balance at the ECB, Luxembourg's Yves Mersch was appointed as González-Páramo's replacement.In December 2020, Frank Elderson succeeded to Yves Mersch at the ECB's board.====Governing Council====The Governing Council is the main decision-making body of the Eurosystem.", "It comprises the members of the executive board (six in total) and the governors of the National Central Banks of the euro area countries (20 as of 2023).According to Article 284 of the TFEU, the President of the European Council and a representative from the European Commission may attend the meetings as observers, but they lack voting rights.Since January 2015, the ECB has published on its website a summary of the Governing Council deliberations (\"accounts\").", "These publications came as a partial response to recurring criticism against the ECB's opacity.", "However, in contrast to other central banks, the ECB still does not disclose individual voting records of the governors seating in its council.+Members of the Governing Council (as of January 2023)NameRole'''Terms of office''''''Executive Board''' Christine LagardePresident1 November 201931 October 2027 Luis de GuindosVice President1 June 201831 May 2026 Piero CipolloneMember of the Executive Board1 November 202331 October 2031 Philip R. LaneMember of the Executive Board & Chief Economist1 June 201931 May 2027 Frank EldersonMember of the Executive BoardVice-chair of the Supervisory board15 December 202014 December 2028 Isabel SchnabelMember of the Executive Board1 January 202031 December 2027'''National Governors''' Pablo Hernández de Cos11 June 201810 June 2024 Joachim Nagel1 January 2022 2 January 2019January 2024 Yannis StournarasJune 2020June 2026 Boris Vujčić8 July 201213 July 2024 Gaston ReineschJanuary 2013January 2025 François Villeroy de Galhau1 November 2015November 2027 Robert Holzmann1 September 201931 August 2025 Peter Kažimír1 June 20191 June 2025 Gediminas Šimkus7 April 20216 April 2026 Olli Rehn12 July 201812 July 2025 Mario CentenoJuly 2020June 2025 Edward Scicluna1 January 202130 December 2025 1 January 201931 December 2024 Madis MüllerJune 2019June 2026 Mārtiņš Kazāks21 December 201921 December 2025 Klaas Knot1 July 2011May 2025 Constantinos Herodotou11 April 2019April 2024 Gabriel Makhlouf1 September 20191 September 2026 Fabio Panetta1 November 202331 October 2028====General Council====The General Council is a body dealing with transitional issues of euro adoption, for example, fixing the exchange rates of currencies being replaced by the euro (continuing the tasks of the former EMI).", "It will continue to exist until all EU member states adopt the euro, at which point it will be dissolved.", "It is composed of the President and vice-president together with the governors of all of the EU's national central banks.====Supervisory Board====The ECB Supervisory Board meets twice a month to discuss, plan and carry out the ECB's supervisory tasks.", "It proposes draft decisions to the Governing Council under the non-objection procedure.", "It is composed of Chair (appointed for a non-renewable term of five years), Vice-chair (chosen from among the members of the ECB's executive board) four ECB representatives and representatives of national supervisors.", "If the national supervisory authority designated by a Member State is not a national central bank (NCB), the representative of the competent authority can be accompanied by a representative from their NCB.", "In such cases, the representatives are together considered as one member for the purposes of the voting procedure.It also includes the Steering Committee, which supports the activities of the supervisory board and prepares the Board's meetings.", "It is composed by the chair of the supervisory board, Vice-chair of the supervisory board, one ECB representative and five representatives of national supervisors.", "The five representatives of national supervisors are appointed by the supervisory board for one year based on a rotation system that ensures a fair representation of countries.===Capital subscription===The ECB is governed by European law directly, but its set-up resembles that of a corporation in the sense that the ECB has shareholders and stock capital.", "Its initial capital was supposed to be €5 billion and the initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the member states' populations and GDP, but the key is adjustable.", "The euro area NCBs were required to pay their respective subscriptions to the ECB's capital in full.", "The NCBs of the non-participating countries have had to pay 7% of their respective subscriptions to the ECB's capital as a contribution to the operational costs of the ECB.", "As a result, the ECB was endowed with an initial capital of just under €4 billion.", "The capital is held by the national central banks of the member states as shareholders.", "Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral.", "The NCBs are the sole subscribers to and holders of the capital of the ECB.Today, ECB capital is about €11 billion, which is held by the national central banks of the member states as shareholders.", "The NCBs' shares in this capital are calculated using a capital key which reflects the respective member's share in the total population and gross domestic product of the EU.", "The ECB adjusts the shares every five years and whenever the number of contributing NCBs changes.", "The adjustment is made on the basis of data provided by the European Commission.All national central banks (NCBs) that own a share of the ECB capital stock as of 1 February 2020 are listed below.", "Non-Euro area NCBs are required to pay up only a very small percentage of their subscribed capital, which accounts for the different magnitudes of Euro area and Non-Euro area total paid-up capital.", "NCB Capital Key (%) Paid-up Capital (€) National Bank of Belgium 2.9630 276,290,916.71 Croatian National Bank 0.6595 71,390,921.62 Deutsche Bundesbank 21.4394 1,999,160,134.91 Bank of Estonia 0.2291 21,362,892.01 Central Bank of Ireland 1.3772 128,419,794.29 Bank of Greece 2.0117 187,585,027.73 Bank of Spain 9.6981 904,318,913.05 Bank of France 16.6108 1,548,907,579.93 Bank of Italy 13.8165 1,288,347,435.28 Central Bank of Cyprus 0.1750 16,318,228.29 Bank of Latvia 0.3169 29,549,980.26 Bank of Lithuania 0.4707 43,891,371.75 Central Bank of Luxembourg 0.2679 24,980,876.34 Central Bank of Malta 0.0853 7,953,970.70 De Nederlandsche Bank 4.7662 444,433,941.0 Oesterreichische Nationalbank 2.3804 221,965,203.55 Banco de Portugal 1.9035 177,495,700.29 Bank of Slovenia 0.3916 36,515,532.56 National Bank of Slovakia 0.9314 86,850,273.32 Bank of Finland 1.4939 136,005,388.82 '''Euro area total''' '''81.9881''' '''7,610,421,092.94''' Bulgarian National Bank 0.9832 3,991,180.11 Czech National Bank 1.8794 7,629,194.36 Danmarks Nationalbank 1.7591 7,140,851.23 Hungarian National Bank 1.5488 6,287,164.11 National Bank of Poland 6.0335 24,492,255.06 National Bank of Romania 2.8289 11,483,573.44 Sveriges Riksbank 2.9790 12,092,886.02 '''Non-Euro area total''' '''18.0119''' '''73,117,104.33''' '''Net total''' '''100.0000''' '''7,683,538,197.27'''=== Reserves ===In addition to capital subscriptions, the NCBs of the member states participating in the euro area provided the ECB with foreign reserve assets equivalent to around €40 billion.", "The contributions of each NCB is in proportion to its share in the ECB's subscribed capital, while in return each NCB is credited by the ECB with a claim in euro equivalent to its contribution.", "15% of the contributions was made in gold, and the remaining 85% in US dollars and UK pounds sterling.=== Languages ===The internal working language of the ECB is English, and press conferences are held in English.", "External communications are handled flexibly: English is preferred (though not exclusively) for communication within the ESCB (i.e.", "with other central banks) and with financial markets; communication with other national bodies and with EU citizens is normally in their respective language, but the ECB website is predominantly English; official documents such as the Annual Report are in the official languages of the EU (generally English, German and French).In 2022 the ECB publishes for the first time details on the nationality of its staff, revealing an over-representation of Germans and Italians along the ECB employees, including in management positions.=== Independence ===The European Central Bank (and by extension, the Eurosystem) is often considered as the \"most independent central bank in the world\".", "In general terms, this means that the Eurosystem tasks and policies can be discussed, designed, decided and implemented in full autonomy, without pressure or need for instructions from any external body.", "The main justification for the ECB's independence is that such an institutional setup assists the maintenance of price stability.In practice, the ECB's independence is pinned by four key principles:* '''Operational and legal independence''': the ECB has all required competences to achieve its price stability mandate and thereby can steer monetary policy in full autonomy and by means of high level of discretion.", "The ECB's governing council deliberates with a high degree of secrecy, since individual voting records are not disclosed to the public (leading to suspicions that Governing Council members are voting along national lines.)", "In addition to monetary policy decisions, the ECB has the right to issue legally binding regulations, within its competence and if the conditions laid down in Union law are fulfilled, it can sanction non-compliant actors if they violate legal requirements laid down in directly applicable Union regulations.", "The ECB's own legal personality also allows the ECB to enter into international legal agreements independently from other EU institutions, and be the party of legal proceedings.", "Finally, the ECB can organise its internal structure as it sees fit.", "* '''Personal independence:''' the mandate of ECB board members is purposefully very long (8 years) and Governors of national central banks have a minimum renewable term of office of five years.", "In addition, ECB board members are vastly immune from judicial proceedings.", "Indeed, removals from the office can only be decided by the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), under the request of the ECB's Governing Council or the executive board (i.e.", "the ECB itself).", "Such a decision is only possible in the event of incapacity or serious misconduct.", "National governors of the Eurosystem's national central banks can be dismissed under national law (with a possibility to appeal) in case they can no longer fulfil their functions or are guilty of serious misconduct.", "* '''Financial independence''': the ECB is the only body within the EU whose statute guarantees budgetary independence through its own resources and income.", "The ECB uses its own profits generated by its monetary policy operations and cannot be technically insolvent.", "The ECB's financial independence reinforces its political independence.", "Because the ECB does not require external financing and symmetrically is prohibited from direct monetary financing of public institutions, this shields it from potential pressure from public authorities.", "*'''Political independence''': The Community institutions and bodies and the governments of the member states may not seek to influence the members of the decision-making bodies of the ECB or of the NCBs in the performance of their tasks.", "Symmetrically, EU institutions and national governments are bound by the treaties to respect the ECB's independence.", "It is the latter which is the subject of much debate.=== Democratic accountability ===In return to its high degree of independence and discretion, the ECB is accountable to the European Parliament (and to a lesser extent to the European Court of Auditors, the European Ombudsman and the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU)).", "Although the accountability mechanisms are not enshrined in EU law, several practices were established following a resolution of the European Parliament adopted in 1998, which were informally agreed by the ECB, and incorporated into the Parliament's rule of procedure.", "In 2023, the European Parliament and the ECB made these accountability arrangements were made more formal by signing an exchange of letter.The accountability framework involves five main mechanisms:* '''Annual report:''' the ECB is bound to publish reports on its activities and has to address its annual report to the European Parliament, the European Commission, the Council of the European Union and the European Council .", "The report is presented to the European parliament at the occasion of a specific hearing with the ECB's Vice-President at the ECON committee.", "* '''Annual parliamentary resolution:''' in return, the European Parliament evaluates the past activities to the ECB via its own annual resolution on the European Central Bank's report (which is essentially a non-legally-binding list of resolutions).", "Since 2016, the ECB replies to the Parliament's suggestions in an annex to its annual report.", "* '''Quarterly hearings (known as the \"Monetary Dialogue\"):''' the Economic and Monetary Affairs Committee of the European Parliament organises a hearing with the ECB every quarter, allowing members of parliament to address oral questions to the ECB president.", "* '''Parliamentary questions:''' all Members of the European Parliament have the right to address written questions to the ECB president.", "The ECB president provides a written answer in about six weeks.", "* '''Appointments:''' The European Parliament is consulted during the appointment process of executive board members of the ECB.", "However the Parliament's vote is only consultative, and in practice, the Parliament's opinion – when negative – has been ignored by the European Council.", "* '''Legal proceedings:''' the ECB's legal personality allows civil society or public institutions to file complaints against the ECB to the Court of Justice of the EU.In 2013, an interinstitutional agreement was reached between the ECB and the European Parliament in the context of the establishment of the ECB's Banking Supervision.", "This agreement sets broader powers to the European Parliament than the established practice on the monetary policy side of the ECB's activities.", "For example, under the agreement, the Parliament can veto the appointment of the chair and vice-chair of the ECB's supervisory board and may approve removals if requested by the ECB.=== Transparency ===In addition to its independence, the ECB is subject to limited transparency obligations in contrast to EU Institutions standards and other major central banks.", "Indeed, as pointed out by Transparency International, \"The Treaties establish transparency and openness as principles of the EU and its institutions.", "They do, however, grant the ECB a partial exemption from these principles.", "According to Art.", "15(3) TFEU, the ECB is bound by the EU's transparency principles \"only when exercising its administrative tasks\" (the exemption – which leaves the term \"administrative tasks\" undefined – equally applies to the Court of Justice of the European Union and to the European Investment Bank).", "\"In practice, there are several concrete examples where the ECB is less transparent than other institutions:* '''Voting secrecy:''' while other central banks publish the voting record of its decision makers, the ECB's Governing Council decisions are made in full discretion.", "Since 2014, the ECB has published \"accounts\" of its monetary policy meetings, but those remain rather vague and do not include individual votes.", "* '''Access to documents:''' The obligation for EU bodies to make documents freely accessible after a 30-year embargo applies to the ECB.", "However, under the ECB's Rules of Procedure, the Governing Council may decide to keep individual documents classified beyond the 30 years.", "* '''Disclosure of securities:''' The ECB is less transparent than the Fed when it comes to disclosing the list of securities being held in its balance sheet under monetary policy operations such as QE." ], [ "Location", "The new ECB headquarters, which opened in 2014The bank is based in Ostend (East End), Frankfurt am Main.", "The city is the largest financial centre in the Eurozone and the bank's location in it is fixed by the Amsterdam Treaty.", "The bank moved to a new purpose-built headquarters in 2014, designed by a Vienna-based architectural office, Coop Himmelbau.", "The building is approximately tall and is to be accompanied by other secondary buildings on a landscaped site on the site of the former wholesale market in the eastern part of Frankfurt am Main.", "The main construction on a 120,000 m2 total site area began in October 2008, and it was expected that the building would become an architectural symbol for Europe.", "While it was designed to accommodate double the number of staff who operated in the former Eurotower, that building has been retained by the ECB, owing to more space being required since it took responsibility for banking supervision." ], [ "Debates surrounding the ECB", "=== Debates on ECB independence ===Demonstration of the Blockupy movement in front of the ECB (2014)The debate on the independence of the ECB finds its origins in the preparatory stages of the construction of the EMU.", "The German government agreed to go ahead if certain crucial guarantees were respected, such as a European Central Bank independent of national governments and shielded from political pressure along the lines of the German central bank.", "The French government, for its part, feared that this independence would mean that politicians would no longer have any room for manoeuvre in the process.", "A compromise was then reached by establishing a regular dialogue between the ECB and the Council of Finance Ministers of the euro area, the Eurogroupe.==== Arguments in favour of independence ====There is strong consensus among economists on the value of central bank independence from politics.", "The rationale behind are both empirical and theoretical.", "On the theoretical side, it's believed that time inconsistency suggests the existence of political business cycles where elected officials might take advantage of policy surprises to secure reelection.", "The politician up to the election will therefore be incentivized to introduce expansionary monetary policies, reducing unemployment in the short run.", "These effects will be most likely temporary.", "By contrast, in the long run, it will increase inflation, with unemployment returning to the natural rate negating the positive effect.", "Furthermore, the credibility of the central bank will deteriorate, making it more difficult to answer the market.", "Additionally, empirical work has been done that defined and measured central bank independence (CBI), looking at the relationship of CBI with inflation.==== The arguments against too much independence ========= An independence that would be the source of a democratic deficit.", "====='''Demystify the independence of central bankers''': According to Christopher Adolph (2009), the alleged neutrality of central bankers is only a legal façade and not an indisputable fact.", "To achieve this, the author analyses the professional careers of central bankers and mirrors them with their respective monetary decision-making.", "To explain the results of his analysis, he utilizes he uses the \"''principal-agent''\" theory.", "To explain that in order to create a new entity, one needs a delegator or ''principal'' (in this case the heads of state or government of the euro area) and a delegate or ''agent'' (in this case the ECB).", "In his illustration, he describes the financial community as a \"''shadow principale''\"  which influences the choice of central bankers thus indicating that the central banks indeed act as interfaces between the financial world and the States.", "It is therefore not surprising, still according to the author, to regain their influence and preferences in the appointment of central bankers, presumed conservative, neutral and impartial according to the model of the Independent Central Bank (ICB), which eliminates this famous \"''temporal inconsistency''\".", "Central bankers had a professional life before joining the central bank and their careers will most likely continue after their tenure.", "They are ultimately human beings.", "Therefore, for the author, central bankers have interests of their own, based on their past careers and their expectations after joining the ECB, and try to send messages to their future potential employers.", "'''The crisis: an opportunity to impose its will and extend its powers''':– ''Its participation in the troika'': Thanks to its three factors which explain its independence, the ECB took advantage of this crisis to implement, through its participation in the troika, the famous structural reforms in the Member States aimed at making, more flexible the various markets, particularly the labour market, which are still considered too rigid under the ordoliberal concept.- ''Macro-prudential supervision'' : At the same time, taking advantage of the reform of the financial supervision system, the Frankfurt Bank has acquired new responsibilities, such as macro-prudential supervision, in other words, supervision of the provision of financial services.-''Take liberties with its mandate to save the Euro'' : Paradoxically, the crisis undermined the ECB's ordoliberal discourse \"because some of its instruments, which it had to implement, deviated significantly from its principles.", "It then interpreted the paradigm with enough flexibly to adapt its original reputation to these new economic conditions.", "It was forced to do so as a last resort to save its one and only raison d'être: the euro.", "This Independent was thus obliged to be pragmatic by departing from the spirit of its statutes, which is unacceptable to the hardest supporters of ordoliberalism, which will lead to the resignation of the two German leaders present within the ECB: the governor of the Bundesbank, Jens WEIDMANN\" and the member of the executive board of the ECB, Jürgen STARK.– ''Regulation of the financial system'' : The delegation of this new function to the ECB was carried out with great simplicity and with the consent of European leaders, because neither the Commission nor the Member States really wanted to obtain the monitoring of financial abuses throughout the area.", "In other words, in the event of a new financial crisis, the ECB would be the perfect scapegoat.- ''Capturing exchange rate policy'' : The event that will most mark the definitive politicization of the ECB is, of course, the operation launched in January 2015: the quantitative easing (QE) operation.", "Indeed, the Euro is an overvalued currency on the world markets against the dollar and the Euro zone is at risk of deflation.", "In addition, Member States find themselves heavily indebted, partly due to the rescue of their national banks.", "The ECB, as the guardian of the stability of the euro zone, is deciding to gradually buy back more than EUR 1 100 billion Member States' public debt.", "In this way, money is injected back into the economy, the euro depreciates significantly, prices rise, the risk of deflation is removed, and Member States reduce their debts.", "However, the ECB has just given itself the right to direct the exchange rate policy of the euro zone without this being granted by the Treaties or with the approval of European leaders, and without public opinion or the public arena being aware of this.In conclusion, for those in favour of a framework for ECB independence, there is a clear concentration of powers.", "In the light of these facts, it is clear that the ECB is no longer the simple guardian of monetary stability in the euro area, but has become, over the course of the crisis, a \"multi-competent economic player, at ease in this role that no one, especially not the agnostic governments of the euro Member States, seems to have the idea of challenging\".", "This new political super-actor, having captured many spheres of competence and a very strong influence in the economic field in the broad sense (economy, finance, budget...).", "This new political super-actor can no longer act alone and refuse a counter-power, consubstantial to our liberal democracies.", "Indeed, the status of independence which the ECB enjoys by essence should not exempt it from a real responsibility regarding the democratic process.===== The arguments in favour of a counter power =====In the aftermath of the euro area crisis, several proposals for a countervailing power were put forward, to deal with criticisms of a democratic deficit.", "For the German economist German Issing (2001) the ECB as a democratic responsibility and should be more transparent.", "According to him, this transparency could bring several advantages as the improvement of efficiency and credibility by giving the public adequate information.", "Others think that the ECB should have a closer relationship with the European Parliament which could play a major role in the evaluation of the democratic responsibility of the ECB.", "The development of new institutions or the creation of a minister is another solution proposed:The idea of a eurozone finance minister is regularly raised and supported by certain political figures, including Emmanuel Macron, as well as former German Chancellor Angela Merkel, former President of the ECB Jean-Claude Trichet and former European Commissioner Pierre Moscovici.", "For the latter, this position would bring \"more democratic legitimacy\" and \"more efficiency\" to European politics.", "In his view, it is a question of merging the powers of Commissioner for the Economy and Finance with those of the President of the Eurogroup.The main task of this minister would be to \"represent a strong political authority protecting the economic and budgetary interests of the euro area as a whole, and not the interests of individual Member States\".", "According to the Jacques Delors Institute, its competencies could be as follows:* Supervising the coordination of economic and budgetary policies* Enforcing the rules in case of infringement* Conducting negotiations in a crisis context* Contributing to cushioning regional shocks* Representing the euro area in international institutions and foraFor Jean-Claude Trichet, this minister could also rely on the Eurogroup working group for the preparation and follow-up of meetings in eurozone format, and on the Economic and Financial Committee for meetings concerning all Member States.", "He would also have under his authority a General Secretariat of the Treasury of the euro area, whose tasks would be determined by the objectives of the budgetary union currently being set up This proposal was nevertheless rejected in 2017 by the Eurogroup, its president, Jeroen Dijsselbloem, spoke of the importance of this institution in relation to the European Commission.The absence of democratic institutions such as a Parliament or a real government is a regular criticism of the ECB in its management of the euro area, and many proposals have been made in this respect, particularly after the economic crisis, which would have shown the need to improve the governance of the euro area.", "For Moïse Sidiropoulos, a professor in economy: \"The crisis in the euro zone came as no surprise, because the euro remains an unfinished currency, a stateless currency with a fragile political legitimacy\".French economist Thomas Piketty wrote on his blog in 2017 that it was essential to equip the eurozone with democratic institutions.", "An economic government could for example enable it to have a common budget, common taxes and borrowing and investment capacities.", "Such a government would then make the euro area more democratic and transparent by avoiding the opacity of a council such as the Eurogroup.Nevertheless, according to him \"there is no point in talking about a government of the eurozone if we do not say to which democratic body this government will be accountable\", a real parliament of the eurozone to which a finance minister would be accountable seems to be the real priority for the economist, who also denounces the lack of action in this area.The creation of a sub-committee within the current European Parliament was also mentioned, in the model of the Eurogroup, which is currently an under-formation of the ECOFIN Committee.", "This would require a simple amendment to the rules of procedure and would avoid a competitive situation between two separate parliamentary assemblies.", "The former President of the European Commission had, moreover, stated on this subject that he had \"no sympathy for the idea of a specific Eurozone Parliament\".==== Debates on the role of central bank reserves in monetary policy ====In \"Towards monetary policies that do not subsidise banks\" published in July 2023 and co-authored with Yuemei Ji, Paul de Grauwe criticizes the prevailing role of central bank reserves in monetary policy.", "Holding the John Paulson Chair in European Political Economy at the London School of Economics, de Grauwe presented his views on this matter in a lecture at the Bundesbank in September 2023.De Grauwe states that major central banks are currently operating in a regime of abundance of bank reserves.", "This abundance, he argues, is a consequence of massive government bond-buying programs and a fundamental change in the operating procedures of these central banks.", "Since late 2021, in response to rising interest rates aimed at combating inflation, central banks have adopted a procedure of increasing interest rates by raising the remuneration on bank reserves.", "This approach has resulted in substantial interest payments to commercial banks.", "Due to past Quantitative Easing, bank reserves are now massive, leading to huge transfers of profits.", "Paul de Grauwe highlights the magnitude of these interest payments, comparing them to significant public expenditures:  the interests received by commercial banks to the yearly spending of the EU (€165 billion) to the interest payments of the ECB during the same period (€152 billion).De Grauwe argues that these transfers lack economic rationale.", "Despite seigniorage gains traditionally returning to the government, he observes that central banks are transferring more than the total seigniorage gains to private banks, resulting in significant losses and effectively constituting a subsidy to banks at the expense of taxpayers.Furthermore, the author raises concerns about moral hazard, noting that the provision of free interest hedging for banks by central banks may create ethical issues, as public authorities offer free insurance to private agents.Questioning the economic rationale for these practices, de Grauwe states that the remuneration of bank reserves is not totally necessary for conducting monetary policy and that the regime of reserve abundance is a result of the oversupply of reserves created by central banks through the buying of large amounts of government bonds.", "Now, central banks cannot raise the interest rate without remunerating bank reserves, the equilibrium of demand (commercial blanks) and supply (central banks) being under the 0% rate.", "De Grauwe also states that the reserve abundance regime has altered the view of economists on the role of central banks : money base created by the central bank is now viewed as part of the public debt since central banks must pay a rate of remuneration on bank reserves.", "According to de Grauwe, this view is not inevitable and he suggests alternative operating procedures to address these issues : a gradual return to a regime of scarce reserves through Quantitative Tightening, raising minimum reserve requirements without paying interest on bank reserves, and implementing a two-tier system of reserve requirements to control the market rate while reducing transfers to commercial banks." ], [ "See also", "* European Banking Authority* European Systemic Risk Board* Open market operation* Economic and Monetary Union* Capital Markets Union* European banking union* List of central banks" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electron" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''electron''' ('''''' or '''''') is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary electric charge.", "Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure.", "The electron's mass is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton.", "Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant, .", "Being fermions, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state, per the Pauli exclusion principle.", "Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of both particles and waves: They can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light.", "The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a longer de Broglie wavelength for a given energy.Electrons play an essential role in numerous physical phenomena, such as electricity, magnetism, chemistry, and thermal conductivity; they also participate in gravitational, electromagnetic, and weak interactions.", "Since an electron has charge, it has a surrounding electric field; if that electron is moving relative to an observer, the observer will observe it to generate a magnetic field.", "Electromagnetic fields produced from other sources will affect the motion of an electron according to the Lorentz force law.", "Electrons radiate or absorb energy in the form of photons when they are accelerated.Laboratory instruments are capable of trapping individual electrons as well as electron plasma by the use of electromagnetic fields.", "Special telescopes can detect electron plasma in outer space.", "Electrons are involved in many applications, such as tribology or frictional charging, electrolysis, electrochemistry, battery technologies, electronics, welding, cathode-ray tubes, photoelectricity, photovoltaic solar panels, electron microscopes, radiation therapy, lasers, gaseous ionization detectors, and particle accelerators.Interactions involving electrons with other subatomic particles are of interest in fields such as chemistry and nuclear physics.", "The Coulomb force interaction between the positive protons within atomic nuclei and the negative electrons without allows the composition of the two known as atoms.", "Ionization or differences in the proportions of negative electrons versus positive nuclei changes the binding energy of an atomic system.", "The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the main cause of chemical bonding.In 1838, British natural philosopher Richard Laming first hypothesized the concept of an indivisible quantity of electric charge to explain the chemical properties of atoms.", "Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney named this charge 'electron' in 1891, and J. J. Thomson and his team of British physicists identified it as a particle in 1897 during the cathode-ray tube experiment.", "Electrons participate in nuclear reactions, such as nucleosynthesis in stars, where they are known as beta particles.", "Electrons can be created through beta decay of radioactive isotopes and in high-energy collisions, for instance, when cosmic rays enter the atmosphere.", "The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron; it is identical to the electron, except that it carries electrical charge of the opposite sign.", "When an electron collides with a positron, both particles can be annihilated, producing gamma ray photons." ], [ "History", "=== Discovery of effect of electric force ===The ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted small objects when rubbed with fur.", "Along with lightning, this phenomenon is one of humanity's earliest recorded experiences with electricity.", "In his 1600 treatise , the English scientist William Gilbert coined the Neo-Latin term , to refer to those substances with property similar to that of amber which attract small objects after being rubbed.", "Both ''electric'' and ''electricity'' are derived from the Latin '''' (also the root of the alloy of the same name), which came from the Greek word for amber, ('''').=== Discovery of two kinds of charges ===In the early 1700s, French chemist Charles François du Fay found that if a charged gold-leaf is repulsed by glass rubbed with silk, then the same charged gold-leaf is attracted by amber rubbed with wool.", "From this and other results of similar types of experiments, du Fay concluded that electricity consists of two electrical fluids, ''vitreous'' fluid from glass rubbed with silk and ''resinous'' fluid from amber rubbed with wool.", "These two fluids can neutralize each other when combined.", "American scientist Ebenezer Kinnersley later also independently reached the same conclusion.", "A decade later Benjamin Franklin proposed that electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid, but a single electrical fluid showing an excess (+) or deficit (−).", "He gave them the modern charge nomenclature of positive and negative respectively.", "Franklin thought of the charge carrier as being positive, but he did not correctly identify which situation was a surplus of the charge carrier, and which situation was a deficit.Between 1838 and 1851, British natural philosopher Richard Laming developed the idea that an atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electric charges.", "Beginning in 1846, German physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber theorized that electricity was composed of positively and negatively charged fluids, and their interaction was governed by the inverse square law.", "After studying the phenomenon of electrolysis in 1874, Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney suggested that there existed a \"single definite quantity of electricity\", the charge of a monovalent ion.", "He was able to estimate the value of this elementary charge ''e'' by means of Faraday's laws of electrolysis.", "However, Stoney believed these charges were permanently attached to atoms and could not be removed.", "In 1881, German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz argued that both positive and negative charges were divided into elementary parts, each of which \"behaves like atoms of electricity\".Stoney initially coined the term ''electrolion'' in 1881.Ten years later, he switched to ''electron'' to describe these elementary charges, writing in 1894: \"... an estimate was made of the actual amount of this most remarkable fundamental unit of electricity, for which I have since ventured to suggest the name ''electron''\".", "A 1906 proposal to change to ''electrion'' failed because Hendrik Lorentz preferred to keep ''electron''.", "The word ''electron'' is a combination of the words ''electric'' and ''ion''.", "The suffix -''on'' which is now used to designate other subatomic particles, such as a proton or neutron, is in turn derived from electron.=== Discovery of free electrons outside matter ===A beam of electrons deflected by a magnetic field into a circleWhile studying electrical conductivity in rarefied gases in 1859, the German physicist Julius Plücker observed the radiation emitted from the cathode caused phosphorescent light to appear on the tube wall near the cathode; and the region of the phosphorescent light could be moved by application of a magnetic field.", "In 1869, Plücker's student Johann Wilhelm Hittorf found that a solid body placed in between the cathode and the phosphorescence would cast a shadow upon the phosphorescent region of the tube.", "Hittorf inferred that there are straight rays emitted from the cathode and that the phosphorescence was caused by the rays striking the tube walls.", "In 1876, the German physicist Eugen Goldstein showed that the rays were emitted perpendicular to the cathode surface, which distinguished between the rays that were emitted from the cathode and the incandescent light.", "Goldstein dubbed the rays cathode rays.", "Decades of experimental and theoretical research involving cathode rays were important in J. J. Thomson's eventual discovery of electrons.During the 1870s, the English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes developed the first cathode-ray tube to have a high vacuum inside.", "He then showed in 1874 that the cathode rays can turn a small paddle wheel when placed in their path.", "Therefore, he concluded that the rays carried momentum.", "Furthermore, by applying a magnetic field, he was able to deflect the rays, thereby demonstrating that the beam behaved as though it were negatively charged.", "In 1879, he proposed that these properties could be explained by regarding cathode rays as composed of negatively charged gaseous molecules in a fourth state of matter in which the mean free path of the particles is so long that collisions may be ignored.The German-born British physicist Arthur Schuster expanded upon Crookes's experiments by placing metal plates parallel to the cathode rays and applying an electric potential between the plates.", "The field deflected the rays toward the positively charged plate, providing further evidence that the rays carried negative charge.", "By measuring the amount of deflection for a given electric and magnetic field, in 1890 Schuster was able to estimate the charge-to-mass ratio of the ray components.", "However, this produced a value that was more than a thousand times greater than what was expected, so little credence was given to his calculations at the time.", "This is because it was assumed that the charge carriers were much heavier hydrogen or nitrogen atoms.", "Schuster's estimates would subsequently turn out to be largely correct.In 1892 Hendrik Lorentz suggested that the mass of these particles (electrons) could be a consequence of their electric charge.J.", "J. ThomsonWhile studying naturally fluorescing minerals in 1896, the French physicist Henri Becquerel discovered that they emitted radiation without any exposure to an external energy source.", "These radioactive materials became the subject of much interest by scientists, including the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford who discovered they emitted particles.", "He designated these particles alpha and beta, on the basis of their ability to penetrate matter.", "In 1900, Becquerel showed that the beta rays emitted by radium could be deflected by an electric field, and that their mass-to-charge ratio was the same as for cathode rays.", "This evidence strengthened the view that electrons existed as components of atoms.In 1897, the British physicist J. J. Thomson, with his colleagues John S. Townsend and H. A. Wilson, performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were unique particles, rather than waves, atoms or molecules as was believed earlier.", "Thomson made good estimates of both the charge ''e'' and the mass ''m'', finding that cathode ray particles, which he called \"corpuscles\", had perhaps one thousandth of the mass of the least massive ion known: hydrogen.", "He showed that their charge-to-mass ratio, ''e''/''m'', was independent of cathode material.", "He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced by radioactive materials, by heated materials and by illuminated materials were universal.", "The name electron was adopted for these particles by the scientific community, mainly due to the advocation by G. F. FitzGerald, J. Larmor, and H. A. Lorentz.", "In the same year Emil Wiechert and Walter Kaufmann also calculated the e/m ratio but they had fallen short of interpreting their results while J. J. Thomson would subsequently in 1899 give estimates for the electron charge and mass as well: e~ esu and m~ gRobert MillikanThe electron's charge was more carefully measured by the American physicists Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher in their oil-drop experiment of 1909, the results of which were published in 1911.This experiment used an electric field to prevent a charged droplet of oil from falling as a result of gravity.", "This device could measure the electric charge from as few as 1–150 ions with an error margin of less than 0.3%.", "Comparable experiments had been done earlier by Thomson's team, using clouds of charged water droplets generated by electrolysis, and in 1911 by Abram Ioffe, who independently obtained the same result as Millikan using charged microparticles of metals, then published his results in 1913.However, oil drops were more stable than water drops because of their slower evaporation rate, and thus more suited to precise experimentation over longer periods of time.Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under certain conditions a fast-moving charged particle caused a condensation of supersaturated water vapor along its path.", "In 1911, Charles Wilson used this principle to devise his cloud chamber so he could photograph the tracks of charged particles, such as fast-moving electrons.=== Atomic theory ===Bohr model of the atom, showing states of an electron with energy quantized by the number ''n''.", "An electron dropping to a lower orbit emits a photon equal to the energy difference between the orbits.By 1914, experiments by physicists Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, James Franck and Gustav Hertz had largely established the structure of an atom as a dense nucleus of positive charge surrounded by lower-mass electrons.", "In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr postulated that electrons resided in quantized energy states, with their energies determined by the angular momentum of the electron's orbit about the nucleus.", "The electrons could move between those states, or orbits, by the emission or absorption of photons of specific frequencies.", "By means of these quantized orbits, he accurately explained the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom.", "However, Bohr's model failed to account for the relative intensities of the spectral lines and it was unsuccessful in explaining the spectra of more complex atoms.Chemical bonds between atoms were explained by Gilbert Newton Lewis, who in 1916 proposed that a covalent bond between two atoms is maintained by a pair of electrons shared between them.", "Later, in 1927, Walter Heitler and Fritz London gave the full explanation of the electron-pair formation and chemical bonding in terms of quantum mechanics.", "In 1919, the American chemist Irving Langmuir elaborated on the Lewis's static model of the atom and suggested that all electrons were distributed in successive \"concentric (nearly) spherical shells, all of equal thickness\".", "In turn, he divided the shells into a number of cells each of which contained one pair of electrons.", "With this model Langmuir was able to qualitatively explain the chemical properties of all elements in the periodic table, which were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law.In 1924, Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli observed that the shell-like structure of the atom could be explained by a set of four parameters that defined every quantum energy state, as long as each state was occupied by no more than a single electron.", "This prohibition against more than one electron occupying the same quantum energy state became known as the Pauli exclusion principle.", "The physical mechanism to explain the fourth parameter, which had two distinct possible values, was provided by the Dutch physicists Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck.", "In 1925, they suggested that an electron, in addition to the angular momentum of its orbit, possesses an intrinsic angular momentum and magnetic dipole moment.", "This is analogous to the rotation of the Earth on its axis as it orbits the Sun.", "The intrinsic angular momentum became known as spin, and explained the previously mysterious splitting of spectral lines observed with a high-resolution spectrograph; this phenomenon is known as fine structure splitting.=== Quantum mechanics ===In his 1924 dissertation '''' (Research on Quantum Theory), French physicist Louis de Broglie hypothesized that all matter can be represented as a de Broglie wave in the manner of light.", "That is, under the appropriate conditions, electrons and other matter would show properties of either particles or waves.", "The corpuscular properties of a particle are demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space along its trajectory at any given moment.", "The wave-like nature of light is displayed, for example, when a beam of light is passed through parallel slits thereby creating interference patterns.", "In 1927, George Paget Thomson and Alexander Reid discovered the interference effect was produced when a beam of electrons was passed through thin celluloid foils and later metal films, and by American physicists Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer by the reflection of electrons from a crystal of nickel.", "Alexander Reid, who was Thomson's graduate student, performed the first experiments but he died soon after in a motorcycle accident and is rarely mentioned.orbital, which is a probability distribution rather than an orbit.", "In the figure, the shading indicates the relative probability to \"find\" the electron, having the energy corresponding to the given quantum numbers, at that point.De Broglie's prediction of a wave nature for electrons led Erwin Schrödinger to postulate a wave equation for electrons moving under the influence of the nucleus in the atom.", "In 1926, this equation, the Schrödinger equation, successfully described how electron waves propagated.", "Rather than yielding a solution that determined the location of an electron over time, this wave equation also could be used to predict the probability of finding an electron near a position, especially a position near where the electron was bound in space, for which the electron wave equations did not change in time.", "This approach led to a second formulation of quantum mechanics (the first by Heisenberg in 1925), and solutions of Schrödinger's equation, like Heisenberg's, provided derivations of the energy states of an electron in a hydrogen atom that were equivalent to those that had been derived first by Bohr in 1913, and that were known to reproduce the hydrogen spectrum.", "Once spin and the interaction between multiple electrons were describable, quantum mechanics made it possible to predict the configuration of electrons in atoms with atomic numbers greater than hydrogen.In 1928, building on Wolfgang Pauli's work, Paul Dirac produced a model of the electron – the Dirac equation, consistent with relativity theory, by applying relativistic and symmetry considerations to the hamiltonian formulation of the quantum mechanics of the electro-magnetic field.", "In order to resolve some problems within his relativistic equation, Dirac developed in 1930 a model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles with negative energy, later dubbed the Dirac sea.", "This led him to predict the existence of a positron, the antimatter counterpart of the electron.", "This particle was discovered in 1932 by Carl Anderson, who proposed calling standard electrons ''negatrons'' and using ''electron'' as a generic term to describe both the positively and negatively charged variants.In 1947, Willis Lamb, working in collaboration with graduate student Robert Retherford, found that certain quantum states of the hydrogen atom, which should have the same energy, were shifted in relation to each other; the difference came to be called the Lamb shift.", "About the same time, Polykarp Kusch, working with Henry M. Foley, discovered the magnetic moment of the electron is slightly larger than predicted by Dirac's theory.", "This small difference was later called anomalous magnetic dipole moment of the electron.", "This difference was later explained by the theory of quantum electrodynamics, developed by Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger andRichard Feynman in the late 1940s.=== Particle accelerators ===With the development of the particle accelerator during the first half of the twentieth century, physicists began to delve deeper into the properties of subatomic particles.", "The first successful attempt to accelerate electrons using electromagnetic induction was made in 1942 by Donald Kerst.", "His initial betatron reached energies of 2.3 MeV, while subsequent betatrons achieved 300 MeV.", "In 1947, synchrotron radiation was discovered with a 70 MeV electron synchrotron at General Electric.", "This radiation was caused by the acceleration of electrons through a magnetic field as they moved near the speed of light.With a beam energy of 1.5 GeV, the first high-energyparticle collider was ADONE, which began operations in 1968.This device accelerated electrons and positrons in opposite directions, effectively doubling the energy of their collision when compared to striking a static target with an electron.", "The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN, which was operational from 1989 to 2000, achieved collision energies of 209 GeV and made important measurements for the Standard Model of particle physics.=== Confinement of individual electrons ===Individual electrons can now be easily confined in ultra small (, ) CMOS transistors operated at cryogenic temperature over a range of −269 °C (4 K) to about −258 °C (15 K).", "The electron wavefunction spreads in a semiconductor lattice and negligibly interacts with the valence band electrons, so it can be treated in the single particle formalism, by replacing its mass with the effective mass tensor." ], [ "Characteristics", "=== Classification ===Standard Model of elementary particles.", "The electron (symbol e) is on the left.In the Standard Model of particle physics, electrons belong to the group of subatomic particles called leptons, which are believed to be fundamental or elementary particles.", "Electrons have the lowest mass of any charged lepton (or electrically charged particle of any type) and belong to the first-generation of fundamental particles.", "The second and third generation contain charged leptons, the muon and the tau, which are identical to the electron in charge, spin and interactions, but are more massive.", "Leptons differ from the other basic constituent of matter, the quarks, by their lack of strong interaction.", "All members of the lepton group are fermions because they all have half-odd integer spin; the electron has spin .=== Fundamental properties ===The invariant mass of an electron is approximately  kilograms, or  atomic mass units.", "Due to mass–energy equivalence, this corresponds to a rest energy of .", "The ratio between the mass of a proton and that of an electron is about 1836.Astronomical measurements show that the proton-to-electron mass ratio has held the same value, as is predicted by the Standard Model, for at least half the age of the universe.Electrons have an electric charge of coulombs, which is used as a standard unit of charge for subatomic particles, and is also called the elementary charge.", "Within the limits of experimental accuracy, the electron charge is identical to the charge of a proton, but with the opposite sign.", "The electron is commonly symbolized by , and the positron is symbolized by .The electron has an intrinsic angular momentum or spin of .", "This property is usually stated by referring to the electron as a spin- particle.", "For such particles the spin magnitude is , while the result of the measurement of a projection of the spin on any axis can only be ±.", "In addition to spin, the electron has an intrinsic magnetic moment along its spin axis.", "It is approximately equal to one Bohr magneton, which is a physical constant equal to .", "The orientation of the spin with respect to the momentum of the electron defines the property of elementary particles known as helicity.The electron has no known substructure.", "Nevertheless, in condensed matter physics, spin–charge separation can occur in some materials.", "In such cases, electrons 'split' into three independent particles, the spinon, the orbiton and the holon (or chargon).", "The electron can always be theoretically considered as a bound state of the three, with the spinon carrying the spin of the electron, the orbiton carrying the orbital degree of freedom and the chargon carrying the charge, but in certain conditions they can behave as independent quasiparticles.The issue of the radius of the electron is a challenging problem of modern theoretical physics.", "The admission of the hypothesis of a finite radius of the electron is incompatible to the premises of the theory of relativity.", "On the other hand, a point-like electron (zero radius) generates serious mathematical difficulties due to the self-energy of the electron tending to infinity.", "Observation of a single electron in a Penning trap suggests the upper limit of the particle's radius to be 10−22 meters.The upper bound of the electron radius of 10−18 meters can be derived using the uncertainty relation in energy.", "There ''is'' also a physical constant called the \"classical electron radius\", with the much larger value of , greater than the radius of the proton.", "However, the terminology comes from a simplistic calculation that ignores the effects of quantum mechanics; in reality, the so-called classical electron radius has little to do with the true fundamental structure of the electron.From electrostatics theory, the potential energy of a sphere with radius ''r'' and charge ''e'' is given by::where ''ε''0 is the vacuum permittivity.", "For an electron with rest mass ''m''0, the rest energy is equal to::where ''c'' is the speed of light in vacuum.", "Setting them equal and solving for ''r'' gives the classical electron radius.See: Haken, Wolf, & Brewer (2005).There are elementary particles that spontaneously decay into less massive particles.", "An example is the muon, with a mean lifetime of  seconds, which decays into an electron, a muon neutrino and an electron antineutrino.", "The electron, on the other hand, is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds: the electron is the least massive particle with non-zero electric charge, so its decay would violate charge conservation.", "The experimental lower bound for the electron's mean lifetime is years, at a 90% confidence level.=== Quantum properties ===As with all particles, electrons can act as waves.", "This is called the wave–particle duality and can be demonstrated using the double-slit experiment.The wave-like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously, rather than just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle.", "In quantum mechanics, the wave-like property of one particle can be described mathematically as a complex-valued function, the wave function, commonly denoted by the Greek letter psi (''ψ'').", "When the absolute value of this function is squared, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a location—a probability density.two identical fermions in a one-dimensional box, with each horizontal axis corresponding to the position of one particle.", "If the particles swap position, the wave function inverts its sign.Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties.", "In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system.", "The wave function of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that it changes sign when two electrons are swapped; that is, , where the variables ''r''1 and ''r''2 correspond to the first and second electrons, respectively.", "Since the absolute value is not changed by a sign swap, this corresponds to equal probabilities.", "Bosons, such as the photon, have symmetric wave functions instead.In the case of antisymmetry, solutions of the wave equation for interacting electrons result in a zero probability that each pair will occupy the same location or state.", "This is responsible for the Pauli exclusion principle, which precludes any two electrons from occupying the same quantum state.", "This principle explains many of the properties of electrons.", "For example, it causes groups of bound electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same orbit.=== Virtual particles ===In a simplified picture, which often tends to give the wrong idea but may serve to illustrate some aspects, every photon spends some time as a combination of a virtual electron plus its antiparticle, the virtual positron, which rapidly annihilate each other shortly thereafter.", "The combination of the energy variation needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under the threshold of detectability expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, Δ''E'' · Δ''t'' ≥ ''ħ''.", "In effect, the energy needed to create these virtual particles, Δ''E'', can be \"borrowed\" from the vacuum for a period of time, Δ''t'', so that their product is no more than the reduced Planck constant, .", "Thus, for a virtual electron, Δ''t'' is at most .A schematic depiction of virtual electron–positron pairs appearing at random near an electron (at lower left)While an electron–positron virtual pair is in existence, the Coulomb force from the ambient electric field surrounding an electron causes a created positron to be attracted to the original electron, while a created electron experiences a repulsion.", "This causes what is called vacuum polarization.", "In effect, the vacuum behaves like a medium having a dielectric permittivity more than unity.", "Thus the effective charge of an electron is actually smaller than its true value, and the charge decreases with increasing distance from the electron.", "This polarization was confirmed experimentally in 1997 using the Japanese TRISTAN particle accelerator.", "Virtual particles cause a comparable shielding effect for the mass of the electron.The interaction with virtual particles also explains the small (about 0.1%) deviation of the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron from the Bohr magneton (the anomalous magnetic moment).", "The extraordinarily precise agreement of this predicted difference with the experimentally determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of quantum electrodynamics.The apparent paradox in classical physics of a point particle electron having intrinsic angular momentum and magnetic moment can be explained by the formation of virtual photons in the electric field generated by the electron.", "These photons can heuristically be thought of as causing the electron to shift about in a jittery fashion (known as zitterbewegung), which results in a net circular motion with precession.", "This motion produces both the spin and the magnetic moment of the electron.", "In atoms, this creation of virtual photons explains the Lamb shift observed in spectral lines.", "The Compton Wavelength shows that near elementary particles such as the electron, the uncertainty of the energy allows for the creation of virtual particles near the electron.", "This wavelength explains the \"static\" of virtual particles around elementary particles at a close distance.=== Interaction ===An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge.", "The strength of this force in nonrelativistic approximation is determined by Coulomb's inverse square law.", "When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field.", "The Ampère–Maxwell law relates the magnetic field to the mass motion of electrons (the current) with respect to an observer.", "This property of induction supplies the magnetic field that drives an electric motor.", "The electromagnetic field of an arbitrary moving charged particle is expressed by the Liénard–Wiechert potentials, which are valid even when the particle's speed is close to that of light (relativistic).A particle with charge ''q'' (at left) is moving with velocity ''v'' through a magnetic field ''B'' that is oriented toward the viewer.", "For an electron, ''q'' is negative so it follows a curved trajectory toward the top.When an electron is moving through a magnetic field, it is subject to the Lorentz force that acts perpendicularly to the plane defined by the magnetic field and the electron velocity.", "This centripetal force causes the electron to follow a helical trajectory through the field at a radius called the gyroradius.", "The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of synchrotron radiation.", "The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron, known as the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac Force, which creates a friction that slows the electron.", "This force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon itself.Here, Bremsstrahlung is produced by an electron ''e'' deflected by the electric field of an atomic nucleus.", "The energy change ''E''2 − ''E''1 determines the frequency ''f'' of the emitted photon.Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics.", "An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum.", "Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum between two charged particles.", "This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force.", "Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton.", "The deceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation.An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called Compton scattering.", "This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift.", "The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is ''h''/''m''e''c'', which is known as the Compton wavelength.", "For an electron, it has a value of .", "When the wavelength of the light is long (for instance, the wavelength of the visible light is 0.4–0.7 μm) the wavelength shift becomes negligible.", "Such interaction between the light and free electrons is called Thomson scattering or linear Thomson scattering.The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles, such as an electron and a proton, is given by the fine-structure constant.", "This value is a dimensionless quantity formed by the ratio of two energies: the electrostatic energy of attraction (or repulsion) at a separation of one Compton wavelength, and the rest energy of the charge.", "It is given by ''α'' ≈ , which is approximately equal to .When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two or more gamma ray photons.", "If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a positronium atom can form before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022 MeV.", "On the other hand, a high-energy photon can transform into an electron and a positron by a process called pair production, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.In the theory of electroweak interaction, the left-handed component of electron's wavefunction forms a weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino.", "This means that during weak interactions, electron neutrinos behave like electrons.", "Either member of this doublet can undergo a charged current interaction by emitting or absorbing a and be converted into the other member.", "Charge is conserved during this reaction because the W boson also carries a charge, canceling out any net change during the transmutation.", "Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon of beta decay in a radioactive atom.", "Both the electron and electron neutrino can undergo a neutral current interaction via a exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino-electron elastic scattering.=== Atoms and molecules ===Probability densities for the first few hydrogen atom orbitals, seen in cross-section.", "The energy level of a bound electron determines the orbital it occupies, and the color reflects the probability of finding the electron at a given position.An electron can be ''bound'' to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force.", "A system of one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom.", "If the number of electrons is different from the nucleus's electrical charge, such an atom is called an ion.", "The wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital.", "Each orbital has its own set of quantum numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, and only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus.", "According to the Pauli exclusion principle each orbital can be occupied by up to two electrons, which must differ in their spin quantum number.Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the emission or absorption of photons with an energy that matches the difference in potential.", "Other methods of orbital transfer include collisions with particles, such as electrons, and the Auger effect.", "To escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be increased above its binding energy to the atom.", "This occurs, for example, with the photoelectric effect, where an incident photon exceeding the atom's ionization energy is absorbed by the electron.The orbital angular momentum of electrons is quantized.", "Because the electron is charged, it produces an orbital magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular momentum.", "The net magnetic moment of an atom is equal to the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of all electrons and the nucleus.", "The magnetic moment of the nucleus is negligible compared with that of the electrons.", "The magnetic moments of the electrons that occupy the same orbital (so called, paired electrons) cancel each other out.The chemical bond between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described by the laws of quantum mechanics.", "The strongest bonds are formed by the sharing or transfer of electrons between atoms, allowing the formation of molecules.", "Within a molecule, electrons move under the influence of several nuclei, and occupy molecular orbitals; much as they can occupy atomic orbitals in isolated atoms.", "A fundamental factor in these molecular structures is the existence of electron pairs.", "These are electrons with opposed spins, allowing them to occupy the same molecular orbital without violating the Pauli exclusion principle (much like in atoms).", "Different molecular orbitals have different spatial distribution of the electron density.", "For instance, in bonded pairs (i.e.", "in the pairs that actually bind atoms together) electrons can be found with the maximal probability in a relatively small volume between the nuclei.", "By contrast, in non-bonded pairs electrons are distributed in a large volume around nuclei.=== Conductivity ===A lightning discharge consists primarily of a flow of electrons.", "The electric potential needed for lightning can be generated by a triboelectric effect.If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei, then that object has a net electric charge.", "When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively charged.", "When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively charged.", "When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral.", "A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect.Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed ''free'' electrons.", "Electrons in metals also behave as if they were free.", "In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other solids are quasi-electrons—quasiparticles, which have the same electrical charge, spin, and magnetic moment as real electrons but might have a different mass.", "When free electrons—both in vacuum and metals—move, they produce a net flow of charge called an electric current, which generates a magnetic field.", "Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field.", "These interactions are described mathematically by Maxwell's equations.At a given temperature, each material has an electrical conductivity that determines the value of electric current when an electric potential is applied.", "Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper and gold, whereas glass and Teflon are poor conductors.", "In any dielectric material, the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an insulator.", "Most semiconductors have a variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and insulation.", "On the other hand, metals have an electronic band structure containing partially filled electronic bands.", "The presence of such bands allows electrons in metals to behave as if they were free or delocalized electrons.", "These electrons are not associated with specific atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move like a gas (called Fermi gas) through the material much like free electrons.Because of collisions between electrons and atoms, the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is on the order of millimeters per second.", "However, the speed at which a change of current at one point in the material causes changes in currents in other parts of the material, the velocity of propagation, is typically about 75% of light speed.", "This occurs because electrical signals propagate as a wave, with the velocity dependent on the dielectric constant of the material.Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms.", "However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature.", "This is expressed mathematically by the Wiedemann–Franz law, which states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity is proportional to the temperature.", "The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical resistivity of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electric current.When cooled below a point called the critical temperature, materials can undergo a phase transition in which they lose all resistivity to electric current, in a process known as superconductivity.", "In BCS theory, pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called phonons, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance.", "(Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100 nm, so they can overlap each other.)", "However, the mechanism by which higher temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain.Electrons inside conducting solids, which are quasi-particles themselves, when tightly confined at temperatures close to absolute zero, behave as though they had split into three other quasiparticles: spinons, orbitons and holons.", "The former carries spin and magnetic moment, the next carries its orbital location while the latter electrical charge.=== Motion and energy ===According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, as an electron's speed approaches the speed of light, from an observer's point of view its relativistic mass increases, thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference.", "The speed of an electron can approach, but never reach, the speed of light in vacuum, ''c''.", "However, when relativistic electrons—that is, electrons moving at a speed close to ''c''—are injected into a dielectric medium such as water, where the local speed of light is significantly less than ''c'', the electrons temporarily travel faster than light in the medium.", "As they interact with the medium, they generate a faint light called Cherenkov radiation.Lorentz factor as a function of velocity.", "It starts at value 1 and goes to infinity as ''v'' approaches ''c''.The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as the Lorentz factor, defined as where ''v'' is the speed of the particle.", "The kinetic energy ''K''e of an electron moving with velocity ''v'' is::where ''m''e is the mass of electron.", "For example, the Stanford linear accelerator can accelerate an electron to roughly 51 GeV.Since an electron behaves as a wave, at a given velocity it has a characteristic de Broglie wavelength.", "This is given by ''λ''e = ''h''/''p'' where ''h'' is the Planck constant and ''p'' is the momentum.", "For the 51 GeV electron above, the wavelength is about , small enough to explore structures well below the size of an atomic nucleus." ], [ "Formation", "Pair production of an electron and positron, caused by the close approach of a photon with an atomic nucleus.", "The lightning symbol represents an exchange of a virtual photon, thus an electric force acts.", "The angle between the particles is very small.The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe.", "For the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were over 10 billion kelvins and photons had mean energies over a million electronvolts.", "These photons were sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons.", "Likewise, positron-electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted energetic photons:: + ↔ + An equilibrium between electrons, positrons and photons was maintained during this phase of the evolution of the Universe.", "After 15 seconds had passed, however, the temperature of the universe dropped below the threshold where electron-positron formation could occur.", "Most of the surviving electrons and positrons annihilated each other, releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the universe.For reasons that remain uncertain, during the annihilation process there was an excess in the number of particles over antiparticles.", "Hence, about one electron for every billion electron-positron pairs survived.", "This excess matched the excess of protons over antiprotons, in a condition known as baryon asymmetry, resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe.", "The surviving protons and neutrons began to participate in reactions with each other—in the process known as nucleosynthesis, forming isotopes of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of lithium.", "This process peaked after about five minutes.", "Any leftover neutrons underwent negative beta decay with a half-life of about a thousand seconds, releasing a proton and electron in the process,: → + + For about the next –, the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind with atomic nuclei.", "What followed is a period known as recombination, when neutral atoms were formed and the expanding universe became transparent to radiation.Roughly one million years after the big bang, the first generation of stars began to form.", "Within a star, stellar nucleosynthesis results in the production of positrons from the fusion of atomic nuclei.", "These antimatter particles immediately annihilate with electrons, releasing gamma rays.", "The net result is a steady reduction in the number of electrons, and a matching increase in the number of neutrons.", "However, the process of stellar evolution can result in the synthesis of radioactive isotopes.", "Selected isotopes can subsequently undergo negative beta decay, emitting an electron and antineutrino from the nucleus.", "An example is the cobalt-60 (60Co) isotope, which decays to form nickel-60 ().An extended air shower generated by an energetic cosmic ray striking the Earth's atmosphereAt the end of its lifetime, a star with more than about 20 solar masses can undergo gravitational collapse to form a black hole.", "According to classical physics, these massive stellar objects exert a gravitational attraction that is strong enough to prevent anything, even electromagnetic radiation, from escaping past the Schwarzschild radius.", "However, quantum mechanical effects are believed to potentially allow the emission of Hawking radiation at this distance.", "Electrons (and positrons) are thought to be created at the event horizon of these stellar remnants.When a pair of virtual particles (such as an electron and positron) is created in the vicinity of the event horizon, random spatial positioning might result in one of them to appear on the exterior; this process is called quantum tunnelling.", "The gravitational potential of the black hole can then supply the energy that transforms this virtual particle into a real particle, allowing it to radiate away into space.", "In exchange, the other member of the pair is given negative energy, which results in a net loss of mass-energy by the black hole.", "The rate of Hawking radiation increases with decreasing mass, eventually causing the black hole to evaporate away until, finally, it explodes.Cosmic rays are particles traveling through space with high energies.", "Energy events as high as have been recorded.", "When these particles collide with nucleons in the Earth's atmosphere, a shower of particles is generated, including pions.", "More than half of the cosmic radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of muons.", "The particle called a muon is a lepton produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion.", ": → + A muon, in turn, can decay to form an electron or positron.", ": → + +" ], [ "Observation", "Aurorae are mostly caused by energetic electrons precipitating into the atmosphere.Remote observation of electrons requires detection of their radiated energy.", "For example, in high-energy environments such as the corona of a star, free electrons form a plasma that radiates energy due to Bremsstrahlung radiation.", "Electron gas can undergo plasma oscillation, which is waves caused by synchronized variations in electron density, and these produce energy emissions that can be detected by using radio telescopes.The frequency of a photon is proportional to its energy.", "As a bound electron transitions between different energy levels of an atom, it absorbs or emits photons at characteristic frequencies.", "For instance, when atoms are irradiated by a source with a broad spectrum, distinct dark lines appear in the spectrum of transmitted radiation in places where the corresponding frequency is absorbed by the atom's electrons.", "Each element or molecule displays a characteristic set of spectral lines, such as the hydrogen spectral series.", "When detected, spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of these lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of particle detectors, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge.", "The development of the Paul trap and Penning trap allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for long durations.", "This enables precise measurements of the particle properties.", "For example, in one instance a Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months.", "The magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at Lund University in Sweden, February 2008.The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called attosecond pulses, which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time.The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES).", "This technique employs the photoelectric effect to measure the reciprocal space—a mathematical representation of periodic structures that is used to infer the original structure.", "ARPES can be used to determine the direction, speed and scattering of electrons within the material." ], [ "Plasma applications", "=== Particle beams ===During a NASA wind tunnel test, a model of the Space Shuttle is targeted by a beam of electrons, simulating the effect of ionizing gases during re-entry.Electron beams are used in welding.", "They allow energy densities up to across a narrow focus diameter of and usually require no filler material.", "This welding technique must be performed in a vacuum to prevent the electrons from interacting with the gas before reaching their target, and it can be used to join conductive materials that would otherwise be considered unsuitable for welding.Electron-beam lithography (EBL) is a method of etching semiconductors at resolutions smaller than a micrometer.", "This technique is limited by high costs, slow performance, the need to operate the beam in the vacuum and the tendency of the electrons to scatter in solids.", "The last problem limits the resolution to about 10 nm.", "For this reason, EBL is primarily used for the production of small numbers of specialized integrated circuits.Electron beam processing is used to irradiate materials in order to change their physical properties or sterilize medical and food products.", "Electron beams fluidise or quasi-melt glasses without significant increase of temperature on intensive irradiation: e.g.", "intensive electron radiation causes a many orders of magnitude decrease of viscosity and stepwise decrease of its activation energy.Linear particle accelerators generate electron beams for treatment of superficial tumors in radiation therapy.", "Electron therapy can treat such skin lesions as basal-cell carcinomas because an electron beam only penetrates to a limited depth before being absorbed, typically up to 5 cm for electron energies in the range 5–20 MeV.", "An electron beam can be used to supplement the treatment of areas that have been irradiated by X-rays.Particle accelerators use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies.", "These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields.", "The dependency of the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the Sokolov–Ternov effect.", "Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments.", "Synchrotron radiation can also cool the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the particles.", "Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles' accelerating to the required energies; particle detectors observe the resulting energy emissions, which particle physics studies .=== Imaging ===Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a method of bombarding a crystalline material with a collimated beam of electrons and then observing the resulting diffraction patterns to determine the structure of the material.", "The required energy of the electrons is typically in the range 20–200 eV.", "The reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED) technique uses the reflection of a beam of electrons fired at various low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline materials.", "The beam energy is typically in the range 8–20 keV and the angle of incidence is 1–4°.The electron microscope directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen.", "Some electrons change their properties, such as movement direction, angle, and relative phase and energy as the beam interacts with the material.", "Microscopists can record these changes in the electron beam to produce atomically resolved images of the material.", "In blue light, conventional optical microscopes have a diffraction-limited resolution of about 200 nm.", "By comparison, electron microscopes are limited by the de Broglie wavelength of the electron.", "This wavelength, for example, is equal to 0.0037 nm for electrons accelerated across a 100,000-volt potential.", "The Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope is capable of sub-0.05 nm resolution, which is more than enough to resolve individual atoms.", "This capability makes the electron microscope a useful laboratory instrument for high resolution imaging.", "However, electron microscopes are expensive instruments that are costly to maintain.Two main types of electron microscopes exist: transmission and scanning.", "Transmission electron microscopes function like overhead projectors, with a beam of electrons passing through a slice of material then being projected by lenses on a photographic slide or a charge-coupled device.", "Scanning electron microscopes rasteri a finely focused electron beam, as in a TV set, across the studied sample to produce the image.", "Magnifications range from 100× to 1,000,000× or higher for both microscope types.", "The scanning tunneling microscope uses quantum tunneling of electrons from a sharp metal tip into the studied material and can produce atomically resolved images of its surface.=== Other applications ===In the free-electron laser (FEL), a relativistic electron beam passes through a pair of undulators that contain arrays of dipole magnets whose fields point in alternating directions.", "The electrons emit synchrotron radiation that coherently interacts with the same electrons to strongly amplify the radiation field at the resonance frequency.", "FEL can emit a coherent high-brilliance electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of frequencies, from microwaves to soft X-rays.", "These devices are used in manufacturing, communication, and in medical applications, such as soft tissue surgery.Electrons are important in cathode-ray tubes, which have been extensively used as display devices in laboratory instruments, computer monitors and television sets.", "In a photomultiplier tube, every photon striking the photocathode initiates an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable current pulse.", "Vacuum tubes use the flow of electrons to manipulate electrical signals, and they played a critical role in the development of electronics technology.", "However, they have been largely supplanted by solid-state devices such as the transistor." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Europium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Europium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Eu''' and atomic number 63.Europium is a silvery-white metal of the lanthanide series that reacts readily with air to form a dark oxide coating.", "It is the most chemically reactive, least dense, and softest of the lanthanide elements.", "It is soft enough to be cut with a knife.", "Europium was isolated in 1901 and named after the continent of Europe.", "Europium usually assumes the oxidation state +3, like other members of the lanthanide series, but compounds having oxidation state +2 are also common.", "All europium compounds with oxidation state +2 are slightly reducing.", "Europium has no significant biological role and is relatively non-toxic compared to other heavy metals.", "Most applications of europium exploit the phosphorescence of europium compounds.", "Europium is one of the rarest of the rare-earth elements on Earth." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical properties===About 300 g of dendritic sublimated 99.998% pure europium handled in a glove boxOxidized europium, coated with yellow europium(II) carbonateEuropium is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of lead.", "It crystallizes in a body-centered cubic lattice.", "Some properties of europium are strongly influenced by its half-filled electron shell.", "Europium has the second lowest melting point and the lowest density of all lanthanides.Europium has been claimed to become a superconductor when it is cooled below 1.8 K and compressed to above 80 GPa.", "However the experimental evidence on which this claim is based has been challenged, and the paper reporting superconductivity has been subsequently retracted.", "If it becomes a superconductor this is believed to occur because europium is divalent in the metallic state, and is converted into the trivalent state by the applied pressure.", "In the divalent state, the strong local magnetic moment (arising from total electronic angular momentum ''J'' = 7/2) suppresses the superconductivity, which is induced by eliminating this local moment (''J'' = 0 in Eu3+).===Chemical properties===Europium is the most reactive rare-earth element.", "It rapidly oxidizes in air, so that bulk oxidation of a centimeter-sized sample occurs within several days.", "Its reactivity with water is comparable to that of calcium, and the reaction is:2 Eu + 6 H2O → 2 Eu(OH)3 + 3 H2Because of the high reactivity, samples of solid europium rarely have the shiny appearance of the fresh metal, even when coated with a protective layer of mineral oil.", "Europium ignites in air at 150 to 180 °C to form europium(III) oxide::4 Eu + 3 O2 → 2 Eu2O3Europium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form pale pink solutions of Eu(H2O)93+::2 Eu + 3 H2SO4 + 18 H2O → 2 Eu(H2O)93+ + 3 + 3 H2====Eu(II) vs. Eu(III)====Although usually trivalent, europium readily forms divalent compounds.", "This behavior is unusual for most lanthanides, which almost exclusively form compounds with an oxidation state of +3.The +2 state has an electron configuration 4''f''7 because the half-filled ''f''-shell provides more stability.", "In terms of size and coordination number, europium(II) and barium(II) are similar.", "The sulfates of both barium and europium(II) are also highly insoluble in water.", "Divalent europium is a mild reducing agent, oxidizing in air to form Eu(III) compounds.", "In anaerobic, and particularly geothermal conditions, the divalent form is sufficiently stable that it tends to be incorporated into minerals of calcium and the other alkaline earths.", "This ion-exchange process is the basis of the \"negative europium anomaly\", the low europium content in many lanthanide minerals such as monazite, relative to the chondritic abundance.", "Bastnäsite tends to show less of a negative europium anomaly than does monazite, and hence is the major source of europium today.", "The development of easy methods to separate divalent europium from the other (trivalent) lanthanides made europium accessible even when present in low concentration, as it usually is.===Isotopes===Naturally occurring europium is composed of two isotopes, 151Eu and 153Eu, which occur in almost equal proportions; 153Eu is slightly more abundant (52.2% natural abundance).", "While 153Eu is stable, 151Eu was found to be unstable to alpha decay with a half-life of in 2007, giving about one alpha decay per two minutes in every kilogram of natural europium.", "This value is in reasonable agreement with theoretical predictions.", "Besides the natural radioisotope 151Eu, 35 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 150Eu with a half-life of 36.9 years, 152Eu with a half-life of 13.516 years, and 154Eu with a half-life of 8.593 years.", "All the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives shorter than 4.7612 years, and the majority of these have half-lives shorter than 12.2 seconds; the known isotopes of europium range from 130Eu to 170Eu.", "This element also has 17 meta states, with the most stable being 150mEu (''t''1/2=12.8 hours), 152m1Eu (''t''1/2=9.3116 hours) and 152m2Eu (''t''1/2=96 minutes).The primary decay mode for isotopes lighter than 153Eu is electron capture, and the primary mode for heavier isotopes is beta minus decay.", "The primary decay products before 153Eu are isotopes of samarium (Sm) and the primary products after are isotopes of gadolinium (Gd).====Europium as a nuclear fission product====Europium is produced by nuclear fission, but the fission product yields of europium isotopes are low near the top of the mass range for fission products.As with other lanthanides, many isotopes of europium, especially those that have odd mass numbers or are neutron-poor like 152Eu, have high cross sections for neutron capture, often high enough to be neutron poisons.+ Thermal neutron capture cross sectionsIsotope151Eu152Eu153Eu154Eu155EuYield~10low1580>2.5330Barns59001280031213403950151Eu is the beta decay product of samarium-151, but since this has a long decay half-life and short mean time to neutron absorption, most 151Sm instead ends up as 152Sm.152Eu (half-life 13.516 years) and 154Eu (half-life 8.593 years) cannot be beta decay products because 152Sm and 154Sm are non-radioactive, but 154Eu is the only long-lived \"shielded\" nuclide, other than 134Cs, to have a fission yield of more than 2.5 parts per million fissions.", "A larger amount of 154Eu is produced by neutron activation of a significant portion of the non-radioactive 153Eu; however, much of this is further converted to 155Eu.155Eu (half-life 4.7612 years) has a fission yield of 330 parts per million (ppm) for uranium-235 and thermal neutrons; most of it is transmuted to non-radioactive and nonabsorptive gadolinium-156 by the end of fuel burnup.Overall, europium is overshadowed by caesium-137 and strontium-90 as a radiation hazard, and by samarium and others as a neutron poison.===Occurrence===MonaziteEuropium is not found in nature as a free element.", "Many minerals contain europium, with the most important sources being bastnäsite, monazite, xenotime and loparite-(Ce).", "No europium-dominant minerals are known yet, despite a single find of a tiny possible Eu–O or Eu–O–C system phase in the Moon's regolith.Depletion or enrichment of europium in minerals relative to other rare-earth elements is known as the europium anomaly.", "Europium is commonly included in trace element studies in geochemistry and petrology to understand the processes that form igneous rocks (rocks that cooled from magma or lava).", "The nature of the europium anomaly found helps reconstruct the relationships within a suite of igneous rocks.", "The average crustal abundance of europium is 2–2.2 ppm.Divalent europium (Eu2+) in small amounts is the activator of the bright blue fluorescence of some samples of the mineral fluorite (CaF2).", "The reduction from Eu3+ to Eu2+ is induced by irradiation with energetic particles.", "The most outstanding examples of this originated around Weardale and adjacent parts of northern England; it was the fluorite found here that fluorescence was named after in 1852, although it was not until much later that europium was determined to be the cause.In astrophysics, the signature of europium in stellar spectra can be used to classify stars and inform theories of how or where a particular star was born.", "For instance, astronomers in 2019 identified higher-than-expected levels of europium within the star J1124+4535, hypothesizing that this star originated in a dwarf galaxy that collided with the Milky Way billions of years ago." ], [ "Production", "Europium is associated with the other rare-earth elements and is, therefore, mined together with them.", "Separation of the rare-earth elements occurs during later processing.", "Rare-earth elements are found in the minerals bastnäsite, loparite-(Ce), xenotime, and monazite in mineable quantities.", "Bastnäsite is a group of related fluorocarbonates, Ln(CO3)(F,OH).", "Monazite is a group of related of orthophosphate minerals (Ln denotes a mixture of all the lanthanides except promethium), loparite-(Ce) is an oxide, and xenotime is an orthophosphate (Y,Yb,Er,...)PO4.Monazite also contains thorium and yttrium, which complicates handling because thorium and its decay products are radioactive.", "For the extraction from the ore and the isolation of individual lanthanides, several methods have been developed.", "The choice of method is based on the concentration and composition of the ore and on the distribution of the individual lanthanides in the resulting concentrate.", "Roasting the ore, followed by acidic and basic leaching, is used mostly to produce a concentrate of lanthanides.", "If cerium is the dominant lanthanide, then it is converted from cerium(III) to cerium(IV) and then precipitated.", "Further separation by solvent extractions or ion exchange chromatography yields a fraction which is enriched in europium.", "This fraction is reduced with zinc, zinc/amalgam, electrolysis or other methods converting the europium(III) to europium(II).", "Europium(II) reacts in a way similar to that of alkaline earth metals and therefore it can be precipitated as a carbonate or co-precipitated with barium sulfate.", "Europium metal is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl3 and NaCl (or CaCl2) in a graphite cell, which serves as cathode, using graphite as anode.", "The other product is chlorine gas.A few large deposits produce or produced a significant amount of the world production.", "The Bayan Obo iron ore deposit in Inner Mongolia contains significant amounts of bastnäsite and monazite and is, with an estimated 36 million tonnes of rare-earth element oxides, the largest known deposit.", "The mining operations at the Bayan Obo deposit made China the largest supplier of rare-earth elements in the 1990s.", "Only 0.2% of the rare-earth element content is europium.", "The second large source for rare-earth elements between 1965 and its closure in the late 1990s was the Mountain Pass rare earth mine in California.", "The bastnäsite mined there is especially rich in the light rare-earth elements (La-Gd, Sc, and Y) and contains only 0.1% of europium.", "Another large source for rare-earth elements is the loparite found on the Kola peninsula.", "It contains besides niobium, tantalum and titanium up to 30% rare-earth elements and is the largest source for these elements in Russia." ], [ "Compounds", "Europium(III) sulfate, Eu2(SO4)3Europium(III) sulfate fluorescing red under ultraviolet lightEuropium compounds tend to exist in a trivalent oxidation state under most conditions.", "Commonly these compounds feature Eu(III) bound by 6–9 oxygenic ligands.", "The Eu(III) sulfates, nitrates and chlorides are soluble in water or polar organic solvents.", "Lipophilic europium complexes often feature acetylacetonate-like ligands, such as EuFOD.===Halides===Europium metal reacts with all the halogens::2 Eu + 3 X2 → 2 EuX3 (X = F, Cl, Br, I)This route gives white europium(III) fluoride (EuF3), yellow europium(III) chloride (EuCl3), gray europium(III) bromide (EuBr3), and colorless europium(III) iodide (EuI3).", "Europium also forms the corresponding dihalides: yellow-green europium(II) fluoride (EuF2), colorless europium(II) chloride (EuCl2) (although it has a bright blue fluorescence under UV light), colorless europium(II) bromide (EuBr2), and green europium(II) iodide (EuI2).===Chalcogenides and pnictides===Europium forms stable compounds with all of the chalcogens, but the heavier chalcogens (S, Se, and Te) stabilize the lower oxidation state.", "Three oxides are known: europium(II) oxide (EuO), europium(III) oxide (Eu2O3), and the mixed-valence oxide Eu3O4, consisting of both Eu(II) and Eu(III).", "Otherwise, the main chalcogenides are europium(II) sulfide (EuS), europium(II) selenide (EuSe) and europium(II) telluride (EuTe): all three of these are black solids.", "Europium(II) sulfide is prepared by sulfiding the oxide at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose the Eu2O3::Eu2O3 + 3 H2S → 2 EuS + 3 H2O + SThe main nitride of europium is europium(III) nitride (EuN)." ], [ "History", "Although europium is present in most of the minerals containing the other rare elements, due to the difficulties in separating the elements it was not until the late 1800s that the element was isolated.", "William Crookes observed the phosphorescent spectra of the rare elements including those eventually assigned to europium.Europium was first found in 1892 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, who obtained basic fractions from samarium-gadolinium concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for by samarium or gadolinium.", "However, the discovery of europium is generally credited to French chemist Eugène-Anatole Demarçay, who suspected samples of the recently discovered element samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and who was able to isolate it in 1901; he then named it ''europium''.When the europium-doped yttrium orthovanadate red phosphor was discovered in the early 1960s, and understood to be about to cause a revolution in the color television industry, there was a scramble for the limited supply of europium on hand among the monazite processors, as the typical europium content in monazite is about 0.05%.", "However, the Molycorp bastnäsite deposit at the Mountain Pass rare earth mine, California, whose lanthanides had an unusually high europium content of 0.1%, was about to come on-line and provide sufficient europium to sustain the industry.", "Prior to europium, the color-TV red phosphor was very weak, and the other phosphor colors had to be muted, to maintain color balance.", "With the brilliant red europium phosphor, it was no longer necessary to mute the other colors, and a much brighter color TV picture was the result.", "Europium has continued to be in use in the TV industry ever since as well as in computer monitors.", "Californian bastnäsite now faces stiff competition from Bayan Obo, China, with an even \"richer\" europium content of 0.2%.Frank Spedding, celebrated for his development of the ion-exchange technology that revolutionized the rare-earth industry in the mid-1950s, once related the story of how he was lecturing on the rare earths in the 1930s, when an elderly gentleman approached him with an offer of a gift of several pounds of europium oxide.", "This was an unheard-of quantity at the time, and Spedding did not take the man seriously.", "However, a package duly arrived in the mail, containing several pounds of genuine europium oxide.", "The elderly gentleman had turned out to be Herbert Newby McCoy, who had developed a famous method of europium purification involving redox chemistry." ], [ "Applications", "Europium is one of the elements involved in emitting red light in CRT televisions.Relative to most other elements, commercial applications for europium are few and rather specialized.", "Almost invariably, its phosphorescence is exploited, either in the +2 or +3 oxidation state.It is a dopant in some types of glass in lasers and other optoelectronic devices.", "Europium oxide (Eu2O3) is widely used as a red phosphor in television sets and fluorescent lamps, and as an activator for yttrium-based phosphors.", "Color TV screens contain between 0.5 and 1 g of europium oxide.", "Whereas trivalent europium gives red phosphors, the luminescence of divalent europium depends strongly on the composition of the host structure.", "UV to deep red luminescence can be achieved.", "The two classes of europium-based phosphor (red and blue), combined with the yellow/green terbium phosphors give \"white\" light, the color temperature of which can be varied by altering the proportion or specific composition of the individual phosphors.", "This phosphor system is typically encountered in helical fluorescent light bulbs.", "Combining the same three classes is one way to make trichromatic systems in TV and computer screens, but as an additive, it can be particularly effective in improving the intensity of red phosphor.", "Europium is also used in the manufacture of fluorescent glass, increasing the general efficiency of fluorescent lamps.", "One of the more common persistent after-glow phosphors besides copper-doped zinc sulfide is europium-doped strontium aluminate.", "Europium fluorescence is used to interrogate biomolecular interactions in drug-discovery screens.", "It is also used in the anti-counterfeiting phosphors in euro banknotes.An application that has almost fallen out of use with the introduction of affordable superconducting magnets is the use of europium complexes, such as Eu(fod)3, as shift reagents in NMR spectroscopy.", "Chiral shift reagents, such as Eu(hfc)3, are still used to determine enantiomeric purity." ], [ "Precautions", "There are no clear indications that europium is particularly toxic compared to other heavy metals.", "Europium chloride, nitrate and oxide have been tested for toxicity: europium chloride shows an acute intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 550 mg/kg and the acute oral LD50 toxicity is 5000 mg/kg.", "Europium nitrate shows a slightly higher intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 320 mg/kg, while the oral toxicity is above 5000 mg/kg.", "The metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* It's Elemental – Europium" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erbium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Erbium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Er''' and atomic number 68.A silvery-white solid metal when artificially isolated, natural erbium is always found in chemical combination with other elements.", "It is a lanthanide, a rare-earth element, originally found in the gadolinite mine in Ytterby, Sweden, which is the source of the element's name.", "Erbium's principal uses involve its pink-colored Er3+ ions, which have optical fluorescent properties particularly useful in certain laser applications.", "Erbium-doped glasses or crystals can be used as optical amplification media, where Er3+ ions are optically pumped at around 980 or and then radiate light at in stimulated emission.", "This process results in an unusually mechanically simple laser optical amplifier for signals transmitted by fiber optics.", "The wavelength is especially important for optical communications because standard single mode optical fibers have minimal loss at this particular wavelength.In addition to optical fiber amplifier-lasers, a large variety of medical applications (e.g.", "dermatology, dentistry) rely on the erbium ion's emission (see Er:YAG laser) when lit at another wavelength, which is highly absorbed in water in tissues, making its effect very superficial.", "Such shallow tissue deposition of laser energy is helpful in laser surgery, and for the efficient production of steam which produces enamel ablation by common types of dental laser." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical properties===Erbium(III) chloride in sunlight, showing some pink fluorescence of Er+3 from natural ultraviolet.A trivalent element, pure erbium metal is malleable (or easily shaped), soft yet stable in air, and does not oxidize as quickly as some other rare-earth metals.", "Its salts are rose-colored, and the element has characteristic sharp absorption spectra bands in visible light, ultraviolet, and near infrared.", "Otherwise it looks much like the other rare earths.", "Its sesquioxide is called erbia.", "Erbium's properties are to a degree dictated by the kind and amount of impurities present.", "Erbium does not play any known biological role, but is thought to be able to stimulate metabolism.Erbium is ferromagnetic below 19 K, antiferromagnetic between 19 and 80 K and paramagnetic above 80 K.Erbium can form propeller-shaped atomic clusters Er3N, where the distance between the erbium atoms is 0.35 nm.", "Those clusters can be isolated by encapsulating them into fullerene molecules, as confirmed by transmission electron microscopy.Like most rare-earth elements, erbium is usually found in the +3 oxidation state.", "However, it is possible for erbium to also be found in the 0, +1 and +2 oxidation states.===Chemical properties===Erbium metal retains its luster in dry air, however will tarnish slowly in moist air and burns readily to form erbium(III) oxide::4 Er + 3 O2 → 2 Er2O3Erbium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form erbium hydroxide::2 Er (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Er(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)Erbium metal reacts with all the halogens::2 Er (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 ErF3 (s) pink:2 Er (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 ErCl3 (s) violet:2 Er (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 ErBr3 (s) violet:2 Er (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 ErI3 (s) violetErbium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing hydrated Er(III) ions, which exist as rose red Er(OH2)93+ hydration complexes::2 Er (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Er3+ (aq) + 3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)=== Isotopes ===Naturally occurring erbium is composed of 6 stable isotopes, , , , , , and , with being the most abundant (33.503% natural abundance).", "29 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being with a half-life of , with a half-life of , with a half-life of , with a half-life of , and with a half-life of .", "All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than , and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 4 minutes.", "This element also has 13 meta states, with the most stable being with a half-life of .The isotopes of erbium range in atomic weight from () to ().", "The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, , is electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta decay.", "The primary decay products before are element 67 (holmium) isotopes, and the primary products after are element 69 (thulium) isotopes." ], [ "Compounds", "===Oxides===Erbium(III) oxide powderErbium(III) oxide (also known as erbia) is the only known oxide of erbium, first isolated by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1843, and first obtained in pure form in 1905 by Georges Urbain and Charles James.", "It has a cubic structure resembling the bixbyite motif.", "The Er3+ centers are octahedral.", "The formation of erbium oxide is accomplished by burning erbium metal.", "Erbium oxide is insoluble in water and soluble in mineral acids.===Halides===Erbium(III) fluoride is a pinkish powder that can be produced by reacting erbium(III) nitrate and ammonium fluoride.", "It can be used to make infrared light-transmitting materials and up-converting luminescent materials.", "Erbium(III) chloride is a violet compounds that can be formed by first heating erbium(III) oxide and ammonium chloride to produce the ammonium salt of the pentachloride (NH42ErCl5) then heating it in a vacuum at 350-400 °C.", "It forms crystals of the type, with monoclinic crystals and the point group ''C''2/m.", "Erbium(III) chloride hexahydrate also forms monoclinic crystals with the point group of ''P''2/''n'' (''P''2/''c'') - ''C''42h.", "In this compound, erbium is octa-coordinated to form ions with the isolated completing the structure.Erbium(III) bromide is a violet solid.", "It is used, like other metal bromide compounds, in water treatment, chemical analysis and for certain crystal growth applications.", "Erbium(III) iodide is a slightly pink compound that is insoluble in water.", "It can be prepared by directly reacting erbium with iodine.===Organoerbium compounds===Organoerbium compounds are very similar to those of the other lanthanides, as they all share an inability to undergo π backbonding.", "They are thus mostly restricted to the mostly ionic cyclopentadienides (isostructural with those of lanthanum) and the σ-bonded simple alkyls and aryls, some of which may be polymeric." ], [ "History", "Carl Gustaf Mosander, the scientist who discovered erbium, lanthanum and terbium.Erbium (for Ytterby, a village in Sweden) was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1843.Mosander was working with a sample of what was thought to be the single metal oxide yttria, derived from the mineral gadolinite.", "He discovered that the sample contained at least two metal oxides in addition to pure yttria, which he named \"erbia\" and \"terbia\" after the village of Ytterby where the gadolinite had been found.", "Mosander was not certain of the purity of the oxides and later tests confirmed his uncertainty.", "Not only did the \"yttria\" contain yttrium, erbium, and terbium; in the ensuing years, chemists, geologists and spectroscopists discovered five additional elements: ytterbium, scandium, thulium, holmium, and gadolinium.Erbia and terbia, however, were confused at this time.", "A spectroscopist mistakenly switched the names of the two elements during spectroscopy.", "After 1860, terbia was renamed erbia and after 1877 what had been known as erbia was renamed terbia.", "Fairly pure Er2O3 was independently isolated in 1905 by Georges Urbain and Charles James.", "Reasonably pure erbium metal was not produced until 1934 when Wilhelm Klemm and Heinrich Bommer reduced the anhydrous chloride with potassium vapor.", "It was only in the 1990s that the price for Chinese-derived erbium oxide became low enough for erbium to be considered for use as a colorant in art glass." ], [ "Occurrence", "Monazite sandThe concentration of erbium in the Earth crust is about 2.8 mg/kg and in seawater 0.9 ng/L.", "Erbium is the 44th most abundant element in the Earth's crust at about 3.0–3.8 ppm.Like other rare earths, this element is never found as a free element in nature but is found bound in monazite sand ores.", "It has historically been very difficult and expensive to separate rare earths from each other in their ores but ion-exchange chromatography methods developed in the late 20th century have greatly reduced the cost of production of all rare-earth metals and their chemical compounds.The principal commercial sources of erbium are from the minerals xenotime and euxenite, and most recently, the ion adsorption clays of southern China.", "Consequently, China has now become the principal global supplier of this element.", "In the high-yttrium versions of these ore concentrates, yttrium is about two-thirds of the total by weight, and erbia is about 4–5%.", "When the concentrate is dissolved in acid, the erbia liberates enough erbium ion to impart a distinct and characteristic pink color to the solution.", "This color behavior is similar to what Mosander and the other early workers in the lanthanides would have seen in their extracts from the gadolinite minerals of Ytterby." ], [ "Production", "Crushed minerals are attacked by hydrochloric or sulfuric acid that transforms insoluble rare-earth oxides into soluble chlorides or sulfates.", "The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) to pH 3–4.Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed.", "After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths into their insoluble oxalates.", "The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing.", "The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3.The solution is treated with magnesium nitrate to produce a crystallized mixture of double salts of rare-earth metals.", "The salts are separated by ion exchange.", "In this process, rare-earth ions are sorbed onto suitable ion-exchange resin by exchange with hydrogen, ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin.", "The rare earth ions are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent.", "Erbium metal is obtained from its oxide or salts by heating with calcium at under argon atmosphere." ], [ "Applications", "Erbium-colored glassErbium's everyday uses are varied.", "It is commonly used as a photographic filter, and because of its resilience it is useful as a metallurgical additive.===Lasers and optics===A large variety of medical applications (i.e.", "dermatology, dentistry) utilize erbium ion's emission (see Er:YAG laser), which is highly absorbed in water (absorption coefficient about ).", "Such shallow tissue deposition of laser energy is necessary for laser surgery, and the efficient production of steam for laser enamel ablation in dentistry.Erbium-doped optical silica-glass fibers are the active element in erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), which are widely used in optical communications.", "The same fibers can be used to create fiber lasers.", "In order to work efficiently, erbium-doped fiber is usually co-doped with glass modifiers/homogenizers, often aluminium or phosphorus.", "These dopants help prevent clustering of Er ions and transfer the energy more efficiently between excitation light (also known as optical pump) and the signal.", "Co-doping of optical fiber with Er and Yb is used in high-power Er/Yb fiber lasers.", "Erbium can also be used in erbium-doped waveguide amplifiers.===Other applications===When added to vanadium as an alloy, erbium lowers hardness and improves workability.", "An erbium-nickel alloy Er3Ni has an unusually high specific heat capacity at liquid-helium temperatures and is used in cryocoolers; a mixture of 65% Er3Co and 35% Er0.9Yb0.1Ni by volume improves the specific heat capacity even more.Erbium oxide has a pink color, and is sometimes used as a colorant for glass, cubic zirconia and porcelain.", "The glass is then often used in sunglasses and cheap jewelry.Erbium is used in nuclear technology in neutron-absorbing control rods.", "or as a burnable poison in nuclear fuel design.", "Recently, erbium has been used in experiments related to lattice confinement fusion." ], [ "Biological role and precautions", "Erbium does not have a biological role, but erbium salts can stimulate metabolism.", "Humans consume 1 milligram of erbium a year on average.", "The highest concentration of erbium in humans is in the bones, but there is also erbium in the human kidneys and liver.", "Erbium is slightly toxic if ingested, but erbium compounds are not toxic.", "Metallic erbium in dust form presents a fire and explosion hazard." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Guide to the Elements – Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka (Oxford University Press; 1998), ." ], [ "External links", "* It's Elemental – Erbium" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Einsteinium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Einsteinium''' is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol '''Es''' and atomic number 99.Einsteinium is a member of the actinide series and it is the seventh transuranium element.", "It was named in honor of Albert Einstein.Einsteinium was discovered as a component of the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952.Its most common isotope, einsteinium-253 (half-life 20.47 days), is produced artificially from decay of californium-253 in a few dedicated high-power nuclear reactors with a total yield on the order of one milligram per year.", "The reactor synthesis is followed by a complex process of separating einsteinium-253 from other actinides and products of their decay.", "Other isotopes are synthesized in various laboratories, but in much smaller amounts, by bombarding heavy actinide elements with light ions.", "Due to the small amounts of produced einsteinium and the short half-life of its most common isotope, there are no practical applications for it except basic scientific research.", "In particular, einsteinium was used to synthesize, for the first time, 17 atoms of the new element mendelevium in 1955.Einsteinium is a soft, silvery, paramagnetic metal.", "Its chemistry is typical of the late actinides, with a preponderance of the +3 oxidation state; the +2 oxidation state is also accessible, especially in solids.", "The high radioactivity of einsteinium-253 produces a visible glow and rapidly damages its crystalline metal lattice, with released heat of about 1000 watts per gram.", "Difficulty in studying its properties is due to einsteinium-253's decay to berkelium-249 and then californium-249 at a rate of about 3% per day.", "The isotope of einsteinium with the longest half-life, einsteinium-252 (half-life 471.7 days) would be more suitable for investigation of physical properties, but it has proven far more difficult to produce and is available only in minute quantities, and not in bulk.", "Einsteinium is the element with the highest atomic number which has been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form as einsteinium-253.Like all synthetic transuranium elements, isotopes of einsteinium are very radioactive and are considered highly dangerous to health on ingestion." ], [ "History", "Einsteinium was first observed in the fallout from the ''Ivy Mike'' nuclear test.Einsteinium was first identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso and co-workers at the University of California, Berkeley in collaboration with the Argonne and Los Alamos National Laboratories, in the fallout from the ''Ivy Mike'' nuclear test.", "The test was carried out on November 1, 1952, at Enewetak Atoll in the Pacific Ocean and was the first successful test of a thermonuclear weapon.", "Initial examination of the debris from the explosion had shown the production of a new isotope of plutonium, , which could only have formed by the absorption of six neutrons by a uranium-238 nucleus followed by two beta decays.", ":^{238}_{92}U ->\\ce{+ 6(n,\\gamma)}-2\\ \\beta^-{} ^{244}_{94}PuAt the time, the multiple neutron absorption was thought to be an extremely rare process, but the identification of indicated that still more neutrons could have been captured by the uranium nuclei, thereby producing new elements heavier than californium.The element was discovered by a team headed by Albert Ghiorso.Ghiorso and co-workers analyzed filter papers which had been flown through the explosion cloud on airplanes (the same sampling technique that had been used to discover ).", "Larger amounts of radioactive material were later isolated from coral debris of the atoll, which were delivered to the U.S.", "The separation of suspected new elements was carried out in the presence of a citric acid/ammonium buffer solution in a weakly acidic medium (pH ≈ 3.5), using ion exchange at elevated temperatures; fewer than 200 atoms of einsteinium were recovered in the end.", "Nevertheless, element 99 (einsteinium), namely its 253Es isotope, could be detected via its characteristic high-energy alpha decay at 6.6 MeV.", "It was produced by the capture of 15 neutrons by uranium-238 nuclei followed by seven beta-decays, and had a half-life of 20.5 days.", "Such multiple neutron absorption was made possible by the high neutron flux density during the detonation, so that newly generated heavy isotopes had plenty of available neutrons to absorb before they could disintegrate into lighter elements.", "Neutron capture initially raised the mass number without changing the atomic number of the nuclide, and the concomitant beta-decays resulted in a gradual increase in the atomic number::^{238}_{92}U ->\\ce{+15n}6 \\beta^- ^{253}_{98}Cf ->\\beta^- ^{253}_{99}EsSome 238U atoms, however, could absorb two additional neutrons (for a total of 17), resulting in 255Es, as well as in the 255Fm isotope of another new element, fermium.", "The discovery of the new elements and the associated new data on multiple neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the U.S. military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions and competition with Soviet Union in nuclear technologies.", "However, the rapid capture of so many neutrons would provide needed direct experimental confirmation of the so-called r-process multiple neutron absorption needed to explain the cosmic nucleosynthesis (production) of certain heavy chemical elements (heavier than nickel) in supernova explosions, before beta decay.", "Such a process is needed to explain the existence of many stable elements in the universe.Meanwhile, isotopes of element 99 (as well as of new element 100, fermium) were produced in the Berkeley and Argonne laboratories, in a nuclear reaction between nitrogen-14 and uranium-238, and later by intense neutron irradiation of plutonium or californium::^{252}_{98}Cf ->\\ce{(n,\\gamma)} ^{253}_{98}Cf ->\\beta^-17.81 \\ce{d} ^{253}_{99}Es ->\\ce{(n,\\gamma)} ^{254}_{99}Es ->\\beta^- ^{254}_{100}FmThese results were published in several articles in 1954 with the disclaimer that these were not the first studies that had been carried out on the elements.", "The Berkeley team also reported some results on the chemical properties of einsteinium and fermium.", "The ''Ivy Mike'' results were declassified and published in 1955.The element was named after Albert Einstein.In their discovery of the elements 99 and 100, the American teams had competed with a group at the Nobel Institute for Physics, Stockholm, Sweden.", "In late 1953 – early 1954, the Swedish group succeeded in the synthesis of light isotopes of element 100, in particular 250Fm, by bombarding uranium with oxygen nuclei.", "These results were also published in 1954.Nevertheless, the priority of the Berkeley team was generally recognized, as its publications preceded the Swedish article, and they were based on the previously undisclosed results of the 1952 thermonuclear explosion; thus the Berkeley team was given the privilege to name the new elements.", "As the effort which had led to the design of ''Ivy Mike'' was codenamed Project PANDA, element 99 had been jokingly nicknamed \"Pandemonium\" but the official names suggested by the Berkeley group derived from two prominent scientists, Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi: \"We suggest for the name for the element with the atomic number 99, einsteinium (symbol E) after Albert Einstein and for the name for the element with atomic number 100, fermium (symbol Fm), after Enrico Fermi.\"", "Both Einstein and Fermi died between the time the names were originally proposed and when they were announced.", "The discovery of these new elements was announced by Albert Ghiorso at the first Geneva Atomic Conference held on 8–20 August 1955.The symbol for einsteinium was first given as \"E\" and later changed to \"Es\" by IUPAC." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical===Haire, p. 1580Einsteinium is a synthetic, silver, radioactive metal.", "In the periodic table, it is located to the right of the actinide californium, to the left of the actinide fermium and below the lanthanide holmium with which it shares many similarities in physical and chemical properties.", "Its density of 8.84 g/cm3 is lower than that of californium (15.1 g/cm3) and is nearly the same as that of holmium (8.79 g/cm3), despite atomic einsteinium being much heavier than holmium.", "The melting point of einsteinium (860 °C) is also relatively low – below californium (900 °C), fermium (1527 °C) and holmium (1461 °C).", "Einsteinium is a soft metal, with the bulk modulus of only 15 GPa, which value is one of the lowest among non-alkali metals.Contrary to the lighter actinides californium, berkelium, curium and americium, which crystallize in a double hexagonal structure at ambient conditions, einsteinium is believed to have a face-centered cubic (''fcc'') symmetry with the space group ''Fm''''m'' and the lattice constant ''a'' = 575 pm.", "However, there is a report of room-temperature hexagonal einsteinium metal with ''a'' = 398 pm and ''c'' = 650 pm, which converted to the ''fcc'' phase upon heating to 300 °C.The self-damage induced by the radioactivity of einsteinium is so strong that it rapidly destroys the crystal lattice, and the energy release during this process, 1000 watts per gram of 253Es, induces a visible glow.", "These processes may contribute to the relatively low density and melting point of einsteinium.", "Further, owing to the small size of the available samples, the melting point of einsteinium was often deduced by observing the sample being heated inside an electron microscope.", "Thus, the surface effects in small samples could reduce the melting point value.The metal is trivalent and has a noticeably high volatility.", "In order to reduce the self-radiation damage, most measurements of solid einsteinium and its compounds are performed right after thermal annealing.", "Also, some compounds are studied under the atmosphere of the reductant gas, for example H2O+HCl for EsOCl so that the sample is partly regrown during its decomposition.Apart from the self-destruction of solid einsteinium and its compounds, other intrinsic difficulties in studying this element include scarcity – the most common 253Es isotope is available only once or twice a year in sub-milligram amounts – and self-contamination due to rapid conversion of einsteinium to berkelium and then to californium at a rate of about 3.3% per day::^{253}_{99}Es ->\\alpha20 \\ce{d} ^{249}_{97}Bk ->\\beta^-314 \\ce{d} ^{249}_{98}CfThus, most einsteinium samples are contaminated, and their intrinsic properties are often deduced by extrapolating back experimental data accumulated over time.", "Other experimental techniques to circumvent the contamination problem include selective optical excitation of einsteinium ions by a tunable laser, such as in studying its luminescence properties.Magnetic properties have been studied for einsteinium metal, its oxide and fluoride.", "All three materials showed Curie–Weiss paramagnetic behavior from liquid helium to room temperature.", "The effective magnetic moments were deduced as for Es2O3 and for the EsF3, which are the highest values among actinides, and the corresponding Curie temperatures are 53 and 37 K.===Chemical===Like all actinides, einsteinium is rather reactive.", "Its trivalent oxidation state is most stable in solids and aqueous solution where it induces a pale pink color.", "The existence of divalent einsteinium is firmly established, especially in the solid phase; such +2 state is not observed in many other actinides, including protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, curium and berkelium.", "Einsteinium(II) compounds can be obtained, for example, by reducing einsteinium(III) with samarium(II) chloride.", "The oxidation state +4 was postulated from vapor studies and is as yet uncertain.===Isotopes===Nineteen isotopes and three nuclear isomers are known for einsteinium, with mass numbers ranging from 240 to 257.All are radioactive and the most stable nuclide, 252Es, has a half-life of 471.7 days.", "The next most stable isotopes are 254Es (half-life 275.7 days), 255Es (39.8 days), and 253Es (20.47 days).", "All of the remaining isotopes have half-lives shorter than 40 hours, most shorter than 30 minutes.", "Of the three nuclear isomers, the most stable is 254mEs with a half-life of 39.3 hours.===Nuclear fission===Einsteinium has a high rate of nuclear fission that results in a low critical mass for a sustained nuclear chain reaction.", "This mass is 9.89 kilograms for a bare sphere of 254Es isotope, and can be lowered to 2.9 kilograms by adding a 30-centimeter-thick steel neutron reflector, or even to 2.26 kilograms with a 20-cm-thick reflector made of water.", "However, even this small critical mass greatly exceeds the total amount of einsteinium isolated thus far, especially of the rare 254Es isotope.===Natural occurrence===Because of the short half-life of all isotopes of einsteinium, any primordial einsteinium—that is, einsteinium that could have been present on the Earth at its formation—has long since decayed.", "Synthesis of einsteinium from naturally-occurring actinides uranium and thorium in the Earth's crust requires multiple neutron capture, which is an extremely unlikely event.", "Therefore, all terrestrial einsteinium is produced in scientific laboratories, high-power nuclear reactors, or in nuclear weapons tests, and exists only within a few years from the time of the synthesis.The transuranic elements from americium to fermium, including einsteinium, were once created in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, but any quantities produced then would have long since decayed away.Einsteinium was theoretically observed in the spectrum of Przybylski's Star.", "However, the lead author of the studies finding einsteinium and other short-lived actinides in Przybylski's Star, Vera F. Gopka, admitted that \"the position of lines of the radioactive elements under search were simply visualized in synthetic spectrum as vertical markers because there are not any atomic data for these lines except for their wavelengths (Sansonetti et al.", "2004), enabling one to calculate their profiles with more or less real intensities.\"", "The signature spectra of einsteinium's isotopes have since been comprehensively analyzed experimentally (in 2021), though there is no published research confirming whether the theorized einsteinium signatures proposed to be found in the star's spectrum match the lab-determined results." ], [ "Synthesis and extraction", "Seaborg, p. 51Einsteinium is produced in minute quantities by bombarding lighter actinides with neutrons in dedicated high-flux nuclear reactors.", "The world's major irradiation sources are the 85-megawatt High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, U.S., and the SM-2 loop reactor at the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors (NIIAR) in Dimitrovgrad, Russia, which are both dedicated to the production of transcurium (''Z'' > 96) elements.", "These facilities have similar power and flux levels, and are expected to have comparable production capacities for transcurium elements, although the quantities produced at NIIAR are not widely reported.", "In a \"typical processing campaign\" at Oak Ridge, tens of grams of curium are irradiated to produce decigram quantities of californium, milligram quantities of berkelium (249Bk) and einsteinium and picogram quantities of fermium.The first microscopic sample of 253Es sample weighing about 10 nanograms was prepared in 1961 at HFIR.", "A special magnetic balance was designed to estimate its weight.", "Larger batches were produced later starting from several kilograms of plutonium with the einsteinium yields (mostly 253Es) of 0.48 milligrams in 1967–1970, 3.2 milligrams in 1971–1973, followed by steady production of about 3 milligrams per year between 1974 and 1978.These quantities however refer to the integral amount in the target right after irradiation.", "Subsequent separation procedures reduced the amount of isotopically pure einsteinium roughly tenfold.===Laboratory synthesis===Heavy neutron irradiation of plutonium results in four major isotopes of einsteinium: 253Es (α-emitter with half-life of 20.47 days and with a spontaneous fission half-life of 7×105 years); 254mEs (β-emitter with half-life of 39.3 hours), 254Es (α-emitter with half-life of about 276 days) and 255Es (β-emitter with half-life of 39.8 days).", "An alternative route involves bombardment of uranium-238 with high-intensity nitrogen or oxygen ion beams.Einsteinium-247 (half-life 4.55 minutes) was produced by irradiating americium-241 with carbon or uranium-238 with nitrogen ions.", "The latter reaction was first realized in 1967 in Dubna, Russia, and the involved scientists were awarded the Lenin Komsomol Prize.The isotope 248Es was produced by irradiating 249Cf with deuterium ions.", "It mainly decays by emission of electrons to 248Cf with a half-life of minutes, but also releases α-particles of 6.87 MeV energy, with the ratio of electrons to α-particles of about 400.:The heavier isotopes 249Es, 250Es, 251Es and 252Es were obtained by bombarding 249Bk with α-particles.", "One to four neutrons are liberated in this process making possible the formation of four different isotopes in one reaction.", ":^{249}_{97}Bk ->+\\alpha ^{249,250,251,252}_{99}EsEinsteinium-253 was produced by irradiating a 0.1–0.2 milligram 252Cf target with a thermal neutron flux of (2–5)×1014 neutrons·cm−2·s−1 for 500–900 hours::^{252}_{98}Cf ->\\ce{(n,\\gamma)} ^{253}_{98}Cf ->\\beta^-17.81 \\ce{d} ^{253}_{99}EsIn 2020, scientists at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory were able to create about 200 nanograms of 254Es, This allowed some chemical properties of the element to be studied for the first time.===Synthesis in nuclear explosions===Estimated yield of transuranium elements in the U.S. nuclear tests Hutch and Cyclamen.The analysis of the debris at the 10-megaton ''Ivy Mike'' nuclear test was a part of long-term project.", "One of the goals of which was studying the efficiency of production of transuranium elements in high-power nuclear explosions.", "The motivation for these experiments was that synthesis of such elements from uranium requires multiple neutron capture.", "The probability of such events increases with the neutron flux, and nuclear explosions are the most powerful man-made neutron sources, providing densities of the order 1023 neutrons/cm2 within a microsecond, or about 1029 neutrons/(cm2·s).", "In comparison, the flux of the HFIR reactor is 5 neutrons/(cm2·s).", "A dedicated laboratory was set up right at Enewetak Atoll for preliminary analysis of debris, as some isotopes could have decayed by the time the debris samples reached the mainland U.S.", "The laboratory was receiving samples for analysis as soon as possible, from airplanes equipped with paper filters which flew over the atoll after the tests.", "Whereas it was hoped to discover new chemical elements heavier than fermium, none of these were found even after a series of megaton explosions conducted between 1954 and 1956 at the atoll.The atmospheric results were supplemented by the underground test data accumulated in the 1960s at the Nevada Test Site, as it was hoped that powerful explosions conducted in confined space might result in improved yields and heavier isotopes.", "Apart from traditional uranium charges, combinations of uranium with americium and thorium have been tried, as well as a mixed plutonium-neptunium charge, but they were less successful in terms of yield and was attributed to stronger losses of heavy isotopes due to enhanced fission rates in heavy-element charges.", "Product isolation was problematic as the explosions were spreading debris through melting and vaporizing the surrounding rocks at depths of 300–600 meters.", "Drilling to such depths to extract the products was both slow and inefficient in terms of collected volumes.Among the nine underground tests that were carried between 1962 and 1969, the last one was the most powerful and had the highest yield of transuranium elements.", "Milligrams of einsteinium that would normally take a year of irradiation in a high-power reactor, were produced within a microsecond.", "However, the major practical problem of the entire proposal was collecting the radioactive debris dispersed by the powerful blast.", "Aircraft filters adsorbed only about 4 of the total amount, and collection of tons of corals at Enewetak Atoll increased this fraction by only two orders of magnitude.", "Extraction of about 500 kilograms of underground rocks 60 days after the Hutch explosion recovered only about 1 of the total charge.", "The amount of transuranium elements in this 500-kg batch was only 30 times higher than in a 0.4 kg rock picked up 7 days after the test which demonstrated the highly non-linear dependence of the transuranium elements yield on the amount of retrieved radioactive rock.", "Shafts were drilled at the site before the test in order to accelerate sample collection after explosion, so that explosion would expel radioactive material from the epicenter through the shafts and to collecting volumes near the surface.", "This method was tried in two tests and instantly provided hundreds kilograms of material, but with actinide concentration 3 times lower than in samples obtained after drilling.", "Whereas such method could have been efficient in scientific studies of short-lived isotopes, it could not improve the overall collection efficiency of the produced actinides.Although no new elements (apart from einsteinium and fermium) could be detected in the nuclear test debris, and the total yields of transuranium elements were disappointingly low, these tests did provide significantly higher amounts of rare heavy isotopes than previously available in laboratories.===Separation===Elution curves: chromatographic separation of Fm(100), Es(99), Cf, Bk, Cm and AmSeparation procedure of einsteinium depends on the synthesis method.", "In the case of light-ion bombardment inside a cyclotron, the heavy ion target is attached to a thin foil, and the generated einsteinium is simply washed off the foil after the irradiation.", "However, the produced amounts in such experiments are relatively low.", "The yields are much higher for reactor irradiation, but there, the product is a mixture of various actinide isotopes, as well as lanthanides produced in the nuclear fission decays.", "In this case, isolation of einsteinium is a tedious procedure which involves several repeating steps of cation exchange, at elevated temperature and pressure, and chromatography.", "Separation from berkelium is important, because the most common einsteinium isotope produced in nuclear reactors, 253Es, decays with a half-life of only 20 days to 249Bk, which is fast on the timescale of most experiments.", "Such separation relies on the fact that berkelium easily oxidizes to the solid +4 state and precipitates, whereas other actinides, including einsteinium, remain in their +3 state in solutions.Separation of trivalent actinides from lanthanide fission products can be done by a cation-exchange resin column using a 90% water/10% ethanol solution saturated with hydrochloric acid (HCl) as eluant.", "It is usually followed by anion-exchange chromatography using 6 molar HCl as eluant.", "A cation-exchange resin column (Dowex-50 exchange column) treated with ammonium salts is then used to separate fractions containing elements 99, 100 and 101.These elements can be then identified simply based on their elution position/time, using α-hydroxyisobutyrate solution (α-HIB), for example, as eluant.Separation of the 3+ actinides can also be achieved by solvent extraction chromatography, using bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (abbreviated as HDEHP) as the stationary organic phase, and nitric acid as the mobile aqueous phase.", "The actinide elution sequence is reversed from that of the cation-exchange resin column.", "The einsteinium separated by this method has the advantage to be free of organic complexing agent, as compared to the separation using a resin column.===Preparation of the metal===Einsteinium is highly reactive and therefore strong reducing agents are required to obtain the pure metal from its compounds.", "This can be achieved by reduction of einsteinium(III) fluoride with metallic lithium::EsF3 + 3 Li → Es + 3 LiFHowever, owing to its low melting point and high rate of self-radiation damage, einsteinium has high vapor pressure, which is higher than that of lithium fluoride.", "This makes this reduction reaction rather inefficient.", "It was tried in the early preparation attempts and quickly abandoned in favor of reduction of einsteinium(III) oxide with lanthanum metal::Es2O3 + 2 La → 2 Es + La2O3" ], [ "Chemical compounds", "+Crystal structure and lattice constants of some Es compoundsCompoundColor SymmetrySpace groupNoPearson symbol''a'' (pm)''b'' (pm)''c'' (pm)Es2O3 ColorlessCubicIa 206cI801076.6 Es2O3 ColorlessMonoclinicC2/m12 mS301411359 880Es2O3 ColorlessHexagonal Pm1164 hP5370 600EsF3 Hexagonal EsF4 Monoclinic C2/c15 mS60 EsCl3OrangeHexagonal C63/m hP8 727 410EsBr3YellowMonoclinicC2/m 12 mS16727 1259 681EsI3AmberHexagonalR 148 hR24 753 2084EsOCl Tetragonal P4/nmm 394.8 670.2===Oxides===Einsteinium(III) oxide (Es2O3) was obtained by burning einsteinium(III) nitrate.", "It forms colorless cubic crystals, which were first characterized from microgram samples sized about 30 nanometers.", "Two other phases, monoclinic and hexagonal, are known for this oxide.", "The formation of a certain Es2O3 phase depends on the preparation technique and sample history, and there is no clear phase diagram.", "Interconversions between the three phases can occur spontaneously, as a result of self-irradiation or self-heating.", "The hexagonal phase is isotypic with lanthanum oxide where the Es3+ ion is surrounded by a 6-coordinated group of O2− ions.===Halides===Einsteinium(III) iodide glowing in the darkEinsteinium halides are known for the oxidation states +2 and +3.The most stable state is +3 for all halides from fluoride to iodide.Einsteinium(III) fluoride (EsF3) can be precipitated from einsteinium(III) chloride solutions upon reaction with fluoride ions.", "An alternative preparation procedure is to exposure einsteinium(III) oxide to chlorine trifluoride (ClF3) or F2 gas at a pressure of 1–2 atmospheres and a temperature between 300 and 400 °C.", "The EsF3 crystal structure is hexagonal, as in californium(III) fluoride (CfF3) where the Es3+ ions are 8-fold coordinated by fluorine ions in a bicapped trigonal prism arrangement.Einsteinium(III) chloride (EsCl3) can be prepared by annealing einsteinium(III) oxide in the atmosphere of dry hydrogen chloride vapors at about 500 °C for some 20 minutes.", "It crystallizes upon cooling at about 425 °C into an orange solid with a hexagonal structure of UCl3 type, where einsteinium atoms are 9-fold coordinated by chlorine atoms in a tricapped trigonal prism geometry.", "Einsteinium(III) bromide (EsBr3) is a pale-yellow solid with a monoclinic structure of AlCl3 type, where the einsteinium atoms are octahedrally coordinated by bromine (coordination number 6).The divalent compounds of einsteinium are obtained by reducing the trivalent halides with hydrogen::2 EsX3 + H2 → 2 EsX2 + 2 HX,    X = F, Cl, Br, IEinsteinium(II) chloride (EsCl2), einsteinium(II) bromide (EsBr2), and einsteinium(II) iodide (EsI2) have been produced and characterized by optical absorption, with no structural information available yet.Known oxyhalides of einsteinium include EsOCl, EsOBr and EsOI.", "These salts are synthesized by treating a trihalide with a vapor mixture of water and the corresponding hydrogen halide: for example, EsCl3 + H2O/HCl to obtain EsOCl.===Organoeinsteinium compounds===The high radioactivity of einsteinium has a potential use in radiation therapy, and organometallic complexes have been synthesized in order to deliver einsteinium atoms to an appropriate organ in the body.", "Experiments have been performed on injecting einsteinium citrate (as well as fermium compounds) to dogs.", "Einsteinium(III) was also incorporated into beta-diketone chelate complexes, since analogous complexes with lanthanides previously showed strongest UV-excited luminescence among metallorganic compounds.", "When preparing einsteinium complexes, the Es3+ ions were 1000 times diluted with Gd3+ ions.", "This allowed reducing the radiation damage so that the compounds did not disintegrate during the period of 20 minutes required for the measurements.", "The resulting luminescence from Es3+ was much too weak to be detected.", "This was explained by the unfavorable relative energies of the individual constituents of the compound that hindered efficient energy transfer from the chelate matrix to Es3+ ions.", "Similar conclusion was drawn for other actinides americium, berkelium and fermium.Luminescence of Es3+ ions was however observed in inorganic hydrochloric acid solutions as well as in organic solution with di(2-ethylhexyl)orthophosphoric acid.", "It shows a broad peak at about 1064 nanometers (half-width about 100 nm) which can be resonantly excited by green light (ca.", "495 nm wavelength).", "The luminescence has a lifetime of several microseconds and the quantum yield below 0.1%.", "The relatively high, compared to lanthanides, non-radiative decay rates in Es3+ were associated with the stronger interaction of f-electrons with the inner Es3+ electrons." ], [ "Applications", "There is almost no use for any isotope of einsteinium outside basic scientific research aiming at production of higher transuranium elements and superheavy elements.In 1955, mendelevium was synthesized by irradiating a target consisting of about 109 atoms of 253Es in the 60-inch cyclotron at Berkeley Laboratory.", "The resulting 253Es(α,n)256Md reaction yielded 17 atoms of the new element with the atomic number of 101.The rare isotope 254Es is favored for production of superheavy elements because of its large mass, relatively long half-life of 270 days, and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms.", "Hence 254Es was used as a target in the attempted synthesis of ununennium (element 119) in 1985 by bombarding it with calcium-48 ions at the superHILAC linear particle accelerator at Berkeley, California.", "No atoms were identified, setting an upper limit for the cross section of this reaction at 300 nanobarns.", ":{^{254}_{99}Es} + {^{48}_{20}Ca} -> {^{302}_{119}Uue^\\ast} -> no\\ atoms254Es was used as the calibration marker in the chemical analysis spectrometer (\"alpha-scattering surface analyzer\") of the Surveyor 5 lunar probe.", "The large mass of this isotope reduced the spectral overlap between signals from the marker and the studied lighter elements of the lunar surface." ], [ "Safety", "Most of the available einsteinium toxicity data is from research on animals.", "Upon ingestion by rats, only ~0.01% of it ends in the bloodstream.", "From there, about 65% goes to the bones, where it would remain for ~50 years if not for its radioactive decay, not to speak of the 3-year maximum lifespan of rats, 25% to the lungs (biological half-life ~20 years, though this is again rendered irrelevant by the short half-life of einsteinium), 0.035% to the testicles or 0.01% to the ovaries – where einsteinium stays indefinitely.", "About 10% of the ingested amount is excreted.", "The distribution of einsteinium over bone surfaces is uniform and is similar to that of plutonium." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Einsteinium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* Age-related factors in radionuclide metabolism and dosimetry: Proceedings – contains several health related studies of einsteinium" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edmund Stoiber" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edmund Rüdiger Stoiber''' (born 28 September 1941) is a German politician who served as the 16th minister-president of the state of Bavaria between 1993 and 2007 and chairman of the Christian Social Union (CSU) between 1999 and 2007.In 2002, he ran for the office of Chancellor of Germany in the federal election, and in one of the narrowest elections in German history lost against Gerhard Schröder.", "On 18 January 2007, he announced that he would step down as minister-president and as party chairman by 30 September, after having been under fire in his own party for weeks." ], [ "Early life", "Stoiber was born in Oberaudorf in the district of Rosenheim in Bavaria.", "Prior to entering politics in 1974 and serving in the Bavarian Parliament, he was a lawyer and worked at the University of Regensburg." ], [ "Education and profession", "Stoiber attended the Ignaz-Günther-Gymnasium in Rosenheim, where he received his ''Abitur'' (high school diploma) in 1961, although he had to repeat one year for failing Latin.", "His military service was with the 1st Gebirgsdivision (mountain infantry division) in Mittenwald and Bad Reichenhall and was cutshort due to a knee injury.", "Stoiber then studied political science and (from the fall of 1962) law at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München.", "In 1967, he passed the state law exam and then worked at the University of Regensburg in criminal law and Eastern European law.", "He received a doctorate in jurisprudence, and then in 1971 passed the second state examination with distinction.In 1971, Stoiber joined the Bavarian State Ministry of Development and Environment." ], [ "Political career", "Stoiber in 1981In 1978, Stoiber was elected secretary general of the CSU, a post he held until 1982/83.In this capacity, he served as campaign manager of Franz-Josef Strauss, the first Bavarian leader to run for the chancellorship, in the 1980 national elections.", "From 1982 to 1986 he served as deputy to the Bavarian secretary of the state and then, in the position of State Minister, led the State Chancellery from 1982 to 1988.From 1988 to 1993 he served as State Minister of the Interior.===Minister-President of Bavaria, 1993–2007===In May 1993, the Landtag of Bavaria, the state's parliament, elected Stoiber as Minister-President succeeding Max Streibl.", "He came to power amid a political crisis involving a sex scandal, surrounding a contender for the state premiership.", "Upon taking office, he nominated Strauss' daughter Monika Hohlmeier as State Minister for Education and Cultural Affairs.In his capacity as Minister-President, Stoiber served as President of the Bundesrat in 1995/96.In 1998, he also succeeded Theo Waigel as chairman of the CSU.During Stoiber's 14 years leading Bavaria, the state solidified its position as one of Germany's richest.", "Already by 1998, under his leadership, the state had privatized more than $3 billion worth of state-owned businesses and used that money to invest in new infrastructure and provide venture capital for new companies.", "He was widely regarded a central figure in building one of Europe's most powerful regional economies, attracting thousands of hi-tech, engineering and media companies and reducing unemployment to half the national average.===Candidate for Chancellor, 2002===In 2002, Stoiber politically outmaneuvered CDU chairwoman, Angela Merkel, and was declared the CDU/CSU's candidate for the office of chancellor by practically the entire leadership of the CSU's sister party CDU, challenging Gerhard Schröder.", "At that time, Merkel had generally been seen as a transitional chair and was strongly opposed by the CDU's male leaders, often called the party's \"crown princes\".In the run up to the 2002 national elections, the CSU/CDU held a huge lead in the opinion polls and Stoiber famously remarked that \"...this election is like a football match where it's the second half and my team is ahead by 2–0.\"", "However, on election day things had changed.", "The SPD had mounted a huge comeback, and the CDU/CSU was narrowly defeated (though both the SPD and CDU/CSU had 38.5% of the vote, the SPD was ahead by a small 6,000 vote margin, winning 251 seats to the CDU/CSU's 248).", "The election was one of modern Germany's closest votes.Gerhard Schröder was re-elected as chancellor by the parliament in a coalition with the Greens, who had increased their vote share marginally.", "Many commentators faulted Stoiber's reaction to the floods in eastern Germany, in the run-up to the election, as a contributory factor in his party's poor electoral result and defeat.", "In addition, Schröder distinguished himself from his opponent by taking an active stance against the upcoming United States-led Iraq War.", "His extensive campaigning on this stance was widely seen as swinging the election to the SPD in the weeks running up to the election.===Later political career===Stoiber subsequently led the CSU to an absolute majority in the 2003 Bavarian state elections, for the third time in a row, winning this time 60.7% of the votes and a two-thirds majority in the Landtag.", "This was the widest margin ever achieved by a German party in any state.Between 2003 and 2004, Stoiber served as co-chair (alongside Franz Müntefering) of the First Commission on the modernization of the federal state (''Föderalismuskommission I''), which had been established to reform the division of powers between federal and state authorities in Germany.", "In February 2004, he became a candidate of Jacques Chirac and Gerhard Schröder for the presidency of the European Commission but he decided not to run for this office.Stoiber had ambitions to run again for the chancellorship, but Merkel secured the nomination, and in November 2005 she won the general election.", "He was slated to join Merkel's first grand coalition cabinet as Economics minister.", "However, on 1 November 2005, he announced his decision to stay in Bavaria, due to personnel changes on the SPD side of the coalition (Franz Müntefering resigned as SPD chairman) and an unsatisfactory apportionment of competences between himself and designated Science minister Annette Schavan.", "Stoiber also resigned his seat in the 16th Bundestag, being a member from 18 October to 8 November.Subsequently, criticism grew in the CSU, where other politicians had to scale back their ambitions after Stoiber's decision to stay in Bavaria.", "On 18 January 2007, he announced his decision to stand down from the posts of minister-president and party chairman by 30 September.", "Günther Beckstein, then Bavarian state minister of the interior, succeeded him as minister-president and Erwin Huber as party chairman, defeating Horst Seehofer at a convention at 18 September 2007 with 58,1% of the votes.", "Both Beckstein and Huber resigned after the 2008 state elections, in which the CSU vote dropped to 43,4% and the party had to form a coalition with another party for the first time since 1966." ], [ "Life after politics", "Stoiber was first appointed in 2007 as a special adviser to European Commission President José Manuel Barroso to chair the \"High level group on administrative burdens\", made up of national experts, NGOs, business and industry organizations.", "Quickly nicknamed the \"Stoiber Group\", it produced a report in July 2014 with several proposals on streamlining the regulatory process.", "Stoiber was re-appointed in December 2014 by Jean-Claude Juncker to the same role, from which he resigned after one year in late 2015.Since his retirement from German politics in 2007, Stoiber has worked as a lawyer and held paid and unpaid positions, including:* Bundesliga Foundation, Member of the Board of Trustees* Commerzbank, Member of the Central Advisory Board* Deloitte Germany, chairman of the Advisory Board (since 2009)* Donner & Reuschel, Member of the Advisory Board* FC Bayern Munich, Member of the Supervisory Board of the stock corporation and Chairman of the Advisory Board of the club.", "* German-Russian Raw Materials Forum, Member of the Presidium* Hanns Seidel Foundation, Member* Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings, Member of the Honorary Senate* Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Member of the Board of Trustees* Munich Security Conference, Member of the Advisory Council* Nürnberger Beteiligungs-Aktiengesellschaft, Member of the Supervisory Board* ProSiebenSat.1 Media, Member of the advisory board (since 2011)Stoiber was a CSU delegate to the Federal Convention for the purpose of electing the President of Germany in 2017." ], [ "Political positions", "===Foreign policy===Stoiber and Vladimir Putin in 2000In his capacity as Minister-President, Stoiber made 58 foreign trips, including to China (1995, 2003), Israel (2001), Egypt (2001), India (2004, 2007) and South Korea (2007).In 2002, Stoiber publicly expressed support for the United States in their policy toward Iraq.", "During his election campaign, he made clear his opposition to war, and his support for the introduction of weapons inspectors to Iraq without preconditions as a way of avoiding war, and he criticized Schröder for harming the German-American alliance by not calling President George W. Bush and discussing the issue privately.", "He also attacked German Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer for his criticism of the U.S. position.Stoiber is known for backing Vladimir Putin and there have been comparisons to Gerhard Schröder.", "One author called Stoiber a \"Moscow's Trojan Horse\".", "Putin is known to have given Stoiber \"extreme forms of flattery\" and privileges such as a private dinner at Putin's residence outside Moscow.===European integration===Stoiber has been said to be skeptical of Germany's decision to adopt the euro.", "In 1997, he joined the ministers-president of two other German states, Kurt Biedenkopf and Gerhard Schröder, in making the case for a five-year delay in Europe's currency union.", "When the European Commission recommended that Greece be allowed to join the eurozone in 1998, he demanded that the country be barred from adopting the common currency for several years instead.", "He is a staunch opponent of Turkey's integration into the European Union, claiming that its non-Christian culture would dilute the Union.", "At the same time, Stoiber has repeatedly insisted he is a \"good European\" who is keen, for instance, on forging an EU-wide foreign policy, replete with a single European army.", "Earlier, in 1993, he had told German newspapers: \"I want a simple confederation.", "That means the nation-states maintain their dominant role, at least as far as internal matters are concerned.", "\"===Economic policy===While the conservative wing of the German political spectrum, primarily formed of the CDU and CSU, enjoys considerable support, this support tends to be less extended to Stoiber.", "He enjoys considerably more support in his home state of Bavaria than in the rest of Germany, where CDU chairwoman Angela Merkel is more popular.", "This has its reasons: Merkel supports a kind of fiscal conservatism, but a more liberal social policy.", "Stoiber, on the other hand, favors a more conservative approach to both fiscal and social matters, and while this ensures him the religious vote, strongest in Bavaria, it has weakened his support at the national level.In 2005, Stoiber successfully lobbied Novartis, the Swiss pharmaceuticals group, to move the headquarters of its Sandoz subsidiary to Munich, making it one of Europe's highest-profile corporate relocations that year as well as a significant boost to Stoiber's attempts to build up Bavaria as a pharmaceuticals and biotechnology center.During his time as Minister-President of Bavaria, Stoiber pushed for the construction of a roughly 40-kilometer high-speed magnetic-levitation link from Munich's main station to its airport, to be built by Transrapid International, a consortium including ThyssenKrupp and Munich-based Siemens.", "After he left office, the German federal government abandoned the plans in 2008 because of spiraling costs of as much as €3.4 billion.===Domestic policy===Stoiber, as a minister in the state of Bavaria, was widely known for advocating a reduction in the number of asylum seekers Germany accepts, something that prompted critics to label him xenophobic, anti-Turkish and anti-Islam.", "In the late 1990s, he criticized the incoming Chancellor Gerhard Schröder for saying that he would work hard in the interest of Germans ''and'' people living in Germany.", "Stoiber's remarks drew heavy criticism in the press.When Germany's Federal Constitutional Court decided in 1995 that a Bavarian law requiring a crucifix to be hung in each of the state's 40,000 classrooms was unconstitutional, Stoiber said he would not order the removal of crucifixes \"for the time being\", and asserted that he was under no obligation to remove them in schools where parents unanimously opposed such action.During his 2002 election campaign, Stoiber indicated he would not ban same-sex marriages—sanctioned by the Schröder government—a policy he had vehemently objected to when it was introduced.===Media policy===Stoiber has been a staunch advocate of changes in German law that would give more power to owners of private TV channels.", "In 1995, he publicly called for the abolition of Germany's public television service ARD and a streamlining of its regional services, adding that he and Minister-President Kurt Biedenkopf of Saxony would break the contract ARD has with regional governments if reforms were not undertaken.", "However, when European Commissioner for Competition Karel van Miert unveiled ideas for reforming the rules governing the financing of public service broadcasters in 1998, Stoiber led the way in rejecting moves to reform established practice." ], [ "Controversies", "===Comments on East Germany===During the run-up to the German general election in 2005, which was held ahead of schedule, Stoiber created controversy through a campaign speech held in the beginning of August 2005 in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg.", "He said, \"I do not accept that the East of Germany will again decide who will be Germany's chancellor.", "It cannot be allowed that the frustrated determine Germany's fate.\"", "People in the new federal states of Germany (the former German Democratic Republic) were offended by Stoiber's remarks.", "While the CSU attempted to portray them as \"misinterpreted\", Stoiber created further controversy when he claimed that \"if it was like Bavaria everywhere, there wouldn't be any problems.", "But unfortunately, ladies and gentlemen, we have everywhere some sections of the populace not as intelligent as in Bavaria.\"", "The tone of the comments was exacerbated by a perception by some within Germany of the state of Bavaria as \"arrogant\".Many, including members of the CDU, attribute Stoiber's comments and behavior as a contributing factor to the CDU's losses in the 2005 general election.", "He was accused by many in the CDU/CSU of offering \"half-hearted\" support to Angela Merkel, with some even accusing him of being reluctant to support a female candidate from the East.", "(This also contrasted unfavorably with Merkel's robust support for his candidacy in the 2002 election.)", "He has insinuated that votes were lost because of the choice of a female candidate.", "He came under heavy fire for these comments from press and politicians alike, especially since he himself lost almost 10% of the Bavarian vote—a dubious feat in itself as Bavarians tend to consistently vote conservatively.", "Nonetheless, a poll has suggested over 9% may have voted differently if the conservative candidate was a man from the West, although this does not clearly show if such a candidate would have gained or lost votes for the conservatives.===BayernLB activities===When the Croatian National Bank turned down BayernLB's original bid to take over the local arm of Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank International, this drew strong criticism from Stoiber, who said the decision was \"unacceptable\" and a \"severe strain\" for Bavaria's relations with Croatia.", "Croatia was seeking to join the European Union at the time.", "The central bank's board later reviewed and accepted BayernLB's offer of 1.6 billion euros.", "The investment in Hypo Group Alpe Adria was part of a series of ill-fated investments, which later forced BayernLB to take a 10 billion-euro bailout in the financial crisis.===European Commission job===In September 2015, Emily O'Reilly, the European Ombudsman, received a complaint from two NGOs, Corporate Europe Observatory and Friends of the Earth, according to which Stoiber's appointment as special adviser on the commission's better regulation agenda broke internal rules on appointments." ], [ "Personal life", "Stoiber is Roman Catholic.", "He is married to Karin Stoiber.", "They have three children: Constanze (born 1971, married ''Hausmann''), Veronica (born 1977, married ''Saß''), Dominic (born 1980) and five grandchildren: Johannes (1999), Benedikt (2001), Theresa Marie (2005), Ferdinand (2009) and another grandson (2011).Stoiber is a keen football fan and operative.", "In his youth, he played for local football side BCF Wolfratshausen.", "Stoiber serves as Member of the Supervisory Board of FC Bayern München AG (the stock corporation that runs the professional football section) and Chairman of the Administrative Advisory Board of FC Bayern Munich e.V.", "(the club that owns the majority of the club corporation).Before the 2002 election, FC Bayern general manager Uli Hoeneß expressed his support for Stoiber and the CSU.", "Football legend, former FC Bayern president and DFB vice president Franz Beckenbauer showed his support for Stoiber by letting him join the Germany national football team on their flight home from Japan after the 2002 FIFA World Cup." ], [ "Honours and awards", "Stoiber during the conferment Order against the deadly seriousness, 2000* 1984: Bavarian Order of Merit* 1996: Karl Valentin Order* 1996: Grand Order of King Dmitar Zvonimir* 1999: Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania* 2000: Orden wider den tierischen Ernst* 2002: Commander of the Legion of Honour* 2003: Officer of the Ordre national du Québec* 2004: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany* 2005: ''Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash'' for Services to the Republic of Austria* 2006: Grand Cross of Order of Merit of the Italian Republic* 2007: Large Gold Medal of the province of Upper Austria* 2007: Honorary degree awarded by the Sogang University* 2008: Steiger Award* 2009: Order of Merit of Baden-Württemberg" ], [ "Literature", "* Michael Stiller: ''Edmund Stoiber: der Kandidat.''", "Econ, München 2002, .", "* Jürgen Roth, Peter Köhler: ''Edmund G. Stoiber: Weltstaatsmann und Freund des Volkes.''", "Eichborn, Frankfurt 2002, .", "* Jule Philippi: Wer für alles offen ist, ist nicht ganz dicht.", "Weisheiten des Edmund Stoiber.", "Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 2007, ." ], [ "See also", "*List of ministers-president of Bavaria" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ** Stoiber quotes (critic) * Stoiber and the East – Deutsche Welle* Parlazzo Media Awards – Nomination 2007 – 10 Minutes – 10 Minuten" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erfurt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Erfurt '''() is the capital and largest city of the Central German state of Thuringia.", "It lies in the wide valley of the River Gera, in the southern part of the Thuringian Basin, north of the Thuringian Forest, and in the middle of a line of the six largest Thuringian cities (''Thüringer Städtekette''), stretching from Eisenach in the west, via Gotha, Erfurt, Weimar and Jena, to Gera in the east, close to the geographic centre of Germany.", "Erfurt is south-west of Leipzig, north-east of Frankfurt, south-west of Berlin and north of Munich.Erfurt's old town is one of the best preserved medieval city centres in Germany.", "Tourist attractions include the Merchants' Bridge (''Krämerbrücke''), the Old Synagogue (''Alte Synagoge''), the oldest in Europe and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Cathedral Hill (''Domberg'') with the ensemble of Erfurt Cathedral (''Erfurter Dom'') and St Severus' Church (''Severikirche'') and Petersberg Citadel (''Zitadelle Petersberg''), one of the largest and best preserved town fortresses in Central Europe.", "The city's economy is based on agriculture, horticulture and microelectronics.", "Its central location has made it a logistics hub for Germany and central Europe.", "Erfurt hosts the second-largest trade fair in eastern Germany (after Leipzig), as well as the public television children's channel KiKa.The city is on the Via Regia, a medieval trade and pilgrims' road network.", "Modern Erfurt is also a hub for ICE high speed trains and other German and European transport networks.", "Erfurt was first mentioned in 742, as Saint Boniface founded the diocese.", "Although the town did not belong to any of the Thuringian states politically, it quickly became the economic centre of the region and was a member of the Hanseatic League.", "It was part of the Electorate of Mainz during the Holy Roman Empire, and became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1802.From 1949 until 1990 Erfurt was part of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).The University of Erfurt was founded in 1379, making it the first university to be established within the geographic area which constitutes modern Germany.", "It closed in 1816 and was re-established in 1994.Martin Luther (1483–1546) was its most famous student, studying there from 1501 before entering St Augustine's Monastery in 1505.Other noted Erfurters include the medieval philosopher and mystic Meister Eckhart (c. 1260–1328), the Baroque composer Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706) and the sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920)." ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory and antiquity ===Erfurt is an old Germanic settlement.", "The earliest evidence of human settlement dates from the prehistoric era; archaeological finds from the north of Erfurt revealed human traces from the paleolithic period, ca.", "10,000 BCE.To the west of Erfurt in Frienstedt existed, in the AD era, a big Germanic village, which was found during the construction of a highway.", "Where they also discovered the oldest Germanic word ever discovered in Central Germany written in runic script was found on a comb from a sacrificial shaft the word: \"kaba\".", "From Roman Times, however, they found 200 coins dating back to the third century, plus 150 Roman ceramic fragments and more than 200 fibulae.", "Also 11 inhumation graves of the Haßleben-Leuna group, which is an archeological cultural group.The Melchendorf dig in the southern city part showed a settlement from the neolithic period.", "The Thuringii inhabited the Erfurt area in ''c.''", "480 and gave their name to Thuringia in ''c.''", "500.=== Middle Ages ===Erfurt, woodcut from the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', 1493Old Synagogue, the oldest in Europe (1094)''Collegium maius'' building of the old University of Erfurt (1392)The town is first mentioned in 742 under the name of \"Erphesfurt\": in that year, Saint Boniface wrote to Pope Zachary to inform him that he had established three dioceses in central Germany, one of them \"in a place called Erphesfurt, which for a long time has been inhabited by pagan natives.\"", "All three dioceses (the other two were Würzburg and Büraburg) were confirmed by Zachary the next year, though in 755 Erfurt was brought into the diocese of Mainz.", "That the place was populous already is borne out by archeological evidence, which includes 23 graves and six horse burials from the sixth and seventh centuries.Throughout the Middle Ages, Erfurt was an important trading town because of its location, near a ford across the Gera river.", "Together with the other five Thuringian woad towns of Gotha, Tennstedt, Arnstadt and Langensalza it was the centre of the German woad trade, which made those cities very wealthy.", "Erfurt was the junction of important trade routes: the Via Regia was one of the most used east–west roads between France and Russia (via Frankfurt, Erfurt, Leipzig and Wrocław) and another route in the north–south direction was the connection between the Baltic Sea ports (e. g. Lübeck) and the potent upper Italian city-states like Venice and Milan.During the tenth and eleventh centuries both the Emperor and the Electorate of Mainz held some privileges in Erfurt.", "The German kings had an important monastery on Petersberg hill and the Archbishops of Mainz collected taxes from the people.", "Around 1100, some people became free citizens by paying the annual \"\" (liberation tax), which marks a first step in becoming an independent city.", "During the 12th century, as a sign of more and more independence, the citizens built a city wall around Erfurt (in the area of today's ).", "After 1200, independence was fulfilled and a city council was founded in 1217; the town hall was built in 1275.In the following decades, the council bought a city-owned territory around Erfurt which consisted at its height of nearly 100 villages and castles and even another small town (Sömmerda).", "Erfurt became an important regional power between the Landgraviate of Thuringia around, the Electorate of Mainz to the west and the Electorate of Saxony to the east.", "Between 1306 and 1481, Erfurt was allied with the two other major Thuringian cities (Mühlhausen and Nordhausen) in the Thuringian City Alliance and the three cities joined the Hanseatic League together in 1430.A peak in economic development was reached in the 15th century, when the city had a population of 20,000 making it one of the largest in Germany.", "Between 1432 and 1446, a second and higher city wall was established.", "In 1483, a first city fortress was built on Cyriaksburg hill in the southwestern part of the town.In the year 1184, Erfurt was the location of a notable accident called the ''Erfurter Latrinensturz'' ('Erfurt latrine fall').", "King Henry VI held council in a building of the Erfurt Cathedral to negotiate peace between two of his vassals, Archbishop Konrad I of Mainz and Landgrave Ludwig III of Thuringia.", "The amassed weight of all the gathered men proved too heavy for the floor to bear, which collapsed.", "According to contemporary accounts, dozens of people fell to their death into the latrine pit below.", "Ludwig III, Konrad I and Henry VI survived the affair.The Jewish community of Erfurt was founded in the 11th century and became, together with Mainz, Worms and Speyer, one of the most influential in Germany.", "The Old Synagogue is still extant and is a museum today, as is the mikveh at Gera river near .", "In 1349, during the wave of Black Death Jewish persecutions across Europe, the Jews of Erfurt were rounded up, with more than 100 killed and the rest driven from the city.", "Before the persecution, a wealthy Jewish merchant buried his property in the basement of his house.", "In 1998, this treasure was found during construction works.", "The Erfurt Treasure with various gold and silver objects is shown in the exhibition in the synagogue today.", "Only a few years after 1349, the Jews moved back to Erfurt and founded a second community, which was disbanded by the city council in 1458.Because of their exceptional testimony to the life of a medieval Jewish community, the Jewish sites in Erfurt were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2023.In 1379, the University of Erfurt was founded.", "Together with the University of Cologne it was one of the first city-owned universities in Germany, while they were usually owned by the ''''.", "Some buildings of this old university are extant or restored in the \"Latin Quarter\" in the northern city centre (like , student dorms \"\" and others, the hospital and the church of the university).", "The university quickly became a hotspot of German cultural life in Renaissance humanism with scholars like Ulrich von Hutten, Helius Eobanus Hessus and Justus Jonas.=== Early modern period ===Erfurt in 1650'''', seat of the governors of Erfurt (at front)Christina, Queen of Sweden, depicted on a 1645 Erfurt 10 ducat coin.", "In 1501 Martin Luther (1483–1546) moved to Erfurt and began his studies at the university.", "After 1505, he lived at St. Augustine's Monastery as a friar.", "In 1507 he was ordained as a priest in Erfurt Cathedral.", "He moved permanently to Wittenberg in 1511.Erfurt was an early adopter of the Protestant Reformation, in 1521.In 1530, the city became one of the first in Europe to be officially bi-confessional with the Hammelburg Treaty.", "It kept that status through all the following centuries.", "The later 16th and the 17th century brought a slow economic decline of Erfurt.", "Trade shrank, the population was falling and the university lost its influence.", "The city's independence was endangered.", "In 1664, the city and surrounding area were brought under the dominion of the Electorate of Mainz and the city lost its independence.", "The Electorate built a huge fortress on Petersberg hill between 1665 and 1726 to control the city and instituted a governor to rule Erfurt.In 1682 and 1683 Erfurt experienced the worst plague years in its history.", "In 1683 more than half of the population died because of the deadly disease.In Erfurt witch-hunts are known from 1526 to 1705.Trial records are only incomplete.", "Twenty people were involved in witch trials and at least eight people died.During the late 18th century, Erfurt saw another cultural peak.", "Governor Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg had close relations with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Johann Gottfried Herder, Christoph Martin Wieland and Wilhelm von Humboldt, who often visited him at his court in Erfurt.=== Erfurt during the Napoleonic Wars ==='''', painted by in 1812.Inaugurated in March 1811 to celebrate Napoleon's birthday, this Greek-style temple with grotto, flowerbeds and fountain in the '''' was burned in November 1813 and completely destroyed by Erfurters and their besiegers in 1814.Erfurt became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1802, to compensate for territories Prussia lost to France on the Left Bank of the Rhine.", "In the Capitulation of Erfurt, the city, its 12,000 Prussian and Saxon defenders under William VI, Prince of Orange-Nassau, 65 artillery pieces, and the Petersberg Citadel and Cyriaksburg Citadel Cyriaksburg, were handed over to the French on 16 October 1806.At the time of the capitulation, Joachim Murat, Marshal of France, had about 16,000 troops near Erfurt.", "With the attachment of the Saxe-Weimar territory of Blankenhain, the city became part of the First French Empire in 1806 as the Principality of Erfurt, directly subordinate to Napoleon as an \"imperial state domain\" (), separate from the Confederation of the Rhine, which the surrounding Thuringian states had joined.", "Erfurt was administered by a civilian and military Senate ('''') under a French governor, based in the , previously the seat of the city's governor under the Electorate.", "Napoleon first visited the principality on 23 July 1807, inspecting the citadels and fortifications.", "In 1808, the Congress of Erfurt was held with Napoleon and Alexander I of Russia visiting the city.During their administration, the French introduced street lighting and a tax on foreign horses to pay for maintaining the road surface.", "The suffered under the French occupation, with its inventory being auctioned off to other local churches – including the organ, bells and even the tower of the chapel ('''') – and the former monastery's library being donated to the University of Erfurt (and then to the Boineburg Library when the university closed in 1816).", "Similarly the Cyriaksburg Citadel was damaged by the French, with the city-side walls being partially dismantled in the hunt for imagined treasures from the convent, workers being paid from the sale of the building materials.In 1811, to commemorate the birth of the Prince Imperial, a ceremonial column ('''') of wood and plaster was erected on the common.", "Similarly, the '''' – a Greek-style temple topped by a winged victory with shield, sword and lance and containing a bust of Napoleon sculpted by Friedrich Döll – was erected in the '''' woods, including a grotto with fountain and flower beds, using a large pond ('''') from the , inaugurated with ceremony on 14 August 1811 after extravagant celebrations for Napoleon's birthday, which were repeated in 1812 with a concert in the conducted by Louis Spohr.With the Sixth Coalition forming after French defeat in Russia, on 24 February 1813 Napoleon ordered the Petersburg Citadel to prepare for siege, visiting the city on 25 April to inspect the fortifications, in particular both Citadels.", "On 10 July 1813, Napoleon put , baron of the Empire, in charge of the defences of Erfurt.", "However, when the French decreed that 1000 men would be conscripted into the , the recruits were joined by other citizens in rioting on 19 July that led to 20 arrests, of whom 2 were sentenced to death by French court-martial; as a result, the French ordered the closure of all inns and alehouses.Within a week of the Sixth Coalition's decisive victory at Leipzig (16–19 October 1813), however, Erfurt was besieged by Prussian, Austrian and Russian troops under the command of Prussian Lt Gen von Kleist.", "After a first capitulation signed by d'Alton on 20 December 1813 the French troops withdrew to the two fortresses of Petersberg and Cyriaksburg, allowing for the Coalition forces to march into Erfurt on 6 January 1814 to jubilant greetings; the '''' ceremonial column was burned and destroyed as a symbol of the citizens' oppression under the French; similarly the '''' was burned on 1 November 1813 and completely destroyed by Erfurters and their besiegers in 1814.After a call for volunteers 3 days later, 300 Erfurters joined the Coalition armies in France.", "Finally, in May 1814, the French capitulated fully, with 1,700 French troops vacating the Petersberg and Cyriaksburg fortresses.", "During the two and a half months of siege, the mortality rate rose in the city greatly; 1,564 Erfurt citizens died in 1813, around a thousand more than the previous year.After the Congress of Vienna, Erfurt was restored to Prussia on 21 June 1815, becoming the capital of one of the three districts ('''') of the new Province of Saxony, but some southern and eastern parts of Erfurter lands joined Blankenhain in being transferred to the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach the following September.", "Although enclosed by Thuringian territory in the west, south and east, the city remained part of the Prussian Province of Saxony until 1944.=== Since 1815 ===Streetscape in the southern city extension ( style)Housing projects in Bauhaus style from 1930East and West German heads of government in 1970After the 1848 Revolution, many Germans desired to have a united national state.", "An attempt in this direction was the failed Erfurt Union of German states in 1850.The Industrial Revolution reached Erfurt in the 1840s, when the Thuringian Railway connecting Berlin and Frankfurt was built.", "During the following years, many factories in different sectors were founded.", "One of the biggest was the \"Royal Gun Factory of Prussia\" in 1862.After the Unification of Germany in 1871, Erfurt moved from the southern border of Prussia to the centre of Germany, so the fortifications of the city were no longer needed.", "The demolition of the city fortifications in 1873 led to a construction boom in Erfurt, because it was now possible to build in the area formerly occupied by the city walls and beyond.", "Many public and private buildings emerged and the infrastructure (such as a tramway, hospitals, and schools) improved rapidly.", "The number of inhabitants grew from 40,000 around 1870 to 130,000 in 1914 and the city expanded in all directions.The \"Erfurt Program\" was adopted by the Social Democratic Party of Germany during its congress at Erfurt in 1891.Between the wars, the city kept growing.", "Housing shortages were fought with building programmes and social infrastructure was broadened according to the welfare policy in the Weimar Republic.", "The Great Depression between 1929 and 1932 led to a disaster for Erfurt, nearly one out of three became unemployed.", "Conflicts between far-left and far-right-oriented milieus increased and many inhabitants supported the new Nazi government and Adolf Hitler.", "Others, especially some communist workers, put up resistance against the new administration.", "In 1938, the new synagogue was destroyed during the .", "Jews lost their property and emigrated or were deported to Nazi concentration camps (together with many communists).", "In 1914, the company ''Topf and Sons'' began the manufacture of crematoria later becoming the market leader in this industry.", "Under the Nazis, ''JA Topf & Sons'' supplied specially developed crematoria, ovens and associated plants to the Auschwitz-Birkenau, Buchenwald and Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camps.", "On 27 January 2011 a memorial and museum dedicated to the Holocaust victims was opened at the former company premises in Erfurt.During World War II, Erfurt experienced more than 27 British and American air raids, about 1600 civilians died.", "Bombed as a target of the Oil Campaign of World War II, Erfurt suffered only limited damage and was captured on 12 April 1945, by the US 80th Infantry Division.", "On 3 July, American troops left the city, which then became part of the Soviet Zone of Occupation and eventually of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).", "In 1948, Erfurt became the capital of Thuringia, replacing Weimar.", "In 1952, the in the GDR were dissolved in favour of centralization under the new socialist government.", "Erfurt then became the capital of a new \"\" (district).", "In 1953, the of education was founded, followed by the of medicine in 1954, the first academic institutions in Erfurt since the closing of the university in 1816.On 19 March 1970, the East and West German heads of government Willi Stoph and Willy Brandt met in Erfurt, the first such meeting since the division of Germany.", "During the 1970s and 1980s, as the economic situation in GDR worsened, many old buildings in city centre decayed, while the government fought against the housing shortage by building large settlements in the periphery.", "The Peaceful Revolution of 1989/1990 led to German reunification.Socialist-era street signs removed from around the city of Erfurt after 1990With the re-formation of the state of Thuringia in 1990, the city became the state capital.", "After reunification, a deep economic crisis occurred in Eastern Germany.", "Many factories closed and many people lost their jobs and moved to the former West Germany.", "At the same time, many buildings were redeveloped and the infrastructure improved massively.", "In 1994, the new university was opened, as was the Fachhochschule in 1991.Between 2005 and 2008, the economic situation improved as the unemployment rate decreased and new enterprises developed.", "In addition, the population began to increase once again.A school shooting occurred on 26 April 2002 at the Gutenberg-Gymnasium.Since the 1990s, organized crime has gained a foothold in Erfurt, with several mafia groups, including the Armenian mafia present in the city.", "Among other events, there has been a robbery and an arson attack targeting the gastronomy sector and in 2014 there was a shoot-out in an open street." ], [ "Geography", "Gera river in the city centre=== Topography ===Erfurt is situated in the south of the Thuringian basin, a fertile agricultural area between the Harz mountains to the north and the Thuringian Forest to the southwest.", "Whereas the northern parts of the city area are flat, the southern ones consist of hilly landscape up to 430 m of elevation.", "In this part lies the municipal forest of '''' with beeches and oaks as main tree species.", "To the east and to the west are some non-forested hills so that the Gera river valley within the town forms a basin.", "North of the city are some gravel pits in operation, while others are abandoned, flooded and used as leisure areas.=== Climate ===Erfurt has an oceanic climate (''Cfb'', bordering ''Dfb'') according to the Köppen climate classification system.", "Summers are warm and sometimes humid with average high temperatures of and lows of .", "Winters are relatively cold with average high temperatures of and lows of .", "The city's topography creates a microclimate caused by the location inside a basin with sometimes inversion in winter (quite cold nights under ) and inadequate air circulation in summer.", "Annual precipitation is only with moderate rainfall throughout the year.", "Light snowfall mainly occurs from December through February, but snow cover does not usually remain for long.=== Administrative divisions ===Districts of ErfurtErfurt abuts the districts of Sömmerda (municipalities Witterda, Elxleben, Walschleben, Riethnordhausen, Nöda, Alperstedt, Großrudestedt, Udestedt, Kleinmölsen and Großmölsen) in the north, Weimarer Land (municipalities Niederzimmern, Nohra, Mönchenholzhausen and Klettbach) in the east, Ilm-Kreis (municipalities Kirchheim, Rockhausen and Amt Wachsenburg) in the south and Gotha (municipalities Nesse-Apfelstädt, Nottleben, Zimmernsupra and Bienstädt) in the west.The city itself is divided into 53 districts.", "The centre is formed by the district '''' (old town) and the districts '''' in the northwest, '''' in the northeast, '''' in the east, '''' in the southeast, '''' in the southwest and '''' in the west.", "More former industrial districts are '''' (incorporated in 1911), '''' and '''' in the north.", "Another group of districts is marked by Plattenbau settlements, constructed during the DDR period: '''', '''', '''', '''' and '''' in the northern as well as '''', '''' and '''' in the southern city parts.Finally, there are many villages with an average population of approximately 1,000 which were incorporated during the 20th century; however, they have mostly stayed rural to date:* Alach (incorporated 1994)* Azmannsdorf (1994)* Bindersleben (1950)* Bischleben-Stedten (1950)* Büßleben (1994)* Dittelstedt (1994)* Egstedt (1994)* Ermstedt (1994)* Frienstedt (1994)* Gispersleben (1950)* Gottstedt (1994)* Hochheim (1938)* Hochstedt (1994)* Kerspleben (1994)* Kühnhausen (1994)* Linderbach (1994)* Marbach (1950)* Mittelhausen (1994)* Möbisburg-Rhoda (1950)* Molsdorf (1994)* Niedernissa (1994)* Rohda (1994)* Salomonsborn (1994)* Schaderode (1994)* Schmira (1950)* Schwerborn (1994)* Stotternheim (1994)* Tiefthal (1994)* Töttelstädt (1994)* Töttleben (1994)* Urbich (1994)* Vieselbach (1994)* Wallichen (1994)* Waltersleben (1994)* Windischholzhausen (1994)==== Erfurt-Southeast ====Herrenberg str.", "in Erfurt-SoutheastErfurt-Southeast () is the collective name for a series of prefabricated housing areas that emerged in the south-east of Erfurt in the last ten years of the GDR.The districts of Melchendorf , Herrenberg and Wiesen Hügel belong to Erfurt-Südost , all of which were formed from the former local area of Melchendorf.", "The village of Melchendorf with around 1000 inhabitants lies between the prefabricated building areas.", "In addition to the old village, the district of Melchendorf also includes the prefab housing areas of Drosselberg and Buchenberg as well as several four-story apartment blocks from the 1950s and 1960s on Kranichfelder Strasse.", "Around 24,000 people still live in the large settlement, which was once designed for almost 40,000 inhabitants.In addition to Erfurt-Nord, Erfurt-Südost is the second large prefabricated building area in the state capital.", "The problems associated with large housing estates are not as pronounced in the Southeast as in the North, but they are still present.", "''Erfurt-Südost'' is the collective name for a series of prefabricated housing areas that emerged in the south-east of Erfurt in the last ten years of the GDR.The districts of Melchendorf , Herrenberg and Wiesen Hügel belong to Erfurt-Südost , all of which were formed from the former local area of Melchendorf.", "The village of Melchendorf with around 1000 inhabitants lies between the prefabricated building areas.", "In addition to the old village, the district of Melchendorf also includes the prefab housing areas of Drosselberg and Buchenberg as well as several four-story apartment blocks from the 1950s and 1960s on Kranichfelder Strasse.", "Around 24,000 people still live in the large settlement, which was once designed for almost 40,000 inhabitants.In addition to Erfurt-Nord, Erfurt-Südost is the second large prefabricated building area in the state capital.", "The problems associated with large housing estates are not as pronounced in the Southeast as in the North, but they are still present." ], [ "Population", "History of the population from 1493 to 2014.+ The largest groups of foreign residents, 2022 Nationality PopulationUkraine 3,596Syria 2,315Poland 2,025Hungary 1,435Vietnam 1,252Italy 1,143Romania 1,014Afghanistan 955Bulgaria 943Serbia 737Around the year 1500, the city had 18,000 inhabitants and was one of the largest cities in the Holy Roman Empire.", "The population then more or less stagnated until the 19th century.", "The population of Erfurt was 21,000 in 1820, and increased to 32,000 in 1847, the year of rail connection as industrialization began.", "In the following decades Erfurt grew up to 130,000 at the beginning of World War I and 190,000 inhabitants in 1950.A maximum was reached in 1988 with 220,000 persons.", "In 1991, after the German reunification and when Erfurt became the capital of Thuringia state, it had a population of about 205,000.The bad economic situation in eastern Germany after the reunification resulted in a decline in population, which fell to 200,000 in 2002 before rising again to 206,000 in 2011.The average growth of population between 2009 and 2012 was approximately 0.68% p. a, whereas the population in bordering rural regions is shrinking with accelerating tendency.", "Suburbanization played only a small role in Erfurt.", "It occurred after reunification for a short time in the 1990s, but most of the suburban areas were situated within the administrative city borders.", "Erfurt is also the 10th largest city in Germany by area with area of .The birth deficit was 200 in 2012, this is −1.0 per 1,000 inhabitants (Thuringian average: -4.5; national average: -2.4).", "The net migration rate was +8.3 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2012 (Thuringian average: -0.8; national average: +4.6).", "The most important regions of origin of Erfurt migrants are rural areas of Thuringia, Saxony-Anhalt and Saxony as well as foreign countries like Poland, Russia, Syria, Afghanistan and Hungary.", "Erfurt is today one of the popular cities in former East Germany due to its universities and broadcasting companies.Like other eastern German cities, foreigners account only for a small share of Erfurt's population: circa 3.0% are non-Germans by citizenship and overall 5.9% are migrants (according to the 2011 EU census).Due to the official atheism of the former GDR, most of the population is non-religious.", "14.8% are members of the Evangelical Church in Central Germany and 6.8% are Catholics (according to the 2011 EU census).", "The Jewish Community consists of 500 members.", "Most of them migrated to Erfurt from Russia and Ukraine in the 1990s." ], [ "Culture, sights and cityscape", "=== Residents notable in cultural history ===The theologian, philosopher and mystic Meister Eckhart (c. 1260–1328) entered the Dominican monastery () in Erfurt when he was aged about 18 (around 1275).", "Eckhart was the Dominican prior at Erfurt from 1294 until 1298, and Vicar of Thuringia from 1298 to 1302.After a year in Paris, he returned to Erfurt in 1303 and administered his duties as Provincial of Saxony from there until 1311.Martin Luther (1483–1546) studied law and philosophy at the University of Erfurt from 1501.He lived in St Augustine's Monastery in Erfurt, as a friar from 1505 to 1511.Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706) served as organist at the (Preachers Church) in Erfurt from June 1678 until August 1690.Pachelbel composed approximately seventy pieces for organ while in Erfurt.The city is the birthplace of one of Johann Sebastian Bach's cousins, Johann Bernhard Bach, as well as Johann Sebastian Bach's father Johann Ambrosius Bach.", "Bach's parents were married in 1668 in the (Merchant's Church) that still exists on the main square of .Alexander Müller (1808–1863), pianist, conductor and composer, was born in Erfurt.", "He later moved to Zürich where he served as leader of the General Music Society's subscription concerts series.Max Weber (1864–1920) was born in Erfurt.", "He was a sociologist, philosopher, lawyer, and political economist whose ideas have profoundly influenced modern social theory and social research.After 1906 the composer Richard Wetz (1875–1935) lived in Erfurt and became the leading person in the city's musical life.", "His major works were written here, including three symphonies, a Requiem and a Christmas Oratorio.The textile designer Margaretha Reichardt (1907–1984) was born and died in Erfurt.", "She studied at the Bauhaus from 1926 to 1930, and while there worked with Marcel Breuer on his innovative chair designs.", "Her former home and weaving workshop in Erfurt, the ''Margaretha Reichardt Haus'', is now a museum, managed by the Angermuseum Erfurt.Famous contemporary musicians from Erfurt are Clueso, the Boogie Pimps and Yvonne Catterfeld.=== Museums ===Erfurt has a great variety of museums:* The '''' (municipal museum) shows aspects of Erfurt's history with a focus on the Middle Ages, early modern history, Martin Luther and the university.", "Other parts of the are the '''' (new mill), an old water mill still in operation, and the '''' (Benary's magazine) with an exhibition of old printing machines.", "* The '''' (Old Synagogue) is one of the oldest synagogue buildings in Europe.", "It is now a museum of local Jewish history.", "It houses facsimiles of medieval Hebrew manuscripts and the Erfurt Treasure, a hoard of coins and goldsmiths' work that is assumed to have belonged to Jews who hid them in 1349 at the time of the Black Death pogroms.", "* The '''' (Topf and Sons memorial) is on the site of the factory of the company which constructed crematoria for Auschwitz and other concentration camps.", "Its exhibitions explore the collaboration of a civilian company with the National Socialist regime in the holocaust.", "* Memorial and Education Centre Andreasstrasse, (Stasi Museum).", "On the site of the former Erfurt Stasi prison, where over 5000 people were held.", "On 4 December 1989, the building was occupied by local residents.", "It was the first of many such takeovers of Stasi buildings in the former East Germany.", "Today it has exhibitions on the history of East Germany and the activities of its regime.", "* The Angermuseum is one of the main art museums of Erfurt, named after Anger Square, where it is located.", "It focuses on modern graphic arts, medieval sculpture and early modern artisanal handicraft.", "* The '''' (Erfurt City Art Gallery) has exhibitions of contemporary art, of local, national and international artists.", "* The ''Margaretha Reichardt Haus'' is the home and workshop of the textile designer and former Bauhaus student, Margaretha Reichardt (1907–1984).", "* The '''' (Saint Peter's church) houses an exhibition of concrete art, i.e.", "totally abstract art (not art made out of concrete).", "* The '''' (German Horticulture Museum) is housed at the Cyriaksburg Citadel.", "* The (Natural History Museum) is situated in a medieval woad warehouse and explores Thuringian flora and fauna, geology and ecology.", "* The '''' (Museum of Folk Art and Cultural Anthropology) looks at the ordinary life of people in Thuringia in the past and shows exhibits of peasant and artisan traditions.", "* The '''' (Museum of Electrical Engineering) shows the history of electric engines, which have featured prominently in Erfurt's economy.", "* in the district of Molsdorf is a Baroque palace with an exhibition about the painter .===Image gallery===File:Erfurt Stadtmuseum Haus zum Stockfisch.jpg|File:Angermuseum Erfurt2.JPG|File:Naturkundemuseum Erfurt Eingangtor.jpg|File:Defensionskaserne 3.jpg|File:Erfurt, Museum für Thüringer Volkskunde.jpg|File:Erinnerungsort Topf und Söhne Erfurt.JPG|J.A.", "Topf & Söhne museum and holocaust memorial siteFile:Stasi Memorial Andreasstraße Erfurt.JPG|Memorial and Education Centre Andreasstrasse, former Stasi prisonFile:Schloss Molsdorf 01.jpg|=== Theatre ===Since 2003, the modern opera house is home to Theater Erfurt and its Philharmonic Orchestra.", "The \"grand stage\" section has 800 seats and the \"studio stage\" can hold 200 spectators.", "In September 2005, the opera ''Waiting for the Barbarians'' by Philip Glass premiered in the opera house.", "The Erfurt Theatre has been a source of controversy.", "In 2005, a performance of Engelbert Humperdinck's opera '''' stirred up the local press since the performance contained suggestions of pedophilia and incest.", "The opera was advertised in the programme with the addition \"for adults only\".On 12 April 2008, a version of Verdi's opera '''' directed by Johann Kresnik opened at the Erfurt Theatre.", "The production stirred deep controversy by featuring nude performers in Mickey Mouse masks dancing on the ruins of the World Trade Center and a female singer with a painted on Hitler toothbrush moustache performing a straight arm Nazi salute, along with sinister portrayals of American soldiers, Uncle Sam, and Elvis Presley impersonators.", "The director described the production as a populist critique of modern American society, aimed at showing up the disparities between rich and poor.", "The controversy prompted one local politician to call for locals to boycott the performances, but this was largely ignored and the première was sold out.=== Sport ===''''The Messe Erfurt serves as home court for the Oettinger Rockets, a professional basketball team in Germany's first division, the Basketball Bundesliga.Notable types of sport in Erfurt are athletics, ice skating, cycling (with the oldest velodrome in use in the world, opened in 1885), swimming, handball, volleyball, tennis and football.", "The city's football club is member of and based in with a capacity of 20,000.The '''' was the second indoor speed skating arena in Germany.=== Cityscape ===Architecture from the '''' in Brühlervorstadt districtErfurt's cityscape features a medieval core of narrow, curved alleys in the centre surrounded by a belt of '''' architecture, created between 1873 and 1914.In 1873, the city's fortifications were demolished and it became possible to build houses in the area in front of the former city walls.", "In the following years, Erfurt saw a construction boom.", "In the northern area (districts Andreasvorstadt, Johannesvorstadt and Ilversgehofen) tenements for the factory workers were built whilst the eastern area (Krämpfervorstadt and Daberstedt) featured apartments for white-collar workers and clerks and the southwestern part (Löbervorstadt and Brühlervorstadt) with its beautiful valley landscape saw the construction of villas and mansions of rich factory owners and notables.During the interwar period, some settlements in Bauhaus style were realized, often as housing cooperatives.After World War II and over the whole GDR period, housing shortages remained a problem even though the government started a big apartment construction programme.", "Between 1970 and 1990 large settlements with high-rise blocks on the northern (for 50,000 inhabitants) and southeastern (for 40,000 inhabitants) periphery were constructed.", "After reunification the renovation of old houses in city centre and the '''' areas was a big issue.", "The federal government granted substantial subsidies, so that many houses could be restored.Compared to many other German cities, little of Erfurt was destroyed in World War II.", "This is one reason why the centre today offers a mixture of medieval, Baroque and Neoclassical architecture as well as buildings from the last 150 years.Public green spaces are located along Gera river and in several parks like the '''', the '''' and the ''''.", "The largest green area is the , a horticultural exhibition park and botanic garden established in 1961.=== Sights and architectural heritage ======= Churches, monasteries and synagogues ====St Mary's Cathedral (left) and St Severus' Church (right) on Domberg hillThe city centre has about 25 churches and monasteries, most of them in Gothic style, some also in Romanesque style or a mixture of Romanesque and Gothic elements, and a few in later styles.", "The various steeples characterize the medieval centre and led to one of Erfurt's nicknames as the \"Thuringian Rome\".=====Catholic churches and monasteries=====* The (All Saints' Church) is a 14th-century Gothic church in (Market Street), which hosts a columbarium.", "* The (St Mary's Cathedral) perches above , the Cathedral Square.", "It is the episcopal see and one of the main sights of Erfurt.", "It combines Romanesque and Gothic elements and has the largest free-swinging medieval bell in the world, which is named Gloriosa.", "One of the works of art inside the cathedral is Lucas Cranach the Elder's 'The Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine' painted around 1520.", "* The (St Lawrence's Church) is a small 14th-century Gothic parish church at Square.", "* The (St Martin's Church) was built in the 15th century in Gothic style and in 1755–58 converted to Baroque style.", "It was both a Cistercian nunnery and a parish church of , a medieval suburban zone.", "* The (\"church of the new facility\", Holy Cross Church) is a 15th-century Gothic church at , that was later converted to Baroque style.", "Until 1285, it was used by a convent of Augustinian nuns.", "* The (Scots Monks' Church of St Nicholas and St James) is an 11th-century Romanesque monastery church with a Baroque façade, which was later used as a parish church.", "* The (St Severus' Church) is the second-largest parish church after the cathedral and stands next to it on the hill.", "It is in Gothic style and was built around 1300.", "* The , St Ursula's Church, is a Gothic church at Square.", "It is attached to the , St Ursula's Nunnery, founded in 1136.It is the only medieval monastery or nunnery in Erfurt which has been in continuous operation since it opened.", "* The (St Wigbert's Church) is a 15th-century Gothic church near Square.Allerheiligenkirche Erfurt.jpg|All Saints' ChurchErfurt Lorenzkirche vom Anger.jpg|St Lawrence's ChurchMartinikirche.jpg|St Martin's ChurchErfurt - Neuwerkskirche.jpg|Holy Cross ChurchSchottenkirche Erfurt.jpg|SchottenkircheErfurt, Severikirche vom Petersberg gesehen-002.jpg|St Severus' ChurchLandtagprojekt Thueringen Erfurt 2011 (RaBoe) 110.jpg|Ursulines ChurchWigbertikirche Erfurt2.JPG|St Wigbert's Church=====Protestant churches and monasteries=====* (St Giles' Church) is a 14th-century Gothic parish church at Square.", "It is the surviving one of formerly two bridge-head churches of the located on both ends of the bridge.", "As a result, the nave is on the first floor, while on ground level is a passage to the bridge.", "The steeple is open to the public and offers a good view over the city centre.", "Today, St Giles' Church is a Methodist parish church.", "* (St Andrew's Church) is a 14th-century Gothic parish church at (Andrew's Street).", "The old craftsmen's quarter around it is named after the church.", "* (St Augustine's Monastery) dates from 1277.Martin Luther lived there as a monk between 1505 and 1511.The site has had a varied history and the restored complex has both modern and medieval buildings.", "Today it belongs to the Protestant Church in Germany and as well as being a place of worship it is also a meeting and conference centre, and provides simple guest accommodation.", "In 2016, an application was made for it to be included in the already existing UNESCO World Heritage Site \"Luther sites in Central Germany\".", "* The (Merchant's Church of St Gregory) is a 14th-century Gothic parish church at square.", "It is one of the largest and most important original parish churches in Erfurt.", "The parents of Johann Sebastian Bach, Johann Ambrosius Bach and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt, married here in 1668.", "* (St Michael's Church) is a 13th-century Gothic parish church at .", "It became the church of the university in 1392.Erfurt's first Protestant sermon was preached here in 1521.The church tower contains Erfurt's oldest bell \"Katharina\", dating from 1380.", "* The (Dominican Church) is a Gothic monastery church of the Dominicans at .", "Since the Reformation in the 16th century, it is the main Protestant church of Erfurt and furthermore one of the largest former churches of the mendicant orders in Germany.", "The theologian and mystic Meister Eckhart (c. 1260–1328) entered Prediger Monastery around 1275.He was Prior from 1294 until 1298, and Vicar of Thuringia from 1298 to 1302.After a year in Paris, he returned to the monastery in 1303 and administered his duties as Provincial of Saxony from there until 1311.The baroque composer Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706) was organist at the church from 1678 until 1690.", "* The (Regulated St Augustine's Church) is a 12th-century Romanesque-Gothic monastery church of the Augustinians at (Station Street).", "After the Reformation, it became a Protestant parish church.File:Erfurt kosciol sw Idziego 2.jpg|St Giles' ChurchFile:Erfurt, Andreaskirche-002.jpg|St Andrew's ChurchFile:Augustinerkirche Erfurt.jpg|St Augustine's ChurchFile:Erfurt, Kaufmannskirche 001.JPG|Merchants' ChurchFile:J24 082e Michaeliskirche.jpg|St Michael's ChurchFile:Erfurt Predigerkirche (2).JPG|Dominican ChurchFile:Reglerkirche Erfurt.jpg|Regulated St Augustine's Church=====Former churches=====* The is a 14th-century Gothic mendicant church at .", "The former Franciscan monastery became a Protestant parish church after the Reformation.", "In 1944, the church was severely damaged by Allied bombing.", "Its high choir was restored, but the nave's ruins have been preserved as a war memorial.", "* The (St Bartholomew's Church) was a Gothic parish church at Square.", "The church was demolished in 1715 and only the steeple remained.", "Today, the tower hosts a carillon with 60 bells.", "* The '''' (St George's Church) was a parish church in ''Michaelisstraße''.", "It was demolished in 1632 and only the church tower now remains.", "* The '''' (Hospital Church) was the church of the former Great City Hospital at ''''.", "It is a 14th-century Gothic building and is used today as a depot by the Museum für Thüringer Volkskunde (Museum of Thuringian Ethnology).", "* The '''' (St John's Church) was a parish church at John's Street.", "It was demolished in 1819, but the steeple remained.", "* The '''' (Carthusian Church, Mount St Saviour) was a monastery church at ''''.", "The Baroque church was closed in 1803 and afterwards used for many different purposes.", "Today, it is part of a housing complex.", "* The '''' (St Nicholas' Church) was a parish church in Augustine's Street.", "It was demolished in 1747 and only the steeple remained.", "* The '''' (St Paul's Church) was a parish church in Paul's Street.", "It was demolished before 1759.The steeple remains and is in use as the belfry of the Prediger Church.", "* The '''' (St Peter's Church) was built in the 12th century in Romanesque style as a church of the Benedictine monastery of St Peter and Paul on Petersberg hill, now the site of Petersberg Citadel.", "It was secularised in 1803 and used as a military store house.", "Today it houses an art gallery.File:Barfüßerkirche Erfurt 2011-03-19.jpg|Ruins of the former Franciscan monastery's churchFile:Bartholomäusturm Erfurt.jpg|St Bartholomew's steepleFile:Hospitalkirche \"Zum Heiligen Geist\" Erfurt 8.jpg|Hospital ChurchFile:Westportal-Kartaeuserkirche-Erfurt-2015-05.jpg|Carthusian ChurchFile:Nicolaiturm.jpg|St Nicholas' steepleFile:Paulsturm.jpg|St Paul's steepleFile:Peterskirche Erfurt 1.jpg|St Peter's Church=====Synagogues=====The oldest parts of Erfurt's ''Alte Synagoge'' (Old Synagogue) date to the 11th century.", "It was used until 1349 when the Jewish community was destroyed in a pogrom known as the Erfurt Massacre.", "The building had many other uses since then.", "It was conserved in the 1990s and in 2009 it became a museum of Jewish history.", "A rare Mikveh, a ritual bath, dating from c.1250, was discovered by archeologists in 2007.It has been accessible to visitors on guided tours since September 2011.The Jewish heritage of Erfurt including the Old Synagogue and Mikveh became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in September 2023 and is the second Jewish heritage in Germany that is listed on UNESCO.As religious freedom was granted in the 19th century, some Jews returned to Erfurt.", "They built their synagogue on the banks of the Gera river and used it from 1840 until 1884.The neoclassical building is known as the ''Kleine Synagoge'' (Small Synagogue).", "Today it is used an events centre.", "It is also open to visitors.A larger synagogue, the ''Große Synagoge'' (Great Synagogue), was opened in 1884 because the community had become larger and wealthier.", "This moorish style building was destroyed during nationwide Nazi riots, known as on 9–10 November 1938.In 1947 the land which the Great Synagogue had occupied was returned to the Jewish community and they built their current place of worship, the ''Neue Synagoge'' (New Synagogue) which opened in 1952.It was the only synagogue building erected under communist rule in East Germany.File:Alte Synagoge Erfurt.JPG|Old SynagogueFile:Kleine Synagoge Erfurt2.JPG|Small SynagogueFile:Synagoge Erfurt.JPG|New Synagogue==== Secular architecture ====Besides the religious buildings there is a lot of historic secular architecture in Erfurt, mostly concentrated in the city centre, but some 19th- and 20th-century buildings are located on the outskirts.The is known as the lithic chronicle of Erfurt.=====Street and square ensembles=====* The '''' (Merchants' bridge) is the most famous tourist attraction of Erfurt.", "This 15th-century bridge is completely covered with dwellings and unique in Europe north of the Alps.", "Today, there are some art handicraft and souvenir shops in the houses.", "* The '''' (Cathedral Square) is the largest square in Erfurt and one of the largest historical market squares in Germany.", "The cathedral and St Severus' Church on its western side can be reached over the '''', a wide flight of stairs.", "On the north side lies the courthouse, a historic building from 1880.The eastern and southern side is fronted by early-modern patrician houses.", "On the square are the Minerva Fountain from 1784 and the Erthal Obelisk from 1777.The Domplatz is the main setting of the Erfurt Christmas Market in December and the location for \"DomStufen-Festival\", an open-air theatre festival in summer.", "* The '''' (Fish Market) is the central square of Erfurt's city centre.", "It is surrounded by renaissance-style patrician houses and the town hall, a neo-gothic building from 1882.In the middle of the square is a statue called '''' (Roman), a symbol of the city's independence, erected by the citizens in 1591.", "* The '''' (Minor Market) is a small square on the east side of the Gera river (opposite to the Fischmarkt on the west side), surrounded by early-modern patrician and merchants' houses.", "The fountain on this square with the sculpture \"Scuffling Boys\" was created in 1975.Today, square also has various cafés and bars.", "Next to the in is the building, a neoclassicistic event hall from 1831 (current building).", "The Congress of Erfurt took place here in 1808.", "* The '''' (originally the German term for \"village green\") is a protracted square in the eastern city centre.", "All tram lines are linked here, so that it became the new city centre during the 20th century with many important buildings.", "On its northern side is the main post office, built in 1886 in neo-gothic style with its prominent clock tower.", "In the north-east there is the Martin Luther monument from 1889 in front of the Merchants' Church.", "Between the church and the Ursuline monastery lies the \"Anger 1\" department store from 1908.On the south side next to Station Street is the , the art history museum of Erfurt, inside a Baroque palace from 1711.The western part of Anger square is surrounded by large historicist business houses from the late 19th century.", "The west end of the square is marked by the Angerbrunnen fountain from 1890.The Jesuit College near was built in 1737 and used until the ban of the Jesuits in 1773.", "* The ''Willy Brandt Square'' is the southern gate to the city centre in front of the main station.", "Opposite to the station is the former hotel '''', where the first meeting of the East- and West-German heads of government took place in 1970.On the western side is the building of the old Erfurt station (1847–95) with a clock tower and the former offices of the Thuringian Railway Company.", "* The '''' (Deer Garden) is a small park in front of the Thuringian government seat in the western city centre.", "The minister-president's seat is the '''', a Renaissance-Baroque palace from the 17th century.", "* The '''' (Michael's Street) is known as \"the lithic chronicle of Erfurt\", because of its mostly medieval buildings.", "It is the main street of the Latin quarter around the old university and today one of the favourite nightlife districts of the Erfurters with various bars, restaurants and cafés.", "The central building of the old university, , was built in 1515, destroyed by Allied bombs in 1945 and originally rebuilt in 1999.", "* The '''' is an inner-city circular road following the former inner city wall.", "The road was set out in the 1890s by closing a branch of the Gera river.", "The buildings along the street originate from all periods of the 20th century, including some GDR-era highrise residence buildings.", "An old building complex here is the former Great Hospital, established in the 14th century.", "Today, it hosts the museum of popular art and cultural anthropology.", "* The '''' (St Andrew's Quarter) is a small quarter in the northern part of the city centre between in the south-west and in the north-east.", "It was the former craftsmen quarter with narrow alleys and old (16th/17th century) little houses.", "During the 20th century, there were plans to demolish the quarter because of its bad housing conditions.", "After 1990, the houses were redeveloped by private individuals so that it is one of the favourite neighbourhoods today.", "The largest building here is the former Municipal Corn Storage in Gothic style from 1466 with a floor area of .File:Krämerbrücke Erfurt II, Germany2.jpg|File:P1010412-Montage.jpg|Christmas market at File:Haus zum Roten Ochsen Fischmarkt.jpg|File:Wenigemarkt Erfurt.JPG|File:Hauptpost Erfurt2.JPG|Post office at File:Angermuseum Erfurt2.JPG|File:2011-05-19-erfurt-by-RalfR-44.jpg|=====Fortifications=====Petersberg CitadelFrom 1066 until 1873 the old town of Erfurt was encircled by a fortified wall.", "About 1168 this was extended to run around the western side of Petersberg hill, enclosing it within the city boundaries.After German Unification in 1871, Erfurt became part of the newly created German Empire.", "The threat to the city from its Saxon neighbours and from Bavaria was no longer present, so it was decided to dismantle the city walls.", "Only a few remnants remain today.", "A piece of inner wall can be found in a small park at the corner Juri-Gagarin-Ring and Johannesstraße and another piece at the flood ditch (''Flutgraben'') near Franckestraße.", "There is also a small restored part of the wall in the Brühler Garten, behind the Catholic orphanage.", "Only one of the wall's fortified towers was left standing, on Boyneburgufer, but this was destroyed in an air raid in 1944.The Petersberg Citadel is one of the largest and best preserved city fortresses in Europe, covering an area of 36 hectares in the north-west of the city centre.", "It was built from 1665 on Petersberg hill and was in military use until 1963.Since 1990, it has been significantly restored and is now open to the public as an historic site.The is a smaller citadel south-west of the city centre, dating from 1480.Today, it houses the German horticulture museum.=====19th- and 20th-century architecture in the outskirts=====Between 1873 and 1914, a belt of '''' architecture emerged around the city centre.", "The mansion district in the south-west around , and hosts some interesting '''' and ''Art Nouveau'' buildings.The \"Mühlenviertel\" (\"mill quarter\"), is an area of beautiful Art Nouveau apartment buildings, cobblestone streets and street trees just to the north of the old city, in the vicinity of Nord Park, bordered by the Gera river on its east side.", "The Schmale Gera stream runs through the area.", "In the Middle Ages numerous small enterprises using the power of water mills occupied the area, hence the name \"Mühlenviertel\", with street names such as Waidmühlenweg (woad, or indigo, mill way), Storchmühlenweg (stork mill way) and Papiermühlenweg (paper mill way).The ''Bauhaus'' style is represented by some housing cooperative projects in the east around and and in the north around .", "Lutherkirke Church in (1927), is an Art Deco building.The former malt factory \"Wolff\" at in the east of Erfurt is a large industrial complex built between 1880 and 1939, and in use until 2000.A new use has not been found yet, but the area is sometimes used as a location in movie productions because of its atmosphere.Examples of Nazi architecture include the buildings of the (Thuringian parliament) and (an event hall) in the south at .", "While the building (1930s) represents more the neo-Roman/fascist style, (1940s) is marked by some neo-Germanic '''' style elements.The Stalinist early-GDR style is manifested in the main building of the university at (1953) and the later more international modern GDR style is represented by the horticultural exhibition centre \"\" at , the housing complexes like Rieth or and the redevelopment of and area along in the city centre.The current international glass and steel architecture is dominant among most larger new buildings like the Federal Labour Court of Germany (1999), the new opera house (2003), the new main station (2007), the university library, the Erfurt Messe (convention centre) and the ice rink.File:Ernst-Toller-Straße Erfurt.JPG| tenements in districtFile:Brunnen Jacobsenviertel Erfurt.JPG|Cubistic fountain in a Bauhaus housing complexFile:Lutherkirche Erfurt2.JPG|Art Deco Luther's ChurchFile:ThüringerLandtag.jpg|Entrance of the Thuringian parliamentFile:Audimax-Foyer der Universität Erfurt.jpg|Lobby of the university main buildingFile:Statue Johannesplatz Erfurt.JPG|GDR architecture in districtFile:2011-05-19-bundesarbeitsgericht-by-RalfR-24.jpg|Inner yard of the Federal Labour Court" ], [ "Economy and infrastructure", "During recent years, the economic situation of the city improved: the unemployment rate declined from 21% in 2005 to 9% in 2013.Nevertheless, some 14,000 households with 24,500 persons (12% of population) are dependent upon state social benefits (Hartz IV).=== Agriculture, industry and services ===Former factory building, now reused for services''Anger 1'', a big department store in centreFarming has a great tradition in Erfurt: the cultivation of woad made the city rich during the Middle Ages.", "Today, horticulture and the production of flower seeds is still an important business in Erfurt.", "There is also growing of fruits (like apples, strawberries and sweet cherries), vegetables (e.g.", "cauliflowers, potatoes, cabbage and sugar beets) and grain on more than 60% of the municipal territory.Industrialization in Erfurt started around 1850.Until World War I, many factories were founded in different sectors like engine building, shoes, guns, malt and later electro-technics, so that there was no industrial monoculture in the city.", "After 1945, the companies were nationalized by the GDR government, which led to the decline of some of them.", "After reunification, nearly all factories were closed, either because they failed to successfully adopt to a free market economy or because the German government sold them to west German businessmen who closed them to avoid competition to their own enterprises.", "However, in the early 1990s the federal government started to subsidize the foundation of new companies.", "It still took a long time before the economic situation stabilized around 2006.Since this time, unemployment has decreased and overall, new jobs were created.", "Today, there are many small and medium-sized companies in Erfurt with electro-technics, semiconductors and photovoltaics in focus.", "Engine production, food production, the Braugold brewery, and Born Feinkost, a producer of Thuringian mustard, remain important industries.Erfurt is an '''' (which means \"supra-centre\" according to Central place theory) in German regional planning.", "Such centres are always hubs of service businesses and public services like hospitals, universities, research, trade fairs, retail etc.", "Additionally, Erfurt is the capital of the federal state of Thuringia, so that there are many institutions of administration like all the Thuringian state ministries and some nationwide authorities.", "Typical for Erfurt are the logistic business with many distribution centres of big companies, the Erfurt Trade Fair and the media sector with KiKa and MDR as public broadcast stations.", "A growing industry is tourism, due to the various historical sights of Erfurt.", "There are 4,800 hotel beds and (in 2012) 450,000 overnight visitors spent a total of 700,000 nights in hotels.", "Nevertheless, most tourists are one-day visitors from Germany.", "The Christmas Market in December attracts some 2,000,000 visitors each year.=== Transport ===Erfurt Hauptbahnhof, Erfurt's main railway station.==== By rail ====The ICE railway network puts Erfurt 1 hours from Berlin, 2 hours from Frankfurt, 2 hours from Dresden, and 45 minutes from Leipzig.", "In 2017, the ICE line to Munich opened, making the trip to Erfurt main station only 2 hours.There are regional trains from Erfurt to Weimar, Jena, Gotha, Eisenach, Bad Langensalza, Magdeburg, Nordhausen, Göttingen, Mühlhausen, Würzburg, Meiningen, Ilmenau, Arnstadt, and Gera.In freight transport there is an intermodal terminal in the district of Vieselbach ''()'' with connections to rail and the autobahn.==== By road ====The two Autobahnen crossing each other nearby at ''Erfurter Kreuz'' are the Bundesautobahn 4 (Frankfurt–Dresden) and the Bundesautobahn 71 (Schweinfurt–Sangerhausen).", "Together with the east tangent both motorways form a circle road around the city and lead the interregional traffic around the centre.", "Whereas the A 4 was built in the 1930s, the A 71 came into being after the reunification in the 1990s and 2000s.", "In addition to both motorways there are two Bundesstraßen: the Bundesstraße 7 connects Erfurt parallel to A 4 with Gotha in the west and Weimar in the east.", "The Bundesstraße 4 is a connection between Erfurt and Nordhausen in the north.", "Its southern part to Coburg was annulled when A 71 was finished (in this section, the A 71 now effectively serves as B 4).", "Within the circle road, B 7 and B 4 are also annulled, so that the city government has to pay for maintenance instead of the German federal government.", "The access to the city is restricted as '''' since 2012 for some vehicles.", "Large parts of the inner city are a pedestrian area which can not be reached by car (except for residents).==== By light rail and bus ====Light rail tram near Anger squareThe Erfurt public transport system is marked by the area-wide (light rail) network, established as a tram system in 1883, upgraded to a light rail ('''') system in 1997, and continually expanded and upgraded through the 2000s.", "Today, there are six ''Stadtbahn'' lines running every ten minutes on every light rail route.Additionally, Erfurt operates a bus system, which connects the sparsely populated outer districts of the region to the city center.", "Both systems are organized by ''SWE EVAG'', a transit company owned by the city administration.", "Trolleybuses were in service in Erfurt from 1948 until 1975, but are no longer in service.==== By airplane ====Erfurt-Weimar Airport lies west of the city centre.", "It is linked to the central train station via Stadtbahn (tram).", "It was significantly extended in the 1990s, with flights mostly to Mediterranean holiday destinations and to London during the peak Christmas market tourist season.", "Connections to longer haul flights are easily accessible via Frankfurt Airport, which can be reached in 2 hours via a direct train from Frankfurt Airport to Erfurt, and from Leipzig/Halle Airport, which can be reached within half an hour.==== By bike ====Biking is becoming increasingly popular since construction of high quality cycle tracks began in the 1990s.", "There are cycle lanes for general commuting within Erfurt city.Long-distance trails, such as the ''Gera track'' and the '''' (Thuringian cities trail), connect points of tourist interest.", "The former runs along the Gera river valley from the Thuringian Forest to the river Unstrut; the latter follows the medieval Via Regia from Eisenach to Altenburg via Gotha, Erfurt, Weimar, and Jena.The Rennsteig Cycle Way was opened in 2000.This designated high-grade hiking and bike trail runs along the ridge of the Thuringian Central Uplands.", "The bike trail, about long, occasionally departs from the course of the historic Rennsteig hiking trail, which dates back to the 1300s, to avoid steep inclines.", "It is therefore about longer than the hiking trail.The Rennsteig is connected to the E3 European long distance path, which goes from the Atlantic coast of Spain to the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria, and the E6 European long distance path, running from Arctic Finland to Turkey.=== Education ===After reunification, the educational system was reorganized.", "The University of Erfurt, founded in 1379 and closed in 1816, was refounded in 1994 with a focus on social sciences, modern languages, humanities and teacher training.", "Today there are approximately 6,000 students working within four faculties, the Max Weber Center for Advanced Cultural and Social Studies, and three academic research institutes.", "The university has an international reputation and participates in international student exchange programmes.The ''Fachhochschule Erfurt'', is a university of applied sciences, founded in 1991, which offers a combination of academic training and practical experience in subjects such as social work and social pedagogy, business studies, and engineering.", "There are nearly 5,000 students in six faculties, of which the faculty of landscaping and horticulture has a national reputation.The International University of Applied Sciences Bad Honnef – Bonn (IUBH), is a privately run university with a focus on business and economics.", "It merged with the former Adam-Ries-Fachhochschule in 2013.The world renowned Bauhaus design school was founded in 1919 in the city of Weimar, approximately from Erfurt, 12 minutes by train.", "The buildings are now part of a World Heritage Site and are today used by the Bauhaus-Universität Weimar, which teaches design, arts, media and technology related subjects.Furthermore, there are eight '''', six state-owned, one Catholic and one Protestant (Evangelisches Ratsgymnasium Erfurt).", "One of the state-owned schools is a '''', an elite boarding school for young talents in athletics, swimming, ice skating or football.", "Another state-owned school, '''', offers a focus in sciences as an elite boarding school in addition to the common curriculum.=== Media ===The German national public television children's channel ''KiKa'' is based in Erfurt.MDR, Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk, a radio and television company, has a broadcast centre and studios in Erfurt.The Thüringer Allgemeine is a statewide newspaper that is headquartered in the city." ], [ "Politics", "=== Mayor and city council ===Results of the second round of the 2018 mayoral election.The first freely elected mayor after German reunification was Manfred Ruge of the Christian Democratic Union, who served from 1990 to 2006.Since 2006, Andreas Bausewein of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) has been mayor.", "The most recent mayoral election was held on 15 April 2018, with a runoff held on 29 April, and the results were as follows: Candidate Party First round Second round Votes % Votes % Andreas Bausewein Social Democratic Party 25,450 30.4 35,432 58.5 Marion Walsmann Christian Democratic Union 18,348 21.9 25,118 41.5 Stefan Möller Alternative for Germany 12,077 14.4 Karola Stange The Left 9,312 11.1 Sebastian Perdelwitz Better City Erfurt 7,963 9.5 Alexander Thumfart Alliance 90/The Greens 5,323 6.4 Daniel Stassny Free Voters / Pirate Party 3,519 4.2 Marko Enke Free Democratic Party 1,709 2.0 Valid votes 83,701 99.3 60,550 98.0 Invalid votes 562 0.7 1,240 2.0 Total 84,263 100.0 61,790 100.0 Electorate/voter turnout 172,908 48.7 172,562 35.8Results of the 2019 city council election.The most recent city council election was held on 26 May 2019, and the results were as follows: Party Lead candidate Votes % +/- Seats +/- Christian Democratic Union (CDU) Michael Panse 56,789 19.6 5.1 10 2 Social Democratic Party (SPD) Andreas Bausewein 49,627 17.1 11.6 9 6 The Left (Die Linke) Matthias Bärwolff 47,742 16.5 5.5 8 3 Alternative for Germany (AfD) Stefan Möller 43,069 14.9 10.4 7 5 Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) Astrid Rothe-Beinlich 34,318 11.8 2.1 6 1 Better City Erfurt (M) Tina Morgenroth 21,303 7.3 New 4 New Free Democratic Party (FDP) Thomas Kemmerich 15,513 5.4 2.9 3 2 Free Voters (FW) Daniel Stassny 14,454 5.0 1.6 2 ±0 Pirate Party Germany (Piraten) Peter Städter 5,472 1.9 0.2 1 ±0 The III.", "Path Enrico Biczysko 1,635 0.6 New 0 New Valid votes 97,492 96.8 Invalid votes 3,232 3.2 Total 100,724 100.0 50 ±0 Electorate/voter turnout 172,389 58.4 11.1 Source: Wahlen in Thüringen" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Erfurt is twinned with:* Győr, Hungary (1971)* Vilnius, Lithuania (1972)* Kalisz, Poland (1982)* Mainz, Germany (1988)* Lille, France (1991)* Shawnee, United States (1993)* San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina (1993)* Lovech, Bulgaria (1996)* Haifa, Israel (2000)* Xuzhou, China (2005)* Kati, Mali (2011)" ], [ "Notable people", "* ''See: List of people from Erfurt''" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "External links", "* Erfurt City Panoramas – Panoramic Views and virtual Tours* Kraemerbruecke* Sister City (since 1993) with Shawnee, Kansas* World Shots.", "Germany.", "Erfurt.", "– Collection of photographs (English, Russian, Hebrew)* Memorial and Museum Topf & Sons.", "– Builders of the Auschwitz Oven* Old maps of Erfurt - Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel in Historic Cities Research Project" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Enya" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eithne Pádraigín Ní Bhraonáin''' (born 17 May 1961), known mononymously as '''Enya''', is an Irish singer and composer.", "Enya is noted for her modern Celtic music, and is the best-selling Irish solo artist (second-best-selling Irish music act overall, after rock band U2).Enya was raised in the Irish-speaking region of Gweedore.", "In 1980, Enya (as Eithne Ní Bhraonáin) began her musical career playing alongside her family's Celtic folk band Clannad.", "She left Clannad in 1982 to pursue a solo career, working with the former Clannad manager and producer, Nicky Ryan, and his partner Roma, as their lyricist.", "Over the following four years, Enya developed her sound by combining multitracked vocals and keyboards with elements from a variety of musical genres such as Celtic, classical, church, jazz, new age, world, pop, and Irish folk.The two earliest releases by Enya were instrumentals for the ''Touch Travel'' T4 (1984) cassette compilation, composed around 1982-83.Enya composed most of the soundtrack and sang two songs intended for the film ''The Frog Prince'' (1985), and composed a body of work for the BBC documentary series ''The Celts'' (1986).", "A selection of her pieces for ''The Celts'' were released as her debut album, ''Enya'' (1987).", "Following this, Rob Dickins took interest in Enya's music, and so she signed with Warner Music UK.", "The record deal granted her considerable artistic freedom and minimal interference.", "The success of ''Watermark'' (1988) propelled Enya to worldwide fame, helped mostly by the international hit single \"Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)\".", "This was followed by the multi-million-selling albums ''Shepherd Moons'' (1991), ''The Memory of Trees'' (1995), and ''A Day Without Rain'' (2000).", "Sales of ''A Day Without Rain'' and its lead single, \"Only Time\", surged in the United States following its use in media coverage of the 9/11 attacks.", "After ''Amarantine'' (2005) and ''And Winter Came...'' (2008), Enya took a four-year break from music, returning to the recording studio in 2012 to begin work on her eighth studio album ''Dark Sky Island'' (2015).", "Regarding a new project, there have been several mentions by close sources of Enya recording new music since her 2015 album.", "According to her sister Moya, Enya was recording music, as of 2019." ], [ "Early life", "Enya's home area of Gweedore, pictured from above in 2008Eithne Pádraigín Ní Bhraonáin was born in the Dore area of Gweedore, County Donegal, on 17 May 1961, the sixth of nine children in the Brennan family of musicians, born to Máire \"Baba\" and Leopold \"Leo\" Brennan.", "In 1968, the couple took ownership of a pub in Meenaleck, Co. Donegal, naming it Leo's Tavern.", "Leo Brennan (1925-2016) was the leader of an Irish showband named the Slieve Foy Band, before performing solo.", "Baba Brennan (née Duggan; born 1930) has remote Spanish roots with ancestors who settled on Tory Island and she was an amateur musician who played with the Slieve Foy Band.", "Enya's mother also taught music at Gweedore Community School.Leo's Tavern, the pub owned by Enya's family, currently under the proprietorship of her younger brother Bartley.Enya grew up in Gweedore, a region where Irish is the primary language.", "Her name is anglicised as Enya Patricia Brennan, with \"Enya\" being the phonetic spelling of how \"Eithne\" is pronounced in her native Ulster dialect.", "\"Ní Bhraonáin\" translates to \"daughter of Brennan\".", "Enya's maternal grandfather Aodh, was the headmaster of the primary school in Dore where her grandmother was a teacher.", "Aodh was also the founder of the Gweedore Theatre company.", "Enya has described her upbringing as \"very quiet and happy.", "\"At three-and-a-half years of age, she took part in her first singing competition at the annual Feis Ceoil music festival.", "Enya also participated in pantomimes at Gweedore Theatre and sang with her siblings in their mother's choir at St Mary's church in Derrybeg.", "At the age of four, she began piano lessons and was learning English throughout primary school.", "She later said, \"I had to do school work and then travel to a neighbouring town for piano lessons, and then more school work.", "I remember my brothers and sisters playing outside and I would be inside playing the piano, this one big book of scales, practising them over and over.", "\"As well as traditional Irish music, Enya and her siblings were introduced to a variety of music in the 60s and 70s, and enjoyed watching musical films.", "In a radio interview with Elaine Page in November 2008, Enya shared a selection of favourite songs from musicals.", "She said of Jesus Christ Superstar, \"it was such an original piece of music in 1970 ... played in my house every single day, and myself and my sisters would sing word for word\".From the age of 11, Enya attended a convent boarding school, Milford College, in Milford run by the Sisters of Loreto; her education there was paid for by her grandfather.", "The boarding school, now Loreto Community School, was where Enya developed a taste for classical music, art, Latin, and watercolour painting.", "She said, \"It was devastating to be torn away from such a large family but it was good for my music.\"", "Enya finished boarding school at age 17 in the late 1970s, and studied classical music at college the following year, with the original intention to be teaching the piano, rather than composing and performing her own music." ], [ "Career", "===1980–1982: Clannad===In 1970, several members of Enya's family formed Clannad, a Celtic folk band.", "Clannad hired Nicky Ryan as their manager, sound engineer, and producer, and Ryan's future wife, Roma Shane, as tour manager and administrator.", "In 1980, after a year at college, Enya decided not to pursue a music degree and instead accepted Ryan's invitation to join Clannad, having wanted to expand their sound with keyboards and an additional vocalist.", "Enya performed an uncredited role on their sixth studio album, ''Crann Úll'' (1980), with a line-up of elder siblings Moya, Pól, and Ciarán Brennan, and twin uncles Noel and Pádraig Duggan.", "She features in their follow-up, ''Fuaim'' (1981), singing the song An Túll.", "Ciarán mentioned that Enya was a \"hired hand\" and not a full member, commenting that \"she was 18, 19 and we were paying her £500 sterling a week.\"", "In a BBC Radio Ulster interview with Moya in late 2023, she also noted that Enya was considered a hired hand with Clannad.", "Nicky Ryan said it was not his intention to make Enya a permanent member, as she was \"fiercely independent ... intent on playing her own music.", "She was just not sure of how to go about it.\"", "Nicky discussed the idea of layering vocals to create a \"choir of one\" with Enya, a concept inspired by Phil Spector's Wall of Sound technique that had interested them both.During a Clannad tour in 1982, Nicky called for a band meeting to address internal issues that had arisen, primarily around the drinking of one or two members.", "He recalled: \"It was short and only required a vote, I was a minority of one and lost.", "Roma and I were out.", "This left the question of what happened with Enya.", "I decided to stand back and say nothing.\"", "Enya chose to leave with the Ryans and pursue a solo career, having felt confined in the group and disliking being \"somebody in the background\".", "The split caused some friction between the parties but, in time, they settled their differences.", "Enya's brother Ciarán also spoke to Nicky Ryan around 2006, interested in recording in their studio with her, but Ryan suggested that this was unlikely to occur.", "Moya often praises Enya for what she has gone on to achieve in her solo career, and supposes that there were some foundations she had built from her short time with the band.", "===1982–1985: Early solo career===The former Ryan home in suburban Artane, Enya's residence and site of the original Aigle Studio from 1982 to 1989Nicky suggested to Enya that either she return to Gweedore \"with no particular definite future\", or live with him and Roma in suburban Artane, in Dublin, \"and see what happens, musically\", which Enya decided to try.", "After their bank denied them a loan, Enya sold her saxophone and gave piano lessons as a source of income.", "Nicky Ryan used what they could afford to build a recording facility in the Ryans' garden shed, which they named \"Aigle Studio\", after the French word for eagle.", "Enya lived with the Ryans from 1982, shortly after leaving Clannad, until 1989, when she bought a penthouse apartment in Killiney.Enya and the Ryans rented Aigle Studio out to other musicians to help recoup the costs.", "The trio formed a musical and business partnership, with Nicky as Enya's producer and arranger and Roma as her lyricist.", "They called their company, of which each owns a third, Aigle Music.", "In the following two years, Enya developed her technique and composition by listening to recordings of her reciting pieces of classical music and repeated this process until she started to improvise sections and develop her own arrangements.In the early 1980s following her Clannad departure, Enya recorded with a few artists, often on keyboards or backing vocals, with Nicky Ryan as producer.", "She also played the synthesiser on the group Ragairne's ''Ceol Aduaidh,'' led by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Frankie Kennedy.", "Being one of the earlier choices to sing the song before Maggie Reilly, Enya declined an offer from Mike Oldfield to sing on his single \"Moonlight Shadow\", likely due to existing contracts.", "\"Bailieboro and Me\" is a Charlie McGettigan song with the group Jargon; an early recording features Enya singing backing vocals, primarily credited as Eithne Ní Bhraonáin playing the grand piano for the song.", "Enya's first solo endeavour was in 1982, when she composed and later released two piano instrumentals, \"An Ghaoth Ón Ghrian\" (Irish for \"The Solar Wind\") and \"Miss Clare Remembers\".", "Both were recorded at Windmill Lane Studios in Dublin and released on ''Touch Travel'' (1984), a limited-release cassette of music from various artists on the Touch label.", "She is credited as Eithne Ní Bhraonáin in the liner notes.", "After several months of preparation, Enya's first live solo performance took place at the National Stadium in Dublin on 23 September 1983, and was televised for RTÉ's music show ''Festival Folk''.", "Niall Morris, a musician who worked with her during this time, recalled she \"was so nervous she could barely get on stage, and she cowered behind the piano until the gig was over\".Morris assisted Enya in the production of a demo tape, adding additional keyboards to her compositions.", "Roma thought the music would suit accompanying visuals and sent it to various film producers.", "Among them was David Puttnam, after Roma had read an interview where he stated a particular interest in strong melodies.", "Puttnam liked the tape and offered Enya to compose the soundtrack to his upcoming romantic comedy film, ''The Frog Prince'' (1984).", "Enya scored nine pieces for the film; later, against her wishes, the pieces were rearranged and orchestrated by Richard Myhill, except for two pieces in which she sang, \"The Frog Prince\" and \"Dreams\".", "The words to \"Dreams\" were penned by Charlie McGettigan.", "The film editor Jim Clark said the rearrangements were necessary as Enya found it difficult to compose to the picture.", "Released in 1985, the album is the first commercial release that credits her as \"Enya\".", "Nicky Ryan suggested the phonetic spelling of her name, thinking that Eithne would be mispronounced by non-Irish speakers.", "Enya looked back at her composition work on the film as a good career move, but a disappointing one as \"we weren't part of it at the end\".", "Also in 1985, she sang on three tracks on ''Ordinary Man'' (1985) by Christy Moore.===1985–1989: ''The Celts'' and ''Watermark''===Enya's stylised signature logo, designed by Laurence DunmoreIn 1985, producer Tony McAuley asked Enya to contribute a track for the six-part BBC television documentary series ''The Celts''.", "She had already written a Celtic-influenced song called \"The March of the Celts\", and submitted it to the project.", "Each episode was to feature a different composer at first, but director David Richardson liked her track so much that he had Enya score the entire series.", "Enya recorded 72 minutes of music at Aigle Studio and the BBC studios in Wood Lane, London, without recording to the picture.", "She was required to portray certain themes and ideas that the producers wanted; however, in contrast with ''The Frog Prince'', she worked with little interference, which granted her freedom to establish the sound that she would adopt throughout her future career, signified by layered vocals, keyboard-oriented music, and percussion with elements of Celtic, classical, church, and folk music.In March 1987, two months before ''The Celts'' aired, a 40-minute selection of Enya's score was released as her debut solo album, ''Enya'', by BBC Records in the United Kingdom and by Atlantic Records in the United States.", "The latter promoted it with a new-age imprint on the packaging, which Nicky later thought was \"a cowardly thing for them to do\".", "The album gained enough public attention to reach number 8 on the Irish Albums Chart and number 69 on the UK Albums Chart.", "\"I Want Tomorrow\" was released as Enya's first single.", "\"Boadicea\" was later sampled by The Fugees on their 1996 song \"Ready or Not\"; the group neither sought permission nor gave credit.", "Enya took legal action and the group subsequently gave her credit; they paid a fee of approximately $3 million.", "Later in 1987, Enya appeared on Sinéad O'Connor's debut album ''The Lion and the Cobra'', reciting Psalm 91 in Irish on \"Never Get Old\".Several weeks after the release of ''Enya'', Enya secured a recording contract with Warner Music UK after Rob Dickins, the label's chairman and a fan of Clannad, took a liking to ''Enya'' and found himself playing it \"every night before I went to bed\".", "He later met Enya and the Ryans at a chance meeting at the Irish Recorded Music Association award ceremony in Dublin, where he learned that Enya had entered negotiations with a rival label.", "Dickins seized the opportunity and signed her, in doing so granting her wish to write and record with artistic freedom, minimal interference from the label, and without set deadlines to finish albums.", "Dickins said: \"Sometimes you sign an act to make money, and sometimes you sign an act to make music.", "This was the latter...", "I just wanted to be involved with this music.\"", "Enya left Atlantic and signed with the Warner-led Geffen Records to handle her American distribution.When asked about whether women in pop have a hard time, she responded \"yes, they do.", "Definitely.\"", "However, Enya has considered her position as a composer rather than just a vocalist to be an advantage \"because I write and perform much of the music, I'm taken more seriously than the girls who just walk into a studio, do a vocal and that's it.", "I can't even ''imagine'' what that would be like.", "\"With the green light to produce a new album, Enya recorded ''Watermark'' from June 1987 to April 1988.It was initially recorded in analogue at Aigle before Dickins requested to have it re-recorded digitally at Orinoco Studios in Bermondsey, London.", "''Watermark'' was released in September 1988 and became an unexpected hit, reaching number 5 in the United Kingdom and number 25 on the ''Billboard'' 200 in the United States following its release there in January 1989.Its lead single, \"Orinoco Flow\", was the last song written for the album.", "It was not intended to be a single at first, but Enya and the Ryans chose it after Dickins jokingly asked for a single; he knew that Enya's music was not made for the Top 40 chart.", "Dickins and engineer Ross Cullum are referenced in the song's lyrics.", "\"Orinoco Flow\" became an international top 10 hit and was number one in the United Kingdom for three weeks.", "The new-found success propelled Enya to international fame and she received endorsement deals and offers to use her music in television commercials.", "She spent a year traveling worldwide to promote the album which increased her exposure through interviews, appearances, and live performances.===1989–1998: ''Shepherd Moons'', ''The Memory of Trees'' and ''Paint the Sky with Stars'' ===After promoting ''Watermark'', Enya purchased new recording equipment and started work on her next album, ''Shepherd Moons''.", "She found that the success of ''Watermark'' caused a considerable amount of pressure when it came to writing new songs, stating, \"I kept thinking, 'Would this have gone on ''Watermark''?", "Is it as good?'", "Eventually I had to forget about this and start on a blank canvas and just really go with what felt right\".Enya wrote songs based on several ideas, including entries from her diary, the Blitz in London, and her grandparents.", "''Shepherd Moons'' was released in November 1991, her first album released under Warner-led Reprise Records in the United States.", "It became a greater commercial success than ''Watermark'', reaching number one in the UK for one week and number 17 in the United States.", "\"Caribbean Blue\", its lead single, charted at number 13 in the United Kingdom.In 1991, Warner Music released a collection of five Enya music videos as ''Moonshadows'' for home video.", "In 1993 Enya won her first Grammy Award in the Best New Age Album category for ''Shepherd Moons''.", "Soon after, Enya and Nicky entered discussions with Industrial Light & Magic, founded by George Lucas, regarding an elaborate stage lighting system for a proposed concert tour, but nothing resulted from those discussions.", "In November 1992, Warner obtained the rights to ''Enya'' and re-released the album as ''The Celts'' with new artwork.", "It surpassed its initial sale performance, reaching number 10 in the UK.After travelling worldwide to promote ''Shepherd Moons'', Enya started to write and record her fourth album, ''The Memory of Trees''.By this time, the Ryans had moved to the southern Dublin suburb of Killiney, and a new Aigle Studio had been built alongside their home, with new recording facilities which eliminated the need to go to London to finish recording for the album.", "The new album was released in November 1995 and peaked at number 5 in the UK and number 9 in the US, where it sold over 3 million copies.", "Its lead single, \"Anywhere Is\", reached number 7 in the UK.", "The second, \"On My Way Home\", reached number 26 in the UK.", "In late 1994, Enya put out an extended play of Christmas music titled ''The Christmas EP''.", "Enya was offered the opportunity to compose the film score for ''Titanic'' but declined as it would be a collaboration, rather than solely her composition.", "A recording of her singing \"Oíche Chiúin\", an Irish-language version of \"Silent Night\", appeared on the charity album ''A Very Special Christmas 3'', released in benefit of the Special Olympics in October 1997.In early 1997, Enya began to select tracks for her first compilation album, \"trying to select the obvious ones, the hits, and others.\"", "She chose to work on the collection following the promotional tour for ''The Memory of Trees'' as she felt it was the right time in her career, and that her contract with WEA required her to release a \"best of\" album.", "The set, named ''Paint the Sky with Stars: The Best of Enya'', features two new tracks, \"Paint the Sky with Stars\" and \"Only If...\".", "Released in November 1997, the album was a worldwide commercial success, reaching number 4 in the UK and number 30 in the US, where it went on to sell over 4 million copies.", "\"Only If...\" was released as a single in 1997.Enya described the album as \"like a musical diary... each melody has a little story and I live through that whole story from the beginning... your mind goes back to that day and what you were thinking.", "\"===1998–2007: ''A Day Without Rain'' and ''Amarantine''===Enya started work on her fifth studio album, titled ''A Day Without Rain'', in mid-1998.In a departure from her previous albums, she incorporated the use of a string section into her compositions, something that was not a conscious decision at first, but Enya and Nicky Ryan agreed that it complemented the songs that were being written.", "The album was released in November 2000 and reached number 6 in the UK and an initial peak of number 17 in the US.In the aftermath of the 11 September attacks, US sales of the album and its lead single \"Only Time\" surged after the song was widely used during radio and television coverage of the events, leading to its description as \"a post-September 11th anthem\".", "The exposure caused ''A Day Without Rain'' to outperform its original chart performance to peak at number 2 on the ''Billboard'' 200, and the release of a maxi-single containing the original and a pop remix of \"Only Time\" in November 2001.Enya donated its proceeds in aid of the International Association of Firefighters.", "The song topped the ''Billboard'' Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart and went to number 10 on the Hot 100 singles, Enya's highest charting US single to date.In 2001, Enya agreed to write and perform on two tracks for the soundtrack of ''The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring'' (2001) at the request of director Peter Jackson.", "Its composer Howard Shore \"imagined her voice\" as he wrote the film's score, making an uncommon exception to include another artist in one of his soundtracks.", "After flying to New Zealand to observe the filming and to watch a rough cut of the film, Enya returned to Ireland and composed \"Aníron\" (the theme for Aragorn and Arwen), with lyrics by Roma in J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional Elvish language Sindarin, and \"May It Be\", sung in English and another Tolkien language, Quenya.", "Shore then based his orchestrations around Enya's recorded vocals and themes to create \"a seamless sound\".", "In 2002, Enya released \"May It Be\" as a single which earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song.", "She performed the song live with an orchestra at the 74th Academy Awards ceremony in March 2002, and later cited the moment as a career highlight.Enya undertook additional studio projects in 2001 and 2002.The first was work on the soundtrack of the Japanese romantic film ''Calmi Cuori Appassionati'' (2001), which was subsequently released as ''Themes from Calmi Cuori Appassionati'' (2001).", "This release is formed of tracks spanning her career from ''Enya'' to ''A Day Without Rain'' with two B-sides.", "The album went to number 2 in Japan and became Enya's second album to sell one million copies in the country.In 2004, Enya had another significant \"Boadicea\" sampling request from Diddy, for the song \"I Don't Wanna Know\" performed by Mario Winans.", "She said that the producer \"phoned the studio we were working in and Nicky took the call and he Diddy just said he had this fantastic singer that he was working with and it was Mario Winans.", "Immediately we said “send the song” and it was a great song.", "\"In September 2003, Enya returned to Aigle Studio to start work on her sixth studio album, ''Amarantine''.", "Roma said the title means \"everlasting\".", "The album marks the first instance of Enya singing in Loxian, a fictional language created by Roma that came about when Enya was working on \"Water Shows the Hidden Heart\".", "After numerous attempts to sing the song in English, Irish, and Latin, Roma suggested a new language based on some of the sounds Enya would sing along to when developing her songs.", "It was a success, and Enya sang \"Less Than a Pearl\" and \"The River Sings\" in the same way.", "Roma worked on the language further, creating a \"culture and history\" behind it surrounding the Loxian people who are on another planet, questioning the existence of life outside of Earth.", "\"Sumiregusa (Wild Violet)\" is sung in Japanese.", "''Amarantine'' was a global success, reaching number 6 on the ''Billboard'' 200 and number 8 in the UK.", "It has sold over 1 million certified copies in the US, a considerable drop in sales in comparison to her previous albums.", "Enya dedicated the album to BBC producer Tony McAuley who had commissioned Enya to write the soundtrack to ''The Celts'', following his death in 2003.The lead single, \"Amarantine\", was released in December 2005.===2008–2017: ''And Winter Came...'' and ''Dark Sky Island''===Enya wrote music with a winter and Christmas theme for her seventh studio album, ''And Winter Came...'' Initially, she intended to make an album of seasonal songs and hymns set for a release in late 2007 but decided to produce a winter-themed album instead.The track \"My!", "My!", "Time Flies!", "\", a tribute to the late Irish guitarist Jimmy Faulkner, incorporates a guitar solo performed by Pat Farrell, the first guitar solo on an Enya album since \"I Want Tomorrow\" from ''Enya''.", "The lyrics also include atypical pop-culture references, such as The Beatles' famous photo shoot for the cover of ''Abbey Road''.", "Upon its release in November 2008, ''And Winter Came...'' reached number 6 in the UK and number 8 in the US and sold almost 3.5 million copies worldwide by 2011.After promoting ''And Winter Came...'', Enya took an extended break from writing and recording music.", "She spent her time resting, visiting family in Australia, and renovating her new home in the south of France.", "In March 2009, her first four studio albums were reissued in Japan in the Super High Material CD format with bonus tracks.", "Her second compilation album, ''The Very Best of Enya'', was released in November 2009 and featured songs from 1987 to 2008, including a previously unreleased version of \"Aníron\" and a DVD compiling most of her music videos to date.In 2012, Enya returned to the studio to record her eighth album, ''Dark Sky Island''.", "Its name refers to the island of Sark, which became the first island to be designated a dark-sky preserve, and a series of poems on islands by Roma Ryan.", "In 2013, \"Only Time\" was used in the \"Epic Split\" advertisement by Volvo Trucks starring Jean-Claude Van Damme who does the splits while suspended between two lorries.", "Upon the album's release on 20 November 2015, ''Dark Sky Island'' went to number 4 in the UK, Enya's highest charting studio album there since ''Shepherd Moons'' went to number 1, and to number 8 in the US.", "A Deluxe Edition features three additional songs.", "Enya completed a promotional tour of the UK, Europe, the US, and Japan.", "During her visit to Japan, Enya performed \"Orinoco Flow\" and \"Echoes in Rain\" at the Universal Studios Japan Christmas show in Osaka.", "In December 2016, Enya appeared on the Irish television show ''Christmas Carols from Cork'', marking her first Irish television appearance in over seven years.", "She sang \"Adeste Fideles\", \"Oiche Chiúin\", and \"The Spirit of Christmas Past\".===2019–present; future project potential===Since late 2019 there has been a significant increase in activity from Enya's official social platforms online.", "There have been more official Enya posts on Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, updates to Enya tracks and playlists on Spotify, Apple Music and Amazon Music, as well as YouTube channel updates and new content.", "Several music videos on Enya's official YouTube channel have undergone 4K HD conversion since 2020.Numerous YouTube \"watch party\" videos and vinyl re-releases marking anniversaries of Enya's music albums and compilations have been released since.The first of these videos was in November 2020, posted on Enya's official YouTube channel to commemorate the 20th anniversary of ''A Day Without Rain.''", "In addition to the individual tracks from the album, it included handwritten introductory messages from Enya and Roma Ryan, plus a closing message from Nicky Ryan.", "Some behind-the-scenes clips from the making of the music videos for ''Only Time'' and ''Wild Child'', both directed by Graham Fink, were also included.For the ''Shepherd Moons 30th Anniversary Watch Party video'' in November 2021, Nicky Ryan's introductory message noted that during the COVID-19 pandemic, Aigle Studio underwent some renovations, with new recording equipment and instruments installed, and that with this done, Enya and the Ryans were eager to start working on new music.A 20th anniversary vinyl picture disc re-release of the May It Be single was also released in late 2021.Enya's music continues to be sampled or interpolated by many modern-day producers, particularly her 1986 humming song \"Boadicea\", in songs within the R&B or hip-hop genres.", "Enya had previously noted for her 2015 album Dark Sky Island, that \"several songs here have a stronger beat, and even a little hip-hop influence\".In 2022, for Metro Boomin and The Weeknd's song \"Creepin'\", Enya didn't approve of the song to be released under the working title \"IDWK\" (referring to the song I Don't Wanna Know) so Metro reportedly asked Enya to select song titles that she would be happy with, which included \"Undecided,\" \"Creepin'\", \"Don't Come Back to Me\", \"Better Off That Way\" and \"Wanna Let You Know\".", "Metro said \"Creepin was the one ...", "It ended up being a blessing because it's the best name for it.", "\"In June 2023, Enya's 1997 limited compilation ''A Box of Dreams'' was re-issued on 6 vinyl LPs, featuring new liner notes.", "Nicky Ryan confirmed that they were working on a new album and the possibility of a book based on the trio's thoughts regarding the ''Oceans'' tracks was also mentioned.", "Enya's note, in Irish, read \"Beidh muid ag teacht le chéile gan mhoile\", which roughly translates to \"We will meet again soon\".On 19 September 2023, a watch party video for the 35th anniversary of ''Watermark'' was also presented.", "Alongside this, vinyl LPs of Watermark and a Dolby Atmos upmixed audio for ''Orinoco Flow'' were also released.", "Enya's official website was rebooted, returned to Warner ownership and stylised in late 2023." ], [ "Musical style", "The Roland Juno-60, a favourite keyboard of Enya's that she used on ''Watermark''.", "In 1989, she said: \"We wouldn't part with it for anything in the world\".Enya's vocals have been classified as mezzo-soprano.", "She has cited her musical foundations as \"the classics\", church music, and \"Irish reels and jigs\" with a particular interest in Sergei Rachmaninoff, a favourite composer of hers.", "She has an autographed picture of him in her home.", "Since 1982, she has recorded her music with Nicky Ryan as producer and arranger and his wife Roma Ryan as a lyricist.", "While in Clannad, Enya chose to work with Nicky as the two shared an interest in vocal harmonies, and Ryan, influenced by The Beach Boys and the \"Wall of Sound\" technique that Phil Spector pioneered, wanted to explore the idea of \"the multi-vocals\" for which her music became known.", "According to Enya, \"Angeles\" from ''Shepherd Moons'' has roughly 500 vocals recorded individually and layered.", "Enya performs all vocals and the majority of instruments in her songs, apart from guest musicians (playing percussion, guitar, violin, uilleann pipes, cornet, and double bass).", "Her early works, including ''Watermark,'' feature piano and numerous keyboard synthesisers including the Yamaha KX88 Master, Yamaha DX7, Oberheim Matrix, Kurzweil K250, Fairlight III E-mu Emulator II, Akai S900, PPG Wave Computer 360, Roland D-50 (famously used with the Pizzagogo patch in \"Orinoco Flow\"), and the Roland Juno-60, the latter a particular favourite of hers.Numerous critics and reviewers classify Enya's albums as new-age music and she has won four Grammy Awards in the category.", "However, Enya does not classify her music as part of the genre.", "When asked what genre she would classify her music, she replied \"Enya\".", "Nicky Ryan commented on the new age designation: \"Initially it was fine, but it's really not new age.", "Enya plays a whole lot of instruments, not just keyboards.", "Her melodies are strong and she sings a lot.", "So I can't see a comparison.\"", "Enya also said in 1988 of New Age music \"it's air, thin air\" and noted its spineless nature, unlike her own music.", "In a later interview, Enya said that she \"felt that title was given to any musician whom critics didn't know how to pigeonhole.", "\"Older artwork often inspires some of the visuals that accompany Enya's music.", "The 1991 music video for \"Caribbean Blue\", and the 1995 album cover artwork for ''The Memory of Trees'' both feature adapted works from artist Maxfield Parrish.", "In the 1996 music video for \"On My Way Home\", scenes of girls lighting paper lanterns to hang in flowery foliage were inspired by John Singer Sargent's painting Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose.In addition to her native Irish, Enya has recorded songs in languages including English, French, Latin, Spanish, and Welsh.", "She has recorded music influenced by works from fantasy author J. R. R. Tolkien, including the instrumental \"Lothlórien\" from ''Shepherd Moons''.", "For ''The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring'', she sang \"May It Be\" in English and Tolkien's fictional language Quenya, and she sang \"Aníron\" in another of Tolkien's fictional languages, Sindarin.", "''Amarantine'' and ''Dark Sky Island'' include songs sung in Loxian, a fictional language created by Roma Ryan, that has no official syntax.", "Its vocabulary was formed by Enya singing the song's notes to which Roma wrote their phonetic spelling.Enya adopted a composing and songwriting method that has deviated little throughout her career.", "At the start of the recording process for an album, she enters the studio, forgetting about her previous success, fame, and songs of hers that became hits.", "\"If I did that\", she said, \"I'd have to call it a day\".", "She then develops ideas on the piano, keeping note of any arrangement that can be worked on further.", "During her time writing, Enya works a five-day week, takes weekends off, and does not work on her music at home.", "With Irish as her first language, Enya initially records her songs in Irish as she can express \"feeling much more directly\" in Irish than in English.", "After some time, Enya presents her ideas to Nicky to discuss what pieces work best, while Roma works in parallel to devise lyrics for the songs.", "Enya considered \"Fallen Embers\" from ''A Day Without Rain'' a perfect time when the lyrics reflect how she felt while writing the song.", "In 2008, she newly discovered her tendency to write \"two or three songs\" during the winter months, work on the arrangements and lyrics the following spring and summer, and then work on the next couple of songs when autumn arrives." ], [ "Live performances", "Enya says that Warner Music and she \"did not see eye to eye\" initially as the label imagined her performing on stage \"with a piano... maybe two or three synthesizer players and that's it\".", "Enya also explained that the time put into her studio albums caused her to \"run overtime\", leaving little time to plan for other such projects.", "She also expressed the difficulty in recreating her studio-oriented sound for the stage.", "In 1996, Ryan said Enya had received an offer worth almost £500,000 to perform a concert in Japan.", "In 2016, Enya spoke about the prospect of a live concert when she revealed talks with the Ryans during her three-year break after ''And Winter Came...'' (2008) to perform a show at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City that would be simulcast to cinemas worldwide.", "Before such an event could happen, Nicky suggested that she enter a studio and record \"all the hits\" live with an orchestra and choir to see how they would sound.Enya has sung with live and lip-syncing vocals on various talk and music shows, events, and ceremonies throughout her career, most often during her worldwide press tours for each album.", "In December 1995, she performed \"Anywhere Is\" at a Christmas concert at Vatican City with Pope John Paul II in attendance; he later met and thanked her for performing.", "In April 1996, Enya performed the same song during her surprise appearance at the fiftieth birthday celebration for Carl XVI Gustaf, the king of Sweden and a fan of Enya's.", "In 1997, Enya participated in a live Christmas Eve broadcast in London and flew to County Donegal afterward to join her family for their annual midnight Mass choral performance, in which she participates each year.", "In March 2002, she performed \"May It Be\" with an orchestra at the year's Academy Awards ceremony.", "Enya and her sisters performed as part of the local choir Cor Mhuire in July 2005 at St. Mary's church in Gweedore during the annual Earagail Arts Festival." ], [ "Personal life", "Manderley Castle, Enya's home since 1997Known for her private lifestyle, Enya has said, \"The music is what sells.", "Not me, or what I stand for... that's the way I've always wanted it.\"", "She is unmarried and childfree, but has many nieces and nephews and is considered an aunt to the Ryans' two daughters, having shared their Artane home for almost a decade.", "In 1991, she said, \"I'm afraid of marriage because I'm afraid someone might want me because of who I am instead of because they loved me...", "I wouldn't go rushing into anything unexpected, but I do think a great deal about this.\"", "A relationship she had with one man ended in 1997, around the time when she considered taking time out of music to have a family, but found she was putting pressure on herself over the matter and \"gone the route she wanted to go\".At an auction in 1997, Enya spent £2.5 million on a 157-year-old Victorian listed castellated mansion in Killiney.", "Formerly known as ''Victoria Castle'' and ''Ayesha Castle'', the house was renamed by Enya as Manderley Castle after the house featured in Daphne du Maurier's novel ''Rebecca'' (1938).", "She spent several years renovating the property and installing considerable security measures because of threats from stalkers.", "The improvements covered gaps in the house's outer wall, installed new solid timber entrance gates and iron railings, and brought the surrounding of stone wall up to a new height of .", "In late 2005, the property had two security breaches; during one incident, two people attacked and tied up one of her housekeepers before stealing several items.", "Enya alerted police by raising an alarm from her safe room.", "Enya oversaw most of the interior design (decorations and furnishings of her castle); she was \"not going to trust that to anyone else\".Enya is not known to express political opinions, although a translated quote from a Belgian interview in 1988 — \"generations old potentates and politicians have reduced the whole nation to beggary\" — provides a slight insight into her stance on political and social matters.", "She also admires the authors Oscar Wilde and J. R. R. Tolkien, in addition to the current Pope Francis.", "Enya has identified herself as \"more spiritual than religious\" and has said that she sometimes prays, but prefers \"going into churches when they're empty\".Aside from music, Enya has an appreciation for art, and as of 2000 was collecting artworks by Irish artists including Jack Butler Yeats and Louis le Brocquy and the British artist Albert Goodwin.", "Enya also enjoys watching operas, classic black-and-white films and crime drama series such as ''Breaking Bad'', saying \"myself, Nicky, and Roma are huge fans of ''Breaking Bad''.", "We just didn't miss an episode.\"", "First editions of books are also something Enya enjoys collecting." ], [ "Discography", "The discography of Enya includes 26.5 million certified album sales in the United States and an estimated 82 million record sales worldwide, making her one of the best-selling musicians of all time.", "''A Day Without Rain'' is the best-selling new-age album, with an estimated 16 million copies sold worldwide.", "In the United Kingdom and Ireland, Enya's most successful single in the charts was \"Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)\", reaching number one on 23 October 1988, holding the top placing for three consecutive weeks.", "In 1991, Enya's album ''Shepherd Moons'' entered the charts at number one on 16 November 1991.Enya's awards include seven World Music Awards, four Grammy Awards for Best New Age Album, and an Ivor Novello Award.", "She was nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award for \"May It Be\", a song she wrote for the film ''The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring'' (2001).", "'''Studio albums''' * ''Enya'' (1987) (reissued in 1992 as ''The Celts'')* ''Watermark'' (1988)* ''Shepherd Moons'' (1991)* ''The Memory of Trees'' (1995)* ''A Day Without Rain'' (2000)* ''Amarantine'' (2005)* ''And Winter Came...'' (2008)* ''Dark Sky Island'' (2015)" ], [ "Recognition and legacy", "===Awards and nominations==='''Billboard Music Awards'''2001Enya Top Billboard 200 Artist - Female Top New Age Artist ''A Day Without Rain'' Top Internet Album Top New Age Album 2002 Enya Top New Age Artist Top Adult Contemporary Artist '''BRIT Awards'''1989Enya International Female Solo Artist International Breakthrough Act1992International Solo Artist1993International Solo Artist'''Grammy Awards'''1990\"Orinoco Flow\" Best New Age Performance Best Music Video 1993 ''Shepherd Moons''Best New Age Album 1997 ''The Memory of Trees'' 2002 ''A Day Without Rain'' 2003 \"May It Be\" Best Song Written for Visual Media2007 \"Drifting\" Best Pop Instrumental Performance ''Amarantine''Best New Age Album 2017 ''Dark Sky Island'''''IFPI Hong Kong Top Sales Music Awards'''Ref.", "2001 ''A Day Without Rain'' Top 10 Best Sales Foreign Albums ===Japan Gold Disc Awards=== 1990 Enya New Artist of the Year 1998 ''Paint the Sky with Stars'' Best 3 Albums 2001 ''A Day Without Rain'' International Pop Album of the Year 2002 ''Themes from Calmi Cuori Appassionati'' Best 3 Albums 2006 ''Amarantine'' International Album of the Year '''World Music Awards'''2001 Enya World's Best Selling Irish ArtistWorld's Best Selling New Age Artist2002 World's Best Selling Female ArtistWorld's Best Selling Irish Artist 2003 2006 '''Žebřík Music Awards'''Ref.", "1993EnyaBest International Female 1997 2005 '''Other awards'''1989Enya IRMA Award for Best Female Irish Artist1990 \"Orinoco Flow\" BMI Award for Citation of Achievement1992Shepherd Moons NARM Award for Best Selling New Age Album1993Enya IRMA Award for Best Female Irish Artist \"Book of Days\" Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song 1998 Enya, Nicky Ryan, and Roma Ryan Ivor Novello Award for International Achievement2001 \"May It Be\" Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Song2001 Broadcast Film Critics Association for Best Original Song2002 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song2002 Academy Award for Best Original Song2002 Enya American Music Award for Favorite Adult Contemporary Artist Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement\"Only Time\" ECHO Award for Best Single of the Year (International) BDSCertified Spin Awards – 300,000 Spins 2003BMI Award for Citation of Achievement2004\"I Don't Wanna Know\" Vibe Award for R&B Song of the Year MOBO Award for Best Single MOBO Award for Best Ringtone 2005 BMI Award for Citation of Achievement2016 ''Dark Sky Island'' ECHO Award for Best Female of the Year (International)===Honorary degrees and namings===In 1991, a minor planet first discovered in 1978, 6433 Enya, was named after her.", "In June 2007, she received an honorary doctorate from the National University of Ireland, Galway, for her contributions to music.", "A month later, she also received an honorary DLitt from the University of Ulster.", "In 2017, a newly discovered species of fish, ''Leporinus enyae'', found in the Orinoco River drainage area, was named after Enya, in reference to her song, \"Orinoco Flow\"." ], [ "See also", "* Watermark (Enya album)* List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart* List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 1990s* List of highest-certified music artists in the United States* Orinoco Flow (1988 single by Enya) * Only Time (2000 single by Enya)" ], [ "References", "'''Sources'''* *" ], [ "External links", "** Enya.com redirect to Warner Music page" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "East Berlin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''East Berlin''' (; ) was the partially recognised capital city of East Germany (GDR) from 1948 to 1990, although in 1945, it was recognised by the Three Powers (United States, United Kingdom, and France) as the Soviet occupation sector of Berlin.", "The American, British, and French sectors were known as West Berlin.", "From 13 August 1961 until 9 November 1989, East Berlin was separated from West Berlin by the Berlin Wall.", "The Western Allied powers did not recognize East Berlin as the GDR's capital, nor the GDR's authority to govern East Berlin.", "On 3 October 1990, the day Germany was officially reunified, East and West Berlin formally reunited as the city of Berlin." ], [ "Overview", "With the London Protocol of 1944 signed on 12 September 1944, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union decided to divide Germany into three occupation zones and to establish a special area of Berlin, which was occupied by the three Allied Forces together.", "In May 1945, the Soviet Union installed a city government for the whole city that was called \"Magistrate of Greater Berlin\", which existed until 1947.After the war, the Allied Forces initially administered the city together within the Allied Kommandatura, which served as the governing body of the city.", "However, in 1948 the Soviet representative left the Kommandatura and the common administration broke apart during the following months.", "In the Soviet sector, a separate city government was established, which continued to call itself the \"Magistrate of Greater Berlin\".When the German Democratic Republic was established in 1949, it immediately claimed East Berlin as its capital—a claim that was recognized by all communist countries.", "Nevertheless, East Berlin's representatives to the were not directly elected and did not have full voting rights until 1981.In June 1948, all railways and roads leading to West Berlin were blocked, and East Berliners were not allowed to emigrate.", "Nevertheless, more than 1,000 East Germans were escaping to West Berlin each day by 1960, caused by the strains on the East German economy from war reparations owed to the Soviet Union, massive destruction of industry, and lack of assistance from the Marshall Plan.", "In August 1961, the East German Government tried to stop the population exodus by separating West Berlin by the Berlin Wall.", "It was very dangerous for fleeing residents to cross because armed soldiers were trained to shoot illegal emigrants.East Germany was a socialist republic.", "Eventually, Christian churches were allowed to operate without restraint after years of harassment by authorities.", "In the 1970s, the wages of East Berliners rose and working hours fell.The Soviet Union and the Communist Bloc recognized East Berlin as the GDR's capital.", "However, Western Allies (the United States, United Kingdom, and France) never formally acknowledged the authority of the East German government to govern East Berlin.", "Official Allied protocol recognized only the authority of the Soviet Union in East Berlin in accordance with the occupation status of Berlin as a whole.", "The United States Command Berlin, for example, published detailed instructions for U.S. military and civilian personnel wishing to visit East Berlin.", "In fact, the three Western commandants regularly protested against the presence of the East German National People's Army in East Berlin, particularly on the occasion of military parades.", "Nevertheless, the three Western Allies eventually established embassies in East Berlin in the 1970s, although they never recognized it as the capital of East Germany.", "Treaties instead used terms such as \"seat of government\".On 3 October 1990, East and West Germany and East and West Berlin were reunited, thus formally ending the existence of East Berlin.", "Citywide elections in December 1990 resulted in the first \"all-Berlin\" mayor being elected to take office in January 1991, with the separate offices of mayors in East and West Berlin expiring at the time, and Eberhard Diepgen (a former mayor of West Berlin) became the first elected mayor of a reunited Berlin." ], [ "Historical population", "East Berlin reached its highest population in 1988 with 1.28 million.", "The lowest value was in 1961, the year the Berlin Wall was built, with under 1.06 million registered.", "The figures in the following table, unless otherwise indicated, are from the official central statistical office of East Germany.", "Date Population 29 October 1946 ¹ 1,174,582 31 August 1950 ¹ 1,189,074 31 December 1955 1,139,864 31 December 1960 1,071,775 31 December 1961 1,055,283 31 December 1964 ¹ 1,070,731 Date Population 1 January 1971 ¹ 1,086,374 31 December 1975 1,098,174 31 December 1981 ¹ 1,162,305 31 December 1985 1,215,586 31 December 1988 1,284,535 31 December 1989 1,279,212¹ Census" ], [ "East Berlin today", "Since reunification, the German government has spent vast amounts of money on reintegrating the two halves of the city and bringing services and infrastructure in the former East Berlin up to the standard established in West Berlin.After reunification, the East German economy suffered significantly.", "Under the adopted policy of privatization of state-owned firms under the auspices of the , many East German factories were shut down—which also led to mass unemployment—due to gaps in productivity with and investment compared to West German companies, as well as an inability to comply with West German pollution and safety standards in a way that was deemed cost-effective.", "Because of this, a massive amount of West German economic aid was poured into East Germany to revitalize it.", "This stimulus was part-funded through a 7.5% tax on income for individuals and companies (in addition to normal income tax or company tax) known as the '''' (SolZG) or \"solidarity surcharge\", which though only in effect for 1991–1992 (later reintroduced in 1995 at 7.5 and then dropped down to 5.5% in 1998 and continues to be levied to this day) led to a great deal of resentment toward the East Germans.Despite the large sums of economic aid poured into East Berlin, there still remain obvious differences between the former East and West Berlins.", "East Berlin has a distinct visual style; this is partly due to the greater survival of prewar façades and streetscapes, with some still showing signs of wartime damage.", "The unique look of Socialist Classicism that was used in East Berlin (along with the rest of the former GDR) also contrasts markedly with the urban development styles employed in the former West Berlin.", "Additionally, the former East Berlin (along with the rest of the former GDR) retains a small number of its GDR-era street and place names commemorating German socialist heroes, such as Karl-Marx-Allee, Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz, and Karl-Liebknecht-Straße.", "Many such names, however, were deemed inappropriate (for various reasons) and, through decommunization, changed after a long process of review (so, for instance, Leninallee reverted to Landsberger Allee in 1991, and Dimitroffstraße reverted to Danziger Straße in 1995).Another symbolic icon of the former East Berlin (and of East Germany as a whole) is the (tr.", "\"little traffic light men\"), a stylized version of a fedora-wearing man crossing the street, which is found on traffic lights at many pedestrian crosswalks throughout the former East.", "Following a civic debate about whether the should be abolished or disseminated more widely (due to concerns of consistency), several crosswalks in some parts of the former West Berlin began to employ the .Twenty-five years after the two cities were reunified, the people of East and West Berlin still had noticeable differences between them, and these differences became more apparent among the older generations.", "The two groups also had sometimes-derogatory slang terms to refer to each other.", "A former East Berliner (or East German) was known as an \"''''\" (from the German word for east, ''''), and a former West Berliner (or West German) was known as a \"''''\" (from the German word for west, '''').", "Both sides also engaged in stereotyping the other.", "A stereotypical '''' had little ambition or poor work ethic and was chronically bitter, while a stereotypical '''' was arrogant, selfish, impatient and pushy." ], [ "Boroughs", "Boroughs of East Berlin (as of 1987)At the time of German reunification, East Berlin comprised the boroughs of* Friedrichshain* Hellersdorf (since 1986)* Hohenschönhausen (since 1985)* Köpenick* Lichtenberg* Marzahn (since 1979)* Mitte* Pankow* Prenzlauer Berg* Treptow* Weißensee" ], [ "Images", "File:Marx-engels-platz.jpg|Marx-Engels-Platz and the Palace of the Republic in East Berlin in the summer of 1989.The (TV Tower) is visible in the background.File:Fehrnsehturm Palast.jpg|Easter Sunday, 1988, and Palace of the RepublicFile:Karl-Marx-Allee Block C Nord Berlin April 2006 060.jpg|Karl-Marx-Allee apartmentsFile:Lenindecoration.JPG|Wall plaque of Lenin, off WilhelmstrasseFile:Veggdekorasjon.JPG|GDR-era mural of Meissen porcelain on former Council of Ministers building, facing Leipziger StraßeFile:Soviet War Memorial Park.JPG|The Soviet War Memorial in Treptower ParkFile:Cafe Moskau.JPG|Cafe Moskau in Karl-Marx-AlleeFile:Dismantling of the Palace of the Republic.JPG|The Palace of the Republic, being dismantledFile:New Synagogue, East Berlin.JPG|New Synagogue, Oranienburger StraßeFile:Weberwiese Berlin April 2006 147.jpg|\"Hochhaus\" in Weberwiese, the first high rise apartment built after the warFile:VolksbühBerlJan08.JPG|, Rosa-Luxemburg-PlatzFile:Berlin Wilhelmstrasse.jpg|Late-1980s GDR apartment blocks on the WilhelmstrasseFile:Strausberger Platz Berlin April 2006 117.jpg|Strausberger Platz with constructivism style buildingFile:Proletarian hero, Alexanderplatz june 2006.JPG|Proletarian hero, File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-U1109-022, Berlin, Sandmännchen.jpg|Gerhard Behrendt with .", "The show was recorded in East Berlin.File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-41736-0005, Berlin, Bodemuseum, Monbijoubrücke.jpg|The Bode Museum at the northern end of the Museum Island, 1956File:Haus der Schweiz, Unter den Linden at FriedrichStrasse, East Berlin, February 1975.jpg|, Unter der Linden at FriedrichStrasse, East Berlin, February 1975File:Statues of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.JPG|Statues of Marx and Engels, Marx-Engels-Forum" ], [ "See also", "* West Berlin* Bonn, the West German capital city" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* My First Time to East Berlin, 11 November 2019, James Bovard, Mises Institute" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of international environmental agreements" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a '''list of international environmental agreements'''.Most of the following agreements are legally binding for countries that have formally ratified them.", "Some, such as the Kyoto Protocol, differentiate between types of countries and each nation's respective responsibilities under the agreement.", "Several hundred international environmental agreements exist but most link only a limited number of countries.", "These bilateral or sometimes trilateral agreements are only binding for the countries that have ratified them but are nevertheless essential in the international environmental regime.", "Including the major conventions listed below, more than 3,000 international environmental instruments have been identified by the IEA Database Project." ], [ "Alphabetical order", "*Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, Aarhus, 1998*Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds*Alpine Convention together with its nine protocols*Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty) (ABMT)*ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution*Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate*Barcelona Convention for Protection against Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea, 1976*Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, Basel, 1989*Biological Weapons Convention (Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological Biological and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction) (BWC)*Bonn Agreement*Carpathian Convention Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians*Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 2000*Chemical Weapons Convention*China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement*Coastal Marine and Island Biodiversity Conservation Project (Eritrea)*Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), 1996*Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), Canberra, 1980**Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora**Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources**Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals**Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty*Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region, Abidjan, 198*Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Cartagena de Indias, 1983*Convention of the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region, Nairobi, 1985*Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-east Pacific, Lima, 1981*Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-east Atlantic (OSPAR Convention), Paris, 1992*Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, Nouméa, 1986*Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (Assistance Convention), Vienna, 1986*Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movements and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, Bamako, 1991*Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Nairobi, 1992*Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons*Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Caused during Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road, Rail, and Inland Navigation Vessels (CRTD), Geneva, 1989*Convention on Cluster Munitions*Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats*Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Bonn, 1979*Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (Notification Convention), Vienna, 1986*Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas*Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), Washington, DC, 1973*Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution* Convention on Nature Protection and Wild Life Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, Washington, DC, 1940*Convention on Nuclear Safety, Vienna, 1994**EMEP Protocol**Heavy Metals Protocol**Multi-effect Protocol (Gothenburg protocol) **Nitrogen Oxide Protocol**POP Air Pollution Protocol**Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocols 1985 and 1994**Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol*Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter*Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques*Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (ECE Water Convention), Helsinki, 1992*Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution, Bucharest, 1992*Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area 1992 Helsinki Convention, Helsinki, 1992*Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents, Helsinki, 1992*Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat (notably not a Multilateral Environmental Agreement)*Convention to Ban the Importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region, Waigani, 1995*Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD), Paris, 1994*Conventions within the UNEP Regional Seas Programme*Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions*Energy Community (Energy Community South East Europe Treaty) (ECSEE)*Espoo Convention Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, Espoo, 1991*European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Inland Waterways (ADN), Geneva, 2000*European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR), Geneva, 1957*FAO International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, Rome, 1985*FAO International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, Rome, 1983*Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea*Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), New York, 1992*Geneva Protocol (Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare)*International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), Rio de Janeiro, 1966*International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships*International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, London, 1954, 1962, 1969*International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW), Washington, 1946*International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture*International Tropical Timber Agreement (expired), 1983*International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA), Geneva, 1994*Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, Kuwait, 1978*Kyoto Protocol - greenhouse gas emission reductions*Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918*Minamata Convention on Mercury, 2013*Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal, 1989*Nagoya Protocol on Access and benefit sharing 2010, Japan*North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation*Paris Agreement, France, 2015*Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty*Putrajaya Declaration of Regional Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Seas of East Asia, Malaysia, 2003*Ramsar Convention Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat, Ramsar, 1971*Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Environment, Jeddah, 1982*Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, Rotterdam, 1998*Stockholm Convention Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants Stockholm, 2001*Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water*United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea*United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification*United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change*Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, 1985, including the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal, 1987*Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, Vienna, 1963*Western Regional Climate Action Initiative*Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977" ], [ "Topic order", "===General ===*Aarhus Convention Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, Aarhus, 1998*Espoo Convention Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, Espoo, 1991===Atmosphere===*Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), Geneva, 1979*Environmental Protection: Aircraft Engine Emissions, Annex 16, vol.", "2 to the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, Montreal, 1981*Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), New York, 1992, including the Kyoto Protocol, 1997, and the Paris Agreement, 2015* Georgia Basin-Puget Sound International Airshed Strategy, Vancouver, Statement of Intent, 2002*U.S.-Canada Air Quality Agreement (bilateral U.S.-Canadian agreement on acid rain), 1986*Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, 1985, including the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal, 1987===Freshwater resources===*Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (ECE Water Convention), Helsinki, 1992===Hazardous substances===*Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Caused during Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road, Rail, and Inland Navigation Vessels (CRTD), Geneva, 1989*Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, Basel, 1989*Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movements and Management of Hazardous Wastes Within Africa, Bamako, 1991*Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, Rotterdam, 1998*Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents, Helsinki, 1992*European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Inland Waterways (AND), Geneva, 2000*European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR), Geneva, 1957*FAO International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, Rome, 1985*Minamata Convention on Mercury, Minamata, 2013*Stockholm Convention Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants Stockholm, 2001*Convention to Ban the Importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region, Waigani, 1995===Marine environment – global conventions===*Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention), London, 1972*International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78), London, 1973 and 1978*International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, London, 1954, 1962 and 1969*International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC), Brussels, 1969, 1976,1984 and 1992*International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage(FUND)1971 and 1992, Brussels, 1971/1992*International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (HNS), London, 1996*International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC), London, 1990*International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties Intervention Convention, Brussels, 1969*Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Co-operation to Pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances OPRC-HNS Protocol, London, 2000*United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea LOS Convention, Montego Bay, 1982===Marine environment – regional conventions===*Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region, Abidjan, 1981*Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and Coastal Region of the Mediterranean Sea Barcelona Convention, Barcelona, 1976*Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Cartagena de Indias, 1983*Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region (Nairobi Convention), Nairobi, 1985*Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-east Pacific, Lima, 1981*Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-east Atlantic OSPAR Convention, Paris, 1992*Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, Nouméa, 1986*Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution, Bucharest, 1992*Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area Helsinki Convention (HELCOM), Helsinki, 1974, 1992*Conventions within the UNEP Regional Seas Programme*Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea*Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, Kuwait, 1978*Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Environment, Jeddah, 1982===Marine living resources===*Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels*Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and contiguous Atlantic area (ACCOBAMS), Monaco, 1996*Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBANS), New York, 1992*Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), Canberra, 1980**Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora**Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources**Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals**Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty*Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Bonn, 1979*International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), Rio de Janeiro, 1966*International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW), Washington, 1946===Nature conservation and terrestrial living resources===*Antarctic Treaty, Washington, DC, 1959*Amazon Cooperation Treaty, Brasilia, 1978*Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Nairobi, 1992*Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Bonn, 1979*Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), Washington, DC, 1973*Organization of American States Convention on Nature Protection and Wild Life Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, Washington, DC, 1940*United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), Paris, 1994*Food and Agriculture Organization International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, Rome, 1983**the 1983 \"voluntary undertaking\" was updated and strengthened as the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Madrid, 2001*International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA), Geneva, 1994*Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (Raptors MoU)*Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat ( the Convention on Wetlands), Ramsar, 1971*UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ( the World Heritage Convention), Paris, 1972===Noise pollution===*Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977===Nuclear safety===*Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, 1996*Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (Assistance Convention), Vienna, 1986*Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (Notification Convention), Vienna, 1986*Convention on Nuclear Safety, Vienna, 1994*Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water*Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, Vienna, 1963" ], [ "See also", "* Action for Climate Empowerment* Arms control* Climate target* ''Earth Negotiations Bulletin''* Environmental law* Environmental organizations* Environmental tariff* International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement* List of climate change initiatives* List of environmental laws by country* List of environmental lawsuits* List of international animal welfare conventions* List of supranational environmental agencies* List of treaties* Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Relationship between MEAs and the World Trade Organization* Mitchell's Databaseproject on IEAs (archived 18 August 2011)* ECOLEX-the gateway to environmental law" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epsilon" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Epsilon''' (, ; uppercase '''''', lowercase '''''' or lunate ''''''; ) is the fifth letter of the Greek alphabet, corresponding phonetically to a mid front unrounded vowel or .", "In the system of Greek numerals it also has the value five.", "It was derived from the Phoenician letter He He.", "Letters that arose from epsilon include the Roman E, Ë and Ɛ, and Cyrillic Е, È, Ё, Є and Э.The name of the letter was originally (), but it was later changed to ( 'simple e') in the Middle Ages to distinguish the letter from the digraph , a former diphthong that had come to be pronounced the same as epsilon.The uppercase form of epsilon is identical to Latin E but has its own code point in Unicode: .", "The lowercase version has two typographical variants, both inherited from medieval Greek handwriting.", "One, the most common in modern typography and inherited from medieval minuscule, looks like a reversed number \"3\" and is encoded .", "The other, also known as lunate or uncial epsilon and inherited from earlier uncial writing, looks like a semicircle crossed by a horizontal bar: it is encoded .", "While in normal typography these are just alternative font variants, they may have different meanings as mathematical symbols: computer systems therefore offer distinct encodings for them.", "In TeX, \\epsilon ( ) denotes the lunate form, while \\varepsilon ( ) denotes the reversed-3 form.", "Unicode versions 2.0.0 and onwards use as the lowercase Greek epsilon letter, but in version 1.0.0, was used.", "The lunate or uncial epsilon provided inspiration for the euro sign, .There is also a 'Latin epsilon', or \"open e\", which looks similar to the Greek lowercase epsilon.", "It is encoded in Unicode as and and is used as an IPA phonetic symbol.", "This Latin uppercase epsilon, , is not to be confused with the Greek uppercase (sigma)The lunate epsilon, , is not to be confused with the set membership symbol .", "The symbol , first used in set theory and logic by Giuseppe Peano and now used in mathematics in general for set membership (\"belongs to\"), evolved from the letter epsilon, since the symbol was originally used as an abbreviation for the Latin word .", "In addition, mathematicians often read the symbol as \"element of\", as in \"1 is an element of the natural numbers\" for , for example.", "As late as 1960, ε itself was used for set membership, while its negation \"does not belong to\" (now ) was denoted by (epsilon prime).", "Only gradually did a fully separate, stylized symbol take the place of epsilon in this role.", "In a related context, Peano also introduced the use of a backwards epsilon, , for the phrase \"such that\", although the abbreviation ''s.t.''", "is occasionally used in place of ϶ in informal cardinals." ], [ "History", "===Origin===The letter Ε backwards 3 was adopted from the Phoenician letter He (x12px) when Greeks first adopted alphabetic writing.", "In archaic Greek writing, its shape is often still identical to that of the Phoenician letter.", "Like other Greek letters, it could face either leftward or rightward (x14pxx14px), depending on the current writing direction, but, just as in Phoenician, the horizontal bars always faced in the direction of writing.", "Archaic writing often preserves the Phoenician form with a vertical stem extending slightly below the lowest horizontal bar.", "In the classical era, through the influence of more cursive writing styles, the shape was simplified to the current E glyph.===Sound value===While the original pronunciation of the Phoenician letter ''He'' was , the earliest Greek sound value of Ε was determined by the vowel occurring in the Phoenician letter name, which made it a natural choice for being reinterpreted from a consonant symbol to a vowel symbol denoting an sound.", "Besides its classical Greek sound value, the short phoneme, it could initially also be used for other -like sounds.", "For instance, in early Attic before , it was used also both for the long, open , and for the long close .", "In the former role, it was later replaced in the classic Greek alphabet by Eta (Η), which was taken over from eastern Ionic alphabets, while in the latter role it was replaced by the digraph spelling ΕΙ.===Epichoric alphabets===Some dialects used yet other ways of distinguishing between various e-like sounds.In Corinth, the normal function of Ε to denote and was taken by a glyph resembling a pointed B (x14px), while Ε was used only for long close .", "The letter Beta, in turn, took the deviant shape x14px.In Sicyon, a variant glyph resembling an X (x14px) was used in the same function as Corinthian x14px.In Thespiai (Boeotia), a special letter form consisting of a vertical stem with a single rightward-pointing horizontal bar (x12px) was used for what was probably a raised variant of in pre-vocalic environments.", "This tack glyph was used elsewhere also as a form of \"Heta\", i.e.", "for the sound .===Glyph variants===After the establishment of the canonical classical Ionian (Euclidean) Greek alphabet, new glyph variants for Ε were introduced through handwriting.", "In the uncial script (used for literary papyrus manuscripts in late antiquity and then in early medieval vellum codices), the \"lunate\" shape (x12px) became predominant.", "In cursive handwriting, a large number of shorthand glyphs came to be used, where the cross-bar and the curved stroke were linked in various ways.", "Some of them resembled a modern lowercase Latin \"e\", some a \"6\" with a connecting stroke to the next letter starting from the middle, and some a combination of two small \"c\"-like curves.", "Several of these shapes were later taken over into minuscule book hand.", "Of the various minuscule letter shapes, the inverted-3 form became the basis for lower-case Epsilon in Greek typography during the modern era.UncialUncial variantsCursive variantsMinusculeMinuscule with ligaturesx20pxx30pxx30pxx40pxx40px" ], [ "Uses", "===International Phonetic Alphabet===Despite its pronunciation as mid, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the Latin epsilon represents open-mid front unrounded vowel, as in the English word ''pet'' .===Symbol===The uppercase Epsilon is not commonly used outside of the Greek language because of its similarity to the Latin letter E. However, it is commonly used in structural mechanics with Young's Modulus equations for calculating tensile, compressive and areal strain.The Greek lowercase epsilon , the lunate epsilon symbol , and the Latin lowercase epsilon (see above) are used in a variety of places:* In engineering mechanics, strain calculations ϵ = increase of length / original length.", "Usually this relates to extensometer testing of metallic materials.", "* In mathematics ** (particularly calculus), an infinitesimally small positive quantity is commonly denoted ε; see (ε, δ)-definition of limit.", "** Hilbert introduced epsilon terms as an extension to first-order logic; see epsilon calculus.", "** it is used to represent the Levi-Civita symbol.", "** it is used to represent dual numbers: , with and .", "** it is sometimes used to denote the Heaviside step function.", "** in set theory, the epsilon numbers are ordinal numbers that satisfy the fixed point ε = ωε.", "The first epsilon number, ε0, is the limit ordinal of the set {ω, ωω, ωωω, ...}.", "** in numerical analysis and statistics it is used as the error term** in group theory it is used as the idempotent group when e is in use as a variable name* In computer science** it often represents the empty string, though different writers use a variety of other symbols for the empty string as well; usually the lower-case Greek letter lambda (λ).", "** the machine epsilon indicates the upper bound on the relative error due to rounding in floating point arithmetic.", "* In physics, ** it indicates the permittivity of a medium; with the subscript 0 (ε0) it is the permittivity of free space.", "** it can also indicate the strain of a material (a ratio of extensions).", "* In automata theory, it shows a transition that involves no shifting of an input symbol.", "* In astronomy, ** it stands for the fifth-brightest star in a constellation (see Bayer designation).", "** Epsilon is the name for the most distant and most visible ring of Uranus.", "** In planetary science, ε denotes the axial tilt.", "* In chemistry, it represents the molar extinction coefficient of a chromophore.", "* In economics, ε refers to elasticity.", "* In statistics, ** it is used to refer to error terms.", "** it also can to refer to the degree of sphericity in repeated measures ANOVAs.", "* In agronomy, it is used to represent the \"photosynthetic efficiency\" of a particular plant or crop." ], [ "Unicode", "* Greek Epsilon* Coptic Eie* Latin Open E* Mathematical EpsilonThese characters are used only as mathematical symbols.", "Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style." ], [ "Initial", "File:Lectionary 226 GA 0020b Epsilon.JPG|Initial epsilon in Lectionary 226, folio 20 versoFile:Lectionary 226 (GA) Epsilon 0064b.JPG|folio 64 versoFile:Lectionary 226 GA 0125b Epsilon.JPG|folio 125 verso" ], [ "See also", "* Е and е, the letter Ye of the Cyrillic alphabet* Є є, Ukrainian Ye* Ԑ ԑ, Reversed Ze* E (disambiguation)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Hoffman, Paul; ''The Man Who Loved Only Numbers''.", "Hyperion, 1998.." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eta" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eta''' (uppercase '''''', lowercase ''''''; ''ē̂ta'' or ''ita'' ) is the seventh letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the close front unrounded vowel, .", "Originally denoting the voiceless glottal fricative, , in most dialects of Ancient Greek, its sound value in the classical Attic dialect was a long open-mid front unrounded vowel, , which was raised to in Hellenistic Greek, a process known as iotacism or itacism.In the ancient Attic number system (Herodianic or acrophonic numbers), the number 100 was represented by \"\", because it was the initial of , the ancient spelling of = \"one hundred\".", "In the later system of (Classical) Greek numerals eta represents 8.Eta was derived from the Phoenician letter heth 20px.", "Letters that arose from eta include the Latin H and the Cyrillic letters И and Й." ], [ "History", "===Consonant h===Eta (heta) in the function of on the ostrakon of Megacles, son of Hippocrates, 487 BC.", "Inscription: .", "On display in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed in the Stoa of Attalus.red-figured calyx-krater, 515 BC.", "Amongst the depicted figures are Hermes and Hypnos.", "Inscriptions: – .The letter shape 'H' was originally used in most Greek dialects to represent the voiceless glottal fricative, .", "In this function, it was borrowed in the 8th century BC by the Etruscan and other Old Italic alphabets, which were based on the Euboean form of the Greek alphabet.", "This also gave rise to the Latin alphabet with its letter H.Other regional variants of the Greek alphabet (epichoric alphabets), in dialects that still preserved the sound , employed various glyph shapes for consonantal ''heta'' side by side with the new vocalic ''eta'' for some time.", "In the southern Italian colonies of Heracleia and Tarentum, the letter shape was reduced to a \"half-heta\" lacking the right vertical stem (Ͱ).", "From this sign later developed the sign for rough breathing or ''spiritus asper'', which brought back the marking of the sound into the standardized post-classical (polytonic) orthography.Dionysius Thrax in the second century BC records that the letter name was still pronounced ''heta'' (ἥτα), correctly explaining this irregularity by stating \"in the old days the letter Η served to stand for the rough breathing, as it still does with the Romans.", "\"===Long e===In the East Ionic dialect, however, the sound disappeared by the sixth century BC, and the letter was re-used initially to represent a development of a long open front unrounded vowel, , which later merged in East Ionic with the long open-mid front unrounded vowel, instead.", "In 403 BC, Athens took over the Ionian spelling system and with it the vocalic use of H (even though it still also had the sound itself at that time).", "This later became the standard orthography in all of Greece.===Itacism===During the time of post-classical Koiné Greek, the sound represented by eta was raised and merged with several other formerly distinct vowels, a phenomenon called ''iotacism'' or ''itacism'', after the new pronunciation of the letter name as ''ita'' instead of ''eta''.Itacism is continued into Modern Greek, where the letter name is pronounced and represents the close front unrounded vowel, .", "It shares this function with several other letters (ι, υ) and digraphs (ει, οι), which are all pronounced alike.===Cyrillic script===Eta was also borrowed with the sound value of into the Cyrillic script, where it gave rise to the Cyrillic letter И." ], [ "Uses", "===Letter===In Modern Greek, due to iotacism, the letter (pronounced ) represents a close front unrounded vowel, .", "In Classical Greek, it represented the long open-mid front unrounded vowel, .===Symbol=======Upper case====The uppercase letter Η is used as a symbol in textual criticism for the Alexandrian text-type (from Hesychius, its once-supposed editor).In chemistry, the letter H as symbol of enthalpy sometimes is said to be a Greek eta, but since enthalpy comes from ἐνθάλπος, which begins in a smooth breathing and epsilon, it is more likely a Latin H for 'heat'.In information theory the uppercase Greek letter Η is used to represent the concept of entropy of a discrete random variable.====Lower case====The lowercase letter η is used as a symbol in:*Thermodynamics, the efficiency of a Carnot heat engine, or packing fraction.", "*Aeronautics, the propulsive efficiency, or percentage of chemical energy converted to kinetic energy.", "*Chemistry, the hapticity, or the number of atoms of a ligand attached to one coordination site of the metal in a coordination compound.", "For example, an allyl group can coordinate to palladium in the η¹ mode (only one atom of an allyl group attached to palladium) or the η³ mode (3 atoms attached to palladium).", "*Optics, the electromagnetic impedance of a medium, or the quantum efficiency of detectors.", "*Particle physics, to represent the η mesons.", "*Experimental particle physics, η stands for pseudorapidity.", "*Cosmology, η represents conformal time; dt = adη.", "*Cosmology, baryon–photon ratio.", "*Relativity and Quantum field theory (physics), η (with two subscripts) represents the metric tensor of Minkowski space (flat spacetime).", "*Statistics, ''η''2 is the \"partial regression coefficient\".", "''η'' is the symbol for the linear predictor of a generalized linear model, and can also be used to denote the median of a population, or thresholding parameter in Sparse Partial Least Squares regression.", "*Economics, ''η'' is the elasticity.", "*Astronomy, the seventh-brightest (usually) star in a constellation.", "''See'' Bayer designation.", "*Mathematics, η-reduction in lambda calculus.", "*Mathematics, the Dirichlet eta function, Dedekind eta function, and Weierstrass eta function.", "*In category theory, the unit of an adjunction or monad is usually denoted ''η''.", "*Biology, a DNA polymerase found in higher eukaryotes and implicated in Translesion Synthesis.", "*Neural network backpropagation, and stochastic gradient descent more generally, η stands for the learning rate.", "*Telecommunications, η stands for efficiency*Electronics, η stands for the ideality factor of a bipolar transistor, and has a value close to 1.000.It appears in contexts where the transistor is used as a temperature sensing device, e.g.", "the thermal \"diode\" transistor that is embedded within a computer's microprocessor.", "*Power electronics, η stands for the efficiency of a power supply, defined as the output power divided by the input power.", "*Atmospheric science, η represents absolute atmospheric vorticity.", "*Rheology, η represents viscosity.", "*Oceanography, η is the measurement (usually in metres) of sea-level height above or below the mean sea-level at that same location." ], [ "Character encodings", "===Greek Eta, Coptic Ayta======Mathematical Eta===These characters are used only as mathematical symbols.", "Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style." ], [ "See also", "*Hurricane Eta" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eskimo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eskimo''' () is an exonym that refers to two closely related Indigenous peoples: Inuit (including the Alaska Native Iñupiat, the Canadian Inuit, and the Greenlandic Inuit) and the Yupik (or Yuit) of eastern Siberia and Alaska.", "A related third group, the Aleut, who inhabit the Aleutian Islands, are generally excluded from the definition of Eskimo.", "The three groups share a relatively recent common ancestor, and speak related languages belonging to the Eskaleut language family.These circumpolar peoples have traditionally inhabited the Arctic and subarctic regions from eastern Siberia (Russia) to Alaska (United States), Northern Canada, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, and Greenland.Many Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and other individuals consider the term ''Eskimo'', which is of a disputed etymology, to be offensive and even pejorative.", "Eskimo continues to be used within a historical, linguistic, archaeological, and cultural context.", "The governments in Canada and the United States have made moves to cease using the term ''Eskimo'' in official documents, but it has not been eliminated, as the word is in some places written into tribal, and therefore national, legal terminology.", "Canada officially uses the term ''Inuit'' to describe the indigenous Canadian people who are living in the country's northern sectors and are not First Nations or Métis.", "The United States government legally uses ''Alaska Native'' for enrolled tribal members of the Yupik, Inuit, and Aleut, and also for non-Eskimos including the Tlingit, the Haida, the Eyak, and the Tsimshian, in addition to at least nine northern Athabaskan/Dene peoples.", "Other non-enrolled individuals also claim Eskimo/Aleut descent, making it the world's \"most widespread aboriginal group\".", "There are between 171,000 and 187,000 Inuit and Yupik, the majority of whom live in or near their traditional circumpolar homeland.", "Of these, 53,785 (2010) live in the United States, 65,025 (2016) in Canada, 51,730 (2021) in Greenland and 1,657 (2021) in Russia.", "In addition, 16,730 people living in Denmark were born in Greenland.", "The Inuit Circumpolar Council, a non-governmental organization (NGO), claims to represent 180,000 people.In the Eskaleut language family, the Eskimo branch has an Inuit language sub-branch, and a sub-branch of four Yupik languages.", "Two Yupik languages are used in the Russian Far East as well as on St. Lawrence Island, and two in western Alaska, southwestern Alaska, and western Southcentral Alaska.", "The extinct Sirenik language is sometimes claimed to be related." ], [ "<span id=\"Terminology\"></span>Nomenclature", "=== Etymology ===Illustration of a Greenlandic Inuit manA variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origin of the word Eskimo.", "According to Smithsonian linguist Ives Goddard, etymologically the word derives from the Innu-aimun (Montagnais) word ''ayas̆kimew'', meaning \"a person who laces a snowshoe\", and is related to ''husky'' (a breed of dog).", "The word ''assime·w'' means \"she laces a snowshoe\" in Innu, and Innu language speakers refer to the neighbouring Mi'kmaq people using words that sound like ''eskimo''.", "This interpretation is generally confirmed by more recent academic sources.In 1978, José Mailhot, a Quebec anthropologist who speaks Innu-aimun (Montagnais), published a paper suggesting that Eskimo meant \"people who speak a different language\".", "French traders who encountered the Innu (Montagnais) in the eastern areas adopted their word for the more western peoples and spelled it as ''Esquimau'' or ''Esquimaux'' in a transliteration.Some people consider ''Eskimo'' offensive, because it is popularly perceived to mean \"eaters of raw meat\" in Algonquian languages common to people along the Atlantic coast.", "An unnamed Cree speaker suggested the original word that became corrupted to Eskimo might have been ''askamiciw'' (meaning \"he eats it raw\"); Inuit are referred to in some Cree texts as ''askipiw'' (meaning \"eats something raw\").", "Regardless, the term still carries a derogatory connotation for many Inuit and Yupik.One of the first printed uses of the French word ''Esquimaux'' comes from Samuel Hearne's ''A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean in the Years 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772'' first published in 1795.=== Usage ===Laminar armour from hardened leather reinforced by wood and bones worn by native Siberians and EskimosLamellar armour worn by native SiberiansThe term ''Eskimo'' is still used by people to encompass Inuit and Yupik, as well as other Indigenous or Alaska Native and Siberian peoples.", "In the 21st century, usage in North America has declined.", "Linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences exist between Yupik and Inuit.In Canada and Greenland, and to a certain extent in Alaska, the term ''Eskimo'' is predominantly seen as offensive and has been widely replaced by the term ''Inuit'' or terms specific to a particular group or community.", "This has resulted in a trend whereby some non-Indigenous people believe that they should use ''Inuit'' even for Yupik who are non-Inuit.Greenlandic Inuit generally refer to themselves as Greenlanders (\"Kalaallit\" or \"Grønlændere\") and speak the Greenlandic language and Danish.", "Greenlandic Inuit belong to three groups: the Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut; the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat (\"East Greenlandic\"); and the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun.The word \"Eskimo\" is a racially charged term in Canada.", "In Canada's Central Arctic, ''Inuinnaq'' is the preferred term, and in the eastern Canadian Arctic ''Inuit''.", "The language is often called ''Inuktitut'', though other local designations are also used.Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and section 35 of the Canadian Constitution Act of 1982 recognized Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal peoples in Canada.", "Although ''Inuit'' can be applied to all of the Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, that is not true in Alaska and Siberia.", "In Alaska, the term ''Eskimo'' is still used because it includes both Iñupiat (singular: Iñupiaq), who are Inuit, and Yupik, who are not.The term ''Alaska Native'' is inclusive of (and under U.S. and Alaskan law, as well as the linguistic and cultural legacy of Alaska, refers to) all Indigenous peoples of Alaska, including not only the Iñupiat (Alaskan Inuit) and the Yupik, but also groups such as the Aleut, who share a recent ancestor, as well as the largely unrelated indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and the Alaskan Athabaskans, such as the Eyak people.", "The term ''Alaska Native'' has important legal usage in Alaska and the rest of the United States as a result of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971.It does not apply to Inuit or Yupik originating outside the state.", "As a result, the term Eskimo is still in use in Alaska.", "Alternative terms, such as ''Inuit-Yupik'', have been proposed, but none has gained widespread acceptance.", "Early 21st century population estimates registered more than 135,000 individuals of Eskimo descent, with approximately 85,000 living in North America, 50,000 in Greenland, and the rest residing in Siberia.=== Inuit Circumpolar Council ===In 1977, the Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) meeting in Utqiaġvik, Alaska, officially adopted ''Inuit'' as a designation for all circumpolar Native peoples, regardless of their local view on an appropriate term.", "They voted to replace the word ''Eskimo'' with ''Inuit''.", "Even at that time, such a designation was not accepted by all.", "As a result, the Canadian government usage has replaced the term ''Eskimo'' with ''Inuit'' (''Inuk'' in singular).The ICC charter defines ''Inuit'' as including \"the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland) and Yupik (Russia)\".", "Despite the ICC's 1977 decision to adopt the term ''Inuit'', this has not been accepted by all or even most Yupik people.In 2010, the ICC passed a resolution in which they implored scientists to use ''Inuit'' and ''Paleo-Inuit'' instead of ''Eskimo'' or ''Paleo-Eskimo''.==== Academic response ====In a 2015 commentary in the journal ''Arctic'', Canadian archaeologist Max Friesen argued fellow Arctic archaeologists should follow the ICC and use ''Paleo-Inuit'' instead of ''Paleo-Eskimo''.", "In 2016, Lisa Hodgetts and ''Arctic'' editor Patricia Wells wrote: \"In the Canadian context, continued use of any term that incorporates ''Eskimo'' is potentially harmful to the relationships between archaeologists and the Inuit and Inuvialuit communities who are our hosts and increasingly our research partners.", "\"Hodgetts and Wells suggested using more specific terms when possible (e.g., Dorset and Groswater) and agreed with Frieson in using the ''Inuit tradition'' to replace ''Neo-Eskimo'', although they noted replacement for ''Palaeoeskimo'' was still an open question and discussed ''Paleo-Inuit'', ''Arctic Small Tool Tradition'', and ''pre-Inuit'', as well as Inuktitut loanwords like ''Tuniit'' and ''Sivullirmiut'', as possibilities.In 2020, Katelyn Braymer-Hayes and colleagues argued in the ''Journal of Anthropological Archaeology'' that there is a \"clear need\" to replace the terms ''Neo-Eskimo'' and ''Paleo-Eskimo'', citing the ICC resolution, but finding a consensus within the Alaskan context particularly is difficult, since Alaska Natives do not use the word ''Inuit'' to describe themselves nor is the term legally applicable only to Iñupiat and Yupik in Alaska, and as such, terms used in Canada like ''Paleo Inuit'' and ''Ancestral Inuit'' would not be acceptable.American linguist Lenore Grenoble has also explicitly deferred to the ICC resolution and used ''Inuit–Yupik'' instead of ''Eskimo'' with regards to the language branch." ], [ "History", "Genetic evidence suggests that the Americas were populated from northeastern Asia in multiple waves.", "While the great majority of indigenous American peoples can be traced to a single early migration of Paleo-Indians, the Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit admixture from distinct populations that migrated into America at a later date and are closely linked to the peoples of far northeastern Asia (e.g.", "Chukchi), and only more remotely to the majority indigenous American type.", "For modern Eskimo–Aleut speakers, this later ancestral component makes up almost half of their genomes.", "The ancient Paleo-Eskimo population was genetically distinct from the modern circumpolar populations, but eventually derives from the same far northeastern Asian cluster.", "It is understood that some or all of these ancient people migrated across the Chukchi Sea to North America during the pre-neolithic era, somewhere around 5,000 to 10,000 years ago.", "It is believed that ancestors of the Aleut people inhabited the Aleutian Chain 10,000 years ago.", "Stone remains of a Dorset culture longhouse near Cambridge Bay, NunavutThe earliest positively identified Paleo-Eskimo cultures (Early Paleo-Eskimo) date to 5,000 years ago.", "Several earlier indigenous peoples existed in the northern circumpolar regions of eastern Siberia, Alaska, and Canada (although probably not in Greenland).", "The Paleo-Eskimo peoples appear to have developed in Alaska from people related to the Arctic small tool tradition in eastern Asia, whose ancestors had probably migrated to Alaska at least 3,000 to 5,000 years earlier.The Yupik languages and cultures in Alaska evolved in place, beginning with the original pre-Dorset Indigenous culture developed in Alaska.", "At least 4,000 years ago, the Unangan culture of the Aleut became distinct.", "It is not generally considered an Eskimo culture.", "However, there is some possibility of an Aleutian origin of the Dorset people, who in turn are a likely ancestor of today's Inuit and Yupik.Approximately 1,500 to 2,000 years ago, apparently in northwestern Alaska, two other distinct variations appeared.", "Inuit language became distinct and, over a period of several centuries, its speakers migrated across northern Alaska, through Canada, and into Greenland.", "The distinct culture of the Thule people (drawing strongly from the Birnirk culture) developed in northwestern Alaska.", "It very quickly spread over the entire area occupied by Eskimo peoples, though it was not necessarily adopted by all of them." ], [ "Languages", "=== Language family ===Iñupiaq (''Paġlagivsigiñ Utqiaġvigmun''), Utqiaġvik, Alaska, framed by whale jawbonesThe Eskimo–Aleut family of languages includes two cognate branches: the Aleut (Unangan) branch and the Eskimo branch.The number of cases varies, with Aleut languages having a greatly reduced case system compared to those of the Eskimo subfamily.", "Eskimo–Aleut languages possess voiceless plosives at the bilabial, coronal, velar and uvular positions in all languages except Aleut, which has lost the bilabial stops but retained the nasal.", "In the Eskimo subfamily a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is also present.The Eskimo sub-family consists of the Inuit language and Yupik language sub-groups.", "The Sirenikski language, which is virtually extinct, is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family.", "Other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.Inuit languages comprise a dialect continuum, or dialect chain, that stretches from Unalakleet and Norton Sound in Alaska, across northern Alaska and Canada, and east to Greenland.", "Changes from western (Iñupiaq) to eastern dialects are marked by the dropping of vestigial Yupik-related features, increasing consonant assimilation (e.g., ''kumlu'', meaning \"thumb\", changes to ''kuvlu'', changes to ''kublu'', changes to ''kulluk'', changes to ''kulluq'',) and increased consonant lengthening, and lexical change.", "Thus, speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects would usually be able to understand one another, but speakers from dialects distant from each other on the dialect continuum would have difficulty understanding one another.", "Seward Peninsula dialects in western Alaska, where much of the Iñupiat culture has been in place for perhaps less than 500 years, are greatly affected by phonological influence from the Yupik languages.", "Eastern Greenlandic, at the opposite end of Inuit range, has had significant word replacement due to a unique form of ritual name avoidance.Ethnographically, Greenlandic Inuit belong to three groups: the Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut; the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat (\"East Greenlandic\"), and the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun.The four Yupik languages, by contrast, including Alutiiq (Sugpiaq), Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Naukan (Naukanski), and Siberian Yupik, are distinct languages with phonological, morphological, and lexical differences.", "They demonstrate limited mutual intelligibility.", "Additionally, both Alutiiq and Central Yup'ik have considerable dialect diversity.", "The northernmost Yupik languages – Siberian Yupik and Naukan Yupik – are linguistically only slightly closer to Inuit than is Alutiiq, which is the southernmost of the Yupik languages.", "Although the grammatical structures of Yupik and Inuit languages are similar, they have pronounced differences phonologically.", "Differences of vocabulary between Inuit and any one of the Yupik languages are greater than between any two Yupik languages.", "Even the dialectal differences within Alutiiq and Central Alaskan Yup'ik sometimes are relatively great for locations that are relatively close geographically.Despite the relatively small population of Naukan speakers, documentation of the language dates back to 1732.While Naukan is only spoken in Siberia, the language acts as an intermediate between two Alaskan languages: Siberian Yupik Eskimo and Central Yup'ik Eskimo.The Sirenikski language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family, but other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.Distribution of language variants across the Arctic.An overview of the Eskimo–Aleut languages family is given below:* '''Eskimo–Aleut'''**Aleut***Aleut language****Western-Central dialects: Atkan, Attuan, Unangan, Bering (60–80 speakers)****Eastern dialect: Unalaskan, Pribilof (400 speakers)**Eskimo (Yup'ik, Yuit, and Inuit)***Yupik****Central Alaskan Yup'ik (10,000 speakers)****Alutiiq or Pacific Gulf Yup'ik (400 speakers)****Central Siberian Yupik or Yuit (Chaplinon and St Lawrence Island, 1,400 speakers)****Naukan (700 speakers)***Inuit or Inupik (75,000 speakers)****Iñupiaq (northern Alaska, 3,500 speakers)****Inuvialuktun (western Canada; together with Siglitun, Natsilingmiutut, Inuinnaqtun and Uummarmiutun 765 speakers)****Inuktitut (eastern Canada; together with Inuktun and Inuinnaqtun, 30,000 speakers)****Kalaallisut (Greenlandic (Greenland, 47,000 speakers)*****Inuktun (Avanersuarmiutut, Thule dialect or Polar Eskimo, approximately 1,000 speakers)*****Tunumiit oraasiat (East Greenlandic known as Tunumiisut, 3,500 speakers)***Sirenik Eskimo language (Sirenikskiy) American linguist Lenore Grenoble has explicitly deferred to this resolution and used ''Inuit–Yupik'' instead of ''Eskimo'' with regards to the language branch.=== Words for ''snow'' ===There has been a long-running linguistic debate about whether or not the speakers of the Eskimo-Aleut language group have an unusually large number of words for snow.", "The general modern consensus is that, in multiple Eskimo languages, there are, or have been in simultaneous usage, indeed fifty plus words for snow." ], [ "Diet", "Sharing of frozen, aged walrus meat.", "Inuit are known for their practice of food sharing, where large catches of food are shared with the broader community." ], [ "Inuit", "Eskimo (Yup'ik of Nelson Island) fisherman's summer houseInuit inhabit the Arctic and northern Bering Sea coasts of Alaska in the United States, and Arctic coasts of the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Quebec, and Labrador in Canada, and Greenland (associated with Denmark).", "Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, marine mammals, and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing, and tools.", "Their food sources primarily relied on seals, whales, whale blubber, walrus, and fish, all of which they hunted using harpoons on the ice.", "Clothing consisted of robes made of wolfskin and reindeer skin to acclimate to the low temperatures.", "They maintain a unique Inuit culture.=== Greenland's Inuit ===Greenlandic Inuit make up 90% of Greenland's population.", "They belong to three major groups:* Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut* Tunumiit of east Greenland, who speak Tunumiisut* Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun or Polar Eskimo.=== Canadian Inuit ===Canadian Inuit live primarily in Inuit Nunangat (lit.", "\"lands, waters and ices of the Inuit people\"), their traditional homeland although some people live in southern parts of Canada.", "Inuit Nunangat ranges from the Yukon–Alaska border in the west across the Arctic to northern Labrador.The Inuvialuit live in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, the northern part of Yukon and the Northwest Territories, which stretches to the Amundsen Gulf and the Nunavut border and includes the western Canadian Arctic Islands.", "The land was demarked in 1984 by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement.The majority of Inuit live in Nunavut (a territory of Canada), Nunavik (the northern part of Quebec) and in Nunatsiavut (Inuit settlement region in Labrador).=== Alaska's Iñupiat ===An Iñupiat family from Noatak, Alaska, 1929The Iñupiat are Inuit of Alaska's Northwest Arctic and North Slope boroughs and the Bering Straits region, including the Seward Peninsula.", "Utqiaġvik, the northernmost city in the United States, is above the Arctic Circle and in the Iñupiat region.", "Their language is known as Iñupiaq.", "Their current communities include 34 villages across ''Iñupiat Nunaŋat'' (Iñupiaq lands) including seven Alaskan villages in the North Slope Borough, affiliated with the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation; eleven villages in Northwest Arctic Borough; and sixteen villages affiliated with the Bering Straits Regional Corporation." ], [ "Yupik", "Alutiiq dancer during the biennial \"Celebration\" cultural eventThe Yupik are indigenous or aboriginal peoples who live along the coast of western Alaska, especially on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta and along the Kuskokwim River (Central Alaskan Yup'ik); in southern Alaska (the Alutiiq); and along the eastern coast of Chukotka in the Russian Far East and St. Lawrence Island in western Alaska (the Siberian Yupik).", "The Yupik economy has traditionally been strongly dominated by the harvest of marine mammals, especially seals, walrus, and whales.=== Alutiiq ===The Alutiiq language is relatively close to that spoken by the Yupik in the Bethel, Alaska area.", "But, it is considered a distinct language with two major dialects: the Koniag dialect, spoken on the Alaska Peninsula and on Kodiak Island, and the Chugach dialect, spoken on the southern Kenai Peninsula and in Prince William Sound.", "Residents of Nanwalek, located on southern part of the Kenai Peninsula near Seldovia, speak what they call Sugpiaq.", "They are able to understand those who speak Yupik in Bethel.", "With a population of approximately 3,000, and the number of speakers in the hundreds, Alutiiq communities are working to revitalize their language.=== Central Alaskan Yup'ik ===''Yup'ik'', with an apostrophe, denotes the speakers of the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, who live in western Alaska and southwestern Alaska from southern Norton Sound to the north side of Bristol Bay, on the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta, and on Nelson Island.", "The use of the apostrophe in the name ''Yup'ik'' is a written convention to denote the long pronunciation of the ''p'' sound; but it is spoken the same in other Yupik languages.", "Of all the Alaska Native languages, Central Alaskan Yup'ik has the most speakers, with about 10,000 of a total Yup'ik population of 21,000 still speaking the language.", "The five dialects of Central Alaskan Yup'ik include General Central Yup'ik, and the Egegik, Norton Sound, Hooper Bay-Chevak, and Nunivak dialects.", "In the latter two dialects, both the language and the people are called ''Cup'ik''.===Siberian Yupik===Siberian Yupik aboard the steamer ''Bowhead''Siberian Yupik reside along the Bering Sea coast of the Chukchi Peninsula in Siberia in the Russian Far East and in the villages of Gambell and Savoonga on St. Lawrence Island in Alaska.", "The Central Siberian Yupik spoken on the Chukchi Peninsula and on St. Lawrence Island is nearly identical.", "About 1,050 of a total Alaska population of 1,100 Siberian Yupik people in Alaska speak the language.", "It is the first language of the home for most St. Lawrence Island children.", "In Siberia, about 300 of a total of 900 Siberian Yupik people still learn and study the language, though it is no longer learned as a first language by children.===Naukan===About 70 of 400 Naukan people still speak Naukanski.", "The Naukan originate on the Chukot Peninsula in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in Siberia.", "Despite the relatively small population of Naukan speakers, documentation of the language dates back to 1732.While Naukan is only spoken in Siberia, the language acts as an intermediate between two Alaskan languages: Siberian Yupik Eskimo and Central Yup'ik Eskimo." ], [ "Sirenik Eskimos", "Model of an ice scoop, Eskimo, 1900–1930, Brooklyn MuseumSome speakers of Siberian Yupik languages used to speak an Eskimo variant in the past, before they underwent a language shift.", "These former speakers of Sirenik Eskimo language inhabited the settlements of Sireniki, Imtuk, and some small villages stretching to the west from Sireniki along south-eastern coasts of Chukchi Peninsula.", "They lived in neighborhoods with Siberian Yupik and Chukchi peoples.As early as in 1895, Imtuk was a settlement with a mixed population of Sirenik Eskimos and Ungazigmit (the latter belonging to Siberian Yupik).", "Sirenik Eskimo culture has been influenced by that of Chukchi, and the language shows Chukchi language influences.", "Folktale motifs also show the influence of Chuckchi culture.The above peculiarities of this (already extinct) Eskimo language amounted to mutual unintelligibility even with its nearest language relatives: in the past, Sirenik Eskimos had to use the unrelated Chukchi language as a lingua franca for communicating with Siberian Yupik.Many words are formed from entirely different roots from in Siberian Yupik, but even the grammar has several peculiarities distinct not only among Eskimo languages, but even compared to Aleut.", "For example, dual number is not known in Sirenik Eskimo, while most Eskimo–Aleut languages have dual, including its neighboring Siberian Yupikax relatives.Little is known about the origin of this diversity.", "The peculiarities of this language may be the result of a supposed long isolation from other Eskimo groups, and being in contact only with speakers of unrelated languages for many centuries.", "The influence of the Chukchi language is clear.Because of all these factors, the classification of Sireniki Eskimo language is not settled yet: Sireniki language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of Eskimo (at least, its possibility is mentioned).", "Sometimes it is regarded rather as a group belonging to the Yupik branch." ], [ "See also", "* Alaska Native religion* Blond Eskimos* Disc number* Eskimo archery* Eskimo kinship* Eskimo kissing* Eskimo yo-yo* Eskimology* Inuit religion* Kudlik* Maupuk* ''Nanook of the North'', 1922 documentary* Saqqaq culture" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited sources", "* * * * * === Cyrillic ===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Adapting to climate change: social-ecological resilience in a Canadian western arctic community.", "Conservation Ecology 5(2)* Canadian Council on Learning, State of Inuit Learning in Canada * Contemporary Food Sharing: A Case Study from Akulivik, PQ.", "Canada.", "* Internet Sacred Text Archive: Inuit Religion* Inuit Culture* Inuit Exposure to Organochlorines through the Aquatic Food Chain.", "Environmental Health Perspectives 101(7)* Inuit Women and Graphic Arts: Female Creativity and Its Cultural Context.", "The Canadian Journal of Native Studies 9(2)* We the People: American Indians and Alaska Natives in the United States.", "Census 2000 Special Reports February 2006* University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Frank H. Nowell Photographs Photographs documenting scenery, towns, businesses, mining activities, Native Americans, and Eskimos in the vicinity of Nome, Alaska from 1901 to 1909.", "* University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Alaska and Western Canada Collection Images documenting Alaska and Western Canada, primarily Yukon and British Columbia, depicting scenes of the Gold Rush of 1898, city street scenes, Eskimo and Native Americans of the region, hunting and fishing, and transportation.", "* University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Arthur Churchill Warner Photographs Includes images of Eskimos from 1898 to 1900.", "* Inuit Myopia: an environmentally induced \"epidemic\"?" ], [ "External links", "* ''Some Psychological Aspects of the Impact of the White Man upon the Labrador Eskimo'' Manuscript at Dartmouth College Library* ''The Traditional Labrador Eskimos'' (1960) Manuscript at Dartmouth College Library* Victor Levine Manuscripts on origins of the Eskimos at Dartmouth College Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epiphenomenalism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Epiphenomenalism''' is a position on the mind–body problem which holds that subjective mental events are completely dependent for their existence on corresponding physical and biochemical events within the human body, yet themselves have no influence over physical events.", "The appearance that subjective mental states (such as intentions) influence physical events is merely an illusion, consciousness being a by-product of physical states of the world.", "For instance, fear seems to make the heart beat faster, but according to epiphenomenalism the biochemical secretions of the brain and nervous system (such as adrenaline)—not the experience of fear—is what raises the heartbeat.", "Because mental events are a kind of overflow that cannot cause anything physical, yet have non-physical properties, epiphenomenalism is viewed as a form of property dualism." ], [ "Development", "During the seventeenth century, René Descartes argued that animals are subject to mechanical laws of nature.", "He defended the idea of automatic behavior, or the performance of actions without conscious thought.", "Descartes questioned how the immaterial mind and the material body can interact causally.", "His interactionist model (1649) held that the body relates to the mind through the pineal gland.", "La Mettrie, Leibniz, and Spinoza all in their own way began this way of thinking.", "The idea that even if the animal were conscious nothing would be added to the production of behavior, even in animals of the human type, was first voiced by La Mettrie (1745), and then by Cabanis (1802), and was further explicated by Hodgson (1870) and Huxley (1874).Thomas Henry Huxley agreed with Descartes that behavior is determined solely by physical mechanisms, but he also believed that humans enjoy an intelligent life.", "In 1874, Huxley argued, in the Presidential Address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, that animals are conscious automata.", "Huxley proposed that psychical changes are collateral products of physical changes.", "Like the bell of a clock that has no role in keeping the time, consciousness has no role in determining behavior.Huxley defended automatism by testing reflex actions, originally supported by Descartes.", "Huxley hypothesized that frogs that undergo lobotomy would swim when thrown into water, despite being unable to initiate actions.", "He argued that the ability to swim was solely dependent on the molecular change in the brain, concluding that consciousness is not necessary for reflex actions.", "According to epiphenomenalism, animals experience pain only as a result of neurophysiology.In 1870, Huxley conducted a case study on a French soldier who had sustained a shot in the Franco-Prussian War that fractured his left parietal bone.", "Every few weeks the soldier would enter a trance-like state, smoking, dressing himself, and aiming his cane like a rifle all while being insensitive to pins, electric shocks, odorous substances, vinegar, noise, and certain light conditions.", "Huxley used this study to show that consciousness was not necessary to execute these purposeful actions, justifying the assumption that humans are insensible machines.", "Huxley's mechanistic attitude towards the body convinced him that the brain alone causes behavior.In the early 1900s scientific behaviorists such as Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B. F. Skinner began the attempt to uncover laws describing the relationship between stimuli and responses, without reference to inner mental phenomena.", "Instead of adopting a form of eliminativism or mental fictionalism, positions that deny that inner mental phenomena exist, a behaviorist was able to adopt epiphenomenalism in order to allow for the existence of mind.", "George Santayana (1905) believed that all motion has merely physical causes.", "Because consciousness is accessory to life and not essential to it, natural selection is responsible for ingraining tendencies to avoid certain contingencies without any conscious achievement involved.", "By the 1960s, scientific behaviourism met substantial difficulties and eventually gave way to the cognitive revolution.", "Participants in that revolution, such as Jerry Fodor, reject epiphenomenalism and insist upon the efficacy of the mind.", "Fodor even speaks of \"epiphobia\"—fear that one is becoming an epiphenomenalist.However, since the cognitive revolution, there have been several who have argued for a version of epiphenomenalism.", "In 1970, Keith Campbell proposed his \"new epiphenomenalism\", which states that the body produces a spiritual mind that does not act on the body.", "How the brain causes a spiritual mind, according to Campbell, is destined to remain beyond our understanding forever (see New mysterianism).", "In 2001, David Chalmers and Frank Jackson argued that claims about conscious states should be deduced a priori from claims about physical states alone.", "They offered that epiphenomenalism bridges, but does not close, the explanatory gap between the physical and the phenomenal realms.", "These more recent versions maintain that only the subjective, qualitative aspects of mental states are epiphenomenal.", "Imagine both Pierre and a robot eating a cupcake.", "Unlike the robot, Pierre is conscious of eating the cupcake while the behavior is under way.", "This subjective experience is often called a ''quale'' (plural qualia), and it describes the private \"raw feel\" or the subjective \"what-it-is-like\" that is the inner accompaniment of many mental states.", "Thus, while Pierre and the robot are both doing the same thing, only Pierre has the inner conscious experience.Frank Jackson (1982), for example, once espoused the following view:According to epiphenomenalism, mental states like Pierre's pleasurable experience—or, at any rate, their distinctive qualia—are epiphenomena; they are side-effects or by-products of physical processes in the body.", "If Pierre takes a second bite, it is not caused by his pleasure from the first; If Pierre says, \"That was good, so I will take another bite\", his speech act is not caused by the preceding pleasure.", "The conscious experiences that accompany brain processes are causally impotent.", "The mind might simply be a by-product of other properties such as brain size or pathway activation synchronicity, which are adaptive.Some thinkers draw distinctions between different varieties of epiphenomenalism.", "In ''Consciousness Explained'', Daniel Dennett distinguishes between a purely metaphysical sense of epiphenomenalism, in which the epiphenomenon has no causal impact at all, and Huxley's \"steam whistle\" epiphenomenalism, in which effects exist but are not functionally relevant." ], [ "Arguments for", "Some neurophysiological data seems to support epiphenomenalism.", "Some of the oldest such data is the Bereitschaftspotential or \"readiness potential\" in which electrical activity related to voluntary actions can be recorded up to two seconds before the subject is aware of making a decision to perform the action.", "More recently Benjamin Libet et al.", "(1979) have shown that it can take 0.5 seconds before a stimulus becomes part of conscious experience even though subjects can respond to the stimulus in reaction time tests within 200 milliseconds.", "The methods and conclusions of this experiment have received much criticism (e.g., see the many critical commentaries in Libet's (1985) target article), including fairly recently by neuroscientists such as Peter Tse, who claim to show that the readiness potential has nothing to do with consciousness at all.", "Recent research on the Event Related Potential also shows that conscious experience does not occur until the late phase of the potential (P3 or later) that occurs 300 milliseconds or more after the event.", "In Bregman's auditory continuity illusion, where a pure tone is followed by broadband noise and the noise is followed by the same pure tone it seems as if the tone occurs throughout the period of noise.", "This also suggests a delay for processing data before conscious experience occurs.", "Popular science author Tor Nørretranders has called the delay the \"user illusion\", implying that we only have the illusion of conscious control, most actions being controlled automatically by non-conscious parts of the brain with the conscious mind relegated to the role of spectator.The scientific data seem to support the idea that conscious experience is created by non-conscious processes in the brain (i.e., there is subliminal processing that becomes conscious experience).", "These results have been interpreted to suggest that people are capable of action before conscious experience of the decision to act occurs.", "Some argue that this supports epiphenomenalism, since it shows that the feeling of making a decision to act is actually an epiphenomenon; the action happens before the decision, so the decision did not cause the action to occur." ], [ "Arguments against", "The most powerful argument against epiphenomenalism is that it is self-contradictory: if we have knowledge about epiphenomenalism, then our brains know about the existence of the mind, but if epiphenomenalism were correct, then our brains should not have any knowledge about the mind, because the mind does not affect anything physical.However, some philosophers do not accept this as a rigorous refutation.", "For example, philosopher Victor Argonov states that epiphenomenalism is a questionable, but experimentally falsifiable theory.", "He argues that the personal mind is not the only source of knowledge about the existence of mind in the world.", "A creature (even a philosophical zombie) could have knowledge about mind and the mind-body problem by virtue of some innate knowledge.", "The information about mind (and its problematic properties such as qualia and the hard problem of consciousness) could have been, in principle, implicitly \"written\" in the material world since its creation.", "Epiphenomenalists can say that God created an immaterial mind and a detailed \"program\" of material human behavior that makes it possible to speak about the mind–body problem.", "That version of epiphenomenalism seems highly exotic, but it cannot be excluded from consideration by pure theory.", "However, Argonov suggests that experiments could refute epiphenomenalism.", "In particular, epiphenomenalism could be refuted if neural correlates of consciousness can be found in the human brain, and it is proven that human speech about consciousness is caused by them.Some philosophers, such as Dennett, reject both epiphenomenalism and the existence of qualia with the same charge that Gilbert Ryle leveled against a Cartesian \"ghost in the machine\", that they too are category mistakes.", "A quale or conscious experience would not belong to the category of objects of reference on this account, but rather to the category of ways of doing things.Functionalists assert that mental states are well described by their overall role, their activity in relation to the organism as a whole.", "\"This doctrine is rooted in Aristotle's conception of the soul, and has antecedents in Hobbes's conception of the mind as a 'calculating machine', but it has become fully articulated (and popularly endorsed) only in the last third of the 20th century.\"", "In so far as it mediates stimulus and response, a mental function is analogous to a program that processes input/output in automata theory.", "In principle, multiple realisability would guarantee platform dependencies can be avoided, whether in terms of hardware and operating system or, ''ex hypothesi'', biology and philosophy.", "Because a high-level language is a practical requirement for developing the most complex programs, functionalism implies that a non-reductive physicalism would offer a similar advantage over a strictly eliminative materialism.Eliminative materialists believe \"folk psychology\" is so unscientific that, ultimately, it will be better to eliminate primitive concepts such as ''mind,'' ''desire'' and ''belief,'' in favor of a future neuro-scientific account.", "A more moderate position such as J. L. Mackie's ''error theory'' suggests that false beliefs should be stripped away from a mental concept without eliminating the concept itself, the legitimate core meaning being left intact.Benjamin Libet's results are quoted in favor of epiphenomenalism, but he believes subjects still have a \"conscious veto\", since the readiness potential does not invariably lead to an action.", "In ''Freedom Evolves'', Daniel Dennett argues that a no-free-will conclusion is based on dubious assumptions about the location of consciousness, as well as questioning the accuracy and interpretation of Libet's results.", "Similar criticism of Libet-style research has been made by neuroscientist Adina Roskies and cognitive theorists Tim Bayne and Alfred Mele.Others have argued that data such as the Bereitschaftspotential undermine epiphenomenalism for the same reason, that such experiments rely on a subject reporting the point in time at which a conscious experience and a conscious decision occurs, thus relying on the subject to be able to consciously perform an action.", "That ability would seem to be at odds with early epiphenomenalism, which according to Huxley is the broad claim that consciousness is \"completely without any power… as the steam-whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive engine is without influence upon its machinery\".", "Mind–body dualists reject epiphenomenalism on the same grounds.Adrian G. Guggisberg and Annaïs Mottaz have also challenged those findings.A study by Aaron Schurger and colleagues published in PNAS challenged assumptions about the causal nature of the readiness potential itself (and the \"pre-movement buildup\" of neural activity in general), thus denying the conclusions drawn from studies such as Libet's and Fried's.In favor of interactionism, Celia Green (2003) argues that epiphenomenalism does not even provide a satisfactory solution to the problem of interaction posed by substance dualism.", "Although it does not entail substance dualism, according to Green, epiphenomenalism implies a one-way form of interactionism that is just as hard to conceive of as the two-way form embodied in substance dualism.", "Green suggests the assumption that it is less of a problem may arise from the unexamined belief that physical events have some sort of primacy over mental ones.A number of scientists and philosophers, including William James, Karl Popper, John C. Eccles and Donald Symons, dismiss epiphenomenalism from an evolutionary perspective.", "They point out that the view that mind is an epiphenomenon of brain activity is not consistent with evolutionary theory, because if mind were functionless, it would have disappeared long ago, as it would not have been favoured by evolution." ], [ "See also", "* Anomalous monism* Dualism (philosophy of mind)* Emergentism* Frank Jackson* George Santayana* Nonreductive physicalism* Philosophy of mind* Problem of mental causation* Property dualism* Specious present* Supervenience* Qualia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Chalmers, David.", "(1996) ''The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Green, Celia.", "(2003) ''The Lost Cause: Causation and the Mind-Body Problem'', Oxford: Oxford Forum.", "* Jackson, Frank.", "(1982) \"Epiphenomenal Qualia\", ''The Philosophical Quarterly'', 32, pp.", "127–136.Online text* James, William.", "(1890) ''The Principles of Psychology'', Henry Holt And Company.", "Online text* * *Robinson, William (2019) ''Epiphenomenal Mind: An Integrated Outlook on Sensations, Beliefs, and Pleasure'', New York and London: Routledge." ], [ "External links", "* Strange Ideas* Epiphenomenalism Explained, an article by Norman Bacrac in ''Philosophy Now''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Esperantujo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Esperantujo''' () or '''Esperantio''' () is the community of speakers of the Esperanto language and their culture, as well as the places and institutions where the language is used.", "The term is used \"as if it were a country.", "\"Although it does not occupy its own area of Earth's surface, it can be said to constitute the 120 countries which have their own national Esperanto association." ], [ "Etymology and terminology", "The word is formed analogously to country names.", "In Esperanto, the names of countries were traditionally formed from the ethnic name of their inhabitants plus the suffix ''-ujo''.", "For example, \"France\" was , from (a Frenchman).The term analogous to ''Francujo'' would be ''Esperantistujo'' (Esperantist-nation).", "However, that would convey the idea of the physical body of people, whereas using the name of the language as the basis of the word gives it the more abstract connotation of a cultural sphere.Currently, names of nation states are often formed with the suffix ''-io'' (traditionally reserved for deriving country names from geographic features — e.g.", "instead of ), and recently the form ''Esperantio'' has been used, among others, in the Pasporta Servo and the Esperanto Citizens' Community." ], [ "History", "In 1908, Dr. Wilhelm Molly attempted to create an Esperanto state in the Prussian-Belgian condominium of Neutral Moresnet, known as \"Amikejo\" (place of friendship).", "What became of it is unclear, and Neutral Moresnet was annexed to Belgium in the Treaty of Versailles, 1919.During the 1960s came a new effort of creating an Esperanto state, which this time was called Republic of Rose Island.", "The state island stood in the Adriatic Sea near Italy.In Europe on 2 June 2001 a number of organizations (they prefer to call themselves establishments) founded the ''Esperanta Civito'', which \"aims to be a subject of international law\" and \"aims to consolidate the relations between the Esperantists who feel themselves belonging to the diaspora language group which does not belong to any country\".", "''Esperanto Civito'' always uses the name Esperantujo (introduced by Hector Hodler in 1908), which itself is defined according to their interpretation of ''raumism'', and the meaning, therefore, may differ from the traditional Esperanto understanding of the word ''Esperantujo''.A language learning partner application called Amikumu has been launched in 2017, allowing Esperanto speakers to find each other." ], [ "Geography", "Cities in the world with Pasporta Servo hostsEsperantujo includes any physical place where Esperanto speakers meet, such as Esperanto gatherings or virtual networks.", "Sometimes it is said that it is everywhere where Esperanto speakers are connected.Although Esperantujo does not have its own official territory, a number of places around the world are owned by Esperanto organizations or are otherwise permanently connected to the Esperanto language and its community:* Białystok, the birthplace of L. L. Zamenhof (the creator of Esperanto), and very much the place which inspired him to create an international auxiliary language and facilitate communication across language barriers.", "* The German city Herzberg am Harz is home to the ''Interkultura Centro Herzberg'', and, since 12 July 2006, advertises itself as \"Esperanto city\" (, ).", "There are bilingual signs and pointers, in both German and Esperanto.", "* The Château de Grésillon () in France is owned by the non-profit organization \"Cultural House of Esperanto\" (), which hosts various Esperanto events in the summer and during French school holidays.", "* The Esperanto Museum and Collection of Planned Languages, a department of the Austrian National Library, is a museum for Esperanto and other constructed languages, located in Vienna.", "* Zamenhof-Esperanto objects can be found all over the world.", "These are places and objects — such as streets, memorials, public spaces, buildings, vehicles, or even geographic features — that are named after, or otherwise linked to the language, its creator L. L. Zamenhof, or its community of speakers .Judging by the members of the World Esperanto Association, the countries with the most Esperanto speakers are (in descending order): Brazil, Germany, Japan, France, the United States, China, Italy." ], [ "Politics", "=== Associations ===Leaders of the Universal Esperanto Association during 100th World Esperanto Congress in Lille, France, in 2015.There is no governmental system in Esperantujo because it is not a true state.", "However, there is a social hierarchy of associations:* Universal Esperanto Association (UEA) is the principal association created in 1908, its central office is located in Rotterdam.", "The aim of the UEA is to promote the use of Esperanto, to strive for the solution of the language problem in international relations, to encourage all types of spiritual and material relations among people and ''to nurture among its members a strong sense of solidarity, and to develop in them understanding and respect for other peoples''.", "* Sometimes there are associations by continent, for example, the European Esperanto Union.", "On the same level there are UEA commissions dedicated to promoting the spread of Esperanto in Africa, America (North & South), Asia, the Middle East, and Oceania.", "* In at least 120 countries in the world there are national associations: Brazilian Esperanto League, the German Esperanto Association, Japanese Esperanto Association, Esperanto-USA and Australian Esperanto Association are examples from all continents across the world.", "The goals are usually to help teach the language and use of Esperanto in the country.", "* Finally, there are local associations or Esperanto clubs where volunteers or activists offer courses to learn the language or get to know more about the culture of Esperanto.", "Sometimes they teach Esperanto in universities or schools.Also there are thematic associations worldwide, which are concerned with spirituality, hobbies, science or bringing together Esperantists who share common interests.There is also a number of global organizations, such as Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda (SAT), or the World Esperanto Youth Organization (TEJO), which has 46 national sections.=== Foreign relations ===Universal Esperanto Association is not a governmental system; however, the association represents Esperanto worldwide.", "In addition to the United Nations and UNESCO, the UEA has consultative relationships with UNICEF and the Council of Europe and general cooperative relations with the Organization of American States.", "UEA officially collaborates with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) by means of an active connection to the ISO Committee on terminology (ISO/TC 37).", "The association is active for information on the European Union and other interstate and international organizations and conferences.", "UEA is a member of European Language Council, a joint forum of universities and linguistic associations to promote the knowledge of languages and cultures within and outside the European Union.", "Moreover, on 10 May 2011, the UEA and the International Information Center for Terminology (Infoterm) signed an Agreement on Cooperation, its objectives are inter exchange information, support each other and help out for projects, meetings, publications in the field of terminology and by which the UEA become Associate Member of Infoterm.=== Political movement ===In 2003 there was a European political movement called Europe–Democracy–Esperanto created.", "Within it is found a European federation that brings together local associations whose statutes depends on the countries.", "The working language of the movement is Esperanto.", "The goal is \"to provide the European Union with the necessary tools to set up member rights democracy\".", "The international language is a tool to enable cross-border political and social dialogue and actively contribute to peace and understanding between peoples.", "The original idea in the first ballot was mainly to spread the existence and the use of Esperanto to the general public.", "However, in France voices have grown steadily: 25067 (2004) 28944 (2009) and 33115 (2014).", "In this country there are a number of movements which support the issue: France Équité, Europe-Liberté, and Politicat.=== Symbols ===Flag of EsperantoThe flag of Esperanto is called ''Verda Flago'' (Green Flag).", "It consists of:* a rectangular shape, officially with a 2:3 ratio.", "* a green field, where the green color symbolizes hope.", "There is no indication that any \"official\" color was ever chosen.", "The color green used varies in different sources, yet the color is most often used.", "* a white, square canton (upper hoist quarter), measuring exactly half the hoist, where the white color symbolizes peace and neutrality.", "* in the canton, a green five-pointed star known as ''Verda Stelo'' (Green Star), which symbolizes the five continents.The anthem is called ''\"La Espero\"'' since 1891: it is a poem written by L. L. Zamenhof.", "The song is usually sung at the triumphal march composed by Félicien Menu de Ménil in 1909.The Jubilee symbol represents the language internally, while the flag represents the Esperanto movement.", "It contains the Latin letter E (Esperanto) and the Cyrillic letter Э (Эсперанто) symbolizing the unification of West and East.", "The Jubilee symbol has been controversial, with some Esperantists derisively calling it \"the melon.", "\"In addition, Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof, the initiator of the language, is often used as a symbol.", "Sometimes he is even called \"Uncle Zam\", referring to the cartoon incarnation of American Uncle Sam." ], [ "Population", "=== Education ===Certificate of KER-examIn addition to textbooks, including the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'' by Zamenhof, the Assimil-methods and the video-methods such as Muzzy in Gondoland of the BBC and ''Pasporto al la tuta mondo'', there are many courses for learning online.", "Moreover, some universities teach Esperanto, and the Higher Foreign Language training (University Eötvös Loránd) delivers certificates in accordance with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).", "More than 1600 people have such a certificate around the world: in 2014 around 470 at the level of B1, 510 at the level of B2 and 700 for C1.The International League of Esperanto Teachers (ILEI) is also working to publish learning materials for teachers.The University of Esperanto offers video lectures in Esperanto, for specialties like Confronting War, Informational Technologies and Astronomy.", "Courses are also held during the World Esperanto Congress in the framework of the Internacia Kongresa Universitato (IKU).", "After that, UEA uploads the related documents on its website.Science is an appropriate department for works in Esperanto.", "For example, the Conference on the Application of Esperanto in Science and Technology (KAEST) occurs in November every year since 1998 in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.", "Personal initiatives are also common: Doctor of mathematics Ulrich Matthias created a document about the foundations of Linear Algebra and the American group of Maine (USA) wrote a guidebook to learn the programming language Python.In general, Esperanto is used as a lingua franca in some websites aiming teaching of other languages, such as German, Slovak, Swahili, Wolof or Toki Pona.=== Media ===Since 1889 when ''La Esperantisto'' appeared, and soon other magazines in Esperanto throughout many countries in the world.", "Some of them are information media of Esperanto associations (''Esperanto'', ''Sennaciulo'' and ''Kontakto'').", "Online Esperanto magazines like ''Libera Folio'', launched in 2003, offer independent view of the Esperanto movement, aiming to soberly and critically shed light on current development.", "Most of the magazines deal with current events; one of such magazines is ''Monato'', which is read in more than 60 countries.", "Its articles are written by correspondents from 40 countries, which know the local situation very well.", "Other most popular Esperanto newspapers are ''La Ondo de Esperanto'', ''Beletra Almanako'', ''Literatura Foiro'', and ''Heroldo de Esperanto''.", "Often national associations magazines are also published in order to inform about the movement in the country, such as ''Le Monde de l'espéranto'' of Espéranto-France.", "There are also scientific journals, such as ''Scienca Revuo'' of Internacia Scienca Asocio Esperantista (ISAE).", "''Muzaiko'' is a radio that has broadcast an all-day international program of songs, interviews and current events in Esperanto since 2011.The latest two can be downloaded as podcasts.", "Besides Muzaiko, these other stations offer an hour of Esperanto-language broadcasting of various topics: ''Radio Libertaire'', ''Polskie Radio'', ''Vatican Radio'', ''Varsovia Vento, ''Radio Verda and ''Kern.punkto''.=== Internet ===Spread of the Internet has enabled more efficient communication among Esperanto speakers and slightly replaced slower media such as mail.", "Many massively used websites such as Facebook or Google offer Esperanto interface.", "On 15 December 2009, on the occasion of the jubilee of 150th birthday of L. L. Zamenhof, Google additionally made visible the Esperanto flag as a part of their Google Doodles.", "Media as Twitter, Telegram, Reddit or Ipernity also contain a significant number of people in this community.", "In addition, content-providers such as WordPress and YouTube also enable bloggers write in Esperanto.", "Esperanto versions of programs such as the office suite LibreOffice and Mozilla Firefox browser, or the educational program about programming Scratch are also available.", "Additionally, online games like Minecraft offer complete Esperanto interface.Monero, an anonymous cryptocurrency, was named after the Esperanto word for \"''coin''\" and its official wallet is available in Esperanto.", "The same applies to Monerujo (''\"Monero container\"''), the only open-source wallet for Android.=== Sport ===Although Esperantujo is not a country, there is an Esperanto football team, which has existed since 2014 and participates in matches during World Esperanto Congresses.", "The team is part of the N.F.-Board and not of FIFA, and have played against the teams of Armenian-originating Argentine Community in 2014 and the team from Western Sahara in 2015.=== Esperanto speakers and Esperantists ===Initially, Esperanto speakers learned the language as it was described by L. L. Zamenhof.", "In 1905, the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'' put together the first Esperanto textbook, an exercise book and a universal dictionary.The \"Declaration about the essence of Esperantism\" (1905) defines an \"Esperantist\" to be anyone who speaks and uses Esperanto.", "\"Esperantism\" was defined to be a movement to promote the widespread use of Esperanto as a supplement to mother tongues in international and inter-ethnic contexts.", "As the word \"esperantist\" is linked with this \"esperantism\" (the Esperanto movement) and as -ists and -isms are linked with ideologies, today many people who speak Esperanto prefer to be called \"Esperanto speaker\".The monthly magazine ''La Ondo de Esperanto'' every year since 1998 proclaims an 'Esperantist of the year', who remarkably contributed to the spreading of the language during the year." ], [ "Economy", "=== Businesses ===Publishing and selling books, the so-called book services, is the main market and is often the first expenditure of many Esperanto associations.", "Some companies are already well known: for example Vinilkosmo, which publishes and makes popular Esperanto music since 1990.Then there are initiatives such as the job-seeking website ''Eklaboru'', created by Chuck Smith, for job offers and candidates within Esperanto associations or Esperanto meetings.=== Currency ===In 1907, René de Saussure proposed the spesmilo ⟨₷⟩ as an international currency.", "It had some use before the First World War.In 1942 a currency called the ''stelo'' (\"star\"; plural, ''steloj'') was created.", "It was used at meetings of the ''Universala Ligo'' and in Esperanto environments such as the annual Universal Congress.", "Over the years it slowly became unusable and at the official closing of the Universala Ligo in the 1990s, the remaining ''steloj'' coins were handed over to the UEA.", "You can buy them at the UEA's book service as souvenirs.The current ''steloj'' are made of plastic, they are used in a number of meetings, especially among young people.", "The currency is maintained by Stelaro, which calculates the rates, keeps the stock, and opened branches in various e-meetings.", "Currently, there are ''stelo''-coins of 1 ★, 3 ★ and 10 ★.", "Quotes of Stars at 31 December 2014 were 25 1 EUR = 4.189 ★." ], [ "Culture", "=== Architectural heritage ===bust in the Esperantopark in ViennaThere exist Zamenhof-Esperanto objects (ZEOs), scattered in numerous countries around the world, which are the things named in honor of L. L. Zamenhof or Esperanto: monuments, street names, places and so on.", "There also exists a UEA-committee for ZEOs.In addition, in several countries there are also sites dedicated to Esperanto: meetup places, workshops, seminars, festivals, Esperanto houses.", "These places provide attractions for Esperantists.", "Here are two: the Castle of Grésilion in France and the Department of Planned Languages and Esperanto Museum in Vienna (Austria).=== Cultural heritage ===Music in EsperantoEsperanto literary heritage is the richest and the most diverse of any constructed language.", "There are over 25,000 Esperanto books (originals and translations) as well as over a hundred regularly distributed Esperanto magazines.There are also a number of movies which have been published in Esperanto.", "Moreover, Esperanto itself was used in numerous movies.=== Celebrations ===Many public holidays recognized by Esperanto speakers are celebrated internationally, having gained full acceptance by organizations such as UN and UNESCO, and are also publicly observed in select countries that are UN members.", "This is largely a byproduct of the influence the Esperanto community once had on organizations that worked in the field of international relations (including the United Nations) in the mid-20th century.", "Here are the celebrations proposed as international holidays by the UEA since 2010: Date Name Meaning, purpose, anniversary February 21 International Mother Language Day Saving cultural diversity and multilingualism last full week of February Week of International Friendship Strengthening mutual contacts and sense.", "April 14 Memorial Day of all Pioneers Anniversary of the death of L. L. Zamenhof (1917).", "July 26 Esperanto Day Anniversary of the appearance of ''Unua Libro'' (1887).", "September 21 International Day of Peace (UN) Not to fight, to stop wars and bring peace September 26 European Day of Languages (Council of Europe) Inspire the learning of languages across Europe.", "December 15 Zamenhof Day Birthday of L. L. Zamenhof (1859).", "Usual trade of Esperanto-books.=== Cultural events ===Number of participants of Esperanto-meeting in Central EuropeEvery year numerous meetings of Esperanto speakers in different topics around the world take place.", "They mobilize Esperanto-speakers which share the same will about a specific topic.", "The main example is the Universal Congress of Esperanto (UK), which annually organizes the UEA every summer for a week.", "Other events:* SAT-Kongreso, annually organized by Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda;* International Youth Congress of Esperanto (IJK), official annual congress of TEJO;* Internacia Infana Kongreseto (IIK), arrangement for children between 6 and 16 years that occur simultaneously with and close to the Universal Congress of Esperanto;* Somera Esperanto-Studado (SES), the largest international Esperanto meeting aimed at learning of Esperanto.Next to these globally comprising meetings there are also local events such as New Year's Gathering (NR) or Esperanto Youth Week (JES), which occur during the last days of December and first days of January.", "These meetings seem to have been successful during the last 20 years.Due to the fact that there are a lot of Esperanto meetings around the globe, there are websites which aim to list and share them.", "Eventa Servo provides an up-to-date list of online meetings and in-person events happening each week.", "Eventoj.hu describes events with a list and dates, and contains an archive until 1996." ], [ "See also", "*Outline of Esperanto*Universal Esperanto Association" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ethernet" ], [ "Introduction", "laptop computer connected to a twisted pair cable with an 8P8C modular connectorApple on some devices to denote an Ethernet connection'''Ethernet''' ( ) is a family of wired computer networking technologies commonly used in local area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area networks (WAN).", "It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1983 as IEEE 802.3.Ethernet has since been refined to support higher bit rates, a greater number of nodes, and longer link distances, but retains much backward compatibility.", "Over time, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as Token Ring, FDDI and ARCNET.The original 10BASE5 Ethernet uses a thick coaxial cable as a shared medium.", "This was largely superseded by 10BASE2, which used a thinner and more flexible cable that was both cheaper and easier to use.", "More modern Ethernet variants use twisted pair and fiber optic links in conjunction with switches.", "Over the course of its history, Ethernet data transfer rates have been increased from the original to the latest , with rates up to under development.", "The Ethernet standards include several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical layer.Systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of data into shorter pieces called frames.", "Each frame contains source and destination addresses, and error-checking data so that damaged frames can be detected and discarded; most often, higher-layer protocols trigger retransmission of lost frames.", "Per the OSI model, Ethernet provides services up to and including the data link layer.", "The 48-bit MAC address was adopted by other IEEE 802 networking standards, including IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), as well as by FDDI.", "EtherType values are also used in Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) headers.Ethernet is widely used in homes and industry, and interworks well with wireless Wi-Fi technologies.", "The Internet Protocol is commonly carried over Ethernet and so it is considered one of the key technologies that make up the Internet." ], [ "History", "Accton Etherpocket-SP parallel port Ethernet adapter ().", "Supports both coaxial (10BASE2) and twisted pair (10BASE-T) cables.", "Power is drawn from a PS/2 port passthrough cable.Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC between 1973 and 1974 as a means to allow Alto computers to communicate with each other.", "It was inspired by ALOHAnet, which Robert Metcalfe had studied as part of his PhD dissertation and was originally called the Alto Aloha Network.", "The idea was first documented in a memo that Metcalfe wrote on May 22, 1973, where he named it after the luminiferous aether once postulated to exist as an \"omnipresent, completely-passive medium for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.\"", "In 1975, Xerox filed a patent application listing Metcalfe, David Boggs, Chuck Thacker, and Butler Lampson as inventors.", "In 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe and Boggs published a seminal paper.", "Yogen Dalal, Ron Crane, Bob Garner, and Roy Ogus facilitated the upgrade from the original 2.94 Mbit/s protocol to the 10 Mbit/s protocol, which was released to the market in 1980.Metcalfe left Xerox in June 1979 to form 3Com.", "He convinced Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Intel, and Xerox to work together to promote Ethernet as a standard.", "As part of that process Xerox agreed to relinquish their 'Ethernet' trademark.", "The first standard was published on September 30, 1980, as \"The Ethernet, A Local Area Network.", "Data Link Layer and Physical Layer Specifications\".", "This so-called DIX standard (Digital Intel Xerox) specified 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, with 48-bit destination and source addresses and a global 16-bit Ethertype-type field.", "Version 2 was published in November 1982 and defines what has become known as Ethernet II.", "Formal standardization efforts proceeded at the same time and resulted in the publication of IEEE 802.3 on June 23, 1983.Ethernet initially competed with Token Ring and other proprietary protocols.", "Ethernet was able to adapt to market needs and with 10BASE2, shift to inexpensive thin coaxial cable and from 1990, to the now-ubiquitous twisted pair with 10BASE-T. By the end of the 1980s, Ethernet was clearly the dominant network technology.", "In the process, 3Com became a major company.", "3Com shipped its first 10 Mbit/s Ethernet 3C100 NIC in March 1981, and that year started selling adapters for PDP-11s and VAXes, as well as Multibus-based Intel and Sun Microsystems computers.", "This was followed quickly by DEC's Unibus to Ethernet adapter, which DEC sold and used internally to build its own corporate network, which reached over 10,000 nodes by 1986, making it one of the largest computer networks in the world at that time.", "An Ethernet adapter card for the IBM PC was released in 1982, and, by 1985, 3Com had sold 100,000.In the 1980s, IBM's own PC Network product competed with Ethernet for the PC, and through the 1980s, LAN hardware, in general, was not common on PCs.", "However, in the mid to late 1980s, PC networking did become popular in offices and schools for printer and fileserver sharing, and among the many diverse competing LAN technologies of that decade, Ethernet was one of the most popular.", "Parallel port based Ethernet adapters were produced for a time, with drivers for DOS and Windows.", "By the early 1990s, Ethernet became so prevalent that Ethernet ports began to appear on some PCs and most workstations.", "This process was greatly sped up with the introduction of 10BASE-T and its relatively small modular connector, at which point Ethernet ports appeared even on low-end motherboards.Since then, Ethernet technology has evolved to meet new bandwidth and market requirements.", "In addition to computers, Ethernet is now used to interconnect appliances and other personal devices.", "As Industrial Ethernet it is used in industrial applications and is quickly replacing legacy data transmission systems in the world's telecommunications networks.", "By 2010, the market for Ethernet equipment amounted to over $16 billion per year." ], [ "Standardization", "An Intel 82574L Gigabit Ethernet NIC, PCI Express ×1 cardIn February 1980, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) started project 802 to standardize local area networks (LAN).", "The \"DIX-group\" with Gary Robinson (DEC), Phil Arst (Intel), and Bob Printis (Xerox) submitted the so-called \"Blue Book\" CSMA/CD specification as a candidate for the LAN specification.", "In addition to CSMA/CD, Token Ring (supported by IBM) and Token Bus (selected and henceforward supported by General Motors) were also considered as candidates for a LAN standard.", "Competing proposals and broad interest in the initiative led to strong disagreement over which technology to standardize.", "In December 1980, the group was split into three subgroups, and standardization proceeded separately for each proposal.Delays in the standards process put at risk the market introduction of the Xerox Star workstation and 3Com's Ethernet LAN products.", "With such business implications in mind, David Liddle (General Manager, Xerox Office Systems) and Metcalfe (3Com) strongly supported a proposal of Fritz Röscheisen (Siemens Private Networks) for an alliance in the emerging office communication market, including Siemens' support for the international standardization of Ethernet (April 10, 1981).", "Ingrid Fromm, Siemens' representative to IEEE 802, quickly achieved broader support for Ethernet beyond IEEE by the establishment of a competing Task Group \"Local Networks\" within the European standards body ECMA TC24.In March 1982, ECMA TC24 with its corporate members reached an agreement on a standard for CSMA/CD based on the IEEE 802 draft.", "Because the DIX proposal was most technically complete and because of the speedy action taken by ECMA which decisively contributed to the conciliation of opinions within IEEE, the IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD standard was approved in December 1982.IEEE published the 802.3 standard as a draft in 1983 and as a standard in 1985.Approval of Ethernet on the international level was achieved by a similar, cross-partisan action with Fromm as the liaison officer working to integrate with International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Technical Committee 83 and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee 97 Sub Committee 6.The ISO 8802-3 standard was published in 1989." ], [ "Evolution", "Ethernet has evolved to include higher bandwidth, improved medium access control methods, and different physical media.", "The multidrop coaxial cable was replaced with physical point-to-point links connected by Ethernet repeaters or switches.Ethernet stations communicate by sending each other data packets: blocks of data individually sent and delivered.", "As with other IEEE 802 LANs, adapters come programmed with globally unique 48-bit MAC address so that each Ethernet station has a unique address.", "The MAC addresses are used to specify both the destination and the source of each data packet.", "Ethernet establishes link-level connections, which can be defined using both the destination and source addresses.", "On reception of a transmission, the receiver uses the destination address to determine whether the transmission is relevant to the station or should be ignored.", "A network interface normally does not accept packets addressed to other Ethernet stations.An EtherType field in each frame is used by the operating system on the receiving station to select the appropriate protocol module (e.g., an Internet Protocol version such as IPv4).", "Ethernet frames are said to be ''self-identifying'', because of the EtherType field.", "Self-identifying frames make it possible to intermix multiple protocols on the same physical network and allow a single computer to use multiple protocols together.", "Despite the evolution of Ethernet technology, all generations of Ethernet (excluding early experimental versions) use the same frame formats.", "Mixed-speed networks can be built using Ethernet switches and repeaters supporting the desired Ethernet variants.Due to the ubiquity of Ethernet, and the ever-decreasing cost of the hardware needed to support it, by 2004 most manufacturers built Ethernet interfaces directly into PC motherboards, eliminating the need for a separate network card.=== Shared medium ===Older Ethernet equipment.", "Clockwise from top-left: An Ethernet transceiver with an in-line 10BASE2 adapter, a similar model transceiver with a 10BASE5 adapter, an AUI cable, a different style of transceiver with 10BASE2 BNC T-connector, two 10BASE5 end fittings (N connectors), an orange ''vampire tap'' installation tool (which includes a specialized drill bit at one end and a socket wrench at the other), and an early model 10BASE5 transceiver (h4000) manufactured by DEC.", "The short length of yellow 10BASE5 cable has one end fitted with an N connector and the other end prepared to have an N connector shell installed; the half-black, half-grey rectangular object through which the cable passes is an installed vampire tap.Ethernet was originally based on the idea of computers communicating over a shared coaxial cable acting as a broadcast transmission medium.", "The method used was similar to those used in radio systems, with the common cable providing the communication channel likened to the ''Luminiferous aether'' in 19th-century physics, and it was from this reference that the name \"Ethernet\" was derived.Original Ethernet's shared coaxial cable (the shared medium) traversed a building or campus to every attached machine.", "A scheme known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) governed the way the computers shared the channel.", "This scheme was simpler than competing Token Ring or Token Bus technologies.", "Computers are connected to an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) transceiver, which is in turn connected to the cable (with thin Ethernet the transceiver is usually integrated into the network adapter).", "While a simple passive wire is highly reliable for small networks, it is not reliable for large extended networks, where damage to the wire in a single place, or a single bad connector, can make the whole Ethernet segment unusable.Through the first half of the 1980s, Ethernet's 10BASE5 implementation used a coaxial cable in diameter, later called ''thick Ethernet'' or ''thicknet''.", "Its successor, 10BASE2, called ''thin Ethernet'' or ''thinnet'', used the RG-58 coaxial cable.", "The emphasis was on making installation of the cable easier and less costly.Since all communication happens on the same wire, any information sent by one computer is received by all, even if that information is intended for just one destination.", "The network interface card interrupts the CPU only when applicable packets are received: the card ignores information not addressed to it.", "Use of a single cable also means that the data bandwidth is shared, such that, for example, available data bandwidth to each device is halved when two stations are simultaneously active.A collision happens when two stations attempt to transmit at the same time.", "They corrupt transmitted data and require stations to re-transmit.", "The lost data and re-transmission reduces throughput.", "In the worst case, where multiple active hosts connected with maximum allowed cable length attempt to transmit many short frames, excessive collisions can reduce throughput dramatically.", "However, a Xerox report in 1980 studied performance of an existing Ethernet installation under both normal and artificially generated heavy load.", "The report claimed that 98% throughput on the LAN was observed.", "This is in contrast with token passing LANs (Token Ring, Token Bus), all of which suffer throughput degradation as each new node comes into the LAN, due to token waits.", "This report was controversial, as modeling showed that collision-based networks theoretically became unstable under loads as low as 37% of nominal capacity.", "Many early researchers failed to understand these results.", "Performance on real networks is significantly better.In a modern Ethernet, the stations do not all share one channel through a shared cable or a simple repeater hub; instead, each station communicates with a switch, which in turn forwards that traffic to the destination station.", "In this topology, collisions are only possible if station and switch attempt to communicate with each other at the same time, and collisions are limited to this link.", "Furthermore, the 10BASE-T standard introduced a full duplex mode of operation which became common with Fast Ethernet and the de facto standard with Gigabit Ethernet.", "In full duplex, switch and station can send and receive simultaneously, and therefore modern Ethernets are completely collision-free.File:Bustopologie.png|The original Ethernet implementation: shared medium, collision-prone.", "All computers trying to communicate share the same cable, and so compete with each other.File:HUB SWITCH 6.jpg|Modern Ethernet implementation: switched connection, collision-free.", "Each computer communicates only with its own switch, without competition for the cable with others.===Repeaters and hubs===ISA network interface card supporting both coaxial-cable-based 10BASE2 (BNC connector, left) and twisted-pair-based 10BASE-T (8P8C connector, right)For signal degradation and timing reasons, coaxial Ethernet segments have a restricted size.", "Somewhat larger networks can be built by using an Ethernet repeater.", "Early repeaters had only two ports, allowing, at most, a doubling of network size.", "Once repeaters with more than two ports became available, it was possible to wire the network in a star topology.", "Early experiments with star topologies (called ''Fibernet'') using optical fiber were published by 1978.Shared cable Ethernet is always hard to install in offices because its bus topology is in conflict with the star topology cable plans designed into buildings for telephony.", "Modifying Ethernet to conform to twisted pair telephone wiring already installed in commercial buildings provided another opportunity to lower costs, expand the installed base, and leverage building design, and, thus, twisted-pair Ethernet was the next logical development in the mid-1980s.Ethernet on unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP) began with StarLAN at 1 Mbit/s in the mid-1980s.", "In 1987 SynOptics introduced the first twisted-pair Ethernet at 10 Mbit/s in a star-wired cabling topology with a central hub, later called LattisNet.", "These evolved into 10BASE-T, which was designed for point-to-point links only, and all termination was built into the device.", "This changed repeaters from a specialist device used at the center of large networks to a device that every twisted pair-based network with more than two machines had to use.", "The tree structure that resulted from this made Ethernet networks easier to maintain by preventing most faults with one peer or its associated cable from affecting other devices on the network.Despite the physical star topology and the presence of separate transmit and receive channels in the twisted pair and fiber media, repeater-based Ethernet networks still use half-duplex and CSMA/CD, with only minimal activity by the repeater, primarily generation of the jam signal in dealing with packet collisions.", "Every packet is sent to every other port on the repeater, so bandwidth and security problems are not addressed.", "The total throughput of the repeater is limited to that of a single link, and all links must operate at the same speed.=== Bridging and switching ===Patch cables with patch fields of two Ethernet switchesWhile repeaters can isolate some aspects of Ethernet segments, such as cable breakages, they still forward all traffic to all Ethernet devices.", "The entire network is one collision domain, and all hosts have to be able to detect collisions anywhere on the network.", "This limits the number of repeaters between the farthest nodes and creates practical limits on how many machines can communicate on an Ethernet network.", "Segments joined by repeaters have to all operate at the same speed, making phased-in upgrades impossible.To alleviate these problems, bridging was created to communicate at the data link layer while isolating the physical layer.", "With bridging, only well-formed Ethernet packets are forwarded from one Ethernet segment to another; collisions and packet errors are isolated.", "At initial startup, Ethernet bridges work somewhat like Ethernet repeaters, passing all traffic between segments.", "By observing the source addresses of incoming frames, the bridge then builds an address table associating addresses to segments.", "Once an address is learned, the bridge forwards network traffic destined for that address only to the associated segment, improving overall performance.", "Broadcast traffic is still forwarded to all network segments.", "Bridges also overcome the limits on total segments between two hosts and allow the mixing of speeds, both of which are critical to the incremental deployment of faster Ethernet variants.In 1989, Motorola Codex introduced their 6310 EtherSpan, and Kalpana introduced their EtherSwitch; these were examples of the first commercial Ethernet switches.", "Early switches such as this used cut-through switching where only the header of the incoming packet is examined before it is either dropped or forwarded to another segment.", "This reduces the forwarding latency.", "One drawback of this method is that it does not readily allow a mixture of different link speeds.", "Another is that packets that have been corrupted are still propagated through the network.", "The eventual remedy for this was a return to the original store and forward approach of bridging, where the packet is read into a buffer on the switch in its entirety, its frame check sequence verified and only then the packet is forwarded.", "In modern network equipment, this process is typically done using application-specific integrated circuits allowing packets to be forwarded at wire speed.When a twisted pair or fiber link segment is used and neither end is connected to a repeater, full-duplex Ethernet becomes possible over that segment.", "In full-duplex mode, both devices can transmit and receive to and from each other at the same time, and there is no collision domain.", "This doubles the aggregate bandwidth of the link and is sometimes advertised as double the link speed (for example, 200 Mbit/s for Fast Ethernet).", "The elimination of the collision domain for these connections also means that all the link's bandwidth can be used by the two devices on that segment and that segment length is not limited by the constraints of collision detection.Since packets are typically delivered only to the port they are intended for, traffic on a switched Ethernet is less public than on shared-medium Ethernet.", "Despite this, switched Ethernet should still be regarded as an insecure network technology, because it is easy to subvert switched Ethernet systems by means such as ARP spoofing and MAC flooding.The bandwidth advantages, the improved isolation of devices from each other, the ability to easily mix different speeds of devices and the elimination of the chaining limits inherent in non-switched Ethernet have made switched Ethernet the dominant network technology.===Advanced networking===A core Ethernet switchSimple switched Ethernet networks, while a great improvement over repeater-based Ethernet, suffer from single points of failure, attacks that trick switches or hosts into sending data to a machine even if it is not intended for it, scalability and security issues with regard to switching loops, broadcast radiation, and multicast traffic.Advanced networking features in switches use Shortest Path Bridging (SPB) or the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) to maintain a loop-free, meshed network, allowing physical loops for redundancy (STP) or load-balancing (SPB).", "Shortest Path Bridging includes the use of the link-state routing protocol IS-IS to allow larger networks with shortest path routes between devices.Advanced networking features also ensure port security, provide protection features such as MAC lockdown and broadcast radiation filtering, use VLANs to keep different classes of users separate while using the same physical infrastructure, employ multilayer switching to route between different classes, and use link aggregation to add bandwidth to overloaded links and to provide some redundancy.In 2016, Ethernet replaced InfiniBand as the most popular system interconnect of TOP500 supercomputers." ], [ "Varieties", "The Ethernet physical layer evolved over a considerable time span and encompasses coaxial, twisted pair and fiber-optic physical media interfaces, with speeds from to .", "The first introduction of twisted-pair CSMA/CD was StarLAN, standardized as 802.3 1BASE5.While 1BASE5 had little market penetration, it defined the physical apparatus (wire, plug/jack, pin-out, and wiring plan) that would be carried over to 10BASE-T through 10GBASE-T.The most common forms used are 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, and 1000BASE-T. All three use twisted-pair cables and 8P8C modular connectors.", "They run at , , and , respectively.Fiber optic variants of Ethernet (that commonly use SFP modules) are also very popular in larger networks, offering high performance, better electrical isolation and longer distance (tens of kilometers with some versions).", "In general, network protocol stack software will work similarly on all varieties." ], [ "Frame structure", "A close-up of the SMSC LAN91C110 (SMSC 91x) chip, an embedded Ethernet chipIn IEEE 802.3, a datagram is called a ''packet'' or ''frame''.", "''Packet'' is used to describe the overall transmission unit and includes the preamble, start frame delimiter (SFD) and carrier extension (if present).", "The ''frame'' begins after the start frame delimiter with a frame header featuring source and destination MAC addresses and the EtherType field giving either the protocol type for the payload protocol or the length of the payload.", "The middle section of the frame consists of payload data including any headers for other protocols (for example, Internet Protocol) carried in the frame.", "The frame ends with a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check, which is used to detect corruption of data in transit.", "Notably, Ethernet packets have no time-to-live field, leading to possible problems in the presence of a switching loop." ], [ "Autonegotiation", "Autonegotiation is the procedure by which two connected devices choose common transmission parameters, e.g.", "speed and duplex mode.", "Autonegotiation was initially an optional feature, first introduced with 100BASE-TX (1995 IEEE 802.3u Fast Ethernet standard), and is backward compatible with 10BASE-T.", "The specification was improved in the 1998 release of IEEE 802.3.Autonegotiation is mandatory for 1000BASE-T and faster." ], [ "Error conditions", "===Switching loop===A switching loop or bridge loop occurs in computer networks when there is more than one Layer 2 (OSI model) path between two endpoints (e.g.", "multiple connections between two network switches or two ports on the same switch connected to each other).", "The loop creates broadcast storms as broadcasts and multicasts are forwarded by switches out every port, the switch or switches will repeatedly rebroadcast the broadcast messages flooding the network.", "Since the Layer 2 header does not support a ''time to live'' (TTL) value, if a frame is sent into a looped topology, it can loop forever.A physical topology that contains switching or bridge loops is attractive for redundancy reasons, yet a switched network must not have loops.", "The solution is to allow physical loops, but create a loop-free logical topology using the SPB protocol or the older STP on the network switches.===Jabber===A node that is sending longer than the maximum transmission window for an Ethernet packet is considered to be ''jabbering''.", "Depending on the physical topology, jabber detection and remedy differ somewhat.", "* An MAU is required to detect and stop abnormally long transmission from the DTE (longer than 20–150 ms) in order to prevent permanent network disruption.", "* On an electrically shared medium (10BASE5, 10BASE2, 1BASE5), jabber can only be detected by each end node, stopping reception.", "No further remedy is possible.", "* A repeater/repeater hub uses a jabber timer that ends retransmission to the other ports when it expires.", "The timer runs for 25,000 to 50,000 bit times for 1 Mbit/s, 40,000 to 75,000 bit times for 10 and 100 Mbit/s, and 80,000 to 150,000 bit times for 1 Gbit/s.", "Jabbering ports are partitioned off the network until a carrier is no longer detected.", "* End nodes utilizing a MAC layer will usually detect an oversized Ethernet frame and cease receiving.", "A bridge/switch will not forward the frame.", "* A non-uniform frame size configuration in the network using jumbo frames may be detected as jabber by end nodes.", "Jumbo frames are not part of the official IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard.", "* A packet detected as jabber by an upstream repeater and subsequently cut off has an invalid frame check sequence and is dropped.===Runt frames===* Runts are packets or frames smaller than the minimum allowed size.", "They are dropped and not propagated." ], [ "See also", "* 5-4-3 rule* Chaosnet* Ethernet Alliance* Ethernet crossover cable* Fiber media converter* ISO/IEC 11801* Link Layer Discovery Protocol* List of interface bit rates* LocalTalk* PHY* Power over Ethernet* Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE)* Sneakernet* Wake-on-LAN (WoL)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Version 1.0 of the DIX specification.", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* IEEE 802.3 Ethernet working group* IEEE 802.3-2015 – superseded* IEEE 802.3-2018 standard" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of explorations" ], [ "Introduction", "Some of the most important explorations of State Societies, in chronological order: Exploration When Who (explorer) Northwest African coast (West Africa) about 500 BC Hanno the Navigator The Mediterranean Sea 5th century BC Himilco the Navigator Around western Europe to Thule Island about 330 BC Pytheas of Marseilles Greenland, Iceland, and Faroes 900 Gunnbjörn Ulfsson Americas (North America) 999 Leif Ericson Brazil (South America) - ''controversial'' c. 14th century CE Abu Bakr II Sahelian kingdoms 1351-1354 Ibn Battuta Great permanent wind wheel of Volta do Mar, the North Atlantic Gyre.", "Recognition of the Sargasso Sea, Madeira, Azores and West African coast.", "Cape Verde 1427-1460 Several navigators: Portuguese or serving Portugal, most under the sponsorship of Henry the Navigator Congo River, Angola and Namibia 1482-1485 Diogo Cão South Africa.", "Connected the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean.", "South Atlantic'' Volta do Mar'' winds 1482-1485 Bartolomeu Dias Caribbean, Venezuela (South America) and Central America.", "Use and development of the North Atlantic routes 1493-1502 Christopher Columbus Atlantic Ocean (outer routes) and Indian Ocean, ''Sea route to India'' (Europe to Asia) 1497-1499 Vasco da Gama Brazil, South Atlantic Volta do Mar, Indian Ocean, Madagascar, gate of the Red Sea (Bab-el-Mandeb Strait); India.", "Voyage that united Europe, Americas, Africa and Asia 1500-1501 Pedro Álvares Cabral and Diogo Dias, among others Timor, Moluccas (Australasia - Pacific Ocean) 1512-1513 António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão Circumnavigation of the Globe.", "Connection from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean (Americas to Asia) 1519-1522 Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano Mexico 1519-1521 Hernán Cortés Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia and east of the Inca Empire 1525-1527 Aleixo Garcia Traveled across the Southwest of North America (Completely) 1528 Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca Peru, Inca Empire and Ecuador 1531-1534 Francisco Pizarro Ecuador and Brazil.", "Length of the Amazon river 1531-1534 Francisco de Orellana Canada, Saint Lawrence River 1534-1542 Jacques Cartier Colombia, Conquest of the Muisca 1536-1537 Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada Pacific Ocean's Volta do Mar (Asia to the Americas) 1564-1565 Andrés de Urdaneta Galápagos Islands, Rapa Nui c. 1480 Tupaq Inka Yupanki.", "1594-1597Rediscovered by the Spanish North, Canada (Hudson Bay) 1574-1631 \t Henry Hudson North 1594-1597 Willem Barents Siberia and Pacific coast.", "1649-1641 Ivan Yuryevich Moskvitin Oceania 1642-1643 Abel Tasman Brazil (Circumnavigation), Paraguay, Bolivia and Peru.", "Connected the River Plate Basin to the Andes and to the mouth of the Amazon River 1648-1651 António Raposo Tavares Oceania 1768-1779 James Cook North Pacific, western Alaska, Far East Eurasian Coast 1771 Moric Benovsky Hawaiian Islands By c. 800 Hawaiʻiloa (mythical) Central America and Latin America 1799-1803 Alexander von Humboldt Northwest Plateau of North America 1804-1806 Lewis and Clark Expedition The North Magnetic Pole 1831-06-01 James Clark Ross Australia c. 1640 Makassar People before.", "Explored by Abel Tasman Interior of Africa 1851-1873 David Livingstone The Burke and Wills expedition (Central Australia) 1860-1861 Robert O'Hara Burke and William John Wills Exploration of the Zambeze river region, Central Africa, Angola, Mozambique, Zambia, Zaire 1877 Serpa Pinto The Northern Sea Route 1878 Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld The South Magnetic Pole January 16, 1909 Douglas Mawson, Edgeworth David, and Alistair Mackay The North Pole April 6, 1909 Robert Peary The South Pole December 14, 1911 Roald Amundsen The South Pole January 17, 1912 Robert Falcon Scott Mount Everest Summit May 29, 1953 Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay The Moon July 20, 1969 Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin (''Apollo 11'') Mars 1960 to present NASA and other space agency exploration robots" ], [ "See also", "* Age of Discovery* Exploration of Australia* List of lost expeditions* List of Russian explorers* Exploration of the High Alps* Portugal in the period of discoveries* Chronology of European exploration of Asia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Elias Canetti" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elias Canetti''' (; 25 July 1905 – 14 August 1994; ; ) was a German-language writer, born in Ruse, Bulgaria to a Sephardic Jewish family.", "They moved to Manchester, England, but his father died in 1912, and his mother took her three sons back to continental Europe.", "They settled in Vienna.Canetti moved to England in 1938 after the Anschluss to escape Nazi persecution.", "He became a British citizen in 1952.He is known as a modernist novelist, playwright, memoirist, and nonfiction writer.", "He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1981, \"for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power\".", "He is noted for his nonfiction book ''Crowds and Power'', among other works." ], [ "Life and work", "===Early life===Born in 1905 to businessman Jacques Canetti and Mathilde ''née'' Arditti in Ruse, a city on the Danube in Bulgaria, Canetti was the eldest of three sons.", "His ancestors were Sephardic Jews.", "His paternal ancestors settled in Ruse from Ottoman Adrianople.", "The original family name was ''Cañete'', named after Cañete, Cuenca, a village in Spain.In Ruse, Canetti's father and grandfather were successful merchants who operated out of a commercial building, which they had built in 1898.Canetti's mother descended from the Arditti family, one of the oldest Sephardic families in Bulgaria, who were among the founders of the Ruse Jewish colony in the late 18th century.", "The Ardittis can be traced to the 14th century, when they were court physicians and astronomers to the Aragonese royal court of Alfonso IV and Pedro IV.", "Before settling in Ruse, they had migrated into Italy and lived in Livorno in the 17th century.Ruse, BulgariaCanetti spent his childhood years, from 1905 to 1911, in Ruse until the family moved to Manchester, England, where Canetti's father joined a business established by his wife's brothers.", "In 1912, his father suddenly died, and his mother moved with their children first to Lausanne, and later in the same year, when Canetti was seven, to Vienna.", "His mother insisted that he learn and speak German.", "By this time, Canetti already spoke Ladino (his native language), Bulgarian, English, and some French; the last two he studied in the year he spent in Britain.", "Subsequently, the family moved first (from 1916 to 1921) to Zürich and then (until 1924) to Frankfurt, where Canetti graduated from high school.Canetti went back to Vienna in 1924 in order to study chemistry.", "However, his primary interests during his years in Vienna became philosophy and literature.", "Introduced into the literary circles of First Republic Vienna, he started writing.", "Politically leaning towards the left, he was present at the July Revolt of 1927, came near to the action accidentally, was most impressed by the burning of books (recalled frequently in his writings) and left the place quickly with his bicycle.", "He received a doctorate in chemistry from the University of Vienna in 1929, but never worked as a chemist.He published two works in Vienna, ''Komödie der Eitelkeit'' 1934 (The Comedy of Vanity) and ''Die Blendung'' 1935 (''Auto-da-Fé'', 1935), before escaping to Great Britain.", "He reflected the experiences of Nazi Germany and political chaos in his works, especially exploring mob action and group thinking in the novel ''Die Blendung'' and in the non-fiction ''Crowds and Power'' (1960).", "He wrote several volumes of memoirs, contemplating the influence of his multi-lingual background and childhood.Canetti's tombstone in Zürich, Switzerland" ], [ "Personal life", "Canetti Peak, in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica, named after Elias CanettiIn 1934 in Vienna he married Veza (Venetiana) Taubner-Calderon (1897–1963), who acted as his muse and devoted literary assistant.", "Canetti remained open to relationships with other women.", "He had a short affair with the sculptor Anna Mahler, the daughter of the composer Gustav Mahler.", "In 1938, after the ''Anschluss'' with Germany, the Canettis moved to London.", "He became closely involved with the painter Marie-Louise von Motesiczky, who was to remain a close companion for many years.", "His name has also been linked with the author Iris Murdoch (see John Bayley's ''Iris, A Memoir of Iris Murdoch'', which has several references to an author, referred to as \"the Dichter\", who was a Nobel Laureate and whose works included ''Die Blendung'' English title ''Auto-da-Fé'').After Veza died in 1963, Canetti married Hera Buschor (1933–1988), with whom he had a daughter, Johanna, in 1972.Canetti's brother Jacques Canetti settled in Paris, where he championed a revival of French chanson.", "Despite being a German-language writer, Canetti settled in Britain until the 1970s, receiving British citizenship in 1952.For his last 20 years, Canetti lived mostly in Zürich.===Career===A writer in German, Canetti won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1981, \"for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power\".", "He is known chiefly for his celebrated trilogy of autobiographical memoirs of his childhood and of pre-Anschluss Vienna: ''Die Gerettete Zunge'' (The Tongue Set Free); ''Die Fackel im Ohr'' (The Torch in My Ear), and ''Das Augenspiel'' (The Play of the Eyes); for his modernist novel ''Auto-da-Fé'' (''Die Blendung''); and for ''Crowds and Power'', a psychological study of crowd behaviour as it manifests itself in human activities ranging from mob violence to religious congregations.In the 1970s, Canetti began to travel more frequently to Zurich, where he settled and lived for his last 20 years.", "He died in Zürich in 1994." ], [ "Honours and awards", "* Grand Austrian State Prize for Literature (1967)* Literature Award of the Bavarian Academy of the Fine Arts (1969)* Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (1972)* Georg Büchner Prize (German Academy for Language and Literature, 1972)* German recording prize, for reading \"Ohrenzeuge\" (Deutscher Schallplattenpreis) (1975)* Nelly Sachs Prize (1975)* Gottfried-Keller-Preis (1977)* Pour le Mérite (1979)* Johann-Peter-Hebel-Preis (Baden-Württemberg, 1980)* Franz Kafka Prize of the city of Klosterneuburg (1981)* Nobel Prize in Literature (1981)* Grand Merit Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (1983)* In 1975, Canetti was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Manchester and another from the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, in 1976.", "* Canetti Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica, is named after him." ], [ "Works", "* ''Komödie der Eitelkeit'' 1934 (''The Comedy of Vanity'')* ''Die Blendung'' 1935 (''Auto-da-Fé'', novel, tr.", "by Cicely Wedgwood (Jonathan Cape, Ltd., 1946).", "The first American edition of Wedgwood's translation was titled ''The Tower of Babel'' (Alfred A. Knopf, 1947).", "* ''Die Befristeten'' 1956 (1956 premiere of the play in Oxford) (''Their Days are Numbered'')* ''Masse und Macht'' 1960 (''Crowds and Power'', study, tr.", "1962, published in Hamburg)* ''Aufzeichnungen 1942 – 1948'' (1965) (''Sketches'')* ''Die Stimmen von Marrakesch'' 1968 published by Hanser in Munich (''The Voices of Marrakesh'', travelogue, tr.", "1978)* ''Der andere Prozess'' 1969 Kafkas Briefe an Felice (''Kafka's Other Trial'', tr.", "1974).", "* ''Hitler nach Speer'' (Essay)* ''Die Provinz des Menschen'' Aufzeichnungen 1942 – 1972 (''The Human Province'', tr.", "1978)* ''Der Ohrenzeuge.", "Fünfzig Charaktere'' 1974 (\"Ear Witness: Fifty Characters\", tr.", "1979).", "* ''Das Gewissen der Worte'' 1975.Essays (''The Conscience of Words'')* ''Die Gerettete Zunge'' 1977 (''The Tongue Set Free'', memoir, tr.", "1979 by Joachim Neugroschel)* ''Die Fackel im Ohr'' 1980 Lebensgeschichte 1921 – 1931 (''The Torch in My Ear'', memoir, tr.", "1982)* ''Das Augenspiel'' 1985 Lebensgeschichte 1931 – 1937 (''The Play of the Eyes'', memoir, tr.", "1990)* ''Das Geheimherz der Uhr: Aufzeichnungen'' 1987 (''The Secret Heart of the Clock'', tr.", "1989)* ''Die Fliegenpein'' (''The Agony of Flies'', 1992)* ''Nachträge aus Hampstead'' (''Notes from Hampstead'', 1994)* ''The Voices of Marrakesh'' (published posthumously, Arion Press, 2001, with photographs by Karl Bissinger and etchings by William T. Wiley )* ''Party im Blitz; Die englischen Jahre'' 2003 (''Party in the Blitz'', memoir, published posthumously, tr.", "2005)* ''Aufzeichnungen für Marie-Louise (written 1942, compiled and published posthumously, 2005)" ], [ "Reviews", "* Stevenson, Randall (1982), ''The Privacy Industry of Franz Kafka'', a review of ''Kafka's Other Trial: The Letters to Felice'', in ''Cencrastus'' No.", "9, Summer 1982, pp.", "45 & 46," ], [ "See also", "* Crowd psychology* List of Nobel laureates by country*List of refugees* Marie-Louise von Motesiczky* Ruth von Mayenburg* List of Jewish Nobel laureates" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Parry, I., \"''Attitudes to Power''\", in I. Parry, ''Speak Silence'' (1988), p. 253-* Manuel Vázquez Montalbán and Willi Glasauer (1988).", "''Scenes from World Literature and Portraits of Greatest Authors''.", "Barcelona: Círculo de Lectores.", "* Gentis, Roger, ''La folie Canetti'', Paris: Maurice Nadeau, 1993* Donahue, William Collins, ''The End of Modernism: Elias Canetti's Auto-da-Fé'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2001).", "* Brill, Lesley, \"Terrorism, \"Crowds and Power\", and the Dogs of War\", ''Anthropological Quarterly'' 76(1), Winter 2003: 87–94.", "* Morgan, Peter (2005), \"Georges Kien and the 'Diagnosis of Delusion' in Elias Canetti's Die Blendung\", ''Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism'' Volume 157.United States: Gale.", "* Donahue, William Collins and Julian Preece (eds), ''The Worlds of Elias Canetti: Centenary Essays'' (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007).", "* Lorenz, Dagmar C.G.", "(2009), ''\"Introduction\": A Companion to the Works of Elias Canetti''.", "* Brighenti, Andrea Mubi, \"Elias Canetti and the Counter-Image of Resistance\", ''Thesis Eleven'', August 2011 vol.", "106 no.", "1 73-87.", "* Antonello Lombardi, ''La scuola dell'ascolto: Oralità, suono e musica nell'opera di Elias Canetti'', Ut Orpheus Edizioni, Bologna 2011, * Antonello Lombardi, \"''Gli animali mancanti: La fauna nell'opera di Elias Canetti''\", in ''In forma di parole, Animali'', volume secondo, IV 2012, Bologna 2013.", "* Antonello Lombardi, ''Le memorie di Georges Kien'', Portatori d'Acqua, Pesaro 2015, * Antonello Lombardi, \"''Elias Canetti e la scuola dell'ascolto''\", in '' Nuova informazione bibliografica (il Mulino)'' 2/2016, aprile-giugno" ], [ "External links", "* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' profile* Preface to Donahue, ''The End of Modernism''* * * Elias Canetti, Nobel Luminaries - Jewish Nobel Prize Winners, on the Beit Hatfutsot-The Museum of the Jewish People Website.", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edward Jenner" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Jenner''' (17 May 1749 – 26 January 1823) was an English physician and scientist who pioneered the concept of vaccines and created the smallpox vaccine, the world's first vaccine.", "The terms ''vaccine'' and ''vaccination'' are derived from ''Variolae vaccinae'' ('pustules of the cow'), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox.", "He used it in 1798 in the title of his ''Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae known as the Cow Pox'', in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox.In the West, Jenner is often called \"the father of immunology\", and his work is said to have saved \"more lives than any other man\".", "In Jenner's time, smallpox killed around 10% of the global population, with the number as high as 20% in towns and cities where infection spread more easily.", "In 1821, he was appointed physician to King George IV, and was also made mayor of Berkeley and justice of the peace.", "He was a member of the Royal Society.", "In the field of zoology, he was among the first modern scholars to describe the brood parasitism of the cuckoo (Aristotle also noted this behaviour in his ''History of Animals'').", "In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the ''100 Greatest Britons''." ], [ "Early life", "Jenner's handwritten draft describing the first vaccination is held at the Royal College of Surgeons in LondonEdward Jenner was born on 17 May 1749 in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England as the eighth of nine children.", "His father, the Reverend Stephen Jenner, was the vicar of Berkeley, so Jenner received a strong basic education.=== Education and training ===When he was young, he went to school in Wotton-under-Edge at Katherine Lady Berkeley's School and in Cirencester.", "During this time, he was inoculated (by variolation) for smallpox, which had a lifelong effect upon his general health.", "At the age of 14, he was apprenticed for seven years to Daniel Ludlow, a surgeon of Chipping Sodbury, South Gloucestershire, where he gained most of the experience needed to become a surgeon himself.Physical Society, LondonIn 1770, aged 21, Jenner became apprenticed in surgery and anatomy under surgeon John Hunter and others at St George's Hospital, London.", "William Osler records that Hunter gave Jenner William Harvey's advice, well known in medical circles (and characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment), \"Don't think; try.\"", "Hunter remained in correspondence with Jenner over natural history and proposed him for the Royal Society.", "Returning to his native countryside by 1773, Jenner became a successful family doctor and surgeon, practising on dedicated premises at Berkeley.", "In 1792, \"with twenty years' experience of general practice and surgery, Jenner obtained the degree of MD from the University of St Andrews\".=== Later life ===Jenner and others formed the Fleece Medical Society or Gloucestershire Medical Society, so called because it met in the parlour of the Fleece Inn, Rodborough, Gloucestershire.", "Members dined together and read papers on medical subjects.", "Jenner contributed papers on angina pectoris, ophthalmia, and cardiac valvular disease and commented on cowpox.", "He also belonged to a similar society which met in Alveston, near Bristol.He became a master mason on 30 December 1802, in Lodge of Faith and Friendship #449.From 1812 to 1813, he served as worshipful master of Royal Berkeley Lodge of Faith and Friendship." ], [ "Zoology", "Jenner was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1788, following his publication of a careful study of the previously misunderstood life of the nested cuckoo, a study that combined observation, experiment, and dissection.Common cuckooJenner described how the newly hatched cuckoo pushed its host's eggs and fledgling chicks out of the nest (contrary to existing belief that the adult cuckoo did it).", "Having observed this behaviour, Jenner demonstrated an anatomical adaptation for itthe baby cuckoo has a depression in its back, not present after 12 days of life, that enables it to cup eggs and other chicks.", "The adult does not remain long enough in the area to perform this task.", "Jenner's findings were published in ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'' in 1788.", "\"The singularity of its shape is well adapted to these purposes; for, different from other newly hatched birds, its back from the scapula downwards is very broad, with a considerable depression in the middle.", "This depression seems formed by nature for the design of giving a more secure lodgement to the egg of the Hedge-sparrow, or its young one, when the young Cuckoo is employed in removing either of them from the nest.", "When it is about twelve days old, this cavity is quite filled up, and then the back assumes the shape of nestling birds in general.\"", "Jenner's nephew assisted in the study.", "He was born on 30 June 1737.Jenner's understanding of the cuckoo's behaviour was not entirely believed until the artist Jemima Blackburn, a keen observer of birdlife, saw a blind nestling pushing out a host's egg.", "Blackburn's description and illustration were enough to convince Charles Darwin to revise a later edition of ''On the Origin of Species''.Jenner's interest in zoology played a large role in his first experiment with inoculation.", "Not only did he have a profound understanding of human anatomy due to his medical training, but he also understood animal biology and its role in human-animal trans-species boundaries in disease transmission.", "At the time, there was no way of knowing how important this connection would be to the history and discovery of vaccinations.", "We see this connection now; many present-day vaccinations include animal parts from cows, rabbits, and chicken eggs, which can be attributed to the work of Jenner and his cowpox/smallpox vaccination." ], [ "Marriage and human medicine", "A lecturer's certificate of attendance given to Jenner.", "He attended many lectures on chemistry, medicine and physics.Jenner married Catherine Kingscote (who died in 1815 from tuberculosis) in March 1788.He might have met her while he and other fellows were experimenting with balloons.", "Jenner's trial balloon descended into Kingscote Park, Gloucestershire, owned by Catherine's father Anthony Kingscote.", "They had three children: Edward Robert (1789–1810), Robert Fitzharding (1792–1854) and Catherine (1794–1833).He earned his MD from the University of St Andrews in 1792.He is credited with advancing the understanding of angina pectoris.", "In his correspondence with Heberden, he wrote: \"How much the heart must suffer from the coronary arteries not being able to perform their functions\"." ], [ "Invention of the vaccine", "''Edward Jenner advising a farmer to vaccinate his family''.", "Oil painting by an English painter, Jenner's discovery of the link between cowpox pus and smallpox in humans helped him to create the smallpox vaccine.Inoculation was already a standard practice in Asian and African medicine but involved serious risks, including the possibility that those inoculated would become contagious and spread the disease to others.", "In 1721, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu had imported variolation to Britain after having observed it in Istanbul.", "While Johnnie Notions had great success with his self-devised inoculation (and was reputed not to have lost a single patient), his method's practice was limited to the Shetland Isles.", "Voltaire wrote that at this time 60% of the population caught smallpox and 20% of the population died from it.", "Voltaire also states that the Circassians used the inoculation from times immemorial, and the custom may have been borrowed by the Turks from the Circassians.", "In 1766, Daniel Bernoulli analysed smallpox morbidity and mortality data to demonstrate the efficacy of inoculation.The steps taken by Edward Jenner to create vaccination, the first vaccine for smallpox.", "Jenner did this by inoculating James Phipps with cowpox, a virus similar to smallpox, to create immunity, unlike variolation, which used smallpox to create an immunity to itself.By 1768, English physician John Fewster had realised that prior infection with cowpox rendered a person immune to smallpox.", "In the years following 1770, at least five investigators in England and Germany (Sevel, Jensen, Jesty 1774, Rendell, Plett 1791) successfully tested in humans a cowpox vaccine against smallpox.", "For example, Dorset farmer Benjamin Jesty successfully vaccinated and presumably induced immunity with cowpox in his wife and two children during a smallpox epidemic in 1774, but it was not until Jenner's work that the procedure became widely understood.", "Jenner may have been aware of Jesty's procedures and success.", "A similar observation was later made in France by Jacques Antoine Rabaut-Pommier in 1780.Jenner postulated that the pus in the blisters that affected individuals affected by cowpox (a disease similar to smallpox, but much less virulent) protected them from smallpox.", "On 14 May 1796, Jenner tested his hypothesis by inoculating James Phipps, an eight-year-old boy who was the son of Jenner's gardener.", "He scraped pus from cowpox blisters on the hands of Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had caught cowpox from a cow called Blossom, whose hide now hangs on the wall of the St. George's Medical School library (now in Tooting).", "Phipps was the 17th case described in Jenner's first paper on vaccination.Jenner performing his first vaccination on James Phipps, a boy of age 8.14 May 1796Jenner inoculated Phipps in both arms that day, subsequently producing in Phipps a fever and some uneasiness, but no full-blown infection.", "Later, he injected Phipps with variolous material, the routine method of immunization at that time.", "No disease followed.", "The boy was later challenged with variolous material and again showed no sign of infection.", "No unexpected side effects occurred, and neither Phipps nor any other recipients underwent any future 'breakthrough' cases.Jenner's biographer John Baron would later speculate that Jenner understood one could be inoculated against smallpox by being exposed to cowpox by observing the unblemished complexion of milkmaids, rather than building on the work of his predecessors.", "The milkmaids story is still widely repeated even though it appears to be a myth.Donald Hopkins has written, \"Jenner's unique contribution was not that he inoculated a few persons with cowpox, but that he then proved by subsequent challenges that they were immune to smallpox.", "Moreover, he demonstrated that the protective cowpox pus could be effectively inoculated from person to person, not just directly from cattle.\"", "Jenner successfully tested his hypothesis on 23 additional subjects.James Gillray's 1802 caricature of Jenner vaccinating patients who feared it would make them sprout cowlike appendages.1808 cartoon showing Jenner, Thomas Dimsdale and George Rose seeing off anti-vaccination opponentsJenner continued his research and reported it to the Royal Society, which did not publish the initial paper.", "After revisions and further investigations, he published his findings on the 23 cases, including his 11-month-old son Robert.", "Some of his conclusions were correct, some erroneous; modern microbiological and microscopic methods would make his studies easier to reproduce.", "The medical establishment deliberated at length over his findings before accepting them.", "Eventually, vaccination was accepted, and in 1840, the British government banned variolationthe use of smallpox to induce immunityand provided vaccination using cowpox free of charge (''see'' Vaccination Act).The success of his discovery soon spread around Europe and was used ''en masse'' in the Spanish Balmis Expedition (1803–1806), a three-year-long mission to the Americas, the Philippines, Macao, China, led by Francisco Javier de Balmis with the aim of giving thousands the smallpox vaccine.", "The expedition was successful, and Jenner wrote: \"I don't imagine the annals of history furnish an example of philanthropy so noble, so extensive as this\".", "Napoleon, who at the time was at war with Britain, had all his French troops vaccinated, awarded Jenner a medal, and at the request of Jenner, he released two English prisoners of war and permitted their return home.", "Napoleon remarked he could not \"refuse anything to one of the greatest benefactors of mankind\".1873 sculpture of ''Jenner vaccinating his own son against smallpox'' by Italian sculptor Giulio Monteverde, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna, RomeJenner's continuing work on vaccination prevented him from continuing his ordinary medical practice.", "He was supported by his colleagues and the King in petitioning Parliament, and was granted £10,000 in 1802 for his work on vaccination.", "In 1807, he was granted another £20,000 after the Royal College of Physicians confirmed the widespread efficacy of vaccination." ], [ "Later life", "Certificate of the Freedom of the City of London awarded to Jenner, 1803Jenner was later elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1802, a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1804, and a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1806.In 1803 in London, he became president of the Jennerian Society, concerned with promoting vaccination to eradicate smallpox.", "The Jennerian ceased operations in 1809.Jenner became a member of the Medical and Chirurgical Society on its founding in 1805 (now the Royal Society of Medicine) and presented several papers there.", "In 1808, with government aid, the National Vaccine Establishment was founded, but Jenner felt dishonoured by the men selected to run it and resigned his directorship.Returning to London in 1811, Jenner observed a significant number of cases of smallpox after vaccination.", "He found that in these cases the severity of the illness was notably diminished by previous vaccination.", "In 1821, he was appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV, and was also made mayor of Berkeley and magistrate (justice of the peace).", "He continued to investigate natural history, and in 1823, the last year of his life, he presented his \"Observations on the Migration of Birds\" to the Royal Society.Jenner was a Freemason." ], [ "Death", "Jenner was found in a state of apoplexy on 25 January 1823, with his right side paralysed.", "He did not recover and died the next day of an apparent stroke, his second, on 26 January 1823, aged 73.He was buried in the family vault at the Church of St Mary, Berkeley." ], [ "Religious views", "1825 memorial to Jenner by Robert William Sievier, in Gloucester CathedralNeither fanatic nor lax, Jenner was a Christian who in his personal correspondence showed himself quite spiritual.", "Some days before his death, he stated to a friend: \"I am not surprised that men are not grateful to me; but I wonder that they are not grateful to God for the good which He has made me the instrument of conveying to my fellow creatures\"." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1980, the World Health Organization declared smallpox an eradicated disease.", "This was the result of coordinated public health efforts, but vaccination was an essential component.", "Although the disease was declared eradicated, some pus samples still remain in laboratories in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta in the US, and in State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia.Jenner's vaccine laid the foundation for contemporary discoveries in immunology.", "In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.", "Commemorated on postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail, in 1999 he featured in their World Changers issue along with Charles Darwin, Michael Faraday and Alan Turing.", "The lunar crater Jenner is named in his honour." ], [ "Monuments and buildings", "Jenner's House, The Chantry, Church Lane, Berkeley, Gloucestershire, EnglandBronze statue of Jenner in Kensington Gardens, LondonLSHTM Keppel Street building* Jenner's house in the village of Berkeley, Gloucestershire, is now a small museum, housing, among other things, the horns of the cow, Blossom.", "* A statue of Jenner by Robert William Sievier was erected in the nave of Gloucester Cathedral.", "* Another statue was erected in Trafalgar Square and later moved to Kensington Gardens.", "* Near the Gloucestershire village of Uley, Downham Hill is locally known as \"Smallpox Hill\" for its possible role in Jenner's studies of the disease.", "* London's St. George's Hospital Medical School has a Jenner Pavilion, where his bust may be found.", "* A group of villages in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, United States, was named in Jenner's honour by early 19th-century English settlers, including Jenners, Jenner Township, Jenner Crossroads, and Jennerstown, Pennsylvania* Jennersville, Pennsylvania, is located in Chester County.", "* The Edward Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research is an infectious disease vaccine research centre, also the Jenner Institute part of the University of Oxford.", "* A section at Gloucestershire Royal Hospital is known as the Edward Jenner Unit; it is where blood is drawn.", "* A ward at Northwick Park Hospital is called Jenner Ward.", "* Jenner Gardens at Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, opposite one of the scientist's former offices, is a small garden and cemetery.", "* A statue of Jenner was erected at the Tokyo National Museum in 1896 to commemorate the centenary of Jenner's discovery of vaccination.", "* A monument outside the walls of the upper town of Boulogne sur Mer, France.", "* A street in Stoke Newington, north London: Jenner Road, N16 * Built around 1970, The Jenner Health Centre, 201 Stanstead Road, Forest Hill, London, SE23 1HU* Jenner's name is featured on the Frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine.", "Twenty-three names of public health and tropical medicine pioneers were chosen to feature on the Keppel Street building when it was constructed in 1926.", "* Minor planet 5168 Jenner is named in his honour." ], [ "Publications", "* 1798 ''An Inquiry Into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ''* 1799 ''Further Observations on the Variolæ Vaccinæ, or Cow-Pox.", "''* 1800 ''A Continuation of Facts and Observations relative to the Variolæ Vaccinæ'' 40pgs* 1801 ''The Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation''" ], [ "See also", "* History of science" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Papers at the Royal College of Physicians * * * * * Fisher, Richard B., ''Edward Jenner 1749–1823'', Andre Deutsch, London, 1991.", "* Bennett, Michael, ''War against smallpox: Edward Jenner and the global spread of vaccination'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Ordnance Survey showing reference to Smallpox Hil: http://explore.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/os_routes/show/1539 * * * LeFanu WR.", "1951 ''A bio-bibliography of Edward Jenner, 1749–1823''.", "London: Harvey and Blythe; 1951.pp. 103–108.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * The Three Original Publications on Vaccination Against Smallpox* A digitized copy of ''An inquiry into the causes and effects of the variola vaccine'' (1798), from the Posner Memorial Collection at Carnegie Mellon* Dr Jenner's House, Museum and Garden, Berkeley* The Evolution of Modern Medicine.", "Osler, W (FTP)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Encyclopædia Britannica" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''' (Latin for ) is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia.", "It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times.", "The encyclopaedia is maintained by about 100 full-time editors and more than 4,000 contributors.", "The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes and 32,640 pages, was the last printed edition.", "Since 2016, it has been published exclusively as an online encyclopaedia.Printed for 244 years, the ''Britannica'' was the longest-running in-print encyclopaedia in the English language.", "It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in the Scottish capital of Edinburgh, as three volumes.", "The encyclopaedia grew in size: the second edition was 10 volumes, and by its fourth edition (1801–1810) it had expanded to 20 volumes.", "Its rising stature as a scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors, and the 9th (1875–1889) and 11th editions (1911) are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style.", "Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm, the ''Britannica'' shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market.", "In 1933, the ''Britannica'' became the first encyclopaedia to adopt \"continuous revision\", in which the encyclopaedia is continually reprinted, with every article updated on a schedule.", "In the 21st century, the ''Britannica'' has suffered due to competition with the online peer produced encyclopaedia Wikipedia, although the ''Britannica'' was previously suffering from competition with the digital multimedia encyclopaedia Microsoft Encarta.", "In March 2012, it announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version.", "Britannica has been assessed to be politically closer to the centre of the US political spectrum than Wikipedia.The 15th edition has a three-part structure: a 12-volume of short articles (generally fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume of long articles (two to 310 pages), and a single volume to give a hierarchical outline of knowledge.", "The was meant for quick fact-checking and as a guide to the ; readers are advised to study the outline to understand a subject's context and to find more detailed articles.", "Over 70 years, the size of the ''Britannica'' has remained steady, with about 40 million words on half a million topics.", "Though published in the United States since 1901, the ''Britannica'' has for the most part maintained British English spelling." ], [ "Present status", "=== Print version ===The 15th edition of the ''Britannica''; the initial volume with the green spine is the ; the red-spined and black-spined volumes are the and the , respectively.", "The last three volumes are the 2002 Book of the Year (black spine) and the two-volume index (cyan spine).Since 1985, the ''Britannica'' had four parts: the , the , the , and a two-volume index.", "The ''Britannica'' articles are found in the and , which encompass 12 and 17 volumes, respectively, each volume having roughly one thousand pages.", "The 2007 has 699 in-depth articles, ranging in length from 2 to 310 pages and having references and named contributors.", "In contrast, the 2007 has roughly 65,000 articles, the vast majority (about 97%) of which contain fewer than 750 words, no references, and no named contributors.", "The articles are intended for quick fact-checking and to help in finding more thorough information in the .", "The articles are meant both as authoritative, well-written articles on their subjects and as storehouses of information not covered elsewhere.", "The longest article (310 pages) is on the United States, and resulted from the merger of the articles on the individual states.", "A 2013 \"Global Edition\" of ''Britannica'' contained approximately forty thousand articles.Information can be found in the ''Britannica'' by following the cross-references in the and ; however, these are sparse, averaging one cross-reference per page.", "Hence, readers are instead recommended to consult the alphabetical index or the , which organizes the ''Britannica'' contents by topic.The core of the is its \"Outline of Knowledge\", which aims to provide a logical framework for all human knowledge.", "Accordingly, the Outline is consulted by the ''Britannica'' editors to decide which articles should be included in the and .", "The Outline is also intended to be a study guide, to put subjects in their proper perspective, and to suggest a series of ''Britannica'' articles for the student wishing to learn a topic in depth.", "However, libraries have found that it is scarcely used, and reviewers have recommended that it be dropped from the encyclopaedia.", "The also has color transparencies of human anatomy and several appendices listing the staff members, advisors, and contributors to all three parts of the ''Britannica''.Taken together, the and comprise roughly 40 million words and 24,000 images.", "The two-volume index has 2,350 pages, listing the 228,274 topics covered in the ''Britannica'', together with 474,675 subentries under those topics.", "The ''Britannica'' generally prefers British spelling over American; for example, it uses ''colour'' (not ''color''), ''centre'' (not ''center''), and ''encyclopaedia'' (not ''encyclopedia'').", "However, there are exceptions to this rule, such as ''defense'' rather than ''defence''.", "Common alternative spellings are provided with cross-references such as \"Color: ''see'' Colour.", "\"Since 1936, the articles of the ''Britannica'' have been revised on a regular schedule, with at least 10% of them considered for revision each year.", "According to one Britannica website, 46% of its articles were revised over the past three years; however, according to another Britannica website, only 35% of the articles were revised.The alphabetization of articles in the and follows strict rules.", "Diacritical marks and non-English letters are ignored, while numerical entries such as \"1812, War of\" are alphabetized as if the number had been written out (\"Eighteen-twelve, War of\").", "Articles with identical names are ordered first by persons, then by places, then by things.", "Rulers with identical names are organized first alphabetically by country and then by chronology; thus, Charles III of France precedes Charles I of England, listed in ''Britannica'' as the ruler of Great Britain and Ireland.", "(That is, they are alphabetized as if their titles were \"Charles, France, 3\" and \"Charles, Great Britain and Ireland, 1\".)", "Similarly, places that share names are organized alphabetically by country, then by ever-smaller political divisions.In March 2012, the company announced that the 2010 edition would be the last printed version.", "This was announced as a move by the company to adapt to the times and focus on its future using digital distribution.", "The peak year for the printed encyclopaedia was 1990 when 120,000 sets were sold, but it dropped to 40,000 in 1996.12,000 sets of the 2010 edition were printed, of which 8,000 had been sold .", "By late April 2012, the remaining copies of the 2010 edition had sold out at Britannica's online store.", ", a replica of Britannica's 1768 first edition is sold on the online store.=== Related printed material ===''Children's Britannica''''Britannica Junior'' was first published in 1934 as 12 volumes.", "It was expanded to 15 volumes in 1947, and renamed ''Britannica Junior Encyclopædia'' in 1963.It was taken off the market after the 1984 printing.A British ''Children's Britannica'' edited by John Armitage was issued in London in 1960.Its contents were determined largely by the eleven-plus standardized tests given in Britain.", "Britannica introduced the ''Children's Britannica'' to the US market in 1988, aimed at ages seven to 14.In 1961, a 16-volume ''Young Children's Encyclopaedia'' was issued for children just learning to read.", "''My First Britannica'' is aimed at children ages six to 12, and the ''Britannica Discovery Library'' is for children aged three to six (issued 1974 to 1991).There have been, and are, several abridged ''Britannica'' encyclopaedias.", "The single-volume ''Britannica Concise Encyclopædia'' has 28,000 short articles condensing the larger 32-volume ''Britannica''; there are authorized translations in languages such as Chinese created by Encyclopedia of China Publishing House and Vietnamese.", "''Compton's by Britannica'', first published in 2007, incorporating the former ''Compton's Encyclopedia'', is aimed at 10- to 17-year-olds and consists of 26 volumes and 11,000 pages.Since 1938, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has published annually a ''Book of the Year'' covering the past year's events.", "A given edition of the ''Book of the Year'' is named in terms of the year of its publication, though the edition actually covers the events of the previous year.", "The company also publishes several specialized reference works, such as ''Shakespeare: The Essential Guide to the Life and Works of the Bard'' (Wiley, 2006).=== Optical disc, online, and mobile versions ===The ''Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2012 DVD'' contains over 100,000 articles.", "This includes regular ''Britannica'' articles, as well as others drawn from the ''Britannica Student Encyclopædia'', and the ''Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia.''", "The package includes a range of supplementary content including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links.", "It also offers study tools and dictionary and thesaurus entries from Merriam-Webster.", "''Britannica'' Online is a website with more than 120,000 articles and is updated regularly.", "It has daily features, updates and links to news reports from ''The New York Times'' and the BBC.", ", roughly 60% of Encyclopædia Britannica's revenue came from online operations, of which around 15% came from subscriptions to the consumer version of the websites.", ", subscriptions were available on a yearly, monthly or weekly basis.", "Special subscription plans are offered to schools, colleges and libraries; such institutional subscribers constitute an important part of Britannica's business.", "Beginning in early 2007, the ''Britannica'' made articles freely available if they are hyperlinked from an external site.", "Non-subscribers are served pop-ups and advertising.On 20 February 2007, Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated announced that it was working with mobile phone search company AskMeNow to launch a mobile encyclopaedia.", "Users will be able to send a question via text message, and AskMeNow will search ''Britannica'' 28,000-article concise encyclopaedia to return an answer to the query.", "Daily topical features sent directly to users' mobile phones are also planned.On 3 June 2008, an initiative to facilitate collaboration between online expert and amateur scholarly contributors for Britannica's online content (in the spirit of a wiki), with editorial oversight from Britannica staff, was announced.", "Approved contributions would be credited, though contributing automatically grants Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated perpetual, irrevocable license to those contributions.On 22 January 2009, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that the company would be accepting edits and additions to the online ''Britannica'' website from the public.", "The published edition of the encyclopaedia will not be affected by the changes.", "Individuals wishing to edit the ''Britannica'' website will have to register under their real name and address prior to editing or submitting their content.", "All edits submitted will be reviewed and checked and will have to be approved by the encyclopaedia's professional staff.", "Contributions from non-academic users will sit in a separate section from the expert-generated ''Britannica'' content, as will content submitted by non-''Britannica'' scholars.", "Articles written by users, if vetted and approved, will also only be available in a special section of the website, separate from the professional articles.", "Official ''Britannica'' material would carry a \"Britannica Checked\" stamp, to distinguish it from the user-generated content.On 14 September 2010, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced a partnership with mobile phone development company Concentric Sky to launch a series of iPhone products aimed at the K–12 market.", "On 20 July 2011, Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated announced that Concentric Sky had ported the Britannica Kids product line to Intel's Intel Atom-based Netbooks and on 26 October 2011 that it had launched its encyclopaedia as an iPad app.", "In 2010, Britannica released Britannica ImageQuest, a database of images.In March 2012, it was announced that the company would cease printing the encyclopaedia set, and that it would focus more on its online version.On 7 June 2018, Britannica released a Google Chrome extension, \"Britannica Insights\", which shows snippets of information from Britannica Online whenever the user performs a Google Search, in a box to the right of Google's results.", "Britannica Insights was also available as a Firefox extension but this was taken down due to a code review issue." ], [ "Personnel and management", "=== Contributors ===The print version of the ''Britannica'' has 4,411 contributors, many eminent in their fields, such as Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman, astronomer Carl Sagan, and surgeon Michael DeBakey.", "Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as long ago as 1947 (Alfred North Whitehead), while another quarter are retired or emeritus.", "Most (approximately 98%) contribute to only a single article; however, 64 contributed to three articles, 23 contributed to four articles, 10 contributed to five articles, and 8 contributed to more than five articles.", "An exceptionally prolific contributor is Christine Sutton of the University of Oxford, who contributed 24 articles on particle physics.While ''Britannica'' authors have included writers such as Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, and Leon Trotsky, as well as notable independent encyclopaedists such as Isaac Asimov, some have been criticized for lack of expertise.", "In 1911 the historian George L. Burr wrote:=== Staff ===Portrait of Thomas Spencer Baynes, editor of the 9th edition, painted in 1888, now hangs in the Senate Room of the University of St Andrews in Scotland.", "in the 15th edition of ''Britannica'', Dale Hoiberg, a sinologist, was listed as ''Britannica'' Senior Vice President and editor-in-chief.", "Among his predecessors as editors-in-chief were Hugh Chisholm (1902–1924), James Louis Garvin (1926–1932), Franklin Henry Hooper (1932–1938), Walter Yust (1938–1960), Harry Ashmore (1960–1963), Warren E. Preece (1964–1968, 1969–1975), Sir William Haley (1968–1969), Philip W. Goetz (1979–1991), and Robert McHenry (1992–1997).", "Anita Wolff was listed as the Deputy Editor and Theodore Pappas as Executive Editor.", "Prior Executive Editors include John V. Dodge (1950–1964) and Philip W. Goetz.Paul T. Armstrong remains the longest working employee of Encyclopædia Britannica.", "He began his career there in 1934, eventually earning the positions of treasurer, vice president, and chief financial officer in his 58 years with the company, before retiring in 1992.The 2007 editorial staff of the ''Britannica'' included five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors, supervised by Dale Hoiberg and four others.", "The editorial staff helped to write the articles of the and some sections of the .=== Editorial advisors ===The ''Britannica'' has an editorial board of advisors, which includes 12 distinguished scholars: non-fiction author Nicholas Carr, religion scholar Wendy Doniger, political economist Benjamin M. Friedman, Council on Foreign Relations President Emeritus Leslie H. Gelb, computer scientist David Gelernter, Physics Nobel laureate Murray Gell-Mann, Carnegie Corporation of New York President Vartan Gregorian, philosopher Thomas Nagel, cognitive scientist Donald Norman, musicologist Don Michael Randel, Stewart Sutherland, Baron Sutherland of Houndwood, President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and cultural anthropologist Michael Wesch.The ''Propædia'' and its ''Outline of Knowledge'' were produced by dozens of editorial advisors under the direction of Mortimer J. Adler.", "Roughly half of these advisors have since died, including some of the Outline's chief architects – Rene Dubos (d. 1982), Loren Eiseley (d. 1977), Harold D. Lasswell (d. 1978), Mark Van Doren (d. 1972), Peter Ritchie Calder (d. 1982) and Mortimer J. Adler (d. 2001).", "The also lists just under 4,000 advisors who were consulted for the unsigned articles.=== Corporate structure ===In January 1996, the ''Britannica'' was purchased from the Benton Foundation by billionaire Swiss financier Jacqui Safra, who serves as its current chair of the board.", "In 1997, Don Yannias, a long-time associate and investment advisor of Safra, became CEO of Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated.", "In 1999, a new company, Britannica.com Incorporated, was created to develop digital versions of the ''Britannica''; Yannias assumed the role of CEO in the new company, while his former position at the parent company remained vacant for two years.", "Yannias' tenure at Britannica.com Incorporated was marked by missteps, considerable lay-offs, and financial losses.", "In 2001, Yannias was replaced by Ilan Yeshua, who reunited the leadership of the two companies.", "Yannias later returned to investment management, but remains on the ''Britannica'' Board of Directors.In 2003, former management consultant Jorge Aguilar-Cauz was appointed President of Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated.", "Cauz is the senior executive and reports directly to the ''Britannica'' Board of Directors.", "Cauz has been pursuing alliances with other companies and extending the ''Britannica'' brand to new educational and reference products, continuing the strategy pioneered by former CEO Elkan Harrison Powell in the mid-1930s.In the fall of 2017, Karthik Krishnan was appointed global chief executive officer of the Encyclopædia Britannica Group.", "Krishnan brought a varied perspective to the role based on several high-level positions in digital media, including RELX (formerly known as Reed Elsevier, and one of the constituents of the FTSE 100 Index) and Rodale, in which he was responsible for \"driving business and cultural transformation and accelerating growth\".Taking the reins of the company as it was preparing to mark its 250th anniversary and define the next phase of its digital strategy for consumers and K–12 schools, Krishnan launched a series of new initiatives in his first year.First was Britannica Insights, a free, downloadable software extension to the Google Chrome browser that served up edited, fact-checked Britannica information with queries on search engines such as Google, Yahoo, and Bing.", "Its purpose, the company said, was to \"provide trusted, verified information\" in conjunction with search results that were thought to be increasingly unreliable in the era of misinformation and \"fake news.", "\"The product was quickly followed by Britannica School Insights, which provided similar content for subscribers to Britannica's online classroom solutions, and a partnership with YouTube in which verified Britannica content appeared on the site as an antidote to user-generated video content that could be false or misleading.Krishnan, an educator at New York University's Stern School of Business, believes in the \"transformative power of education\" and set steering the company toward solidifying its place among leaders in educational technology and supplemental curriculum.", "Krishnan aimed at providing more useful and relevant solutions to customer needs, extending and renewing Britannica's historical emphasis on \"utility\", which had been the watchword of its first edition in 1768." ], [ "Competition", "As the ''Britannica'' is a general encyclopaedia, it does not seek to compete with specialized encyclopaedias such as the ''Encyclopaedia of Mathematics'' or the ''Dictionary of the Middle Ages'', which can devote much more space to their chosen topics.", "In its first years, the ''Britannica'' main competitor was the general encyclopaedia of Ephraim Chambers and, soon thereafter, ''Rees's Cyclopædia'' and Coleridge's ''Encyclopædia Metropolitana''.", "In the 20th century, successful competitors included ''Collier's Encyclopedia'', the ''Encyclopedia Americana'', and the ''World Book Encyclopedia''.", "Nevertheless, from the 9th edition onwards, the ''Britannica'' was widely considered to have the greatest authority of any general English-language encyclopaedia, especially because of its broad coverage and eminent authors.", "The print version of the ''Britannica'' was significantly more expensive than its competitors.Since the early 1990s, the ''Britannica'' has faced new challenges from digital information sources.", "The Internet, facilitated by the development of Web search engines, has grown into a common source of information for many people, and provides easy access to reliable original sources and expert opinions, thanks in part to initiatives such as Google Books, MIT's release of its educational materials and the open PubMed Central library of the National Library of Medicine.", "The Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media, due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated.", "In rapidly changing fields such as science, technology, politics, culture and modern history, the ''Britannica'' has struggled to stay up to date, a problem first analysed systematically by its former editor Walter Yust.", "Eventually, the ''Britannica'' turned to focus more on its online edition.=== Print encyclopaedias ===The has been compared with other print encyclopaedias, both qualitatively and quantitatively.", "A well-known comparison is that of Kenneth Kister, who gave a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the 1993 ''Britannica'' with two comparable encyclopaedias, ''Collier's Encyclopedia'' and the ''Encyclopedia Americana''.", "For the quantitative analysis, ten articles were selected at random—circumcision, Charles Drew, Galileo, Philip Glass, heart disease, IQ, panda bear, sexual harassment, Shroud of Turin and Uzbekistan—and letter grades of A–D or F were awarded in four categories: coverage, accuracy, clarity, and recency.", "In all four categories and for all three encyclopaedias, the four average grades fell between B− and B+, chiefly because none of the encyclopaedias had an article on sexual harassment in 1994.In the accuracy category, the ''Britannica'' received one \"D\" and seven \"A\"s, ''Encyclopedia Americana'' received eight \"A\"s, and ''Collier's'' received one \"D\" and seven \"A\"s; thus, ''Britannica'' received an average score of 92% for accuracy to ''Americana'' 95% and ''Collier's'' 92%.", "In the timeliness category, ''Britannica'' averaged an 86% to ''Americana'''s 90% and ''Collier's'' 85%.In 2013, the President of Encyclopædia Britannica announced that after 244 years, the encyclopaedia would cease print production and all future editions would be entirely digital.=== Digital encyclopaedias on optical media ===The most notable competitor of the ''Britannica'' among CD/DVD-ROM digital encyclopaedias was ''Encarta'', now discontinued, a modern multimedia encyclopaedia that incorporated three print encyclopaedias: ''Funk & Wagnalls'', ''Collier's'' and the ''New Merit Scholar's Encyclopedia''.", "''Encarta'' was the top-selling multimedia encyclopaedia, based on total US retail sales from January 2000 to February 2006.Both occupied the same price range, with the ''2007 Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate'' CD or DVD costing US$40–50 and the Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD costing US$45.The ''Britannica'' disc contains 100,000 articles and ''Merriam-Webster's Dictionary and Thesaurus'' (US only), and offers Primary and Secondary School editions.", "''Encarta'' contained 66,000 articles, a user-friendly Visual Browser, interactive maps, math, language and homework tools, a US and UK dictionary, and a youth edition.", "Like ''Encarta'', the digital ''Britannica'' has been criticized for being biased towards United States audiences; the United Kingdom-related articles are updated less often, maps of the United States are more detailed than those of other countries, and it lacks a UK dictionary.", "Like the ''Britannica'', ''Encarta'' was available online by subscription, although some content could be accessed free.=== Wikipedia ===The main online alternative to ''Britannica'' is Wikipedia.", "The key differences between the two lie in accessibility; the model of participation they bring to an encyclopedic project; their respective style sheets and editorial policies; relative ages; the number of subjects treated; the number of languages in which articles are written and made available; and their underlying economic models: unlike ''Britannica'', Wikipedia is a not-for-profit and is not connected with traditional profit- and contract-based publishing distribution networks.The 699 printed articles are generally written by identified contributors, and the roughly 65,000 printed articles are the work of the editorial staff and identified outside consultants.", "Thus, a ''Britannica'' article either has known authorship or a set of possible authors (the editorial staff).", "With the exception of the editorial staff, most of the ''Britannica'' contributors are experts in their field—some are Nobel laureates.", "By contrast, the articles of Wikipedia are written by people of unknown degrees of expertise: most do not claim any particular expertise, and of those who do, many are anonymous and have no verifiable credentials.", "It is for this lack of institutional vetting, or certification, that former ''Britannica'' editor-in-chief Robert McHenry notes his belief that Wikipedia cannot hope to rival the ''Britannica'' in accuracy.In 2005, the journal ''Nature'' chose articles from both websites in a wide range of science topics and sent them to what it called \"relevant\" field experts for peer review.", "The experts then compared the competing articles—one from each site on a given topic—side by side but were not told which article came from which site.", "''Nature'' got back 42 usable reviews.The journal found just eight serious errors, such as general misunderstandings of vital concepts: four from each site.", "It also discovered many factual errors, omissions or misleading statements: 162 in Wikipedia and 123 in ''Britannica'', an average of 3.86 mistakes per article for Wikipedia and 2.92 for ''Britannica''.Although ''Britannica ''was revealed as the more accurate encyclopaedia, with fewer errors, Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated in its rebuttal called ''Nature'''s study flawed and misleading and called for a \"prompt\" retraction.", "It noted that two of the articles in the study were taken from a ''Britannica'' yearbook and not the encyclopaedia, and another two were from ''Compton's Encyclopedia'' (called the ''Britannica Student Encyclopedia'' on the company's website).", "''Nature'' defended its story and declined to retract, stating that, as it was comparing Wikipedia with the web version of ''Britannica'', it used whatever relevant material was available on ''Britannica'' website.", "Interviewed in February 2009, the managing director of ''Britannica UK'' said: For the 15th anniversary of Wikipedia, the Telegraph published two opinion pieces which compared Wikipedia to Britannica and which had falsely claimed that Britannica had gone bankrupt in 1996.In a January 2016 press release, ''Britannica'' responded by calling Wikipedia \"an impressive achievement\" but argued that critics should avoid \"false comparisons\" to ''Britannica'' in terms of differing models and purposes." ], [ "Critical and popular assessments", "=== Reputation ===copperplate by Andrew Bell from the 1st editionSince the 3rd edition, the ''Britannica'' has enjoyed a popular and critical reputation for general excellence.", "The 3rd and the 9th editions were pirated for sale in the United States, beginning with ''Dobson's Encyclopaedia''.", "On the release of the 14th edition, ''Time'' magazine dubbed the ''Britannica'' the \"Patriarch of the Library\".", "In a related advertisement, naturalist William Beebe was quoted as saying that the ''Britannica'' was \"beyond comparison because there is no competitor.\"", "References to the ''Britannica'' can be found throughout English literature, most notably in one of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's favourite Sherlock Holmes stories, \"The Red-Headed League\".", "The tale was highlighted by the Lord Mayor of London, Gilbert Inglefield, at the bicentennial of the ''Britannica''.The ''Britannica'' has a reputation for summarising knowledge.", "To further their education, some people have devoted themselves to reading the entire ''Britannica'', taking anywhere from three to 22 years to do so.", "When Fat'h Ali became the Shah of Persia in 1797, he was given a set of the ''Britannica'' 3rd edition, which he read completely; after this feat, he extended his royal title to include \"Most Formidable Lord and Master of the \".", "Writer George Bernard Shaw claimed to have read the complete 9th edition, except for the science articlesand Richard Evelyn Byrd took the ''Britannica'' as reading material for his five-month stay at the South Pole in 1934, while Philip Beaver read it during a sailing expedition.", "More recently, A.J.", "Jacobs, an editor at ''Esquire'' magazine, read the entire 2002 version of the 15th edition, describing his experiences in the well-received 2004 book, ''The Know-It-All: One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World''.", "Only two people are known to have read two independent editions: the author C. S. Forester and Amos Urban Shirk, an American businessman who read the 11th and 14th editions, devoting roughly three hours per night for four and a half years to read the 11th.=== Awards ===The CD/DVD-ROM version of the ''Britannica'', ''Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite'', received the 2004 Distinguished Achievement Award from the Association of Educational Publishers.", "On 15 July 2009, was awarded a spot as one of \"Top Ten Superbrands in the UK\" by a panel of more than 2,000 independent reviewers, as reported by the BBC.=== Coverage of topics ===Topics are chosen in part by reference to the \"Outline of Knowledge\".", "The bulk of the ''Britannica'' is devoted to geography (26% of the ), biography (14%), biology and medicine (11%), literature (7%), physics and astronomy (6%), religion (5%), art (4%), Western philosophy (4%), and law (3%).", "A complementary study of the found that geography accounted for 25% of articles, science 18%, social sciences 17%, biography 17%, and all other humanities 25%.", "Writing in 1992, one reviewer judged that the \"range, depth, and catholicity of coverage of the ''Britannica'' are unsurpassed by any other general Encyclopaedia.", "\"The ''Britannica'' does not cover topics in equivalent detail; for example, the whole of Buddhism and most other religions is covered in a single article, whereas 14 articles are devoted to Christianity, comprising nearly half of all religion articles.", "The ''Britannica'' covers 50,479 biographies, 5,999 of them about women, with 11.87% being British citizens and 25.51% US citizens.", "However, the ''Britannica'' has been lauded as the ''least'' biased of general Encyclopaedias marketed to Western readers and praised for its biographies of important women of all eras.=== Criticism of editorial decisions ===On rare occasions, the ''Britannica'' has been criticized for its editorial choices.", "Given its roughly constant size, the encyclopaedia has needed to reduce or eliminate some topics to accommodate others, resulting in controversial decisions.", "The initial 15th edition (1974–1985) was faulted for having reduced or eliminated coverage of children's literature, military decorations, and the French poet Joachim du Bellay; editorial mistakes were also alleged, such as inconsistent sorting of Japanese biographies.", "Its elimination of the index was condemned, as was the apparently arbitrary division of articles into the and .", "Summing up, one critic called the initial 15th edition a \"qualified failure...that cares more for juggling its format than for preserving.\"", "More recently, reviewers from the American Library Association were surprised to find that most educational articles had been eliminated from the 1992 , along with the article on psychology.Some very few ''Britannica''-appointed contributors are mistaken.", "A notorious instance from the ''Britannica'' early years is the rejection of Newtonian gravity by George Gleig, the chief editor of the 3rd edition (1788–1797), who wrote that gravity was caused by the classical element of fire.", "The ''Britannica'' has also staunchly defended a scientific approach to cultural topics, as it did with William Robertson Smith's articles on religion in the 9th edition, particularly his article stating that the Bible was not historically accurate (1875).=== Other criticisms ===The ''Britannica'' has received criticism, especially as editions become outdated.", "It is expensive to produce a completely new edition of the ''Britannica'', and its editors delay for as long as fiscally sensible (usually about 25 years).", "For example, despite continuous revision, the 14th edition became outdated after 35 years (1929–1964).", "When American physicist Harvey Einbinder detailed its failings in his 1964 book, ''The Myth of the Britannica'', the encyclopaedia was provoked to produce the 15th edition, which required 10 years of work.", "It is still difficult to keep the ''Britannica'' current; one 1994 critic writes, \"it is not difficult to find articles that are out-of-date or in need of revision\", noting that the longer articles are more likely to be outdated than the shorter articles.", "Information in the is sometimes inconsistent with the corresponding article(s), mainly because of the failure to update one or the other.", "The bibliographies of the articles have been criticized for being more out-of-date than the articles themselves.In 2005, 12-year-old schoolboy Lucian George found several inaccuracies in the ''Britannica'' entries on Poland and wildlife in Eastern Europe.In 2010, an inaccurate entry about the Irish Civil War, which incorrectly described the war as having been between the north and south of Ireland, was discussed in the Irish press following a decision of the Department of Education and Science to pay for online access.Writing about the 3rd edition (1788–1797), ''Britannica'' chief editor George Gleig observed that \"perfection seems to be incompatible with the nature of works constructed on such a plan, and embracing such a variety of subjects.\"", "In March 2006, the ''Britannica'' wrote, \"we in no way mean to imply that ''Britannica'' is error-free; we have never made such a claim\" (although in 1962 Britannica's sales department famously said of the 14th edition \"It is truth.", "It is unquestionable fact.\")", "The sentiment is expressed by its original editor, William Smellie:" ], [ "History", "The title page of the first edition of the , published in 1771Past owners have included, in chronological order, the Edinburgh, Scotland-based printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, Scottish publisher A & C Black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck and William Benton.The present owner of Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. is Jacqui Safra, a Brazilian billionaire and actor.", "Recent advances in information technology and the rise of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, ''Encarta'' and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopaedias.", "To remain competitive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has stressed the reputation of the ''Britannica'', reduced its price and production costs, and developed electronic versions on CD-ROM, DVD, and the World Wide Web.", "Since the early 1930s, the company has promoted spin-off reference works.=== Editions ===The ''Britannica'' has been issued in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd and 4th editions (see the Table below).", "The 5th and 6th editions were reprints of the 4th, and the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th, just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th.", "The 15th underwent massive reorganization in 1985, but the updated, current version is still known as the 15th.", "The 14th and 15th editions were edited every year throughout their runs, so that later printings of each were entirely different from early ones.Throughout history, the ''Britannica'' has had two aims: to be an excellent reference book, and to provide educational material.", "In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematize all human knowledge.", "The history of the ''Britannica'' can be divided into five eras, punctuated by changes in management, or reorganization of the dictionary.==== 1768–1826 ====Thomas Young's article on Egypt, which included the translation of the hieroglyphs on the Rosetta Stone (pictured).In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1826), the ''Britannica'' was managed and published by its founders, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, by Archibald Constable, and by others.", "The ''Britannica'' was first published between December 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh as the ''Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, compiled upon a New Plan''.", "In part, it was conceived in reaction to the French ''Encyclopédie'' of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (published 1751–1772), which had been inspired by Chambers's ''Cyclopaedia'' (first edition 1728).", "It went on sale 10 December.The ''Britannica'' of this period was primarily a Scottish enterprise, and it is one of the most enduring legacies of the Scottish Enlightenment.", "In this era, the ''Britannica'' moved from being a three-volume set (1st edition) compiled by one young editor—William Smellie—to a 20-volume set written by numerous authorities.", "Several other encyclopaedias competed throughout this period, among them editions of Abraham Rees's ''Cyclopædia'' and Coleridge's ''Encyclopædia Metropolitana'' and David Brewster's ''Edinburgh Encyclopædia''.==== 1827–1901 ====During the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the ''Britannica'' was managed by the Edinburgh publishing firm A & C Black.", "Although some contributors were again recruited through friendships of the chief editors, notably Macvey Napier, others were attracted by the ''Britannica'' reputation.", "The contributors often came from other countries and included the world's most respected authorities in their fields.", "A general index of all articles was included for the first time in the 7th edition, a practice maintained until 1974.Production of the 9th edition was overseen by Thomas Spencer Baynes, the first English-born editor-in-chief.", "Dubbed the \"Scholar's Edition\", the 9th edition is the most scholarly of all ''Britannicas''.", "After 1880, Baynes was assisted by William Robertson Smith.", "No biographies of living persons were included.", "James Clerk Maxwell and Thomas Huxley were special advisors on science.", "However, by the close of the 19th century, the 9th edition was outdated, and the ''Britannica'' faced financial difficulties.==== 1901–1973 ====An advertisement for the 11th edition, published in the May 1913 issue of ''National Geographic''A wooden shipping crate for the 14th edition of the ''Britannica''In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the ''Britannica'' was managed by American businessmen who introduced direct marketing and door-to-door sales.", "The American owners gradually simplified articles, making them less scholarly for a mass market.", "The 10th edition was an eleven-volume supplement (including one each of maps and an index) to the 9th, numbered as volumes 25–35, but the 11th edition was a completely new work, and is still praised for excellence; its owner, Horace Hooper, lavished enormous effort on its perfection.When Hooper fell into financial difficulties, the ''Britannica'' was managed by Sears Roebuck for 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943).", "In 1932, the vice-president of Sears, Elkan Harrison Powell, assumed presidency of the ''Britannica''; in 1936, he began the policy of continuous revision.", "This was a departure from earlier practice, in which the articles were not changed until a new edition was produced, at roughly 25-year intervals, some articles unchanged from earlier editions.", "Powell developed new educational products that built upon the ''Britannica'' reputation.In 1943, Sears donated the to the University of Chicago.", "William Benton, then a vice president of the university, provided the working capital for its operation.", "The stock was divided between Benton and the university, with the university holding an option on the stock.", "Benton became chairman of the board and managed the ''Britannica'' until his death in 1973.Benton set up the Benton Foundation, which managed the ''Britannica'' until 1996, and whose sole beneficiary was the University of Chicago.", "In 1968, the ''Britannica'' celebrated its bicentennial.==== 1974–1994 ====In the fourth era (1974–1994), the ''Britannica'' introduced its 15th edition, which was reorganized into three parts: the , the , and the .", "Under Mortimer J. Adler (member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and its chair from 1974; director of editorial planning for the 15th edition of ''Britannica'' from 1965), the ''Britannica'' sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool, but to systematize all human knowledge.", "The absence of a separate index and the grouping of articles into parallel encyclopaedias (the and ) provoked a \"firestorm of criticism\" of the initial 15th edition.", "In response, the 15th edition was completely reorganized and indexed for a re-release in 1985.This second version of the 15th edition continued to be published and revised through the release of the 2010 print version.", "The official title of the 15th edition is the ''New Encyclopædia Britannica'', although it has also been promoted as ''Britannica 3''.On 9 March 1976 the US Federal Trade Commission entered an opinion and order enjoining Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. from using: a) deceptive advertising practices in recruiting sales agents and obtaining sales leads, and b) deceptive sales practices in the door-to-door presentations of its sales agents.==== 1994–present ====An 1898 advertisement for the 9th editionIn the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions have been developed and released on optical media and online.", "In 1996, the ''Britannica'' was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties.", "Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated split in 1999.One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other, Britannica.com Incorporated, developed digital versions.", "Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, Ilan Yeshua, who has continued Powell's strategy of introducing new products with the ''Britannica'' name.", "In March 2012, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that it would not produce any new print editions of the encyclopaedia, with the 2010 15th edition being the last.", "The company will focus only on the online edition and other educational tools.", "''Britannica'' final print edition was in 2010, a 32-volume set.", "''Britannica Global Edition'' was also printed in 2010, containing 30 volumes and 18,251 pages, with 8,500 photographs, maps, flags, and illustrations in smaller \"compact\" volumes, as well as over 40,000 articles written by scholars from across the world, including Nobel Prize winners.", "Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain and sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up through the 14th had.", "The following is ''Britannica'' description of the work:In 2020, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. released the ''Britannica All New Children's Encyclopedia: What We Know and What We Don't'', an encyclopaedia aimed primarily at younger readers, covering major topics.", "The encyclopedia was widely praised for bringing back the print format.", "It was ''Britannica'''s first encyclopaedia for children since 1984.=== Dedications ===The ''Britannica'' was dedicated to the reigning British monarch from 1788 to 1901 and then, upon its sale to an American partnership, to the British monarch and the President of the United States.", "Thus, the 11th edition is \"dedicated by Permission to His Majesty George the Fifth, King of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, and to William Howard Taft, President of the United States of America.\"", "The order of the dedications has changed with the relative power of the United States and Britain, and with relative sales; the 1954 version of the 14th edition is \"Dedicated by Permission to the Heads of the Two English-Speaking Peoples, Dwight David Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth the Second.\"", "Consistent with this tradition, the 2007 version of the current 15th edition was \"dedicated by permission to the current President of the United States of America, George W. Bush, and Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II\", while the 2010 version of the current 15th edition is \"dedicated by permission to Barack Obama, President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.\"" ], [ "Edition summary", " Edition / supplement Publication years Size Sales Chief editor(s) Notes 1st 1768–1771 3 volumes, 2,391 pages, 160 plates 3,000 William Smellie Largely the work of one editor, Smellie; An estimated 3,000 sets were eventually sold, priced at £12 apiece; 30 articles longer than three pages.", "The pages were bound in three equally sized volumes covering Aa–Bzo, Caaba–Lythrum, and Macao–Zyglophyllum.", "2nd 1777–1784 10 volumes, 8,595 pages, 340 plates 1,500 James Tytler Largely the work of one editor, Tytler; 150 long articles; pagination errors; all maps under \"Geography\" article; 1,500 sets sold 3rd 1788–1797 18 volumes, 14,579 pages, 542 plates 10,000 or 13,000 Colin Macfarquhar and George Gleig £42,000 profit on 10,000 copies sold; first dedication to monarch; pirated by Moore in Dublin and Thomas Dobson in Philadelphia supplement to 3rd 1801, revised in 1803 2 volumes, 1,624 pages, 50 plates George Gleig Copyright owned by Thomas Bonar 4th 1801–1810 20 volumes, 16,033 pages, 581 plates 4,000 James Millar Authors first allowed to retain copyright.", "Material in the supplement to 3rd not incorporated due to copyright issues.", "5th 1815–1817 20 volumes, 16,017 pages, 582 plates James Millar Reprint of the 4th edition.", "Financial losses by Millar and Andrew Bell's heirs; EB rights sold to Archibald Constable supplement to 4th, 5th, and 6th 1816–1824 6 volumes, 4,933 pages, 125 plates1 10,500 Macvey Napier Famous contributors recruited, such as Sir Humphry Davy, Sir Walter Scott, Malthus 6th 1820–1823 20 volumes Charles Maclaren Reprint of the 4th and 5th editions with modern font.", "Constable went bankrupt on 19 January 1826; EB rights eventually secured by Adam Black 7th 1830–1842 21 volumes, 17,101 pages, 506 plates, plus a 187-page index volume 5,000 Macvey Napier, assisted by James Browne, LLD Widening network of famous contributors, such as Sir David Brewster, Thomas de Quincey, Antonio Panizzi; 5,000 sets sold 8th 1853–1860 21 volumes, 17,957 pages, 402 plates; plus a 239-page index volume, published 18612 8,000 Thomas Stewart Traill Many long articles were copied from the 7th edition; 344 contributors including William Thomson; authorized American sets printed by Little, Brown in Boston; 8,000 sets sold altogether 9th 1875–1889 24 volumes, plus a 499-page index volume labeled Volume 25 55,000 authorized plus 500,000 pirated sets Thomas Spencer Baynes (1875–80); then W. Robertson Smith Some carry-over from 8th edition, but mostly a new work; high point of scholarship; 10,000 sets sold by Britannica and 45,000 authorized sets made in the US by Little, Brown in Boston and Schribners' Sons in NY, but pirated widely (500,000 sets) in the US.3 10th,supplement to 9th 1902–1903 11 volumes, plus the 24 volumes of the 9th.", "Volume 34 containing 124 detailed country maps with index of 250,000 names4 70,000 Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace and Hugh Chisholm in London; Arthur T. Hadley and Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City American partnership bought EB rights on 9 May 1901; high-pressure sales methods 11th 1910–1911 28 volumes, plus volume 29 index 1,000,000 Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Another high point of scholarship and writing; more articles than the 9th, but shorter and simpler; financial difficulties for owner, Horace Everett Hooper; EB rights sold to Sears Roebuck in 1920 12th,supplement to 11th 1921–1922 3 volumes with own index, plus the 29 volumes of the 11th5 Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Summarized state of the world before, during, and after World War I 13th,supplement to 11th 1926 3 volumes with own index, plus the 29 volumes of the 11th6 James Louis Garvin in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Replaced 12th edition volumes; improved perspective of the events of 1910–1926 14th 1929–1933 24 volumes7 James Louis Garvin in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Publication just before Great Depression was financially catastrophic revised 14th 1933–1973 24 volumes7 Franklin Henry Hooper until 1938; then Walter Yust, Harry Ashmore, Warren E. Preece, William Haley Began continuous revision in 1936: every article revised at least twice every decade 15th 1974–1984 30 volumes8 Warren E. Preece, then Philip W. Goetz Introduced three-part structure; division of articles into and ; Outline of Knowledge; separate index eliminated 1985–2010 32 volumes9 Philip W. Goetz, then Robert McHenry, currently Dale Hoiberg Restored two-volume index; some ''Micropædia'' and ''Macropædia'' articles merged; slightly longer overall; new versions were issued every few years.", "This edition is the last printed edition.", "Global 2009 30 compact volumes Dale Hoiberg Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain Macro- and Micropedia sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up to the 14th had.", "'''Edition notes'''1\"Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica.", "With preliminary dissertations on the history of the sciences.", "\"2 The 7th to 14th editions included a separate index volume.3 The 9th edition featured articles by notables of the day, such as James Clerk Maxwell on electricity and magnetism, and William Thomson (who became Lord Kelvin) on heat.4 The 10th edition included a maps volume and a cumulative index volume for the 9th and 10th edition volumes: ''the new volumes, constituting, in combination with the existing volumes of the 9th ed., the 10th ed. ...", "and also supplying a new, distinctive, and independent library of reference dealing with recent events and developments''5 \"Vols.", "30–32 ... the New volumes constituting, in combination with the twenty-nine volumes of the eleventh edition, the twelfth edition\"6 This supplement replaced the previous supplement: ''The three new supplementary volumes constituting, with the volumes of the latest standard edition, the thirteenth edition.", "''7 At this point ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' began almost annual revisions.", "New revisions of the 14th edition appeared every year between 1929 and 1973 with the exceptions of 1931, 1934 and 1935.8 Annual revisions were published every year between 1974 and 2007 with the exceptions of 1996, 1999, 2000, 2004 and 2006.The 15th edition (introduced as \"Britannica 3\") was published in three parts: a 10-volume (which contained short articles and served as an index), a 19-volume , plus the (see text).9 In 1985, the system was modified by adding a separate two-volume index; the articles were further consolidated into fewer, larger ones (for example, the previously separate articles about the 50 US states were all included into the \"United States of America\" article), with some medium-length articles moved to the .", "The had 12 vols.", "and the 17.The first CD-ROM edition was issued in 1994.At that time also an online version was offered for paid subscription.", "In 1999 this was offered free, and no revised print versions appeared.", "The experiment was ended in 2001 and a new printed set was issued in 2001." ], [ "See also", "* Encyclopædia Britannica Films* ''Great Books of the Western World''* List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge* List of encyclopedias by date* * List of online encyclopedias" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Boyles, Denis.", "(2016) ''Everything Explained That Is Explainable: On the Creation of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Celebrated Eleventh Edition, 1910–1911'' (2016) online review * * Greenstein, Shane, and Michelle Devereux (2006). \"", "The Crisis at Encyclopædia Britannica\" case history, Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University.", "* * * * Lee, Timothy.", "''Techdirt Interviews Britannica President Jorge Cauz'', Techdirt.com, 2 June 2008" ], [ "External links", "* * * * ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' at the National Library of Scotland, first ten editions (and supplements) in PDF format.", "* ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' at the Online Books Page, currently including the 1st–13th editions in multiple formats.", "* 3rd edition, (1797, first volume, use search facility for others) at Bavarian State Library MDZ-Reader | Band | Encyclopaedia Britannica; or, a dictionary of arts, sciences, and miscellaneous literature | Encyclopaedia Britannica; or, a dictionary of arts, sciences, and miscellaneous literature* 7th edition (1842), fulltext via Hathi Trust* 8th edition (1860, index volume, use search facility for others) at Bavarian State Library MDZ-Reader | Band | The Encyclopaedia Britannica, or Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature | The Encyclopaedia Britannica, or Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature* Scribner's 9th Edition (1878) archive.org* 9th and 10th (1902) editions 1902Encyclopedia.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Endometrium" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''endometrium''' is the inner epithelial layer, along with its mucous membrane, of the mammalian uterus.", "It has a basal layer and a functional layer: the basal layer contains stem cells which regenerate the functional layer.", "The functional layer thickens and then is shed during menstruation in humans and some other mammals, including apes, Old World monkeys, some species of bat, the elephant shrew and the Cairo spiny mouse.", "In most other mammals, the endometrium is reabsorbed in the estrous cycle.", "During pregnancy, the glands and blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and number.", "Vascular spaces fuse and become interconnected, forming the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo and fetus.", "The speculated presence of an endometrial microbiotahas been argued against." ], [ "Structure", "Histology of the most superficial layer of the endometrium, consisting of a simple columnar epithelium.", "H&E stainHigh magnification micrograph of decidualized endometrium due to exogenous progesterone (oral contraceptive pill).", "H&E stainLow magnification micrograph of decidualized endometrium.", "H&E stainThe endometrium consists of a single layer of columnar epithelium plus the stroma on which it rests.", "The stroma is a layer of connective tissue that varies in thickness according to hormonal influences.", "In the uterus, simple tubular glands reach from the endometrial surface through to the base of the stroma, which also carries a rich blood supply provided by the spiral arteries.", "In women of reproductive age, two layers of endometrium can be distinguished.", "These two layers occur only in the endometrium lining the cavity of the uterus, and not in the lining of the fallopian tubes.", "* The ''functional layer'' is adjacent to the uterine cavity.", "This layer is built up after the end of menstruation during the first part of the previous menstrual cycle.", "Proliferation is induced by estrogen (follicular phase of menstrual cycle), and later changes in this layer are engendered by progesterone from the corpus luteum (luteal phase).", "It is adapted to provide an optimum environment for the implantation and growth of the embryo.", "This layer is completely shed during menstruation.", "* The ''basal layer'', adjacent to the myometrium and below the functional layer, is not shed at any time during the menstrual cycle.", "It contains stem cells that regenerate the functional layer, which develops on top of it.In the absence of progesterone, the arteries supplying blood to the functional layer constrict, so that cells in that layer become ischaemic and die, leading to menstruation.It is possible to identify the phase of the menstrual cycle by reference to either the ovarian cycle or the uterine cycle by observing microscopic differences at each phase—for example in the ovarian cycle: Phase Days Thickness Epithelium Menstrual phase 1–5 Thin Absent Follicular phase 5–14 Intermediate Columnar Luteal phase 15–27 Thick Columnar.", "Also visible are arcuate vessels of uterus Ischemic phase 27–28 Columnar.", "Also visible are arcuate vessels of uterus===Gene and protein expression===About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and some 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal endometrium.", "Just over 100 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the endometrium with only a handful genes being highly endometrium specific.", "The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in the glandular and stromal cells of the endometrial mucosa.", "The expression of many of these proteins vary depending on the menstrual cycle, for example the progesterone receptor and thyrotropin-releasing hormone both expressed in the proliferative phase, and PAEP expressed in the secretory phase.", "Other proteins such as the HOX11 protein that is required for female fertility, is expressed in endometrial stroma cells throughout the menstrual cycle.", "Certain specific proteins such as the estrogen receptor are also expressed in other types of female tissue types, such as the cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries and breast.===Microbiome speculation===The uterus and endometrium was for a long time thought to be sterile.", "The cervical plug of mucosa was seen to prevent the entry of any microorganisms ascending from the vagina.", "In the 1980s this view was challenged when it was shown that uterine infections could arise from weaknesses in the barrier of the cervical plug.", "Organisms from the vaginal microbiota could enter the uterus during uterine contractions in the menstrual cycle.", "Further studies sought to identify microbiota specific to the uterus which would be of help in identifying cases of unsuccessful IVF and miscarriages.", "Their findings were seen to be unreliable due to the possibility of cross-contamination in the sampling procedures used.", "The well-documented presence of ''Lactobacillus'' species, for example, was easily explained by an increase in the vaginal population being able to seep into the cervical mucous.", "Another study highlighted the flaws of the earlier studies including cross-contamination.", "It was also argued that the evidence from studies using germ-free offspring of axenic animals (germ-free) clearly showed the sterility of the uterus.", "The authors concluded that in light of these findings there was no existence of a microbiome.The normal dominance of Lactobacilli in the vagina is seen as a marker for vaginal health.", "However, in the uterus this much lower population is seen as invasive in a closed environment that is highly regulated by female sex hormones, and that could have unwanted consequences.", "In studies of endometriosis ''Lactobacillus'' is not the dominant type and there are higher levels of ''Streptococcus'' and ''Staphylococcus'' species.", "Half of the cases of bacterial vaginitis showed a polymicrobial biofilm attached to the endometrium." ], [ "Function", "The endometrium is the innermost lining layer of the uterus, and functions to prevent adhesions between the opposed walls of the myometrium, thereby maintaining the patency of the uterine cavity.", "During the menstrual cycle or estrous cycle, the endometrium grows to a thick, blood vessel-rich, glandular tissue layer.", "This represents an optimal environment for the implantation of a blastocyst upon its arrival in the uterus.", "The endometrium is central, echogenic (detectable using ultrasound scanners), and has an average thickness of 6.7 mm.During pregnancy, the glands and blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and number.", "Vascular spaces fuse and become interconnected, forming the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo and fetus.===Cycle===The functional layer of the endometrial lining undergoes cyclic regeneration from stem cells in the basal layer.", "Humans, apes, and some other species display the menstrual cycle, whereas most other mammals are subject to an estrous cycle.", "In both cases, the endometrium initially proliferates under the influence of estrogen.", "However, once ovulation occurs, the ovary (specifically the corpus luteum) will produce much larger amounts of progesterone.", "This changes the proliferative pattern of the endometrium to a secretory lining.", "Eventually, the secretory lining provides a hospitable environment for one or more blastocysts.Upon fertilization, the egg may implant into the uterine wall and provide feedback to the body with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG).", "hCG provides continued feedback throughout pregnancy by maintaining the corpus luteum, which will continue its role of releasing progesterone and estrogen.", "In case of implantation, the endometrial lining remains as ''decidua''.", "The decidua becomes part of the placenta; it provides support and protection for the gestation.Without implantation of a fertilized egg, the endometrial lining is either reabsorbed (estrous cycle) or shed (menstrual cycle).", "In the latter case, the process of shedding involves the breaking down of the lining, the tearing of small connective blood vessels, and the loss of the tissue and blood that had constituted it through the vagina.", "The entire process occurs over a period of several days.", "Menstruation may be accompanied by a series of uterine contractions; these help expel the menstrual endometrium.If there is inadequate stimulation of the lining, due to lack of hormones, the endometrium remains thin and inactive.", "In humans, this will result in amenorrhea, or the absence of a menstrual period.", "After menopause, the lining is often described as being atrophic.", "In contrast, endometrium that is chronically exposed to estrogens, but not to progesterone, may become hyperplastic.", "Long-term use of oral contraceptives with highly potent progestins can also induce endometrial atrophy.In humans, the cycle of building and shedding the endometrial lining lasts an average of 28 days.", "The endometrium develops at different rates in different mammals.", "Various factors including the seasons, climate, and stress can affect its development.", "The endometrium itself produces certain hormones at different stages of the cycle and this affects other parts of the reproductive system." ], [ "Diseases related with endometrium", "Histopathologic and cytopathologic images.", "(A) proliferative endometrium (Left: HE × 400) and proliferative endometrial cells (Right: HE × 100)(B) secretory endometrium (Left: HE × 10) and secretory endometrial cells (Right: HE × 10)(C) atrophic endometrium (Left: HE × 10) and atrophic endometrial cells (Right: HE × 10)(D) mixed endometrium (Left: HE × 10) and mixed endometrial cells (Right: HE × 10)(E): endometrial atypical hyperplasia (Left: HE × 10) and endometrial atypical cells (Right: HE × 200)(F) endometrial carcinoma (Left: HE × 400) and endometrial cancer cells (Right: HE × 400).Chorionic tissue can result in marked endometrial changes, known as an Arias-Stella reaction, that have an appearance similar to cancer.", "Historically, this change was diagnosed as endometrial cancer and it is important only in so far as it should not be misdiagnosed as cancer.", "* Adenomyosis is the growth of the endometrium into the muscle layer of the uterus (the myometrium).", "* Endometriosis is the growth of tissue similar to the endometrium, outside the uterus.", "* Endometrial hyperplasia* Endometrial cancer is the most common cancer of the human female genital tract.", "* Asherman's syndrome, also known as intrauterine adhesions, occurs when the basal layer of the endometrium is damaged by instrumentation (e.g., D&C) or infection (e.g., endometrial tuberculosis) resulting in endometrial sclerosis and adhesion formation partially or completely obliterating the uterine cavity.Thin endometrium may be defined as an endometrial thickness of less than 8 mm.", "It usually occurs after menopause.", "Treatments that can improve endometrial thickness include Vitamin E, L-arginine and sildenafil citrate.Gene expression profiling using cDNA microarray can be used for the diagnosis of endometrial disorders.The European Menopause and Andropause Society (EMAS) released Guidelines with detailed information to assess the endometrium.===Embryo transfer===An endometrial thickness (EMT) of less than 7 mm decreases the pregnancy rate in in vitro fertilization by an odds ratio of approximately 0.4 compared to an EMT of over 7 mm.", "However, such low thickness rarely occurs, and any routine use of this parameter is regarded as not justified.", "The optimal endometrial thickness is 10mm.", "Nevertheless, in human a perfect synchrony it is not necessary, if the emdometrium is not ready to receive the embryo a ectopic pregnancy may occur.", "This consist of the implantation of the blast outside the uterus, which can be extremely dangerous.", "''Triple-line'' endometrium measuring 7mm.Observation of the endometrium by transvaginal ultrasonography is used when administering fertility medication, such as in in vitro fertilization.", "At the time of embryo transfer, it is favorable to have an endometrium of a thickness of between 7 and 14 mm with a ''triple-line'' configuration, which means that the endometrium contains a hyperechoic (usually displayed as light) line in the middle surrounded by two more hypoechoic (darker) lines.", "A ''triple-line'' endometrium reflects the separation of the basal layer and the functional layer, and is also observed in the periovulatory period secondary to rising estradiol levels, and disappears after ovulation.Endometrial thickness is also associated with live births in IVF.", "The live birth rate in a normal endometrium is halved when the thickness is <5mm." ], [ "Endometrial protection", "Estrogens stimulate endometrial proliferation and carcinogenesis.", "Conversely, progestogens inhibit endometrial proliferation and carcinogenesis caused by estrogens and stimulate differentiation of the endometrium into decidua, which is termed endometrial transformation or decidualization.", "This is mediated by the progestogenic and functional antiestrogenic effects of progestogens in this tissue.", "These effects of progestogens and their protection against endometrial hyperplasia and endometrial cancer caused by estrogens is referred to as ''endometrial protection''." ], [ "Additional images", " Image:Endometrial adenocarcinoma (1).jpg|Endometrioid adenocarcinoma from biopsy.", "H&E stain.", "Image:Endometrium_ocp_use2.jpg|Micrograph of decidualized endometrium due to exogenous progesterone.", "H&E stain.", "Image:Endometrium_ocp_use1.jpg|Micrograph of decidualized endometrium due to exogenous progesterone.", "H&E stain.", "Image:Endometrial stromal condensation high mag.jpg|Micrograph showing endometrial stromal condensation, a finding seen in menses." ], [ "See also", "* CYTL1, also known as cytokine-like like protein 1.", "* Endometrial ablation* List of distinct cell types in the adult human body" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* - \"The uterus, uterine tubes and ovary with associated structures.", "\"* - \"Female Reproductive System uterus, endometrium\"* * * Histology at utah.edu.", "Slide is proliferative phase - click forward to see secretory phase" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electronic music" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Electronic music''' is a genre of music that employs electronic musical instruments, digital instruments, or circuitry-based music technology in its creation.", "It includes both music made using electronic and electromechanical means (electroacoustic music).", "Pure electronic instruments depended entirely on circuitry-based sound generation, for instance using devices such as an electronic oscillator, theremin, or synthesizer.", "Electromechanical instruments can have mechanical parts such as strings, hammers, and electric elements including magnetic pickups, power amplifiers and loudspeakers.", "Such electromechanical devices include the telharmonium, Hammond organ, electric piano and the electric guitar.The first electronic musical devices were developed at the end of the 19th century.", "During the 1920s and 1930s, some electronic instruments were introduced and the first compositions featuring them were written.", "By the 1940s, magnetic audio tape allowed musicians to tape sounds and then modify them by changing the tape speed or direction, leading to the development of electroacoustic tape music in the 1940s, in Egypt and France.", "Musique concrète, created in Paris in 1948, was based on editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds.", "Music produced solely from electronic generators was first produced in Germany in 1953 by Karlheinz Stockhausen.", "Electronic music was also created in Japan and the United States beginning in the 1950s and Algorithmic composition with computers was first demonstrated in the same decade.During the 1960s, digital computer music was pioneered, innovation in live electronics took place, and Japanese electronic musical instruments began to influence the music industry.", "In the early 1970s, Moog synthesizers and drum machines helped popularize synthesized electronic music.", "The 1970s also saw electronic music begin to have a significant influence on popular music, with the adoption of polyphonic synthesizers, electronic drums, drum machines, and turntables, through the emergence of genres such as disco, krautrock, new wave, synth-pop, hip hop, and EDM.", "In the early 1980s mass-produced digital synthesizers, such as the Yamaha DX7, became popular, and MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) was developed.", "In the same decade, with a greater reliance on synthesizers and the adoption of programmable drum machines, electronic popular music came to the fore.", "During the 1990s, with the proliferation of increasingly affordable music technology, electronic music production became an established part of popular culture.", "In Berlin starting in 1989, the Love Parade became the largest street party with over 1 million visitors, inspiring other such popular celebrations of electronic music.Contemporary electronic music includes many varieties and ranges from experimental art music to popular forms such as electronic dance music.", "Pop electronic music is most recognizable in its 4/4 form and more connected with the mainstream than preceding forms which were popular in niche markets." ], [ "Origins: late 19th century to early 20th century", "Front page of Scientific American in 1907, demonstrating the size, operation, and popularity of the TelharmoniumAt the turn of the 20th century, experimentation with emerging electronics led to the first electronic musical instruments.", "These initial inventions were not sold, but were instead used in demonstrations and public performances.", "The audiences were presented with reproductions of existing music instead of new compositions for the instruments.", "While some were considered novelties and produced simple tones, the Telharmonium synthesized the sound of several orchestral instruments with reasonable precision.", "It achieved viable public interest and made commercial progress into streaming music through telephone networks.Critics of musical conventions at the time saw promise in these developments.", "Ferruccio Busoni encouraged the composition of microtonal music allowed for by electronic instruments.", "He predicted the use of machines in future music, writing the influential ''Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music'' (1907).", "Futurists such as Francesco Balilla Pratella and Luigi Russolo began composing music with acoustic noise to evoke the sound of machinery.", "They predicted expansions in timbre allowed for by electronics in the influential manifesto ''The Art of Noises'' (1913).=== Early compositions ===Leon Theremin demonstrating the theremin in 1927Developments of the vacuum tube led to electronic instruments that were smaller, amplified, and more practical for performance.", "In particular, the theremin, ondes Martenot and trautonium were commercially produced by the early 1930s.From the late 1920s, the increased practicality of electronic instruments influenced composers such as Joseph Schillinger and Maria Schuppel to adopt them.", "They were typically used within orchestras, and most composers wrote parts for the theremin that could otherwise be performed with string instruments.Avant-garde composers criticized the predominant use of electronic instruments for conventional purposes.", "The instruments offered expansions in pitch resources that were exploited by advocates of microtonal music such as Charles Ives, Dimitrios Levidis, Olivier Messiaen and Edgard Varèse.", "Further, Percy Grainger used the theremin to abandon fixed tonation entirely, while Russian composers such as Gavriil Popov treated it as a source of noise in otherwise-acoustic noise music.=== Recording experiments ===Developments in early recording technology paralleled that of electronic instruments.", "The first means of recording and reproducing audio was invented in the late 19th century with the mechanical phonograph.", "Record players became a common household item, and by the 1920s composers were using them to play short recordings in performances.The introduction of electrical recording in 1925 was followed by increased experimentation with record players.", "Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch composed several pieces in 1930 by layering recordings of instruments and vocals at adjusted speeds.", "Influenced by these techniques, John Cage composed ''Imaginary Landscape No.", "1'' in 1939 by adjusting the speeds of recorded tones.Composers began to experiment with newly developed sound-on-film technology.", "Recordings could be spliced together to create sound collages, such as those by Tristan Tzara, Kurt Schwitters, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Walter Ruttmann and Dziga Vertov.", "Further, the technology allowed sound to be graphically created and modified.", "These techniques were used to compose soundtracks for several films in Germany and Russia, in addition to the popular ''Dr.", "Jekyll and Mr. Hyde'' in the United States.", "Experiments with graphical sound were continued by Norman McLaren from the late 1930s." ], [ "Development: 1940s to 1950s", "=== Electroacoustic tape music ===The first practical audio tape recorder was unveiled in 1935.Improvements to the technology were made using the AC biasing technique, which significantly improved recording fidelity.", "As early as 1942, test recordings were being made in stereo.", "Although these developments were initially confined to Germany, recorders and tapes were brought to the United States following the end of World War II.", "These were the basis for the first commercially produced tape recorder in 1948.In 1944, before the use of magnetic tape for compositional purposes, Egyptian composer Halim El-Dabh, while still a student in Cairo, used a cumbersome wire recorder to record sounds of an ancient ''zaar'' ceremony.", "Using facilities at the Middle East Radio studios El-Dabh processed the recorded material using reverberation, echo, voltage controls and re-recording.", "What resulted is believed to be the earliest tape music composition.", "The resulting work was entitled ''The Expression of Zaar'' and it was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo.", "While his initial experiments in tape-based composition were not widely known outside of Egypt at the time, El-Dabh is also known for his later work in electronic music at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in the late 1950s.=== Musique concrète ===Following his work with Studio d'Essai at Radiodiffusion Française (RDF), during the early 1940s, Pierre Schaeffer is credited with originating the theory and practice of musique concrète.", "In the late 1940s, experiments in sound-based composition using shellac record players were first conducted by Schaeffer.", "In 1950, the techniques of musique concrete were expanded when magnetic tape machines were used to explore sound manipulation practices such as speed variation (pitch shift) and tape splicing.On 5 October 1948, RDF broadcast Schaeffer's ''Etude aux chemins de fer''.", "This was the first \"movement\" of ''Cinq études de bruits'', and marked the beginning of studio realizations and musique concrète (or acousmatic art).", "Schaeffer employed a disc cutting lathe, four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit.", "Not long after this, Pierre Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer, a partnership that would have profound and lasting effects on the direction of electronic music.", "Another associate of Schaeffer, Edgard Varèse, began work on ''Déserts'', a work for chamber orchestra and tape.", "The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer's studio and were later revised at Columbia University.In 1950, Schaeffer gave the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrète at the École Normale de Musique de Paris.", "\"Schaeffer used a PA system, several turntables, and mixers.", "The performance did not go well, as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before.\"", "Later that same year, Pierre Henry collaborated with Schaeffer on ''Symphonie pour un homme seul'' (1950) the first major work of musique concrete.", "In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music.", "Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera, ''Orpheus'', for concrete sounds and voices.By 1951 the work of Schaeffer, composer-percussionist Pierre Henry, and sound engineer Jacques Poullin had received official recognition and The Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète, Club d 'Essai de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française was established at RTF in Paris, the ancestor of the ORTF.===Elektronische Musik, Germany===Karlheinz Stockhausen in the Electronic Music Studio of WDR, Cologne, in 1991Karlheinz Stockhausen worked briefly in Schaeffer's studio in 1952, and afterward for many years at the WDR Cologne's Studio for Electronic Music.1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions—acoustic instrumentation augmented/accompanied by recordings of manipulated or electronically generated sound.", "Three major works were premiered that year: Varèse's ''Déserts'', for chamber ensemble and tape sounds, and two works by Otto Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky: ''Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville Symphony'' and ''A Poem in Cycles and Bells'', both for orchestra and tape.", "Because he had been working at Schaeffer's studio, the tape part for Varèse's work contains much more concrete sounds than electronic.", "\"A group made up of wind instruments, percussion and piano alternate with the mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors, coming from two loudspeakers.", "\"At the German premiere of ''Déserts'' in Hamburg, which was conducted by Bruno Maderna, the tape controls were operated by Karlheinz Stockhausen.", "The title ''Déserts'' suggested to Varèse not only \"all physical deserts (of sand, sea, snow, of outer space, of empty streets), but also the deserts in the mind of man; not only those stripped aspects of nature that suggest bareness, aloofness, timelessness, but also that remote inner space no telescope can reach, where man is alone, a world of mystery and essential loneliness.", "\"In Cologne, what would become the most famous electronic music studio in the world, was officially opened at the radio studios of the NWDR in 1953, though it had been in the planning stages as early as 1950 and early compositions were made and broadcast in 1951.The brainchild of Werner Meyer-Eppler, Robert Beyer, and Herbert Eimert (who became its first director), the studio was soon joined by Karlheinz Stockhausen and Gottfried Michael Koenig.", "In his 1949 thesis ''Elektronische Klangerzeugung: Elektronische Musik und Synthetische Sprache'', Meyer-Eppler conceived the idea to synthesize music entirely from electronically produced signals; in this way, ''elektronische Musik'' was sharply differentiated from French ''musique concrète'', which used sounds recorded from acoustical sources.In 1953, Stockhausen composed his ''Studie I'', followed in 1954 by ''Elektronische Studie II''—the first electronic piece to be published as a score.", "In 1955, more experimental and electronic studios began to appear.", "Notable were the creation of the Studio di fonologia musicale di Radio Milano, a studio at the NHK in Tokyo founded by Toshiro Mayuzumi, and the Philips studio at Eindhoven, the Netherlands, which moved to the University of Utrecht as the Institute of Sonology in 1960.", "\"With Stockhausen and Mauricio Kagel in residence, Cologne became a year-round hive of charismatic avante-gardism.\"", "on two occasions combining electronically generated sounds with relatively conventional orchestras—in ''Mixtur'' (1964) and ''Hymnen, dritte Region mit Orchester'' (1967).", "Stockhausen stated that his listeners had told him his electronic music gave them an experience of \"outer space\", sensations of flying, or being in a \"fantastic dream world\".===United States===In the United States, electronic music was being created as early as 1939, when John Cage published ''Imaginary Landscape, No.", "1'', using two variable-speed turntables, frequency recordings, muted piano, and cymbal, but no electronic means of production.", "Cage composed five more \"Imaginary Landscapes\" between 1942 and 1952 (one withdrawn), mostly for percussion ensemble, though No.", "4 is for twelve radios and No.", "5, written in 1952, uses 42 recordings and is to be realized as a magnetic tape.", "According to Otto Luening, Cage also performed ''Williams Mix'' at Donaueschingen in 1954, using eight loudspeakers, three years after his alleged collaboration.", "''Williams Mix'' was a success at the Donaueschingen Festival, where it made a \"strong impression\".The Music for Magnetic Tape Project was formed by members of the New York School (John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff, David Tudor, and Morton Feldman), and lasted three years until 1954.Cage wrote of this collaboration: \"In this social darkness, therefore, the work of Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, and Christian Wolff continues to present a brilliant light, for the reason that at the several points of notation, performance, and audition, action is provocative.", "\"Cage completed ''Williams Mix'' in 1953 while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project.", "The group had no permanent facility, and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios, including the studio of Bebe and Louis Barron.===Columbia-Princeton Center===In the same year Columbia University purchased its first tape recorder—a professional Ampex machine—to record concerts.", "Vladimir Ussachevsky, who was on the music faculty of Columbia University, was placed in charge of the device, and almost immediately began experimenting with it.Herbert Russcol writes: \"Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another.\"", "Ussachevsky said later: \"I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation.\"", "On Thursday, 8 May 1952, Ussachevsky presented several demonstrations of tape music/effects that he created at his Composers Forum, in the McMillin Theatre at Columbia University.", "These included ''Transposition, Reverberation, Experiment, Composition'', and ''Underwater Valse''.", "In an interview, he stated: \"I presented a few examples of my discovery in a public concert in New York together with other compositions I had written for conventional instruments.", "\"Otto Luening, who had attended this concert, remarked: \"The equipment at his disposal consisted of an Ampex tape recorder .", ".", ".", "and a simple box-like device designed by the brilliant young engineer, Peter Mauzey, to create feedback, a form of mechanical reverberation.", "Other equipment was borrowed or purchased with personal funds.", "\"Just three months later, in August 1952, Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington, Vermont, at Luening's invitation to present his experiments.", "There, the two collaborated on various pieces.", "Luening described the event: \"Equipped with earphones and a flute, I began developing my first tape-recorder composition.", "Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations.\"", "They played some early pieces informally at a party, where \"a number of composers almost solemnly congratulated us saying, 'This is it' ('it' meaning the music of the future).", "\"Word quickly reached New York City.", "Oliver Daniel telephoned and invited the pair to \"produce a group of short compositions for the October concert sponsored by the American Composers Alliance and Broadcast Music, Inc., under the direction of Leopold Stokowski at the Museum of Modern Art in New York.", "After some hesitation, we agreed.", ".", ".", ".", "Henry Cowell placed his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, at our disposal.", "With the borrowed equipment in the back of Ussachevsky's car, we left Bennington for Woodstock and stayed two weeks.", ".", ".", ".", "In late September 1952, the travelling laboratory reached Ussachevsky's living room in New York, where we eventually completed the compositions.", "\"Two months later, on 28 October, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening presented the first Tape Music concert in the United States.", "The concert included Luening's ''Fantasy in Space'' (1952)—\"an impressionistic virtuoso piece\" using manipulated recordings of flute—and ''Low Speed'' (1952), an \"exotic composition that took the flute far below its natural range.\"", "Both pieces were created at the home of Henry Cowell in Woodstock, New York.", "After several concerts caused a sensation in New York City, Ussachevsky and Luening were invited onto a live broadcast of NBC's Today Show to do an interview demonstration—the first televised electroacoustic performance.", "Luening described the event: \"I improvised some flute sequences for the tape recorder.", "Ussachevsky then and there put them through electronic transformations.", "\"The score for ''Forbidden Planet'', by Louis and Bebe Barron, was entirely composed using custom-built electronic circuits and tape recorders in 1956 (but no synthesizers in the modern sense of the word).=== USSR ===ANS synthesizer exhibited at Glinka MuseumIn 1929, Nikolai Obukhov invented the \"sounding cross\" (la croix sonore), comparable to the principle of the theremin.", "In the 1930s, Nikolai Ananyev invented \"sonar\", and engineer Alexander Gurov — neoviolena, I. Ilsarov — ilston., and A. Ivanov — .", "Composer and inventor Arseny Avraamov was engaged in scientific work on sound synthesis and conducted a number of experiments that would later form the basis of Soviet electro-musical instruments.In 1956 Vyacheslav Mescherin created the , which used theremins, electric harps, electric organs, the first synthesizer in the USSR \"Ekvodin\", and also created the first Soviet reverb machine.", "The style in which Meshcherin's ensemble played is known as \"Space age pop\".", "In 1957, engineer Igor Simonov assembled a working model of a noise recorder (electroeoliphone), with the help of which it was possible to extract various timbres and consonances of a noise nature.", "In 1958, Evgeny Murzin designed ANS synthesizer, one of the world's first polyphonic musical synthesizers.Founded by Murzin in 1966, the Moscow Experimental Electronic Music Studio became the base for a new generation of experimenters – Eduard Artemyev, , Sándor Kallós, Sofia Gubaidulina, Alfred Schnittke, and Vladimir Martynov.", "By the end of the 1960s, musical groups playing light electronic music appeared in the USSR.", "At the state level, this music began to be used to attract foreign tourists to the country and for broadcasting to foreign countries.", "In the mid-1970s, composer Alexander Zatsepin designed an \"orchestrolla\" – a modification of the mellotron.The Baltic Soviet Rebublics also had their own pioneers: in Estonian SSR — Sven Grunberg, in Lithuanian SSR — Gedrus Kupriavicius, in Latvian SSR — Opus and Zodiac.===Australia===CSIRAC, Australia's first digital computer, displayed at the Melbourne MuseumThe world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC, which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard.", "Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s.", "In 1951 it publicly played the Colonel Bogey March, of which no known recordings exist, only the accurate reconstruction.", "However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice.", "CSIRAC was never recorded, but the music played was accurately reconstructed.", "The oldest known recordings of computer-generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer, a commercial version of the Baby Machine from the University of Manchester in the autumn of 1951.The music program was written by Christopher Strachey.===Japan===The earliest group of electronic musical instruments in Japan, Yamaha Magna Organ was built in 1935.however, after World War II, Japanese composers such as Minao Shibata knew of the development of electronic musical instruments.", "By the late 1940s, Japanese composers began experimenting with electronic music and institutional sponsorship enabled them to experiment with advanced equipment.", "Their infusion of Asian music into the emerging genre would eventually support Japan's popularity in the development of music technology several decades later.Following the foundation of electronics company Sony in 1946, composers Toru Takemitsu and Minao Shibata independently explored possible uses for electronic technology to produce music.", "Takemitsu had ideas similar to musique concrète, which he was unaware of, while Shibata foresaw the development of synthesizers and predicted a drastic change in music.", "Sony began producing popular magnetic tape recorders for government and public use.The avant-garde collective Jikken Kōbō (Experimental Workshop), founded in 1950, was offered access to emerging audio technology by Sony.", "The company hired Toru Takemitsu to demonstrate their tape recorders with compositions and performances of electronic tape music.", "The first electronic tape pieces by the group were \"Toraware no Onna\" (\"Imprisoned Woman\") and \"Piece B\", composed in 1951 by Kuniharu Akiyama.", "Many of the electroacoustic tape pieces they produced were used as incidental music for radio, film, and theatre.", "They also held concerts employing a slide show synchronized with a recorded soundtrack.", "Composers outside of the Jikken Kōbō, such as Yasushi Akutagawa, Saburo Tominaga, and Shirō Fukai, were also experimenting with radiophonic tape music between 1952 and 1953.Musique concrète was introduced to Japan by Toshiro Mayuzumi, who was influenced by a Pierre Schaeffer concert.", "From 1952, he composed tape music pieces for a comedy film, a radio broadcast, and a radio drama.", "However, Schaeffer's concept of ''sound object'' was not influential among Japanese composers, who were mainly interested in overcoming the restrictions of human performance.", "This led to several Japanese electroacoustic musicians making use of serialism and twelve-tone techniques, evident in Yoshirō Irino's 1951 dodecaphonic piece \"Concerto daCamera\", in the organization of electronic sounds in Mayuzumi's \"X, Y, Z for Musique Concrète\", and later in Shibata's electronic music by 1956.Modelling the NWDR studio in Cologne, established an NHK electronic music studio in Tokyo in 1954, which became one of the world's leading electronic music facilities.The NHK electronic music studio was equipped with technologies such as tone-generating and audio processing equipment, recording and radiophonic equipment, ondes Martenot, Monochord and Melochord, sine-wave oscillators, tape recorders, ring modulators, band-pass filters, and four- and eight-channel mixers.", "Musicians associated with the studio included Toshiro Mayuzumi, Minao Shibata, Joji Yuasa, Toshi Ichiyanagi, and Toru Takemitsu.", "The studio's first electronic compositions were completed in 1955, including Mayuzumi's five-minute pieces \"Studie I: Music for Sine Wave by Proportion of Prime Number\", \"Music for Modulated Wave by Proportion of Prime Number\" and \"Invention for Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave\" produced using the studio's various tone-generating capabilities, and Shibata's 20-minute stereo piece \"Musique Concrète for Stereophonic Broadcast\".===Mid-to-late 1950s===The impact of computers continued in 1956.Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson composed ''Illiac Suite'' for string quartet, the first complete work of computer-assisted composition using algorithmic composition.", "\"... Hiller postulated that a computer could be taught the rules of a particular style and then called on to compose accordingly.\"", "Later developments included the work of Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories, who developed the influential MUSIC I program in 1957, one of the first computer programs to play electronic music.", "Vocoder technology was also a major development in this early era.", "In 1956, Stockhausen composed ''Gesang der Jünglinge'', the first major work of the Cologne studio, based on a text from the ''Book of Daniel''.", "An important technological development of that year was the invention of the Clavivox synthesizer by Raymond Scott with subassembly by Robert Moog.In 1957, Kid Baltan (Dick Raaymakers) and Tom Dissevelt released their debut album, ''Song Of The Second Moon'', recorded at the Philips studio in the Netherlands.", "The public remained interested in the new sounds being created around the world, as can be deduced by the inclusion of Varèse's ''Poème électronique'', which was played over four hundred loudspeakers at the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 Brussels World Fair.", "That same year, Mauricio Kagel, an Argentine composer, composed ''Transición II''.", "The work was realized at the WDR studio in Cologne.", "Two musicians performed on the piano, one in the traditional manner, the other playing on the strings, frame, and case.", "Two other performers used tape to unite the presentation of live sounds with the future of prerecorded materials from later on and its past of recordings made earlier in the performance.RCA Mark II Sound SynthesizerIn 1958, Columbia-Princeton developed the RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer, the first programmable synthesizer.", "Prominent composers such as Vladimir Ussachevsky, Otto Luening, Milton Babbitt, Charles Wuorinen, Halim El-Dabh, Bülent Arel and Mario Davidovsky used the RCA Synthesizer extensively in various compositions.", "One of the most influential composers associated with the early years of the studio was Egypt's Halim El-Dabh who, after having developed the earliest known electronic tape music in 1944, became more famous for ''Leiyla and the Poet'', a 1959 series of electronic compositions that stood out for its immersion and seamless fusion of electronic and folk music, in contrast to the more mathematical approach used by serial composers of the time such as Babbitt.", "El-Dabh's ''Leiyla and the Poet'', released as part of the album ''Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center'' in 1961, would be cited as a strong influence by a number of musicians, ranging from Neil Rolnick, Charles Amirkhanian and Alice Shields to rock musicians Frank Zappa and The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band.Following the emergence of differences within the GRMC (Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrète) Pierre Henry, Philippe Arthuys, and several of their colleagues, resigned in April 1958.Schaeffer created a new collective, called Groupe de Recherches Musicales (GRM) and set about recruiting new members including Luc Ferrari, Beatriz Ferreyra, François-Bernard Mâche, Iannis Xenakis, Bernard Parmegiani, and Mireille Chamass-Kyrou.", "Later arrivals included Ivo Malec, Philippe Carson, Romuald Vandelle, Edgardo Canton and François Bayle." ], [ "Expansion: 1960s", "These were fertile years for electronic music—not just for academia, but for independent artists as synthesizer technology became more accessible.", "By this time, a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was established and growing.", "1960 witnessed the composition of Luening's ''Gargoyles'' for violin and tape as well as the premiere of Stockhausen's ''Kontakte'' for electronic sounds, piano, and percussion.", "This piece existed in two versions—one for 4-channel tape, and the other for tape with human performers.", "\"In ''Kontakte'', Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax.", "This new approach, which he termed 'moment form', resembles the 'cinematic splice' techniques in early twentieth-century film.", "\"The theremin had been in use since the 1920s but it attained a degree of popular recognition through its use in science-fiction film soundtrack music in the 1950s (e.g., Bernard Herrmann's classic score for ''The Day the Earth Stood Still'').In the UK in this period, the BBC Radiophonic Workshop (established in 1958) came to prominence, thanks in large measure to their work on the BBC science-fiction series ''Doctor Who''.", "One of the most influential British electronic artists in this period was Workshop staffer Delia Derbyshire, who is now famous for her 1963 electronic realisation of the iconic ''Doctor Who'' theme, composed by Ron Grainer.Israeli composer Josef Tal at the Electronic Music Studio in Jerusalem (c. 1965) with Hugh Le Caine's Creative Tape Recorder (a sound synthesizer) aka \"Multi-track\"During the time of the UNESCO fellowship for studies in electronic music (1958) Josef Tal went on a study tour in the US and Canada.", "He summarized his conclusions in two articles that he submitted to UNESCO.", "In 1961, he established the ''Centre for Electronic Music in Israel'' at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.", "In 1962, Hugh Le Caine arrived in Jerusalem to install his ''Creative Tape Recorder'' in the centre.", "In the 1990s Tal conducted, together with Dr. Shlomo Markel, in cooperation with the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, and the Volkswagen Foundation a research project ('Talmark') aimed at the development of a novel musical notation system for electronic music.Milton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer—his ''Composition for Synthesizer'' (1961)—which he created using the RCA synthesizer at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center.The collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents.", "In 1961, Ussachevsky invited Varèse to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC).", "Upon arrival, Varese embarked upon a revision of ''Déserts''.", "He was assisted by Mario Davidovsky and Bülent Arel.The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the San Francisco Tape Music Center in 1963 by Morton Subotnick, with additional members Pauline Oliveros, Ramon Sender, Anthony Martin, and Terry Riley.Later, the Center moved to Mills College, directed by Pauline Oliveros, and has since been renamed Center for Contemporary Music.", "Pietro Grossi was an Italian pioneer of computer composition and tape music, who first experimented with electronic techniques in the early sixties.", "Grossi was a cellist and composer, born in Venice in 1917.He founded the S 2F M (Studio de Fonologia Musicale di Firenze) in 1963 to experiment with electronic sound and composition.Simultaneously in San Francisco, composer Stan Shaff and equipment designer Doug McEachern, presented the first \"Audium\" concert at San Francisco State College (1962), followed by work at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (1963), conceived of as in time, controlled movement of sound in space.", "Twelve speakers surrounded the audience, four speakers were mounted on a rotating, mobile-like construction above.", "In an SFMOMA performance the following year (1964), ''San Francisco Chronicle'' music critic Alfred Frankenstein commented, \"the possibilities of the space-sound continuum have seldom been so extensively explored\".", "In 1967, the first Audium, a \"sound-space continuum\" opened, holding weekly performances through 1970.In 1975, enabled by seed money from the National Endowment for the Arts, a new Audium opened, designed floor to ceiling for spatial sound composition and performance.", "\"In contrast, there are composers who manipulated sound space by locating multiple speakers at various locations in a performance space and then switching or panning the sound between the sources.", "In this approach, the composition of spatial manipulation is dependent on the location of the speakers and usually exploits the acoustical properties of the enclosure.", "Examples include Varese's ''Poeme Electronique'' (tape music performed in the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 World Fair, Brussels) and Stan Schaff's ''Audium'' installation, currently active in San Francisco.\"", "Through weekly programs (over 4,500 in 40 years), Shaff \"sculpts\" sound, performing now-digitized spatial works live through 176 speakers.Jean-Jacques Perrey experimented with Schaeffer's techniques on tape loops and was among the first to use the recently released Moog synthesizer developed by Robert Moog.", "With this instrument he composed some works with Gershon Kingsley and solo.", "A well-known example of the use of Moog's full-sized Moog modular synthesizer is the 1968 ''Switched-On Bach'' album by Wendy Carlos, which triggered a craze for synthesizer music.", "In 1969 David Tudor brought a Moog modular synthesizer and Ampex tape machines to the National Institute of Design in Ahmedabad with the support of the Sarabhai family, forming the foundation of India's first electronic music studio.", "Here a group of composers Jinraj Joshipura, Gita Sarabhai, SC Sharma, IS Mathur and Atul Desai developed experimental sound compositions between 1969 and 1973.===Computer music===Musical melodies were first generated by the computer CSIRAC in Australia in 1950.There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were obviously speculative).", "Research has shown that people ''speculated'' about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises, but there is no evidence that they actually did it.The world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC, which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard in the 1950s.", "Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s.", "In 1951 it publicly played the \"Colonel Bogey March\" of which no known recordings exist.However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice which is current computer-music practice.The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the British National Anthem that was programmed by Christopher Strachey on the Ferranti Mark I, late in 1951.Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a BBC outside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, \"Ba, Ba Black Sheep\", and \"In the Mood\" and this is recognised as the earliest recording of a computer to play music.", "This recording can be heard at this Manchester University site.", "Researchers at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard on SoundCloud.The late 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis.", "Starting in 1957, Max Mathews of Bell Labs developed the MUSIC programs, culminating in MUSIC V, a direct digital synthesis language.", "Laurie Spiegel developed the algorithmic musical composition software \"Music Mouse\" (1986) for Macintosh, Amiga, and Atari computers.===Stochastic music===An important new development was the advent of computers to compose music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds.", "Iannis Xenakis began what is called ''musique stochastique'', or ''stochastic music'', which is a composing method that uses mathematical probability systems.", "Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters.", "Xenakis used computers to compose pieces like ''ST/4'' for string quartet and ''ST/48'' for orchestra (both 1962), ''Morsima-Amorsima'', ''ST/10'', and ''Atrées''.", "He developed the computer system UPIC for translating graphical images into musical results and composed ''Mycènes Alpha'' (1978) with it.===Live electronics===In Europe in 1964, Karlheinz Stockhausen composed ''Mikrophonie I'' for tam-tam, hand-held microphones, filters, and potentiometers, and ''Mixtur'' for orchestra, four sine-wave generators, and four ring modulators.", "In 1965 he composed ''Mikrophonie II'' for choir, Hammond organ, and ring modulators.In 1966–1967, Reed Ghazala discovered and began to teach \"circuit bending\"—the application of the creative short circuit, a process of chance short-circuiting, creating experimental electronic instruments, exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm, and influenced by John Cage's aleatoric music concept.Cosey Fanni Tutti's performance art and musical career explored the concept of 'acceptable' music and she went on to explore the use of sound as a means of desire or discomfort.Wendy Carlos performed selections from her album ''Switched-On Bach'' on stage with a synthesizer with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra; another live performance was with Kurzweil Baroque Ensemble for \"Bach at the Beacon\" in 1997.In June 2018, Suzanne Ciani released ''LIVE Quadraphonic'', a live album documenting her first solo performance on a Buchla synthesizer in 40 years.", "It was one of the first quadraphonic vinyl releases in over 30 years.===Japanese instruments===Early electronic organ: Yamaha Electone D-1 (1959)In the 1950s, Japanese electronic musical instruments began influencing the international music industry.", "Ikutaro Kakehashi, who founded Ace Tone in 1960, developed his own version of electronic percussion that had been already popular on the overseas electronic organ.", "At the 1964 NAMM Show, he revealed it as the R-1 Rhythm Ace, a hand-operated percussion device that played electronic drum sounds manually as the user pushed buttons, in a similar fashion to modern electronic drum pads.Early drum machine: Korg Donca Matic DA-20 (1963)In 1963, Korg released the Donca-Matic DA-20, an electro-mechanical drum machine.", "In 1965, Nippon Columbia patented a fully electronic drum machine.", "Korg released the Donca-Matic DC-11 electronic drum machine in 1966, which they followed with the Korg Mini Pops, which was developed as an option for the Yamaha Electone electric organ.", "Korg's Stageman and Mini Pops series were notable for \"natural metallic percussion\" sounds and incorporating controls for drum \"breaks and fill-ins.", "\"In 1967, Ace Tone founder Ikutaro Kakehashi patented a preset rhythm-pattern generator using diode matrix circuit similar to the Seeburg's prior filed in 1964 (See Drum machine#History), which he released as the FR-1 Rhythm Ace drum machine the same year.", "It offered 16 preset patterns, and four buttons to manually play each instrument sound (cymbal, claves, cowbell and bass drum).", "The rhythm patterns could also be cascaded together by pushing multiple rhythm buttons simultaneously, and the possible combination of rhythm patterns were more than a hundred.", "Ace Tone's Rhythm Ace drum machines found their way into popular music from the late 1960s, followed by Korg drum machines in the 1970s.", "Kakehashi later left Ace Tone and founded Roland Corporation in 1972, with Roland synthesizers and drum machines becoming highly influential for the next several decades.", "The company would go on to have a big impact on popular music, and do more to shape popular electronic music than any other company.Direct-drive turntable: (introduced in 1972)Turntablism has origins in the invention of direct-drive turntables.", "Early belt-drive turntables were unsuitable for turntablism, since they had a slow start-up time, and they were prone to wear-and-tear and breakage, as the belt would break from backspin or scratching.", "The first direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita (now Panasonic), based in Osaka, Japan.", "It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests.", "In 1969, Matsushita released it as the SP-10, the first direct-drive turntable on the market, and the first in their influential Technics series of turntables.", "It was succeeded by the Technics SL-1100 and SL-1200 in the early 1970s, and they were widely adopted by hip hop musicians, with the SL-1200 remaining the most widely used turntable in DJ culture for several decades.===Jamaican dub music===In Jamaica, a form of popular electronic music emerged in the 1960s, dub music, rooted in sound system culture.", "Dub music was pioneered by studio engineers, such as Sylvan Morris, King Tubby, Errol Thompson, Lee \"Scratch\" Perry, and Scientist, producing reggae-influenced experimental music with electronic sound technology, in recording studios and at sound system parties.", "Their experiments included forms of tape-based composition comparable to aspects of ''musique concrète'', an emphasis on repetitive rhythmic structures (often stripped of their harmonic elements) comparable to minimalism, the electronic manipulation of spatiality, the sonic electronic manipulation of pre-recorded musical materials from mass media, deejays toasting over pre-recorded music comparable to live electronic music, remixing music, turntablism, and the mixing and scratching of vinyl.Despite the limited electronic equipment available to dub pioneers such as King Tubby and Lee \"Scratch\" Perry, their experiments in remix culture were musically cutting-edge.", "King Tubby, for example, was a sound system proprietor and electronics technician, whose small front-room studio in the Waterhouse ghetto of western Kingston was a key site of dub music creation." ], [ "Late 1960s to early 1980s", "===Rise of popular electronic music===In the late 1960s, pop and rock musicians, including the Beach Boys and the Beatles, began to use electronic instruments, like the theremin and Mellotron, to supplement and define their sound.", "The first bands to utilize the Moog synthesizer would be the Doors on Strange Days as well as the Monkees on Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd.", "In his book ''Electronic and Experimental Music'', Thom Holmes recognises the Beatles' 1966 recording \"Tomorrow Never Knows\" as the song that \"ushered in a new era in the use of electronic music in rock and pop music\" due to the band's incorporation of tape loops and reversed and speed-manipulated tape sounds.Also in the late 1960s, the music duos Silver Apples, Beaver and Krause, and experimental rock bands like White Noise, the United States of America, Fifty Foot Hose, and Gong are regarded as pioneers in the electronic rock and electronica genres for their work in melding psychedelic rock with oscillators and synthesizers.", "The 1969 instrumental \"Popcorn\" written by Gershon Kingsley for ''Music To Moog By'' became a worldwide success due to the 1972 version made by Hot Butter.The Moog synthesizer was brought to the mainstream in 1968 by ''Switched-On Bach'', a bestselling album of Bach compositions arranged for Moog synthesizer by American composer Wendy Carlos.", "The album achieved critical and commercial success, winning the 1970 Grammy Awards for Best Classical Album, Best Classical Performance – Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (With or Without Orchestra), and Best Engineered Classical Recording.In 1969, David Borden formed the world's first synthesizer ensemble called the Mother Mallard's Portable Masterpiece Company in Ithaca, New York.Keith Emerson performing in Saint Petersburg in 2008By the end of the 1960s, the Moog synthesizer took a leading place in the sound of emerging progressive rock with bands including Pink Floyd, Yes, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, and Genesis making them part of their sound.", "Instrumental prog rock was particularly significant in continental Europe, allowing bands like Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Cluster, Can, Neu!, and Faust to circumvent the language barrier.", "Their synthesiser-heavy \"krautrock\", along with the work of Brian Eno (for a time the keyboard player with Roxy Music), would be a major influence on subsequent electronic rock.Ambient dub was pioneered by King Tubby and other Jamaican sound artists, using DJ-inspired ambient electronics, complete with drop-outs, echo, equalization and psychedelic electronic effects.", "It featured layering techniques and incorporated elements of world music, deep basslines and harmonic sounds.", "Techniques such as a long echo delay were also used.", "Other notable artists within the genre include Dreadzone, Higher Intelligence Agency, The Orb, Ott, Loop Guru, Woob and Transglobal Underground.Dub music influenced electronic musical techniques later adopted by hip hop music when Jamaican immigrant DJ Kool Herc in the early 1970s introduced Jamaica's sound system culture and dub music techniques to America.", "One such technique that became popular in hip hop culture was playing two copies of the same record on two turntables in alternation, extending the b-dancers' favorite section.", "The turntable eventually went on to become the most visible electronic musical instrument, and occasionally the most virtuosic, in the 1980s and 1990s.Electronic rock was also produced by several Japanese musicians, including Isao Tomita's ''Electric Samurai: Switched on Rock'' (1972), which featured Moog synthesizer renditions of contemporary pop and rock songs, and Osamu Kitajima's progressive rock album ''Benzaiten'' (1974).", "The mid-1970s saw the rise of electronic art music musicians such as Jean Michel Jarre, Vangelis, Tomita and Klaus Schulze who were significant influences on the development of new-age music.", "The ''hi-tech'' appeal of these works created for some years the trend of listing the electronic musical equipment employed in the album sleeves, as a distinctive feature.", "Electronic music began to enter regularly in radio programming and top-sellers charts, as the French band Space with their debut studio album ''Magic Fly'' or Jarre with ''Oxygène''.", "Between 1977 and 1981, Kraftwerk released albums such as ''Trans-Europe Express'', ''The Man-Machine'' or ''Computer World'', which influenced subgenres of electronic music.In this era, the sound of rock musicians like Mike Oldfield and The Alan Parsons Project (who is credited the first rock song to feature a digital vocoder in 1975, ''The Raven'') used to be arranged and blended with electronic effects and/or music as well, which became much more prominent in the mid-1980s.", "Jeff Wayne achieved a long-lasting success with his 1978 electronic rock musical version of ''The War of the Worlds''.Film scores also benefit from the electronic sound.", "During the 1970s and 1980s, Wendy Carlos composed the score for ''A Clockwork Orange'', ''The Shining'' and ''Tron''.", "In 1977, Gene Page recorded a disco version of the hit theme by John Williams from Steven Spielberg film ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind''.", "Page's version peaked on the R&B chart at #30.The score of 1978 film ''Midnight Express'' composed by Italian synth-pioneer Giorgio Moroder won the Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1979, as did it again in 1981 the score by Vangelis for ''Chariots of Fire''.", "After the arrival of punk rock, a form of basic electronic rock emerged, increasingly using new digital technology to replace other instruments.", "The American duo Suicide, who arose from the punk scene in New York, utilized drum machines and synthesizers in a hybrid between electronics and punk on their eponymous 1977 album.Synth-pop pioneering bands which enjoyed success for years included Ultravox with their 1977 track \"Hiroshima Mon Amour\" on ''Ha!-Ha!-Ha!", "'', Yellow Magic Orchestra with their self-titled album (1978), The Buggles with their prominent 1979 debut single ''Video Killed the Radio Star'', Gary Numan with his solo debut album ''The Pleasure Principle'' and single ''Cars'' in 1979, Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark with their 1979 single ''Electricity'' featured on their eponymous debut album, Depeche Mode with their first single ''Dreaming of Me'' recorded in 1980 and released in 1981 album ''Speak & Spell'', A Flock of Seagulls with their 1981 single ''Talking'', New Order with ''Ceremony'' in 1981, and The Human League with their 1981 hit ''Don't You Want Me'' from their third album ''Dare''.New Order performing in Chile in 2019The definition of MIDI and the development of digital audio made the development of purely electronic sounds much easier, with audio engineers, producers and composers exploring frequently the possibilities of virtually every new model of electronic sound equipment launched by manufacturers.", "Synth-pop sometimes used synthesizers to replace all other instruments, but it was more common that bands had one or more keyboardists in their line-ups along with guitarists, bassists, and/or drummers.", "These developments led to the growth of synth-pop, which after it was adopted by the New Romantic movement, allowed synthesizers to dominate the pop and rock music of the early 1980s until the style began to fall from popularity in the mid-to-end of the decade.", "Along with the aforementioned successful pioneers, key acts included Yazoo, Duran Duran, Spandau Ballet, Culture Club, Talk Talk, Japan, and Eurythmics.Synth-pop was taken up across the world, with international hits for acts including Men Without Hats, Trans-X and Lime from Canada, Telex from Belgium, Peter Schilling, Sandra, Modern Talking, Propaganda and Alphaville from Germany, Yello from Switzerland and Azul y Negro from Spain.", "Also, the synth sound is a key feature of Italo-disco.Some synth-pop bands created futuristic visual styles of themselves to reinforce the idea of electronic sounds were linked primarily with technology, as Americans Devo and Spaniards Aviador Dro.Keyboard synthesizers became so common that even heavy metal rock bands, a genre often regarded as the ''opposite'' in aesthetics, sound and lifestyle from that of electronic pop artists by fans of both sides, achieved worldwide success with themes as 1983 ''Jump'' by Van Halen and 1986 ''The Final Countdown'' by Europe, which feature synths prominently.===Proliferation of electronic music research institutions=== (EMS), formerly known as Electroacoustic Music in Sweden, is the Swedish national centre for electronic music and sound art.", "The research organisation started in 1964 and is based in Stockholm.IRCAM at the Place Igor Stravinsky, ParisSTEIM is a center for research and development of new musical instruments in the electronic performing arts, located in Amsterdam, Netherlands.", "STEIM has existed since 1969.It was founded by Misha Mengelberg, Louis Andriessen, Peter Schat, Dick Raaymakers, , Reinbert de Leeuw, and Konrad Boehmer.", "This group of Dutch composers had fought for the reformation of Amsterdam's feudal music structures; they insisted on Bruno Maderna's appointment as musical director of the Concertgebouw Orchestra and enforced the first public fundings for experimental and improvised electronic music in the Netherlands.IRCAM in Paris became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of the Sogitec 4X computer system, featuring then revolutionary real-time digital signal processing.", "Pierre Boulez's ''Répons'' (1981) for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system.Barry Vercoe describes one of his experiences with early computer sounds:Sogitec 4X (c. 1983) at IRCAM machine room in 1989===Keyboard synthesizers===Mini-Moog synthesizerReleased in 1970 by Moog Music, the Mini-Moog was among the first widely available, portable, and relatively affordable synthesizers.", "It became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music.Patrick Gleeson, playing live with Herbie Hancock at the beginning of the 1970s, pioneered the use of synthesizers in a touring context, where they were subject to stresses the early machines were not designed for.In 1974, the WDR studio in Cologne acquired an EMS Synthi 100 synthesizer, which many composers used to produce notable electronic works—including Rolf Gehlhaar's ''Fünf deutsche Tänze'' (1975), Karlheinz Stockhausen's ''Sirius'' (1975–1976), and John McGuire's ''Pulse Music III'' (1978).Thanks to miniaturization of electronics in the 1970s, by the start of the 1980s keyboard synthesizers, became lighter and affordable, integrating into a single slim unit all the necessary audio synthesis electronics and the piano-style keyboard itself, in sharp contrast with the bulky machinery and \"cable spaguetty\" employed along with the 1960s and 1970s.", "First, with analog synthesizers, the trend followed with digital synthesizers and samplers as well (see below).===Digital synthesizers===In 1975, the Japanese company Yamaha licensed the algorithms for frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis) from John Chowning, who had experimented with it at Stanford University since 1971.Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the \"key scaling\" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation.In 1980, Yamaha eventually released the first FM digital synthesizer, the Yamaha GS-1, but at an expensive price.", "In 1983, Yamaha introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, the DX7, which also used FM synthesis and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time.", "The DX7 was known for its recognizable bright tonalities that was partly due to an overachieving sampling rate of 57 kHz.Yamaha DX7, a model for many digital synthesizers of the 1980sThe Korg Poly-800 is a synthesizer released by Korg in 1983.Its initial list price of $795 made it the first fully programmable synthesizer that sold for less than $1000.It had 8-voice polyphony with one Digitally controlled oscillator (DCO) per voice.The Casio CZ-101 was the first and best-selling phase distortion synthesizer in the Casio CZ line.", "Released in November 1984, it was one of the first (if not the first) fully programmable polyphonic synthesizers that was available for under $500.The Roland D-50 is a digital synthesizer produced by Roland and released in April 1987.Its features include subtractive synthesis, on-board effects, a joystick for data manipulation, and an analogue synthesis-styled layout design.", "The external Roland PG-1000 (1987–1990) programmer could also be attached to the D-50 for more complex manipulation of its sounds.===Samplers===A sampler is an electronic or digital musical instrument which uses sound recordings (or \"samples\") of real instrument sounds (e.g., a piano, violin or trumpet), excerpts from recorded songs (e.g., a five-second bass guitar riff from a funk song) or found sounds (e.g., sirens and ocean waves).", "The samples are loaded or recorded by the user or by a manufacturer.", "These sounds are then played back using the sampler program itself, a MIDI keyboard, sequencer or another triggering device (e.g., electronic drums) to perform or compose music.", "Because these samples are usually stored in digital memory, the information can be quickly accessed.", "A single sample may often be pitch-shifted to different pitches to produce musical scales and chords.Fairlight CMI (1979–)Before computer memory-based samplers, musicians used tape replay keyboards, which store recordings on analog tape.", "When a key is pressed the tape head contacts the moving tape and plays a sound.", "The Mellotron was the most notable model, used by many groups in the late 1960s and the 1970s, but such systems were expensive and heavy due to the multiple tape mechanisms involved, and the range of the instrument was limited to three octaves at the most.", "To change sounds a new set of tapes had to be installed in the instrument.", "The emergence of the digital sampler made sampling far more practical.The earliest digital sampling was done on the EMS Musys system, developed by Peter Grogono (software), David Cockerell (hardware and interfacing), and Peter Zinovieff (system design and operation) at their London (Putney) Studio c. 1969.The first commercially available sampling synthesizer was the Computer Music Melodian by Harry Mendell (1976).First released in 1977–1978, the Synclavier I using FM synthesis, re-licensed from Yamaha, and sold mostly to universities, proved to be highly influential among both electronic music composers and music producers, including Mike Thorne, an early adopter from the commercial world, due to its versatility, its cutting-edge technology, and distinctive sounds.The first polyphonic digital sampling synthesizer was the Australian-produced Fairlight CMI, first available in 1979.These early sampling synthesizers used wavetable sample-based synthesis.===Birth of MIDI===In 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface that new instruments could use to communicate control instructions with other instruments and computers.", "This standard was dubbed Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) and resulted from a collaboration between leading manufacturers, initially Sequential Circuits, Oberheim, Roland—and later, other participants that included Yamaha, Korg, and Kawai.", "A paper was authored by Dave Smith of Sequential Circuits and proposed to the Audio Engineering Society in 1981.Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized.MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer.MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals.", "Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via sampling and sampled-ROM-based instruments.Miller Puckette developed graphic signal-processing software for 4X called Max (after Max Mathews) and later ported it to Macintosh (with Dave Zicarelli extending it for Opcode) for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background.===Sequencers and drum machines=== The early 1980s saw the rise of bass synthesizers, the most influential being the Roland TB-303, a bass synthesizer and sequencer released in late 1981 that later became a fixture in electronic dance music, particularly acid house.", "One of the first to use it was Charanjit Singh in 1982, though it would not be popularized until Phuture's \"Acid Tracks\" in 1987.Music sequencers began being used around the mid 20th century, and Tomita's albums in mid-1970s being later examples.", "In 1978, Yellow Magic Orchestra were using computer-based technology in conjunction with a synthesiser to produce popular music, making their early use of the microprocessor-based Roland MC-8 Microcomposer sequencer.Drum machines, also known as rhythm machines, also began being used around the late-1950s, with a later example being Osamu Kitajima's progressive rock album ''Benzaiten'' (1974), which used a rhythm machine along with electronic drums and a synthesizer.", "In 1977, Ultravox's \"Hiroshima Mon Amour\" was one of the first singles to use the metronome-like percussion of a Roland TR-77 drum machine.", "In 1980, Roland Corporation released the TR-808, one of the first and most popular programmable drum machines.", "The first band to use it was Yellow Magic Orchestra in 1980, and it would later gain widespread popularity with the release of Marvin Gaye's \"Sexual Healing\" and Afrika Bambaataa's \"Planet Rock\" in 1982.The TR-808 was a fundamental tool in the later Detroit techno scene of the late 1980s, and was the drum machine of choice for Derrick May and Juan Atkins.===Chiptunes===The characteristic lo-fi sound of chip music was initially the result of early computer's sound chips and sound cards' technical limitations; however, the sound has since become sought after in its own right.Common cheap popular sound chips of the first home computers of the 1980s include the SID of the Commodore 64 and General Instrument AY series and clones (like the Yamaha YM2149) used in the ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, MSX compatibles and Atari ST models, among others." ], [ "Late 1980s to 1990s", "=== Rise of dance music ===Synth-pop continued into the late 1980s, with a format that moved closer to dance music, including the work of acts such as British duos Pet Shop Boys, Erasure and The Communards, achieving success along much of the 1990s.The trend has continued to the present day with modern nightclubs worldwide regularly playing electronic dance music (EDM).", "Today, electronic dance music has radio stations, websites, and publications like ''Mixmag'' dedicated solely to the genre.", "Despite the industry's attempt to create a specific EDM brand, the initialism remains in use as an umbrella term for multiple genres, including dance-pop, house, techno, electro, and trance, as well as their respective subgenres.", "Moreover, the genre has found commercial and cultural significance in the United States and North America, thanks to the wildly popular big room house/EDM sound that has been incorporated into the U.S. pop music and the rise of large-scale commercial raves such as Electric Daisy Carnival, Tomorrowland and Ultra Music Festival.===Electronica===On the other hand, a broad group of electronic-based music styles intended for listening rather than strictly for dancing became known under the \"electronica\" umbrella which was also a music scene in the early 1990s in the United Kingdom.", "According to a 1997 ''Billboard'' article, \"the union of the club community and independent labels\" provided the experimental and trend-setting environment in which electronica acts developed and eventually reached the mainstream, citing American labels such as Astralwerks (the Chemical Brothers, Fatboy Slim, the Future Sound of London, Fluke), Moonshine (DJ Keoki), Sims, and City of Angels (the Crystal Method) for popularizing the latest version of electronic music.===Indie electronic===The category \"indie electronic\" (or \"indietronica\") has been used to refer to a wave of groups with roots in independent rock who embraced electronic elements (such as synthesizers, samplers, drum machines, and computer programs) and influences such as early electronic composition, krautrock, synth-pop, and dance music.", "Recordings are commonly made on laptops using digital audio workstations.The first wave of indie electronic artists began in the 1990s with acts such as Stereolab (who used vintage gear) and Disco Inferno (who embraced modern sampling technology), and the genre expanded in the 2000s as home recording and software synthesizers came into common use.", "Other acts included Broadcast, Lali Puna, Múm, the Postal Service, Skeletons, and School of Seven Bells.", "Independent labels associated with the style include Warp, Morr Music, Sub Pop, and Ghostly International." ], [ "2000s and 2010s", "Weekend Festival, an electronic music event in Pärnu, Estonia, in 2016As computer technology has become more accessible and music software has advanced, interacting with music production technology is now possible using means that bear no relationship to traditional musical performance practices: for instance, laptop performance (''laptronica''), live coding and Algorave.", "In general, the term Live PA refers to any live performance of electronic music, whether with laptops, synthesizers, or other devices.Beginning around the year 2000, some software-based virtual studio environments emerged, with products such as Propellerhead's Reason and Ableton Live finding popular appeal.", "Such tools provide viable and cost-effective alternatives to typical hardware-based production studios, and thanks to advances in microprocessor technology, it is now possible to create high-quality music using little more than a single laptop computer.", "Such advances have democratized music creation, leading to a massive increase in the amount of home-produced electronic music available to the general public via the internet.", "Software-based instruments and effect units (so-called \"plugins\") can be incorporated in a computer-based studio using the VST platform.", "Some of these instruments are more or less exact replicas of existing hardware (such as the Roland D-50, ARP Odyssey, Yamaha DX7, or Korg M1).===Circuit bending===Circuit bending is the modification of battery-powered toys and synthesizers to create new unintended sound effects.", "It was pioneered by Reed Ghazala in the 1960s and Reed coined the name \"circuit bending\" in 1992.===Modular synth revival===Following the circuit bending culture, musicians also began to build their own modular synthesizers, causing a renewed interest in the early 1960s designs.", "Eurorack became a popular system." ], [ "See also", "* Clavioline* Electronic sackbut* List of electronic music genres* New Interfaces for Musical Expression* Ondioline* Spectral music* Tracker music* Timeline of electronic music genres;Live electronic music* List of electronic music festivals* Live electronic music" ], [ "Footnotes", "===Sources===* * * * * * * * ( archive on 10 March 2011)* * ( Online reprint , NASA Ames Research Center Technical Memorandum facsimile 2000.", "* * * * * * * * * (First published in German in ''Melos'' 39 (January–February 1972): 42–44.", ")* * * * * (Excerpt exist on History of Experimental Music in Northern California)* * * * * * * * * * (cloth); (pbk); (ebook).", "* * Abstract.", "* * * * * * * * (at webcitation.org)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "Also published in German, as * * * * * * * * * .", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * .", "Guide ID: A520831 (Edited).", "* * * * * (Originally published: New York: Twayne, 1998)* * * * * Chekalin, Mikhael (n.d.). \"", "A. Patterson Light & Sound\", itunes.apple.com Best of Electronic Music* * * * Dorschel, Andreas, Gerhard Eckel, and Deniz Peters (eds.)", "(2012).", "''Bodily Expression in Electronic Music: Perspectives on Reclaiming Performativity''.", "Routledge Research in Music 2.London and New York: Routledge.", ".", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (US title: ; New York: Routledge, 1999 )* * .", "English version as .", "Second English version as * * * * * * Strange, Allen (1983), ''Electronic Music: Systems, Technics, and Controls'', second ed.", "Dubuque, Iowa: W.C. Brown Co.", ".", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * History of Electroacoustic Music – Timeline * Electronic Music Foundation* History and Development of Electronic Music" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edvard Grieg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edvard Hagerup Grieg''' ( , ; 15 June 18434 September 1907) was a Norwegian composer and pianist.", "He is widely considered one of the leading Romantic era composers, and his music is part of the standard classical repertoire worldwide.", "His use of Norwegian folk music in his own compositions brought the music of Norway to fame, as well as helping to develop a national identity, much as Jean Sibelius did in Finland and Bedřich Smetana in Bohemia.Grieg is the most celebrated person from the city of Bergen, with numerous statues which depict his image, and many cultural entities named after him: the city's largest concert building (Grieg Hall), its most advanced music school (Grieg Academy) and its professional choir (Edvard Grieg Kor).", "The Edvard Grieg Museum at Grieg's former home Troldhaugen is dedicated to his legacy." ], [ "Background", "Statue of Grieg by Ingebrigt Vik in BergenEdvard Grieg (1891), portrait by Eilif PeterssenEdvard Hagerup Grieg was born in Bergen, Norway (then part of Sweden–Norway).", "His parents were Alexander Grieg (1806–1875), a merchant and the British Vice-Consul in Bergen; and Gesine Judithe Hagerup (1814–1875), a music teacher and daughter of solicitor and politician Edvard Hagerup.", "The family name, originally spelled Greig, is associated with the Scottish Clann Ghriogair (Clan Gregor).", "After the Battle of Culloden in Scotland in 1746, Grieg's great-grandfather, Alexander Greig (1739-1803), travelled widely before settling in Norway about 1770 and establishing business interests in Bergen.", "Grieg's paternal great-great-grandparents, John (1702-1774) and Anne (1704-1784), are buried in the abandoned churchyard of the ruinous Church of St Ethernan in Rathen, Aberdeenshire, Scotland.", "Edvard Grieg was raised in a musical family.", "His mother was his first piano teacher and taught him to play when he was aged six.", "He studied in several schools, including Tanks Upper Secondary School.During the summer of 1858, Grieg met the eminent Norwegian violinist Ole Bull, who was a family friend; Bull's brother was married to Grieg's aunt.", "Bull recognized the 15-year-old boy's talent and persuaded his parents to send him to the Leipzig Conservatory, the piano department of which was directed by Ignaz Moscheles.Grieg enrolled in the conservatory, concentrating on piano, and enjoyed the many concerts and recitals given in Leipzig.", "He disliked the discipline of the conservatory course of study.", "An exception was the organ, which was mandatory for piano students.", "About his study in the conservatory, he wrote to his biographer, Aimar Grønvold, in 1881: \"I must admit, unlike Svendsen, that I left Leipzig Conservatory just as stupid as I entered it.", "Naturally, I did learn something there, but my individuality was still a closed book to me.", "\"During the spring of 1860, he survived two life-threatening lung diseases, pleurisy and tuberculosis.", "Throughout his life, Grieg's health was impaired by a destroyed left lung and considerable deformity of his thoracic spine.", "He suffered from numerous respiratory infections, and ultimately developed combined lung and heart failure.", "Grieg was admitted many times to spas and sanatoria both in Norway and abroad.", "Several of his doctors became his friends." ], [ "Career", "During 1861, Grieg made his debut as a concert pianist in Karlshamn, Sweden.", "In 1862, he finished his studies in Leipzig and had his first concert in his home town, where his program included Beethoven's ''Pathétique'' sonata.Nina Hagerup (Grieg's wife and first cousin) in 1899In 1863, Grieg went to Copenhagen, Denmark, and stayed there for three years.", "He met the Danish composers J. P. E. Hartmann and Niels Gade.", "He also met his fellow Norwegian composer Rikard Nordraak (composer of the Norwegian national anthem), who became a good friend and source of inspiration.", "Nordraak died in 1866, and Grieg composed a funeral march in his honor.On 11 June 1867, Grieg married his first cousin, Nina Hagerup (1845–1935), a lyric soprano.", "The next year, their only child, Alexandra, was born.", "Alexandra died in 1869 from meningitis.", "During the summer of 1868, Grieg wrote his Piano Concerto in A minor while on holiday in Denmark.", "Edmund Neupert gave the concerto its premiere performance on 3 April 1869 in the Casino Theatre in Copenhagen.", "Grieg himself was unable to be there due to conducting commitments in Christiania (now Oslo).During 1868, Franz Liszt, who had not yet met Grieg, wrote a testimonial for him to the Norwegian Ministry of Education, which resulted in Grieg's obtaining a travel grant.", "The two men met in Rome in 1870.During Grieg's first visit, they examined Grieg's Violin Sonata No.", "1, which pleased Liszt greatly.", "On his second visit in April, Grieg brought with him the manuscript of his Piano Concerto, which Liszt proceeded to sightread (including the orchestral arrangement).", "Liszt's rendition greatly impressed his audience, although Grieg said gently to him that he played the first movement too quickly.", "Liszt also gave Grieg some advice on orchestration (for example, to give the melody of the second theme in the first movement to a solo trumpet, which Grieg himself chose not to accept).In the 1870s he became friends with the poet Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson who shared his interests in Norwegian self-government.", "Grieg set several of his poems to music, including ''Landkjenning'' and ''Sigurd Jorsalfar''.", "Eventually they decided on an opera based on King Olav Trygvason, but a dispute as to whether music or lyrics should be created first, led to Grieg being diverted to working on incidental music for Henrik Ibsen's play ''Peer Gynt'', which naturally offended Bjørnson.", "Eventually their friendship was resumed.The incidental music composed for ''Peer Gynt'' at the request of the author, contributed to its success, and has separately become some of the composer's most familiar music arranged as orchestral Suites.Grieg had close ties with the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra (Harmonien), and later became Music Director of the orchestra from 1880 to 1882.In 1888, Grieg met Tchaikovsky in Leipzig.", "Grieg was impressed by Tchaikovsky.", "Tchaikovsky thought very highly of Grieg's music, praising its beauty, originality and warmth.On 6 December 1897, Grieg and his wife performed some of his music at a private concert at Windsor Castle for Queen Victoria and her court.Grieg was awarded two honorary doctorates, first by the University of Cambridge in 1894 and the next from the University of Oxford in 1906.===Later years===Edvard Grieg Museum in TroldhaugenThe Norwegian government provided Grieg with a pension as he reached retirement age.", "During the spring of 1903, Grieg made nine 78-rpm gramophone recordings of his piano music in Paris.", "All of these discs have been reissued on both LPs and CDs, despite limited fidelity.", "Grieg recorded player piano music rolls for the Hupfeld Phonola piano-player system and Welte-Mignon reproducing system, all of which survive and can be heard today.", "He also worked with the Aeolian Company for its 'Autograph Metrostyle' piano roll series wherein he indicated the tempo mapping for many of his pieces.In 1899, Grieg cancelled his concerts in France in protest of the Dreyfus affair, an antisemitic scandal that was then roiling French politics.", "Regarding this scandal, Grieg had written that he hoped that the French might, \"Soon return to the spirit of 1789, when the French republic declared that it would defend basic human rights.\"", "As a result of his statements concerning the affair, he became the target of much French hate mail of that day.During 1906, he met the composer and pianist Percy Grainger in London.", "Grainger was a great admirer of Grieg's music and a strong empathy was quickly established.", "In a 1907 interview, Grieg stated: \"I have written Norwegian Peasant Dances that no one in my country can play, and here comes this Australian who plays them as they ought to be played!", "He is a genius that we Scandinavians cannot do other than love.", "\"Edvard Grieg died at the Municipal Hospital in Bergen, Norway, on 4 September 1907 at age 64 from heart failure.", "He had suffered a long period of illness.", "His last words were \"Well, if it must be so.", "\"The funeral drew between 30,000 and 40,000 people to the streets of his home town to honor him.", "Obeying his wish, his own ''Funeral March in Memory of Rikard Nordraak'' was played with orchestration by his friend Johan Halvorsen, who had married Grieg's niece.", "In addition, the ''Funeral March'' movement from Chopin's Piano Sonata No.", "2 was played.", "Grieg was cremated in the first Norwegian crematorium opened in Bergen just that year, and his ashes were entombed in a mountain crypt near his house, Troldhaugen.", "After the death of his wife, her ashes were placed alongside his.Edvard Grieg and his wife were Unitarians and Nina attended the Unitarian church in Copenhagen after his death.A century after his death, Grieg's legacy extends beyond the field of music.", "There is a large sculpture of Grieg in Seattle, while one of the largest hotels in Bergen (his hometown) is named Quality Hotel Edvard Grieg and a large crater on the planet Mercury is named after Grieg." ], [ "Music", "Some of Grieg's early works include a symphony (which he later suppressed) and a piano sonata.", "He wrote three violin sonatas and a cello sonata.Grieg composed the incidental music for Henrik Ibsen's play ''Peer Gynt'', which includes the excerpts \"In the Hall of the Mountain King\" and \"Morning Mood\".", "In an 1874 letter to his friend Frants Beyer, Grieg expressed his unhappiness with \"Dance of the Mountain King's Daughter\", one of the movements in the ''Peer Gynt'' incidental music, writing \"I have also written something for the scene in the hall of the mountain King – something that I literally can't bear listening to because it absolutely reeks of cow-pies, exaggerated Norwegian nationalism, and trollish self-satisfaction!", "But I have a hunch that the irony will be discernible.", "\"Grieg's ''Holberg Suite'' was originally written for the piano, and later arranged by the composer for string orchestra.", "Grieg wrote songs in which he set lyrics by poets Heinrich Heine, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Henrik Ibsen, Hans Christian Andersen, Rudyard Kipling and others.", "Russian composer Nikolai Myaskovsky used a theme by Grieg for the variations with which he closed his Third String Quartet.", "Norwegian pianist Eva Knardahl recorded the composer's complete piano music on 13 LPs for BIS Records from 1977 to 1980.The recordings were reissued during 2006 on 12 compact discs, also on BIS Records.", "Grieg himself recorded many of these piano works before his death in 1907.Pianist Bertha Tapper edited Grieg’s piano works for publication in America by Oliver Ditson." ], [ "List of selected works", "*Piano Sonata in E minor, Op.", "7*Violin Sonata No.", "1 in F major, Op.", "8*Concert Overture ''In Autumn'', Op.", "11*Violin Sonata No.", "2 in G major, Op.", "13*Piano Concerto in A minor, Op.", "16*Incidental music to Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson's play ''Sigurd Jorsalfar'', Op.", "22*Incidental music to Henrik Ibsen's play ''Peer Gynt'', Op.", "23*''Ballade in the Form of Variations on a Norwegian Folk Song'' in G minor, Op.", "24*String Quartet in G minor, Op.", "27*''Two Elegiac Melodies'' for strings or piano, Op.", "34*Four ''Norwegian Dances'' for piano four hands, Op.", "35 (better known in orchestrations by Hans Sitt and others)*Cello Sonata in A minor, Op.", "36*''Holberg Suite'' for piano, later arr.", "for string orchestra, Op.", "40*Violin Sonata No.", "3 in C minor, Op.", "45*''Peer Gynt'' Suite No.", "1, Op.", "46*''Lyric Suite'' for orchestra, Op.", "54 (orchestration of four ''Lyric Pieces'')*''Peer Gynt'' Suite No.", "2, Op.", "55*Four ''Symphonic Dances'' for piano, later arr.", "for orchestra, Op.", "64*''Haugtussa'' Song Cycle after Arne Garborg, Op.", "67*Sixty-six ''Lyric Pieces'' for piano in ten books, Opp.", "12, 38, 43, 47, 54, 57, 62, 65, 68 and 71, including: ''Arietta'', ''To the Spring'', ''Little Bird'', ''Butterfly'', ''Notturno'', ''Wedding Day at Troldhaugen'', ''At Your Feet'', ''Longing For Home'', ''March of the Dwarfs'', ''Poème érotique'' and ''Gone''." ], [ "See also", "*Bust of Edvard Grieg, University of Washington, Seattle*Grieg (crater)*Grieg's music in popular culture*Peer Gynt Prize*Song of Norway" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''*" ], [ "Further reading", "===English===*Carley, Lionel (2006) ''Edvard Grieg in England'' (Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press) *Finck, Henry Theophilius (2008) ''Edvard Grieg'' (Bastian Books) *Finck, Henry Theophilus (2002) ''Edvard Grieg; with an introductory note by Lothar Feinstein'' (Adelaide: London Cambridge Scholars Press) *Foster, Beryl (2007) ''Songs of Edvard Grieg'' (Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press) *Grimley, Daniel (2007) ''Grieg: Music, Landscape and Norwegian Cultural Identity'' (Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press) *Jarrett, Sandra (2003) ''Edvard Grieg and his songs'' (Aldershot: Ashgate) .", "*===Norwegian===*Bredal, Dag/Strøm-Olsen, Terje (1992) ''Edvard Grieg – Musikken er en kampplass'' (Oslo: Aventura Forlag A/S) *Dahl Jr., Erling (2007) ''Edvard Grieg – En introduksjon til hans liv og musikk'' (Bergen: Vigmostad og Bjørke) *Purdy, Claire Lee (1968) ''Historien om Edvard Grieg'' (Oslo: A/S Forlagshuse)" ], [ "External links", "* Grieg 2007 Official Site for 100th year commemoration of Edvard Grieg* The Grieg archives at Bergen Public Library* Troldhaugen Museum, Grieg's home** Edvard Grieg statue by Sigvald Asbjørnsen Prospect Park (Brooklyn)*Films about Grieg's life: ''What Price Immortality?''", "(1999)* Edvard Grieg picture collection at flickr commons* Edvard and Nina Grieg, ''Dictionary of Unitarian & Universalist Biography''===Recordings by Grieg===* Papillon – Lyric Piece, Op.", "43, no.", "1 as recorded by Grieg on piano roll, 17 April 1906, Leipzig ( Info)===Recordings of Grieg works===* Edvard Grieg, Sonata No.", "1 in F major, I. Allegro con brio – Gregory Maytan (violin), Nicole Lee (piano)* Edvard Grieg, Sonata No.", "1 in F major, II.", "Allegretto quasi Andantino – Gregory Maytan (violin), Nicole Lee (piano)* Edvard Grieg, Sonata No.", "1 in F major, III.", "Allegro molto vivace – Gregory Maytan (violin), Nicole Lee (piano)* Edvard Grieg, Sonata No.", "3 in C minor, I. Allegro molto ed appassionato – Gregory Maytan (violin), Nicole Lee (piano)* Edvard Grieg, Sonata No.", "3 in C minor, II.", "Allegretto espressivo all Ramanza – Gregory Maytan (violin), Nicole Lee (piano)* Edvard Grieg, Sonata No.", "3 in C minor, III.", "Allegro animato – Gregory Maytan (violin), Nicole Lee (piano)===Music scores===*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Emancipation Proclamation" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Emancipation Proclamation''', officially '''Proclamation 95''', was a presidential proclamation and executive order issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War.", "The Proclamation had the effect of changing the legal status of more than 3.5 million enslaved African Americans in the secessionist Confederate states from enslaved to free.", "As soon as slaves escaped the control of their enslavers, either by fleeing to Union lines or through the advance of federal troops, they were permanently free.", "In addition, the Proclamation allowed for former slaves to \"be received into the armed service of the United States\".", "The Emancipation Proclamation played a significant part in the end of slavery in the United States.On September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.", "Its third paragraph reads:On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation.", "After quoting from the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, it stated:Lincoln then listed the ten states still in rebellion, excluding parts of states under Union control, and continued:The proclamation provided that the executive branch, including the Army and Navy, \"will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons\".", "Even though it excluded states not in rebellion, as well as parts of Louisiana and Virginia under Union control, it still applied to more than 3.5 million of the 4 million enslaved people in the country.", "Around 25,000 to 75,000 were immediately emancipated in those regions of the Confederacy where the US Army was already in place.", "It could not be enforced in the areas still in rebellion, but, as the Union army took control of Confederate regions, the Proclamation provided the legal framework for the liberation of more than three and a half million enslaved people in those regions by the end of the war.", "The Emancipation Proclamation outraged white Southerners and their sympathizers, who saw it as the beginning of a race war.", "It energized abolitionists, and undermined those Europeans who wanted to intervene to help the Confederacy.", "The Proclamation lifted the spirits of African Americans, both free and enslaved.", "It encouraged many to escape from slavery and flee toward Union lines, where many joined the Union Army.", "The Emancipation Proclamation became a historic document because it \"would redefine the Civil War, turning it for the North from a struggle solely to preserve the Union to one also focused on ending slavery, and set a decisive course for how the nation would be reshaped after that historic conflict.", "\"The Emancipation Proclamation was never challenged in court.", "To ensure the abolition of slavery in all of the U.S., Lincoln also insisted that Reconstruction plans for Southern states require them to enact laws abolishing slavery (which occurred during the war in Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana); Lincoln encouraged border states to adopt abolition (which occurred during the war in Maryland, Missouri, and West Virginia) and pushed for passage of the 13th Amendment.", "The Senate passed the 13th Amendment by the necessary two-thirds vote on April 8, 1864; the House of Representatives did so on January 31, 1865; and the required three-fourths of the states ratified it on December 6, 1865.The amendment made slavery and involuntary servitude unconstitutional, \"except as a punishment for a crime\"." ], [ "Authority", "Abraham LincolnThe United States Constitution of 1787 did not use the word \"slavery\" but included several provisions about unfree persons.", "The Three-Fifths Compromise (in Article I, Section 2) allocated congressional representation based \"on the whole Number of free Persons\" and \"three-fifths of all other Persons\".", "Under the Fugitive Slave Clause (Article IV, Section 2), \"No person held to Service or Labour in one State\" would become legally free by escaping to another.", "Article I, Section 9 allowed Congress to pass legislation to outlaw the \"Importation of Persons\", but not until 1808.However, for purposes of the Fifth Amendment—which states that, \"No person shall ... be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law\"—slaves were understood to be property.", "Although abolitionists used the Fifth Amendment to argue against slavery, it was made part of the legal basis for treating slaves as property by ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' (1857).", "Slavery was also supported in law and in practice by a pervasive culture of white supremacy.", "Nonetheless, between 1777 and 1804, every Northern state provided for the immediate or gradual abolition of slavery.", "No Southern state did so, and the slave population of the South continued to grow, peaking at almost four million people at the beginning of the Civil War, when most slave states sought to break away from the United States.Lincoln understood that the federal government's power to end slavery in peacetime was limited by the Constitution, which, before 1865, committed the issue to individual states.", "During the Civil War, however, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation under his authority as \"Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy\" under Article II, section 2 of the United States Constitution.", "As such, in the Emancipation Proclamation he claimed to have the authority to free persons held as slaves in those states that were in rebellion \"as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion\".", "Lincoln also cited the Confiscation Act of 1861 and Confiscation Act of 1862 passed by Congress as sources for his authority in the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, but he did not mention these in the Emancipation Proclamation itself.", "He did not have such authority over the four border slave-holding states that were not in rebellion—Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland and Delaware—so those states were not named in the Proclamation.", "The fifth border jurisdiction, West Virginia, where slavery remained legal but was in the process of being abolished, was, in January 1863, still part of the legally recognized \"reorganized\" state of Virginia, based in Alexandria, which was in the Union (as opposed to the Confederate state of Virginia, based in Richmond)." ], [ "Coverage", "Areas covered by the Emancipation Proclamation are in red, slave-holding areas not covered are in blueThe Emancipation Proclamation did not free all slaves in the U.S., contrary to a common misconception; it applied in the ten states that were still in rebellion on January 1, 1863, but it did not cover the nearly 500,000 slaves in the slaveholding border states (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware) or in parts of Virginia and Louisiana that were no longer in rebellion.", "Those slaves were freed by later separate state and federal actions.", "The areas covered were \"Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the Parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terrebonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty-eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Ann, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth).", "\"The state of Tennessee had already mostly returned to Union control, under a recognized Union government, so it was not named and was exempted.", "Virginia was named, but exemptions were specified for the 48 counties then in the process of forming the new state of West Virginia, and seven additional counties and two cities in the Union-controlled Tidewater region of Virginia.", "Also specifically exempted were New Orleans and 13 named parishes of Louisiana, which were mostly under federal control at the time of the Emancipation Proclamation.", "These exemptions left unemancipated an additional 300,000 slaves.The Emancipation Proclamation has been ridiculed, notably by Richard Hofstadter, who wrote that it \"had all the moral grandeur of a bill of lading\" and \"declared free all slaves ... precisely where its effect could not reach\".", "Disagreeing with Hofstadter, William W. Freehling wrote that Lincoln's asserting his power as Commander-in-Chief to issue the proclamation \"reads not like an entrepreneur's bill for past services but like a warrior's brandishing of a new weapon\".The Emancipation Proclamation resulted in the emancipation of a substantial percentage of the slaves in the Confederate states as the Union armies advanced through the South and slaves escaped to Union lines, or slave owners fled, leaving slaves behind.", "The Emancipation Proclamation also committed the Union to ending slavery in addition to preserving the Union.Although the Emancipation Proclamation had freed most slaves as a war measure, it had not made slavery illegal.", "Of the states that were exempted from the Emancipation Proclamation, Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee, and West Virginia prohibited slavery before the war ended.", "In 1863, President Lincoln proposed a moderate plan for the Reconstruction of the captured Confederate State of Louisiana.", "Only 10 percent of the state's electorate had to take the loyalty oath.", "The state was also required to accept the Emancipation Proclamation and abolish slavery in its new constitution.", "By December 1864, the Lincoln plan abolishing slavery had been enacted not only in Louisiana, but also in Arkansas and Tennessee.", "In Kentucky, Union Army commanders relied on the proclamation's offer of freedom to slaves who enrolled in the Army and provided freedom for an enrollee's entire family; for this and other reasons, the number of slaves in the state fell by more than 70 percent during the war.", "However, in Delaware and Kentucky, slavery continued to be legal until December 18, 1865, when the Thirteenth Amendment went into effect." ], [ "Background", "===Military action prior to emancipation===The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 required individuals to return runaway slaves to their owners.", "During the war, in May 1861, Union general Benjamin Butler declared that three slaves who escaped to Union lines were contraband of war, and accordingly he refused to return them, saying to a man who sought their return, \"I am under no constitutional obligations to a foreign country, which Virginia now claims to be\".", "On May 30, after a cabinet meeting called by President Lincoln, \"Simon Cameron, the secretary of war, telegraphed Butler to inform him that his contraband policy 'is approved.'\"", "This decision was controversial because it could have been taken to imply recognition of the Confederacy as a separate, independent sovereign state under international law, a notion that Lincoln steadfastly denied.", "In addition, as contraband, these people were legally designated as \"property\" when they crossed Union lines and their ultimate status was uncertain.===Governmental action toward emancipation===Image:Emancipation proclamation.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|''First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln'' by Francis Bicknell Carpenter (1864) ''(Clickable image—use cursor to identify.", ")''|alt=A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men.poly 269 892 254 775 193 738 130 723 44 613 19 480 49 453 75 434 58 376 113 344 133 362 143 423 212 531 307 657 357 675 409 876 Edwin Stantonpoly 169 282 172 244 244 201 244 148 265 117 292 125 305 166 304 204 321 235 355 296 374 348 338 395 341 469 Salmon Chasepoly 569 893 535 708 427 613 357 562 377 456 393 404 468 351 451 317 473 259 520 256 544 283 530 339 526 374 559 401 594 431 639 494 715 542 692 551 693 579 672 546 623 552 596 617 698 629 680 852 Abraham Lincolnpoly 692 514 740 441 788 407 772 350 800 303 831 297 861 329 867 381 868 409 913 430 913 471 847 532 816 533 709 533 Gideon Wellespoly 703 783 752 769 825 627 907 620 929 569 905 538 886 563 833 563 873 502 930 450 1043 407 1043 389 1036 382 1042 363 1058 335 1052 333 1052 324 1081 318 1124 338 1133 374 1116 412 1132 466 1145 509 1117 588 1087 632 1083 706 William Sewardpoly 905 418 941 328 987 295 995 284 982 244 990 206 1036 207 1046 247 1047 284 1066 312 1071 314 1049 327 1044 354 1033 383 1033 407 921 453 Caleb Smithpoly 1081 308 1102 255 1095 220 1093 181 1109 161 1145 160 1169 191 1153 227 1153 246 1199 268 1230 310 1239 377 1237 443 1220 486 1125 451 1118 412 1136 378 1124 342 Montgomery Blairpoly 1224 479 1298 416 1304 379 1295 329 1325 310 1360 324 1370 359 1371 385 1371 397 1413 425 1422 497 1440 563 1348 555 1232 517 Edward Batespoly 625 555 595 620 699 625 730 550 Emancipation Proclamationpoly 120 80 120 300 3 300 3 80 Portrait of Simon Cameronpoly 752 196 961 189 948 8 735 10 Portrait of Andrew JacksonIn December 1861, Lincoln sent his first annual message to Congress (the State of the Union Address, but then typically given in writing and not referred to as such).", "In it he praised the free labor system for respecting human rights over property rights; he endorsed legislation to address the status of contraband slaves and slaves in loyal states, possibly through buying their freedom with federal money; and he endorsed federal funding of voluntary colonization.", "In January 1862, Thaddeus Stevens, the Republican leader in the House, called for total war against the rebellion to include emancipation of slaves, arguing that emancipation, by forcing the loss of enslaved labor, would ruin the rebel economy.", "On March 13, 1862, Congress approved an Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves, which prohibited \"All officers or persons in the military or naval service of the United States\" from returning fugitive slaves to their owners.", "Pursuant to a law signed by Lincoln, slavery was abolished in the District of Columbia on April 16, 1862, and owners were compensated.On June 19, 1862, Congress prohibited slavery in all current and future United States territories (though not in the states), and President Lincoln quickly signed the legislation.", "This act effectively repudiated the 1857 opinion of the Supreme Court of the United States in the ''Dred Scott'' case that Congress was powerless to regulate slavery in U.S. territories.", "It also rejected the notion of popular sovereignty that had been advanced by Stephen A. Douglas as a solution to the slavery controversy, while completing the effort first legislatively proposed by Thomas Jefferson in 1784 to confine slavery within the borders of existing states.On August 6, 1861, the First Confiscation Act freed the slaves who were employed \"against the Government and lawful authority of the United States.\"", "On July 17, 1862, the Second Confiscation Act freed the slaves \"within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by forces of the United States.\"", "The Second Confiscation Act, unlike the First Confiscation Act, explicitly provided that all slaves covered by it would be permanently freed, stating in section 10 that \"all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the government of the United States, or who shall in any way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves captured from such persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the government of the United States; and all slaves of such person found on or being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves.\"", "However, Lincoln's position continued to be that, although Congress lacked the power to free the slaves in rebel-held states, he, as commander in chief, could do so if he deemed it a proper military measure.", "By this time, in the summer of 1862, Lincoln had drafted the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which he issued on September 22, 1862.It declared that, on January 1, 1863, he would free the slaves in states still in rebellion.", "Lincoln's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation cited both Confiscations Acts as sources for his authority to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, although neither of these acts would be mentioned in the text of the Emancipation Proclamation itself.===Public opinion of emancipation===''Carte de visite'' image of Peter, taken in Baton Rouge spring 1863; widely distributed by abolitionists to expose the brutality of slaveryAbolitionists had long been urging Lincoln to free all slaves.", "In the summer of 1862, Republican editor Horace Greeley of the highly influential ''New-York Tribune'' wrote a famous editorial entitled \"The Prayer of Twenty Millions\" demanding a more aggressive attack on the Confederacy and faster emancipation of the slaves: \"On the face of this wide earth, Mr. President, there is not one ... intelligent champion of the Union cause who does not feel ... that the rebellion, if crushed tomorrow, would be renewed if slavery were left in full vigor and that every hour of deference to slavery is an hour of added and deepened peril to the Union.\"", "Lincoln responded in his open letter to Horace Greeley of August 22, 1862:Lincoln scholar Harold Holzer wrote about Lincoln's letter: \"Unknown to Greeley, Lincoln composed this after he had already drafted a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which he had determined to issue after the next Union military victory.", "Therefore, this letter, was in truth, an attempt to position the impending announcement in terms of saving the Union, not freeing slaves as a humanitarian gesture.", "It was one of Lincoln's most skillful public relations efforts, even if it has cast longstanding doubt on his sincerity as a liberator.\"", "Historian Richard Striner argues that \"for years\" Lincoln's letter has been misread as \"Lincoln only wanted to save the Union.\"", "However, within the context of Lincoln's entire career and pronouncements on slavery this interpretation is wrong, according to Striner.", "Rather, Lincoln was softening the strong Northern white supremacist opposition to his imminent emancipation by tying it to the cause of the Union.", "This opposition would fight for the Union but not to end slavery, so Lincoln gave them the means and motivation to do both, at the same time.", "In effect, then, Lincoln may have already chosen the third option he mentioned to Greeley: \"freeing some and leaving others alone\"; that is, freeing slaves in the states still in rebellion on January 1, 1863, but leaving enslaved those in the border states and Union-occupied areas.Nevertheless, in the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation itself, Lincoln said that he would recommend to Congress that it compensate states that \"adopt, immediate, or gradual abolishment of slavery\".", "In addition, during the hundred days between September 22, 1862, when he issued the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, and January 1, 1863, when he issued the Final Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln took actions that suggest that he continued to consider the first option he mentioned to Greeley — saving the Union without freeing any slave — a possibility.", "Historian William W. Freehling wrote, \"From mid-October to mid-November 1862, he sent personal envoys to Louisiana, Tennessee, and Arkansas\".", "Each of these envoys carried with him a letter from Lincoln stating that if the people of their state desired \"to avoid the unsatisfactory\" terms of the Final Emancipation Proclamation \"and to have peace again upon the old terms\" (''i.e.", "'', with slavery intact), they should rally \"the largest number of the people possible\" to vote in \"elections of members to the Congress of the United States ... friendly to their object\".", "Later, in his Annual Message to Congress of December 1, 1862, Lincoln proposed an amendment to the U.S. Constitution providing that any state that abolished slavery before January 1, 1900, would receive compensation from the United States in the form of interest-bearing U.S. bonds.", "Adoption of this amendment, in theory, could have ended the war without ever permanently ending slavery, because the amendment provided, \"Any State having received bonds ... and afterwards reintroducing or tolerating slavery therein, shall refund to the United States the bonds so received, or the value thereof, and all interest paid thereon\".In his 2014 book, ''Lincoln's Gamble'', journalist and historian Todd Brewster asserted that Lincoln's desire to reassert the saving of the Union as his sole war goal was, in fact, crucial to his claim of legal authority for emancipation.", "Since slavery was protected by the Constitution, the only way that he could free the slaves was as a tactic of war—not as the mission itself.", "But that carried the risk that when the war ended, so would the justification for freeing the slaves.", "Late in 1862, Lincoln asked his Attorney General, Edward Bates, for an opinion as to whether slaves freed through a war-related proclamation of emancipation could be re-enslaved once the war was over.", "Bates had to work through the language of the ''Dred Scott'' decision to arrive at an answer, but he finally concluded that they could indeed remain free.", "Still, a complete end to slavery would require a constitutional amendment.Conflicting advice, to free all slaves, or not free them at all, was presented to Lincoln in public and private.", "Thomas Nast, a cartoon artist during the Civil War and the late 1800s considered \"Father of the American Cartoon\", composed many works, including a two-sided spread that showed the transition from slavery into civilization after President Lincoln signed the Proclamation.", "Nast believed in equal opportunity and equality for all people, including enslaved Africans or free blacks.", "A mass rally in Chicago on September 7, 1862, demanded immediate and universal emancipation of slaves.", "A delegation headed by William W. Patton met the president at the White House on September 13.Lincoln had declared in peacetime that he had no constitutional authority to free the slaves.", "Even used as a war power, emancipation was a risky political act.", "Public opinion as a whole was against it.", "There would be strong opposition among Copperhead Democrats and an uncertain reaction from loyal border states.", "Delaware and Maryland already had a high percentage of free blacks: 91.2% and 49.7%, respectively, in 1860." ], [ "Drafting and issuance of the proclamation", "Eastman Johnson (American, 1824–1906) – ''A Ride for Liberty – The Fugitive Slaves'', Lincoln first discussed the proclamation with his cabinet in July 1862.He drafted his preliminary proclamation and read it to Secretary of State William Seward and Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, on July 13.Seward and Welles were at first speechless, then Seward referred to possible anarchy throughout the South and resulting foreign intervention; Welles apparently said nothing.", "On July 22, Lincoln presented it to his entire cabinet as something he had determined to do and he asked their opinion on wording.", "Although Secretary of War Edwin Stanton supported it, Seward advised Lincoln to issue the proclamation after a major Union victory, or else it would appear as if the Union was giving \"its last shriek of retreat\".", "Walter Stahr, however, writes, \"There are contemporary sources, however, that suggest others were involved in the decision to delay\", and Stahr quotes them.In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam gave Lincoln the victory he needed to issue the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.", "In the battle, though the Union suffered heavier losses than the Confederates and General McClellan allowed the escape of Robert E. Lee's retreating troops, Union forces turned back a Confederate invasion of Maryland, eliminating more than a quarter of Lee's army in the process.", "This marked a turning point in the Civil War.leftOn September 22, 1862, five days after Antietam, and while residing at the Soldier's Home, Lincoln called his cabinet into session and issued the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.", "According to Civil War historian James M. McPherson, Lincoln told cabinet members, \"I made a solemn vow before God, that if General Lee was driven back from Pennsylvania, I would crown the result by the declaration of freedom to the slaves.", "\"Gideon Welles, ''Diary of Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson'' (Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1911), 1:143, reported that Lincoln made a covenant with God that if God would change the tide of the war, Lincoln would change his policy toward slavery.", "See also Nicolas Parrillo, \"Lincoln's Calvinist Transformation: Emancipation and War\", ''Civil War History'' (September 1, 2000).", "Lincoln had first shown an early draft of the proclamation to Vice President Hannibal Hamlin, an ardent abolitionist, who was more often kept in the dark on presidential decisions.", "The final proclamation was issued on January 1, 1863.Although implicitly granted authority by Congress, Lincoln used his powers as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy to issue the proclamation \"as a necessary war measure.\"", "Therefore, it was not the equivalent of a statute enacted by Congress or a constitutional amendment, because Lincoln or a subsequent president could revoke it.", "One week after issuing the final Proclamation, Lincoln wrote to Major General John McClernand: \"After the commencement of hostilities I struggled nearly a year and a half to get along without touching the 'institution'; and when finally I conditionally determined to touch it, I gave a hundred days fair notice of my purpose, to all the States and people, within which time they could have turned it wholly aside, by simply again becoming good citizens of the United States.", "They chose to disregard it, and I made the peremptory proclamation on what appeared to me to be a military necessity.", "And being made, it must stand\".", "Lincoln continued, however, that the states included in the proclamation could \"adopt systems of apprenticeship for the colored people, conforming substantially to the most approved plans of gradual emancipation; and ... they may be nearly as well off, in this respect, as if the present trouble had not occurred\".", "He concluded by asking McClernand not to \"make this letter public\".printed broadside recruiting men of color to enlist in the U.S. military after the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania).Initially, the Emancipation Proclamation effectively freed only a small percentage of the slaves, namely those who were behind Union lines in areas not exempted.", "Most slaves were still behind Confederate lines or in exempted Union-occupied areas.", "Secretary of State William H. Seward commented, \"We show our sympathy with slavery by emancipating slaves where we cannot reach them and holding them in bondage where we can set them free.\"", "Had any slave state ended its secession attempt before January 1, 1863, it could have kept slavery, at least temporarily.", "The Proclamation freed the slaves only in areas of the South that were still in rebellion on January 1, 1863.But as the Union army advanced into the South, slaves fled to behind its lines, and \"shortly after issuing the Emancipation Proclamation, the Lincoln administration lifted the ban on enticing slaves into Union lines.\"", "These events contributed to the destruction of slavery.The Emancipation Proclamation also allowed for the enrollment of freed slaves into the United States military.", "During the war nearly 200,000 black men, most of them ex-slaves, joined the Union Army.", "Their contributions were significant in winning the war.", "The Confederacy did not allow slaves in their army as soldiers until the last month before its defeat.Though the counties of Virginia that were soon to form West Virginia were specifically exempted from the Proclamation (Jefferson County being the only exception), a condition of the state's admittance to the Union was that its constitution provide for the gradual abolition of slavery (an immediate emancipation of all slaves was also adopted there in early 1865).", "Slaves in the border states of Maryland and Missouri were also emancipated by separate state action before the Civil War ended.", "In Maryland, a new state constitution abolishing slavery in the state went into effect on November 1, 1864.The Union-occupied counties of eastern Virginia and parishes of Louisiana, which had been exempted from the Proclamation, both adopted state constitutions that abolished slavery in April 1864.In early 1865, Tennessee adopted an amendment to its constitution prohibiting slavery." ], [ "Implementation", "The moment the proclamation was signed, portrayed by Lee Lawrie in Lincoln, NebraskaThe Proclamation was issued in a preliminary version and a final version.", "The former, issued on September 22, 1862, was a preliminary announcement outlining the intent of the latter, which took effect 100 days later on January 1, 1863, during the second year of the Civil War.", "The preliminary Emancipation Proclamation was Abraham Lincoln's declaration that all slaves would be permanently freed in all areas of the Confederacy that were still in rebellion on January 1, 1863.The ten affected states were individually named in the final Emancipation Proclamation (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina).", "Not included were the Union slave states of Maryland, Delaware, Missouri and Kentucky.", "Also not named was the state of Tennessee, in which a Union-controlled military government had already been set up, based in the capital, Nashville.", "Specific exemptions were stated for areas also under Union control on January 1, 1863, namely 48 counties that would soon become West Virginia, seven other named counties of Virginia including Berkeley and Hampshire counties, which were soon added to West Virginia, New Orleans and 13 named parishes nearby.Union-occupied areas of the Confederate states where the proclamation was put into immediate effect by local commanders included Winchester, Virginia, Corinth, Mississippi, the Sea Islands along the coasts of the Carolinas and Georgia, Key West, Florida, and Port Royal, South Carolina.===Immediate impact===A photograph of two children who likely, were recently emancipated – circa 1870Philadelphia Inquirer'' correspondent (possibly U.H.", "Painter) embedded with the Army of the Potomac, ''The Indiana Progress'', June 1, 1864On New Year's Eve in 1862, African Americans – enslaved and free – gathered across the United States to hold Watch Night ceremonies for \"Freedom's Eve\", looking toward the stroke of midnight and the promised fulfillment of the Proclamation.", "It has been inaccurately claimed that the Emancipation Proclamation did not free a single slave; historian Lerone Bennett Jr. alleged that the proclamation was a hoax deliberately designed not to free any slaves.", "However, as a result of the Proclamation, most slaves became free during the course of the war, beginning on the day it took effect; eyewitness accounts at places such as Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, and Port Royal, South Carolina record celebrations on January 1 as thousands of blacks were informed of their new legal status of freedom.", "\"Estimates of the number of slaves freed immediately by the Emancipation Proclamation are uncertain.", "One contemporary estimate put the 'contraband' population of Union-occupied North Carolina at 10,000, and the Sea Islands of South Carolina also had a substantial population.", "Those 20,000 slaves were freed immediately by the Emancipation Proclamation.\"", "This Union-occupied zone where freedom began at once included parts of eastern North Carolina, the Mississippi Valley, northern Alabama, the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, a large part of Arkansas, and the Sea Islands of Georgia and South Carolina.", "Although some counties of Union-occupied Virginia were exempted from the Proclamation, the lower Shenandoah Valley and the area around Alexandria were covered.", "Emancipation was immediately enforced as Union soldiers advanced into the Confederacy.", "Slaves fled their masters and were often assisted by Union soldiers.On the other hand, Robert Gould Shaw wrote to his mother on September 25, 1862, \"So the 'Proclamation of Emancipation' has come at last, or rather, its forerunner.", "I suppose you all are very much excited about it.", "For my part, I can't see what ''practical'' good it can do now.", "Wherever our army has been, there remain no slaves, and the Proclamation will not free them where we don't go.\"", "Ten days later, he wrote her again, \"Don't imagine, from what I said in my last that I thought Mr. Lincoln's 'Emancipation Proclamation' not right ... but still, as a ''war-measure'', I don't see the immediate benefit of it, ... as the slaves are ''sure'' of being free at any rate, with or without an Emancipation Act.", "\"Booker T. Washington, as a boy of 9 in Virginia, remembered the day in early 1865:Winslow Homer 1876 – \"A Visit from the Old Mistress\" depicts a tense meeting between a group of newly freed slaves and their former slaveholder – Smithsonian Museum of American ArtRunaway slaves who had escaped to Union lines had previously been held by the Union Army as \"contraband of war\" under the Confiscation Acts; when the proclamation took effect, they were told at midnight that they were free to leave.", "The Sea Islands off the coast of Georgia had been occupied by the Union Navy earlier in the war.", "The whites had fled to the mainland while the blacks stayed.", "An early program of Reconstruction was set up for the former slaves, including schools and training.", "Naval officers read the proclamation and told them they were free.Slaves had been part of the \"engine of war\" for the Confederacy.", "They produced and prepared food; sewed uniforms; repaired railways; worked on farms and in factories, shipping yards, and mines; built fortifications; and served as hospital workers and common laborers.", "News of the Proclamation spread rapidly by word of mouth, arousing hopes of freedom, creating general confusion, and encouraging thousands to escape to Union lines.", "George Washington Albright, a teenage slave in Mississippi, recalled that like many of his fellow slaves, his father escaped to join Union forces.", "According to Albright, plantation owners tried to keep the Proclamation from slaves but news of it came through the \"grapevine\".", "The young slave became a \"runner\" for an informal group they called the ''4Ls'' (\"Lincoln's Legal Loyal League\") bringing news of the proclamation to secret slave meetings at plantations throughout the region.Robert E. Lee saw the Emancipation Proclamation as a way for the Union to increase the number of soldiers it could place on the field, making it imperative for the Confederacy to increase its own numbers.", "Writing on the matter after the sack of Fredericksburg, Lee wrote, \"In view of the vast increase of the forces of the enemy, of the savage and brutal policy he has proclaimed, which leaves us no alternative but success or degradation worse than death, if we would save the honor of our families from pollution and our social system from destruction, let every effort be made, every means be employed, to fill and maintain the ranks of our armies, until God in his mercy shall bless us with the establishment of our independence.", "\"The Emancipation Proclamation marked a significant turning point in the war as it made the goal of the North not only preserving the Union, but also freeing the slaves.", "The Proclamation also rallied support from abolitionists and Europeans, while encouraging enslaved individuals to escape to the North.", "This weakened the South's labor force while bolstering the North's ranks.", "===Political impact===\"Abe Lincoln's Last Card; Or, Rouge-et-Noir\" (Red and Black), a cartoon by John Tenniel printed by ''Punch'' after the ''London Times'' wrote in October 1862 that Lincoln had played his \"last card\" in issuing the Proclamation.", "Lincoln's hair is in points, suggesting horns.", "The cartoon was reprinted often in the Copperhead press.The Proclamation was immediately denounced by Copperhead Democrats, who opposed the war and advocated restoring the union by allowing slavery.", "Horatio Seymour, while running for governor of New York, cast the Emancipation Proclamation as a call for slaves to commit extreme acts of violence on all white southerners, saying it was \"a proposal for the butchery of women and children, for scenes of lust and rapine, and of arson and murder, which would invoke the interference of civilized Europe\".", "The Copperheads also saw the Proclamation as an unconstitutional abuse of presidential power.", "Editor Henry A. Reeves wrote in Greenport's ''Republican Watchman'' that \"In the name of freedom for Negroes, the proclamation imperils the liberty of white men; to test an utopian theory of equality of races which Nature, History and Experience alike condemn as monstrous, it overturns the Constitution and Civil Laws and sets up Military Usurpation in their stead.", "\"Racism remained pervasive on both sides of the conflict and many in the North supported the war only as an effort to force the South to stay in the Union.", "The promises of many Republican politicians that the war was to restore the Union and not about black rights or ending slavery were declared lies by their opponents, who cited the Proclamation.", "Copperhead David Allen spoke to a rally in Columbiana, Ohio, stating, \"I have told you that this war is carried on for the Negro.", "There is the proclamation of the President of the United States.", "Now fellow Democrats I ask you if you are going to be forced into a war against your Britheren of the Southern States for the Negro.", "I answer No!\"", "The Copperheads saw the Proclamation as irrefutable proof of their position and the beginning of a political rise for their members; in Connecticut, H. B. Whiting wrote that the truth was now plain even to \"those stupid thickheaded persons who persisted in thinking that the President was a conservative man and that the war was for the restoration of the Union under the Constitution.", "\"War Democrats, who rejected the Copperhead position within their party, found themselves in a quandary.", "While throughout the war they had continued to espouse the racist positions of their party and their disdain of the concerns of slaves, they did see the Proclamation as a viable military tool against the South and worried that opposing it might demoralize troops in the Union army.", "The question would continue to trouble them and eventually lead to a split within their party as the war progressed.Lincoln further alienated many in the Union two days after issuing the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation by suspending habeas corpus.", "His opponents linked these two actions in their claims that he was becoming a despot.", "In light of this and a lack of military success for the Union armies, many War Democrat voters who had previously supported Lincoln turned against him and joined the Copperheads in the off-year elections held in October and November.In the 1862 elections, the Democrats gained 28 seats in the House as well as the governorship of New York.", "Lincoln's friend Orville Hickman Browning told the president that the Proclamation and the suspension of habeas corpus had been \"disastrous\" for his party by handing the Democrats so many weapons.", "Lincoln made no response.", "Copperhead William Javis of Connecticut pronounced the election the \"beginning of the end of the utter downfall of Abolitionism in the United States\".Historians James M. McPherson and Allan Nevins state that though the results looked very troubling, they could be seen favorably by Lincoln; his opponents did well only in their historic strongholds and \"at the national level their gains in the House were the smallest of any minority party's in an off-year election in nearly a generation.", "Michigan, California, and Iowa all went Republican...", "Moreover, the Republicans picked up five seats in the Senate.\"", "McPherson states, \"If the election was in any sense a referendum on emancipation and on Lincoln's conduct of the war, a majority of Northern voters endorsed these policies.", "\"====Confederate response====\"NEGROES LEAVING THEIR HOME: The view on page 237 illustrates a phase of the war which the rebels have found it difficult to contemplate with any complacency.", "The exodus of the slaves from the bondage which has so long oppressed them has been steady and continuous from the moment the first blow was struck against the national honor, and it still goes on, hundreds and thousands of the poor, outraged creatures cowing weekly into tho Union lines at all points in the field.", "Our sketch gives an admirable view of the desolation which surrounds the homes of the negroes, and the heartiness and energy with which they make their way to freedom upon the slightest opportunity.", "The Federal gun-boat, it will be seen, lies far out at sea, but the sharp eyes of the waiting, watching bondmen have caught sight of the flag she carries; they know there is shelter under it for them, and launching their little boat, they carefully put the aged and infirm, with their few more valuable effects, aboard, and, with a pang, it may be, at leaving their rude home, but with hope and joy in their hearts at the prospect of deliverance, pull away from the shore, which henceforth is to be to them only a dark dreary line marking a yet darker past.", "There is pathos as well as history in the picture.\"", "(''Harper's Weekly'', April 9, 1864)The initial Confederate response was outrage.", "The Proclamation was seen as vindication of the rebellion and proof that Lincoln would have abolished slavery even if the states had remained in the Union.", "It intensified the fear of slaves revolting and undermined morale, especially spurring fear among slave owners who saw it as a threat to their business.", "In an August 1863 letter to President Lincoln, U.S. Army general Ulysses S. Grant observed that the proclamation's \"arming the negro\", together with \"the emancipation of the negro, is the heavyest ''sic'' blow yet given the Confederacy.", "The South rave a greatdeel ''sic'' about it and profess to be very angry.\"", "In May 1863, a few months after the Proclamation took effect, the Confederacy passed a law demanding \"full and ample retaliation\" against the U.S. for such measures.", "The Confederacy stated that black U.S. soldiers captured while fighting against the Confederacy would be tried as slave insurrectionists in civil courts—a capital offense with an automatic sentence of death.", "Less than a year after the law's passage, the Confederates massacred black U.S. soldiers at Fort Pillow.Confederate President Jefferson Davis reacted to the Emancipation Proclamation with outrage and in an address to the Confederate Congress on January 12 threatened to send any U.S. military officer captured in Confederate territory covered by the proclamation to state authorities to be charged with \"exciting servile insurrection\", which was a capital offense.Confederate General Robert E. Lee called the Proclamation a \"savage and brutal policy he has proclaimed, which leaves us no alternative but success or degradation worse than death.", "\"However, some Confederates welcomed the Proclamation, because they believed it would strengthen pro-slavery sentiment in the Confederacy and thus lead to greater enlistment of white men into the Confederate army.", "According to one Confederate cavalry sergeant from Kentucky, \"The Proclamation is worth three hundred thousand soldiers to our Government at least....", "It shows exactly what this war was brought about for and the intention of its damnable authors.\"", "Even some Union soldiers concurred with this view and expressed reservations about the Proclamation, not on principle, but rather because they were afraid it would increase the Confederacy's determination to fight on and maintain slavery.", "One Union soldier from New York stated worryingly after the Proclamation's issuance, \"I know enough of the southern spirit that I think they will fight for the institution of slavery even to extermination.", "\"As a result of the Proclamation, the price of slaves in the Confederacy increased in the months after its issuance, with one Confederate from South Carolina opining in 1865 that \"now is the time for Uncle to buy some negro women and children....\"===International impact===As Lincoln had hoped, the proclamation turned foreign popular opinion in favor of the Union by gaining the support of anti-slavery countries and countries that had already abolished slavery (especially the developed countries in Europe such as the United Kingdom and France).", "This shift ended the Confederacy's hopes of gaining official recognition.Since the Emancipation Proclamation made the eradication of slavery an explicit Union war goal, it linked support for the South to support for slavery.", "Public opinion in Britain would not tolerate support for slavery.", "As Henry Adams noted, \"The Emancipation Proclamation has done more for us than all our former victories and all our diplomacy.\"", "In Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi hailed Lincoln as \"the heir of the aspirations of John Brown\".", "On August 6, 1863, Garibaldi wrote to Lincoln: \"Posterity will call you the great emancipator, a more enviable title than any crown could be, and greater than any merely mundane treasure\".Mayor Abel Haywood, a representative for workers from Manchester, England, wrote to Lincoln saying, \"We joyfully honor you for many decisive steps toward practically exemplifying your belief in the words of your great founders: 'All men are created free and equal.'\"", "The Emancipation Proclamation served to ease tensions with Europe over the North's conduct of the war, and combined with the recent failed Southern offensive at Antietam, to remove any practical chance for the Confederacy to receive foreign military intervention in the war.However, in spite of the Emancipation Proclamation, arms sales to the Confederacy through blockade running, from British firms and dealers, continued, with knowledge of the British government.", "The Confederacy was able to sustain the fight for two more years largely thanks to the weapons supplied by British blockade runners.", "As a result, the blockade runners operating from Britain were responsible for killing 400,000 additional soldiers and civilians on both sides." ], [ "Gettysburg Address", "Lincoln's Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863 made indirect reference to the Proclamation and the ending of slavery as a war goal with the phrase \"new birth of freedom\".", "The Proclamation solidified Lincoln's support among the rapidly growing abolitionist elements of the Republican Party and ensured that they would not block his renomination in 1864." ], [ "Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863)", "In December 1863, Lincoln issued his ''Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction'', which dealt with the ways the rebel states could reconcile with the Union.", "Key provisions required that the states accept the Emancipation Proclamation and thus the freedom of their slaves, and accept the Confiscation Acts, as well as the Act banning slavery in United States territories." ], [ "Postbellum", "\"Ambrotype of African American woman with flag,\" said to be a washerwoman for Union troops quartered outside Richmond, Virginia (Smithsonian 2005.0002.01)Near the end of the war, abolitionists were concerned that the Emancipation Proclamation would be construed solely as a war measure, as Lincoln intended, and would no longer apply once fighting ended.", "They also were increasingly anxious to secure the freedom of all slaves, not just those freed by the Emancipation Proclamation.", "Thus pressed, Lincoln staked a large part of his 1864 presidential campaign on a constitutional amendment to abolish slavery throughout the United States.", "Lincoln's campaign was bolstered by votes in both Maryland and Missouri to abolish slavery in those states.", "Maryland's new constitution abolishing slavery took effect on November 1, 1864.Slavery in Missouri ended on January 11, 1865, when a state convention approved an ordinance abolishing slavery by a vote of 60-4, and later the same day, Governor Thomas C. Fletcher followed up with his own \"Proclamation of Freedom.", "\"Winning re-election, Lincoln pressed the lame duck 38th Congress to pass the proposed amendment immediately rather than wait for the incoming 39th Congress to convene.", "In January 1865, Congress sent to the state legislatures for ratification what became the Thirteenth Amendment, banning slavery in all U.S. states and territories, except as punishment for a crime.", "The amendment was ratified by the legislatures of enough states by December 6, 1865, and proclaimed 12 days later.", "There were approximately 40,000 slaves in Kentucky and 1,000 in Delaware who were liberated then." ], [ "Critiques", "Lincoln's proclamation has been called \"one of the most radical emancipations in the history of the modern world.\"", "Nonetheless, as over the years American society continued to be deeply unfair towards black people, cynicism towards Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation increased.", "One attack was Lerone Bennett's ''Forced into Glory: Abraham Lincoln's White Dream'' (2000), which claimed that Lincoln was a white supremacist who issued the Emancipation Proclamation in lieu of the real racial reforms for which radical abolitionists pushed.", "To this, one scholarly review states that \"Few Civil War scholars take Bennett and DiLorenzo seriously, pointing to their narrow political agenda and faulty research.\"", "In his ''Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation'', Allen C. Guelzo noted professional historians' lack of substantial respect for the document, since it has been the subject of few major scholarly studies.", "He argued that Lincoln was the U.S.'s \"last Enlightenment politician\" and as such had \"allegiance to 'reason, cold, calculating, unimpassioned reason'....", "But the most important among the Enlightenment's political virtues for Lincoln, and for his Proclamation, was prudence\".Other historians have given more credit to Lincoln for what he accomplished toward ending slavery and for his own growth in political and moral stature.", "More might have been accomplished if he had not been assassinated.", "As Eric Foner wrote:Lincoln was not an abolitionist or Radical Republican, a point Bennett reiterates innumerable times.", "He did not favor immediate abolition before the war, and held racist views typical of his time.", "But he was also a man of deep convictions when it came to slavery, and during the Civil War displayed a remarkable capacity for moral and political growth.Kal Ashraf wrote:Perhaps in rejecting the critical dualism—Lincoln as individual emancipator pitted against collective self-emancipators—there is an opportunity to recognise the greater persuasiveness of the combination.", "In a sense, yes: a racist, flawed Lincoln did something heroic, and not in lieu of collective participation, but next to, and enabled, by it.", "To venerate a singular 'Great Emancipator' may be as reductive as dismissing the significance of Lincoln's ''actions''.", "Who he was as a man, no one of us can ever really know.", "So it is that the version of Lincoln we keep is also the version we make." ], [ "Legacy in the civil rights era", "===Dr.", "Martin Luther King Jr.===President Barack Obama views the Emancipation Proclamation in the Oval Office hung above a bust of Martin Luther King Jr. in 2010Dr.", "Martin Luther King Jr. made many references to the Emancipation Proclamation during the civil rights movement.", "These include an \"Emancipation Proclamation Centennial Address\" he gave in New York City on September 12, 1962, in which he placed the Proclamation alongside the Declaration of Independence as an \"imperishable\" contribution to civilization and added, \"All tyrants, past, present and future, are powerless to bury the truths in these declarations....\" He lamented that despite a history where the United States \"proudly professed the basic principles inherent in both documents,\" it \"sadly practiced the antithesis of these principles.\"", "He concluded, \"There is but one way to commemorate the Emancipation Proclamation.", "That is to make its declarations of freedom real; to reach back to the origins of our nation when our message of equality electrified an unfree world, and reaffirm democracy by deeds as bold and daring as the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation.", "\"King's most famous invocation of the Emancipation Proclamation was in a speech from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial at the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (often referred to as the \"I Have a Dream\" speech).", "King began the speech saying \"Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand, signed the Emancipation Proclamation.", "This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice.", "It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.", "But one hundred years later, we must face the tragic fact that the Negro still is not free.", "One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination.", "\"====The \"Second Emancipation Proclamation\"====In the early 1960s, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and his associates called on President John F. Kennedy to bypass Southern segregationist opposition in the Congress by issuing an executive order to put an end to segregation.", "This envisioned document was referred to as the \"Second Emancipation Proclamation\".", "Kennedy, however, did not issue a second Emancipation Proclamation \"and noticeably avoided all centennial celebrations of emancipation.\"", "Historian David W. Blight points out that, although the idea of an executive order to act as a second Emancipation Proclamation \"has been virtually forgotten,\" the manifesto that King and his associates produced calling for an executive order showed his \"close reading of American politics\" and recalled how moral leadership could have an effect on the American public through an executive order.", "Despite its failure \"to spur a second Emancipation Proclamation from the White House, it was an important and emphatic attempt to combat the structured forgetting of emancipation latent within Civil War memory.", "\"===President John F. Kennedy===On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy spoke on national television about civil rights.", "Kennedy, who had been routinely criticized as timid by some civil rights activists, reminded Americans that two black students had been peacefully enrolled in the University of Alabama with the aid of the National Guard, despite the opposition of Governor George Wallace.John Kennedy called it a \"moral issue.\"", "Invoking the centennial of the Emancipation Proclamation he said,In the same speech, Kennedy announced he would introduce a comprehensive civil rights bill in the United States Congress, which he did a week later.", "Kennedy pushed for its passage until he was assassinated on November 22, 1963.Historian Peniel E. Joseph holds Lyndon Johnson's ability to get that bill, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, signed into law on July 2, 1964, to have been aided by \"the moral forcefulness of the June 11 speech\", which had turned \"the narrative of civil rights from a regional issue into a national story promoting racial equality and democratic renewal.", "\"===President Lyndon B. Johnson===During the civil rights movement of the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson invoked the Emancipation Proclamation, holding it up as a promise yet to be fully implemented.As vice president, while speaking from Gettysburg on May 30, 1963 (Memorial Day), during the centennial year of the Emancipation Proclamation, Johnson connected it directly with the ongoing civil rights struggles of the time, saying \"One hundred years ago, the slave was freed.", "One hundred years later, the Negro remains in bondage to the color of his skin....", "In this hour, it is not our respective races which are at stake—it is our nation.", "Let those who care for their country come forward, North and South, white and Negro, to lead the way through this moment of challenge and decision.... Until justice is blind to color, until education is unaware of race, until opportunity is unconcerned with color of men's skins, emancipation will be a proclamation but not a fact.", "To the extent that the proclamation of emancipation is not fulfilled in fact, to that extent we shall have fallen short of assuring freedom to the free.", "\"As president, Johnson again invoked the proclamation in a speech presenting the Voting Rights Act at a joint session of Congress on Monday, March 15, 1965.This was one week after violence had been inflicted on peaceful civil rights marchers during the Selma to Montgomery marches.", "Johnson said \"it's not just Negroes, but really it's all of us, who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice.", "And we shall overcome.", "As a man whose roots go deeply into Southern soil, I know how agonizing racial feelings are.", "I know how difficult it is to reshape the attitudes and the structure of our society.", "But a century has passed—more than 100 years—since the Negro was freed.", "And he is not fully free tonight.", "It was more than 100 years ago that Abraham Lincoln—a great President of another party—signed the Emancipation Proclamation.", "But emancipation is a proclamation and not a fact.", "A century has passed—more than 100 years—since equality was promised, and yet the Negro is not equal.", "A century has passed since the day of promise, and the promise is unkept.", "The time of justice has now come, and I tell you that I believe sincerely that no force can hold it back.", "It is right in the eyes of man and God that it should come, and when it does, I think that day will brighten the lives of every American.\"" ], [ "In popular culture", "U.S. commemorative stamp, 1963 In the 1963 episode of ''The Andy Griffith Show'', \"Andy Discovers America\", Andy asks Barney to explain the Emancipation Proclamation to Opie who is struggling with history at school.", "Barney brags about his history expertise, yet it is apparent he cannot answer Andy's question.", "He finally becomes frustrated and explains it is a proclamation for certain people who wanted emancipation.", "In addition, the Emancipation Proclamation was also a main item of discussion in the movie ''Lincoln'' (2012) directed by Steven Spielberg.The Emancipation Proclamation is celebrated around the world, including on stamps of nations such as the Republic of Togo.", "The United States commemorative was issued on August 16, 1963, the opening day of the Century of Negro Progress Exposition in Chicago, Illinois.", "Designed by Georg Olden, an initial printing of 120 million stamps was authorized." ], [ "See also", "* History of slavery in Alabama* History of slavery in Arkansas* District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act* History of slavery in Florida* History of slavery in Georgia** 1866 Georgia State Freedmen's Conventions* History of slavery in Kentucky* History of slavery in Louisiana* History of slavery in Maryland* History of slavery in Missouri* History of slavery in Mississippi* History of slavery in North Carolina* History of slavery in South Carolina* History of slavery in Tennessee* History of slavery in Texas** Juneteenth emancipation in Texas* History of slavery in Virginia* Abolition of slavery timeline* Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves – 1862 statute* Confiscation Acts* Contraband (American Civil War)* ''Emancipation Memorial'' – a sculpture in Washington, D.C., completed in 1876* Emancipation reform of 1861 – Russia* Lieber Code* Reconstruction Amendments – amendments added to the Constitution after 1863* Slavery Abolition Act 1833 – an act passed by the British parliament abolishing slavery in British colonies with compensation to the owners* Slave Trade Acts* Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution - 1865, abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime.", "* Timeline of the civil rights movement* War Governors' Conference – gave Lincoln the much needed political support to issue the Proclamation" ], [ "Notes", "===Bibliography===* * ===Primary sources===* C. Peter Ripley, Roy E. Finkenbine, Michael F. Hembree, Donald Yacovone, editors, ''Witness for Freedom: African American Voices on Race, Slavery, and Emancipation'' (1993)" ], [ "Further reading", "* Belz, Herman.", "''Emancipation and Equal Rights: Politics and Constitutionalism in the Civil War Era'' (1978) online * Biddle, Daniel R., and Murray Dubin.", "\"'God Is Settling the Account': African American Reaction to Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation\", ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' (Jan. 2013) 137#1 57–78.", "* Blackiston, Harry S. \"Lincoln's Emancipation Plan.\"", "''Journal of Negro History'' 7, no.", "3 (1922): 257–277.", "* Blair, William A. and Younger, Karen Fisher, eds.", "''Lincoln's Proclamation: Emancipation Reconsidered'' (The University of North Carolina Press, 2009) * Carnahan, Burrus M. ''Act of Justice: Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation and the Law of War'' (The University Press of Kentucky, 2007) * Crowther, Edward R. \"Emancipation Proclamation\", in ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War.''", "Heidler, David S. and Heidler, Jeanne T. (2000) * Chambers Jr., Henry L. \"Lincoln, the Emancipation Proclamation, and Executive Power.\"", "''Maryland Law Review'' 73 (2013): 100+ online* Ewan, Christopher.", "\"The Emancipation Proclamation and British Public Opinion\" ''The Historian'', Vol.", "67, 2005* Franklin, John Hope.", "''The Emancipation Proclamation'' (1963) online * Guelzo, Allen C. \"How Abe Lincoln Lost the Black Vote: Lincoln and Emancipation in the African American Mind\", ''Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association'' (2004) 25#1* Harold Holzer, Edna Greene Medford, and Frank J. Williams.", "''The Emancipation Proclamation: Three Views'' (Louisiana State University Press, 2006) * Harold Holzer.", "''Emancipating Lincoln: The Proclamation in Text, Context, and Memory'' (Harvard University Press, 2012) * Jones, Howard.", "''Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War'' (1999) online * Mitch Kachun, ''Festivals of Freedom: Memory and Meaning in African American Emancipation Celebrations, 1808–1915'' (2003) * Kennon, Donald R. and Paul Finkelman, eds.", "''Lincoln, Congress, and Emancipation'' (Ohio University Press, 2016)* Kolchin, Peter, \"Reexamining Southern Emancipation in Comparative Perspective,\" ''Journal of Southern History'', 81#1 (Feb. 2015), 7–40.", "* Litwack, Leon F. ''Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery'' (1979), social history of the end of slavery in the Confederacy* Mack Smith, Denis, ''Garibaldi'' (Great Lives Observed).", "(Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1969)* McPherson, James M. ''Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction'' (2001 3rd ed.", "), esp.", "pp. 316–321.", "* Masur, Louis P. ''Lincoln's Hundred Days: The Emancipation Proclamation and the War for the Union'' (Harvard University Press, 2012)* Nevins, Allan.", "''Ordeal of the Union: vol 6.War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863'' (1960)* Oakes, James.", "''Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861-1865'' (W. W. Norton & Co., 2013) * Siddali, Silvana R. ''From Property to Person: Slavery and the Confiscation Acts, 1861–1862'' (Louisiana State University Press, 2005) * Stauffer, John.", "''Giants: The Parallel Lives of Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln'' (Twelve, 2008) * Syrett, John.", "''Civil War Confiscation Acts: Failing to Reconstruct the South'' (2005)* Trefousse, Hans L., et al., edited by Harold M. Hyman.", "''Lincoln's Decision for Emancipation'' (J.", "B. Lippincott & Co., 1975) * Tsesis, Alexander.", "''We Shall Overcome: A History of Civil Rights and the Law'' (2008)* Vorenberg, Michael.", "''Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment'' (Cambridge University Press, 2001) * Vorenberg, Michael, ed.", "''The Emancipation Proclamation: A Brief History with Documents'' (2010), primary and secondary sources" ], [ "External links", "* A zoomable image of the Leland-Boker authorized edition of the Emancipation Proclamation held by the British Library * Lesson plan on Emancipation Proclamation from EDSITEment NEH* Text and images of the Emancipation Proclamation from the National Archives* Online Lincoln Coloring Book for Teachers and Students* Emancipation Proclamation and related resources at the Library of Congress* Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Emancipation Proclamation * First Edition Emancipation Proclamation in 1862 ''Harper's Weekly''* Chronology of Emancipation during the Civil War * American Abolitionists and Antislavery Activists, chronology of Abraham Lincoln and emancipation* \"Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation\"* Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation at the New York State Library – images and transcript of Lincoln's original manuscript of the preliminary proclamation* The role of humor in presenting the Proclamation to Lincoln's Cabinet* 1865 ''NY Times'' article – Sketch of its History by Lincoln's portrait artist* * Webcast Discussion with Pulitzer Prize-winning author James McPherson and James Cornelius, Curator of the Lincoln Collection in the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum about the 150th anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erwin Rommel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johannes Erwin Eugen Rommel''' (; 15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944) was a German ''Generalfeldmarschall'' (field marshal) during World War II.", "Popularly known as the '''Desert Fox''' (, ), he served in the ''Wehrmacht'' (armed forces) of Nazi Germany, as well as serving in the ''Reichswehr'' of the Weimar Republic, and the army of Imperial Germany.", "Rommel was injured multiple times in both world wars.Rommel was a highly decorated officer in World War I and was awarded the ''Pour le Mérite'' for his actions on the Italian Front.", "In 1937, he published his classic book on military tactics, ''Infantry Attacks'', drawing on his experiences in that war.In World War II, he commanded the 7th Panzer Division during the 1940 invasion of France.", "His leadership of German and Italian forces in the North African campaign established his reputation as one of the ablest tank commanders of the war, and earned him the nickname ''der Wüstenfuchs'', \"the Desert Fox\".", "Among his British adversaries he had a reputation for chivalry, and his phrase \"war without hate\" has been uncritically used to describe the North African campaign.", "A number of historians have since rejected the phrase as a myth and uncovered numerous examples of German war crimes and abuses towards enemy soldiers and native populations in Africa during the conflict.", "Other historians note that there is no clear evidence Rommel was involved or aware of these crimes, with some pointing out that the war in the desert, as fought by Rommel and his opponents, still came as close to a clean fight as there was in World War II.", "He later commanded the German forces opposing the Allied cross-channel invasion of Normandy in June 1944.With the Nazis gaining power in Germany, Rommel gradually accepted the new regime.", "Historians have given different accounts of the specific period and his motivations.", "He was a supporter of Adolf Hitler, at least until near the end of the war, if not necessarily sympathetic to the party and the paramilitary forces associated with it.", "In 1944, Rommel was implicated in the 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler.", "Because of Rommel's status as a national hero, Hitler wanted to eliminate him quietly instead of having him immediately executed, as many other plotters were.", "Rommel was given a choice between suicide, in return for assurances that his reputation would remain intact and that his family would not be persecuted following his death, or facing a trial that would result in his disgrace and execution; he chose the former and took a cyanide pill.", "Rommel was given a state funeral, and it was announced that he had succumbed to his injuries from the strafing of his staff car in Normandy.Rommel became a larger-than-life figure in both Allied and Nazi propaganda, and in postwar popular culture.", "Numerous authors portray him as an apolitical, brilliant commander and a victim of Nazi Germany, although this assessment is contested by other authors as the Rommel myth.", "Rommel's reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies – the United Kingdom and the United States on one side and the new Federal Republic of Germany on the other.", "Several of Rommel's former subordinates, notably his chief of staff Hans Speidel, played key roles in German rearmament and integration into NATO in the postwar era.", "The German Army's largest military base, the Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Augustdorf, and a third ship of Lütjens-class destroyer of the German Navy are both named in his honour.", "His son Manfred Rommel was the longtime mayor of Stuttgart, Germany and namesake of Stuttgart Airport." ], [ "Early life and career", "Rommel was born on 15 November 1891 in Heidenheim, from Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg, Southern Germany, then part of the German Empire.", "He was the third of five children to Erwin Rommel Senior (1860–1913) and his wife Helene von Luz, whose father, Karl von Luz, headed the local government council.", "As a young man, Rommel's father had been an artillery lieutenant.", "Rommel had one older sister who was an art teacher and his favourite sibling, one older brother named Manfred who died in infancy, and two younger brothers, of whom one became a successful dentist and the other an opera singer.At age 18, Rommel joined the Württemberg Infantry Regiment No.", "124 in Weingarten as a ''Fähnrich'' (ensign), in 1910, studying at the Officer Cadet School in Danzig.", "He graduated in November 1911 and was commissioned as a lieutenant in January 1912 and was assigned to the 124th Infantry in Weingarten.", "He was posted to Ulm in March 1914 to the 49th Field Artillery Regiment, XIII (Royal Württemberg) Corps, as a battery commander.", "He returned to the 124th when war was declared.", "While at Cadet School, Rommel met his future wife, 17-year-old Lucia (Lucie) Maria Mollin (1894–1971), of Italian and Polish descent." ], [ "World War I", "Lieutenant Rommel in Italy, 1917During World War I, Rommel fought in France as well as in the Romanian (notably at the Second Battle of the Jiu Valley) and Italian campaigns.", "He successfully employed the tactics of penetrating enemy lines with heavy covering fire coupled with rapid advances, as well as moving forward rapidly to a flanking position to arrive at the rear of hostile positions, to achieve tactical surprise.", "His first combat experience was on 22 August 1914 as a platoon commander near Verdun, when – catching a French garrison unprepared – Rommel and three men opened fire on them without ordering the rest of his platoon forward.", "The armies continued to skirmish in open engagements throughout September, as the static trench warfare typical of the First World War was still in the future.", "For his actions in September 1914 and January 1915, Rommel was awarded the Iron Cross, Second Class.", "Rommel was promoted to ''Oberleutnant'' (first lieutenant) and transferred to the newly created Royal Wurttemberg Mountain Battalion of the ''Alpenkorps'' in September 1915, as a company commander.", "In November 1916 in Danzig, Rommel and Lucia married.In August 1917, his unit was involved in the battle for Mount Cosna, a heavily fortified objective on the border between Hungary and Romania, which they took after two weeks of difficult uphill fighting.", "The Mountain Battalion was next assigned to the Isonzo front, in a mountainous area in Italy.", "The offensive, known as the Battle of Caporetto, began on 24 October 1917.Rommel's battalion, consisting of three rifle companies and a machine gun unit, was part of an attempt to take enemy positions on three mountains: Kolovrat, Matajur, and Stol.", "In two and a half days, from 25 to 27 October, Rommel and his 150 men captured 81 guns and 9,000 men (including 150 officers), at a loss of six dead and 30 wounded.", "Rommel achieved this remarkable success by taking advantage of the terrain to outflank the Italian forces, attacking from unexpected directions or behind enemy lines, and taking the initiative to attack when he had orders to the contrary.", "In one instance, the Italian forces, taken by surprise and believing that their lines had collapsed, surrendered after a brief firefight.", "In this battle, Rommel helped pioneer infiltration tactics, a new form of manoeuvre warfare just being adopted by German armies, and later by foreign armies, and described by some as Blitzkrieg without tanks, though he played no role in the early adoption of Blitzkrieg in World War II.", "Acting as advance guard in the capture of Longarone on 9 November, Rommel again decided to attack with a much smaller force.", "Convinced that they were surrounded by an entire German division, the 1st Italian Infantry Division – 10,000 men – surrendered to Rommel.", "For this and his actions at Matajur, he received the order of Pour le Mérite.In January 1918, Rommel was promoted to ''Hauptmann'' (captain) and assigned to a staff position in the 64th Army Corps, where he served for the remainder of the war." ], [ "Between the wars", "Rommel remained with the 124th Regiment until October 1920.The regiment was involved in quelling riots and civil disturbances that were occurring throughout Germany at this time.", "Wherever possible, Rommel avoided the use of force in these confrontations.", "In 1919, he was briefly sent to Friedrichshafen on Lake Constance, where he restored order by \"sheer force of personality\" in the 32nd Internal Security Company, which was composed of rebellious and pro-communist sailors.", "He decided against storming the nearby city of Lindau, which had been taken by revolutionary communists.", "Instead, Rommel negotiated with the city council and managed to return it to the legitimate government through diplomatic means.", "This was followed by his defence of Schwäbisch Gmünd, again bloodless.", "He was then posted to the Ruhr, where a red army was responsible for fomenting unrest.", "Historian praises Rommel as a coolheaded and moderate mind, exceptional amid the many takeovers of revolutionary cities by regular and irregular units and the associated massive violence.According to Reuth, this period gave Rommel the indelible impression that \"Everyone in this Republic was fighting each other,\" along with the direct experience of people who attempted to convert Germany into a socialist republic on Soviet lines.", "There are similarities with Hitler's experiences: like Rommel, Hitler had known the solidarity of trench warfare and then had participated in the Reichswehr's suppression of the First and Second Bavarian Soviet Republics.", "The need for national unity thus became a decisive legacy of the first World War.", "Brighton notes that while both believed in the Stab-in-the-back myth, Rommel was able to succeed using peaceful methods because he saw the problem in empty stomachs rather than in Judeo-Bolshevism – which right-wing soldiers such as Hitler blamed for the chaos in Germany.Rommel and Adolf Hitler in Goslar, 1934On 1 October 1920, Rommel was appointed to a company command with the 13th Infantry Regiment in Stuttgart, a post he held for the next nine years.", "He was then assigned to an instruction position at the Dresden Infantry School from 1929 to 1933; during this time, in April 1932, he was promoted to major.", "While at Dresden, he wrote a manual on infantry training, published in 1934.In October 1933, he was promoted to ''Oberstleutnant'' (lieutenant colonel) and given his next command, the 3rd ''Jäger'' Battalion, 17th Infantry Regiment, stationed at Goslar.", "Here he first met Hitler, who inspected his troops on 30 September 1934.In September 1935, Rommel was moved to the War Academy in Potsdam as an instructor, serving for the next three years.", "His book ''Infanterie greift an'' (''Infantry Attacks''), a description of his wartime experiences along with his analysis, was published in 1937.It became a best-seller, which, according to Scheck, later \"enormously influenced\" many armies of the world; Adolf Hitler was one of many who owned a copy.Hearing of Rommel's reputation as an outstanding military instructor, in February 1937 Hitler assigned him as the War Ministry liaison officer to the Hitler Youth in charge of military training.", "Here he clashed with Baldur von Schirach, the Hitler Youth leader, over the training that the boys should receive.", "Trying to fulfill a mission assigned to him by the Ministry of War, Rommel had twice proposed a plan that would have effectively subordinated Hitler Youth to the army, removing it from NSDAP control.", "That went against Schirach's express wishes.", "Schirach appealed directly to Hitler; consequently, Rommel was quietly removed from the project in 1938.He had been promoted to ''Oberst'' (colonel), on 1 August 1937, and in 1938, following the ''Anschluss'', he was appointed commandant of the Theresian Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt.In October 1938, Hitler specially requested that Rommel be seconded to command the ''Führerbegleitbatallion'' (his escort battalion).", "This unit accompanied Hitler whenever he travelled outside of Germany.", "During this period, Rommel indulged his interest in engineering and mechanics by learning about the inner workings and maintenance of internal combustion engines and heavy machine guns.", "He memorised logarithm tables in his spare time and enjoyed skiing and other outdoor sports.", "Ian F. Beckett writes that by 1938, Rommel drifted towards uncritical acceptance of Nazi regime, quoting Rommel's letter to his wife in which he stated \"The German Wehrmacht is the sword of the new German world view\" as a reaction to speech by Hitler.During his visit to Switzerland in 1938, Rommel reported that Swiss soldiers who he met showed \"remarkable understanding of our Jewish problem\".", "Butler comments that he did share the view (popular in Germany and many European countries during that time) that as a people, the Jews were loyal to themselves rather than the nations in which they lived.", "Despite this fact, other pieces of evidence show that he considered the Nazi racial ideologies rubbish.", "Searle comments that Rommel knew the official stand of the regime, but in this case, the phrase was ambiguous and there is no evidence after or before this event that he ever sympathised with the antisemitism of the Nazi movement.", "Rommel's son Manfred Rommel stated in documentary ''The Real Rommel'', published in 2001 by Channel 4 that his father would \"look the other way\" when faced with anti-Jewish violence on the streets.", "According to the documentary, Rommel also requested proof of \"Aryan descent\" from the Italian boyfriend of his illegitimate daughter Gertrud.", "According to Remy, during the time Rommel was posted in Goslar, he repeatedly clashed with the SA whose members terrorised the Jews and dissident Goslar citizens.", "After the Röhm Purge, he mistakenly believed that the worst was over, although restrictions on Jewish businesses were still being imposed and agitation against their community continued.", "According to Remy, Manfred Rommel recounts that his father knew about and privately disagreed with the government's antisemitism, but by this time, he had not actively campaigned on behalf of the Jews.", "However, Uri Avnery notes that even when he was a low-ranking officer, he protected the Jews who lived in his district.", "Manfred Rommel tells the Stuttgarter Nachrichten that their family lived in isolated military lands but knew about the discrimination against the Jews which was occurring on the outside.", "They could not foresee the enormity of the impending atrocities, about which they only knew much later.At one point, Rommel wrote to his wife that Hitler had a \"magnetic, maybe hypnotic, strength\" that had its origin in Hitler's belief that he \"was called upon by God\" and Hitler sometimes \"spoke from the depth of his being ... like a prophet\"." ], [ "World War II", "=== Poland 1939 ===Hitler in Poland (September 1939).", "Rommel is on his left and Martin Bormann on his right.Rommel was promoted to ''Generalmajor'' on 23 August 1939 and assigned as commander of the ''Führerbegleitbatallion'', tasked with guarding Hitler and his field headquarters during the invasion of Poland, which began on 1 September.", "According to Remy, Rommel's private letters at this time show that he did not understand Hitler's true nature and intentions, as he quickly went from predicting a swift peaceful settlement of tensions to approving Hitler's reaction (\"bombs will be retaliated with bombs\") to the Gleiwitz incident (a false flag operation staged by Hitler and used as a pretext for the invasion).", "Hitler took a personal interest in the campaign, often moving close to the front in the ''Führersonderzug'' (headquarters train).", "Rommel attended Hitler's daily war briefings and accompanied him everywhere, making use of the opportunity to observe first-hand the use of tanks and other motorised units.", "On 26 September Rommel returned to Berlin to set up a new headquarters for his unit in the Reich Chancellery.", "Rommel briefly returned to occupied Warsaw on 5 October in order to prepare for the German victory parade.", "In a letter to his wife he claimed that the occupation by Nazi Germany was \"probably welcomed with relief\" by the inhabitants of the ruined city and that they were \"rescued\".=== France 1940 ======= Promotion to armoured division commander ====General Erwin Rommel and his staff observe troops of the 7th Panzer Division practising a river crossing at the Moselle River in France in 1940.Following the invasion of Poland, Rommel began lobbying for command of one of Germany's panzer divisions, of which there were then only ten.", "Rommel's successes in World War I were based on surprise and manoeuvre, two elements for which the new panzer units were ideally suited.", "Rommel received a promotion to a general's rank from Hitler ahead of more senior officers.", "Rommel obtained the command he aspired to, despite having been earlier turned down by the army's personnel office, which had offered him command of a mountain division instead.", "According to Peter Caddick-Adams, he was backed by Hitler, the influential Fourteenth Army commander Wilhelm List (a fellow Württemberger middle-class \"military outsider\") and likely Heinz Guderian, the commander of XIX Army Corps, as well.Going against military protocol, this promotion added to Rommel's growing reputation as one of Hitler's favoured commanders, although his later outstanding leadership in France quelled complaints about his self-promotion and political scheming.", "The 7th Panzer Division had recently been converted to an armoured division consisting of 218 tanks in three battalions (thus, one tank regiment, instead of the two assigned to a standard panzer division), with two rifle regiments, a motorcycle battalion, an engineer battalion, and an anti-tank battalion.", "Upon taking command on 10 February 1940, Rommel quickly set his unit to practising the manoeuvres they would need in the upcoming campaign.==== Invasion of the Netherlands, Belgium and France ====The invasion began on 10 May 1940.By the third day Rommel and the advance elements of his division, together with a detachment of the 5th Panzer Division, had reached the Meuse, where they found the bridges had already been destroyed (Guderian and Georg-Hans Reinhardt reached the river on the same day).", "Rommel was active in the forward areas, directing the efforts to make a crossing, which were initially unsuccessful because of suppressive fire by the French on the other side of the river.", "Rommel brought up tanks and flak units to provide counter-fire and had nearby houses set on fire to create a smokescreen.", "He sent infantry across in rubber boats, appropriated the bridging tackle of the 5th Panzer Division, personally grabbed a light machine gun to fight off a French counterattack supported by tanks, and went into the water himself, encouraging the sappers and helping lash together the pontoons.", "By 16 May Rommel reached Avesnes, and contravening orders, he pressed on to Cateau.", "That night, the French II Army Corps was shattered and on 17 May, Rommel's forces took 10,000 prisoners, losing 36 men in the process.", "He was surprised to find out only his vanguard had followed his tempestuous surge.", "The High Command and Hitler had been extremely nervous about his disappearance, although they awarded him the Knight's Cross.", "Rommel's (and Guderian's) successes and the new possibilities offered by the new tank arm were welcomed by a small number of generals, but worried and paralysed the rest.On 20 May, Rommel reached Arras.", "General Hermann Hoth received orders that the town should be bypassed and its British garrison thus isolated.", "He ordered the 5th Panzer Division to move to the west and the 7th Panzer Division to the east, flanked by the SS Division Totenkopf.", "The following day, the British launched a counterattack in the Battle of Arras.", "It failed and the British withdrew.On 24 May, ''Generaloberst'' (Colonel General) Gerd von Rundstedt and ''Generaloberst'' Günther von Kluge issued a halt order, which Hitler approved.", "The reason for this decision is still a matter of debate.", "The halt order was lifted on 26 May.", "7th Panzer continued its advance, reaching Lille on 27 May.", "The Siege of Lille continued until 31 May, when the French garrison of 40,000 men surrendered.", "Rommel was summoned to Berlin to meet with Hitler.", "He was the only divisional commander present at the planning session for ''Fall Rot'' (Case Red), the second phase of the invasion of France.", "By this time the Dunkirk evacuation was complete; over 338,000 Allied troops had been evacuated across the Channel, though they had to leave behind all their heavy equipment and vehicles.==== Drive for the Channel ====Rommel, resuming his advance on 5 June, drove for the River Seine to secure the bridges near Rouen.", "Advancing in two days, the division reached Rouen to find it defended by three French tanks which managed to destroy a number of German tanks before being taken out.", "The German force, enraged by this resistance, forbade fire brigades access to the burning district of the old Norman capital, and as a result most of the historic quarter was reduced to ashes.", "According to David Fraser, Rommel instructed the German artillery to bombard the city as a \"fire demonstration\".", "According to one witness report the smoke from burning Rouen was intense enough that it reached Paris.", "Daniel Allen Butler states that the bridges to the city were already destroyed.", "After the fall of the city, both black civilians and colonial troops were summarily executed on 9 June by unknown German units.", "The number of black civilians and prisoners killed is estimated at around 100.According to Butler and Showalter, Rouen fell to the 5th Panzer Division, while Rommel advanced from the Seine towards the Channel.", "On 10 June, Rommel reached the coast near Dieppe, sending Hoth the message \"''Bin an der Küste''\" (\"Am on the coast\").", "On 17 June, 7th Panzer was ordered to advance on Cherbourg, where additional British evacuations were under way.", "The division advanced in 24 hours, and after two days of shelling, the French garrison surrendered on 19 June.", "The speed and surprise that it was consistently able to achieve, to the point at which both the enemy and the ''Oberkommando des Heeres'' (OKH; German \"High Command of the Army\") at times lost track of its whereabouts, earned the 7th Panzers the nickname ''Gespensterdivision'' (\"ghost division\").After the armistice with the French was signed on 22 June, the division was placed in reserve, being sent first to the Somme and then to Bordeaux to re-equip and prepare for ''Unternehmen Seelöwe'' (Operation Sea Lion), the planned invasion of Britain.", "This invasion was later cancelled, as Germany was not able to acquire the air superiority needed for a successful outcome, while the ''Kriegsmarine'' was massively outnumbered by the Royal Navy.=== North Africa 1941–1943 ===Western Desert battle areaOn 6 February 1941, Rommel was appointed commander of the new Afrika Korps (''Deutsches Afrika Korps''; DAK), consisting of the 5th Light Division (later renamed 21st Panzer Division) and of the 15th Panzer Division.", "He was promoted to ''Generalleutnant'' three days later and flew to Tripoli on 12 February.", "The DAK had been sent to Libya in Operation Sonnenblume to support Italian troops who had been roundly defeated by British Commonwealth forces in Operation Compass.", "His efforts in the Western Desert Campaign earned Rommel the nickname the \"Desert Fox\" from journalists on both sides of the war.", "Allied troops in Africa were commanded by General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief, Middle East Command.==== First Axis offensive ====Rommel and his troops were technically subordinate to Italian commander-in-chief General Italo Gariboldi.", "Disagreeing with the orders of the ''Oberkommando der Wehrmacht'' (OKW, German armed forces high command) to assume a defensive posture along the front line at Sirte, Rommel resorted to subterfuge and insubordination to take the war to the British.", "According to Remy, the General Staff tried to slow him down but Hitler encouraged him to advance—an expression of the conflict that had existed between Hitler and the army leadership since the invasion of Poland.", "He decided to launch a limited offensive on 24 March with the 5th Light Division, supported by two Italian divisions.", "This thrust was not anticipated by the British, who had Ultra intelligence showing that Rommel had orders to remain on the defensive until at least May, when the 15th Panzer Division were due to arrive.The British Western Desert Force had meanwhile been weakened by the transfer in mid-February of three divisions for the Battle of Greece.", "They fell back to Mersa El Brega and started constructing defensive works.", "After a day of fierce fighting on 31 March, the Germans captured Mersa El Brega.", "Splitting his force into three groups, Rommel resumed the advance on 3 April.", "Benghazi fell that night as the British pulled out of the city.", "Gariboldi, who had ordered Rommel to stay in Mersa El Brega, was furious.", "Rommel was equally forceful in his response, telling Gariboldi, \"One cannot permit unique opportunities to slip by for the sake of trifles.\"", "A signal arrived from General Franz Halder reminding Rommel that he was to halt in Mersa El Brega.", "Knowing Gariboldi could not speak German, Rommel told him the message gave him complete freedom of action.", "Gariboldi backed down.", "Throughout the campaign, fuel supply was problematic, as no petrol was available locally; it had to be brought from Europe by tanker and then carried by road to where it was needed.", "Food and fresh water were also in short supply, and it was difficult to move tanks and other equipment off-road through the sand.", "Cyrenaica was captured by 8 April, except for the port city of Tobruk, which was besieged on 11 April.==== Siege of Tobruk ====Afrika Korps Panzer III advances past a vehicle burning in the desert, April 1941The siege of Tobruk was not technically a siege, as the defenders were still able to move supplies and reinforcements into the city via the port.", "Rommel knew that by capturing the port he could greatly reduce the length of his supply lines and increase his overall port capacity, which was insufficient even for day-to-day operations and only half that needed for offensive operations.", "The city, which had been heavily fortified by the Italians during their 30-year occupation, was garrisoned by 36,000 Commonwealth troops, commanded by Australian Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead.", "Hoping to catch the defenders off-guard, Rommel launched a failed attack on 14 April.Map of Halfaya Pass and surrounding areaRommel requested reinforcements, but the OKW, then completing preparations for Operation Barbarossa, refused.", "General Friedrich Paulus, head of the Operations Branch of the OKH, arrived on 25 April to review the situation.", "He was present for a second failed attack on the city on 30 April.", "On 4 May, Paulus ordered that no further attempts should be made to take Tobruk via a direct assault.", "Following a failed counter-attack in Operation Brevity in May, Wavell launched Operation Battleaxe on 15 June; this attack was also defeated.", "The defeat resulted in Churchill replacing Wavell with General Claude Auchinleck as theatre commander.In August, Rommel was appointed commander of the newly created Panzer Army Africa, with Fritz Bayerlein as his chief of staff.", "The Afrika Korps, comprising the 15th Panzer Division and the 5th Light Division, now reinforced and redesignated 21st Panzer Division, was put under command of Generalleutnant Ludwig Crüwell.", "In addition to the Afrika Korps, Rommel's Panzer Group had the 90th Light Division and four Italian divisions, three infantry divisions investing Tobruk, and one holding Bardia.", "The two Italian armoured divisions, formed into the Italian XX Motorized Corps under the command of General Gastone Gambara, were under Italian control.", "Two months later Hitler decided he must have German officers in better control of the Mediterranean theatre, and appointed Field Marshal Albert Kesselring as Commander in Chief, South.", "Kesselring was ordered to get control of the air and sea between Africa and Italy.8.8cm Flak 18 guns fire upon British armourFollowing his success in Battleaxe, Rommel returned his attention to the capture of Tobruk.", "He made preparations for a new offensive, to be launched between 15 and 20 November.", "Meanwhile, Auchinleck reorganised Allied forces and strengthened them to two corps, XXX and XIII, which formed the British Eighth Army.", "It was placed under the command of Alan Cunningham.", "Auchinleck launched Operation Crusader, a major offensive to relieve Tobruk, on 18 November 1941.Rommel reluctantly decided on 20 November to call off his planned attack on Tobruk.In four days of heavy fighting, the Eighth Army lost 530 tanks and Rommel only 100.Wanting to exploit the British halt and their apparent disorganisation, on 24 November Rommel counterattacked near the Egyptian border in an operation that became known as the \"dash to the wire\".", "Cunningham asked Auchinleck for permission to withdraw into Egypt, but Auchinleck refused, and soon replaced Cunningham as commander of Eighth Army with Major General Neil Ritchie.", "The German counterattack stalled as it outran its supplies and met stiffening resistance, and was criticised by the German High Command and some of Rommel's staff officers.While Rommel drove into Egypt, the remaining Commonwealth forces east of Tobruk threatened the weak Axis lines there.", "Unable to reach Rommel for several days, Rommel's Chief of Staff, Siegfried Westphal, ordered the 21st Panzer Division withdrawn to support the siege of Tobruk.", "On 27 November, the British attack on Tobruk linked up with the defenders, and Rommel, having suffered losses that could not easily be replaced, had to concentrate on regrouping the divisions that had attacked into Egypt.", "By 7 December, Rommel fell back to a defensive line at Gazala, just west of Tobruk, all the while under heavy attack from the Desert Air Force.", "The Allies kept up the pressure, and Rommel was forced to retreat all the way back to the starting positions he had held in March, reaching El Agheila in December 1941.The British had retaken almost all of Cyrenaica, but Rommel's retreat dramatically shortened his supply lines.==== Battle of Gazala and capture of Tobruk ====On 5 January 1942, the Afrika Korps received 55 tanks and new supplies and Rommel started planning a counterattack, which he launched on 21 January.", "Caught by surprise, the Allies lost over 110 tanks and other heavy equipment.", "The Axis forces retook Benghazi on 29 January and Timimi on 3 February, with the Allies pulling back to a defensive line just before the Tobruk area south of the coastal town of Gazala.", "Between December 1941 and June 1942, Rommel had excellent information about the disposition and intentions of the Commonwealth forces.", "Bonner Fellers, US military attaché in Egypt, was sending detailed reports to the US State Department using a compromised code.Following Kesselring's successes in creating local air superiority around the British naval and air bases at Malta in April 1942, an increased flow of supplies reached the Axis forces in Africa.", "With his forces strengthened, Rommel contemplated a major offensive operation for the end of May.", "He knew the British were planning offensive operations as well, and he hoped to pre-empt them.", "Early in the afternoon of 26 May 1942, Rommel attacked first and the Battle of Gazala commenced.", "Under the cover of darkness, the bulk of Rommel's motorised and armoured forces drove south to skirt the left flank of the British, coming up behind them and attacking to the north the following morning.On 30 May, Rommel resumed the offensive, and on 1 June, Rommel accepted the surrender of some 3,000 Commonwealth soldiers.", "On 6 June, Rommel's forces assaulted the Free French strongpoint in the Battle of Bir Hakeim, but the defenders continued to thwart the attack until finally evacuating on 10 June.", "Rommel then shifted his attack north; threatened with being completely cut off, the British began a retreat eastward toward Egypt on 14 June, the so-called \"Gazala Gallop\".The Afrika Korps enters Tobruk.The assault on Tobruk proper began at dawn on 20 June, and the British surrendered at dawn the following day.", "Rommel's forces captured 32,000 Commonwealth troops, the port, and huge quantities of supplies.", "Only at the fall of Singapore, earlier that year, had more British Commonwealth troops been captured at one time.", "On 22 June, Hitler promoted Rommel to Generalfeldmarschall for this victory.", "Following his success at Gazala and Tobruk, Rommel wanted to seize the moment and not allow 8th Army a chance to regroup.", "He strongly argued that the Panzerarmee should advance into Egypt and drive on to Alexandria and the Suez Canal, as this would place almost all the Mediterranean coastline in Axis hands and, according to Rommel, potentially lead to the capture from the south of the oil fields in the Caucasus and Middle East.Rommel's success at Tobruk worked against him, as Hitler no longer felt it was necessary to proceed with Operation Herkules, the proposed attack on Malta.", "Auchinleck relieved Ritchie of command of the Eighth Army on 25 June, and temporarily took command himself.", "Rommel knew that delay would only benefit the British, who continued to receive supplies at a faster rate than Rommel could hope to achieve.", "He pressed an attack on the heavily fortified town of Mersa Matruh, which Auchinleck had designated as the fall-back position, surrounding it on 28 June.", "The fortress fell to the Germans on 29 June.", "In addition to stockpiles of fuel and other supplies, the British abandoned hundreds of tanks and trucks.", "Those that were functional were put into service by the Panzerwaffe.==== El Alamein ========= First Battle of El Alamein =====El Alamein and surrounding areaRommel continued his pursuit of the Eighth Army, which had fallen back to heavily prepared defensive positions at El Alamein.", "This region is a natural choke point, where the Qattara Depression creates a relatively short line to defend that could not be outflanked to the south because of the steep escarpment.", "During this time Germans prepared numerous propaganda postcards and leaflets for Egyptian and Syrian population urging them to \"chase English out of the cities\", warning them about \"Jewish peril\" and with one leaflet printed in 296,000 copies and aimed at Syria stating among othersOn 1 July, the First Battle of El Alamein began.", "Rommel had around 100 available tanks.", "The Allies were able to achieve local air superiority, with heavy bombers attacking the 15th and 21st Panzers, who had also been delayed by a sandstorm.", "The 90th Light Division veered off course and were pinned down by South African artillery fire.", "Rommel continued to attempt to advance for two more days, but repeated sorties by the Desert Air Force meant he could make no progress.", "On 3 July, he wrote in his diary that his strength had \"faded away\".", "Attacks by 21st Panzer on 13 and 14 July were repulsed, and an Australian attack on 16–17 July was held off with difficulty.", "Throughout the first half of July, Auchinleck concentrated attacks on the Italian 60th Infantry Division Sabratha at Tel el Eisa.", "The ridge was captured by the 26th Australian Brigade on 16 July.", "Both sides suffered similar losses throughout the month, but the Axis supply situation remained less favourable.", "Rommel realised that the tide was turning.", "A break in the action took place at the end of July as both sides rested and regrouped.Preparing for a renewed drive, the British replaced Auchinleck with General Harold Alexander on 8 August.", "Bernard Montgomery was made the new commander of Eighth Army that same day.", "The Eighth Army had initially been assigned to General William Gott, but he was killed when his plane was shot down on 7 August.", "Rommel knew that a British convoy carrying over 100,000 tons of supplies was due to arrive in September.", "He decided to launch an attack at the end of August with the 15th and 21st Panzer Division, 90th Light Division, and the Italian XX Motorized Corps in a drive through the southern flank of the El Alamein lines.", "Expecting an attack sooner rather than later, Montgomery fortified the Alam el Halfa ridge with the 44th Division, and positioned the 7th Armoured Division about to the south.===== Battle of Alam El Halfa =====Rommel in a Sd.Kfz.", "250/3The Battle of Alam el Halfa was launched on 30 August.", "The terrain left Rommel with no choice but to follow a similar tactic as he had at previous battles: the bulk of the forces attempted to sweep around from the south while secondary attacks were launched on the remainder of the front.", "It took much longer than anticipated to get through the minefields in the southern sector, and the tanks got bogged down in unexpected patches of quicksand (Montgomery had arranged for Rommel to acquire a falsified map of the terrain).", "Under heavy fire from British artillery and aircraft, and in the face of well prepared positions that Rommel could not hope to outflank for lack of fuel, the attack stalled.", "By 2 September, Rommel realised the battle was unwinnable, and decided to withdraw.On the night of 3 September, the 2nd New Zealand Division and 7th Armoured Division positioned to the north engaged in an assault, but they were repelled in a fierce rearguard action by the 90th Light Division.", "Montgomery called off further action to preserve his strength and allow for further desert training for his forces.", "In the attack, Rommel had suffered 2,940 casualties and lost 50 tanks, a similar number of guns, and 400 lorries, vital for supplies and movement.", "The British losses, except tank losses of 68, were much less, further adding to the numerical inferiority of Panzer Army Africa.", "The Desert Air Force inflicted the highest proportions of damage on Rommel's forces.", "He now realised the war in Africa could not be won.", "Physically exhausted and suffering from a liver infection and low blood pressure, Rommel flew home to Germany to recover his health.", "General Georg Stumme was left in command in Rommel's absence.===== Second Battle of El Alamein =====Destroyed Panzer IIIs at Tel el Eisa, near El Alamein (1942)Second Battle of El Alamein.", "Situation on 28 October 1942Improved decoding by British intelligence (see Ultra) meant that the Allies had advance knowledge of virtually every Mediterranean convoy, and only 30 per cent of shipments were getting through.", "In addition, Mussolini diverted supplies intended for the front to his garrison at Tripoli and refused to release any additional troops to Rommel.", "The increasing Allied air superiority and lack of fuel meant Rommel was forced to take a more defensive posture than he would have liked for the second Battle of El Alamein.", "The German defences to the west of the town included a minefield deep with the main defensive line – itself several thousand yards deep – to its west.", "This, Rommel hoped, would allow his infantry to hold the line at any point until motorised and armoured units in reserve could move up and counterattack any Allied breaches.", "The British offensive began on 23 October.", "Stumme, in command in Rommel's absence, died of an apparent heart attack while examining the front on 24 October, and Rommel was ordered to return from his medical leave, arriving on the 25th.", "Montgomery's intention was to clear a narrow path through the minefield at the northern part of the defences, at the area called Kidney Ridge, with a feint to the south.", "By the end of 25 October, the 15th Panzer, the defenders in this sector, had only 31 serviceable tanks remaining of their initial force of 119.Rommel brought the 21st Panzer and Ariete Divisions north on 26 October, to bolster the sector.", "On 28 October, Montgomery shifted his focus to the coast, ordering his 1st and 10th Armoured Divisions to attempt to swing around and cut off Rommel's line of retreat.", "Meanwhile, Rommel concentrated his attack on the Allied salient at Kidney Ridge, inflicting heavy losses.", "However, Rommel had only 150 operational tanks remaining, and Montgomery had 800, many of them Shermans.Montgomery, seeing his armoured brigades losing tanks at an alarming rate, stopped major attacks until the early hours of 2 November, when he opened Operation Supercharge, with a massive artillery barrage.", "Due to heavy losses in tanks, towards the end of the day, Rommel ordered his forces to disengage and begin to withdraw.", "At midnight, he informed the OKW of his decision, and received a reply directly from Hitler the following afternoon: he ordered Rommel and his troops to hold their position to the last man.", "Rommel, who believed that the lives of his soldiers should never be squandered needlessly, was stunned.", "Rommel initially complied with the order, but after discussions with Kesselring and others, he issued orders for a retreat on 4 November.", "The delay proved costly in terms of his ability to get his forces out of Egypt.", "He later said the decision to delay was what he most regretted from his time in Africa.", "Meanwhile, the British 1st and 7th Armoured Division had broken through the German defences and were preparing to swing north and surround the Axis forces.", "On the evening of the 4th, Rommel finally received word from Hitler authorising the withdrawal.==== End of Africa campaign ====As Rommel attempted to withdraw his forces before the British could cut off his retreat, he fought a series of delaying actions.", "Heavy rains slowed movements and grounded the Desert Air Force, which aided the withdrawal, yet Rommel's troops were under pressure from the pursuing Eighth Army and had to abandon the trucks of the Italian forces, leaving them behind.", "Rommel continued to retreat west, aiming for 'Gabes gap' in Tunisia.", "Kesselring strongly criticised Rommel's decision to retreat all the way to Tunisia, as each airfield the Germans abandoned extended the range of the Allied bombers and fighters.", "Rommel defended his decision, pointing out that if he tried to assume a defensive position the Allies would destroy his forces and take the airfields anyway; the retreat saved the lives of his remaining men and shortened his supply lines.", "By now, Rommel's remaining forces fought in reduced strength combat groups, whereas the Allied forces had great numerical superiority and control of the air.", "On his arrival in Tunisia, Rommel noted with some bitterness the reinforcements, including the 10th Panzer Division, arriving in Tunisia following the Allied invasion of Morocco.Rommel speaks with troops who are using a captured American M3 half-track, Tunisia.Having reached Tunisia, Rommel launched an attack against the U.S. II Corps which was threatening to cut his lines of supply north to Tunis.", "Rommel inflicted a sharp defeat on the American forces at the Kasserine Pass in February, his last battlefield victory of the war, and his first engagement against the United States Army.Rommel immediately turned back against the British forces, occupying the Mareth Line (old French defences on the Libyan border).", "While Rommel was at Kasserine at the end of January 1943, the Italian General Giovanni Messe was appointed commander of Panzer Army Africa, renamed the Italo-German Panzer Army in recognition of the fact that it consisted of one German and three Italian corps.", "Though Messe replaced Rommel, he diplomatically deferred to him, and the two coexisted in what was theoretically the same command.", "On 23 February Army Group Afrika was created with Rommel in command.", "It included the Italo-German Panzer Army under Messe (renamed 1st Italian Army) and the German 5th Panzer Army in the north of Tunisia under General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim.The last Rommel offensive in North Africa was on 6 March 1943, when he attacked Eighth Army at the Battle of Medenine.", "The attack was made with 10th, 15th, and 21st Panzer Divisions.", "Alerted by Ultra intercepts, Montgomery deployed large numbers of anti-tank guns in the path of the offensive.", "After losing 52 tanks, Rommel called off the assault.", "On 9 March he returned to Germany.", "Command was handed over to General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim.", "Rommel never returned to Africa.", "The fighting there continued on for another two months, until 13 May 1943, when Messe surrendered the army group to the Allies.=== Italy 1943 ===On 23 July 1943, Rommel was moved to Greece as commander of Army Group E to counter a possible British invasion.", "He arrived in Greece on 25 July but was recalled to Berlin the same day following Mussolini's dismissal from office.", "This caused the German High Command to review the defensive integrity of the Mediterranean and it was decided that Rommel should be posted to Italy as commander of the newly formed Army Group B.", "On 16 August 1943, Rommel's headquarters moved to Lake Garda in northern Italy and he formally assumed command of the group, consisting of the 44th Infantry Division, the 26th Panzer Division and the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler.", "When Italy announced its armistice with the Allies on 8 September, Rommel's group took part in Operation Achse, disarming the Italian forces.Hitler met with Rommel and Kesselring to discuss future operations in Italy on 30 September 1943.Rommel insisted on a defensive line north of Rome, while Kesselring was more optimistic and advocated holding a line south of Rome.", "Hitler preferred Kesselring's recommendation, and therefore revoked his previous decision for the subordination of Kesselring's forces to Rommel's army group.", "On 19 October, Hitler decided that Kesselring would be the overall commander of the forces in Italy, sidelining Rommel.Rommel had wrongly predicted that the collapse of the German line in Italy would be fast.", "On 21 November, Hitler gave Kesselring overall command of the Italian theatre, moving Rommel and Army Group B to Normandy in France with responsibility for defending the French coast against the long anticipated Allied invasion.=== Atlantic Wall 1944 ===Rommel observes the fall of shot at Riva-Bella, just north of Caen in the area that would become Sword Beach in Normandy.On 4 November 1943, Rommel became General Inspector of the Western Defences.", "He was given a staff that befitted an army group commander, and the powers to travel, examine and make suggestions on how to improve the defences.", "Hitler, who was having a disagreement with him over military matters, intended to use Rommel as a psychological trump card.There was broad disagreement in the German High Command as to how best to meet the expected allied invasion of Northern France.", "The Commander-in-Chief West, Gerd von Rundstedt, believed there was no way to stop the invasion near the beaches because of the Allied navies' firepower, as had been experienced at Salerno.", "He argued that the German armour should be held in reserve well inland near Paris, where they could be used to counter-attack in force in a more traditional military doctrine.", "The allies could be allowed to extend themselves deep into France, where a battle for control would be fought, allowing the Germans to envelop the allied forces in a pincer movement, cutting off their avenue of retreat.", "He feared the piecemeal commitment of their armoured forces would cause them to become caught in a battle of attrition which they could not hope to win.", "A sketch by Rommel.", "His words on the picture: \"Patterns for anti-airlanding obstacles.", "Now to be spaced irregularly instead of regularly\".", "now keeps several of these, some hand-coloured by Rommel himself.The notion of holding the armour inland to use as a mobile reserve force from which they could mount a powerful counterattack applied the classic use of armoured formations as seen in France in 1940.These tactics were still effective on the Eastern Front, where control of the air was important but did not dominate the action.", "Rommel's own experiences at the end of the North African campaign revealed to him that the Germans would not be able to preserve their armour from air attack for this type of massed assault.", "Rommel believed their only opportunity would be to oppose the landings directly at the beaches, and to counterattack there before the invaders could become well established.", "Though there had been some defensive positions established and gun emplacements made, the Atlantic Wall was a token defensive line.", "Rundstedt had confided to Rommel that it was for propaganda purposes only.Upon arriving in Northern France Rommel was dismayed by the lack of completed works.", "According to Ruge, Rommel was in a staff position and could not issue orders, but he took every effort to explain his plan to commanders down to the platoon level, who took up his words eagerly, but \"more or less open\" opposition from the above slowed down the process.", "Rundstedt intervened and supported Rommel's request for being made a commander.", "It was granted on 15 January 1944.He and his staff set out to improve the fortifications along the Atlantic Wall with great energy and engineering skill.", "This was a compromise: Rommel now commanded the 7th and 15th armies; he also had authority over a 20-kilometer-wide strip of coastal land between Zuiderzee and the mouth of the Loire.", "The chain of command was convoluted: the air force and navy had their own chiefs, as did the South and Southwest France and the Panzer group; Rommel also needed Hitler's permissions to use the tank divisions.", "Rommel had millions of mines laid and thousands of tank traps and obstacles set up on the beaches and throughout the countryside, including in fields suitable for glider aircraft landings, the so-called Rommel's asparagus (the Allies would later counter these with Hobart's Funnies).", "In April 1944, Rommel promised Hitler that the preparations would be complete by 1 May, a promise he failed to deliver.", "By the time of the Allied invasion, the preparations were far from finished.", "The quality of some of the troops manning them was poor and many bunkers lacked sufficient stocks of ammunition.Rundstedt expected the Allies to invade in the Pas-de-Calais because it was the shortest crossing point from Britain, its port facilities were essential to supplying a large invasion force, and the distance from Calais to Germany was relatively short.", "Rommel and Hitler's views on the matter is a matter of debate between authors, with both seeming to change their positions.Inspecting 21st Panzer Division troops and a mule track carrier of the NebelwerferHitler vacillated between the two strategies.", "In late April, he ordered the I SS Panzer Corps placed near Paris, far enough inland to be useless to Rommel, but not far enough for Rundstedt.", "Rommel moved those armoured formations under his command as far forward as possible, ordering General Erich Marcks, commanding the 84th Corps defending the Normandy section, to move his reserves into the frontline.", "Rundstedt was willing to delegate a majority of the responsibilities to Rommel (the central reserve was Rundstedt's idea but he did not oppose some form of coastal defence), Rommel's strategy of an armour-supported coastal defence line was opposed by some officers, most notably Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg, who was supported by Guderian.", "Hitler compromised and gave Rommel three divisions (the 2nd, the 21st and the 116th Panzer), let Rundstedt retain four and turned the other three to Army Group G, pleasing no one.The Allies staged elaborate deceptions for D-Day (see Operation Fortitude), giving the impression that the landings would be at Calais.", "Although Hitler himself expected a Normandy invasion for a while, Rommel and most Army commanders in France believed there would be two invasions, with the main invasion coming at the Pas-de-Calais.", "Rommel drove defensive preparations all along the coast of Northern France, particularly concentrating fortification building in the River Somme estuary.", "By D-Day on 6 June 1944 nearly all the German staff officers, including Hitler's staff, believed that Pas-de-Calais was going to be the main invasion site, and continued to believe so even after the landings in Normandy had occurred.Generalfeldmarschälle Gerd von Rundstedt and Erwin Rommel meeting in ParisThe 5 June storm in the channel seemed to make a landing very unlikely, and a number of the senior officers left their units for training exercises and various other efforts.", "On 4 June the chief meteorologist of the 3 Air Fleet reported that weather in the channel was so poor there could be no landing attempted for two weeks.", "On 5 June, Rommel left France and on 6 June, he was at home celebrating his wife's 50th birthday.", "He was recalled and returned to his headquarters at 10pm.", "Meanwhile, earlier in the day, Rundstedt had requested the reserves be transferred to his command.", "At 10am Keitel advised that Hitler declined to release the reserves but that Rundstedt could move the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend closer to the coast, with the Panzer-Lehr-Division placed on standby.", "Later in the day, Rundstedt received authorisation to move additional units in preparation for a counterattack, which Rundstedt decided to launch on 7 June.", "Upon arrival, Rommel concurred with the plan.", "By nightfall, Rundstedt, Rommel and Speidel continued to believe that the Normandy landing might have been a diversionary attack, as the Allied deception measures still pointed towards Calais.", "The 7 June counterattack did not take place because Allied air bombardments prevented the 12th SS's timely arrival.", "All this made the German command structure in France in disarray during the opening hours of the D-Day invasion.The Allies secured five beachheads by nightfall of 6 June, landing 155,000 troops.", "The Allies pushed ashore and expanded their beachhead despite strong German resistance.", "Rommel believed that if his armies pulled out of range of Allied naval fire, it would give them a chance to regroup and re-engage them later with a better chance of success.", "While he managed to convince Rundstedt, they still needed to win over Hitler.", "At a meeting with Hitler at his Wolfsschlucht II headquarters in Margival in northern France on 17 June, Rommel warned Hitler about the inevitable collapse in the German defences, but was rebuffed and told to focus on military operations.By mid-July the German position was crumbling.", "On 17 July 1944, as Rommel was returning from visiting the headquarters of the I SS Panzer Corps, a fighter plane piloted by either Charley Fox of 412 Squadron RCAF, Jacques Remlinger of No.", "602 Squadron RAF, or Johannes Jacobus le Roux of No.", "602 Squadron RAF strafed his staff car near Sainte-Foy-de-Montgommery.", "The driver sped up and attempted to get off the main roadway, but a 20 mm round shattered his left arm, causing the vehicle to veer off the road and crash into trees.", "Rommel was thrown from the car, suffering injuries to the left side of his face from glass shards and three fractures to his skull.", "He was hospitalised with major head injuries (assumed to be almost certainly fatal).=== Plot against Hitler ===The role that Rommel played in the military's resistance against Hitler or the 20 July plot is difficult to ascertain as most of the leaders who were directly involved did not survive, and limited documentation exists on the conspirators' plans and preparations.", "One piece of evidence that points to the possibility that Rommel came to support the assassination plan was General Eberbach's confession to his son (eavesdropped on by British agencies) while in British captivity which stated that Rommel explicitly said to him that Hitler and his close associates had to be killed because this would be the only way out for Germany.", "This conversation occurred about a month before Rommel was coerced into suicide.Other notable evidence includes the papers of Rudolf Hartmann (who survived the later purge) and Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel, who were among the leaders of the military resistance (alongside Rommel's chief of staff General Hans Speidel, Colonel Karl-Richard Koßmann, Colonel Eberhard Finckh and Lieutenant Colonel Caesar von Hofacker).", "These papers, accidentally discovered by historian Christian Schweizer in 2018 while doing research on Rudolf Hartmann, include Hartmann's eyewitness account of a conversation between Rommel and Stülpnagel in May 1944, as well as photos of the mid-May 1944 meeting between the inner circle of the resistance and Rommel at Koßmann's house.", "According to Hartmann, by the end of May, in another meeting at Hartmann's quarters in Mareil–Marly, Rommel showed \"decisive determination\" and clear approval of the inner circle's plan.", "In a post-war account by Karl Strölin, three of Rommel's friends—the ''Oberbürgermeister'' of Stuttgart, Strölin (who had served with Rommel in the First World War), Alexander von Falkenhausen and Stülpnagel—began efforts to bring Rommel into the anti-Hitler conspiracy in early 1944.According to Strölin, sometime in February, Rommel agreed to lend his support to the resistance.A meeting between the military resistance's inner circle and Rommel at Mareil-Marly 15 May 1944.From left, Speidel – behind, Rommel – center, Stülpnagel – front.", "The officer standing left is Rudolf Hartmann.", "The others are unknown.On 15 April 1944, Rommel's new chief of staff, Hans Speidel, arrived in Normandy and reintroduced Rommel to Stülpnagel.", "Speidel had previously been connected to Carl Goerdeler, the civilian leader of the resistance, but not to the plotters led by Claus von Stauffenberg, and came to Stauffenberg's attention only upon his appointment to Rommel's headquarters.", "The conspirators felt they needed the support of a field marshal on active duty.", "Erwin von Witzleben, who would have become commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht had the plot succeeded, was a field marshal, but had been inactive since 1942.The conspirators gave instructions to Speidel to bring Rommel into their circle.", "Speidel met with former foreign minister Konstantin von Neurath and Strölin on 27 May in Germany, ostensibly at Rommel's request, although the latter was not present.", "Neurath and Strölin suggested opening immediate surrender negotiations in the West, and, according to Speidel, Rommel agreed to further discussions and preparations.", "Around the same timeframe, the plotters in Berlin were not aware that Rommel had allegedly decided to take part in the conspiracy.", "On 16 May, they informed Allen Dulles, through whom they hoped to negotiate with the Western Allies, that Rommel could not be counted on for support.At least initially, Rommel opposed assassinating Hitler.", "According to some authors, he gradually changed his attitude.", "After the war, his widow—among others—maintained that Rommel believed an assassination attempt would spark civil war in Germany and Austria, and Hitler would have become a martyr for a lasting cause.", "Instead, Rommel reportedly suggested that Hitler be arrested and brought to trial for his crimes; he did not attempt to implement this plan when Hitler visited Margival, France, on 17 June.", "The arrest plan would have been highly improbable as Hitler's security was extremely tight.", "Rommel would have known this, having commanded Hitler's army protection detail in 1939.He was in favour of peace negotiations and repeatedly urged Hitler to negotiate with the Allies which is dubbed by some as \"hopelessly naive\" considering no one would trust Hitler.", "\"As naive as it was idealistic, the attitude he showed to the man he had sworn loyalty\".According to Reuth, the reason Lucie Rommel did not want her husband to be associated with any conspiracy was that even after the war, the German population neither grasped nor wanted to comprehend the reality of the genocide, thus conspirators were still treated as traitors and outcasts.", "On the other hand, the resistance depended on the reputation of Rommel to win over the population.", "Some officers who had worked with Rommel also recognised the relationship between Rommel and the resistance: Westphal said that Rommel did not want any more senseless sacrifices.", "Butler, using Ruge's recollections, reports that when told by Hitler himself that \"no one will make peace with me\", Rommel told Hitler that if he was the obstacle for peace, he should resign or kill himself, but Hitler insisted on fanatical defence.Reuth, based on Jodl's testimony, reports that Rommel forcefully presented the situation and asked for political solutions from Hitler, who rebuffed that Rommel should leave politics to him.", "Brighton comments that Rommel seemed devoted, even though he did not have much faith in Hitler anymore considering he kept informing Hitler in person and by letter about his changing beliefs despite facing a military dilemma as well as a personal struggle.", "Lieb remarks that Rommel's attitude in describing the situation honestly and requiring political solutions was almost without precedent and contrary to the attitude of many other generals.", "Remy comments that Rommel put himself and his family (which he had briefly considered evacuating to France, but refrained from doing so) at risk for the resistance out of a combination of his concern for the fate of Germany, his indignation at atrocities and the influence of people around him.On 15 July, Rommel wrote a letter to Hitler giving him a \"last chance\" to end the hostilities with the Western Allies, urging Hitler to \"draw the proper conclusions without delay\".", "What Rommel did not know was that the letter took two weeks to reach Hitler because of Kluge's precautions.", "Various authors report that many German generals in Normandy, including some SS officers like Hausser, Bittrich, Dietrich (a hard-core Nazi and Hitler's long-time supporter) and Rommel's former opponent Geyr von Schweppenburg, pledged support to him even against Hitler's orders, while Kluge supported him with much hesitation.", "Rundstedt encouraged Rommel to carry out his plans but refused to do anything himself, remarking that it had to be a man who was still young and loved by the people, while Erich von Manstein was also approached by Rommel but categorically refused, although he did not report them to Hitler either.", "Peter Hoffmann reports that he also attracted into his orbit officials who had previously refused to support the conspiracy, like Julius Dorpmüller and Karl Kaufmann (according to Russell A. Hart, reliable details of the conversations are now lost, although they certainly met).On 17 July 1944, Rommel was incapacitated by an Allied air attack, which many authors describe as a fateful event that drastically altered the outcome of the bomb plot.", "Writer Ernst Jünger commented: \"The blow that felled Rommel ... robbed the plan of the shoulders that were to be entrusted the double weight of war and civil war - the only man who had enough naivety to counter the simple terror that those he was about to go against possessed.\"", "After the failed bomb attack of 20 July, many conspirators were arrested and the dragnet expanded to thousands.", "Rommel was first implicated when Stülpnagel, after his suicide attempt, repeatedly muttered \"Rommel\" in delirium.", "Under torture, Hofacker named Rommel as one of the participants.", "Additionally, Goerdeler had written down Rommel's name on a list as potential Reich President (according to Stroelin.", "They had not managed to announce this intention to Rommel yet and he probably never heard of it until the end of his life).On 27 September, Martin Bormann submitted to Hitler a memorandum which claimed that \"the late General Stülpnagel, Colonel Hofacker, Kluge's nephew who has been executed, Lieutenant Colonel Rathgens, and several ... living defendants have testified that Field Marshal Rommel was perfectly in the picture about the assassination plan and has promised to be at the disposal of the New Government.\"", "Gestapo agents were sent to Rommel's house in Ulm and placed him under surveillance.", "Historian Peter Lieb considers the memorandum, as well as Eberbach's conversation and the testimonies of surviving resistance members (including Hartmann), to be the three key sources that indicate Rommel's support of the assassination plan.", "He further notes that while Speidel had an interest in promoting his own post-war career, his testimonies should not be dismissed, considering his bravery as an early resistance figure.", "Remy writes that even more important than Rommel's attitude to the assassination is the fact Rommel had his own plan to end the war.", "He began to contemplate this plan some months after El Alamein and carried it out with a lonely decision and conviction, and in the end, had managed to bring military leaders in the West to his side." ], [ "Death", "Rommel's funeral processionThe official announcement of Erwin Rommel's death by the Nazi newspaper ''Bozner Tagblatt'', 16 October 1944Herrlingen (2019)Rommel's case was turned over to the \"Court of Military Honour\"—a drumhead court-martial convened to decide the fate of officers involved in the conspiracy.", "The court included Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel, Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt, Generaloberst Heinz Guderian, General der Infanterie Walther Schroth and Generalleutnant Karl-Wilhelm Specht, with General der Infanterie Karl Kriebel and Generalleutnant Heinrich Kirchheim (whom Rommel had fired after Tobruk in 1941) as deputy members and Generalmajor Ernst Maisel as protocol officer.", "The Court acquired information from Speidel, Hofacker and others that implicated Rommel, with Keitel and Ernst Kaltenbrunner assuming that he had taken part in the subversion.", "Keitel and Guderian then made the decision that favoured Speidel's case and at the same time shifted the blame to Rommel.", "By normal procedure, this would lead to Rommel's being brought to Roland Freisler's People's Court, a kangaroo court that always decided in favour of the prosecution.", "However, Hitler knew that having Rommel branded and executed as a traitor would severely damage morale on the home front.", "He thus decided to offer Rommel the chance to take his own life.Two generals from Hitler's headquarters, Wilhelm Burgdorf and Ernst Maisel, visited Rommel at his home on 14 October 1944.Burgdorf informed him of the charges against him and offered him three options: (a.)", "he could choose to defend himself personally in front of Hitler in Berlin, or if he refused to do so (which would be taken as an admission of guilt); (b.)", "he could face the People's Court (which would have been tantamount to a death sentence), or (c.) choose death by suicide.", "In the former case (b.", "), his family would have suffered even before the all-but-certain conviction and execution, and his staff would have been arrested and executed as well.", "In the latter case (c.), the government would claim that he died a hero and bury him with full military honours, and his family would receive full pension payments.", "In support of the suicide option, Burgdorf had brought a cyanide capsule.Rommel chose suicide, and explained his decision to his wife and son.", "Wearing his Afrika Korps jacket and carrying his field marshal's baton, he got into Burgdorf's car, driven by SS-Stabsscharführer Heinrich Doose, and was driven out of the village.", "After stopping, Doose and Maisel walked away from the car leaving Rommel with Burgdorf.", "Five minutes later Burgdorf gestured to the two men to return to the car, and Doose noticed that Rommel was slumped over, having taken the cyanide.", "He died before being taken to the Wagner-Schule field hospital.", "Ten minutes later, the group telephoned Rommel's wife to inform her of his death.Tomb of Erwin Rommel in Herrlingen (2019)The official notice of Rommel's death as reported to the public stated that he had died of either a heart attack or a cerebral embolism—a complication of the skull fractures he had suffered in the earlier strafing of his staff car.", "To strengthen the story, Hitler ordered an official day of mourning in commemoration of his death.", "As promised, Rommel was given a state funeral but it was held in Ulm instead of Berlin as had been requested by Rommel.", "Hitler sent Field Marshal Rundstedt (who was unaware that Rommel had died as a result of Hitler's orders) as his representative to the funeral.The truth behind Rommel's death became known to the Allies when intelligence officer Charles Marshall interviewed Rommel's widow, Lucia Rommel, as well as from a letter by Rommel's son Manfred in April 1945.Rommel's grave is located in Herrlingen, a short distance west of Ulm.", "For decades after the war on the anniversary of his death, veterans of the Africa campaign, including former opponents, would gather at his tomb in Herrlingen." ], [ "Style as military commander", "On the Italian front in the First World War, Rommel was a successful tactician in fast-developing mobile battle and this shaped his subsequent style as a military commander.", "He found that taking initiative and not allowing the enemy forces to regroup led to victory.", "Some authors argue that his enemies were often less organised, second-rate, or depleted, and his tactics were less effective against adequately led, trained and supplied opponents and proved insufficient in the later years of the war.", "Others point out that through his career, he frequently fought while out-numbered and out-gunned, sometimes overwhelmingly so, while having to deal with internal opponents in Germany who hoped that he would fail.Rommel is praised by numerous authors as a great leader of men.", "The historian and journalist Basil Liddell Hart concludes that he was a strong leader worshipped by his troops, respected by his adversaries and deserving to be named as one of the \"Great Captains of History\".", "Owen Connelly concurs, writing that \"No better exemplar of military leadership can be found\" and quoting Friedrich von Mellenthin on the inexplicable mutual understanding that existed between Rommel and his troops.", "Hitler, though, remarked that, \"Unfortunately Field-Marshal Rommel is a very great leader full of drive in times of success, but an absolute pessimist when he meets the slightest problems.\"", "Telp criticises Rommel for not extending the benevolence he showed in promoting his own officers' careers to his peers, whom he ignored or slighted in his reports.Škoda Superb Kfz 21Taking his opponents by surprise and creating uncertainty in their minds were key elements in Rommel's approach to offensive warfare: he took advantage of sand storms and the dark of night to conceal the movement of his forces.", "He was aggressive and often directed battle from the front or piloted a reconnaissance aircraft over the lines to get a view of the situation.", "When the British mounted a commando raid deep behind German lines in an effort to kill Rommel and his staff on the eve of their Crusader offensive, Rommel was indignant that the British expected to find his headquarters behind his front.", "Mellenthin and Harald Kuhn write that at times in North Africa his absence from a position of communication made command of the battles of the Afrika Korps difficult.", "Mellenthin lists Rommel's counterattack during Operation Crusader as one such instance.", "Butler concurred, saying that leading from the front is a good concept but Rommel took it so far – he frequently directed the actions of a single company or battalion – that he made communication and coordination between units problematic, as well as risking his life to the extent that he could easily have been killed even by his own artillery.", "Albert Kesselring also complained about Rommel cruising about the battlefield like a division or corps commander; but Gause and Westphal, supporting Rommel, replied that in the African desert only this method would work and that it was useless to try to restrain Rommel anyway.", "His staff officers, although admiring towards their leader, complained about the self-destructive Spartan lifestyle that made life harder, diminished his effectiveness and forced them to \"baby him as unobtrusively as possible\".For his leadership during the French campaign Rommel received both praise and criticism.", "Many, such as General Georg Stumme, who had previously commanded 7th Panzer Division, were impressed with the speed and success of Rommel's drive.", "Others were reserved or critical: Kluge, his commanding officer, argued that Rommel's decisions were impulsive and that he claimed too much credit, by falsifying diagrams or by not acknowledging contributions of other units, especially the Luftwaffe.", "Some pointed out that Rommel's division took the highest casualties in the campaign.", "Others point out that in exchange for 2,160 casualties and 42 tanks, it captured more than 100,000 prisoners and destroyed nearly two divisions' worth of enemy tanks (about 450 tanks), vehicles and guns.Rommel spoke German with a pronounced southern German or Swabian accent.", "He was not a part of the Prussian aristocracy that dominated the German high command, and as such was looked upon somewhat suspiciously by the Wehrmacht's traditional power structure.", "Rommel felt a commander should be physically more robust than the troops he led, and should always show them an example.", "He expected his subordinate commanders to do the same.Rommel was direct, unbending, tough in his manners, to superiors and subordinates alike, disobedient even to Hitler whenever he saw fit, although gentle and diplomatic to the lower ranks.", "Despite being publicity-friendly, he was also shy, introverted, clumsy and overly formal even to his closest aides, judging people only on their merits, although loyal and considerate to those who had proved reliability, and he displayed a surprisingly passionate and devoted side to a very small few (including Hitler) with whom he had dropped the seemingly impenetrable barriers.=== Relationship with Italian forces ===Rommel with German and Italian officers, 1942Rommel's relationship with the Italian High Command in North Africa was generally poor.", "Although he was nominally subordinate to the Italians, he enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy from them; since he was directing their troops in battle as well as his own, this was bound to cause hostility among Italian commanders.", "Conversely, as the Italian command had control over the supplies of the forces in Africa, they resupplied Italian units preferentially, which was a source of resentment for Rommel and his staff.", "Rommel's direct and abrasive manner did nothing to smooth these issues.While certainly much less proficient than Rommel in their leadership, aggression, tactical outlook and mobile warfare skills, Italian commanders were competent in logistics, strategy and artillery doctrine: their troops were ill-equipped but well-trained.", "As such, the Italian commanders were repeatedly at odds with Rommel over concerns with issues of supply.", "Field Marshal Kesselring was assigned Supreme Commander Mediterranean, at least in part to alleviate command problems between Rommel and the Italians.", "This effort resulted only in partial success, with Kesselring's own relationship with the Italians being unsteady and Kesselring claiming Rommel ignored him as readily as he ignored the Italians.", "Rommel often went directly to Hitler with his needs and concerns, taking advantage of the favouritism that the Führer displayed towards him and adding to the distrust that Kesselring and the German High Command already had of him.According to Scianna, opinion among the Italian military leaders was not unanimous.", "In general, Rommel was a target of criticism and a scapegoat for defeat rather than a glorified figure, with certain generals also trying to replace him as the heroic leader or hijack the Rommel myth for their own benefit.", "Nevertheless, he never became a hated figure, although the \"abandonment myth\", despite being repudiated by officers of the X Corps themselves, was long-lived.", "Many found Rommel's chaotic leadership and emotional character hard to work with, yet the Italians held him in higher regard than other German senior commanders, militarily and personally.Very different, however, was the perception of Rommel by Italian common soldiers and NCOs, who, like the German field troops, had the deepest trust and respect for him.", "Paolo Colacicchi, an officer in the Italian Tenth Army recalled that Rommel \"became sort of a myth to the Italian soldiers\".", "Rommel himself held a much more generous view about the Italian soldier than about their leadership, towards whom his disdain, deeply rooted in militarism, was not atypical, although unlike Kesselring he was incapable of concealing it.", "Unlike many of his superiors and subordinates who held racist views, he was usually \"kindly disposed\" to the Italians in general.James J. Sadkovich cites examples of Rommel abandoning his Italian units, refusing cooperation, rarely acknowledging their achievements and other improper behaviour towards his Italian allies, Giuseppe Mancinelli, who was liaison between German and Italian command, accused Rommel of blaming Italians for his own errors.", "Sadkovich names Rommel as ''arrogantly ethnocentric'' and disdainful towards Italians.=== Views on the conduct of war ======= Combat ====Rommel walks past Allied prisoners taken at Tobruk, 1942Many authors describe Rommel as having a reputation of being a chivalrous, humane, and professional officer, and that he earned the respect of both his own troops and his enemies.Gerhard Schreiber quotes Rommel's orders, issued together with Kesselring: \"Sentimentality concerning the Badoglio following gangs (\"Banden\" in the original, indicating a mob-like crowd) in the uniforms of the former ally is misplaced.", "Whoever fights against the German soldier has lost any right to be treated well and shall experience toughness reserved for the rabble which betrays friends.", "Every member of the German troop has to adopt this stance.", "\"Schreiber writes that this exceptionally harsh and, according to him, \"hate fuelled\" order brutalised the war and was clearly aimed at Italian soldiers, not just partisans.", "Dennis Showalter writes that \"Rommel was not involved in Italy's partisan war, though the orders he issued prescribing death for Italian soldiers taken in arms and Italian civilians sheltering escaped British prisoners do not suggest he would have behaved significantly different from his Wehrmacht counterparts.", "\"According to Maurice Remy, orders issued by Hitler during Rommel's stay in a hospital resulted in massacres in the course of Operation Achse, disarming the Italian forces after the armistice with the Allies in 1943.Remy also states that Rommel treated his Italian opponents with his usual fairness, requiring that the prisoners should be accorded the same conditions as German civilians.", "Remy opines that an order in which Rommel, in contrast to Hitler's directives, called for no \"sentimental scruples\" against \"Badoglio-dependent bandits in uniforms of the once brothers-in-arms\" should not be taken out of context.", "Peter Lieb agrees that the order did not radicalise the war and that the disarmament in Rommel's area of responsibility happened without major bloodshed.", "Italian internees were sent to Germany for forced labour, but Rommel was unaware of this.", "Klaus Schmider comments that the writings of Lieb and others succeed in vindicating Rommel \"both with regards to his likely complicity in the July plot as well as his repeated refusal to carry out illegal orders.", "\"Rommel withheld Hitler's Commando Order to execute captured commandos from his Army Group B, with his units reporting that they were treating commandos as regular POWs.", "It is likely that he had acted similarly in North Africa.", "Historian Szymon Datner argues that Rommel may have been simply trying to conceal the atrocities of Nazi Germany from the Allies.", "Remy states that although Rommel had heard rumours about massacres while fighting in Africa, his personality, combined with special circumstances, meant that he was not fully confronted with the reality of atrocities before 1944.When Rommel learned about the atrocities that ''SS Division Leibstandarte'' committed in Italy in September 1943, he allegedly forbade his son from joining the Waffen-SS.==== Attitude toward colonial troops ====General Field Marshal Erwin Rommel inspecting a unit of the German Free India Legion in France, February 1944By the time of the Second World War, French colonial troops were portrayed as a symbol of French depravity in Nazi propaganda; Canadian historian Myron Echenberg writes that Rommel, just like Hitler, viewed black French soldiers with particular disdain.", "According to author Ward Rutherford, Rommel also held racist views towards British colonial troops from India; Rutherford in his ''The biography of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel'' writes: \"Not even his most sycophantic apologists have been able to evade the conclusion, fully demonstrated by his later behavior, that Rommel was a racist who, for example, thought it desperately unfair that the British should employ 'black' – by which he meant Indian – troops against a white adversary.\"", "Vaughn Raspberry writes that Rommel and other officers considered it an insult to fight against black Africans because they considered black people to be members of \"inferior races\".Bruce Watson comments that whatever racism Rommel might have had in the beginning, it was washed away when he fought in the desert.", "When he saw that they were fighting well, he gave the members of the 4th Division of the Indian Army high praise.", "Rommel and the Germans acknowledge the Gurkhas' fighting ability, although their style leaned more towards ferocity.", "Once he witnessed German soldiers with throats cut by a khukri knife.", "Originally, he did not want Chandra Bose's Indian formation (composed of the Allied Indian soldiers), captured by his own troops, to work under his command.", "In Normandy though, when they had already become the Indische Freiwilligen Legion der Waffen SS, he visited them and praised them for their efforts (while they still suffered general disrespect within the Wehrmacht).", "A review on Rutherford's book by the ''Pakistan Army Journal'' says that the statement is one of many that Rutherford uses, which lack support in authority and analysis.", "Rommel saying that using the Indians was unfair should also be put in perspective, considering the disbandment of the battle-hardened 4th Division by the Allies.", "Rommel praised the colonial troops in the battle of France: \"The (French) colonial troops fought with extraordinary determination.", "The anti-tank teams and tank crews performed with courage and caused serious losses,\" though that might be an example of generals honouring their opponents so that \"their own victories appear the more impressive.\"", "Reuth comments that Rommel ensured that he and his command would act decently (shown by his treatment of the Free French prisoners who were considered partisans by Hitler, the Jews and the coloured men), while he was distancing himself from Hitler's racist war in the East and deluding himself into believing that Hitler was good, only the Party big shots were evil.", "The black South African soldiers recount that when they were held as POWs after they were captured by Rommel, they initially slept and queued for food away from the whites, until Rommel saw this and told them that brave soldiers should all queue together.", "Finding this strange coming from a man fighting for Hitler, they adopted this behaviour until they went back to the Union of South Africa, where they were separated again.There are reports that Rommel acknowledged the Maori soldiers' fighting skills, yet at the same time he complained about their methods which were unfair from the European perspective.", "When he asked the commander of the New Zealand 6th Infantry Brigade about his division's massacres of the wounded and POWs, the commander attributed these incidents to the Maoris in his unit.", "Hew Strachan notes that lapses in practising the warriors' code of war were usually attributed to ethnic groups which lived outside Europe with the implication that those ethnic groups which lived in Europe knew how to behave (although Strachan opines that such attributions were probably true).", "Nevertheless, according to the website of the 28th Maori Battalion, Rommel always treated them fairly and he also showed understanding with regard to war crimes.==== Politics ====Some authors cite, among other cases, Rommel's naive reaction to events in Poland while he was there: he paid a visit to his wife's uncle, famous Polish priest and patriotic leader, who was murdered within days, but Rommel never understood this and, at his wife's urgings, kept writing letter after letter to Himmler's adjutants asking them to keep track and take care of their relative.", "Knopp and Mosier agree that he was naive politically, citing his request for a Jewish Gauleiter in 1943.Despite this, Lieb finds it hard to believe that a man in Rommel's position could have known nothing about atrocities, while accepting that locally he was separated from the places where these atrocities occurred.", "''Der Spiegel'' comments that Rommel was simply in denial about what happened around him.", "Alaric Searle points out that it was the early diplomatic successes and bloodless expansion that blinded Rommel to the true nature of his beloved Führer, whom he then naively continued to support.", "Scheck believes it may be forever unclear whether Rommel recognised the unprecedented depraved character of the regime.==== Civilians ====Historian Richard J. Evans has stated that German soldiers in Tunisia raped Jewish women, and the success of Rommel's forces in capturing or securing Allied, Italian and Vichy French territory in North Africa led to many Jews in these areas being killed by other German institutions as part of the Holocaust.", "Anti-Jewish and Anti-Arab violence erupted in North Africa when Rommel and Ettore Bastico regained territory there in February 1941 and then again in April 1942.While committed by Italian forces, Patrick Bernhard writes \"the Germans were aware of Italian reprisals behind the front lines.", "Yet, perhaps surprisingly, they seem to have exercised little control over events.The German consul general in Tripoli consulted with Italian state and party officials about possible countermeasures against the natives, but this was the full extent of German involvement.", "Rommel did not directly intervene, though he advised the Italian authorities to do whatever was necessary to eliminate the danger of riots and espionage; for the German general, the rear areas were to be kept \"quiet\" at all costs.", "Thus, according to Bernhard, although he had no direct hand in the atrocities, Rommel made himself complicit in war crimes by failing to point out that international laws of war strictly prohibited certain forms of retaliation.", "By giving carte blanche to the Italians, Rommel implicitly condoned, and perhaps even encouraged, their war crimes\".", "Gershom reports that the recommendation came from officers \"speaking for Rommel\", and comments, \"Perhaps Rommel did not know or care about the specifics; perhaps his motivation was not hate but dispassionate efficiency.", "The distinctions would have escaped the men hanging from hooks.", "\"In his article ''Im Rücken Rommels.", "Kriegsverbrechen, koloniale Massengewalt und Judenverfolgung in Nordafrika'', Bernhard writes that North African campaign was hardly \"war without hate\" as Rommel described it, and points out rapes of women, ill treatment and executions of captured POWs, as well as racially motivated murders of Arabs, Berbers and Jews, in addition to establishment of concentration camps.", "Bernhard again cites discussion among the German and Italian authorities about Rommel's position regarding countermeasures against local insurrection (according to them, Rommel wanted to eliminate the danger at all costs) to show that Rommel fundamentally approved of Italian policy in the matter.", "Bernhard opines that Rommel had informal power over the matter because his military success brought him influence on the Italian authorities.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum describes relationship between Rommel and the proposed Einsatzgruppen Egypt as \"problematic\".", "The Museum states that this unit was to be tasked with murdering Jewish population of North Africa, Palestine, and it was to be attached directly to Rommel's Afrika Korps.", "According to the museum Rauff met with Rommel's staff in 1942 as part of preparations for this plan.", "The Museum states that Rommel was certainly aware that planning was taking place, even if his reaction to it isn't recorded, and while the main proposed Einsatzgruppen were never set in action, smaller units did murder Jews in North Africa.On the other hand, Christopher Gabel remarks that Richards Evans seems to attempt to prove that Rommel was a war criminal by association but fails to produce evidence that he had actual or constructive knowledge about said crimes.", "Ben H. Shepherd comments that Rommel showed insight and restraint when dealing with the nomadic Arabs, the only civilians who occasionally intervened into the war and thus risked reprisals as a result.", "Shepherd cites a request by Rommel to the Italian High Command, in which he complained about excesses against the Arabic population and noted that reprisals without identifying the real culprits were never expedient.The documentary ''Rommel's War'' (''Rommels Krieg''), made by Caron and Müllner with advice from Sönke Neitzel, states that even though it is not clear whether Rommel knew about the crimes (in Africa) or not, \"his military success made possible forced labor, torture and robbery.", "Rommel's war is always part of Hitler's war of worldviews, whether Rommel wanted it or not.\"", "More specifically, several German historians have revealed existence of plans to exterminate Jews in Egypt and Palestine, if Rommel had succeeded in his goal of invading the Middle East during 1942 by SS unit embedded to Afrika Korps.According to Mallmann and Cüppers, a post-war CIA report described Rommel as having met with Walther Rauff, who was responsible for the unit, and been disgusted after learning about the plan from him and as having sent him on his way; but they conclude that such a meeting is hardly possible as Rauff was sent to report to Rommel at Tobruk on 20 July and Rommel was then 500 km away conducting the First El Alamein.", "On 29 July, Rauff's unit was sent to Athens, expecting to enter Africa when Rommel crossed the Nile.", "However, in view of the Axis' deteriorating situation in Africa it returned to Germany in September.Historian Jean-Christoph Caron opines that there is no evidence that Rommel knew or would have supported Rauff's mission; he also believes Rommel bore no direct responsibility regarding the SS's looting of gold in Tunisia.", "Historian Haim Saadon, Director of the Center of Research on North African Jewry in WWII, goes further, stating that there was no extermination plan: Rauff's documents show that his foremost concern was helping the Wehrmacht to win, and he came up with the idea of forced labour camps in the process.", "By the time these labour camps were in operation, according to Ben H. Shepherd, Rommel had already been retreating and there is no proof of his contact with the Einsatzkommando.", "''Haaretz'' comments that the CIA report is most likely correct regarding both the interaction between Rommel and Rauff and Rommel's objections to the plan: Rauff's assistant Theodor Saevecke, and declassified information from Rauff's file, both report the same story.", "''Haaretz'' also remarks that Rommel's influence probably softened the Nazi authorities' attitude to the Jews and to the civilian population generally in North Africa.Rolf-Dieter Müller comments that the war in North Africa, while as bloody as any other war, differed considerably from the war of annihilation in eastern Europe, because it was limited to a narrow coastline and hardly affected the population.Showalter writes that: Joachim Käppner writes that while the conflict in North Africa was not as bloody as in Eastern Europe, the Afrika Korps committed some war crimes.", "Historian Martin Kitchen states that the reputation of the Afrika Korps was preserved by circumstances: The sparsely populated desert areas did not lend themselves to ethnic cleansing; the German forces never reached the large Jewish populations in Egypt and Palestine; and in the urban areas of Tunisia and Tripolitania the Italian government constrained the German efforts to discriminate against or eliminate Jews who were Italian citizens.", "Despite this, the North African Jews themselves believed that it was Rommel who prevented the \"Final Solution\" from being carried out against them when German might dominated North Africa from Egypt to Morocco.", "According to Curtis and Remy, 120,000 Jews lived in Algeria, 200,000 in Morocco, about 80,000 in Tunisia.", "Remy writes that this number was unchanged following the German invasion of Tunisia in 1942 while Curtis notes that 5000 of these Jews would be sent to forced labour camps.", "and 26,000 in Libya.Hein Klemann writes that the confiscations in the \"foraging zone\" of Afrika Korps threatened the survival chances of local civilians, just as plunder enacted by Wehrmacht in Soviet Union.In North Africa Rommel's troops laid down landmines, which in decades to come killed and maimed thousands of civilians.", "Since statistics started in 1980s, 3,300 people have lost their lives, and 7,500 maimed There are disputed whether the landmines in El Alamein, which constitute the most notable portion of landmines left over from World War II, were left by the Afrika Korps or the British Army led by Field Marshal Montgomery.", "Egypt has not joined the Mine Ban Treaty until this day.Rommel sharply protested the Jewish policies and other immoralities and was an opponent of the Gestapo He also refused to comply with Hitler's order to execute Jewish POWs.", "Bryan Mark Rigg writes: \"The only place in the army where one might find a place of refuge was in the Deutsches Afrika-Korps (DAK) under the leadership of the 'Desert Fox,' Field Marshal Erwin Rommel.", "According to this study's files, his half-Jews were not as affected by the racial laws as most others serving on the European continent.\"", "He notes, though, that \"Perhaps Rommel failed to enforce the order to discharge half-Jews because he was unaware of it\".Captain Horst van Oppenfeld (a staff officer to Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg and a quarter-Jew) says that Rommel did not concern himself with the racial decrees and he had never experienced any trouble caused by his ancestry during his time in the DAK even if Rommel never personally interfered on his behalf.", "Another quarter-Jew, Fritz Bayerlein, became a famous general and Rommel's chief-of-staff, despite also being a bisexual, which made his situation even more precarious.Building the Atlantic Wall was officially the responsibility of the Organisation Todt, which was not under Rommel's command, but he enthusiastically joined the task, protesting slave labour and suggesting that they should recruit French civilians and pay them good wages.", "Despite this, French civilians and Italian prisoners of war held by the Germans were forced by officials under the Vichy government, the Todt Organization and the SS forces to work on building some of the defences Rommel requested, in appalling conditions according to historian Will Fowler.", "Although they got basic wages, the workers complained because it was too little and there was no heavy equipment.", "German troops worked almost round-the-clock under very harsh conditions, with Rommel's rewards being accordions.Rommel was one of the commanders who protested the Oradour-sur-Glane massacre." ], [ "Reputation as a military commander", "Rommel and Vice Admiral Friedrich Ruge visiting the U-boat base in La Rochelle, France, February 1944Rommel was famous in his lifetime, including among his adversaries.", "His tactical prowess and decency in the treatment of Allied prisoners earned him the respect of opponents including Claude Auchinleck, Archibald Wavell, George S. Patton, and Bernard Montgomery.Rommel's military reputation has been controversial.", "While nearly all military practitioners acknowledge Rommel's excellent tactical skills and personal bravery, some, such as U.S. major general and military historian David T. Zabecki of the United States Naval Institute, considers Rommel's performance as an operational level commander to be highly overrated and that other officers share this belief.", "General Klaus Naumann, who served as Chief of Staff of the Bundeswehr, agrees with the military historian Charles Messenger that Rommel had challenges at the operational level, and states that Rommel's violation of the unity of command principle, bypassing the chain of command in Africa, was unacceptable and contributed to the eventual operational and strategic failure in North Africa.", "The German biographer Wolf Heckmann describes Rommel as \"the most overrated commander of an army in world history\".Nevertheless, there is also a notable number of officers who admire his methods, like Norman Schwarzkopf who described Rommel as a genius at battles of movement saying \"Look at Rommel.", "Look at North Africa, the Arab-Israeli wars, and all the rest of them.", "A war in the desert is a war of mobility and lethality.", "It's not a war where straight lines are drawn in the sand and you say, 'I will defend here or die.\"", "Ariel Sharon deemed the German military model used by Rommel to be superior to the British model used by Montgomery.", "His compatriot Moshe Dayan likewise considered Rommel a model and icon.", "Wesley Clark states that \"Rommel's military reputation, though, has lived on, and still sets the standard for a style of daring, charismatic leadership to which most officers aspire.\"", "During the recent desert wars, Rommel's military theories and experiences attracted great interest from policy makers and military instructors.", "Chinese military leader Sun Li-jen had the laudatory nickname \"Rommel of the East\".Certain modern military historians, such as Larry T. Addington, Niall Barr, Douglas Porch and Robert Citino, are sceptical of Rommel as an operational, let alone strategic level commander.", "They point to Rommel's lack of appreciation for Germany's strategic situation, his misunderstanding of the relative importance of his theatre to the German High Command, his poor grasp of logistical realities, and, according to the historian Ian Beckett, his \"penchant for glory hunting\".", "Citino credits Rommel's limitations as an operational level commander as \"materially contributing\" to the eventual demise of the Axis forces in North Africa, while Addington focuses on the struggle over strategy, whereby Rommel's initial brilliant success resulted in \"catastrophic effects\" for Germany in North Africa.", "Porch highlights Rommel's \"offensive mentality\", symptomatic of the Wehrmacht commanders as a whole in the belief that the tactical and operational victories would lead to strategic success.", "Compounding the problem was the Wehrmacht's institutional tendency to discount logistics, industrial output and their opponents' capacity to learn from past mistakes.The historian Geoffrey P. Megargee points out Rommel's playing the German and Italian command structures against each other to his advantage.", "Rommel used the confused structure—the High command of the armed forces, the OKH (Supreme High Command of the Army) and the ''Comando Supremo'' (Italian Supreme Command)—to disregard orders that he disagreed with or to appeal to whatever authority he felt would be most sympathetic to his requests.Free India Legion, France, 1944Some historians take issue with Rommel's absence from Normandy on the day of the Allied invasion, 6 June 1944.He had left France on 5 June and was at home on the 6th celebrating his wife's birthday.", "(According to Rommel, he planned to proceed to see Hitler the next day to discuss the situation in Normandy).", "Zabecki calls his decision to leave the theatre in view of an imminent invasion \"an incredible lapse of command responsibility\".", "Lieb remarks that Rommel displayed real mental agility, but the lack of an energetic commander, together with other problems, caused the battle largely not to be conducted in his concept (which is the opposite of the German doctrine), although the result was still better than Geyr's plan.", "Lieb also opines that while his harshest critics (who mostly came from the General Staff) often said that Rommel was overrated or not suitable for higher commands, envy was a big factor here.T.L.", "McMahon argues that while Rommel no doubt possessed operational vision, he did not have the strategic resources to effect his operational choices while his forces provided the tactical ability to accomplish his goals, and the German staff and system of staff command were designed for commanders who led from the front, and in some cases he might have chosen the same options as Montgomery (a reputedly strategy-oriented commander) had he been put in the same conditions.", "According to Steven Zaloga, tactical flexibility was a great advantage of the German system, but in the final years of the war, Hitler and his cronies like Himmler and Goering had usurped more and more authority at the strategic level, leaving professionals like Rommel increasing constraints on their actions.", "Martin Blumenson considers Rommel a general with a compelling view of strategy and logistics, which was demonstrated through his many arguments with his superiors over such matters, although Blumenson also thinks that what distinguished Rommel was his boldness, his intuitive feel for the battlefield.", "(Upon which Schwarzkopf also comments \"Rommel had a feel for the battlefield like no other man.", "\")Joseph Forbes comments that: \"The complex, conflict-filled interaction between Rommel and his superiors over logistics, objectives and priorities should not be used to detract from Rommel's reputation as a remarkable military leader\", because Rommel was not given powers over logistics, and because if only generals who attain strategic-policy goals are great generals, such highly regarded commanders as Robert E. Lee, Hannibal, Charles XII would have to be excluded from that list.", "General Siegfried F. Storbeck, Deputy Inspector General of the Bundeswehr (1987–1991), remarks that, Rommel's leadership style and offensive thinking, although carrying inherent risks like losing the overview of the situation and creating overlapping of authority, have been proved effective, and have been analysed and incorporated in the training of officers by \"us, our Western allies, the Warsaw Pact, and even the Israel Defense Forces\".", "Maurice Remy defends his strategic decision regarding Malta as, although risky, the only logical choice.Rommel was among the few Axis commanders (the others being Isoroku Yamamoto and Reinhard Heydrich) who were targeted for assassination by Allied planners.", "Two attempts were made, the first being Operation Flipper in North Africa in 1941, and the second being Operation Gaff in Normandy in 1944.Research by Norman Ohler claims that Rommel's behaviours were heavily influenced by Pervitin which he reportedly took in heavy doses, to such an extent that Ohler refers to him as \"the Crystal Fox\" (\"Kristallfuchs\") – playing off the nickname \"Desert Fox\" famously given to him by the British." ], [ "Debate about atrocities", "=== Executions of prisoners in France ===In France, Rommel ordered the execution of one French officer who refused three times to cooperate when being taken prisoner; there are disputes as to whether this execution was justified.", "Caddick-Adams comments that this would make Rommel a war criminal condemned by his own hand, and that other authors overlook this episode.", "Butler notes that the officer refused to surrender three times and thus died in a courageous but foolhardy way.", "French historian Petitfrère remarks that Rommel was in a hurry and had no time for useless palavers, although this act was still debatable.", "Telp remarks that, \"he treated prisoners of war with consideration.", "On one occasion, he was forced to order the shooting of a French lieutenant-colonel for refusing to obey his captors''.\"''", "Scheck says, ''\"''Although there is no evidence incriminating Rommel himself, his unit did fight in areas where German massacres of black French prisoners of war were extremely common in June 1940''.", "\"''There are reports that during the fighting in France, Rommel's 7th Panzer Division committed atrocities against surrendering French troops and captured prisoners of war.", "The atrocities, according to Martin S. Alexander, included the murder of 50 surrendering officers and men at Quesnoy and the nearby Airaines.", "According to Richardot, on 7 June, the commanding French officer Charles N'Tchoréré and his company surrendered to the 7th Panzer Division.", "He was then executed by the 25th Infantry Regiment (the 7th Panzer Division did not have a 25th Infantry Regiment).", "Journalist Alain Aka states simply that he was executed by one of Rommel's soldiers and his body was driven over by tank.", "Erwan Bergot reports that he was killed by the SS.", "Historian John Morrow states he was shot in the neck by a Panzer officer, without mentioning the unit of the perpetrators of this crime.", "The website of the National Federation of Volunteer Servicemen (F.N.C.V., France) states that N'Tchoréré was pushed against the wall and, despite protests from his comrades and newly liberated German prisoners, was shot by the SS.Elements of the division are considered by Scheck to have been \"likely\" responsible for the murder of POWs in Hangest-sur-Somme, while Scheck reports that they were too far away to have been involved in the massacres at Airaines and nearby villages.", "Scheck says that the German units fighting there came from the 46th and 2nd Infantry Division, and possibly from the 6th and 27th Infantry Division as well.", "Scheck also writes that there were no SS units in the area.", "Morrow, citing Scheck, says that the 7th Panzer Division carried out \"cleansing operations\".", "French historian Dominique Lormier counts the number of victims of the 7th Panzer Division in Airaines at 109, mostly French-African soldiers from Senegal.", "Showalter writes: Claus Telp comments that Airaines was not in the sector of the 7th, but at Hangest and Martainville, elements of the 7th might have shot some prisoners and used British Colonel Broomhall as a human shield (although Telp is of the opinion that it was unlikely that Rommel approved of, or even knew about, these two incidents).Historian David Stone notes that acts of shooting surrendered prisoners were carried out by Rommel's 7th Panzer Division and observes contradictory statements in Rommel's account of the events; Rommel initially wrote that \"any enemy troops were wiped out or forced to withdraw\" but also added that \"many prisoners taken were hopelessly drunk.\"", "Stone attributes the massacres of soldiers from the ''53ème Regiment d'Infanterie Coloniale'' (N'Tchoréré's unit) on 7 June to the 5th Infantry Division.", "Historian Daniel Butler agrees that it was possible that the massacre at Le Quesnoy happened given the existence of Nazis, such as Hanke, in Rommel's division, while stating that in comparison with other German units, few sources regarding such actions of the men of the 7th Panzer exist.", "Butler believes that \"it's almost impossible to imagine\" Rommel authorising or countenancing such actions.", "He also writes that ===Treatment of Jews and other civilians in North Africa===Giordana Terracina writes that: \"On April 3, the Italians recaptured Benghazi and a few months later the Afrika Korps led by Rommel was sent to Libya and began the deportation of the Jews of Cyrenaica in the concentration camp of Giado and other smaller towns in Tripolitania.", "This measure was accompanied by shooting, also in Benghazi, of some Jews guilty of having welcomed the British troops, on their arrival, treating them as liberators.\"", "Gershom states that Italian authorities were responsible for bringing Jews into their concentration camps, which were \"not built to exterminate its inmates\", yet as the water and food supply was meager, were not built to keep humans alive either.", "Also according to Gershom, the German consul in Tripoli knew about the process and trucks used to transport supply to Rommel were sometimes used to transport Jews, despite all problems the German forces were having.", "The ''Jerusalem Post'''s review of Gershom Gorenberg's ''War of shadows'' writes that: \"The Italians were far more brutal with civilians, including Libyan Jews, than Rommel’s Afrika Korps, which by all accounts abided by the laws of war.", "But nobody worried that the Italians who sent Jews to concentration camps in Libya, would invade British-held Egypt, let alone Mandatory Palestine.", "\"According to German historian , Rommel forbade his soldiers from buying anything from the Jewish population of Tripoli, used Jewish slave labour and commanded Jews to clear out minefields by walking on them ahead of his forces.", "According to Proske, some of the Libyan Jews were eventually sent to concentration camps.", "Historians Christian Schweizer and Peter Lieb note that: \"Over the last few years, even though the social science teacher Wolfgang Proske has sought to participate in the discussion on Rommel with very strong opinions, his biased submissions are not scientifically received.\"", "The ''Heidenheimer Zeitung'' notes that Proske was the publisher of his main work ''Täter, Helfer, Trittbrettfahrer – NS-Belastete von der Ostalb'', after failing to have it published by another publisher.According to historian Michael Wolffsohn, during the Africa campaign, preparations for committing genocide against the North African Jews were in full swing and a thousand of them were transported to East European concentration camps.", "At the same time, he recommends the Bundeswehr to keep the names and traditions associated with Rommel (although Wolffsohn opines that focus should be put on the politically thoughtful soldier he became at the end of his life, rather than the swashbuckler and the humane rogue).Robert Satloff writes in his book ''Among the Righteous: Lost Stories from the Holocaust's Long Reach into Arab Lands'' that as the German and Italian forces retreated across Libya towards Tunisia, the Jewish population became victim upon which they released their anger and frustration.", "According to Satloff Afrika Korps soldiers plundered Jewish property all along the Libyan coast.", "This violence and persecution only came to an end with the arrival of General Montgomery in Tripoli on 23 January 1943.According to Maurice Remy, although there were antisemitic individuals in the Afrika Korps, actual cases of abuse are not known, even against the Jewish soldiers of the Eighth Army.", "Remy quotes Isaac Levy, the Senior Jewish Chaplain of the Eighth Army, as saying that he had never seen \"any sign or hint that the soldiers of the Afrika Korps are antisemitic.\".", "''The Telegraph'' comments: \"Accounts suggest that it was not Field Marshal Erwin Rommel but the ruthless SS colonel Walter Rauff who stripped Tunisian Jews of their wealth.", "\"Commenting on Rommel's conquest of Tunisia, Marvin Perry writes that: \"The bridgehead Rommel established in Tunisia enabled the SS to herd Jews into slave labor camps.", "\"''Der Spiegel'' writes that: \"The SS had established a network of labor camps in Tunisia.", "More than 2,500 Tunisian Jews died in six months of German rule, and the regular army was also involved in executions.\"", "Caron writes on ''Der Spiegel'' that the camps were organised in early December 1942 by Nehring, the commander in Tunisia, and Rauff, while Rommel was retreating.", "As commander of the German Afrika Korps, Nehring would continue to use Tunisian forced labour.", "According to Caddick-Adams, no Waffen-SS served under Rommel in Africa at any time and most of the activities of Rauff's detachment happened after Rommel's departure.", "Shepherd notes that during this time Rommel was retreating and there is no evidence that he had contact with the ''Einsatzkommando''.", "Addressing the call of some authors to contextualise Rommel's actions in Italy and North Africa, Wolfgang Mährle notes that while it is undeniable that Rommel played the role of a ''Generalfeldmarschall'' in a criminal war, this only illustrates in a limited way his personal attitude and the actions resulted from that.===Alleged treasure and spoils===According to several historians, allegations and stories that associate Rommel and the Afrika Korps with the harassing and plundering of Jewish gold and property in Tunisia are usually known under the name \"Rommel's treasure\" or \"Rommel's gold\".", "Michael FitzGerald comments that the treasure should be named more accurately as Rauff's gold, as Rommel had nothing to do with its acquisition or removal.", "Jean-Christoph Caron comments that the treasure legend has a real core and that Jewish property was looted by the SS in Tunisia and later might have been hidden or sunken around the port city of Corsica, where Rauff was stationed in 1943.The person who gave birth to the full-blown legend was the SS soldier Walter Kirner, who presented a false map to the French authorities.", "Caron and Jörg Müllner, his co-author of the ZDF documentary ''Rommel's treasure'' (Rommels Schatz) tell Die Welt that \"Rommel had nothing to do with the treasure, but his name is assocỉated with everything that happened in the war in Africa.", "\"Rick Atkinson criticises Rommel for gaining a looted stamp collection (a bribe from Sepp Dietrich) and a villa taken from Jews.", "Lucas, Matthews and Remy though describe the contemptuous and angry reaction of Rommel towards Dietrich's act and the lootings and other brutal behaviours of the SS that he had discovered in Italy.", "Claudia Hecht also explains that although the Stuttgart and Ulm authorities did arrange for the Rommel family to use a villa whose Jewish owners had been forced out two years earlier, for a brief period after their own house had been destroyed by Allied bombing, ownership of it was never transferred to them.", "Butler notes that Rommel was one of the few who refused large estates and gifts of cash Hitler gave to his generals." ], [ "In Nazi and Allied propaganda", "At the beginning, although Hitler and Goebbels took particular notice of Rommel, the Nazi elites had no intent to create one major war symbol (partly out of fear that he would offset Hitler), generating huge propaganda campaigns for not only Rommel but also Gerd von Rundstedt, Walther von Brauchitsch, Eduard Dietl, Sepp Dietrich (the latter two were party members and also strongly supported by Hitler), etc.", "Nevertheless, a multitude of factors—including Rommel's unusual charisma, his talents both in military matters and public relations,, the efforts of Goebbels's propaganda machine, and the Allies' participation in mythologising his life (either for political benefits, sympathy for someone who evoked a romantic archetype, or genuine admiration for his actions)—gradually contributed to Rommel's fame.", "Spiegel wrote, \"Even back then his fame outshone that of all other commanders.", "\"Rommel's victories in France were featured in the German press and in the February 1941 film ''Sieg im Westen (Victory in the West),'' in which Rommel personally helped direct a segment re-enacting the crossing of the Somme River.According to Scheck, although there is no evidence of Rommel committing crimes, during the shooting of the movie, African prisoners of war, were forced to take part in its making, and forced to carry out humiliating acts.", "Stills from the re-enactment are found in \"Rommel Collection\"; it was filmed by Hans Ertl, assigned to this task by Dr. Kurt Hesse, a personal friend of Rommel, who worked for Wehrmacht Propaganda Section V Rommel's victories in 1941 were played up by the Nazi propaganda, even though his successes in North Africa were achieved in arguably one of Germany's least strategically important theatres of World War II.", "In November 1941, Reich Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels wrote about \"the urgent need\" to have Rommel \"elevated to a kind of popular hero.\"", "Rommel, with his innate abilities as a military commander and love of the spotlight, was a perfect fit for the role Goebbels designed for him.Rommel at a Paris victory parade (June 1940).", "Rommel had access to Reich Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels via a senior propaganda official Karl Hanke, who served under Rommel during the 1940 campaign.=== Successes in North Africa ===In North Africa, Rommel received help in cultivating his image from Alfred Ingemar Berndt, a senior official at the Reich Propaganda Ministry who had volunteered for military service.", "Seconded by Goebbels, Berndt was assigned to Rommel's staff and became one of his closest aides.", "Berndt often acted as liaison between Rommel, the Propaganda Ministry, and the Führer Headquarters.", "He directed Rommel's photo shoots and filed radio dispatches describing the battles.In the spring of 1941, Rommel's name began to appear in the British media.", "In the autumn of 1941 and early winter of 1941/1942, he was mentioned in the British press almost daily.", "Toward the end of the year, the Reich propaganda machine also used Rommel's successes in Africa as a diversion from the Wehrmacht's challenging situation in the Soviet Union with the stall of Operation Barbarossa.", "The American press soon began to take notice of Rommel as well, following the country's entry into the war on 11 December 1941, writing that \"The British (...) admire him because he beat them and were surprised to have beaten in turn such a capable general.\"", "General Auchinleck distributed a directive to his commanders seeking to dispel the notion that Rommel was a \"superman\".", "Rommel, no matter how hard the situation was, made a deliberate effort at always spending some time with soldiers and patients, his own and POWs alike, which contributed greatly to his reputation of not only being a great commander but also \"a decent chap\" among the troops.The attention of the Western and especially the British press thrilled Goebbels, who wrote in his diary in early 1942: \"Rommel continues to be the recognized darling of even the enemies' news agencies.\"", "The Field Marshal was pleased by the media attention, although he knew the downsides of having a reputation.", "Hitler took note of the British propaganda as well, commenting in the summer of 1942 that Britain's leaders must have hoped \"to be able to explain their defeat to their own nation more easily by focusing on Rommel\".The Field Marshal was the German commander most frequently covered in the German media, and the only one to be given a press conference, which took place in October 1942.The press conference was moderated by Goebbels and was attended by both domestic and foreign media.", "Rommel declared: \"Today we (...) have the gates of Egypt in hand, and with the intent to act!\"", "Keeping the focus on Rommel distracted the German public from Wehrmacht losses elsewhere as the tide of the war began to turn.", "He became a symbol that was used to reinforce the German public's faith in an ultimate Axis victory.=== Military reverses ===In the wake of the successful British offensive in November 1942 and other military reverses, the Propaganda Ministry directed the media to emphasise Rommel's invincibility.", "The charade was maintained until the spring of 1943, even as the German situation in Africa became increasingly precarious.", "To ensure that the inevitable defeat in Africa would not be associated with Rommel's name, Goebbels had the Army High Command announce in May 1943 that Rommel was on a two-month leave for health reasons.", "Instead, the campaign was presented by Berndt, who resumed his role in the Propaganda Ministry, as a ruse to tie down the British Empire while Germany was turning Europe into an impenetrable fortress with Rommel at the helm of this success.", "After the radio programme ran in May 1943, Rommel sent Berndt a case of cigars as a sign of his gratitude.One of the many propaganda photographs of Rommel on inspection tours of the Atlantic WallAlthough Rommel then entered a period without a significant command, he remained a household name in Germany, synonymous with the aura of invincibility.", "Hitler then made Rommel part of his defensive strategy for Fortress Europe (''Festung Europa'') by sending him to the West to inspect fortifications along the Atlantic Wall.", "Goebbels supported the decision, noting in his diary that Rommel was \"undoubtedly the suitable man\" for the task.", "The propaganda minister expected the move to reassure the German public and at the same time to have a negative impact on the Allied forces' morale.In France, a Wehrmacht propaganda company frequently accompanied Rommel on his inspection trips to document his work for both domestic and foreign audiences.", "In May 1944 the German newsreels reported on Rommel's speech at a Wehrmacht conference, where he stated his conviction that \"every single German soldier will make his contribution against the Anglo-American spirit that it deserves for its criminal and bestial air war campaign against our homeland.\"", "The speech led to an upswing in morale and sustained confidence in Rommel.When Rommel was seriously wounded on 17 July 1944, the Propaganda Ministry undertook efforts to conceal the injury so as not to undermine domestic morale.", "Despite those, the news leaked to the British press.", "To counteract the rumours of a serious injury and even death, Rommel was required to appear at 1 August press conference.", "On 3 August, the German press published an official report that Rommel had been injured in a car accident.", "Rommel noted in his diary his dismay at this twisting of the truth, belatedly realising how much the Reich propaganda was using him for its own ends.=== Rommel's views on propaganda ===Rommel was interested in propaganda beyond the promotion of his own image.", "In 1944, after visiting Rommel in France and reading his proposals on counteracting Allied propaganda, Alfred-Ingemar Berndt remarked: \"He is also interested in this propaganda business and wants to develop it by all means.", "He has even thought and brought out practical suggestions for each program and subject.", "\"Rommel saw the propaganda and education values in his and his nation's deeds (He also did value justice itself; according to Admiral Ruge's diary, Rommel told Ruge: \"Justice is the indispensable foundation of a nation.", "Unfortunately, the higher-ups are not clean.", "The slaughterings are grave sins.\")", "The key to the successful creating of an image, according to Rommel, was leading by example: He urged Axis authorities to treat the Arab with the utmost respect to prevent uprisings behind the front.", "He protested the use of propaganda at the cost of explicit military benefits though, criticising Hitler's headquarters for being unable to tell the German people and the world that El Alamein had been lost and preventing the evacuation of the German forces in Northern Africa in the process.", "Ruge suggests that his chief treated his own fame as a kind of weapon.In 1943, he surprised Hitler by proposing that a Jew should be made into a ''Gauleiter'' to prove to the world that Germany was innocent of accusations that Rommel had heard from the enemy's propaganda regarding the mistreatment of Jews.", "Hitler replied, \"Dear Rommel, you understand nothing about my thinking at all.\"" ], [ "Relationship with Nazism", "Erwin Rommel and Adolf Hitler in 1942Rommel was not a member of the Nazi Party.", "Rommel and Hitler had a close and genuine, if complicated, personal relationship.", "Rommel, as other ''Wehrmacht'' officers, welcomed the Nazi rise to power.", "Numerous historians state that Rommel was one of Hitler's favourite generals and that his close relationship with the dictator benefited both his inter-war and war-time career.", "Robert Citino describes Rommel as \"not apolitical\" and writes that he owed his career to Hitler, to whom Rommel's attitude was \"worshipful\", with Messenger agreeing that Rommel owed his tank command, his hero status and other promotions to Hitler's interference and support.Kesselring described Rommel's own power over Hitler as \"hypnotic\".", "In 1944, Rommel himself told Ruge and his wife that Hitler had a kind of irresistible magnetic aura (\"Magnetismus\") and was always seemingly in an intoxicated condition.", "Maurice Remy identifies that the point at which their relationship became a personal one was 1939, when Rommel proudly announced to his friend Kurt Hesse that he had \"sort of forced Hitler to go with me (to the Hradschin Castle in Prague, in an open top car, without another bodyguard), under my personal protection ...", "He had entrusted himself to me and would never forget me for my excellent advice.", "\"The close relationship between Rommel and Hitler continued following the Western campaign; after Rommel sent to him a specially prepared diary on the 7th Division, he received a letter of thanks from the dictator.", "(According to Speer, he would normally send extremely unclear reports which annoyed Hitler greatly.)", "According to Maurice Remy, the relationship, which Remy calls \"a dream marriage\", showed the first crack only in 1942, and later gradually turned into, in the words of German writer Ernst Jünger (in contact with Rommel in Normandy), \"''Haßliebe''\" (a love-hate relationship).", "Ruge's diary and Rommel's letters to his wife show his mood fluctuating wildly regarding Hitler: while he showed disgust towards the atrocities and disappointment towards the situation, he was overjoyed to welcome a visit from Hitler, only to return to depression the next day when faced with reality.Hitler displayed the same emotions.", "Amid growing doubts and differences, he would remain eager for Rommel's calls (they had almost daily, hour-long, highly animated conversations, with the preferred topic being technical innovations): he once almost grabbed the telephone out of Linge's hand.", "But, according to Linge, seeing Rommel's disobedience Hitler also realised his mistake in building up Rommel, whom not only the Afrika Korps but also the German people in general now considered the German God.", "Hitler tried to fix the dysfunctional relationship many times without results, with Rommel calling his attempts \"Sunlamp Treatment\", although later he said that \"Once I have loved the Führer, and I still do.\"", "Remy and ''Der Spiegel'' remark that the statement was very much genuine, while Watson notes that Rommel believed he deserved to die for his treasonable plan.Rommel was an ambitious man who took advantage of his proximity to Hitler and willingly accepted the propaganda campaigns designed for him by Goebbels.", "On one hand, he wanted personal promotion and the realisation of his ideals.", "On the other hand, being elevated by the traditional system that gave preferential treatment to aristocratic officers would be betrayal of his aspiration \"to remain a man of the troops\".", "In 1918, Rommel refused an invitation to a prestigious officer training course, and with it, the chance to be promoted to general.", "Additionally, he had no inclination towards the political route, preferring to remain a soldier (\"Nur-Soldat\").", "He was thus attracted by the Common Man theme which promised to level German society, the glorification of the national community, and the idea of a soldier of common background who served the Fatherland with talent and got rewarded by another common man who embodied the will of the German people.", "While he had much indignation towards Germany's contemporary class problem, this self-association with the Common Man went along well with his desire to simulate the knights of the past, who also led from the front.", "Rommel seemed to enjoy the idea of peace, as shown by his words to his wife in August 1939: \"You can trust me, we have taken part in one World War, but as long as our generation live, there will not be a second\", as well as his letter sent to her the night before the Invasion of Poland, in which he expressed (in Maurice Remy's phrase) \"boundless optimism\": \"I still believe the atmosphere will not become more bellicose.\"", "Butler remarks that Rommel was center in his politics, leaning a little to the left in his attitude.Messenger argues that Rommel's attitude towards Hitler changed only after the Allied invasion of Normandy, when Rommel came to realise that the war could not be won, while Maurice Remy suggests that Rommel never truly broke away from the relationship with Hitler but praises him for \"always having the courage to oppose him whenever his conscience required so\".", "The historian Peter Lieb states that it was not clear whether the threat of defeat was the only reason Rommel wanted to switch sides.", "The relationship seemed to go significantly downhill after a conversation in July 1943, in which Hitler told Rommel that if they did not win the war, the Germans could rot.", "Rommel even began to think that it was lucky that his Afrika Korps was now safe as POWs and could escape Hitler's Wagnerian ending.", "Die Welt comments that Hitler chose Rommel as his favourite because he was apolitical, and that the combination of his military expertise and circumstances allowed Rommel to remain clean.Rommel's political inclinations were a controversial matter even among the contemporary Nazi elites.", "Rommel himself, while showing support to some facets of the Nazi ideology and enjoying the propaganda machine that the Nazis had built around him, was enraged by the Nazi media's effort to portray him as an early Party member and son of a mason, forcing them to correct this misinformation.", "The Nazi elites were not comfortable with the idea of a national icon who did not wholeheartedly support the regime.", "Hitler and Goebbels, his main supporters, tended to defend him.", "When Rommel was being considered for appointment as Commander-in-Chief of the Army in the summer of 1942, Goebbels wrote in his diary that Rommel \"is ideologically sound, is not just sympathetic to the National Socialists.", "He is a National Socialist; he is a troop leader with a gift for improvisation, personally courageous and extraordinarily inventive.", "These are the kinds of soldiers we need.\"", "Despite this, they gradually saw that his grasp of political realities and his views could be very different from theirs.", "Hitler knew, though, that Rommel's optimistic and combative character was indispensable for his war efforts.", "When Rommel lost faith in the final victory and Hitler's leadership, Hitler and Goebbels tried to find an alternative in Manstein to remedy the fighting will and \"political direction\" of other generals but did not succeed.Meanwhile, officials who did not like Rommel, such as Bormann and Schirach, whispered to each other that he was not a Nazi at all.", "Rommel's relationship to the Nazi elites, other than Hitler and Goebbels, was mostly hostile, although even powerful people like Bormann and Himmler had to tread carefully around Rommel.", "Himmler, who played a decisive role in Rommel's death, tried to blame Keitel and Jodl for the deed.", "And in fact the deed was initiated by them.", "They deeply resented Rommel's meteoric rise and had long feared that he would become the Commander-in-Chief.", "(Hitler also played innocent by trying to erect a monument for the national hero, on 7 March 1945) Franz Halder, after concocting several schemes to rein in Rommel through people like Paulus and Gause to no avail (even willing to undermine German operations and strategy in the process for the sole purpose of embarrassing him), concluded that Rommel was a madman with whom no one dared to cross swords because of \"his brutal methods and his backing from the highest levels\".", "(Rommel imposed a high number of courts martial, but according to Westphal, he never signed the final order.", "Owen Connelly comments that he could afford easy discipline because of his charisma).", "Rommel for his part was highly critical of Himmler, Halder, the High Command and particularly Goering who Rommel at one point called his \"bitterest enemy\".", "Hitler realised that Rommel attracted the elites' negative emotions to himself, in the same way he generated optimism in the common people.", "Depending on the case, Hitler manipulated or exacerbated the situation in order to benefit himself, although he originally had no intent of pushing Rommel to the point of destruction.", "(Even when informed of Rommel's involvement in the plot, hurt and vengeful, Hitler at first wanted to retire Rommel, and eventually offered him a last-minute chance to explain himself and refute the claims, which Rommel apparently did not take advantage of.)", "Ultimately Rommel's enemies worked together to bring him down.Maurice Remy concludes that, unwillingly and probably without ever realising it, Rommel was part of a murderous regime, although he never actually grasped the core of Nazism.", "Peter Lieb sees Rommel as a person who could not be put into a single drawer, although problematic by modern moral standards, and suggests people should personally decide for themselves whether Rommel should remain a role model or not.", "He was a Nazi general in some aspects, considering his support for the leader cult (Führerkult) and the Volksgemeinschaft, but he was not an antisemite, nor a war criminal, nor a radical ideological fighter.", "Historian Cornelia Hecht remarks \"It is really hard to know who the man behind the myth was,\" noting that in numerous letters he wrote to his wife during their almost 30-year marriage, he commented little on political issues as well as his personal life as a husband and a father." ], [ "Rommel myth", "According to some revisionist authors, an assessment of Rommel's role in history has been hampered by views of Rommel that were formed, at least in part, for political reasons, creating what these historians have called the \"Rommel myth\".", "The interpretation considered by some historians to be a myth is the depiction of the Field Marshal as an apolitical, brilliant commander and a victim of Nazi Germany who participated in the 20 July plot against Adolf Hitler.", "There are a notable number of authors who refer to \"Rommel Myth\" or \"Rommel Legend\" in a neutral or positive manner though.", "The seeds of the myth can be found first in Rommel's drive for success as a young officer in World War I and then in his popular 1937 book ''Infantry Attacks,'' which was written in a style that diverged from the German military literature of the time and became a best-seller.Rommel with Hans Speidel, who was involved in the 20 July plot.The myth then took shape during the opening years of World War II, as a component of Nazi propaganda to praise the Wehrmacht and instill optimism in the German public, with Rommel's willing participation.", "When Rommel came to North Africa, it was picked up and disseminated in the West by the British press as the Allies sought to explain their continued inability to defeat the Axis forces in North Africa.", "The British military and political figures contributed to the heroic image of the man as Rommel resumed offensive operations in January 1942 against the British forces weakened by redeployments to the Far East.", "During parliamentary debate following the fall of Tobruk, Churchill described Rommel as an \"extraordinary bold and clever opponent\" and a \"great field commander\".According to ''Der Spiegel'' following the war's end, West Germany yearned for father figures who were needed to replace the former ones who had been unmasked as criminals.", "Rommel was chosen because he embodied the decent soldier, cunning yet fair-minded, and if guilty by association, not so guilty that he became unreliable, and additionally, former comrades reported that he was close to the Resistance.", "While everyone else was disgraced, his star became brighter than ever, and he made the historically unprecedented leap over the threshold between eras: from Hitler's favourite general to the young republic's hero.", "Cornelia Hecht notes that despite the change of times, Rommel has become the symbol of different regimes and concepts, which is paradoxical, whoever the man he really was.At the same time, the Western Allies, and particularly the British, depicted Rommel as the \"good German\".", "His reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies—Britain and the United States on one side and the new Federal Republic of Germany on the other.", "When Rommel's alleged involvement in the plot to kill Hitler became known after the war, his stature was enhanced in the eyes of his former adversaries.", "Rommel was often cited in Western sources as a patriotic German willing to stand up to Hitler.", "Churchill wrote about him in 1950: \"Rommel (...) deserves our respect because, although a loyal German soldier, he came to hate Hitler and all his works and took part in the conspiracy of 1944 to rescue Germany by displacing the maniac and tyrant.\"" ], [ "Family life", "While at Cadet School in 1911, Rommel met and became engaged to 17-year-old Lucia (Lucie) Maria Mollin (1894–1971).", "While stationed in Weingarten in 1913, Rommel developed a relationship with Walburga Stemmer, which produced a daughter, Gertrud, born 8 December 1913.Because of elitism in the officer corps, Stemmer's working-class background made her unsuitable as an officer's wife, and Rommel felt honour-bound to uphold his previous commitment to Mollin.", "With Mollin's cooperation, he accepted financial responsibility for the child.", "Rommel and Mollin were married in November 1916 in Danzig.", "Rommel's marriage was a happy one, and he wrote his wife at least one letter every day while he was in the field.After the end of the First World War, the couple settled initially in Stuttgart, and Stemmer and her child lived with them.", "Gertrud was referred to as Rommel's niece, a fiction that went unquestioned because of the enormous number of women widowed during the war.", "Walburga died suddenly in October 1928, and Gertrud remained a member of the household until Rommel's death in 1944.The incident with Walburga seemed to affect Rommel for the rest of his life: he would always keep women distant.", "A son, Manfred Rommel, was born on 24 December 1928, later served as Mayor of Stuttgart from 1974 to 1996.Bust of Rommel at Al Alamein war museum in Egypt, which was built by Anwar Sadat in honour of Rommel.", "The museum was later expanded into a general war museum but Rommel remains a central figure." ], [ "Awards", "* Military Merit Order (Württemberg)* Friedrich Order Knight 1st Class (Württemberg)* Military Merit Cross, 3rd class with war decoration and swords (Austria-Hungary)* Military Merit Order (Bavaria) 4th Class with Swords* Iron Cross 2nd Class on 24 September 1914 and 1st Class on 29 January 1915* Pour le Mérite on 18 December 1917* Wound Badge 1918 in Silver* Clasp to the Iron Cross 2nd Class on 13 May 1940 and 1st Class on 15 May 1940* Panzer Badge In Silver* Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds** Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 27 May 1940 as commander of the 7th Panzer-Division** Oak Leaves (10th recipient) on 20 March 1941 as commander of the 7th Panzer-Division** Swords (sixth recipient) on 20 January 1942 as commander of the Panzer Group Afrika** Diamonds (sixth recipient) on 11 March 1943 as commander in chief of the Army Group Afrika* Grand Officer of the Military Order of Savoy on 11 May 1941** Knight Grand Cross in summer 1942* Italian Gold Medal of Military Valour in February 1942* Knight of the Colonial Order of the Star of Italy in February 1942" ], [ "Commemoration", "Heidenheim, GermanyThe German Army's largest base, the Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Augustdorf, is named in his honour; at the dedication in 1961 his widow Lucie and son Manfred Rommel were guests of honour.", "The Rommel Barracks, Dornstadt, was also named for him in 1965.A third base named for him, the Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Osterode, closed in 2004.The was named for him in 1969 and christened by his widow; the ship was decommissioned in 1998.The Rommel Memorial was erected in Heidenheim in 1961.In 2020, a sculpture of a landmine victim was placed next to the Rommel Memorial in Heidenheim.", "The city mayor Bernhard Ilg comments that, regarding \"the great son of Heidenheim\", \"there are many opinions\".", "Heidenheim eventually dedicated the Memorial towards a stand against war, militarism and extremism, stating that when the memorial was erected in 1961, statements were added that now are not compatible with modern knowledge about Rommel.", "The ''Deutsche Welle'' notes that the 17 million mines the British, Italian, and German armies left continue to claim lives to this day.In Aalen, after a discussion on renaming a street named after him, a new place of commemoration was created, where stelae with information on the lives of Rommel and three opponents of the regime (Eugen Bolz, Friedrich Schwarz and Karl Mikeller) stand together (Rommel's stele is dark blue and rusty red while the others are light-coloured).", "The History Association of Aalen, together with an independent commission of historians from Düsseldorf, welcomes the keeping of the street's name and notes that Rommel was neither war criminal nor resistance fighter, but perpetrator and victim at the same time – he willingly served as figurehead for the regime, then lately recognised his mistake and paid for that with his life.", "An education program named \"Erwin Rommel and Aalen\" for school children in Aalen is also established.In 2021, the Student Council of the Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU) decided to change the name of their Süd-Campus (South Campus, Erlangen) into Rommel-Campus, emphasising that the city of Erlangen stands behind the name and the university needs to do the same.", "The university's branch of the Education and Science Workers' Union (GEW) describes the decision as problematic considering Rommel's history of supporting the Nazi regime militarily and propagandistically.Numerous streets in Germany, especially in Rommel's home state of Baden-Württemberg, are named in his honour, including the street near where his last home was located.", "The Rommel Museum opened in 1989 in the Villa Lindenhof in Herrlingen.", "The museum now operates under the name Museum Lebenslinien (Lifelines Museum), which presents the lives of Rommel and other notable residents of Herrlingen, including the poet Gertrud Kantorowicz (whose collection is presented together with the Rommel Archive inside a building on a road named after Rommel), the educators Anna Essinger and Hugo Rosenthal.", "There is also a Rommel Museum in Mersa Matruh in Egypt which opened in 1977, and which is located in one of Rommel's former headquarters; various other localities and establishments in Mersa Matruh, including Rommel Beach, are also named for Rommel.", "The reason for the naming is that he respected the Bedouins' traditions and the sanctity of their homes (he always kept his troops at least 2 kilometres from their houses) and refused to poison the wells against the Allies, fearing doing so would harm the population.In Italy, the annual marathon tour \"Rommel Trail\", which is sponsored by the Protezione Civile and the autonomous region of Friuli Venezia Giulia through its tourism agency, celebrates Rommel and the Battle of Caporetto.", "The naming and sponsoring (at that time by the center-left PD) was criticised by the politician Giuseppe Civati in 2017." ], [ "See also", "* Erwin Rommel and the Bundeswehr" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * Samuels, Martin (2017) \"Erwin Rommel and German Military Doctrine, 1912–1940\" ''War in History'' v.24 n.3 pp.", "308–35* *" ], [ "External links", "* * Erwin Rommel.", "Biography.com* * \"Defeating the Desert Fox\": , via the official channel of The National WWII Museum; session by Nigel Hamilton at the 2012 International Conference on World War II* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Edmund Husserl" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl''' ( , , ; 8 April 1859 – 27 April 1938) was an Austrian-German philosopher and mathematician who established the school of phenomenology.In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality.", "In his mature work, he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so-called phenomenological reduction.", "Arguing that transcendental consciousness sets the limits of all possible knowledge, Husserl redefined phenomenology as a transcendental-idealist philosophy.", "Husserl's thought profoundly influenced 20th-century philosophy, and he remains a notable figure in contemporary philosophy and beyond.Husserl studied mathematics, taught by Karl Weierstrass and Leo Königsberger, and philosophy taught by Franz Brentano and Carl Stumpf.", "He taught philosophy as a ''Privatdozent'' at Halle from 1887, then as professor, first at Göttingen from 1901, then at Freiburg from 1916 until he retired in 1928, after which he remained highly productive.", "In 1933, under racial laws of the Nazi Party, Husserl was expelled from the library of the University of Freiburg due to his Jewish family background and months later resigned from the Deutsche Akademie.", "Following an illness, he died in Freiburg in 1938." ], [ "Life and career", "===Youth and education===Husserl was born in 1859 in Proßnitz in the Margraviate of Moravia in the Austrian Empire (today Prostějov in the Czech Republic).", "He was born into a Jewish family, the second of four children.", "His father was a milliner.", "His childhood was spent in Prostějov, where he attended the secular primary school.", "Then Husserl traveled to Vienna to study at the ''Realgymnasium'' there, followed next by the Staatsgymnasium in Olmütz.At the University of Leipzig from 1876 to 1878, Husserl studied mathematics, physics, and astronomy.", "At Leipzig, he was inspired by philosophy lectures given by Wilhelm Wundt, one of the founders of modern psychology.", "Then he moved to the Frederick William University of Berlin (the present-day Humboldt University of Berlin) in 1878 where he continued his study of mathematics under Leopold Kronecker and the renowned Karl Weierstrass.", "In Berlin he found a mentor in Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, then a former philosophy student of Franz Brentano and later the first president of Czechoslovakia.", "There Husserl also attended Friedrich Paulsen's philosophy lectures.", "In 1881 he left for the University of Vienna to complete his mathematics studies under the supervision of Leo Königsberger (a former student of Weierstrass).", "At Vienna in 1883 he obtained his PhD with the work ''Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung'' (''Contributions to the Calculus of Variations'').Evidently as a result of his becoming familiar with the New Testament during his twenties, Husserl asked to be baptized into the Lutheran Church in 1886.Husserl's father Adolf had died in 1884.Herbert Spiegelberg writes, \"While outward religious practice never entered his life any more than it did that of most academic scholars of the time, his mind remained open for the religious phenomenon as for any other genuine experience.\"", "At times Husserl saw his goal as one of moral \"renewal\".", "Although a steadfast proponent of a radical and rational ''autonomy'' in all things, Husserl could also speak \"about his vocation and even about his mission under God's will to find new ways for philosophy and science,\" observes Spiegelberg.Following his PhD in mathematics, Husserl returned to Berlin to work as the assistant to Karl Weierstrass.", "Yet already Husserl had felt the desire to pursue philosophy.", "Then professor Weierstrass became very ill. Husserl became free to return to Vienna where, after serving a short military duty, he devoted his attention to philosophy.", "In 1884 at the University of Vienna he attended the lectures of Franz Brentano on philosophy and philosophical psychology.", "Brentano introduced him to the writings of Bernard Bolzano, Hermann Lotze, J. Stuart Mill, and David Hume.", "Husserl was so impressed by Brentano that he decided to dedicate his life to philosophy; indeed, Franz Brentano is often credited as being his most important influence, e.g., with regard to intentionality.", "Following academic advice, two years later in 1886 Husserl followed Carl Stumpf, a former student of Brentano, to the University of Halle, seeking to obtain his habilitation which would qualify him to teach at the university level.", "There, under Stumpf's supervision, he wrote ''Über den Begriff der Zahl'' (''On the Concept of Number'') in 1887, which would serve later as the basis for his first important work, ''Philosophie der Arithmetik'' (1891).In 1887 Husserl married Malvine Steinschneider, a union that would last over fifty years.", "In 1892 their daughter Elizabeth was born, in 1893 their son Gerhart, and in 1894 their son Wolfgang.", "Elizabeth would marry in 1922, and Gerhart in 1923; Wolfgang, however, became a casualty of the First World War.", "Gerhart would become a philosopher of law, contributing to the subject of comparative law, teaching in the United States and after the war in Austria.===Professor of philosophy===Edmund Husserl Following his marriage Husserl began his long teaching career in philosophy.", "He started in 1887 as a ''Privatdozent'' at the University of Halle.", "In 1891 he published his ''Philosophie der Arithmetik.", "Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen'' which, drawing on his prior studies in mathematics and philosophy, proposed a psychological context as the basis of mathematics.", "It drew the adverse notice of Gottlob Frege, who criticized its psychologism.In 1901 Husserl with his family moved to the University of Göttingen, where he taught as ''extraordinarius professor''.", "Just prior to this a major work of his, ''Logische Untersuchungen'' (Halle, 1900–1901), was published.", "Volume One contains seasoned reflections on \"pure logic\" in which he carefully refutes \"psychologism\".", "This work was well received and became the subject of a seminar given by Wilhelm Dilthey; Husserl in 1905 traveled to Berlin to visit Dilthey.", "Two years later in Italy he paid a visit to Franz Brentano his inspiring old teacher and to Constantin Carathéodory the mathematician.", "Kant and Descartes were also now influencing his thought.", "In 1910 he became joint editor of the journal ''Logos''.", "During this period Husserl had delivered lectures on ''internal time consciousness'', which several decades later his former student Heidegger edited for publication.In 1912 at Freiburg the journal ''Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung'' (\"Yearbook for Philosophy and Phenomenological Research\") was founded by Husserl and his school, and which published articles of their phenomenological movement from 1913 to 1930.His important work ''Ideen'' was published in its first issue (Vol.", "1, Issue 1, 1913).", "Before beginning ''Ideen'', Husserl's thought had reached the stage where \"each subject is 'presented' to itself, and to each all others are 'presentiated' (''Vergegenwärtigung''), not as parts of nature but as pure consciousness\".", "''Ideen'' advanced his transition to a \"transcendental interpretation\" of phenomenology, a view later criticized by, among others, Jean-Paul Sartre.", "In ''Ideen'' Paul Ricœur sees the development of Husserl's thought as leading \"from the psychological cogito to the transcendental cogito\".", "As phenomenology further evolves, it leads (when viewed from another vantage point in Husserl's 'labyrinth') to \"transcendental subjectivity\".", "Also in ''Ideen'' Husserl explicitly elaborates the phenomenological and eidetic reductions.", "Ivan Ilyin and Karl Jaspers visited Husserl at Göttingen.In October 1914 both his sons were sent to fight on the Western Front of World War I, and the following year one of them, Wolfgang Husserl, was badly injured.", "On 8 March 1916, on the battlefield of Verdun, Wolfgang was killed in action.", "The next year his other son Gerhart Husserl was wounded in the war but survived.", "His own mother Julia died.", "In November 1917 one of his outstanding students and later a noted philosophy professor in his own right, Adolf Reinach, was killed in the war while serving in Flanders.Husserl had transferred in 1916 to the University of Freiburg (in Freiburg im Breisgau) where he continued bringing his work in philosophy to fruition, now as a full professor.", "Edith Stein served as his personal assistant during his first few years in Freiburg, followed later by Martin Heidegger from 1920 to 1923.The mathematician Hermann Weyl began corresponding with him in 1918.Husserl gave four lectures on Phenomenological method at University College London in 1922.The University of Berlin in 1923 called on him to relocate there, but he declined the offer.", "In 1926 Heidegger dedicated his book ''Sein und Zeit'' (''Being and Time'') to him \"in grateful respect and friendship.\"", "Husserl remained in his professorship at Freiburg until he requested retirement, teaching his last class on 25 July 1928.A ''Festschrift'' to celebrate his seventieth birthday was presented to him on 8 April 1929.Despite retirement, Husserl gave several notable lectures.", "The first, at Paris in 1929, led to ''Méditations cartésiennes'' (Paris 1931).", "Husserl here reviews the phenomenological epoché (or phenomenological reduction), presented earlier in his pivotal ''Ideen'' (1913), in terms of a further reduction of experience to what he calls a 'sphere of ownness.'", "From within this sphere, which Husserl enacts in order to show the impossibility of solipsism, the transcendental ego finds itself always already paired with the lived body of another ego, another monad.", "This 'a priori' interconnection of bodies, given in perception, is what founds the interconnection of consciousnesses known as transcendental intersubjectivity, which Husserl would go on to describe at length in volumes of unpublished writings.", "There has been a debate over whether or not Husserl's description of ownness and its movement into intersubjectivity is sufficient to reject the charge of solipsism, to which Descartes, for example, was subject.", "One argument against Husserl's description works this way: instead of infinity and the Deity being the ego's gateway to the Other, as in Descartes, Husserl's ego in the ''Cartesian Meditations'' itself becomes transcendent.", "It remains, however, alone (unconnected).", "Only the ego's grasp \"by analogy\" of the Other (e.g., by conjectural reciprocity) allows the possibility for an 'objective' intersubjectivity, and hence for community.In 1933, the racial laws of the new National Socialist German Workers Party were enacted.", "On 6 April Husserl was banned from using the library at the University of Freiburg, or any other academic library; the following week, after a public outcry, he was reinstated.", "Yet his colleague Heidegger was elected Rector of the university on 21–22 April, and joined the Nazi Party.", "By contrast, in July Husserl resigned from the Deutsche Akademie.The Kiepenheuer Institute for Solar Physics in Freiburg, Husserl's home 1937–1938Later Husserl lectured at Prague in 1935 and Vienna in 1936, which resulted in a very differently styled work that, while innovative, is no less problematic: ''Die Krisis'' (Belgrade 1936).", "Husserl describes here the cultural crisis gripping Europe, then approaches a philosophy of history, discussing Galileo, Descartes, several British philosophers, and Kant.", "The apolitical Husserl before had specifically avoided such historical discussions, pointedly preferring to go directly to an investigation of consciousness.", "Merleau-Ponty and others question whether Husserl here does not undercut his own position, in that Husserl had attacked in principle historicism, while specifically designing his phenomenology to be rigorous enough to transcend the limits of history.", "On the contrary, Husserl may be indicating here that historical traditions are merely features given to the pure ego's intuition, like any other.", "A longer section follows on the \"lifeworld\" ''Lebenswelt'', one not observed by the objective logic of science, but a world seen through subjective experience.", "Yet a problem arises similar to that dealing with 'history' above, a chicken-and-egg problem.", "Does the lifeworld contextualize and thus compromise the gaze of the pure ego, or does the phenomenological method nonetheless raise the ego up transcendent?", "These last writings presented the fruits of his professional life.", "Since his university retirement Husserl had \"worked at a tremendous pace, producing several major works.", "\"After suffering a fall in the autumn of 1937, the philosopher became ill with pleurisy.", "Edmund Husserl died in Freiburg on 27 April 1938, having just turned 79.His wife Malvine survived him.", "Eugen Fink, his research assistant, delivered his eulogy.", "Gerhard Ritter was the only Freiburg faculty member to attend the funeral, as an anti-Nazi protest.===Heidegger and the Nazi era===Husserl was rumoured to have been denied the use of the library at Freiburg as a result of the anti-Jewish legislation of April 1933.However, among other disabilities Husserl was unable to publish his works in Nazi Germany see above footnote to ''Die Krisis'' (1936).", "It was also rumoured that his former pupil Martin Heidegger informed Husserl that he was discharged, but it was actually the previous rector.Apparently Husserl and Heidegger had moved apart during the 1920s, which became clearer after 1928 when Husserl retired and Heidegger succeeded to his university chair.", "In the summer of 1929 Husserl had studied carefully selected writings of Heidegger, coming to the conclusion that on several of their key positions they differed: e.g., Heidegger substituted ''Dasein'' \"Being-there\" for the pure ego, thus transforming phenomenology into an anthropology, a type of psychologism strongly disfavored by Husserl.", "Such observations of Heidegger, along with a critique of Max Scheler, were put into a lecture Husserl gave to various ''Kant Societies'' in Frankfurt, Berlin, and Halle during 1931 entitled ''Phänomenologie und Anthropologie''.In the war-time 1941 edition of Heidegger's primary work, ''Being and Time'' (''Sein und Zeit'', first published in 1927), the original dedication to Husserl was removed.", "This was not due to a negation of the relationship between the two philosophers, however, but rather was the result of a suggested censorship by Heidegger's publisher who feared that the book might otherwise be banned by the Nazi regime.", "The dedication can still be found in a footnote on page 38, thanking Husserl for his guidance and generosity.", "Husserl, of course, had died three years earlier.", "In post-war editions of ''Sein und Zeit'' the dedication to Husserl is restored.", "The complex, troubled, and sundered philosophical relationship between Husserl and Heidegger has been widely discussed.On 4 May 1933, Professor Edmund Husserl addressed the recent regime change in Germany and its consequences:The future alone will judge which was the true Germany in 1933, and who were the true Germans—those who subscribe to the more or less materialistic-mythical racial prejudices of the day, or those Germans pure in heart and mind, heirs to the great Germans of the past whose tradition they revere and perpetuate.After his death, Husserl's manuscripts, amounting to approximately 40,000 pages of \"''Gabelsberger''\" stenography and his complete research library, were in 1939 smuggled to the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium by the Franciscan priest Herman Van Breda.", "There they were deposited at Leuven to form the ''Husserl-Archives'' of the Higher Institute of Philosophy.", "Much of the material in his research manuscripts has since been published in the Husserliana critical edition series." ], [ "Development of his thought", "===Several early themes===In his first works, Husserl combined mathematics, psychology, and philosophy with the goal of providing a sound foundation for mathematics.", "He analyzed the psychological process needed to obtain the concept of number and then built up a theory on this analysis.", "He used methods and concepts taken from his teachers.", "From Weierstrass he derived the idea of generating the concept of number by counting a certain collection of objects.", "From Brentano and Stumpf he took the distinction between ''proper'' and ''improper'' presenting.", "In an example, Husserl explained this in the following way: if someone is standing in front of a house, they have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if they are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g.", "the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation.", "In other words, the person can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic, as Husserl also calls it) one if they only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc.", "Husserl's ''Logical Investigations'' (1900–1901) is considered the starting point for the formal theory of wholes and their parts known as mereology.Another important element that Husserl took over from Brentano was intentionality, the notion that the main characteristic of consciousness is that it is always intentional.", "While often simplistically summarised as \"aboutness\" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of ''mental phenomena'', by which they could be distinguished from ''physical phenomena''.", "Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act, has a content, is directed at an object (the ''intentional object'').", "Every belief, desire, etc.", "has an object that it is about: the believed, the wanted.", "Brentano used the expression \"intentional inexistence\" to indicate the status of the objects of thought in the mind.", "The property of being intentional, of having an intentional object, was the key feature to distinguish mental phenomena and physical phenomena, because physical phenomena lack intentionality altogether.===The elaboration of phenomenology===Some years after the 1900–1901 publication of his main work, the ''Logische Untersuchungen'' (''Logical Investigations''), Husserl made some key conceptual elaborations which led him to assert that in order to study the structure of consciousness, one would have to distinguish between the act of consciousness and the phenomena at which it is directed (the objects as intended).", "Knowledge of essences would only be possible by \"bracketing\" all assumptions about the existence of an external world.", "This procedure he called \"epoché\".", "These new concepts prompted the publication of the ''Ideen'' (''Ideas'') in 1913, in which they were at first incorporated, and a plan for a second edition of the ''Logische Untersuchungen''.From the ''Ideen'' onward, Husserl concentrated on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness.", "The metaphysical problem of establishing the reality of what people perceive, as distinct from the perceiving subject, was of little interest to Husserl in spite of his being a transcendental idealist.", "Husserl proposed that the world of objects—and of ways in which people direct themselves toward and perceive those objects—is normally conceived of in what he called the \"natural attitude\", which is characterized by a belief that objects exist distinct from the perceiving subject and exhibit properties that people see as emanating from them (this attitude is also called physicalist objectivism).", "Husserl proposed a radical new phenomenological way of looking at objects by examining how people, in their many ways of being intentionally directed toward them, actually \"constitute\" them (to be distinguished from materially creating objects or objects merely being figments of the imagination); in the Phenomenological standpoint, the object ceases to be something simply \"external\" and ceases to be seen as providing indicators about what it is, and becomes a grouping of perceptual and functional aspects that imply one another under the idea of a particular object or \"type\".", "The notion of objects as real is not expelled by phenomenology, but \"bracketed\" as a way in which people regard objectsinstead of a feature that inheres in an object's essence founded in the relation between the object and the perceiver.", "In order to better understand the world of appearances and objects, phenomenology attempts to identify the invariant features of how objects are perceived and pushes attributions of reality into their role as an attribution about the things people perceive (or an assumption underlying how people perceive objects).", "The major dividing line in Husserl's thought is the turn to transcendental idealism.In a later period, Husserl began to wrestle with the complicated issues of intersubjectivity, specifically, how communication about an object can be assumed to refer to the same ideal entity (''Cartesian Meditations'', Meditation V).", "Husserl tries new methods of bringing his readers to understand the importance of phenomenology to scientific inquiry (and specifically to psychology) and what it means to \"bracket\" the natural attitude.", "''The Crisis of the European Sciences'' is Husserl's unfinished work that deals most directly with these issues.", "In it, Husserl for the first time attempts a historical overview of the development of Western philosophy and science, emphasizing the challenges presented by their increasingly one-sidedly empirical and naturalistic orientation.", "Husserl declares that mental and spiritual reality possess their own reality independent of any physical basis, and that a science of the mind ('Geisteswissenschaft') must be established on as scientific a foundation as the natural sciences have managed: \"It is my conviction that intentional phenomenology has for the first time made spirit as spirit the field of systematic scientific experience, thus effecting a total transformation of the task of knowledge.\"" ], [ "Husserl's thought", "Husserl's thought is revolutionary in several ways, most notably in the distinction between \"natural\" and \"phenomenological\" modes of understanding.", "In the former, sense-perception in correspondence with the material realm constitutes the known reality, and understanding is premised on the accuracy of the perception and the objective knowability of what is called the \"real world\".", "Phenomenological understanding strives to be rigorously \"presuppositionless\" by means of what Husserl calls \"phenomenological reduction\".", "This reduction is not conditioned but rather transcendental: in Husserl's terms, pure consciousness of absolute Being.", "In Husserl's work, consciousness of any given thing calls for discerning its meaning as an \"intentional object\".", "Such an object does not simply strike the senses, to be interpreted or misinterpreted by mental reason; it has already been selected and grasped, grasping being an etymological connotation, of ''percipere'', the root of \"perceive\".===Meaning and object===From ''Logical Investigations'' (1900/1901) to ''Experience and Judgment'' (published in 1939), Husserl expressed clearly the difference between meaning and object.", "He identified several different kinds of names.", "For example, there are names that have the role of properties that uniquely identify an object.", "Each of these names expresses a meaning and designates the same object.", "Examples of this are \"the victor in Jena\" and \"the loser in Waterloo\", or \"the equilateral triangle\" and \"the equiangular triangle\"; in both cases, both names express different meanings, but designate the same object.", "There are names which have no meaning, but have the role of designating an object: \"Aristotle\", \"Socrates\", and so on.", "Finally, there are names which designate a variety of objects.", "These are called \"universal names\"; their meaning is a \"concept\" and refers to a series of objects (the extension of the concept).", "The way people know sensible objects is called \"sensible intuition\".Husserl also identifies a series of \"formal words\" which are necessary to form sentences and have no sensible correlates.", "Examples of formal words are \"a\", \"the\", \"more than\", \"over\", \"under\", \"two\", \"group\", and so on.", "Every sentence must contain formal words to designate what Husserl calls \"formal categories\".", "There are two kinds of categories: meaning categories and formal-ontological categories.", "Meaning categories relate judgments; they include forms of conjunction, disjunction, forms of plural, among others.", "Formal-ontological categories relate objects and include notions such as set, cardinal number, ordinal number, part and whole, relation, and so on.", "The way people know these categories is through a faculty of understanding called \"categorial intuition\".Through sensible intuition, consciousness constitutes what Husserl calls a \"situation of affairs\" (''Sachlage'').", "It is a passive constitution where objects themselves are presented.", "To this situation of affairs, through categorial intuition, people are able to constitute a \"state of affairs\" (''Sachverhalt'').", "One situation of affairs through objective acts of consciousness (acts of constituting categorially) can serve as the basis for constituting multiple states of affairs.", "For example, suppose ''a'' and ''b'' are two sensible objects in a certain situation of affairs.", "It can be used as the basis to say, \"''a''''a''\", two judgments which designate the same state of affairs.", "For Husserl a sentence has a proposition or judgment as its meaning, and refers to a state of affairs which has a situation of affairs as a reference base.=== Formal and regional ontology ===Husserl sees ontology as a ''science of essences''.", "''Sciences of essences'' are contrasted with ''factual sciences'': the former are knowable a priori and provide the foundation for the later, which are knowable a posteriori.", "Ontology as a science of essences is not interested in ''actual facts'', but in the essences themselves, whether they ''have instances or not''.", "Husserl distinguishes between ''formal ontology'', which investigates the essence of ''objectivity in general'', and ''regional ontologies'', which study ''regional essences'' that are shared by all entities belonging to the region.", "Regions correspond to the highest genera of concrete entities: material nature, personal consciousness and interpersonal spirit.", "Husserl's method for studying ontology and sciences of essence in general is called eidetic variation.", "It involves imagining an object of the kind under investigation and varying its features.", "The changed feature is ''inessential'' to this kind if the object can survive its change, otherwise it belongs to the ''kind's essence''.", "For example, a triangle remains a triangle if one of its sides is extended but it ceases to be a triangle if a fourth side is added.", "Regional ontology involves applying this method to the essences corresponding to the highest genera.===Philosophy of logic and mathematics===Husserl believed that ''truth-in-itself'' has as ontological correlate ''being-in-itself'', just as meaning categories have formal-ontological categories as correlates.", "Logic is a formal theory of judgment, that studies the formal ''a priori'' relations among judgments using meaning categories.", "Mathematics, on the other hand, is formal ontology; it studies all the possible forms of being (of objects).", "Hence for both logic and mathematics, the different formal categories are the objects of study, not the sensible objects themselves.", "The problem with the psychological approach to mathematics and logic is that it fails to account for the fact that this approach is about formal categories, and not simply about abstractions from sensibility alone.", "The reason why sensible objects are not dealt with in mathematics is because of another faculty of understanding called \"categorial abstraction.\"", "Through this faculty people are able to get rid of sensible components of judgments, and just focus on formal categories themselves.Thanks to \"eidetic reduction\" (or \"essential intuition\"), people are able to grasp the possibility, impossibility, necessity and contingency among concepts and among formal categories.", "Categorial intuition, along with categorial abstraction and eidetic reduction, are the basis for logical and mathematical knowledge.Husserl criticized the logicians of his day for not focusing on the relation between subjective processes that offer objective knowledge of pure logic.", "All subjective activities of consciousness need an ideal correlate, and objective logic (constituted noematically) as it is constituted by consciousness needs a noetic correlate (the subjective activities of consciousness).Husserl stated that logic has three strata, each further away from consciousness and psychology than those that precede it.", "* The first stratum is what Husserl called a \"morphology of meanings\" concerning ''a priori'' ways to relate judgments to make them meaningful.", "In this stratum people elaborate a \"pure grammar\" or a logical syntax, and he would call its rules \"laws to prevent non-sense\", which would be similar to what logic calls today \"formation rules\".", "Mathematics, as logic's ontological correlate, also has a similar stratum, a \"morphology of formal-ontological categories\".", "* The second stratum would be called by Husserl \"logic of consequence\" or the \"logic of non-contradiction\" which explores all possible forms of true judgments.", "He includes here syllogistic classic logic, propositional logic and that of predicates.", "This is a semantic stratum, and the rules of this stratum would be the \"laws to avoid counter-sense\" or \"laws to prevent contradiction\".", "They are very similar to today's logic \"transformation rules\".", "Mathematics also has a similar stratum which is based among others on pure theory of pluralities, and a pure theory of numbers.", "They provide a science of the conditions of possibility of any theory whatsoever.", "Husserl also talked about what he called \"logic of truth\" which consists of the formal laws of possible truth and its modalities, and precedes the third logical third stratum.", "* The third stratum is metalogical, what he called a \"theory of all possible forms of theories.\"", "It explores all possible theories in an ''a priori'' fashion, rather than the possibility of theory in general.", "Theories of possible relations between pure forms of theories could be established; these logical relations could in turn be investigated using deduction.", "The logician is free to see the extension of this deductive, theoretical sphere of pure logic.The ontological correlate to the third stratum is the \"theory of manifolds\".", "In formal ontology, it is a free investigation where a mathematician can assign several meanings to several symbols, and all their possible valid deductions in a general and indeterminate manner.", "It is, properly speaking, the most universal mathematics of all.", "Through the posit of certain indeterminate objects (formal-ontological categories) as well as any combination of mathematical axioms, mathematicians can explore the apodeictic connections between them, as long as consistency is preserved.According to Husserl, this view of logic and mathematics accounted for the objectivity of a series of mathematical developments of his time, such as ''n''-dimensional manifolds (both Euclidean and non-Euclidean), Hermann Grassmann's theory of extensions, William Rowan Hamilton's Hamiltonians, Sophus Lie's theory of transformation groups, and Cantor's set theory.Jacob Klein was one student of Husserl who pursued this line of inquiry, seeking to \"desedimentize\" mathematics and the mathematical sciences." ], [ "Husserl and psychologism", "===Philosophy of arithmetic and Frege===After obtaining his PhD in mathematics, Husserl began analyzing the foundations of mathematics from a psychological point of view.", "In his habilitation thesis, ''On the Concept of Number'' (1886) and in his ''Philosophy of Arithmetic'' (1891), Husserl sought, by employing Brentano's descriptive psychology, to define the natural numbers in a way that advanced the methods and techniques of Karl Weierstrass, Richard Dedekind, Georg Cantor, Gottlob Frege, and other contemporary mathematicians.", "Later, in the first volume of his ''Logical Investigations'', the ''Prolegomena of Pure Logic'', Husserl, while attacking the psychologistic point of view in logic and mathematics, also appears to reject much of his early work, although the forms of psychologism analysed and refuted in the ''Prolegomena'' did not apply directly to his ''Philosophy of Arithmetic''.", "Some scholars question whether Frege's negative review of the ''Philosophy of Arithmetic'' helped turn Husserl towards modern Platonism, but he had already discovered the work of Bernard Bolzano independently around 1890/91.In his ''Logical Investigations'', Husserl explicitly mentioned Bolzano, G. W. Leibniz and Hermann Lotze as inspirations for his newer position.Husserl's review of Ernst Schröder, published before Frege's landmark 1892 article, clearly distinguishes sense from reference; thus Husserl's notions of noema and object also arose independently.", "Likewise, in his criticism of Frege in the ''Philosophy of Arithmetic'', Husserl remarks on the distinction between the content and the extension of a concept.", "Moreover, the distinction between the subjective mental act, namely the content of a concept, and the (external) object, was developed independently by Brentano and his school, and may have surfaced as early as Brentano's 1870s lectures on logic.Scholars such as J. N. Mohanty, Claire Ortiz Hill, and Guillermo E. Rosado Haddock, among others, have argued that Husserl's so-called change from psychologism to Platonism came about independently of Frege's review.For example, the review falsely accuses Husserl of subjectivizing everything, so that no objectivity is possible, and falsely attributes to him a notion of abstraction whereby objects disappear until all that remains are numbers as mere ghosts.", "Contrary to what Frege states, in Husserl's ''Philosophy of Arithmetic'' there are already two different kinds of representations: subjective and objective.", "Moreover, objectivity is clearly defined in that work.", "Frege's attack seems to be directed at certain foundational doctrines then current in Weierstrass's Berlin School, of which Husserl and Cantor cannot be said to be orthodox representatives.Furthermore, various sources indicate that Husserl changed his mind about psychologism as early as 1890, a year before he published the ''Philosophy of Arithmetic''.", "Husserl stated that by the time he published that book, he had already changed his mind—that he had doubts about psychologism from the very outset.", "He attributed this change of mind to his reading of Leibniz, Bolzano, Lotze, and David Hume.", "Husserl makes no mention of Frege as a decisive factor in this change.", "In his ''Logical Investigations'', Husserl mentions Frege only twice, once in a footnote to point out that he had retracted three pages of his criticism of Frege's ''The Foundations of Arithmetic'', and again to question Frege's use of the word ''Bedeutung'' to designate \"reference\" rather than \"meaning\" (sense).In a letter dated 24 May 1891, Frege thanked Husserl for sending him a copy of the ''Philosophy of Arithmetic'' and Husserl's review of Ernst Schröder's ''Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik''.", "In the same letter, Frege used the review of Schröder's book to analyze Husserl's notion of the sense of reference of concept words.", "Hence Frege recognized, as early as 1891, that Husserl distinguished between sense and reference.", "Consequently, Frege and Husserl independently elaborated a theory of sense and reference before 1891.Commentators argue that Husserl's notion of noema has nothing to do with Frege's notion of sense, because ''noemata'' are necessarily fused with noeses which are the conscious activities of consciousness.", "''Noemata'' have three different levels:* The substratum, which is never presented to the consciousness, and is the support of all the properties of the object;* The ''noematic'' senses, which are the different ways the objects are presented to us;* The modalities of being (possible, doubtful, existent, non-existent, absurd, and so on).Consequently, in intentional activities, even non-existent objects can be constituted, and form part of the whole noema.", "Frege, however, did not conceive of objects as forming parts of senses: If a proper name denotes a non-existent object, it does not have a reference, hence concepts with no objects have no truth value in arguments.", "Moreover, Husserl did not maintain that predicates of sentences designate concepts.", "According to Frege the reference of a sentence is a truth value; for Husserl it is a \"state of affairs.\"", "Frege's notion of \"sense\" is unrelated to Husserl's noema, while the latter's notions of \"meaning\" and \"object\" differ from those of Frege.In detail, Husserl's conception of logic and mathematics differs from that of Frege, who held that arithmetic could be derived from logic.", "For Husserl this is not the case: mathematics (with the exception of geometry) is the ontological correlate of logic, and while both fields are related, neither one is strictly reducible to the other.===Husserl's criticism of psychologism===Reacting against authors such as J. S. Mill, Christoph von Sigwart and his own former teacher Brentano, Husserl criticised their psychologism in mathematics and logic, i.e.", "their conception of these abstract and ''a priori'' sciences as having an essentially empirical foundation and a prescriptive or descriptive nature.", "According to psychologism, logic would not be an autonomous discipline, but a branch of psychology, either proposing a prescriptive and practical \"art\" of correct judgement (as Brentano and some of his more orthodox students did) or a description of the factual processes of human thought.", "Husserl pointed out that the failure of anti-psychologists to defeat psychologism was a result of being unable to distinguish between the foundational, theoretical side of logic, and the applied, practical side.", "Pure logic does not deal at all with \"thoughts\" or \"judgings\" as mental episodes but about ''a priori'' laws and conditions for any theory and any judgments whatsoever, conceived as propositions in themselves.", ":\"Here 'Judgement' has the same meaning as 'proposition', understood, not as a grammatical, but as an ideal unity of meaning.", "This is the case with all the distinctions of acts or forms of judgement, which provide the foundations for the laws of pure logic.", "Categorial, hypothetical, disjunctive, existential judgements, and however else we may call them, in pure logic are not names for classes of judgements, but for ideal forms of propositions.", "\"Since \"truth-in-itself\" has \"being-in-itself\" as ontological correlate, and since psychologists reduce truth (and hence logic) to empirical psychology, the inevitable consequence is scepticism.", "Psychologists have not been successful either in showing how induction or psychological processes can justify the absolute certainty of logical principles, such as the principles of identity and non-contradiction.", "It is therefore futile to base certain logical laws and principles on uncertain processes of the mind.This confusion made by psychologism (and related disciplines such as biologism and anthropologism) can be due to three specific prejudices:1.The first prejudice is the supposition that logic is somehow normative in nature.", "Husserl argues that logic is theoretical, i.e., that logic itself proposes ''a priori'' laws which are themselves the basis of the normative side of logic.", "Since mathematics is related to logic, he cites an example from mathematics: a formula like \"(a + b)(a – b) = a² – b²\" does not offer any insight into how to think mathematically.", "It just expresses a truth.", "A proposition that says: \"The product of the sum and the difference of a and b ''should'' give the difference of the squares of a and b\" does express a normative proposition, but this normative statement ''is based on'' the theoretical statement \"(a + b)(a – b) = a² – b²\".2.For psychologists, the acts of judging, reasoning, deriving, and so on, are all psychological processes.", "Therefore, it is the role of psychology to provide the foundation of these processes.", "Husserl states that this effort made by psychologists is a \"metábasis eis állo génos\" (Gr.", "μετάβασις εἰς ἄλλο γένος, \"a transgression to another field\").", "It is a metábasis because psychology cannot provide any foundations for ''a priori'' laws which themselves are the basis for all correct thought.", "Psychologists have the problem of confusing intentional activities with the object of these activities.", "It is important to distinguish between the act of judging and the judgment itself, the act of counting and the number itself, and so on.", "Counting five objects is undeniably a psychological process, but the number 5 is not.3.Judgments can be true or not true.", "Psychologists argue that judgments are true because they become \"evidently\" true to us.", "This evidence, a psychological process that \"guarantees\" truth, is indeed a psychological process.", "Husserl responds by saying that truth itself, as well as logical laws, always remain valid regardless of psychological \"evidence\" that they are true.", "No psychological process can explain the ''a priori'' objectivity of these logical truths.From this criticism to psychologism, the distinction between psychological acts and their intentional objects, and the difference between the normative side of logic and the theoretical side, derives from a Platonist conception of logic.", "This means that logical and mathematical laws should be regarded as being independent of the human mind, and also as an autonomy of meanings.", "It is essentially the difference between the real (everything subject to time) and the ideal or irreal (everything that is atemporal), such as logical truths, mathematical entities, mathematical truths and meanings in general." ], [ "Influence", "Husserl's gravestone at GünterstalDavid Carr commented on Husserl's following in his 1970 dissertation at Yale: \"It is well known that Husserl was always disappointed at the tendency of his students to go their own way, to embark upon fundamental revisions of phenomenology rather than engage in the communal task\" as originally intended by the radical new science.", "Notwithstanding, he did attract philosophers to phenomenology.Martin Heidegger is the best known of Husserl's students, the one whom Husserl chose as his successor at Freiburg.", "Heidegger's magnum opus ''Being and Time'' was dedicated to Husserl.", "They shared their thoughts and worked alongside each other for over a decade at the University of Freiburg, Heidegger being Husserl's assistant during 1920–1923.Heidegger's early work followed his teacher, but with time he began to develop new insights distinctively variant.", "Husserl became increasingly critical of Heidegger's work, especially in 1929, and included pointed criticism of Heidegger in lectures he gave during 1931.Heidegger, while acknowledging his debt to Husserl, followed a political position offensive and harmful to Husserl after the Nazis came to power in 1933, Husserl being of Jewish origin and Heidegger infamously being then a Nazi proponent.", "Academic discussion of Husserl and Heidegger is extensive.At Göttingen in 1913 Adolf Reinach (1884–1917) \"was now Husserl's right hand.", "He was above all the mediator between Husserl and the students, for he understood extremely well how to deal with other persons, whereas Husserl was pretty much helpless in this respect.\"", "He was an original editor of Husserl's new journal, ''Jahrbuch''; one of his works (giving a phenomenological analysis of the law of obligations) appeared in its first issue.", "Reinach was widely admired and a remarkable teacher.", "Husserl, in his 1917 obituary, wrote, \"He wanted to draw only from the deepest sources, he wanted to produce only work of enduring value.", "And through his wise restraint he succeeded in this.", "\"Edith Stein was Husserl's student at Göttingen and Freiburg while she wrote her doctoral thesis ''The Empathy Problem as it Developed Historically and Considered Phenomenologically'' (1916).", "She then became his assistant at Freiburg in 1916–18.She later adapted her phenomenology to the modern school of modern Thomism.Ludwig Landgrebe became assistant to Husserl in 1923.From 1939 he collaborated with Eugen Fink at the Husserl-Archives in Leuven.", "In 1954 he became leader of the Husserl-Archives.", "Landgrebe is known as one of Husserl's closest associates, but also for his independent views relating to history, religion and politics as seen from the viewpoints of existentialist philosophy and metaphysics.Eugen Fink was a close associate of Husserl during the 1920s and 1930s.", "He wrote the ''Sixth Cartesian Meditation'' which Husserl said was the truest expression and continuation of his own work.", "Fink delivered the eulogy for Husserl in 1938.Roman Ingarden, an early student of Husserl at Freiburg, corresponded with Husserl into the mid-1930s.", "Ingarden did not accept, however, the later transcendental idealism of Husserl which he thought would lead to relativism.", "Ingarden has written his work in German and Polish.", "In his ''Spór o istnienie świata'' (Ger.", ": \"Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt\", Eng.", ": \"Dispute about existence of the world\") he created his own realistic position, which also helped to spread phenomenology in Poland.Max Scheler met Husserl in Halle in 1901 and found in his phenomenology a methodological breakthrough for his own philosophy.", "Scheler, who was at Göttingen when Husserl taught there, was one of the original few editors of the journal ''Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung'' (1913).", "Scheler's work ''Formalism in Ethics and Nonformal Ethics of Value'' appeared in the new journal (1913 and 1916) and drew acclaim.", "The personal relationship between the two men, however, became strained, due to Scheler's legal troubles, and Scheler returned to Munich.", "Although Scheler later criticised Husserl's idealistic logical approach and proposed instead a \"phenomenology of love\", he states that he remained \"deeply indebted\" to Husserl throughout his work.Nicolai Hartmann was once thought to be at the center of phenomenology, but perhaps no longer.", "In 1921 the prestige of Hartmann the Neo-Kantian, who was Professor of Philosophy at Marburg, was added to the Movement; he \"publicly declared his solidarity with the actual work of ''die Phänomenologie''.\"", "Yet Hartmann's connections were with Max Scheler and the Munich circle; Husserl himself evidently did not consider him as a phenomenologist.", "His philosophy, however, is said to include an innovative use of the method.Emmanuel Levinas in 1929 gave a presentation at one of Husserl's last seminars in Freiburg.", "Also that year he wrote on Husserl's ''Ideen'' (1913) a long review published by a French journal.", "With Gabrielle Peiffer, Levinas translated into French Husserl's ''Méditations cartésiennes'' (1931).", "He was at first impressed with Heidegger and began a book on him, but broke off the project when Heidegger became involved with the Nazis.", "After the war he wrote on Jewish spirituality; most of his family had been murdered by the Nazis in Lithuania.", "Levinas then began to write works that would become widely known and admired.Alfred Schutz's ''Phenomenology of the Social World'' seeks to rigorously ground Max Weber's interpretive sociology in Husserl's phenomenology.", "Husserl was impressed by this work and asked Schutz to be his assistant.Jean-Paul Sartre was also largely influenced by Husserl, although he later came to disagree with key points in his analyses.", "Sartre rejected Husserl's transcendental interpretations begun in his ''Ideen'' (1913) and instead followed Heidegger's ontology.Maurice Merleau-Ponty's ''Phenomenology of Perception'' is influenced by Edmund Husserl's work on perception, intersubjectivity, intentionality, space, and temporality, including Husserl's theory of retention and protention.", "Merleau-Ponty's description of 'motor intentionality' and sexuality, for example, retain the important structure of the noetic/noematic correlation of ''Ideen I'', yet further concretize what it means for Husserl when consciousness particularizes itself into modes of intuition.", "Merleau-Ponty's most clearly Husserlian work is, perhaps, \"the Philosopher and His Shadow.\"", "Depending on the interpretation of Husserl's accounts of eidetic intuition, given in Husserl's ''Phenomenological Psychology'' and ''Experience and Judgment'', it may be that Merleau-Ponty did not accept the \"eidetic reduction\" nor the \"pure essence\" said to result.", "Merleau-Ponty was the first student to study at the Husserl-archives in Leuven.Gabriel Marcel explicitly rejected existentialism, due to Sartre, but not phenomenology, which has enjoyed a wide following among French Catholics.", "He appreciated Husserl, Scheler, and (but with apprehension) Heidegger.", "His expressions like \"ontology of sensability\" when referring to the body, indicate influence by phenomenological thought.Kurt Gödel is known to have read ''Cartesian Meditations''.", "He expressed very strong appreciation for Husserl's work, especially with regard to \"bracketing\" or \"epoché\".Hermann Weyl's interest in intuitionistic logic and impredicativity appears to have resulted from his reading of Husserl.", "He was introduced to Husserl's work through his wife, Helene Joseph, herself a student of Husserl at Göttingen.Colin Wilson has used Husserl's ideas extensively in developing his \"New Existentialism,\" particularly in regards to his \"intentionality of consciousness,\" which he mentions in a number of his books.Rudolf Carnap was also influenced by Husserl, not only concerning Husserl's notion of essential insight that Carnap used in his ''Der Raum'', but also his notion of \"formation rules\" and \"transformation rules\" is founded on Husserl's philosophy of logic.Karol Wojtyla, who would later become Pope John Paul II, was influenced by Husserl.", "Phenomenology appears in his major work, ''The Acting Person'' (1969).", "Originally published in Polish, it was translated by Andrzej Potocki and edited by Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka in the ''Analecta Husserliana''.", "''The Acting Person'' combines phenomenological work with Thomistic ethics.Plaque commemorating Husserl in his home town of Prostějov, Czech RepublicPaul Ricœur has translated many works of Husserl into French and has also written many of his own studies of the philosopher.", "Among other works, Ricœur employed phenomenology in his ''Freud and Philosophy'' (1965).Jacques Derrida wrote several critical studies of Husserl early in his academic career.", "These included his dissertation, ''The Problem of Genesis in Husserl's Philosophy,'' and also his introduction to ''The Origin of Geometry''.", "Derrida continued to make reference to Husserl in works such as ''Of Grammatology''.Stanisław Leśniewski and Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz were inspired by Husserl's formal analysis of language.", "Accordingly, they employed phenomenology in the development of categorial grammar.José Ortega y Gasset visited Husserl at Freiburg in 1934.He credited phenomenology for having 'liberated him' from a narrow neo-Kantian thought.", "While perhaps not a phenomenologist himself, he introduced the philosophy to Iberia and Latin America.Wilfrid Sellars, an influential figure in the so-called \"Pittsburgh School\" (Robert Brandom, John McDowell) had been a student of Marvin Farber, a pupil of Husserl, and was influenced by phenomenology through him:In his 1942 essay ''The Myth of Sisyphus'', absurdist philosopher Albert Camus acknowledges Husserl as a previous philosopher who described and attempted to deal with the feeling of the absurd, but claims he committed \"philosophical suicide\" by elevating reason and ultimately arriving at ubiquitous Platonic forms and an abstract god.Hans Blumenberg received his habilitation in 1950, with a dissertation on ontological distance, an inquiry into the crisis of Husserl's phenomenology.Roger Scruton, despite some disagreements with Husserl, drew upon his work in ''Sexual Desire'' (1986).The influence of the Husserlian phenomenological tradition in the 21st century extends beyond the confines of the European and North American legacies.", "It has already started to impact (indirectly) scholarship in Eastern and Oriental thought, including research on the impetus of philosophical thinking in the history of ideas in Islam." ], [ "Bibliography", "===In German===* 1887.", "''Über den Begriff der Zahl.", "Psychologische Analysen'' (''On the Concept of Number''; habilitation thesis)* 1891.", "''Philosophie der Arithmetik.", "Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen'' (''Philosophy of Arithmetic'')* 1900.", "''Logische Untersuchungen.", "Erster Teil: Prolegomena zur reinen Logik'' (''Logical Investigations'', Vol.", "1: ''Prolegomena to Pure Logic'')* 1901.", "''Logische Untersuchungen.", "Zweiter Teil: Untersuchungen zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Erkenntnis'' (''Logical Investigations'', Vol.", "2)* 1911.", "''Philosophie als strenge Wissenschaft'' (included in ''Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy: Philosophy as Rigorous Science and Philosophy and the Crisis of European Man'')* 1913.", "''Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie.", "Erstes Buch: Allgemeine Einführung in die reine Phänomenologie'' (''Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology'')* 1923–24.", "''Erste Philosophie.", "Zweiter Teil: Theorie der phänomenologischen Reduktion'' (''First Philosophy'', Vol.", "2: ''Phenomenological Reductions'')* 1925.", "''Erste Philosophie.", "Erster Teil: Kritische Ideengeschichte'' (''First Philosophy'', Vol.", "1: ''Critical History of Ideas'')* 1928.", "''Vorlesungen zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins'' (''Lectures on the Phenomenology of the Consciousness of Internal Time'')* 1929.", "''Formale und transzendentale Logik.", "Versuch einer Kritik der logischen Vernunft'' (''Formal and Transcendental Logic'')* 1930.", "''Nachwort zu meinen \"Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie\"'' (''Postscript to my \"Ideas\"'')* 1936.", "''Die Krisis der europäischen Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Phänomenologie: Eine Einleitung in die phänomenologische Philosophie'' (''The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to Phenomenological Philosophy'')* 1939.", "''Erfahrung und Urteil.", "Untersuchungen zur Genealogie der Logik.''", "(''Experience and Judgment'')* 1950.", "''Cartesianische Meditationen'' (translation of ''Méditations cartésiennes'' (''Cartesian Meditations'', 1931))* 1952.", "''Ideen II: Phänomenologische Untersuchungen zur Konstitution'' (''Ideas II: Studies in the Phenomenology of Constitution'')* 1952.", "''Ideen III: Die Phänomenologie und die Fundamente der Wissenschaften'' (''Ideas III: Phenomenology and the Foundations of the Sciences'')* 1973.", "''Zur Phänomenologie der Intersubjektivität'' (''On the Phenomenology of Intersubjectivity'')===In English===* ''Philosophy of Arithmetic'', Willard, Dallas, trans., 2003 1891.Dordrecht: Kluwer.", "* ''Logical Investigations'', 1973 1900, 2nd revised edition 1913, Findlay, J. N., trans.", "London: Routledge.", "* \"Philosophy as Rigorous Science\", translated in Quentin Lauer, S.J., editor, 1965 1910 ''Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy''.", "New York: Harper & Row.", "* ''Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy – First Book: General Introduction to a Pure Phenomenology'', 1982 1913.Kersten, F., trans.", "The Hague: Nijhoff.", "* ''Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy – Second Book: Studies in the Phenomenology of Constitution'', 1989.R.", "Rojcewicz and A. Schuwer, translators.", "Dordrecht: Kluwer.", "* ''Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy – Third Book: Phenomenology and the Foundations of the Sciences'', 1980, Klein, T. E., and Pohl, W. E., translators.", "Dordrecht: Kluwer.", "* ''On the Phenomenology of the Consciousness of Internal Time (1893–1917)'', 1990 1928.Brough, J.B., trans.", "Dordrecht: Kluwer.", "* ''Cartesian Meditations'', 1960 1931.Cairns, D., trans.", "Dordrecht: Kluwer.", "* ''Formal and Transcendental Logic'', 1969 1929, Cairns, D., trans.", "The Hague: Nijhoff.", "* ''Experience and Judgement'', 1973 1939, Churchill, J. S., and Ameriks, K., translators.", "London: Routledge.", "* ''The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology'', 1970 1936/54, Carr, D., trans.", "Evanston: Northwestern University Press.", "* \"Universal Teleology\".", "''Telos'' 4 (Fall 1969).", "New York: Telos Press.===Anthologies===* Willard, Dallas, trans., 1994.", "''Early Writings in the Philosophy of Logic and Mathematics''.", "Dordrecht: Kluwer.", "* Welton, Donn, ed., 1999.", "''The Essential Husserl''.", "Bloomington: Indiana University Press." ], [ "See also", "* Early phenomenology* List of phenomenologists" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Further reading", "* Adorno, Theodor W., 2013.", "''Against Epistemology''.", "Cambridge: Polity Press.", "* Bernet, Rudolf, et al., 1993.", "''Introduction to Husserlian Phenomenology''.", "Evanston: Northwestern University Press.", "* Derrida, Jacques, 1954 (French), 2003 (English).", "''The Problem of Genesis in Husserl's Philosophy''.", "Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press.", "* --------, 1962 (French), 1976 (English).", "''Introduction to Husserl's The Origin of Geometry''.", "Includes Derrida's translation of Appendix III of Husserl's 1936 ''The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology''.", "* --------, 1967 (French), 1973 (English).", "''Speech and Phenomena (La Voix et le Phénomène), and other Essays on Husserl's Theory of Signs''.", "* Fink, Eugen 1995, ''Sixth Cartesian meditation.", "The Idea of a Transcendental Theory of Method'' with textual notations by Edmund Husserl.", "Translated with an introduction by Ronald Bruzina, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.", "* Hill, C. O., 1991.", "''Word and Object in Husserl, Frege, and Russell: The Roots of Twentieth-Century Philosophy''.", "Ohio Univ.", "Press.", "* Hopkins, Burt C., (2011).", "''The Philosophy of Husserl''.", "Durham: Acumen.", "* Levinas, Emmanuel, 1963 (French), 1973 (English).", "''The Theory of Intuition in Husserl's Phenomenology''.", "Evanston: Northwestern University Press.", "* Köchler, Hans, 1982.", "''Edmund Husserl's Theory of Meaning''.", "The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.", "* --------, 1982.", "''Husserl and Frege''.", "Bloomington: Indiana University Press.", "* Moran, D. and Cohen, J., 2012, ''The Husserl Dictionary''.", "London, Continuum Press.", "* Natanson, Maurice, 1973.", "''Edmund Husserl: Philosopher of Infinite Tasks''.", "Evanston: Northwestern University Press.", "* * Ricœur, Paul, 1967.", "''Husserl: An Analysis of His Phenomenology''.", "Evanston: Northwestern University Press.", "* Rollinger, R. D., 2008.", "''Austrian Phenomenology: Brentano, Husserl, Meinong, and Others on Mind and Language''.", "Frankfurt am Main: Ontos-Verlag.", "* Sokolowski, Robert.", "''Introduction to Phenomenology''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.", "* * Smith, David Woodruff, 2007.''Husserl''.", "London: Routledge.", "* Zahavi, Dan, 2003.", "''Husserl's Phenomenology''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press." ], [ "External links", "===Husserl archives===* Husserl-Archives Leuven, the main Husserl-Archive in Leuven, International Centre for Phenomenological Research.", "* Husserliana: Edmund Husserl Gesammelte Werke, the ongoing critical edition of Husserl's works.", "* Husserliana: Materialien, edition for lectures and shorter works.", "* Edmund Husserl Collected Works, English translation of Husserl's works.", "* Husserl-Archives at the University of Cologne.", "* Husserl-Archives Freiburg.", "* Archives Husserl de Paris, at the ''École normale supérieure'', Paris.", "* ===Other links===*** Papers on Edmund Husserl by Barry Smith* English translation of \"Vienna Lecture\" (1935): \"Philosophy and the Crisis of European Humanity\"* The Husserl Page by Bob Sandmeyer.", "Includes a number of online texts in German and English.", "* Husserl.net, open content project.", "* \" Edmund Husserl: Formal Ontology and Transcendental Logic.\"", "Resource guide on Husserl's logic and formal ontology, with annotated bibliography.", "* The Husserl Circle.", "* Cartesian Meditations in Internet Archive* ''Ideas'', Part I in Internet Archive* Edmund Husserl on the Open Commons of Phenomenology.", "Complete bibliography and links to all German texts, including ''Husserliana'' vols.", "I–XXVIII" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electrical engineering" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Electrical engineering''' is an engineering discipline concerned with the study, design, and application of equipment, devices, and systems which use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism.", "It emerged as an identifiable occupation in the latter half of the 19th century after the commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone, and electrical power generation, distribution, and use.Electrical engineering is now divided into a wide range of different fields, including computer engineering, systems engineering, power engineering, telecommunications, radio-frequency engineering, signal processing, instrumentation, photovoltaic cells, electronics, and optics and photonics.", "Many of these disciplines overlap with other engineering branches, spanning a huge number of specializations including hardware engineering, power electronics, electromagnetics and waves, microwave engineering, nanotechnology, electrochemistry, renewable energies, mechatronics/control, and electrical materials science.Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in electrical engineering or electronic engineering.", "Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body or an international standards organization.", "These include the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET, formerly the IEE).Electrical engineers work in a very wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable.", "These range from circuit theory to the management skills of a project manager.", "The tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to sophisticated design and manufacturing software." ], [ "History", " Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century.", "William Gilbert was a prominent early electrical scientist, and was the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity.", "He is credited with establishing the term \"electricity\".", "He also designed the versorium: a device that detects the presence of statically charged objects.", "In 1762 Swedish professor Johan Wilcke invented a device later named electrophorus that produced a static electric charge.", "By 1800 Alessandro Volta had developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.===19th century===The discoveries of Michael Faraday formed the foundation of electric motor technology.In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify.", "Notable developments in this century include the work of Hans Christian Ørsted, who discovered in 1820 that an electric current produces a magnetic field that will deflect a compass needle; of William Sturgeon, who in 1825 invented the electromagnet; of Joseph Henry and Edward Davy, who invented the electrical relay in 1835; of Georg Ohm, who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the electric current and potential difference in a conductor; of Michael Faraday, the discoverer of electromagnetic induction in 1831; and of James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1873 published a unified theory of electricity and magnetism in his treatise ''Electricity and Magnetism''.In 1782, Georges-Louis Le Sage developed and presented in Berlin probably the world's first form of electric telegraphy, using 24 different wires, one for each letter of the alphabet.", "This telegraph connected two rooms.", "It was an electrostatic telegraph that moved gold leaf through electrical conduction.In 1795, Francisco Salva Campillo proposed an electrostatic telegraph system.", "Between 1803 and 1804, he worked on electrical telegraphy, and in 1804, he presented his report at the Royal Academy of Natural Sciences and Arts of Barcelona.", "Salva's electrolyte telegraph system was very innovative though it was greatly influenced by and based upon two discoveries made in Europe in 1800—Alessandro Volta's electric battery for generating an electric current and William Nicholson and Anthony Carlyle's electrolysis of water.", "Electrical telegraphy may be considered the first example of electrical engineering.", "Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century.", "Practitioners had created a global electric telegraph network, and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK and the US to support the new discipline.", "Francis Ronalds created an electric telegraph system in 1816 and documented his vision of how the world could be transformed by electricity.", "Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers (soon to be renamed the Institution of Electrical Engineers) where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort.", "By the end of the 19th century, the world had been forever changed by the rapid communication made possible by the engineering development of land-lines, submarine cables, and, from about 1890, wireless telegraphy.Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardized units of measure.", "They led to the international standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad, and henry.", "This was achieved at an international conference in Chicago in 1893.The publication of these standards formed the basis of future advances in standardization in various industries, and in many countries, the definitions were immediately recognized in relevant legislation.During these years, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of physics since early electrical technology was considered electromechanical in nature.", "The Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the world's first department of electrical engineering in 1882 and introduced the first-degree course in electrical engineering in 1883.The first electrical engineering degree program in the United States was started at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the physics department under Professor Charles Cross, though it was Cornell University to produce the world's first electrical engineering graduates in 1885.The first course in electrical engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell's Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanic Arts.In about 1885, Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States.", "In the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain.", "Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri established the electrical engineering department in 1886.Afterwards, universities and institutes of technology gradually started to offer electrical engineering programs to their students all over the world.During these decades the use of electrical engineering increased dramatically.", "In 1882, Thomas Edison switched on the world's first large-scale electric power network that provided 110 volts—direct current (DC)—to 59 customers on Manhattan Island in New York City.", "In 1884, Sir Charles Parsons invented the steam turbine allowing for more efficient electric power generation.", "Alternating current, with its ability to transmit power more efficiently over long distances via the use of transformers, developed rapidly in the 1880s and 1890s with transformer designs by Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri (later called ZBD transformers), Lucien Gaulard, John Dixon Gibbs and William Stanley, Jr.", "Practical AC motor designs including induction motors were independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla and further developed into a practical three-phase form by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown.", "Charles Steinmetz and Oliver Heaviside contributed to the theoretical basis of alternating current engineering.", "The spread in the use of AC set off in the United States what has been called the ''war of the currents'' between a George Westinghouse backed AC system and a Thomas Edison backed DC power system, with AC being adopted as the overall standard.===Early 20th century===Guglielmo Marconi, known for his pioneering work on long-distance radio transmissionDuring the development of radio, many scientists and inventors contributed to radio technology and electronics.", "The mathematical work of James Clerk Maxwell during the 1850s had shown the relationship of different forms of electromagnetic radiation including the possibility of invisible airborne waves (later called \"radio waves\").", "In his classic physics experiments of 1888, Heinrich Hertz proved Maxwell's theory by transmitting radio waves with a spark-gap transmitter, and detected them by using simple electrical devices.", "Other physicists experimented with these new waves and in the process developed devices for transmitting and detecting them.", "In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi began work on a way to adapt the known methods of transmitting and detecting these \"Hertzian waves\" into a purpose built commercial wireless telegraphic system.", "Early on, he sent wireless signals over a distance of one and a half miles.", "In December 1901, he sent wireless waves that were not affected by the curvature of the Earth.", "Marconi later transmitted the wireless signals across the Atlantic between Poldhu, Cornwall, and St. John's, Newfoundland, a distance of .Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Jagadish Chandra Bose during 18941896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60GHz in his experiments.", "He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves, when he patented the radio crystal detector in 1901.In 1897, Karl Ferdinand Braun introduced the cathode-ray tube as part of an oscilloscope, a crucial enabling technology for electronic television.", "John Fleming invented the first radio tube, the diode, in 1904.Two years later, Robert von Lieben and Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode.In 1920, Albert Hull developed the magnetron which would eventually lead to the development of the microwave oven in 1946 by Percy Spencer.", "In 1934, the British military began to make strides toward radar (which also uses the magnetron) under the direction of Dr Wimperis, culminating in the operation of the first radar station at Bawdsey in August 1936.In 1941, Konrad Zuse presented the Z3, the world's first fully functional and programmable computer using electromechanical parts.", "In 1943, Tommy Flowers designed and built the Colossus, the world's first fully functional, electronic, digital and programmable computer.", "In 1946, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly followed, beginning the computing era.", "The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives.In 1948, Claude Shannon published \"A Mathematical Theory of Communication\" which mathematically describes the passage of information with uncertainty (electrical noise).===Solid-state electronics ===A replica of the first working transistor, a point-contact transistorMetal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), the basic building block of modern electronicsThe first working transistor was a point-contact transistor invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain while working under William Shockley at the Bell Telephone Laboratories (BTL) in 1947.They then invented the bipolar junction transistor in 1948.While early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, they opened the door for more compact devices.The first integrated circuits were the hybrid integrated circuit invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in 1958 and the monolithic integrated circuit chip invented by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959.The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at BTL in 1959.It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.", "It revolutionized the electronics industry, becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.", "The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuit chips.", "The earliest experimental MOS IC chip to be fabricated was built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at RCA Laboratories in 1962.MOS technology enabled Moore's law, the doubling of transistors on an IC chip every two years, predicted by Gordon Moore in 1965.Silicon-gate MOS technology was developed by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968.Since then, the MOSFET has been the basic building block of modern electronics.", "The mass-production of silicon MOSFETs and MOS integrated circuit chips, along with continuous MOSFET scaling miniaturization at an exponential pace (as predicted by Moore's law), has since led to revolutionary changes in technology, economy, culture and thinking.The Apollo program which culminated in landing astronauts on the Moon with Apollo 11 in 1969 was enabled by NASA's adoption of advances in semiconductor electronic technology, including MOSFETs in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP) and silicon integrated circuit chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC).The development of MOS integrated circuit technology in the 1960s led to the invention of the microprocessor in the early 1970s.", "The first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, released in 1971.The Intel 4004 was designed and realized by Federico Faggin at Intel with his silicon-gate MOS technology, along with Intel's Marcian Hoff and Stanley Mazor and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima.", "The microprocessor led to the development of microcomputers and personal computers, and the microcomputer revolution." ], [ "Subfields", "One of the properties of electricity is that it is very useful for energy transmission as well as for information transmission.", "These were also the first areas in which electrical engineering was developed.", "Today, electrical engineering has many subdisciplines, the most common of which are listed below.", "Although there are electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these subdisciplines, many deal with a combination of them.", "Sometimes, certain fields, such as electronic engineering and computer engineering, are considered disciplines in their own right.===Power and energy===power polePower & Energy engineering deals with the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity as well as the design of a range of related devices.", "These include transformers, electric generators, electric motors, high voltage engineering, and power electronics.", "In many regions of the world, governments maintain an electrical network called a power grid that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy.", "Users purchase electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own.", "Power engineers may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it.", "Such systems are called ''on-grid'' power systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw power from the grid, or do both.", "Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid, called ''off-grid'' power systems, which in some cases are preferable to on-grid systems.", "===Telecommunications===Satellite dishes are a crucial component in the analysis of satellite information.Telecommunications engineering focuses on the transmission of information across a communication channel such as a coax cable, optical fiber or free space.", "Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a carrier signal to shift the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission; this is known as modulation.", "Popular analog modulation techniques include amplitude modulation and frequency modulation.", "The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer.Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the transmitters and receivers needed for such systems.", "These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as a transceiver.", "A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their power consumption as this is closely related to their signal strength.", "Typically, if the power of the transmitted signal is insufficient once the signal arrives at the receiver's antenna(s), the information contained in the signal will be corrupted by noise, specifically static.===Control engineering===Control systems play a critical role in spaceflight.Control engineering focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic systems and the design of controllers that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner.", "To implement such controllers, electronics control engineers may use electronic circuits, digital signal processors, microcontrollers, and programmable logic controllers (PLCs).", "Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial airliners to the cruise control present in many modern automobiles.", "It also plays an important role in industrial automation.Control engineers often use feedback when designing control systems.", "For example, in an automobile with cruise control the vehicle's speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the motor's power output accordingly.", "Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback.Control engineers also work in robotics to design autonomous systems using control algorithms which interpret sensory feedback to control actuators that move robots such as autonomous vehicles, autonomous drones and others used in a variety of industries.===Electronics===Electronic componentsElectronic engineering involves the design and testing of electronic circuits that use the properties of components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, and transistors to achieve a particular functionality.", "The tuned circuit, which allows the user of a radio to filter out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit.", "Another example to research is a pneumatic signal conditioner.Prior to the Second World War, the subject was commonly known as ''radio engineering'' and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and radar, commercial radio, and early television.", "Later, in post-war years, as consumer devices began to be developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio systems, computers, and microprocessors.", "In the mid-to-late 1950s, the term ''radio engineering'' gradually gave way to the name ''electronic engineering''.Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959, electronic circuits were constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated by humans.", "These discrete circuits consumed much space and power and were limited in speed, although they are still common in some applications.", "By contrast, integrated circuits packed a large number—often millions—of tiny electrical components, mainly transistors, into a small chip around the size of a coin.", "This allowed for the powerful computers and other electronic devices we see today.===Microelectronics and nanoelectronics===MicroprocessorMicroelectronics engineering deals with the design and microfabrication of very small electronic circuit components for use in an integrated circuit or sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic component.", "The most common microelectronic components are semiconductor transistors, although all main electronic components (resistors, capacitors etc.)", "can be created at a microscopic level.Nanoelectronics is the further scaling of devices down to nanometer levels.", "Modern devices are already in the nanometer regime, with below 100 nm processing having been standard since around 2002.Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers of semiconductors such as silicon (at higher frequencies, compound semiconductors like gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the desired transport of electronic charge and control of current.", "The field of microelectronics involves a significant amount of chemistry and material science and requires the electronic engineer working in the field to have a very good working knowledge of the effects of quantum mechanics.===Signal processing===A Bayer filter on a CCD requires signal processing to get a red, green, and blue value at each pixel.Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals.", "Signals can be either analog, in which case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or digital, in which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing the information.", "For analog signals, signal processing may involve the amplification and filtering of audio signals for audio equipment or the modulation and demodulation of signals for telecommunications.", "For digital signals, signal processing may involve the compression, error detection and error correction of digitally sampled signals.Signal processing is a very mathematically oriented and intensive area forming the core of digital signal processing and it is rapidly expanding with new applications in every field of electrical engineering such as communications, control, radar, audio engineering, broadcast engineering, power electronics, and biomedical engineering as many already existing analog systems are replaced with their digital counterparts.", "Analog signal processing is still important in the design of many control systems.DSP processor ICs are found in many types of modern electronic devices, such as digital television sets, radios, hi-fi audio equipment, mobile phones, multimedia players, camcorders and digital cameras, automobile control systems, noise cancelling headphones, digital spectrum analyzers, missile guidance systems, radar systems, and telematics systems.", "In such products, DSP may be responsible for noise reduction, speech recognition or synthesis, encoding or decoding digital media, wirelessly transmitting or receiving data, triangulating positions using GPS, and other kinds of image processing, video processing, audio processing, and speech processing.===Instrumentation===Flight instruments provide pilots with the tools to control aircraft analytically.Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as pressure, flow, and temperature.", "The design of such instruments requires a good understanding of physics that often extends beyond electromagnetic theory.", "For example, flight instruments measure variables such as wind speed and altitude to enable pilots the control of aircraft analytically.", "Similarly, thermocouples use the Peltier-Seebeck effect to measure the temperature difference between two points.Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger electrical systems.", "For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant.", "For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control.===Computers===Supercomputers are used in fields as diverse as computational biology and geographic information systems.Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems.", "This may involve the design of new hardware.", "Computer engineers may also work on a system's software.", "However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of software engineering, which is usually considered a separate discipline.", "Desktop computers represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range of embedded devices including video game consoles and DVD players.", "Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing.", "Robots are one of the applications of computer engineering.===Photonics and optics===Photonics and optics deals with the generation, transmission, amplification, modulation, detection, and analysis of electromagnetic radiation.", "The application of optics deals with design of optical instruments such as lenses, microscopes, telescopes, and other equipment that uses the properties of electromagnetic radiation.", "Other prominent applications of optics include electro-optical sensors and measurement systems, lasers, fiber-optic communication systems, and optical disc systems (e.g.", "CD and DVD).", "Photonics builds heavily on optical technology, supplemented with modern developments such as optoelectronics (mostly involving semiconductors), laser systems, optical amplifiers and novel materials (e.g.", "metamaterials)." ], [ "Related disciplines", "The Bird VIP Infant ventilatorMechatronics is an engineering discipline which deals with the convergence of electrical and mechanical systems.", "Such combined systems are known as electromechanical systems and have widespread adoption.", "Examples include automated manufacturing systems, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems, and various subsystems of aircraft and automobiles.", "''Electronic systems design'' is the subject within electrical engineering that deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electrical and mechanical systems.The term ''mechatronics'' is typically used to refer to macroscopic systems but futurists have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices.", "Already, such small devices, known as microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), are used in automobiles to tell airbags when to deploy, in digital projectors to create sharper images, and in inkjet printers to create nozzles for high definition printing.", "In the future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve optical communication.In aerospace engineering and robotics, an example is the most recent electric propulsion and ion propulsion." ], [ "Education", "OscilloscopeElectrical engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in electrical engineering, electronics engineering, electrical engineering technology, or electrical and electronic engineering.", "The same fundamental principles are taught in all programs, though emphasis may vary according to title.", "The length of study for such a degree is usually four or five years and the completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Science in Electrical/Electronics Engineering Technology, Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Technology, or Bachelor of Applied Science, depending on the university.", "The bachelor's degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, computer science, project management, and a variety of topics in electrical engineering.", "Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the subdisciplines of electrical engineering.", "At some schools, the students can then choose to emphasize one or more subdisciplines towards the end of their courses of study.An example circuit diagram, which is useful in circuit design and troubleshooting At many schools, electronic engineering is included as part of an electrical award, sometimes explicitly, such as a Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical and Electronic), but in others, electrical and electronic engineering are both considered to be sufficiently broad and complex that separate degrees are offered.Some electrical engineers choose to study for a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering/Master of Science (MEng/MSc), a Master of Engineering Management, a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Engineering, an Engineering Doctorate (Eng.D.", "), or an Engineer's degree.", "The master's and engineer's degrees may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two.", "The Doctor of Philosophy and Engineering Doctorate degrees consist of a significant research component and are often viewed as the entry point to academia.", "In the United Kingdom and some other European countries, Master of Engineering is often considered to be an undergraduate degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering rather than a standalone postgraduate degree." ], [ "Professional practice", "Belgian electrical engineers inspecting the rotor of a 40,000 kilowatt turbine of the General Electric Company in New York CityIn most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body.", "After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements) before being certified.", "Once certified the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered engineer or Incorporated Engineer (in India, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engineer (in much of the European Union).The IEEE corporate office is on the 17th floor of 3 Park Avenue in New York City.The advantages of licensure vary depending upon location.", "For example, in the United States and Canada \"only a licensed engineer may seal engineering work for public and private clients\".", "This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act.", "In other countries, no such legislation exists.", "Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.", "In this way these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession.", "Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law.", "In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal negligence.", "An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations, such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law.Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET).", "The IEEE claims to produce 30% of the world's literature in electrical engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 3,000 conferences annually.", "The IET publishes 21 journals, has a worldwide membership of over 150,000, and claims to be the largest professional engineering society in Europe.", "Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electrical engineers.", "Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency.", "An MIET(Member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology) is recognised in Europe as an Electrical and computer (technology) engineer.In Australia, Canada, and the United States, electrical engineers make up around 0.25% of the labor force." ], [ "Tools and work", "From the Global Positioning System to electric power generation, electrical engineers have contributed to the development of a wide range of technologies.", "They design, develop, test, and supervise the deployment of electrical systems and electronic devices.", "For example, they may work on the design of telecommunication systems, the operation of electric power stations, the lighting and wiring of buildings, the design of household appliances, or the electrical control of industrial machinery.Satellite communications is typical of what electrical engineers work on.Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as these help to obtain both a qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will work.", "Today most engineering work involves the use of computers and it is commonplace to use computer-aided design programs when designing electrical systems.", "Nevertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with others.Shadow robot hand systemAlthough most electrical engineers will understand basic circuit theory (that is, the interactions of elements such as resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, and inductors in a circuit), the theories employed by engineers generally depend upon the work they do.", "For example, quantum mechanics and solid state physics might be relevant to an engineer working on VLSI (the design of integrated circuits), but are largely irrelevant to engineers working with macroscopic electrical systems.", "Even circuit theory may not be relevant to a person designing telecommunication systems that use off-the-shelf components.", "Perhaps the most important technical skills for electrical engineers are reflected in university programs, which emphasize strong numerical skills, computer literacy, and the ability to understand the technical language and concepts that relate to electrical engineering.A laser bouncing down an acrylic rod, illustrating the total internal reflection of light in a multi-mode optical fiberA wide range of instrumentation is used by electrical engineers.", "For simple control circuits and alarms, a basic multimeter measuring voltage, current, and resistance may suffice.", "Where time-varying signals need to be studied, the oscilloscope is also an ubiquitous instrument.", "In RF engineering and high frequency telecommunications, spectrum analyzers and network analyzers are used.", "In some disciplines, safety can be a particular concern with instrumentation.", "For instance, medical electronics designers must take into account that much lower voltages than normal can be dangerous when electrodes are directly in contact with internal body fluids.", "Power transmission engineering also has great safety concerns due to the high voltages used; although voltmeters may in principle be similar to their low voltage equivalents, safety and calibration issues make them very different.", "Many disciplines of electrical engineering use tests specific to their discipline.", "Audio electronics engineers use audio test sets consisting of a signal generator and a meter, principally to measure level but also other parameters such as harmonic distortion and noise.", "Likewise, information technology have their own test sets, often specific to a particular data format, and the same is true of television broadcasting.Radome at the Misawa Air Base Misawa Security Operations Center, Misawa, JapanFor many engineers, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do.", "A lot of time may also be spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing budgets and determining project schedules.", "Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or other engineers and for this reason project management skills are important.", "Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and strong written communication skills are therefore very important.The workplaces of engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do.", "Electrical engineers may be found in the pristine lab environment of a fabrication plant, on board a Naval ship, the offices of a consulting firm or on site at a mine.", "During their working life, electrical engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including scientists, electricians, computer programmers, and other engineers.Electrical engineering has an intimate relationship with the physical sciences.", "For instance, the physicist Lord Kelvin played a major role in the engineering of the first transatlantic telegraph cable.", "Conversely, the engineer Oliver Heaviside produced major work on the mathematics of transmission on telegraph cables.", "Electrical engineers are often required on major science projects.", "For instance, large particle accelerators such as CERN need electrical engineers to deal with many aspects of the project including the power distribution, the instrumentation, and the manufacture and installation of the superconducting electromagnets." ], [ "See also", "*Barnacle (slang)*Electrical Technologist*Electronic design automation*Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering*Index of electrical engineering articles*Information engineering*International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)*List of electrical engineers*List of engineering branches*List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing companies by revenue*List of Russian electrical engineers*Occupations in electrical/electronics engineering*Outline of electrical engineering*Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", ";Bibliography************************Martini, L., \"BSCCO-2233 multilayered conductors\", in ''Superconducting Materials for High Energy Colliders'', pp.", "173–181, World Scientific, 2001 .", "********Schmidt, Rüdiger, \"The LHC accelerator and its challenges\", in Kramer M.; Soler, F.J.P.", "(eds), ''Large Hadron Collider Phenomenology'', pp.", "217–250, CRC Press, 2004 .", "************" ], [ "Further reading", "**************" ], [ "External links", "* International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)* MIT OpenCourseWare in-depth look at Electrical Engineering – online courses with video lectures.", "* IEEE Global History Network A wiki-based site with many resources about the history of IEEE, its members, their professions and electrical and informational technologies and sciences." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electromagnetism" ], [ "Introduction", "Electromagnetic interactions are responsible for the glowing filaments in this plasma globeIn physics, '''electromagnetism''' is an interaction that occurs between particles with electric charge via electromagnetic fields.", "The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature.", "It is the dominant force in the interactions of atoms and molecules.", "Electromagnetism can be thought of as a combination of electrostatics and magnetism, which are distinct but closely intertwined phenomena.", "Electromagnetic forces occur between any two charged particles.", "Electric forces cause an attraction between particles with opposite charges and repulsion between particles with the same charge, while magnetism is an interaction that occurs between charged particles in relative motion.", "These two forces are described in terms of electromagnetic fields.", "Macroscopic charged objects are described in terms of Coulomb's law for electricity, Ampère's force law for magnetism; the Lorentz force describes microscopic charged particles.The electromagnetic force is responsible for many of the chemical and physical phenomena observed in daily life.", "The electrostatic attraction between atomic nuclei and their electrons holds atoms together.", "Electric forces also allow different atoms to combine into molecules, including the macromolecules such as proteins that form the basis of life.", "Meanwhile, magnetic interactions between the spin and angular momentum magnetic moments of electrons also play a role in chemical reactivity; such relationships are studied in spin chemistry.", "Electromagnetism also plays several crucial roles in modern technology: electrical energy production, transformation and distribution; light, heat, and sound production and detection; fiber optic and wireless communication; sensors; computation; electrolysis; electroplating; and mechanical motors and actuators.Electromagnetism has been studied since ancient times.", "Many ancient civilizations, including the Greeks and the Mayans, created wide-ranging theories to explain lightning, static electricity, and the attraction between magnetized pieces of iron ore.", "However, it wasn't until the late 18th century that scientists began to develop a mathematical basis for understanding the nature of electromagnetic interactions.", "In the 18th and 19th centuries, prominent scientists and mathematicians such as Coulomb, Gauss and Faraday developed namesake laws which helped to explain the formation and interaction of electromagnetic fields.", "This process culminated in the 1860s with the discovery of Maxwell's equations, a set of four partial differential equations which provide a complete description of classical electromagnetic fields.", "Maxwell's equations provided a sound mathematical basis for the relationships between electricity and magnetism that scientists had been exploring for centuries, and predicted the existence of self-sustaining electromagnetic waves.", "Maxwell postulated that such waves make up visible light, which was later shown to be true.", "Gamma-rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, visible, infrared radiation, microwaves and radio waves were all determined to be electromagnetic radiation differing only in their range of frequencies.In the modern era, scientists have continued to refine the theorem of electromagnetism to take into account the effects of modern physics, including quantum mechanics and relativity.", "The theoretical implications of electromagnetism, particularly the establishment of the speed of light based on properties of the \"medium\" of propagation (permeability and permittivity), helped inspire Einstein's theory of special relativity in 1905.Meanwhile, the field of quantum electrodynamics (QED) has modified Maxwell's equations to be consistent with the quantized nature of matter.", "In QED, the changes in the electromagnetic field is expressed in terms of discrete excitations, particles known as photons, the quanta of light." ], [ "History", "===Ancient world===Investigation into electromagnetic phenomena began about 5,000 years ago.", "There is evidence that the ancient Chinese, Mayan, and potentially even Egyptian civilizations knew that the naturally magnetic mineral magnetite had attractive properties, and many incorporated it into their art and architecture.", "Ancient people were also aware of lightning and static electricity, although they had no idea of the mechanisms behind these phenomena.", "The Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus discovered around 600 B.C.E.", "that amber could acquire an electric charge when it was rubbed with cloth, which allowed it to pick up light objects such as pieces of straw.", "Thales also experimented with the ability of magnetic rocks to attract one other, and hypothesized that this phenomenon might be connected to the attractive power of amber, foreshadowing the deep connections between electricity and magnetism that would be discovered over 2,000 years later.", "Despite all this investigation, ancient civilizations had no understanding of the mathematical basis of electromagnetism, and often analyzed its impacts through the lens of religion rather than science (lightning, for instance, was considered to be a creation of the gods in many cultures).===19th century===Cover of ''A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism''Electricity and magnetism were originally considered to be two separate forces.", "This view changed with the publication of James Clerk Maxwell's 1873 ''A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism'' in which the interactions of positive and negative charges were shown to be mediated by one force.", "There are four main effects resulting from these interactions, all of which have been clearly demonstrated by experiments:# Electric charges '''' or '''' one another with a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them: unlike charges attract, like ones repel.# Magnetic poles (or states of polarization at individual points) attract or repel one another in a manner similar to positive and negative charges and always exist as pairs: every north pole is yoked to a south pole.# An electric current inside a wire creates a corresponding circumferential magnetic field outside the wire.", "Its direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise) depends on the direction of the current in the wire.# A current is induced in a loop of wire when it is moved toward or away from a magnetic field, or a magnet is moved towards or away from it; the direction of current depends on that of the movement.In April 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted observed that an electrical current in a wire caused a nearby compass needle to move.", "At the time of discovery, Ørsted did not suggest any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in a mathematical framework.", "However, three months later he began more intensive investigations.", "Soon thereafter he published his findings, proving that an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire.", "The CGS unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of electromagnetism.His findings resulted in intensive research throughout the scientific community in electrodynamics.", "They influenced French physicist André-Marie Ampère's developments of a single mathematical form to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors.", "Ørsted's discovery also represented a major step toward a unified concept of energy.This unification, which was observed by Michael Faraday, extended by James Clerk Maxwell, and partially reformulated by Oliver Heaviside and Heinrich Hertz, is one of the key accomplishments of 19th-century mathematical physics.", "It has had far-reaching consequences, one of which was the understanding of the nature of light.", "Unlike what was proposed by the electromagnetic theory of that time, light and other electromagnetic waves are at present seen as taking the form of quantized, self-propagating oscillatory electromagnetic field disturbances called photons.", "Different frequencies of oscillation give rise to the different forms of electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to gamma rays at the highest frequencies.Ørsted was not the only person to examine the relationship between electricity and magnetism.", "In 1802, Gian Domenico Romagnosi, an Italian legal scholar, deflected a magnetic needle using a Voltaic pile.", "The factual setup of the experiment is not completely clear, nor if current flowed across the needle or not.", "An account of the discovery was published in 1802 in an Italian newspaper, but it was largely overlooked by the contemporary scientific community, because Romagnosi seemingly did not belong to this community.An earlier (1735), and often neglected, connection between electricity and magnetism was reported by a Dr. Cookson.", "The account stated:A tradesman at Wakefield in Yorkshire, having put up a great number of knives and forks in a large box ... and having placed the box in the corner of a large room, there happened a sudden storm of thunder, lightning, &c. ...", "The owner emptying the box on a counter where some nails lay, the persons who took up the knives, that lay on the nails, observed that the knives took up the nails.", "On this the whole number was tried, and found to do the same, and that, to such a degree as to take up large nails, packing needles, and other iron things of considerable weight ... E. T. Whittaker suggested in 1910 that this particular event was responsible for lightning to be \"credited with the power of magnetizing steel; and it was doubtless this which led Franklin in 1751 to attempt to magnetize a sewing-needle by means of the discharge of Leyden jars.\"" ], [ "A fundamental force", "Representation of the electric field vector of a wave of circularly polarized electromagnetic radiation.The electromagnetic force is the second strongest of the four known fundamental forces.", "It operates with infinite range.", "All other forces (e.g., friction, contact forces) are derived from these four fundamental forces and they are known as non-fundamental forces.At high energy, the weak force and electromagnetic force are unified as a single interaction called the electroweak interaction.Roughly speaking, all the forces involved in interactions between atoms can be explained by the electromagnetic force acting between the electrically charged atomic nuclei and electrons of the atoms.", "Electromagnetic forces also explain how these particles carry momentum by their movement.", "This includes the forces we experience in \"pushing\" or \"pulling\" ordinary material objects, which result from the intermolecular forces that act between the individual molecules in our bodies and those in the objects.", "The electromagnetic force is also involved in all forms of chemical phenomena.A necessary part of understanding the intra-atomic and intermolecular forces is the effective force generated by the momentum of the electrons' movement, such that as electrons move between interacting atoms they carry momentum with them.", "As a collection of electrons becomes more confined, their minimum momentum necessarily increases due to the Pauli exclusion principle.", "The behaviour of matter at the molecular scale including its density is determined by the balance between the electromagnetic force and the force generated by the exchange of momentum carried by the electrons themselves." ], [ "Classical electrodynamics", "In 1600, William Gilbert proposed, in his ''De Magnete'', that electricity and magnetism, while both capable of causing attraction and repulsion of objects, were distinct effects.", "Mariners had noticed that lightning strikes had the ability to disturb a compass needle.", "The link between lightning and electricity was not confirmed until Benjamin Franklin's proposed experiments in 1752 were conducted on 10May 1752 by Thomas-François Dalibard of France using a iron rod instead of a kite and he successfully extracted electrical sparks from a cloud.One of the first to discover and publish a link between human-made electric current and magnetism was Gian Romagnosi, who in 1802 noticed that connecting a wire across a voltaic pile deflected a nearby compass needle.", "However, the effect did not become widely known until 1820, when Ørsted performed a similar experiment.", "Ørsted's work influenced Ampère to conduct further experiments, which eventually gave rise to a new area of physics: electrodynamics.", "By determining a force law for the interaction between elements of electric current, Ampère placed the subject on a solid mathematical foundation.A theory of electromagnetism, known as classical electromagnetism, was developed by several physicists during the period between 1820 and 1873, when James Clerk Maxwell's treatise was published, which unified previous developments into a single theory, proposing that light was an electromagnetic wave propagating in the ''luminiferous ether''.", "In classical electromagnetism, the behavior of the electromagnetic field is described by a set of equations known as Maxwell's equations, and the electromagnetic force is given by the Lorentz force law.One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to reconcile with classical mechanics, but it is compatible with special relativity.", "According to Maxwell's equations, the speed of light in vacuum is a universal constant that is dependent only on the electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability of free space.", "This violates Galilean invariance, a long-standing cornerstone of classical mechanics.", "One way to reconcile the two theories (electromagnetism and classical mechanics) is to assume the existence of a luminiferous aether through which the light propagates.", "However, subsequent experimental efforts failed to detect the presence of the aether.", "After important contributions of Hendrik Lorentz and Henri Poincaré, in 1905, Albert Einstein solved the problem with the introduction of special relativity, which replaced classical kinematics with a new theory of kinematics compatible with classical electromagnetism.", "(For more information, see History of special relativity.", ")In addition, relativity theory implies that in moving frames of reference, a magnetic field transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and conversely, a moving electric field transforms to a nonzero magnetic component, thus firmly showing that the phenomena are two sides of the same coin.", "Hence the term \"electromagnetism\".", "(For more information, see Classical electromagnetism and special relativity and Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism.", ")Today few problems in electromagnetism remain unsolved.", "These include: the lack of magnetic monopoles, Abraham–Minkowski controversy, and the mechanism by which some organisms can sense electric and magnetic fields." ], [ "Extension to nonlinear phenomena", "The Maxwell equations are ''linear,'' in that a change in the sources (the charges and currents) results in a proportional change of the fields.", "Nonlinear dynamics can occur when electromagnetic fields couple to matter that follows nonlinear dynamical laws.", "This is studied, for example, in the subject of magnetohydrodynamics, which combines Maxwell theory with the Navier–Stokes equations.", "Another branch of electromagnetism dealing with nonlinearity is nonlinear optics." ], [ "Quantities and units", "Here is a list of common units related to electromagnetism:* ampere (electric current)* coulomb (electric charge)* farad (capacitance)* henry (inductance)* ohm (resistance)* siemens (conductance)* tesla (magnetic flux density)* volt (electric potential)* watt (power)* weber (magnetic flux)In the electromagnetic CGS system, electric current is a fundamental quantity defined via Ampère's law and takes the permeability as a dimensionless quantity (relative permeability) whose value in vacuum is unity.", "As a consequence, the square of the speed of light appears explicitly in some of the equations interrelating quantities in this system.Formulas for physical laws of electromagnetism (such as Maxwell's equations) need to be adjusted depending on what system of units one uses.", "This is because there is no one-to-one correspondence between electromagnetic units in SI and those in CGS, as is the case for mechanical units.", "Furthermore, within CGS, there are several plausible choices of electromagnetic units, leading to different unit \"sub-systems\", including Gaussian, \"ESU\", \"EMU\", and Heaviside–Lorentz.", "Among these choices, Gaussian units are the most common today, and in fact the phrase \"CGS units\" is often used to refer specifically to CGS-Gaussian units." ], [ "Applications", "The study of electromagnetism informs electric circuits and semiconductor devices' construction." ], [ "See also", "* Abraham–Lorentz force* Aeromagnetic surveys* Computational electromagnetics* Double-slit experiment* Electrodynamic droplet deformation* Electromagnet* Electromagnetic induction* Electromagnetic wave equation* Electromagnetic scattering* Electromechanics* Geophysics* Introduction to electromagnetism* Magnetostatics* Magnetoquasistatic field* Optics* Relativistic electromagnetism* Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Web sources===* * ===Textbooks===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===General coverage===* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Magnetic Field Strength Converter* Electromagnetic Force – from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Euphemism" ], [ "Introduction", "Sign in a Rite Aid drugstore using common euphemisms for (from top) contraceptives; vaginal douches; menstrual pads and tampons; and adult diapers, respectively|alt=A yellow sign with a pointed bottom.", "At the top is the number 5 in an oval with a blue background.", "Below it are the words \"family planning\", \"feminine hygiene\", \"feminine protection\" and \"sanitary protection\"A '''euphemism''' ( ) is an innocuous word or expression used in place of one that is deemed offensive or suggests something unpleasant.", "Some euphemisms are intended to amuse, while others use bland, inoffensive terms for concepts that the user wishes to downplay.", "Euphemisms may be used to mask profanity or refer to topics some consider taboo such as disability, sex, excretion, or death in a polite way." ], [ "Etymology", "''Euphemism'' comes from the Greek word () which refers to the use of 'words of good omen'; it is a compound of (), meaning 'good, well', and (), meaning 'prophetic speech; rumour, talk'.", "''Eupheme'' is a reference to the female Greek spirit of words of praise and positivity, etc.", "The term ''euphemism'' itself was used as a euphemism by the ancient Greeks; with the meaning \"to keep a holy silence\" (speaking well by not speaking at all)." ], [ "Purpose", "===Avoidance===Reasons for using euphemisms vary by context and intent.", "Commonly, euphemisms are used to avoid directly addressing subjects that might be deemed negative or embarrassing, e.g., death, sex, excretory bodily functions.", "They may be created for innocent, well-intentioned purposes or nefariously and cynically, intentionally to deceive and confuse.", "Euphemisms which emerge as dominant social euphemisms are often created to serve progressive causes.===Mitigation===Euphemisms are also used to mitigate, soften or downplay the gravity of large-scale injustices, war crimes, or other events that warrant a pattern of avoidance in official statements or documents.", "For instance, one reason for the comparative scarcity of written evidence documenting the exterminations at Auschwitz, relative to their sheer number, is \"directives for the extermination process obscured in bureaucratic euphemisms\".", "Another example of this is during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, where Russian President Vladimir Putin, in his speech starting the invasion, called the invasion a \"special military operation\".Euphemisms are sometimes used to lessen the opposition to a political move.", "For example, according to linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu used the neutral Hebrew lexical item (literally 'beatings (of the heart)'), rather than ('withdrawal'), to refer to the stages in the Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank , in order to lessen the opposition of right-wing Israelis to such a move.", "was thus used as a euphemism for 'withdrawal'.===Rhetoric===Euphemism may be used as a rhetorical strategy, in which case its goal is to change the valence of a description." ], [ "Controversial use", "The act of labeling a term as a euphemism can in itself be controversial, as in the following examples:* ''Reproductive health'' is used as a euphemism for the medical procedure of abortion, often employed for political reasons.", "Many pro-abortion institutions now advocate using the term \"abortion\" instead of relying on euphemisms in order to earn greater social acceptance of the procedure.", "* ''Affirmative action'', meaning a preference for minorities or the historically disadvantaged, usually in employment or academic admissions.", "This term is sometimes said to be a euphemism for reverse discrimination, or, in the UK, positive discrimination, which suggests an intentional bias that might be legally prohibited, or otherwise unpalatable.", "* ''Enhanced interrogation'' is a euphemism for torture.", "For example, columnist David Brooks called the use of this term for practices at Abu Ghraib, Guantanamo Bay and elsewhere an effort to \"dull the moral sensibility\".===Online===The use of euphemism online is known as \"algospeak\" and is used to evade automated online moderation techniques used on Meta and TikTok's platforms.", "Algospeak has been used in debate about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict." ], [ "Formation methods", "===Pronunciation (phonetic modification)===Phonetic euphemism is used to replace profanities and blasphemies, diminishing their intensity.", "To alter the pronunciation or spelling of a taboo word (such as a swear word) to form a euphemism is known as ''taboo deformation'', or a ''minced oath''.", "Such modifications include:* Shortening or \"clipping\" the term, such as ''Jeez'' ('Jesus') and ''what the—'' ('what the hell').", "* Mispronunciations, such as ''oh my gosh'' ('oh my God'), ''frickin'' ('fucking'), ''darn'' ('damn') or ''oh shoot'' ('oh shit').", "This is also referred to as a minced oath.", "''Feck'' is a minced oath for 'fuck', originating in Hiberno-English and popularised outside of Ireland by the British sitcom ''Father Ted''.", "* Using acronyms as replacements, such as ''SOB'' ('son of a bitch').", "Sometimes, the word ''word'' or ''bomb'' is added after it, such as ''F-word'' ('fuck'), etc.", "Also, the letter can be phonetically respelled.===Understatement===Euphemisms formed from understatements include ''asleep'' for dead and ''drinking'' for consuming alcohol.", "\"Tired and emotional\" is a notorious British euphemism for \"drunk\", one of many recurring jokes popularized by the satirical magazine ''Private Eye''; it has been used by MPs to avoid unparliamentary language.===Substitution===Pleasant, positive, worthy, neutral, or nondescript terms are often substituted for explicit or unpleasant ones, with many substituted terms deliberately coined by sociopolitical movements, marketing, public relations, or advertising initiatives, including:*''meat packing company'' for 'slaughterhouse' (avoids entirely the subject of killing); ''natural issue'' or ''love child'' for 'bastard'; ''let go'' for 'fired/sacked', etc.Some examples of Cockney rhyming slang may serve the same purpose: to call a person a ''berk'' sounds less offensive than to call a person a ''cunt'', though ''berk'' is short for Berkeley Hunt, which rhymes with ''cunt''.===Metaphor===* Metaphors (''beat the meat'', ''choke the chicken'', or ''jerkin' the gherkin'' for 'masturbation'; ''take a dump'' and ''take a leak'' for 'defecation' and 'urination', respectively)* Comparisons (''buns'' for 'buttocks', ''weed'' for 'cannabis')* Metonymy (''men's room'' for 'men's restroom/toilet')===Slang===The use of a term with a softer connotation, though it shares the same meaning.", "For instance, ''screwed up'' is a euphemism for 'fucked up'; ''hook-up'' and ''laid'' are euphemisms for 'sexual intercourse'.===Foreign words===Expressions or words from a foreign language may be imported for use as euphemism.", "For example, the French word was sometimes used instead of the English word ''pregnant''; for ''slaughterhouse'', although in French the word retains its explicit violent meaning 'a place for beating down', conveniently lost on non-French speakers.", "''Entrepreneur'' for ''businessman'', adds glamour; ''douche'' (French for 'shower') for vaginal irrigation device; ''bidet'' ('little pony') for vessel for anal washing.", "Ironically, although in English physical \"handicaps\" are almost always described with euphemism, in French the English word ''handicap'' is used as a euphemism for their problematic words or .===Periphrasis/circumlocution===Periphrasis, or circumlocution, is one of the most common: to \"speak around\" a given word, implying it without saying it.", "Over time, circumlocutions become recognized as established euphemisms for particular words or ideas." ], [ "Doublespeak", "Bureaucracies frequently spawn euphemisms intentionally, as doublespeak expressions.", "For example, in the past, the US military used the term \"sunshine units\" for contamination by radioactive isotopes.", "The United States Central Intelligence Agency refers to systematic torture as \"enhanced interrogation techniques\".", "An effective death sentence in the Soviet Union during the Great Purge often used the clause \"imprisonment without right to correspondence\": the person sentenced would be shot soon after conviction.", "As early as 1939, Nazi official Reinhard Heydrich used the term ''Sonderbehandlung'' (\"special treatment\") to mean summary execution of persons viewed as \"disciplinary problems\" by the Nazis even before commencing the systematic extermination of the Jews.", "Heinrich Himmler, aware that the word had come to be known to mean murder, replaced that euphemism with one in which Jews would be \"guided\" (to their deaths) through the slave-labor and extermination camps after having been \"evacuated\" to their doom.", "Such was part of the formulation of ''Endlösung der Judenfrage'' (the \"Final Solution to the Jewish Question\"), which became known to the outside world during the Nuremberg Trials." ], [ "Lifespan <span id=\"Euphemism treadmill\"></span>", "''Negro'' is an example of a once-innocuous euphemism that has become outdated and offensive.Frequently, over time, euphemisms themselves become taboo words, through the linguistic process of semantic change known as pejoration, which University of Oregon linguist Sharon Henderson Taylor dubbed the \"'''euphemism cycle'''\" in 1974, also frequently referred to as the \"'''euphemism treadmill'''\".", "For instance, the place of human defecation is a needy candidate for a euphemism in all eras.", "''Toilet'' is an 18th-century euphemism, replacing the older euphemism ''house-of-office'', which in turn replaced the even older euphemisms ''privy-house'' and ''bog-house''.", "In the 20th century, where the old euphemisms ''lavatory'' (a place where one washes) and ''toilet'' (a place where one dresses) had grown from widespread usage (e.g., in the United States) to being synonymous with the crude act they sought to deflect, they were sometimes replaced with ''bathroom'' (a place where one bathes), ''washroom'' (a place where one washes), or ''restroom'' (a place where one rests) or even by the extreme form ''powder room'' (a place where one applies facial cosmetics).", "The form ''water closet'', often shortened to ''W.C.", "'', is a less deflective form.", "The word ''shit'' appears to have originally been a euphemism for defecation in Pre-Germanic, as the Proto-Indo-European root *'''', from which it was derived, meant 'to cut off'.Another example in American English is the replacement of \"colored people\" with \"Negro\" (euphemism by foreign language), which itself came to be replaced by either \"African American\" or \"Black\".", "Also in the United States the term \"ethnic minorities\" in the 2010s has been replaced by \"people of color\".Venereal disease, which associated shameful bacterial infection with a seemingly worthy ailment emanating from Venus, the goddess of love, soon lost its deflective force in the post-classical education era, as \"VD\", which was replaced by the three-letter initialism \"STD\" (sexually transmitted disease); later, \"STD\" was replaced by \"STI\" (sexually transmitted infection).Intellectually-disabled people were originally defined with words such as \"morons\" or \"imbeciles\", which then became commonly used insults.", "The medical diagnosis was changed to \"mentally retarded\", which morphed into a pejorative against those with intellectual disabilities.", "To avoid the negative connotations of their diagnoses, students who need accommodations because of such conditions are often labeled as \"special needs\" instead, although the words \"special\" or \"sped\" (short for \"special education\") have long been schoolyard insults.", "As of August 2013, the Social Security Administration replaced the term \"mental retardation\" with \"intellectual disability\".", "Since 2012, that change in terminology has been adopted by the National Institutes of Health and the medical industry at large.", "There are numerous disability-related euphemisms that have negative connotations." ], [ "See also", "* Call a spade a spade* Code word (figure of speech)* Dead Parrot sketch* Distinction without a difference* Dog whistle (politics)* Double entendre* Dysphemism* Emotive conjugation* Expurgation (often called bowdlerization, after Thomas Bowdler)* Framing (social sciences)* Minced oath* Minimisation* Persuasive definition* Polite fiction* Political correctness* Political euphemism* Puns* Sexual slang* Spin (propaganda)* Statistext* Word play* Word taboo" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Originally published in: * * * * * * ''Maledicta: The International Journal of Verbal Aggression''.", "ISSN: 0363-3659.LCCN: 77649633.OCLC: 3188018.", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edmund Spenser" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Edmund Spenser''' (; 1552/1553 – 13 January O.S.", "1599) was an English poet best known for ''The Faerie Queene'', an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I.", "He is recognized as one of the premier craftsmen of nascent Modern English verse, and he is considered one of the great poets in the English language." ], [ "Life", "Edmund Spenser was born in East Smithfield, London, around the year 1552; however, there is still some ambiguity as to the exact date of his birth.", "His parenthood is obscure, but he was probably the son of John Spenser, a journeyman clothmaker.", "As a young boy, he was educated in London at the Merchant Taylors' School and matriculated as a sizar at Pembroke College, Cambridge.", "While at Cambridge he became a friend of Gabriel Harvey and later consulted him, despite their differing views on poetry.", "In 1578, he became for a short time secretary to John Young, Bishop of Rochester.", "In 1579, he published ''The Shepheardes Calender'' and around the same time married his first wife, Machabyas Childe.", "They had two children, Sylvanus (d. 1638) and Katherine.In July 1580, Spenser went to Ireland in service of the newly appointed Lord Deputy, Arthur Grey, 14th Baron Grey de Wilton.", "Spenser served under Lord Grey with Walter Raleigh at the Siege of Smerwick massacre.", "When Lord Grey was recalled to England, Spenser stayed on in Ireland, having acquired other official posts and lands in the Munster Plantation.", "Raleigh acquired other nearby Munster estates confiscated in the Second Desmond Rebellion.", "Sometime between 1587 and 1589, Spenser acquired his main estate at Kilcolman, near Doneraile in North Cork.", "He later bought a second holding to the south, at Rennie, on a rock overlooking the river Blackwater in North Cork.", "Its ruins are still visible today.", "A short distance away grew a tree, locally known as \"Spenser's Oak\" until it was destroyed in a lightning strike in the 1960s.", "Local legend claims that he penned some of ''The Faerie Queene'' under this tree.In 1590, Spenser brought out the first three books of his most famous work, ''The Faerie Queene'', having travelled to London to publish and promote the work, with the likely assistance of Raleigh.", "He was successful enough to obtain a life pension of £50 a year from the Queen.", "He probably hoped to secure a place at court through his poetry, but his next significant publication boldly antagonised the queen's principal secretary, Lord Burghley (William Cecil), through its inclusion of the satirical ''Mother Hubberd's Tale''.", "He returned to Ireland.", "He was at the centre of a literary circle whose members included his lifelong friend Lodowick Bryskett and Dr. John Longe, Archbishop of Armagh.In 1591, Spenser published a translation in verse of Joachim Du Bellay's sonnets, ''Les Antiquités de Rome'', which had been published in 1558.Spenser's version, ''Ruines of Rome: by Bellay'', may also have been influenced by Latin poems on the same subject, written by Jean or Janis Vitalis and published in 1576.By 1594, Spenser's first wife had died, and in that year he married a much younger Elizabeth Boyle, a relative of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork.", "He addressed to her the sonnet sequence ''Amoretti''.", "The marriage was celebrated in ''Epithalamion''.", "They had a son named Peregrine.In 1596, Spenser wrote a prose pamphlet titled ''A View of the Present State of Irelande''.", "This piece, in the form of a dialogue, circulated in manuscript, remaining unpublished until the mid-17th century.", "It is probable that it was kept out of print during the author's lifetime because of its inflammatory content.", "The pamphlet argued that Ireland would never be totally \"pacified\" by the English until its indigenous language and customs had been destroyed, if necessary by violence.In 1598, during the Nine Years' War, Spenser was driven from his home by the native Irish forces of Aodh Ó Néill.", "His castle at Kilcolman was burned, and Ben Jonson, who may have had private information, asserted that one of his infant children died in the blaze.Title page, ''Fowre Hymnes'', by Edmund Spenser, published by William Ponsonby, London, 1596In the year after being driven from his home, 1599, Spenser travelled to London, where he died at the age of forty-six – \"for want of bread\", according to Ben Jonson; one of Jonson's more doubtful statements, since Spenser had a payment to him authorised by the government and was due his pension.", "His coffin was carried to his grave in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey by other poets, who threw many pens and pieces of poetry into his grave with many tears.", "His second wife survived him and remarried twice.", "His sister Sarah, who had accompanied him to Ireland, married into the Travers family, and her descendants were prominent landowners in Cork for centuries." ], [ "Rhyme and reason", "Thomas Fuller, in ''Worthies of England'', included a story where the Queen told her treasurer, William Cecil, to pay Spenser £100 for his poetry.", "The treasurer, however, objected that the sum was too much.", "She said, \"Then give him what is reason\".", "Without receiving his payment in due time, Spenser gave the Queen this quatrain on one of her progresses:I was promis'd on a time,To have a reason for my rhyme:From that time unto this season,I receiv'd nor rhyme nor reason.She immediately ordered the treasurer to pay Spenser the original £100.This story seems to have attached itself to Spenser from Thomas Churchyard, who apparently had difficulty in getting payment of his pension, the only other pension Elizabeth awarded to a poet.", "Spenser seems to have had no difficulty in receiving payment when it was due as the pension was being collected for him by his publisher, Ponsonby." ], [ "''The Shepheardes Calender''", "Title Page of a 1617 Edition of ''The Shepheardes Calender'' printed by Matthew Lownes, often bound with the complete works printed in 1611 or 1617.", "''The Shepheardes Calender'' is Edmund Spenser's first major work, which appeared in 1579.It emulates Virgil's ''Eclogues'' of the first century BCE and the ''Eclogues'' of Mantuan by Baptista Mantuanus, a late medieval, early renaissance poet.", "An eclogue is a short pastoral poem that is in the form of a dialogue or soliloquy.", "Although all the months together form an entire year, each month stands alone as a separate poem.", "Editions of the late 16th and early 17th centuries include woodcuts for each month/poem, and thereby have a slight similarity to an emblem book which combines a number of self-contained pictures and texts, usually a short vignette, saying, or allegory with an accompanying illustration." ], [ "''The Faerie Queene''", "The epic poem ''The Faerie Queene'' frontispiece, printed by William Ponsonby in 1590.Spenser's masterpiece is the epic poem ''The Faerie Queene''.", "The first three books of ''The Faerie Queene'' were published in 1590, and the second set of three books was published in 1596.Spenser originally indicated that he intended the poem to consist of twelve books, so the version of the poem we have today is incomplete.", "Despite this, it remains one of the longest poems in the English language.", "It is an allegorical work, and can be read (as Spenser presumably intended) on several levels of allegory, including as praise of Queen Elizabeth I.", "In a completely allegorical context, the poem follows several knights in an examination of several virtues.", "In Spenser's \"A Letter of the Authors\", he states that the entire epic poem is \"cloudily enwrapped in allegorical devises\", and that the aim behind ''The Faerie Queene'' was to \"fashion a gentleman or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline\"." ], [ "Shorter poems", "Spenser published numerous relatively short poems in the last decade of the 16th century, almost all of which consider love or sorrow.", "In 1591, he published ''Complaints'', a collection of poems that express complaints in mournful or mocking tones.", "Four years later, in 1595, Spenser published ''Amoretti and Epithalamion''.", "This volume contains eighty-eight sonnets commemorating his courtship of Elizabeth Boyle.", "In ''Amoretti'', Spenser uses subtle humour and parody while praising his beloved, reworking Petrarchism in his treatment of longing for a woman.", "''Epithalamion'', similar to ''Amoretti'', deals in part with the unease in the development of a romantic and sexual relationship.", "It was written for his wedding to his young bride, Elizabeth Boyle.", "Some have speculated that the attention to disquiet, in general, reflects Spenser's personal anxieties at the time, as he was unable to complete his most significant work, ''The Faerie Queene''.", "In the following year, Spenser released ''Prothalamion'', a wedding song written for the daughters of a duke, allegedly in hopes to gain favour in the court." ], [ "The Spenserian stanza and sonnet", "Spenser used a distinctive verse form, called the Spenserian stanza, in several works, including ''The Faerie Queene''.", "The stanza's main metre is iambic pentameter with a final line in iambic hexameter (having six feet or stresses, known as an Alexandrine), and the rhyme scheme is .", "He also used his own rhyme scheme for the sonnet.", "In a Spenserian sonnet, the last line of every quatrain is linked with the first line of the next one, yielding the rhyme scheme .", "\"Men Call you Fayre\" is a fine Sonnet from Amoretti.", "The poet presents the concept of true beauty in the poem.", "He addresses the sonnet to his beloved, Elizabeth Boyle, and presents his courtship.", "Like all Renaissance men, Edmund Spenser believed that love is an inexhaustible source of beauty and order.", "In this Sonnet, the poet expresses his idea of true beauty.", "The physical beauty will finish after a few days; it is not a permanent beauty.", "He emphasises beauty of mind and beauty of intellect.", "He considers his beloved is not simply flesh but is also a spiritual being.", "The poet opines that he is beloved born of heavenly seed and she is derived from fair spirit.", "The poet states that because of her clean mind, pure heart and sharp intellect, men call her fair and she deserves it.", "At the end, the poet praises her spiritual beauty and he worships her because of her Divine Soul." ], [ "Influences", "Though Spenser was well-read in classical literature, scholars have noted that his poetry does not rehash tradition, but rather is distinctly his.", "This individuality may have resulted, to some extent, from a lack of comprehension of the classics.", "Spenser strove to emulate such ancient Roman poets as Virgil and Ovid, whom he studied during his schooling, but many of his best-known works are notably divergent from those of his predecessors.", "The language of his poetry is purposely archaic, reminiscent of earlier works such as ''The Canterbury Tales'' of Geoffrey Chaucer and ''Il Canzoniere'' of Petrarch, whom Spenser greatly admired.An Anglican and a devotee of the Protestant Queen Elizabeth, Spenser was particularly offended by the anti-Elizabethan propaganda that some Catholics circulated.", "Like most Protestants near the time of the Reformation, Spenser saw a Catholic church full of corruption, and he determined that it was not only the wrong religion but the anti-religion.", "This sentiment is an important backdrop for the battles of ''The Faerie Queene''.Spenser was called \"the Poet's Poet\" by Charles Lamb, and was admired by John Milton, William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, Lord Byron, Alfred Tennyson and others.", "Among his contemporaries Walter Raleigh wrote a commendatory poem to ''The Faerie Queene'' in 1590 in which he claims to admire and value Spenser's work more so than any other in the English language.", "John Milton in his ''Areopagitica'' mentions \"our sage and serious poet Spenser, whom I dare be known to think a better teacher than Scotus or Aquinas\".", "In the 18th century, Alexander Pope compared Spenser to \"a mistress, whose faults we see, but love her with them all\"." ], [ "''A View of the Present State of Irelande''", "In his work ''A View of the Present State of Irelande'' (1596), Spenser discussed future plans to establish control over Ireland, the most recent Irish uprising, led by Hugh O'Neill having demonstrated the futility of previous efforts.", "The work is partly a defence of Lord Arthur Grey de Wilton, who was appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1580, and who greatly influenced Spenser's thinking on Ireland.The goal of the piece was to show that Ireland was in great need of reform.", "Spenser believed that \"Ireland is a diseased portion of the State, it must first be cured and reformed, before it could be in a position to appreciate the good sound laws and blessings of the nation\".", "In ''A View of the Present State of Ireland'', Spenser categorises the \"evils\" of the Irish people into three prominent categories: laws, customs and religion.", "According to Spenser, these three elements worked together in creating the supposedly \"disruptive and degraded people\" who inhabited the country.", "One example given in the work is the Irish law system termed \"Brehon law\", which at the time trumped the established law as dictated by the Crown.", "The Brehon system had its own court and methods of punishing infractions committed.", "Spenser viewed this system as a backward custom which contributed to the \"degradation\" of the Irish people.", "A particular legal punishment viewed with distaste by Spenser was the Brehon method of dealing with murder, which was to impose an ''éraic'' (fine) on the murderer's family.", "From Spenser's viewpoint, the appropriate punishment for murder was capital punishment.", "Spenser also warned of the dangers that allowing the education of children in the Irish language would bring: \"Soe that the speach being Irish, the hart must needes be Irishe; for out of the aboundance of the hart, the tonge speaketh\".He pressed for a scorched earth policy in Ireland, noting its effectiveness in the Second Desmond Rebellion:\"'Out of everye corner of the woode and glenns they came creepinge forth upon theire handes, for theire legges could not beare them; they looked Anatomies of death, they spake like ghostes, crying out of theire graves; they did eate of the carrions, happye wheare they could find them, yea, and one another soone after, in soe much as the verye carcasses they spared not to scrape out of theire graves; and if they found a plott of water-cresses or shamrockes, theyr they flocked as to a feast… in a shorte space there were none almost left, and a most populous and plentyfull countrye suddenly lefte voyde of man or beast: yett sure in all that warr, there perished not manye by the sworde, but all by the extreamytie of famine ... they themselves had wrought.'\"" ], [ "List of works", "1569: * Jan van der Noodt's ''A Theatre for Worldlings'', including poems translated into English by Spenser from French sources, published by Henry Bynneman in London1579: * ''The Shepheardes Calender'', published under the pseudonym \"Immerito\" (entered into the Stationers' Register in December)* ''Iambicum Trimetrum''1590:* ''The Faerie Queene'', Books 1–31591:* ''Complaints, Containing Sundrie Small Poemes of the Worlds Vanitie'' (entered into the Stationer's Register in 1590), includes:** \"The Ruines of Time\"** \"The Teares of the Muses\"** \"Virgil's Gnat\"** \"Prosopopoia, or Mother Hubberds Tale\"** \"Ruines of Rome: by Bellay\"** \"Muiopotmos, or the Fate of the Butterflie\"** \"Visions of the Worlds Vanitie\"** \"The Visions of Bellay\"** \"The Visions of Petrarch\"1592:* ''Axiochus'', a translation of a pseudo-Platonic dialogue from the original Ancient Greek; published by Cuthbert Burbie; attributed to \"Edw: Spenser\" but the attribution is uncertain* ''Daphnaïda.", "An Elegy upon the Death of the Noble and Vertuous Douglas Howard, Daughter and Heire of Henry Lord Howard, Viscount Byndon, and Wife of Arthure Gorges Esquier'' (published in London in January, according to one source; another source gives 1591 as the year) It was dedicated to Helena, Marchioness of Northampton.1595:* ''Amoretti and Epithalamion'', containing:** \"Amoretti\"** \"Epithalamion\"* ''Astrophel.", "A Pastorall Elegie vpon the Death of the Most Noble and Valorous Knight, Sir Philip Sidney''* ''Colin Clouts Come Home Againe''1596:* ''Fowre Hymnes'' dedicated from the court at Greenwich; published with the second edition of ''Daphnaida''* ''Prothalamion''* ''The Faerie Queene'', Books 4–6* ''Babel, Empress of the East – a dedicatory poem prefaced to Lewes Lewkenor's The Commonwealth of Venice, 1599.Posthumous:* 1609: ''Two Cantos of Mutabilitie'' published together with a reprint of ''The Faerie Queene''* 1611: First folio edition of Spenser's collected works* 1633: ''A Vewe of the Present State of Irelande'', a prose treatise on the reformation of Ireland, first published by Sir James Ware (historian) entitled ''The Historie of Ireland'' (Spenser's work was entered into the Stationer's Register in 1598 and circulated in manuscript but not published until it was edited by Ware)" ], [ "Editions", "* Edmund Spenser, ''Selected Letters and Other Papers''.", "Edited by Christopher Burlinson and Andrew Zurcher (Oxford, OUP, 2009).", "* Edmund Spenser, ''The Faerie Queene'' (Longman-Annotated-English Poets, 2001, 2007) Edited by A. C. Hamilton, Text Edited by Yamashita and Toshiyuki Suzuki ." ], [ "Digital archive", "Washington University in St. Louis professor Joseph Lowenstein, with the assistance of several undergraduate students, has been involved in creating, editing, and annotating a digital archive of the first publication of poet Edmund Spenser's collective works in 100 years.", "A large grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities has been given to support this ambitious project centralized at Washington University with support from other colleges in the United States." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Croft, Ryan J.", "\"Sanctified Tyrannicide: Tyranny And Theology in John Ponet's Shorte Treatise of Politike Power And Edmund \"Spenser's The Faerie Queene.\"", "''Studies in Philosophy'', 108.4 (2011): 538–571.MLA International Bibliography.", "Web.", "8 October 2012.", "* * * * * * Henley, Pauline.", "''Spenser in Ireland''.", "Cork: Cork University Press, 1928.", "* Johnson, William.", "\"The struggle between good and evil in the first book of 'The Faerie Queene'.\"", "''English Studies'', Vol.", "74,* Maley, Willy.", "\"Spenser's Life\".", "''The Oxford Dictionary of Edmund Spenser''.", "Ed.", "Richard A. McCabe.", "1st Ed.", "2010.Print.", "* Rust, Jennifer.", "\"Spenser's The Faerie Queene.\"", "Saint Louis University, St. Louis.", "10 October 2007.No.", "6.", "(December 1993) p. 507–519.", "* Wadoski, Andrew.", "''Spenser's Ethics: Empire, Mutability, and Moral Philosophy in Early Modernity''.", "Manchester University Press, June 2022, .", "* Zarucchi, Jeanne Morgan.", "\"Du Bellay, Spenser, and Quevedo Search for Rome: A Teacher's Peregrination.\"", "''The French Review'', 17:2 (December 1997), pp.", "192–203." ], [ "External links", "* * The Edmund Spenser Home Page at the Cambridge University* Complete works in Verse and Prose at Internet Archive* The works of Edmund Spenser in a single volume at Internet Archive* ** Project Gutenberg edition of '' Biography of Edmund Spenser'' by John W. Hales* * * Profile and works at the Poetry Foundation* ''The Spenser Encyclopedia'' by A. C. Hamilton in Google Books Preview* * * Hiroshi Yamashita: Bibliographical and Textual Studies of Edmund Spenser and Natsume SosekiPreceded by:'''John Skelton''''''English Poet Laureate''' c. 1590–1599Succeeded by:'''Samuel Daniel'''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electricity generation" ], [ "Introduction", "Turbo generator'''Electricity generation''' is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary energy.", "For utilities in the electric power industry, it is the stage prior to its delivery (transmission, distribution, etc.)", "to end users or its storage (using, for example, the pumped-storage method).Usable electricity is not freely available in nature, so it must be \"produced\" (that is, transforming other forms of energy to electricity).", "Production is carried out in power stations (also called \"power plants\").", "Electricity is most often generated at a power plant by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fueled by combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind.", "Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.", "There are also exotic and speculative methods to recover energy, such as proposed fusion reactor designs which aim to directly extract energy from intense magnetic fields generated by fast-moving charged particles generated by the fusion reaction (see magnetohydrodynamics).", "Phasing out coal-fired power stations and eventually gas-fired power stations, or, if practical, capturing their greenhouse gas emissions, is an important part of the energy transformation required to limit climate change.", "Vastly more solar power and wind power is forecast to be required, with electricity demand increasing strongly with further electrification of transport, homes and industry.", "However, in 2023, it was reported that the global electricity supply was approaching peak CO2 emissions thanks to the growth of solar and wind power." ], [ "History", "Dynamos and engine installed at Edison General Electric Company, New York 1895The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered in the 1820s and early 1830s by British scientist Michael Faraday.", "His method, still used today, is for electricity to be generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or Faraday disc, between the poles of a magnet.", "Central power stations became economically practical with the development of alternating current (AC) power transmission, using power transformers to transmit power at high voltage and with low loss.Commercial electricity production started with the coupling of the dynamo to the hydraulic turbine.", "The mechanical production of electric power began the Second Industrial Revolution and made possible several inventions using electricity, with the major contributors being Thomas Alva Edison and Nikola Tesla.", "Previously the only way to produce electricity was by chemical reactions or using battery cells, and the only practical use of electricity was for the telegraph.Electricity generation at central power stations started in 1882, when a steam engine driving a dynamo at Pearl Street Station produced a DC current that powered public lighting on Pearl Street, New York.", "The new technology was quickly adopted by many cities around the world, which adapted their gas-fueled street lights to electric power.", "Soon after electric lights would be used in public buildings, in businesses, and to power public transport, such as trams and trains.The first power plants used water power or coal.", "Today a variety of energy sources are used, such as coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, wind, and oil, as well as solar energy, tidal power, and geothermal sources.In the 1880s the popularity of electricity grew massively with the introduction of the Incandescent light bulb.", "Although there are 22 recognised inventors of the light bulb prior to Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison, Edison and Swan's invention became by far the most successful and popular of all.", "During the early years of the 19th century, massive jumps in electrical sciences were made.", "And by the later 19th century the advancement of electrical technology and engineering led to electricity being part of everyday life.", "With the introduction of many electrical inventions and their implementation into everyday life, the demand for electricity within homes grew dramatically.", "With this increase in demand, the potential for profit was seen by many entrepreneurs who began investing into electrical systems to eventually create the first electricity public utilities.", "This process in history is often described as electrification.The earliest distribution of electricity came from companies operating independently of one another.", "A consumer would purchase electricity from a producer, and the producer would distribute it through their own power grid.", "As technology improved so did the productivity and efficiency of its generation.", "Inventions such as the steam turbine had a massive impact on the efficiency of electrical generation but also the economics of generation as well.", "This conversion of heat energy into mechanical work was similar to that of steam engines, however at a significantly larger scale and far more productively.", "The improvements of these large-scale generation plants were critical to the process of centralised generation as they would become vital to the entire power system that we now use today.", "Throughout the middle of the 20th century many utilities began merging their distribution networks due to economic and efficiency benefits.", "Along with the invention of long-distance power transmission, the coordination of power plants began to form.", "This system was then secured by regional system operators to ensure stability and reliability.", "The electrification of homes began in Northern Europe and in the Northern America in the 1920s in large cities and urban areas.", "It was not until the 1930s that rural areas saw the large-scale establishment of electrification." ], [ "Methods of generation", "Several fundamental methods exist to convert other forms of energy into electrical energy.", "Utility-scale generation is achieved by rotating electric generators or by photovoltaic systems.", "A small proportion of electric power distributed by utilities is provided by batteries.", "Other forms of electricity generation used in niche applications include the triboelectric effect, the piezoelectric effect, the thermoelectric effect, and betavoltaics.=== Generators ===Wind turbines usually provide electrical generation in conjunction with other methods of producing power.Electric generators transform kinetic energy into electricity.", "This is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faraday's law.", "It can be seen experimentally by rotating a magnet within closed loops of conducting material (e.g.", "copper wire).", "Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in which mechanical energy forces a generator to rotate.=== Electrochemistry ===Large dams, such as Hoover Dam in the United States, can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power.", "It has an installed capacity of 2.07 GW.Electrochemistry is the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a battery.", "Electrochemical electricity generation is important in portable and mobile applications.", "Currently, most electrochemical power comes from batteries.", "Primary cells, such as the common zinc–carbon batteries, act as power sources directly, but secondary cells (i.e.", "rechargeable batteries) are used for storage systems rather than primary generation systems.", "Open electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, can be used to extract power either from natural fuels or from synthesized fuels.", "Osmotic power is a possibility at places where salt and fresh water merge.=== Photovoltaic effect ===The photovoltaic effect is the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar cells.", "Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to DC electricity.", "Power inverters can then convert that to AC electricity if needed.", "Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar power electricity is still usually more expensive to produce than large-scale mechanically generated power due to the cost of the panels.", "Low-efficiency silicon solar cells have been decreasing in cost and multijunction cells with close to 30% conversion efficiency are now commercially available.", "Over 40% efficiency has been demonstrated in experimental systems.", "Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites where there is no access to a commercial power grid, or as a supplemental electricity source for individual homes and businesses.", "Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns, have dramatically accelerated the deployment of solar panels.", "Installed capacity is growing by around 20% per year led by increases in Germany, Japan, United States, China, and India." ], [ "Economics", "The selection of electricity production modes and their economic viability varies in accordance with demand and region.", "The economics vary considerably around the world, resulting in widespread residential selling prices.", "Hydroelectric plants, nuclear power plants, thermal power plants and renewable sources have their own pros and cons, and selection is based upon the local power requirement and the fluctuations in demand.", "All power grids have varying loads on them but the daily minimum is the base load, often supplied by plants which run continuously.", "Nuclear, coal, oil, gas and some hydro plants can supply base load.", "If well construction costs for natural gas are below $10 per MWh, generating electricity from natural gas is cheaper than generating power by burning coal.Nuclear power plants can produce a huge amount of power from a single unit.", "However, nuclear disasters have raised concerns over the safety of nuclear power, and the capital cost of nuclear plants is very high.Hydroelectric power plants are located in areas where the potential energy from falling water can be harnessed for moving turbines and the generation of power.", "It may not be an economically viable single source of production where the ability to store the flow of water is limited and the load varies too much during the annual production cycle." ], [ "Generating equipment", "A large generator with the rotor removedElectric generators were known in simple forms from the discovery of electromagnetic induction in the 1830s.", "In general, some form of prime mover such as an engine or the turbines described above, drives a rotating magnetic field past stationary coils of wire thereby turning mechanical energy into electricity.", "The only commercial scale forms of electricity production that do not employ a generator are photovoltaic solar and fuel cells.=== Turbines ===Large dams such as Three Gorges Dam in China can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it has a 22.5 GW capability.Almost all commercial electrical power on Earth is generated with a turbine, driven by wind, water, steam or burning gas.", "The turbine drives a generator, thus transforming its mechanical energy into electrical energy by electromagnetic induction.", "There are many different methods of developing mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power.", "Most electric generation is driven by heat engines.", "The combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of the energy to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission and some from renewable sources.", "The modern steam turbine (invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884) currently generates about 80% of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources.", "Turbine types include:* Steam ** Water is boiled by coal burned in a thermal power plant.", "About 41% of all electricity is generated this way.", "** Nuclear fission heat created in a nuclear reactor creates steam.", "Less than 15% of electricity is generated this way.", "** Renewable energy.", "The steam is generated by biomass, solar thermal energy, or geothermal power.", "* Natural gas: turbines are driven directly by gases produced by combustion.", "Combined cycle are driven by both steam and natural gas.", "They generate power by burning natural gas in a gas turbine and use residual heat to generate steam.", "At least 20% of the world's electricity is generated by natural gas.", "*Water Energy is captured by a water turbine from the movement of water - from falling water, the rise and fall of tides or ocean thermal currents (see ocean thermal energy conversion).", "Currently, hydroelectric plants provide approximately 16% of the world's electricity.", "*The windmill was a very early wind turbine.", "In 2018 around 5% of the world's electricity was produced from windTurbines can also use other heat-transfer liquids than steam.", "Supercritical carbon dioxide based cycles can provide higher conversion efficiency due to faster heat exchange, higher energy density and simpler power cycle infrastructure.", "Supercritical carbon dioxide blends, that are currently in development, can further increase efficiency by optimizing its critical pressure and temperature points.Although turbines are most common in commercial power generation, smaller generators can be powered by gasoline or diesel engines.", "These may used for backup generation or as a prime source of power within isolated villages." ], [ "World production", " Yearly generation by sourceTotal world generation in 2021 was 28,003 TWh, including coal (36%), gas (23%), hydro (15%), nuclear (10%), wind (6.6%), solar (3.7%), oil and other fossil fuels (3.1%), biomass (2.4%) and geothermal and other renewables (0.33%).=== Production by country ===China produced a third of the world's electricity in 2021, largely from coal.", "The United States produces half as much as China but uses far more natural gas and nuclear." ], [ "Environmental concerns", "Variations between countries generating electrical power affect concerns about the environment.", "In France only 10% of electricity is generated from fossil fuels, the US is higher at 70% and China is at 80%.", "The cleanliness of electricity depends on its source.", "Methane leaks (from natural gas to fuel gas-fired power plants) and carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel-based electricity generation account for a significant portion of world greenhouse gas emissions.", "In the United States, fossil fuel combustion for electric power generation is responsible for 65% of all emissions of sulfur dioxide, the main component of acid rain.", "Electricity generation is the fourth highest combined source of NOx, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter in the US.According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), low-carbon electricity generation needs to account for 85% of global electrical output by 2040 in order to ward off the worst effects of climate change.", "Like other organizations including the Energy Impact Center (EIC) and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), the IEA has called for the expansion of nuclear and renewable energy to meet that objective.", "Some, like EIC founder Bret Kugelmass, believe that nuclear power is the primary method for decarbonizing electricity generation because it can also power direct air capture that removes existing carbon emissions from the atmosphere.", "Nuclear power plants can also create district heating and desalination projects, limiting carbon emissions and the need for expanded electrical output.A fundamental issue regarding centralised generation and the current electrical generation methods in use today is the significant negative environmental effects that many of the generation processes have.", "Processes such as coal and gas not only release carbon dioxide as they combust, but their extraction from the ground also impacts the environment.", "Open pit coal mines use large areas of land to extract coal and limit the potential for productive land use after the excavation.", "Natural gas extraction releases large amounts of methane into the atmosphere when extracted from the ground greatly increase global greenhouse gases.", "Although nuclear power plants do not release carbon dioxide through electricity generation, there are risks associated with nuclear waste and safety concerns associated with the use of nuclear sources.", "Per unit of electricity generated coal and gas-fired power life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions are almost always at least ten times that of other generation methods." ], [ "Centralised and distributed generation", "Centralised generation is electricity generation by large-scale centralised facilities, sent through transmission lines to consumers.", "These facilities are usually located far away from consumers and distribute the electricity through high voltage transmission lines to a substation, where it is then distributed to consumers; the basic concept being that multi-megawatt or gigawatt scale large stations create electricity for a large number of people.", "The vast majority of electricity used is created from centralised generation.", "Most centralised power generation comes from large power plants run by fossil fuels such as coal or natural gas, though nuclear or large hydroelectricity plants are also commonly used.", "Centralised generation is fundamentally the opposite of distributed generation.", "Distributed generation is the small-scale generation of electricity to smaller groups of consumers.", "This can also include independently producing electricity by either solar or wind power.", "In recent years distributed generation as has seen a spark in popularity due to its propensity to use renewable energy generation methods such as rooftop solar." ], [ "Technologies", "Centralised energy sources are large power plants that produce huge amounts of electricity to a large number of consumers.", "Most power plants used in centralised generation are thermal power plants meaning that they use a fuel to heat steam to produce a pressurised gas which in turn spins a turbine and generates electricity.", "This is the traditional way of producing energy.", "This process relies on several forms of technology to produce widespread electricity, these being natural coal, gas and nuclear forms of thermal generation.", "More recently solar and wind have become large scale.=== Solar ====== Wind ====== Coal====== Natural gas===Natural gas is ignited to create pressurised gas which is used to spin turbines to generate electricity.", "Natural gas plants use a gas turbine where natural gas is added along with oxygen which in turn combusts and expands through the turbine to force a generator to spin.", "Natural gas power plants are more efficient than coal power generation, they however contribute to climate change but not as highly as coal generation.", "Not only do they produce carbon dioxide from the ignition of natural gas, but also the extraction of gas when mined releases a significant amount of methane into the atmosphere.=== Nuclear===Nuclear power plants create electricity through steam turbines where the heat input is from the process of nuclear fission.", "Currently, nuclear power produces 11% of all electricity in the world.", "Most nuclear reactors use uranium as a source of fuel.", "In a process called nuclear fission, energy, in the form of heat, is released when nuclear atoms are split.", "Electricity is created through the use of a nuclear reactor where heat produced by nuclear fission is used to produce steam which in turn spins turbines and powers the generators.", "Although there are several types of nuclear reactors, all fundamentally use this process.Normal emissions due to nuclear power plants are primarily waste heat and radioactive spent fuel.", "In a reactor accident, significant amounts of radioisotopes can be released to the environment, posing a long term hazard to life.", "This hazard has been a continuing concern of environmentalists.", "Accidents such as the Three Mile Island accident, Chernobyl disaster and the Fukushima nuclear disaster illustrate this problem." ], [ "Electricity generation capacity by country", "The table lists 45 countries with their total electricity capacities.", "The data is from 2022.According to the Energy Information Administration, the total global electricity capacity in 2022 was nearly 8.9 terawatt (TW), more than four times the total global electricity capacity in 1981.The global average per-capita electricity capacity was about 1,120 watts in 2022, nearly two and a half times the global average per-capita electricity capacity in 1981.Iceland has the highest installed capacity per capita in the world, at about 8,990 watts.", "All developed countries have an average per-capita electricity capacity above the global average per-capita electricity capacity, with the United Kingdom having the lowest average per-capita electricity capacity of all other developed countries.", "Country Total capacity(GW) Average per capita capacity(watts) World8,8901,120 China 2,510 1,740 United States 1,330 3,940 European Union 1,080 2,420 India 556 397 Japan 370 2,940 Russia 296 2,030 Germany 267 3,220 Brazil 222 1,030 Canada 167 4,460 South Korea 160 3,130 France 148 2,280 Italy 133 2,230 Spain 119 2,580 United Kingdom 111 1,640 Turkey 107 1,240 Mexico 104 792 Australia 95.8 3,680 Saudi Arabia 85.3 2,380 Iran 83.3 977 Vietnam 72.2 721 South Africa 66.7 1,100 Poland 64 1,690 Thailand 63 901 Ukraine 62.2 1,440 Egypt 61.1 582 Taiwan 58 2,440 Netherlands 53.3 3,010 Sweden 52.1 5,100 Argentina 51.9 1,130 Pakistan 42.7 192 Norway 41.7 7,530 United Arab Emirates 40.7 4,010 Malaysia 37.9 1,110 Chile 37 1,930 Venezuela 34.1 1,210 Kazakhstan 29.6 1,600 Switzerland 27.8 2,960 Austria 26.7 2,890 Algeria 25.9 590 Greece 24.4 2,400 Israel 23.7 2,520 Finland 22.2 3,980 Denmark 21.3 3,710 Ireland 13.3 2,420 New Zealand 11.6 2,320 Iceland 3.24 8,990" ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of power generation* Cogeneration: the use of a heat engine or power station to generate electricity and useful heat at the same time.", "* Cost of electricity by source* Diesel generator* Engine-generator* Generation expansion planning* Steam-electric power station* World energy supply and consumption" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Design of experiments" ], [ "Introduction", "Design of experiments with full factorial design (left), response surface with second-degree polynomial (right)The '''design of experiments''' ('''DOE''' or '''DOX'''), also known as '''experiment design''' or '''experimental design''', is the design of any task that aims to describe and explain the variation of information under conditions that are hypothesized to reflect the variation.", "The term is generally associated with experiments in which the design introduces conditions that directly affect the variation, but may also refer to the design of quasi-experiments, in which natural conditions that influence the variation are selected for observation.In its simplest form, an experiment aims at predicting the outcome by introducing a change of the preconditions, which is represented by one or more independent variables, also referred to as \"input variables\" or \"predictor variables.\"", "The change in one or more independent variables is generally hypothesized to result in a change in one or more dependent variables, also referred to as \"output variables\" or \"response variables.\"", "The experimental design may also identify control variables that must be held constant to prevent external factors from affecting the results.", "Experimental design involves not only the selection of suitable independent, dependent, and control variables, but planning the delivery of the experiment under statistically optimal conditions given the constraints of available resources.", "There are multiple approaches for determining the set of design points (unique combinations of the settings of the independent variables) to be used in the experiment.Main concerns in experimental design include the establishment of validity, reliability, and replicability.", "For example, these concerns can be partially addressed by carefully choosing the independent variable, reducing the risk of measurement error, and ensuring that the documentation of the method is sufficiently detailed.", "Related concerns include achieving appropriate levels of statistical power and sensitivity.Correctly designed experiments advance knowledge in the natural and social sciences and engineering, with design of experiments methodology recognised as a key tool in the successful implementation of a Quality by Design (QbD) framework.", "Other applications include marketing and policy making.", "The study of the design of experiments is an important topic in metascience." ], [ "History", "===Statistical experiments, following Charles S. Peirce===A theory of statistical inference was developed by Charles S. Peirce in \"Illustrations of the Logic of Science\" (1877–1878) and \"A Theory of Probable Inference\" (1883), two publications that emphasized the importance of randomization-based inference in statistics.====Randomized experiments====Charles S. Peirce randomly assigned volunteers to a blinded, repeated-measures design to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights.Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the 1800s.====Optimal designs for regression models====Charles S. Peirce also contributed the first English-language publication on an optimal design for regression models in 1876.Reprinted in ''Collected Papers'' '''7''', paragraphs 139–157, also in ''Writings'' '''4''', pp.", "72–78, and in A pioneering optimal design for polynomial regression was suggested by Gergonne in 1815.In 1918, Kirstine Smith published optimal designs for polynomials of degree six (and less).===Sequences of experiments===The use of a sequence of experiments, where the design of each may depend on the results of previous experiments, including the possible decision to stop experimenting, is within the scope of sequential analysis, a field that was pioneered by Abraham Wald in the context of sequential tests of statistical hypotheses.", "Herman Chernoff wrote an overview of optimal sequential designs, while adaptive designs have been surveyed by S. Zacks.", "One specific type of sequential design is the \"two-armed bandit\", generalized to the multi-armed bandit, on which early work was done by Herbert Robbins in 1952." ], [ "Fisher's principles", "A methodology for designing experiments was proposed by Ronald Fisher, in his innovative books: ''The Arrangement of Field Experiments'' (1926) and ''The Design of Experiments'' (1935).", "Much of his pioneering work dealt with agricultural applications of statistical methods.", "As a mundane example, he described how to test the lady tasting tea hypothesis, that a certain lady could distinguish by flavour alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the cup.", "These methods have been broadly adapted in biological, psychological, and agricultural research.", ";Comparison:In some fields of study it is not possible to have independent measurements to a traceable metrology standard.", "Comparisons between treatments are much more valuable and are usually preferable, and often compared against a scientific control or traditional treatment that acts as baseline.", ";Randomization:Random assignment is the process of assigning individuals at random to groups or to different groups in an experiment, so that each individual of the population has the same chance of becoming a participant in the study.", "The random assignment of individuals to groups (or conditions within a group) distinguishes a rigorous, \"true\" experiment from an observational study or \"quasi-experiment\".", "There is an extensive body of mathematical theory that explores the consequences of making the allocation of units to treatments by means of some random mechanism (such as tables of random numbers, or the use of randomization devices such as playing cards or dice).", "Assigning units to treatments at random tends to mitigate confounding, which makes effects due to factors other than the treatment to appear to result from the treatment.", ":The risks associated with random allocation (such as having a serious imbalance in a key characteristic between a treatment group and a control group) are calculable and hence can be managed down to an acceptable level by using enough experimental units.", "However, if the population is divided into several subpopulations that somehow differ, and the research requires each subpopulation to be equal in size, stratified sampling can be used.", "In that way, the units in each subpopulation are randomized, but not the whole sample.", "The results of an experiment can be generalized reliably from the experimental units to a larger statistical population of units only if the experimental units are a random sample from the larger population; the probable error of such an extrapolation depends on the sample size, among other things.", ";Statistical replication:Measurements are usually subject to variation and measurement uncertainty; thus they are repeated and full experiments are replicated to help identify the sources of variation, to better estimate the true effects of treatments, to further strengthen the experiment's reliability and validity, and to add to the existing knowledge of the topic.", "However, certain conditions must be met before the replication of the experiment is commenced: the original research question has been published in a peer-reviewed journal or widely cited, the researcher is independent of the original experiment, the researcher must first try to replicate the original findings using the original data, and the write-up should state that the study conducted is a replication study that tried to follow the original study as strictly as possible.", ";Blocking:Blocking (right) Blocking is the non-random arrangement of experimental units into groups (blocks) consisting of units that are similar to one another.", "Blocking reduces known but irrelevant sources of variation between units and thus allows greater precision in the estimation of the source of variation under study.", ";;;;OrthogonalityExample of orthogonal factorial design:Orthogonality concerns the forms of comparison (contrasts) that can be legitimately and efficiently carried out.", "Contrasts can be represented by vectors and sets of orthogonal contrasts are uncorrelated and independently distributed if the data are normal.", "Because of this independence, each orthogonal treatment provides different information to the others.", "If there are ''T'' treatments and ''T'' – 1 orthogonal contrasts, all the information that can be captured from the experiment is obtainable from the set of contrasts.", ";Multifactorial experiments:Use of multifactorial experiments instead of the one-factor-at-a-time method.", "These are efficient at evaluating the effects and possible interactions of several factors (independent variables).", "Analysis of experiment design is built on the foundation of the analysis of variance, a collection of models that partition the observed variance into components, according to what factors the experiment must estimate or test." ], [ "Example", "240pxThis example of design experiments is attributed to Harold Hotelling, building on examples from Frank Yates.", "The experiments designed in this example involve combinatorial designs.Weights of eight objects are measured using a pan balance and set of standard weights.", "Each weighing measures the weight difference between objects in the left pan and any objects in the right pan by adding calibrated weights to the lighter pan until the balance is in equilibrium.", "Each measurement has a random error.", "The average error is zero; the standard deviations of the probability distribution of the errors is the same number σ on different weighings; errors on different weighings are independent.", "Denote the true weights by:We consider two different experiments:# Weigh each object in one pan, with the other pan empty.", "Let ''X''''i'' be the measured weight of the object, for ''i'' = 1, ..., 8.# Do the eight weighings according to the following schedule—a weighing matrix::: : Let ''Y''''i'' be the measured difference for ''i'' = 1, ..., 8.Then the estimated value of the weight ''θ''1 is:: :Similar estimates can be found for the weights of the other items::: The question of design of experiments is: which experiment is better?The variance of the estimate ''X''1 of ''θ''1 is ''σ''2 if we use the first experiment.", "But if we use the second experiment, the variance of the estimate given above is ''σ''2/8.Thus the second experiment gives us 8 times as much precision for the estimate of a single item, and estimates all items simultaneously, with the same precision.", "What the second experiment achieves with eight would require 64 weighings if the items are weighed separately.", "However, note that the estimates for the items obtained in the second experiment have errors that correlate with each other.Many problems of the design of experiments involve combinatorial designs, as in this example and others." ], [ "Avoiding false positives", "False positive conclusions, often resulting from the pressure to publish or the author's own confirmation bias, are an inherent hazard in many fields.Use of double-blind designs can prevent biases potentially leading to false positives in the data collection phase.", "When a double-blind design is used, participants are randomly assigned to experimental groups but the researcher is unaware of what participants belong to which group.", "Therefore, the researcher can not affect the participants' response to the intervention.Experimental designs with undisclosed degrees of freedom are a problem, in that they can lead to conscious or unconscious \"p-hacking\": trying multiple things until you get the desired result.", "It typically involves the manipulation – perhaps unconsciously – of the process of statistical analysis and the degrees of freedom until they return a figure below the p<.05 level of statistical significance.", "P-hacking can be prevented by preregistering researches, in which researchers have to send their data analysis plan to the journal they wish to publish their paper in before they even start their data collection, so no data manipulation is possible.Another way to prevent this is taking a double-blind design to the data-analysis phase, making the study triple-blind, where the data are sent to a data-analyst unrelated to the research who scrambles up the data so there is no way to know which participants belong to before they are potentially taken away as outliers.Clear and complete documentation of the experimental methodology is also important in order to support replication of results." ], [ "Discussion topics when setting up an experimental design", "An experimental design or randomized clinical trial requires careful consideration of several factors before actually doing the experiment.", "An experimental design is the laying out of a detailed experimental plan in advance of doing the experiment.", "Some of the following topics have already been discussed in the principles of experimental design section:# How many factors does the design have, and are the levels of these factors fixed or random?# Are control conditions needed, and what should they be?# Manipulation checks: did the manipulation really work?# What are the background variables?# What is the sample size?", "How many units must be collected for the experiment to be generalisable and have enough power?# What is the relevance of interactions between factors?# What is the influence of delayed effects of substantive factors on outcomes?# How do response shifts affect self-report measures?# How feasible is repeated administration of the same measurement instruments to the same units at different occasions, with a post-test and follow-up tests?# What about using a proxy pretest?# Are there lurking variables?# Should the client/patient, researcher or even the analyst of the data be blind to conditions?# What is the feasibility of subsequent application of different conditions to the same units?# How many of each control and noise factors should be taken into account?The independent variable of a study often has many levels or different groups.", "In a true experiment, researchers can have an experimental group, which is where their intervention testing the hypothesis is implemented, and a control group, which has all the same element as the experimental group, without the interventional element.", "Thus, when everything else except for one intervention is held constant, researchers can certify with some certainty that this one element is what caused the observed change.", "In some instances, having a control group is not ethical.", "This is sometimes solved using two different experimental groups.", "In some cases, independent variables cannot be manipulated, for example when testing the difference between two groups who have a different disease, or testing the difference between genders (obviously variables that would be hard or unethical to assign participants to).", "In these cases, a quasi-experimental design may be used." ], [ "Causal attributions", "In the pure experimental design, the independent (predictor) variable is manipulated by the researcher – that is – every participant of the research is chosen randomly from the population, and each participant chosen is assigned randomly to conditions of the independent variable.", "Only when this is done is it possible to certify with high probability that the reason for the differences in the outcome variables are caused by the different conditions.", "Therefore, researchers should choose the experimental design over other design types whenever possible.", "However, the nature of the independent variable does not always allow for manipulation.", "In those cases, researchers must be aware of not certifying about causal attribution when their design doesn't allow for it.", "For example, in observational designs, participants are not assigned randomly to conditions, and so if there are differences found in outcome variables between conditions, it is likely that there is something other than the differences between the conditions that causes the differences in outcomes, that is – a third variable.", "The same goes for studies with correlational design (Adér & Mellenbergh, 2008)." ], [ "Statistical control", "It is best that a process be in reasonable statistical control prior to conducting designed experiments.", "When this is not possible, proper blocking, replication, and randomization allow for the careful conduct of designed experiments.To control for nuisance variables, researchers institute '''control checks''' as additional measures.", "Investigators should ensure that uncontrolled influences (e.g., source credibility perception) do not skew the findings of the study.", "A manipulation check is one example of a control check.", "Manipulation checks allow investigators to isolate the chief variables to strengthen support that these variables are operating as planned.One of the most important requirements of experimental research designs is the necessity of eliminating the effects of spurious, intervening, and antecedent variables.", "In the most basic model, cause (X) leads to effect (Y).", "But there could be a third variable (Z) that influences (Y), and X might not be the true cause at all.", "Z is said to be a spurious variable and must be controlled for.", "The same is true for intervening variables (a variable in between the supposed cause (X) and the effect (Y)), and anteceding variables (a variable prior to the supposed cause (X) that is the true cause).", "When a third variable is involved and has not been controlled for, the relation is said to be a zero order relationship.", "In most practical applications of experimental research designs there are several causes (X1, X2, X3).", "In most designs, only one of these causes is manipulated at a time." ], [ "Experimental designs after Fisher", "Some efficient designs for estimating several main effects were found independently and in near succession by Raj Chandra Bose and K. Kishen in 1940 at the Indian Statistical Institute, but remained little known until the Plackett–Burman designs were published in ''Biometrika'' in 1946.About the same time, C. R. Rao introduced the concepts of orthogonal arrays as experimental designs.", "This concept played a central role in the development of Taguchi methods by Genichi Taguchi, which took place during his visit to Indian Statistical Institute in early 1950s.", "His methods were successfully applied and adopted by Japanese and Indian industries and subsequently were also embraced by US industry albeit with some reservations.In 1950, Gertrude Mary Cox and William Gemmell Cochran published the book ''Experimental Designs,'' which became the major reference work on the design of experiments for statisticians for years afterwards.Developments of the theory of linear models have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers.", "Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in linear algebra, algebra and combinatorics.As with other branches of statistics, experimental design is pursued using both frequentist and Bayesian approaches: In evaluating statistical procedures like experimental designs, frequentist statistics studies the sampling distribution while Bayesian statistics updates a probability distribution on the parameter space.Some important contributors to the field of experimental designs are C. S. Peirce, R. A. Fisher, F. Yates, R. C. Bose, A. C. Atkinson, R. A. Bailey, D. R. Cox, G. E. P. Box, W. G. Cochran, W. T. Federer, V. V. Fedorov, A. S. Hedayat, J. Kiefer, O. Kempthorne, J.", "A. Nelder, Andrej Pázman, Friedrich Pukelsheim, D. Raghavarao, C. R. Rao, Shrikhande S. S., J. N. Srivastava, William J. Studden, G. Taguchi and H. P. Wynn.The textbooks of D. Montgomery, R. Myers, and G. Box/W.", "Hunter/J.S.", "Hunter have reached generations of students and practitioners.Some discussion of experimental design in the context of system identification (model building for static or dynamic models) is given in and." ], [ "Human participant constraints", "Laws and ethical considerations preclude some carefully designed experiments with human subjects.", "Legal constraints are dependent on jurisdiction.", "Constraints may involve institutional review boards, informed consent and confidentiality affecting both clinical (medical) trials and behavioral and social science experiments.In the field of toxicology, for example, experimentation is performed on laboratory ''animals'' with the goal of defining safe exposure limits for ''humans''.", "Balancingthe constraints are views from the medical field.", "Regarding the randomization of patients, \"... if no one knows which therapy is better, there is no ethical imperative to use one therapy or another.\"", "(p 380) Regarding experimental design, \"...it is clearly not ethical to place subjects at risk to collect data in a poorly designed study when this situation can be easily avoided...\".", "(p 393)" ], [ "See also", "* Adversarial collaboration* Bayesian experimental design* Block design* Box–Behnken design* Central composite design* Clinical trial* Clinical study design* Computer experiment* Control variable* Controlling for a variable* Experimetrics (econometrics-related experiments)* Factor analysis* Fractional factorial design* Glossary of experimental design* Grey box model* Industrial engineering* Instrument effect* Law of large numbers* Manipulation checks* Multifactor design of experiments software* One-factor-at-a-time method* Optimal design* Plackett–Burman design* Probabilistic design* Protocol (natural sciences)* Quasi-experimental design* Randomized block design* Randomized controlled trial* Research design* Robust parameter design* Sample size determination* Supersaturated design* Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism* Survey sampling* System identification* Taguchi methods" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* Peirce, C. S. (1877–1878), \"Illustrations of the Logic of Science\" (series), ''Popular Science Monthly'', vols.", "12–13.Relevant individual papers:** (1878 March), \"The Doctrine of Chances\", ''Popular Science Monthly'', v. 12, March issue, pp.", "604–615.", "''Internet Archive'' Eprint.", "** (1878 April), \"The Probability of Induction\", ''Popular Science Monthly'', v. 12, pp.", "705–718.", "''Internet Archive'' Eprint.", "** (1878 June), \"The Order of Nature\", ''Popular Science Monthly'', v. 13, pp.", "203–217.", "''Internet Archive'' Eprint.", "** (1878 August), \"Deduction, Induction, and Hypothesis\", ''Popular Science Monthly'', v. 13, pp.", "470–482.", "''Internet Archive'' Eprint.", "** (1883), \"A Theory of Probable Inference\", ''Studies in Logic'', pp.", "126–181, Little, Brown, and Company.", "(Reprinted 1983, John Benjamins Publishing Company, )" ], [ "External links", "* A chapter from a \"NIST/SEMATECH Handbook on Engineering Statistics\" at NIST* Box–Behnken designs from a \"NIST/SEMATECH Handbook on Engineering Statistics\" at NIST* Detailed mathematical developments of most common DoE in the Opera Magistris v3.6 online reference Chapter 15, section 7.4, ." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Empirical research" ], [ "Introduction", "A scientist gathering data for her research'''Empirical research''' is research using empirical evidence.", "It is also a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience.", "Empiricism values some research more than other kinds.", "Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or experiences) can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively.", "Quantifying the evidence or making sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer empirical questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the evidence collected (usually called data).", "Research design varies by field and by the question being investigated.", "Many researchers combine qualitative and quantitative forms of analysis to better answer questions that cannot be studied in laboratory settings, particularly in the social sciences and in education.In some fields, quantitative research may begin with a research question (e.g., \"Does listening to vocal music during the learning of a word list have an effect on later memory for these words?\")", "which is tested through experimentation.", "Usually, the researcher has a certain theory regarding the topic under investigation.", "Based on this theory, statements or hypotheses will be proposed (e.g., \"Listening to vocal music has a negative effect on learning a word list.\").", "From these hypotheses, predictions about specific events are derived (e.g., \"People who study a word list while listening to vocal music will remember fewer words on a later memory test than people who study a word list in silence.\").", "These predictions can then be tested with a suitable experiment.", "Depending on the outcomes of the experiment, the theory on which the hypotheses and predictions were based will be supported or not, or may need to be modified and then subjected to further testing." ], [ "Terminology", "The term empirical was originally used to refer to certain ancient Greek practitioners of medicine who rejected adherence to the dogmatic doctrines of the day, preferring instead to rely on the observation of phenomena as perceived in experience.", "Later empiricism referred to a theory of knowledge in philosophy which adheres to the principle that knowledge arises from experience and evidence gathered specifically using the senses.", "In scientific use, the term empirical refers to the gathering of data using only evidence that is observable by the senses or in some cases using calibrated scientific instruments.", "What early philosophers described as empiricist and empirical research have in common is the dependence on observable data to formulate and test theories and come to conclusions." ], [ "Usage", "The researcher attempts to describe accurately the interaction between the instrument (or the human senses) and the entity being observed.", "If instrumentation is involved, the researcher is expected to calibrate his/her instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects.", "In other words, it describes the research that has not taken place before and their results.In practice, the accumulation of evidence for or against any particular theory involves planned research designs for the collection of empirical data, and academic rigor plays a large part of judging the merits of research design.", "Several typologies for such designs have been suggested, one of the most popular of which comes from Campbell and Stanley.", "They are responsible for popularizing the widely cited distinction among pre-experimental, experimental, and quasi-experimental designs and are staunch advocates of the central role of randomized experiments in educational research.=== Scientific research ===Accurate analysis of data using standardized statistical methods in scientific studies is critical to determining the validity of empirical research.", "Statistical formulas such as regression, uncertainty coefficient, t-test, chi square, and various types of ANOVA (analyses of variance) are fundamental to forming logical, valid conclusions.", "If empirical data reach significance under the appropriate statistical formula, the research hypothesis is supported.", "If not, the null hypothesis is supported (or, more accurately, not rejected), meaning no effect of the independent variable(s) was observed on the dependent variable(s).The result of empirical research using statistical hypothesis testing is never ''proof''.", "It can only ''support'' a hypothesis, ''reject'' it, or do neither.", "These methods yield only probabilities.", "Among scientific researchers, empirical ''evidence'' (as distinct from empirical ''research'') refers to objective evidence that appears the same regardless of the observer.", "For example, a thermometer will not display different temperatures for each individual who observes it.", "Temperature, as measured by an accurate, well calibrated thermometer, is empirical evidence.", "By contrast, non-empirical evidence is subjective, depending on the observer.", "Following the previous example, observer A might truthfully report that a room is warm, while observer B might truthfully report that the same room is cool, though both observe the same reading on the thermometer.", "The use of empirical evidence negates this effect of personal (i.e., subjective) experience or time.The varying perception of empiricism and rationalism shows concern with the limit to which there is dependency on experience of sense as an effort of gaining knowledge.", "According to rationalism, there are a number of different ways in which sense experience is gained independently for the knowledge and concepts.", "According to empiricism, sense experience is considered as the main source of every piece of knowledge and the concepts.", "In general, rationalists are known for the development of their own views following two different way.", "First, the key argument can be placed that there are cases in which the content of knowledge or concepts end up outstripping the information.", "This outstripped information is provided by the sense experience (Hjørland, 2010, 2).", "Second, there is construction of accounts as to how reasoning helps in the provision of addition knowledge about a specific or broader scope.", "Empiricists are known to be presenting complementary senses related to thought.", "First, there is development of accounts of how there is provision of information by experience that is cited by rationalists.", "This is insofar for having it in the initial place.", "At times, empiricists tend to be opting skepticism as an option of rationalism.", "If experience is not helpful in the provision of knowledge or concept cited by rationalists, then they do not exist (Pearce, 2010, 35).", "Second, empiricists hold the tendency of attacking the accounts of rationalists while considering reasoning to be an important source of knowledge or concepts.", "The overall disagreement between empiricists and rationalists shows primary concerns in how there is gaining of knowledge with respect to the sources of knowledge and concept.", "In some of the cases, disagreement at the point of gaining knowledge results in the provision of conflicting responses to other aspects as well.", "There might be a disagreement in the overall feature of warrant, while limiting the knowledge and thought.", "Empiricists are known for sharing the view that there is no existence of innate knowledge and rather that is derivation of knowledge out of experience.", "These experiences are either reasoned using the mind or sensed through the five senses human possess (Bernard, 2011, 5).", "On the other hand, rationalists are known to be sharing the view that there is existence of innate knowledge and this is different for the objects of innate knowledge being chosen.", "In order to follow rationalism, there must be adoption of one of the three claims related to the theory that are deduction or intuition, innate knowledge, and innate concept.", "The more there is removal of concept from mental operations and experience, there can be performance over experience with increased plausibility in being innate.", "Further ahead, empiricism in context with a specific subject provides a rejection of the corresponding version related to innate knowledge and deduction or intuition (Weiskopf, 2008, 16).", "Insofar as there is acknowledgement of concepts and knowledge within the area of subject, the knowledge has major dependence on experience through human senses." ], [ "Empirical cycle", "Empirical cycle according to A.D. de GrootA.D.", "de Groot's empirical cycle:# Observation: The observation of a phenomenon and inquiry concerning its causes.# Induction: The formulation of hypotheses - generalized explanations for the phenomenon.# Deduction: The formulation of experiments that will test the hypotheses (i.e.", "confirm them if true, refute them if false).", "# Testing: The procedures by which the hypotheses are tested and data are collected.# Evaluation: The interpretation of the data and the formulation of a theory - an abductive argument that presents the results of the experiment as the most reasonable explanation for the phenomenon." ], [ "See also", "* Case study* Fact* Field research* Scientific method" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Some Key Concepts for the Design and Review of Empirical Research" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Engineering statistics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Engineering statistics''' combines engineering and statistics using scientific methods for analyzing data.", "Engineering statistics involves data concerning manufacturing processes such as: component dimensions, tolerances, type of material, and fabrication process control.", "There are many methods used in engineering analysis and they are often displayed as histograms to give a visual of the data as opposed to being just numerical.", "Examples of methods are:# Design of Experiments (DOE) is a methodology for formulating scientific and engineering problems using statistical models.", "The protocol specifies a randomization procedure for the experiment and specifies the primary data-analysis, particularly in hypothesis testing.", "In a secondary analysis, the statistical analyst further examines the data to suggest other questions and to help plan future experiments.", "In engineering applications, the goal is often to optimize a process or product, rather than to subject a scientific hypothesis to test of its predictive adequacy.", "The use of optimal (or near optimal) designs reduces the cost of experimentation.# Quality control and process control use statistics as a tool to manage conformance to specifications of manufacturing processes and their products.# Time and methods engineering use statistics to study repetitive operations in manufacturing in order to set standards and find optimum (in some sense) manufacturing procedures.# Reliability engineering which measures the ability of a system to perform for its intended function (and time) and has tools for improving performance.# Probabilistic design involving the use of probability in product and system design# System identification uses statistical methods to build mathematical models of dynamical systems from measured data.", "System identification also includes the optimal design of experiments for efficiently generating informative data for fitting such models." ], [ "History", "Engineering statistics dates back to 1000 B.C.", "when the Abacus was developed as means to calculate numerical data.", "In the 1600s, the development of information processing to systematically analyze and process data began.", "In 1654, the Slide Rule technique was developed by Robert Bissaker for advanced data calculations.", "In 1833, a British mathematician named Charles Babbage designed the idea of an automatic computer which inspired developers at Harvard University and IBM to design the first mechanical automatic-sequence-controlled calculator called MARK I.", "The integration of computers and calculators into the industry brought about a more efficient means of analyzing data and the beginning of engineering statistics." ], [ "Examples", "=== Factorial Experimental Design ===A factorial experiment is one where, contrary to the standard experimental philosophy of changing only one independent variable and holding everything else constant, multiple independent variables are tested at the same time.", "With this design, statistical engineers can see both the direct effects of one independent variable (main effect), as well as potential interaction effects that arise when multiple independent variables provide a different result when together than either would on its own.=== Six Sigma ===Six Sigma is a set of techniques to improve the reliability of a manufacturing process.", "Ideally, all products will have the exact same specifications equivalent to what was desired, but countless imperfections of real-world manufacturing makes this impossible.", "The as-built specifications of a product are assumed to be centered around a mean, with each individual product deviating some amount away from that mean in a normal distribution.", "The goal of Six Sigma is to ensure that the acceptable specification limits are six standard deviations away from the mean of the distribution; in other words, that each step of the manufacturing process has at most a 0.00034% chance of producing a defect." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "**Box, G. E., Hunter, W.G., Hunter, J.S., Hunter, W.G., \"Statistics for Experimenters: Design, Innovation, and Discovery\", 2nd Edition, Wiley, 2005, ****" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edgar Allan Poe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edgar Allan Poe''' (; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, poet, author, editor, and literary critic who is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and the macabre.", "He is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism and Gothic fiction in the United States, and of American literature.", "Poe was one of the country's earliest practitioners of the short story, and is considered the inventor of the detective fiction genre, as well as a significant contributor to the emerging genre of science fiction.", "He is the first well-known American writer to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a financially difficult life and career.Poe was born in Boston, the second child of actors David and Elizabeth \"Eliza\" Poe.", "His father abandoned the family in 1810, and when his mother died the following year, Poe was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond, Virginia.", "They never formally adopted him, but he was with them well into young adulthood.", "He attended the University of Virginia but left after a year due to lack of money.", "He quarreled with John Allan over the funds for his education, and his gambling debts.", "In 1827, having enlisted in the United States Army under an assumed name, he published his first collection, ''Tamerlane and Other Poems'', credited only to \"a Bostonian\".", "Poe and Allan reached a temporary rapprochement after the death of Allan's wife in 1829.Poe later failed as an officer cadet at West Point, declared a firm wish to be a poet and writer, and parted ways with Allan.Poe switched his focus to prose, and spent the next several years working for literary journals and periodicals, becoming known for his own style of literary criticism.", "His work forced him to move between several cities, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York City.", "In 1836, he married his 13-year-old cousin, Virginia Clemm, but she died of tuberculosis in 1847.In January 1845, he published his poem \"The Raven\" to instant success.", "He planned for years to produce his own journal ''The Penn'', later renamed ''The Stylus''.", "But before it began publishing, Poe died in Baltimore in 1849, aged 40, under mysterious circumstances.", "The cause of his death remains unknown, and has been variously attributed to many causes including disease, alcoholism, substance abuse, and suicide.Poe and his works influenced literature around the world, as well as specialized fields such as cosmology and cryptography.", "He and his work appear throughout popular culture in literature, music, films, and television.", "A number of his homes are dedicated museums.", "The Mystery Writers of America present an annual Edgar Award for distinguished work in the mystery genre." ], [ "Early life and education", "Plaque marking the approximate location of Poe's birth on Carver Street in BostonEdgar Poe was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 19, 1809, the second child of American actor David Poe Jr. and English-born actress Elizabeth Arnold Hopkins Poe.", "He had an elder brother, Henry, and a younger sister, Rosalie.", "Their grandfather, David Poe, had emigrated from County Cavan, Ireland, around 1750.His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died a year later from pulmonary tuberculosis.", "Poe was then taken into the home of John Allan, a successful merchant in Richmond, Virginia, who dealt in a variety of goods, including cloth, wheat, tombstones, tobacco, and slaves.", "The Allans served as a foster family and gave him the name \"Edgar Allan Poe\", although they never formally adopted him.The Allan family had Poe baptized into the Episcopal Church in 1812.John Allan alternately spoiled and aggressively disciplined his foster son.", "The family sailed to the United Kingdom in 1815, and Poe attended the grammar school for a short period in Irvine, Ayrshire, Scotland, where Allan was born, before rejoining the family in London in 1816.There he studied at a boarding school in Chelsea until summer 1817.He was subsequently entered at the Reverend John Bransby's Manor House School at Stoke Newington, then a suburb north of London.Poe moved with the Allans back to Richmond in 1820.In 1824, he served as the lieutenant of the Richmond youth honor guard as the city celebrated the visit of the Marquis de Lafayette.", "In March 1825, Allan's uncle and business benefactor William Galt died, who was said to be one of the wealthiest men in Richmond, leaving Allan several acres of real estate.", "The inheritance was estimated at $750,000 ().", "By summer 1825, Allan celebrated his expansive wealth by purchasing a two-story brick house called Moldavia.Poe may have become engaged to Sarah Elmira Royster before he registered at the University of Virginia in February 1826 to study ancient and modern languages.", "The university was in its infancy, established on the ideals of its founder, Thomas Jefferson.", "It had strict rules against gambling, horses, guns, tobacco, and alcohol, but these rules were mostly ignored.", "Jefferson enacted a system of student self-government, allowing students to choose their own studies, make their own arrangements for boarding, and report all wrongdoing to the faculty.", "The unique system was still in chaos, and there was a high dropout rate.", "During his time there, Poe lost touch with Royster and also became estranged from his foster father over gambling debts.", "He claimed that Allan had not given him sufficient money to register for classes, purchase texts, and procure and furnish a dormitory.", "Allan did send additional money and clothes, but Poe's debts increased.", "Poe gave up on the university after a year but did not feel welcome returning to Richmond, especially when he learned that his sweetheart Royster had married another man, Alexander Shelton.", "He traveled to Boston in April 1827, sustaining himself with odd jobs as a clerk and newspaper writer, and started using the pseudonym Henri Le Rennet during this period." ], [ "Military career", "U.S. Army, where he was first stationed at Fort Independence in BostonPoe was unable to support himself, so he enlisted in the United States Army as a private on May 27, 1827, using the name \"Edgar A. Perry\".", "He claimed that he was even though he was 18.He first served at Fort Independence in Boston Harbor for five dollars a month.", "That year, he released his first book, a 40-page collection of poetry titled ''Tamerlane and Other Poems'', attributed with the byline \"by a Bostonian\".", "Only 50 copies were printed, and the book received virtually no attention.", "Poe's regiment was posted to Fort Moultrie in Charleston, South Carolina, and traveled by ship on the brig ''Waltham'' on November 8, 1827.Poe was promoted to \"artificer\", an enlisted tradesman who prepared shells for artillery, and had his monthly pay doubled.", "He served for two years and attained the rank of Sergeant Major for Artillery, the highest rank that a non-commissioned officer could achieve; he then sought to end his five-year enlistment early.", "He revealed his real name and his circumstances to his commanding officer, Lieutenant Howard, who would allow Poe to be discharged only if he reconciled with Allan.", "Poe wrote a letter to Allan, who was unsympathetic and spent several months ignoring Poe's pleas; Allan may not have written to Poe even to make him aware of his foster mother's illness.", "Frances Allan died on February 28, 1829, and Poe visited the day after her burial.", "Perhaps softened by his wife's death, Allan agreed to support Poe's attempt to be discharged in order to receive an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York.Poe was finally discharged on April 15, 1829, after securing a replacement to finish his enlisted term for him.", "Before entering West Point, he moved to Baltimore for a time to stay with his widowed aunt Maria Clemm, her daughter Virginia Eliza Clemm (Poe's first cousin), his brother Henry, and his invalid grandmother Elizabeth Cairnes Poe.", "In September of that year, Poe received \"the very first words of encouragement I ever remember to have heard\" in a review of his poetry by influential critic John Neal, prompting Poe to dedicate one of the poems to Neal in his second book ''Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane and Minor Poems'', published in Baltimore in 1829.Poe traveled to West Point and matriculated as a cadet on July 1, 1830.In October 1830, Allan married his second wife Louisa Patterson.", "The marriage and bitter quarrels with Poe over the children born to Allan out of extramarital affairs led to the foster father finally disowning Poe.", "Poe decided to leave West Point by purposely getting court-martialed.", "On February 8, 1831, he was tried for gross neglect of duty and disobedience of orders for refusing to attend formations, classes, or church.", "He tactically pleaded not guilty to induce dismissal, knowing that he would be found guilty.Poe left for New York in February 1831 and released a third volume of poems, simply titled ''Poems''.", "The book was financed with help from his fellow cadets at West Point, many of whom donated 75 cents to the cause, raising a total of $170.They may have been expecting verses similar to the satirical ones Poe had written about commanding officers.", "It was printed by Elam Bliss of New York, labeled as \"Second Edition\", and including a page saying, \"To the U.S.", "Corps of Cadets this volume is respectfully dedicated\".", "The book once again reprinted the long poems \"Tamerlane\" and \"Al Aaraaf\" but also six previously unpublished poems, including early versions of \"To Helen\", \"Israfel\", and \"The City in the Sea\".", "Poe returned to Baltimore to his aunt, brother, and cousin in March 1831.His elder brother Henry had been in ill health, in part due to problems with alcoholism, and he died on August 1, 1831." ], [ "Publishing career", "Virginia Clemm, who was then age 13; they were married for 11 years until her death, which may have inspired some of Poe's writing.An 1845 portrait of Poe by Samuel Stillman OsgoodFordham section of Bronx, where Poe spent his last yearsAfter his brother's death, Poe began more earnest attempts to start his career as a writer, but he chose a difficult time in American publishing to do so.", "He was one of the first Americans to live by writing alone and was hampered by the lack of an international copyright law.", "American publishers often produced unauthorized copies of British works rather than paying for new work by Americans.", "The industry was also particularly hurt by the Panic of 1837.There was a booming growth in American periodicals around this time, fueled in part by new technology, but many did not last beyond a few issues.", "Publishers often refused to pay their writers or paid them much later than they promised, and Poe repeatedly resorted to humiliating pleas for money and other assistance.After his early attempts at poetry, Poe had turned his attention to prose, likely based on John Neal's critiques in ''The Yankee'' magazine.", "He placed a few stories with a Philadelphia publication and began work on his only drama ''Politian''.", "The ''Baltimore Saturday Visiter'' awarded him a prize in October 1833 for his short story \"MS. Found in a Bottle\".", "The story brought him to the attention of John P. Kennedy, a Baltimorean of considerable means who helped Poe place some of his stories and introduced him to Thomas W. White, editor of the ''Southern Literary Messenger'' in Richmond.In 1835, Poe became assistant editor of the ''Southern Literary Messenger'', but White discharged him within a few weeks for being drunk on the job.", "Poe returned to Baltimore, where he obtained a license to marry his cousin Virginia on September 22, 1835, though it is unknown if they were married at that time.", "He was 26 and she was 13.Poe was reinstated by White after promising good behavior, and he returned to Richmond with Virginia and her mother.", "He remained at the ''Messenger'' until January 1837.During this period, Poe claimed that its circulation increased from 700 to 3,500.He published several poems, book reviews, critiques, and stories in the paper.", "On May 16, 1836, he and Virginia held a Presbyterian wedding ceremony performed by Amasa Converse at their Richmond boarding house, with a witness falsely attesting Clemm's age as 21.===Philadelphia===In 1838, Poe relocated to Philadelphia, where he lived at four different residences between 1838 and 1844, one of which at 532 N. 7th Street has been preserved as a National Historic Landmark.That same year, Poe's novel ''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket'' was published and widely reviewed.", "In the summer of 1839, he became assistant editor of ''Burton's Gentleman's Magazine''.", "He published numerous articles, stories, and reviews, enhancing his reputation as a trenchant critic which he had established at the ''Messenger''.", "Also in 1839, the collection ''Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque'' was published in two volumes, though he made little money from it and it received mixed reviews.In June 1840, Poe published a prospectus announcing his intentions to start his own journal called ''The Stylus'', although he originally intended to call it ''The Penn'', since it would have been based in Philadelphia.", "He bought advertising space for his prospectus in the June 6, 1840, issue of Philadelphia's ''Saturday Evening Post'': ''\"Prospectus of the Penn Magazine, a Monthly Literary journal to be edited and published in the city of Philadelphia by Edgar A.", "Poe.\"''", "The journal was never produced before Poe's death.Poe left ''Burton's'' after about a year and found a position as writer and co-editor at ''Graham's Magazine'', a successful monthly publication.", "In the last number of ''Graham's'' for 1841, Poe was among the co-signatories to an editorial note of celebration of the tremendous success the magazine had achieved in the past year: \"Perhaps the editors of no magazine, either in America or in Europe, ever sat down, at the close of a year, to contemplate the progress of their work with more satisfaction than we do now.", "Our success has been unexampled, almost incredible.", "We may assert without fear of contradiction that no periodical ever witnessed the same increase during so short a period.", "\"Around this time, Poe attempted to secure a position in the administration of John Tyler, claiming that he was a member of the Whig Party.", "He hoped to be appointed to the United States Custom House in Philadelphia with help from President Tyler's son Robert, an acquaintance of Poe's friend Frederick Thomas.", "Poe failed to show up for a meeting with Thomas to discuss the appointment in mid-September 1842, claiming to have been sick, though Thomas believed that he had been drunk.", "Poe was promised an appointment, but all positions were filled by others.One evening in January 1842, Virginia showed the first signs of consumption, or tuberculosis, while singing and playing the piano, which Poe described as breaking a blood vessel in her throat.", "She only partially recovered, and Poe began to drink more heavily under the stress of her illness.", "He left ''Graham's'' and attempted to find a new position, for a time angling for a government post.", "He returned to New York where he worked briefly at the ''Evening Mirror'' before becoming editor of the ''Broadway Journal'', and later its owner.", "There Poe alienated himself from other writers by publicly accusing Henry Wadsworth Longfellow of plagiarism, though Longfellow never responded.", "On January 29, 1845, Poe's poem \"The Raven\" appeared in the ''Evening Mirror'' and became a popular sensation.", "It made Poe a household name almost instantly, though he was paid only $9 for its publication.", "It was concurrently published in ''The American Review: A Whig Journal'' under the pseudonym \"Quarles\".===The Bronx===The ''Broadway Journal'' failed in 1846, and Poe moved to a cottage in Fordham, New York, in the Bronx.", "That home, now known as the Edgar Allan Poe Cottage, was relocated in later years to a park near the southeast corner of the Grand Concourse and Kingsbridge Road.", "Nearby, Poe befriended the Jesuits at St. John's College, now Fordham University.", "Virginia died at the cottage on January 30, 1847.Biographers and critics often suggest that Poe's frequent theme of the \"death of a beautiful woman\" stems from the repeated loss of women throughout his life, including his wife.Poe was increasingly unstable after his wife's death.", "He attempted to court poet Sarah Helen Whitman, who lived in Providence, Rhode Island.", "Their engagement failed, purportedly because of Poe's drinking and erratic behavior.", "There is also strong evidence that Whitman's mother intervened and did much to derail the relationship.", "Poe then returned to Richmond and resumed a relationship with his childhood sweetheart Sarah Elmira Royster." ], [ "Death", "Westminster Hall in Baltimore, Maryland (Lat: 39.29027; Long: −76.62333); the circumstances and cause of his death remain uncertain.On October 3, 1849, Poe was found semiconscious in Baltimore, \"in great distress, and... in need of immediate assistance\", according to Joseph W. Walker, who found him.", "He was taken to the Washington Medical College, where he died on Sunday, October 7, 1849, at 5:00 in the morning.", "Poe was not coherent long enough to explain how he came to be in his dire condition and why he was wearing clothes that were not his own.", "He is said to have repeatedly called out the name \"Reynolds\" on the night before his death, though it is unclear to whom he was referring.", "His attending physician said that Poe's final words were, \"Lord help my poor soul\".", "All of the relevant medical records have been lost, including Poe's death certificate.Newspapers at the time reported Poe's death as \"congestion of the brain\" or \"cerebral inflammation\", common euphemisms for death from disreputable causes such as alcoholism.", "The actual cause of death remains a mystery.", "Speculation has included ''delirium tremens'', heart disease, epilepsy, syphilis, meningeal inflammation, cholera, carbon monoxide poisoning, and rabies.", "One theory dating from 1872 suggests that Poe's death resulted from cooping, a form of electoral fraud in which citizens were forced to vote for a particular candidate, sometimes leading to violence and even murder.===Griswold's memoir===Immediately after Poe's death, his literary rival Rufus Wilmot Griswold wrote a slanted high-profile obituary under a pseudonym, filled with falsehoods that cast Poe as a lunatic, and which described him as a person who \"walked the streets, in madness or melancholy, with lips moving in indistinct curses, or with eyes upturned in passionate prayers, (never for himself, for he felt, or professed to feel, that he was already damned)\".The long obituary appeared in the ''New York Tribune'', signed \"Ludwig\" on the day that Poe was buried in Baltimore.", "It was further published throughout the country.", "The obituary began, \"Edgar Allan Poe is dead.", "He died in Baltimore the day before yesterday.", "This announcement will startle many, but few will be grieved by it.\"", "\"Ludwig\" was soon identified as Griswold, an editor, critic, and anthologist who had borne a grudge against Poe since 1842.Griswold somehow became Poe's literary executor and attempted to destroy his enemy's reputation after his death.Griswold wrote a biographical article of Poe called \"Memoir of the Author\", which he included in an 1850 volume of the collected works.", "There he depicted Poe as a depraved, drunken, drug-addled madman and included Poe's letters as evidence.", "Many of his claims were either lies or distortions; for example, it is seriously disputed that Poe was a drug addict.", "Griswold's book was denounced by those who knew Poe well, including John Neal, who published an article defending Poe and attacking Griswold as a \"Rhadamanthus, who is not to be bilked of his fee, a thimble-full of newspaper notoriety\".", "Griswold's book nevertheless became a popularly accepted biographical source.", "This was in part because it was the only full biography available and was widely reprinted, and in part because readers thrilled at the thought of reading works by an \"evil\" man.", "Letters that Griswold presented as proof were later revealed as forgeries." ], [ "Literary style and themes", "=== Genres ===Poe's best-known fiction works are Gothic horror, adhering to the genre's conventions to appeal to the public taste.", "His most recurring themes deal with questions of death, including its physical signs, the effects of decomposition, concerns of premature burial, the reanimation of the dead, and mourning.", "Many of his works are generally considered part of the dark romanticism genre, a literary reaction to transcendentalism which Poe strongly disliked.", "He referred to followers of the transcendental movement as \"Frog-Pondians\", after the pond on Boston Common, and ridiculed their writings as \"metaphor—run mad,\" lapsing into \"obscurity for obscurity's sake\" or \"mysticism for mysticism's sake\".", "Poe once wrote in a letter to Thomas Holley Chivers that he did not dislike transcendentalists, \"only the pretenders and sophists among them\".Beyond horror, Poe also wrote satires, humor tales, and hoaxes.", "For comic effect, he used irony and ludicrous extravagance, often in an attempt to liberate the reader from cultural conformity.", "\"Metzengerstein\" is the first story that Poe is known to have published and his first foray into horror, but it was originally intended as a burlesque satirizing the popular genre.", "Poe also reinvented science fiction, responding in his writing to emerging technologies such as hot air balloons in \"The Balloon-Hoax\".Poe wrote much of his work using themes aimed specifically at mass-market tastes.", "To that end, his fiction often included elements of popular pseudosciences, such as phrenology and physiognomy.===Literary theory===Poe's writing reflects his literary theories, which he presented in his criticism and also in essays such as \"The Poetic Principle\".", "He disliked didacticism and allegory, though he believed that meaning in literature should be an undercurrent just beneath the surface.", "Works with obvious meanings, he wrote, cease to be art.", "He believed that work of quality should be brief and focus on a specific single effect.", "To that end, he believed that the writer should carefully calculate every sentiment and idea.Poe describes his method in writing \"The Raven\" in the essay \"The Philosophy of Composition\", and he claims to have strictly followed this method.", "It has been questioned whether he really followed this system, however.", "T. S. Eliot said: \"It is difficult for us to read that essay without reflecting that if Poe plotted out his poem with such calculation, he might have taken a little more pains over it: the result hardly does credit to the method.\"", "Biographer Joseph Wood Krutch described the essay as \"a rather highly ingenious exercise in the art of rationalization\"." ], [ "Legacy", "===Influence===An 1875 illustration of Poe by French impressionist Édouard Manet for the Stéphane Mallarmé translation of \"The Raven\"Poe depicted in a modern retouched version of the daguerreotypeDuring his lifetime, Poe was mostly recognized as a literary critic.", "Fellow critic James Russell Lowell called him \"the most discriminating, philosophical, and fearless critic upon imaginative works who has written in America\", suggesting—rhetorically—that he occasionally used prussic acid instead of ink.", "Poe's caustic reviews earned him the reputation of being a \"tomahawk man\".", "A favorite target of Poe's criticism was Boston's acclaimed poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, who was often defended by his literary friends in what was later called \"The Longfellow War\".", "Poe accused Longfellow of \"the heresy of the didactic\", writing poetry that was preachy, derivative, and thematically plagiarized.", "Poe correctly predicted that Longfellow's reputation and style of poetry would decline, concluding, \"We grant him high qualities, but deny him the Future\".Poe was also known as a writer of fiction and became one of the first American authors of the 19th century to become more popular in Europe than in the United States.", "Poe is particularly respected in France, in part due to early translations by Charles Baudelaire.", "Baudelaire's translations became definitive renditions of Poe's work in Continental Europe.Poe's early detective fiction tales featuring C. Auguste Dupin laid the groundwork for future detectives in literature.", "Sir Arthur Conan Doyle said, \"Each of Poe's detective stories is a root from which a whole literature has developed.... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?\"", "The Mystery Writers of America have named their awards for excellence in the genre the \"Edgars\".", "Poe's work also influenced science fiction, notably Jules Verne, who wrote a sequel to Poe's novel ''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket'' called ''An Antarctic Mystery'', also known as ''The Sphinx of the Ice Fields''.", "Science fiction author H. G. Wells noted, \"''Pym'' tells what a very intelligent mind could imagine about the south polar region a century ago\".", "In 2013, ''The Guardian'' cited ''Pym'' as one of the greatest novels ever written in the English language, and noted its influence on later authors such as Doyle, Henry James, B. Traven, and David Morrell.Horror author and historian H. P. Lovecraft was heavily influenced by Poe's horror tales, dedicating an entire section of his long essay, \"Supernatural Horror in Literature\", to his influence on the genre.", "In his letters, Lovecraft described Poe as his \"God of Fiction\".", "Lovecraft's earlier stories express a significant influence from Poe.", "A later work, ''At the Mountains of Madness'', quotes him and was influenced by ''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket''.", "Lovecraft also made extensive use of Poe's unity of effect in his fiction.", "Alfred Hitchcock once said, \"It's because I liked Edgar Allan Poe's stories so much that I began to make suspense films\".", "Many references to Poe's works are present in Vladimir Nabokov's novels.Like many famous artists, Poe's works have spawned imitators.", "One trend among imitators of Poe has been claims by clairvoyants or psychics to be \"channeling\" poems from Poe's spirit.", "One of the most notable of these was Lizzie Doten, who published ''Poems from the Inner Life'' in 1863, in which she claimed to have \"received\" new compositions by Poe's spirit.", "The compositions were re-workings of famous Poe poems such as \"The Bells\", but which reflected a new, positive outlook.Poe has also received criticism.", "This is partly because of the negative perception of his personal character and its influence upon his reputation.", "William Butler Yeats was occasionally critical of Poe and once called him \"vulgar\".", "Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson reacted to \"The Raven\" by saying, \"I see nothing in it\", and derisively referred to Poe as \"the jingle man\".", "Aldous Huxley wrote that Poe's writing \"falls into vulgarity\" by being \"too poetical\"—the equivalent of wearing a diamond ring on every finger.It is believed that only twelve copies have survived of Poe's first book ''Tamerlane and Other Poems''.", "In December 2009, one copy sold at Christie's auctioneers in New York City for $662,500, a record price paid for a work of American literature.===Physics and cosmology===''Eureka: A Prose Poem'', an essay written in 1848, included a cosmological theory that presaged the Big Bang theory by 80 years, as well as the first plausible solution to Olbers' paradox.Poe eschewed the scientific method in ''Eureka'' and instead wrote from pure intuition.", "For this reason, he considered it a work of art, not science, but insisted that it was still true and considered it to be his career masterpiece.", "Even so, ''Eureka'' is full of scientific errors.", "In particular, Poe's suggestions ignored Newtonian principles regarding the density and rotation of planets.===Cryptography===Poe had a keen interest in cryptography.", "He had placed a notice of his abilities in the Philadelphia paper ''Alexander's Weekly (Express) Messenger'', inviting submissions of ciphers which he proceeded to solve.", "In July 1841, Poe had published an essay called \"A Few Words on Secret Writing\" in ''Graham's Magazine''.", "Capitalizing on public interest in the topic, he wrote \"The Gold-Bug\" incorporating ciphers as an essential part of the story.", "Poe's success with cryptography relied not so much on his deep knowledge of that field (his method was limited to the simple substitution cryptogram) as on his knowledge of the magazine and newspaper culture.", "His keen analytical abilities, which were so evident in his detective stories, allowed him to see that the general public was largely ignorant of the methods by which a simple substitution cryptogram can be solved, and he used this to his advantage.", "The sensation that Poe created with his cryptography stunts played a major role in popularizing cryptograms in newspapers and magazines.Two ciphers he published in 1841 under the name \"W. B. Tyler\" were not solved until 1992 and 2000 respectively.", "One was a quote from Joseph Addison's play ''Cato''; the other is probably based on a poem by Hester Thrale.Poe had an influence on cryptography beyond increasing public interest during his lifetime.", "William Friedman, America's foremost cryptologist, was heavily influenced by Poe.", "Friedman's initial interest in cryptography came from reading \"The Gold-Bug\" as a child, an interest that he later put to use in deciphering Japan's PURPLE code during World War II." ], [ "In popular culture", "===As a character===The historical Edgar Allan Poe has appeared as a fictionalized character, often in order to represent the \"mad genius\" or \"tormented artist\" and in order to exploit his personal struggles.", "Many such depictions also blend in with characters from his stories, suggesting that Poe and his characters share identities.", "Often, fictional depictions of Poe use his mystery-solving skills in such novels as ''The Poe Shadow'' by Matthew Pearl.===Preserved homes, landmarks, and museums===The Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site in Philadelphia, one of several preserved former residences of PoeNo childhood home of Poe is still standing, including the Allan family's Moldavia estate.", "The oldest standing home in Richmond, the Old Stone House, is in use as the Edgar Allan Poe Museum, though Poe never lived there.", "The collection includes many items that Poe used during his time with the Allan family, and also features several rare first printings of Poe works.", "13 West Range is the dorm room that Poe is believed to have used while studying at the University of Virginia in 1826; it is preserved and available for visits.", "Its upkeep is overseen by a group of students and staff known as the Raven Society.The earliest surviving home in which Poe lived is at 203 North Amity St. in Baltimore, which is preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe House and Museum.", "Poe is believed to have lived in the home at the age of 23 when he first lived with Maria Clemm and Virginia and possibly his grandmother and possibly his brother William Henry Leonard Poe.", "It is open to the public and is also the home of the Edgar Allan Poe Society.While in Philadelphia between 1838 and 1844, Poe lived at at least four different residences, including the Indian Queen Hotel at 15 S. 4th Street, at a residence at 16th and Locust Streets, at 2502 Fairmount Street, and then in the Spring Garden section of the city at 532 N. 7th Street, a residence that has been preserved by the National Park Service as the Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site.", "Poe's final home in Bronx, New York City, is preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe Cottage.In Boston, a commemorative plaque on Boylston Street is several blocks away from the actual location of Poe's birth.", "The house which was his birthplace at 62 Carver Street no longer exists; also, the street has since been renamed \"Charles Street South\".", "A \"square\" at the intersection of Broadway, Fayette, and Carver Streets had once been named in his honor, but it disappeared when the streets were rearranged.", "In 2009, the intersection of Charles and Boylston Streets (two blocks north of his birthplace) was designated \"Edgar Allan Poe Square\".In March 2014, fundraising was completed for construction of a permanent memorial sculpture, known as ''Poe Returning to Boston'', at this location.", "The winning design by Stefanie Rocknak depicts a life-sized Poe striding against the wind, accompanied by a flying raven; his suitcase lid has fallen open, leaving a \"paper trail\" of literary works embedded in the sidewalk behind him.", "The public unveiling on October 5, 2014, was attended by former U.S. poet laureate Robert Pinsky.Other Poe landmarks include a building on the Upper West Side, where Poe temporarily lived when he first moved to New York City.", "A plaque suggests that Poe wrote \"The Raven\" here.", "On Sullivan's Island in Charleston County, South Carolina, the setting of Poe's tale \"The Gold-Bug\" and where Poe served in the Army in 1827 at Fort Moultrie, there is a restaurant called Poe's Tavern.", "In the Fell's Point section of Baltimore, a bar still stands where legend says that Poe was last seen drinking before his death.", "Known as \"The Horse You Came in On\", local lore insists that a ghost whom they call \"Edgar\" haunts the rooms above.===Photographs===An 1848 \"Ultima Thule\" daguerreotype of PoeEarly daguerreotypes of Poe continue to arouse great interest among literary historians.", "Notable among them are:* \"Ultima Thule\" (\"far discovery\") to honor the new photographic technique; taken in November 1848 in Providence, Rhode Island, probably by Edwin H. Manchester* \"Annie\", given to Poe's friend Annie L. Richmond; probably taken in June 1849 in Lowell, Massachusetts, photographer unknown===Poe Toaster===Between 1949 and 2009, a bottle of cognac and three roses were left at Poe's original grave marker every January 19 by an unknown visitor affectionately referred to as the \"Poe Toaster\".", "Sam Porpora was a historian at the Westminster Church in Baltimore, where Poe is buried; he claimed on August 15, 2007, that he had started the tradition in 1949.Porpora said that the tradition began in order to raise money and enhance the profile of the church.", "His story has not been confirmed, and some details which he gave to the press are factually inaccurate.", "The Poe Toaster's last appearance was on January 19, 2009, the day of Poe's bicentennial." ], [ "List of selected works", "'''Short stories'''* \"The Black Cat\"* \"The Cask of Amontillado\"* \"A Descent into the Maelström\"* \"The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar\"* \"The Fall of the House of Usher\"* \"The Gold-Bug\"* \"Hop-Frog\"* \"The Imp of the Perverse\"* \"Ligeia\"* \"The Masque of the Red Death\"* \"Morella\"* \"The Murders in the Rue Morgue\"* \"Never Bet the Devil Your Head\"* \"The Oval Portrait\"* \"The Pit and the Pendulum\"* \"The Premature Burial\"* \"The Purloined Letter\"* \"The System of Doctor Tarr and Professor Fether\"* \"The Tell-Tale Heart\"* \"Loss of Breath\"'''Poetry'''* \"Al Aaraaf\"* \"Annabel Lee\"* \"The Bells\"* \"The City in the Sea\"* \"The Conqueror Worm\"* \"A Dream Within a Dream\"* \"Eldorado\"* \"Eulalie\"* \"The Haunted Palace\"* \"To Helen\"* \"Lenore\"* \"Tamerlane\"* \"The Raven\"* \"Ulalume\"'''Other works'''* ''Politian'' (1835) – Poe's only play* ''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket'' (1838) – Poe's only complete novel* ''The Journal of Julius Rodman'' (1840) – Poe's second, unfinished novel* \"The Balloon-Hoax\" (1844) – A journalistic hoax printed as a true story* \"The Philosophy of Composition\" (1846) – Essay* ''Eureka: A Prose Poem'' (1848) – Essay* \"The Poetic Principle\" (1848) – Essay* \"The Light-House\" (1849) – Poe's last, incomplete work" ], [ "See also", "* Edgar Allan Poe and music* Poe, a crater on Mercury*" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * Based on * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "Harrowitz discusses Poe's \"tales of ratiocination\" in the light of Charles Sanders Peirce's logic of making good guesses or abductive reasoning.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * (1992 reprint: )* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (Originally published in 1941 by New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.)* * * * * * * * * * * * * (1968 edition printed by Rutgers University Press)* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * Robinson, Marilynne, \"On Edgar Allan Poe\", ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXII, no.", "2 (February 5, 2015), pp.", "4, 6.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site* Edgar Allan Poe Society in Baltimore* Poe Museum in Richmond, Virginia* Edgar Allan Poe's Personal Correspondence Shapell Manuscript Foundation* Edgar Allan Poe's Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin* 'Funeral' honours Edgar Allan Poe BBC News (with video) 2009-10-11* Selected Stories from American Studies at the University of Virginia* * * Finding aid to Edgar Allan Poe papers at Columbia University.", "Rare Book & Manuscript Library." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electricity" ], [ "Introduction", "Lightning (pictured) and urban lighting are some of the most dramatic effects of electricity'''Electricity''' is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter possessing an electric charge.", "Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwell's equations.", "Common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges and many others.The presence of either a positive or negative electric charge produces an electric field.", "The motion of electric charges is an electric current and produces a magnetic field.", "In most applications, Coulomb's law determines the force acting on an electric charge.", "Electric potential is the work done to move an electric charge from one point to another within an electric field, typically measured in volts.Electricity plays a central role in many modern technologies, serving in electric power where electric current is used to energise equipment, and in electronics dealing with electrical circuits involving active components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies.The study of electrical phenomena dates back to antiquity, with theoretical understanding progressing slowly until the 17th and 18th centuries.", "The development of the theory of electromagnetism in the 19th century marked significant progress, leading to electricity's industrial and residential application by electrical engineers by the century's end.", "This rapid expansion in electrical technology at the time was the driving force for the Second Industrial Revolution, with electricity's versatility driving transformations in industry and society.", "Electricity is integral to applications spanning transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation, making it the foundation of modern industrial society." ], [ "History", "Thales, the earliest known researcher into electricityLong before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish.", "Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the \"Thunderer of the Nile\", and described them as the \"protectors\" of all other fish.", "Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians.", "Several ancient writers, such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, attested to the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by electric catfish and electric rays, and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects.", "Patients with ailments such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them.Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers.", "Thales of Miletus made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BCE, from which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic, in contrast to minerals such as magnetite, which needed no rubbing.", "Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity.", "According to a controversial theory, the Parthians may have had knowledge of electroplating, based on the 1936 discovery of the Baghdad Battery, which resembles a galvanic cell, though it is uncertain whether the artifact was electrical in nature.Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research on electricity in the 18th century, as documented by Joseph Priestley (1767) ''History and Present Status of Electricity'', with whom Franklin carried on extended correspondence.Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist William Gilbert wrote ''De Magnete'', in which he made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber.", "He coined the Neo-Latin word ''electricus'' (\"of amber\" or \"like amber\", from ἤλεκτρον, ''elektron'', the Greek word for \"amber\") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed.", "This association gave rise to the English words \"electric\" and \"electricity\", which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne's ''Pseudodoxia Epidemica'' of 1646.Further work was conducted in the 17th and early 18th centuries by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray and C. F. du Fay.", "Later in the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work.", "In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a metal key to the bottom of a dampened kite string and flown the kite in a storm-threatened sky.", "A succession of sparks jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature.", "He also explained the apparently paradoxical behavior of the Leyden jar as a device for storing large amounts of electrical charge in terms of electricity consisting of both positive and negative charges.Michael Faraday's discoveries formed the foundation of electric motor technology.In 1775, Hugh Williamson reported a series of experiments to the Royal Society on the shocks delivered by the electric eel; that same year the surgeon and anatomist John Hunter described the structure of the fish's electric organs.", "In 1791, Luigi Galvani published his discovery of bioelectromagnetics, demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which neurons passed signals to the muscles.", "Alessandro Volta's battery, or voltaic pile, of 1800, made from alternating layers of zinc and copper, provided scientists with a more reliable source of electrical energy than the electrostatic machines previously used.", "The recognition of electromagnetism, the unity of electric and magnetic phenomena, is due to Hans Christian Ørsted and André-Marie Ampère in 1819–1820.Michael Faraday invented the electric motor in 1821, and Georg Ohm mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827.Electricity and magnetism (and light) were definitively linked by James Clerk Maxwell, in particular in his \"On Physical Lines of Force\" in 1861 and 1862.While the early 19th century had seen rapid progress in electrical science, the late 19th century would see the greatest progress in electrical engineering.", "Through such people as Alexander Graham Bell, Ottó Bláthy, Thomas Edison, Galileo Ferraris, Oliver Heaviside, Ányos Jedlik, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Charles Algernon Parsons, Werner von Siemens, Joseph Swan, Reginald Fessenden, Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse, electricity turned from a scientific curiosity into an essential tool for modern life.In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that electrodes illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily.", "In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper that explained experimental data from the photoelectric effect as being the result of light energy being carried in discrete quantized packets, energising electrons.", "This discovery led to the quantum revolution.", "Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for \"his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\".", "The photoelectric effect is also employed in photocells such as can be found in solar panels.The first solid-state device was the \"cat's-whisker detector\" first used in the 1900s in radio receivers.", "A whisker-like wire is placed lightly in contact with a solid crystal (such as a germanium crystal) to detect a radio signal by the contact junction effect.", "In a solid-state component, the current is confined to solid elements and compounds engineered specifically to switch and amplify it.", "Current flow can be understood in two forms: as negatively charged electrons, and as positively charged electron deficiencies called holes.", "These charges and holes are understood in terms of quantum physics.", "The building material is most often a crystalline semiconductor.Solid-state electronics came into its own with the emergence of transistor technology.", "The first working transistor, a germanium-based point-contact transistor, was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947, followed by the bipolar junction transistor in 1948." ], [ "Concepts", "===Electric charge===Charge on a gold-leaf electroscope causes the leaves to visibly repel each otherThe presence of charge gives rise to an electrostatic force: charges exert a force on each other, an effect that was known, though not understood, in antiquity.", "A lightweight ball suspended by a fine thread can be charged by touching it with a glass rod that has itself been charged by rubbing with a cloth.", "If a similar ball is charged by the same glass rod, it is found to repel the first: the charge acts to force the two balls apart.", "Two balls that are charged with a rubbed amber rod also repel each other.", "However, if one ball is charged by the glass rod, and the other by an amber rod, the two balls are found to attract each other.", "These phenomena were investigated in the late eighteenth century by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, who deduced that charge manifests itself in two opposing forms.", "This discovery led to the well-known axiom: ''like-charged objects repel and opposite-charged objects attract''.The force acts on the charged particles themselves, hence charge has a tendency to spread itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface.", "The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is given by Coulomb's law, which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse-square relation to the distance between them.", "The electromagnetic force is very strong, second only in strength to the strong interaction, but unlike that force it operates over all distances.", "In comparison with the much weaker gravitational force, the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 1042 times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together.Charge originates from certain types of subatomic particles, the most familiar carriers of which are the electron and proton.", "Electric charge gives rise to and interacts with the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature.", "Experiment has shown charge to be a conserved quantity, that is, the net charge within an electrically isolated system will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system.", "Within the system, charge may be transferred between bodies, either by direct contact, or by passing along a conducting material, such as a wire.", "The informal term static electricity refers to the net presence (or 'imbalance') of charge on a body, usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together, transferring charge from one to the other.The charge on electrons and protons is opposite in sign, hence an amount of charge may be expressed as being either negative or positive.", "By convention, the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative, and that by protons positive, a custom that originated with the work of Benjamin Franklin.", "The amount of charge is usually given the symbol ''Q'' and expressed in coulombs; each electron carries the same charge of approximately −1.6022×10−19 coulomb.", "The proton has a charge that is equal and opposite, and thus +1.6022×10−19  coulomb.", "Charge is possessed not just by matter, but also by antimatter, each antiparticle bearing an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle.Charge can be measured by a number of means, an early instrument being the gold-leaf electroscope, which although still in use for classroom demonstrations, has been superseded by the electronic electrometer.===Electric current===The movement of electric charge is known as an electric current, the intensity of which is usually measured in amperes.", "Current can consist of any moving charged particles; most commonly these are electrons, but any charge in motion constitutes a current.", "Electric current can flow through some things, electrical conductors, but will not flow through an electrical insulator.By historical convention, a positive current is defined as having the same direction of flow as any positive charge it contains, or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part.", "Current defined in this manner is called conventional current.", "The motion of negatively charged electrons around an electric circuit, one of the most familiar forms of current, is thus deemed positive in the ''opposite'' direction to that of the electrons.", "However, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction, or even in both directions at once.", "The positive-to-negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation.An electric arc provides an energetic demonstration of electric current.The process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction, and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling.", "Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal, and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids, or through plasmas such as electrical sparks.", "While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with an average drift velocity only fractions of a millimetre per second, the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light, enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires.Current causes several observable effects, which historically were the means of recognising its presence.", "That water could be decomposed by the current from a voltaic pile was discovered by Nicholson and Carlisle in 1800, a process now known as electrolysis.", "Their work was greatly expanded upon by Michael Faraday in 1833.Current through a resistance causes localised heating, an effect James Prescott Joule studied mathematically in 1840.One of the most important discoveries relating to current was made accidentally by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, when, while preparing a lecture, he witnessed the current in a wire disturbing the needle of a magnetic compass.", "He had discovered electromagnetism, a fundamental interaction between electricity and magnetics.", "The level of electromagnetic emissions generated by electric arcing is high enough to produce electromagnetic interference, which can be detrimental to the workings of adjacent equipment.In engineering or household applications, current is often described as being either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC).", "These terms refer to how the current varies in time.", "Direct current, as produced by example from a battery and required by most electronic devices, is a unidirectional flow from the positive part of a circuit to the negative.", "If, as is most common, this flow is carried by electrons, they will be travelling in the opposite direction.", "Alternating current is any current that reverses direction repeatedly; almost always this takes the form of a sine wave.", "Alternating current thus pulses back and forth within a conductor without the charge moving any net distance over time.", "The time-averaged value of an alternating current is zero, but it delivers energy in first one direction, and then the reverse.", "Alternating current is affected by electrical properties that are not observed under steady state direct current, such as inductance and capacitance.", "These properties however can become important when circuitry is subjected to transients, such as when first energised.===Electric field===The concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday.", "An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it, and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field.", "The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses, and like it, extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance.", "However, there is an important difference.", "Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion.", "Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero.", "Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker.Field lines emanating from a positive charge above a plane conductorAn electric field generally varies in space, and its strength at any one point is defined as the force (per unit charge) that would be felt by a stationary, negligible charge if placed at that point.", "The conceptual charge, termed a 'test charge', must be vanishingly small to prevent its own electric field disturbing the main field and must also be stationary to prevent the effect of magnetic fields.", "As the electric field is defined in terms of force, and force is a vector, having both magnitude and direction, it follows that an electric field is a vector field.The study of electric fields created by stationary charges is called electrostatics.", "The field may be visualised by a set of imaginary lines whose direction at any point is the same as that of the field.", "This concept was introduced by Faraday, whose term 'lines of force' still sometimes sees use.", "The field lines are the paths that a point positive charge would seek to make as it was forced to move within the field; they are however an imaginary concept with no physical existence, and the field permeates all the intervening space between the lines.", "Field lines emanating from stationary charges have several key properties: first, that they originate at positive charges and terminate at negative charges; second, that they must enter any good conductor at right angles, and third, that they may never cross nor close in on themselves.A hollow conducting body carries all its charge on its outer surface.", "The field is therefore 0 at all places inside the body.", "This is the operating principal of the Faraday cage, a conducting metal shell which isolates its interior from outside electrical effects.The principles of electrostatics are important when designing items of high-voltage equipment.", "There is a finite limit to the electric field strength that may be withstood by any medium.", "Beyond this point, electrical breakdown occurs and an electric arc causes flashover between the charged parts.", "Air, for example, tends to arc across small gaps at electric field strengths which exceed 30 kV per centimetre.", "Over larger gaps, its breakdown strength is weaker, perhaps 1 kV per centimetre.", "The most visible natural occurrence of this is lightning, caused when charge becomes separated in the clouds by rising columns of air, and raises the electric field in the air to greater than it can withstand.", "The voltage of a large lightning cloud may be as high as 100 MV and have discharge energies as great as 250 kWh.The field strength is greatly affected by nearby conducting objects, and it is particularly intense when it is forced to curve around sharply pointed objects.", "This principle is exploited in the lightning conductor, the sharp spike of which acts to encourage the lightning strike to develop there, rather than to the building it serves to protect.===Electric potential===A pair of AA cells.", "The + sign indicates the polarity of the potential difference between the battery terminals.The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field.", "A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work.", "The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit test charge from an infinite distance slowly to that point.", "It is usually measured in volts, and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity.", "This definition of potential, while formal, has little practical application, and a more useful concept is that of electric potential difference, and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points.", "An electric field has the special property that it is ''conservative'', which means that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant: all paths between two specified points expend the same energy, and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated.", "The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric potential difference that the term voltage sees greater everyday usage.For practical purposes, it is useful to define a common reference point to which potentials may be expressed and compared.", "While this could be at infinity, a much more useful reference is the Earth itself, which is assumed to be at the same potential everywhere.", "This reference point naturally takes the name earth or ground.", "Earth is assumed to be an infinite source of equal amounts of positive and negative charge, and is therefore electrically uncharged—and unchargeable.Electric potential is a scalar quantity, that is, it has only magnitude and not direction.", "It may be viewed as analogous to height: just as a released object will fall through a difference in heights caused by a gravitational field, so a charge will 'fall' across the voltage caused by an electric field.", "As relief maps show contour lines marking points of equal height, a set of lines marking points of equal potential (known as equipotentials) may be drawn around an electrostatically charged object.", "The equipotentials cross all lines of force at right angles.", "They must also lie parallel to a conductor's surface, since otherwise there would be a force along the surface of the conductor that would move the charge carriers to even the potential across the surface.The electric field was formally defined as the force exerted per unit charge, but the concept of potential allows for a more useful and equivalent definition: the electric field is the local gradient of the electric potential.", "Usually expressed in volts per metre, the vector direction of the field is the line of greatest slope of potential, and where the equipotentials lie closest together.===Electromagnets===Magnetic field circles around a currentØrsted's discovery in 1821 that a magnetic field existed around all sides of a wire carrying an electric current indicated that there was a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism.", "Moreover, the interaction seemed different from gravitational and electrostatic forces, the two forces of nature then known.", "The force on the compass needle did not direct it to or away from the current-carrying wire, but acted at right angles to it.", "Ørsted's words were that \"the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner.\"", "The force also depended on the direction of the current, for if the flow was reversed, then the force did too.Ørsted did not fully understand his discovery, but he observed the effect was reciprocal: a current exerts a force on a magnet, and a magnetic field exerts a force on a current.", "The phenomenon was further investigated by Ampère, who discovered that two parallel current-carrying wires exerted a force upon each other: two wires conducting currents in the same direction are attracted to each other, while wires containing currents in opposite directions are forced apart.", "The interaction is mediated by the magnetic field each current produces and forms the basis for the international definition of the ampere.The electric motor exploits an important effect of electromagnetism: a current through a magnetic field experiences a force at right angles to both the field and current.This relationship between magnetic fields and currents is extremely important, for it led to Michael Faraday's invention of the electric motor in 1821.Faraday's homopolar motor consisted of a permanent magnet sitting in a pool of mercury.", "A current was allowed through a wire suspended from a pivot above the magnet and dipped into the mercury.", "The magnet exerted a tangential force on the wire, making it circle around the magnet for as long as the current was maintained.Experimentation by Faraday in 1831 revealed that a wire moving perpendicular to a magnetic field developed a potential difference between its ends.", "Further analysis of this process, known as electromagnetic induction, enabled him to state the principle, now known as Faraday's law of induction, that the potential difference induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop.", "Exploitation of this discovery enabled him to invent the first electrical generator in 1831, in which he converted the mechanical energy of a rotating copper disc to electrical energy.", "Faraday's disc was inefficient and of no use as a practical generator, but it showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism, a possibility that would be taken up by those that followed on from his work.===Electric circuits===A basic electric circuit.", "The voltage source ''V'' on the left drives a current ''I'' around the circuit, delivering electrical energy into the resistor ''R''.", "From the resistor, the current returns to the source, completing the circuit.|alt=refer to captionAn electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components such that electric charge is made to flow along a closed path (a circuit), usually to perform some useful task.The components in an electric circuit can take many forms, which can include elements such as resistors, capacitors, switches, transformers and electronics.", "Electronic circuits contain active components, usually semiconductors, and typically exhibit non-linear behaviour, requiring complex analysis.", "The simplest electric components are those that are termed passive and linear: while they may temporarily store energy, they contain no sources of it, and exhibit linear responses to stimuli.The resistor is perhaps the simplest of passive circuit elements: as its name suggests, it resists the current through it, dissipating its energy as heat.", "The resistance is a consequence of the motion of charge through a conductor: in metals, for example, resistance is primarily due to collisions between electrons and ions.", "Ohm's law is a basic law of circuit theory, stating that the current passing through a resistance is directly proportional to the potential difference across it.", "The resistance of most materials is relatively constant over a range of temperatures and currents; materials under these conditions are known as 'ohmic'.", "The ohm, the unit of resistance, was named in honour of Georg Ohm, and is symbolised by the Greek letter Ω.", "1 Ω is the resistance that will produce a potential difference of one volt in response to a current of one amp.The capacitor is a development of the Leyden jar and is a device that can store charge, and thereby storing electrical energy in the resulting field.", "It consists of two conducting plates separated by a thin insulating dielectric layer; in practice, thin metal foils are coiled together, increasing the surface area per unit volume and therefore the capacitance.", "The unit of capacitance is the farad, named after Michael Faraday, and given the symbol ''F'': one farad is the capacitance that develops a potential difference of one volt when it stores a charge of one coulomb.", "A capacitor connected to a voltage supply initially causes a current as it accumulates charge; this current will however decay in time as the capacitor fills, eventually falling to zero.", "A capacitor will therefore not permit a steady state current, but instead blocks it.The inductor is a conductor, usually a coil of wire, that stores energy in a magnetic field in response to the current through it.", "When the current changes, the magnetic field does too, inducing a voltage between the ends of the conductor.", "The induced voltage is proportional to the time rate of change of the current.", "The constant of proportionality is termed the inductance.", "The unit of inductance is the henry, named after Joseph Henry, a contemporary of Faraday.", "One henry is the inductance that will induce a potential difference of one volt if the current through it changes at a rate of one ampere per second.", "The inductor's behaviour is in some regards converse to that of the capacitor: it will freely allow an unchanging current, but opposes a rapidly changing one.===Electric power===Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit.", "The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second.Electric power, like mechanical power, is the rate of doing work, measured in watts, and represented by the letter ''P''.", "The term ''wattage'' is used colloquially to mean \"electric power in watts.\"", "The electric power in watts produced by an electric current ''I'' consisting of a charge of ''Q'' coulombs every ''t'' seconds passing through an electric potential (voltage) difference of ''V'' is:where:''Q'' is electric charge in coulombs:''t'' is time in seconds:''I'' is electric current in amperes:''V'' is electric potential or voltage in voltsElectric power is generally supplied to businesses and homes by the electric power industry.", "Electricity is usually sold by the kilowatt hour (3.6 MJ) which is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours.", "Electric utilities measure power using electricity meters, which keep a running total of the electric energy delivered to a customer.", "Unlike fossil fuels, electricity is a low entropy form of energy and can be converted into motion or many other forms of energy with high efficiency.===Electronics===Surface-mount electronic componentsElectronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes, sensors and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies.", "The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes digital switching possible, and electronics is widely used in information processing, telecommunications, and signal processing.", "Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a regular working system.Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control.", "The underlying principles that explain how semiconductors work are studied in solid state physics, whereas the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems are part of electronics engineering.===Electromagnetic wave===Faraday's and Ampère's work showed that a time-varying magnetic field created an electric field, and a time-varying electric field created a magnetic field.", "Thus, when either field is changing in time, a field of the other is always induced.", "These variations are an electromagnetic wave.", "Electromagnetic waves were analysed theoretically by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864.Maxwell developed a set of equations that could unambiguously describe the interrelationship between electric field, magnetic field, electric charge, and electric current.", "He could moreover prove that in a vacuum such a wave would travel at the speed of light, and thus light itself was a form of electromagnetic radiation.", "Maxwell's equations, which unify light, fields, and charge are one of the great milestones of theoretical physics.The work of many researchers enabled the use of electronics to convert signals into high frequency oscillating currents and, via suitably shaped conductors, electricity permits the transmission and reception of these signals via radio waves over very long distances." ], [ "Production, storage and uses", "===Generation and transmission===Early 20th-century alternator made in Budapest, Hungary, in the power generating hall of a hydroelectric station (photograph by Prokudin-Gorsky, 1905–1915).In the 6th century BC the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus experimented with amber rods: these were the first studies into the production of electricity.", "While this method, now known as the triboelectric effect, can lift light objects and generate sparks, it is extremely inefficient.", "It was not until the invention of the voltaic pile in the eighteenth century that a viable source of electricity became available.", "The voltaic pile, and its modern descendant, the electrical battery, store energy chemically and make it available on demand in the form of electricity.", "Electrical power is usually generated by electro-mechanical generators.", "These can be driven by steam produced from fossil fuel combustion or the heat released from nuclear reactions, but also more directly from the kinetic energy of wind or flowing water.", "The steam turbine invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884 is still used to convert the thermal energy of steam into a rotary motion that can be used by electro-mechanical generators.", "Such generators bear no resemblance to Faraday's homopolar disc generator of 1831, but they still rely on his electromagnetic principle that a conductor linking a changing magnetic field induces a potential difference across its ends.", "Electricity generated by solar panels rely on a different mechanism: solar radiation is converted directly into electricity using the photovoltaic effect.Wind power is of increasing importance in many countries.Demand for electricity grows with great rapidity as a nation modernises and its economy develops.", "The United States showed a 12% increase in demand during each year of the first three decades of the twentieth century, a rate of growth that is now being experienced by emerging economies such as those of India or China.", "Environmental concerns with electricity generation, in specific the contribution of fossil fuel burning to climate change, have led to an increased focus on generation from renewable sources.", "In the power sector, wind and solar have become cost effective, speeding up an energy transition away from fossil fuels.", "=== Transmission and storage ===The invention in the late nineteenth century of the transformer meant that electrical power could be transmitted more efficiently at a higher voltage but lower current.", "Efficient electrical transmission meant in turn that electricity could be generated at centralised power stations, where it benefited from economies of scale, and then be despatched relatively long distances to where it was needed.Normally, demand of electricity must match the supply, as storage of electricity is difficult.", "A certain amount of generation must always be held in reserve to cushion an electrical grid against inevitable disturbances and losses.", "With increasing levels of variable renewable energy (wind and solar energy) in the grid, it has become more challenging to match supply and demand.", "Storage plays an increasing role in bridging that gap.", "There are four types of energy storage technologies, each in varying states of technology readiness: batteries (electrochemical storage), chemical storage such as hydrogen, thermal or mechanical (such as pumped hydropower).===Applications===The incandescent light bulb, an early application of electricity, operates by Joule heating: the passage of current through resistance generating heat.|alt=a photo of a light bulb|leftElectricity is a very convenient way to transfer energy, and it has been adapted to a huge, and growing, number of uses.", "The invention of a practical incandescent light bulb in the 1870s led to lighting becoming one of the first publicly available applications of electrical power.", "Although electrification brought with it its own dangers, replacing the naked flames of gas lighting greatly reduced fire hazards within homes and factories.", "Public utilities were set up in many cities targeting the burgeoning market for electrical lighting.", "In the late 20th century and in modern times, the trend has started to flow in the direction of deregulation in the electrical power sector.The resistive Joule heating effect employed in filament light bulbs also sees more direct use in electric heating.", "While this is versatile and controllable, it can be seen as wasteful, since most electrical generation has already required the production of heat at a power station.", "A number of countries, such as Denmark, have issued legislation restricting or banning the use of resistive electric heating in new buildings.", "Electricity is however still a highly practical energy source for heating and refrigeration, with air conditioning/heat pumps representing a growing sector for electricity demand for heating and cooling, the effects of which electricity utilities are increasingly obliged to accommodate.", "Electrification is expected to play a major role in the decarbonisation of sectors that rely on direct fossil fuel burning, such as transport (using electric vehicles) and heating (using heat pumps).The effects of electromagnetism are most visibly employed in the electric motor, which provides a clean and efficient means of motive power.", "A stationary motor such as a winch is easily provided with a supply of power, but a motor that moves with its application, such as an electric vehicle, is obliged to either carry along a power source such as a battery, or to collect current from a sliding contact such as a pantograph.", "Electrically powered vehicles are used in public transportation, such as electric buses and trains, and an increasing number of battery-powered electric cars in private ownership.Electricity is used within telecommunications, and indeed the electrical telegraph, demonstrated commercially in 1837 by Cooke and Wheatstone, was one of its earliest applications.", "With the construction of first transcontinental, and then transatlantic, telegraph systems in the 1860s, electricity had enabled communications in minutes across the globe.", "Optical fibre and satellite communication have taken a share of the market for communications systems, but electricity can be expected to remain an essential part of the process.Electronic devices make use of the transistor, perhaps one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century, and a fundamental building block of all modern circuitry.", "A modern integrated circuit may contain many billions of miniaturised transistors in a region only a few centimetres square." ], [ "Electricity and the natural world", "===Physiological effects===A voltage applied to a human body causes an electric current through the tissues, and although the relationship is non-linear, the greater the voltage, the greater the current.", "The threshold for perception varies with the supply frequency and with the path of the current, but is about 0.1 mA to 1 mA for mains-frequency electricity, though a current as low as a microamp can be detected as an electrovibration effect under certain conditions.", "If the current is sufficiently high, it will cause muscle contraction, fibrillation of the heart, and tissue burns.", "The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is electrified makes electricity a particular hazard.", "The pain caused by an electric shock can be intense, leading electricity at times to be employed as a method of torture.", "Death caused by an electric shock—electrocution—is still used for judicial execution in some US states, though its use had become very rare by the end of the 20th century.===Electrical phenomena in nature===The electric eel, ''Electrophorus electricus''Electricity is not a human invention, and may be observed in several forms in nature, notably lightning.", "Many interactions familiar at the macroscopic level, such as touch, friction or chemical bonding, are due to interactions between electric fields on the atomic scale.", "The Earth's magnetic field is due to the natural dynamo of circulating currents in the planet's core.", "Certain crystals, such as quartz, or even sugar, generate a potential difference across their faces when pressed.", "This phenomenon is known as piezoelectricity, from the Greek ''piezein'' (πιέζειν), meaning to press, and was discovered in 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie.", "The effect is reciprocal: when a piezoelectric material is subjected to an electric field it changes size slightly.Some organisms, such as sharks, are able to detect and respond to changes in electric fields, an ability known as electroreception, while others, termed electrogenic, are able to generate voltages themselves to serve as a predatory or defensive weapon; these are electric fish in different orders.", "The order Gymnotiformes, of which the best known example is the electric eel, detect or stun their prey via high voltages generated from modified muscle cells called electrocytes.", "All animals transmit information along their cell membranes with voltage pulses called action potentials, whose functions include communication by the nervous system between neurons and muscles.", "An electric shock stimulates this system, and causes muscles to contract.", "Action potentials are also responsible for coordinating activities in certain plants." ], [ "Cultural perception", "It is said that in the 1850s, British politician William Gladstone asked the scientist Michael Faraday why electricity was valuable.", "Faraday answered, \"One day sir, you may tax it.\"", "However, according to Snopes.com \"the anecdote should be considered apocryphal because it isn't mentioned in any accounts by Faraday or his contemporaries (letters, newspapers, or biographies) and only popped up well after Faraday's death.", "\"In the 19th and early 20th century, electricity was not part of the everyday life of many people, even in the industrialised Western world.", "The popular culture of the time accordingly often depicted it as a mysterious, quasi-magical force that can slay the living, revive the dead or otherwise bend the laws of nature.", "This attitude began with the 1771 experiments of Luigi Galvani in which the legs of dead frogs were shown to twitch on application of animal electricity.", "\"Revitalization\" or resuscitation of apparently dead or drowned persons was reported in the medical literature shortly after Galvani's work.", "These results were known to Mary Shelley when she authored ''Frankenstein'' (1819), although she does not name the method of revitalization of the monster.", "The revitalization of monsters with electricity later became a stock theme in horror films.As the public familiarity with electricity as the lifeblood of the Second Industrial Revolution grew, its wielders were more often cast in a positive light, such as the workers who \"finger death at their gloves' end as they piece and repiece the living wires\" in Rudyard Kipling's 1907 poem ''Sons of Martha''.", "Electrically powered vehicles of every sort featured large in adventure stories such as those of Jules Verne and the ''Tom Swift'' books.", "The masters of electricity, whether fictional or real—including scientists such as Thomas Edison, Charles Steinmetz or Nikola Tesla—were popularly conceived of as having wizard-like powers.With electricity ceasing to be a novelty and becoming a necessity of everyday life in the later half of the 20th century, it required particular attention by popular culture only when it ''stops'' flowing, an event that usually signals disaster.", "The people who ''keep'' it flowing, such as the nameless hero of Jimmy Webb's song \"Wichita Lineman\" (1968), are still often cast as heroic, wizard-like figures." ], [ "See also", "* Ampère's circuital law, connects the direction of an electric current and its associated magnetic currents.", "* Electric potential energy, the potential energy of a system of charges* Electricity market, the sale of electrical energy*Etymology of ''electricity'', the origin of the word ''electricity'' and its current different usages* Hydraulic analogy, an analogy between the flow of water and electric current*" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ''Basic Concepts of Electricity'' chapter from ''Lessons In Electric Circuits Vol 1 DC'' book and series.", "* \"One-Hundred Years of Electricity\", May 1931, Popular Mechanics* Illustrated view of how an American home's electrical system works* Socket and plug standards* Electricity Misconceptions* Electricity and Magnetism* Understanding Electricity and Electronics in about 10 Minutes" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Empedocles" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Empedocles''' (; ; , 444–443 BC) was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher and a native citizen of Akragas, a Greek city in Sicily.", "Empedocles' philosophy is best known for originating the cosmogonic theory of the four classical elements.", "He also proposed forces he called Love and Strife which would mix and separate the elements, respectively.Empedocles challenged the practice of animal sacrifice and killing animals for food.", "He developed a distinctive doctrine of reincarnation.", "He is generally considered the last Greek philosopher to have recorded his ideas in verse.", "Some of his work survives, more than is the case for any other pre-Socratic philosopher.", "Empedocles' death was mythologized by ancient writers, and has been the subject of a number of literary treatments." ], [ "Life", "Empedocles, 17th-century engravingAlthough the exact dates of Empedocles' birth and death are unknown and ancient accounts of his life conflict on the exact details, they agree that he was born in the early 5th century BC in the Greek city of Akragas in Magna Graecia, present-day Sicily.", "Modern scholars believe the accuracy of the accounts that he came from a rich and noble family and that his grandfather, also named Empedocles, had won a victory in the horse race at Olympia in the 71st.", "Olympiad (496–495 BC), Little else can be determined with accuracy.Primary sources of information on the life of Empedocles come from the Hellenistic period, several centuries after his own death and long after any reliable evidence about his life would have perished.", "Modern scholarship generally believes that these biographical details, including Aristotle's assertion that he was the \"father of rhetoric\", his chronologically impossible tutelage under Pythagoras, and his employment as a doctor and miracle worker, were fabricated from interpretations of Empedocles' poetry, as was common practice for the biographies written during this time.===Death and legacy===''The Death of Empedocles'' by Salvator Rosa (1615–1673), depicting the legendary alleged suicide of Empedocles jumping into Mount Etna in SicilyAccording to Aristotle, Empedocles died at the age of 60 (), even though other writers have him living up to the age of 109.Likewise, there are myths concerning his death: a tradition, which is traced to Heraclides Ponticus, represented him as having been removed from the Earth; whereas others had him perishing in the flames of Mount Etna.", "Diogenes Laërtius records the legend that Empedocles died by throwing himself into Mount Etna in Sicily, so that the people would believe his body had vanished and he had turned into an immortal god; the volcano, however, threw back one of his bronze sandals, revealing the deceit.", "Another legend maintains that he threw himself into the volcano to prove to his disciples that he was immortal; he believed he would come back as a god after being consumed by the fire.", "Lucretius speaks of him with enthusiasm, and evidently viewed him as his model.", "Horace also refers to the death of Empedocles in his work ''Ars Poetica'' and admits poets the right to destroy themselves.", "In '''', a comedic dialogue written by the second-century satirist Lucian of Samosata, Empedocles' final fate is re-evaluated.", "Rather than being incinerated in the fires of Mount Etna, he was carried up into the heavens by a volcanic eruption.", "Although singed by the ordeal, Empedocles survives and continues his life on the Moon, surviving by feeding on dew.Burnet states that Empedocles likely did not die in Sicily, that both the positive story of Empedocles being taken up to heaven and the negative one about him throwing himself into a volcano could be easily accepted by ancient writers, as there was no local tradition to contradict them.Empedocles' death is the subject of Friedrich Hölderlin's play ''Tod des Empedokles'' (''The Death of Empedocles'') as well as Matthew Arnold's poem ''Empedocles on Etna''." ], [ "Philosophy", "Based on the surviving fragments of his work, modern scholars generally believe that Empedocles was directly responding to Parmenides' doctrine of monism and was likely acquainted with the work of Anaxagoras, although it is unlikely he was aware of either the later Eleatics or the doctrines of the Atomists.", "Many later accounts of his life claim that Empedocles studied with the Pythagoreans on the basis of his doctrine of reincarnation, although he may have instead learned this from a local tradition rather than directly from the Pythagoreans.===Cosmogony===Empedocles' theory four elements (fire, air, water and earth), woodcut from a 1472 edition of Lucretius' De rerum naturaEmpedocles established four ultimate elements which make all the structures in the world—fire, air, water, earth.", "Empedocles called these four elements \"roots\", which he also identified with the mythical names of Zeus, Hera, Nestis, and Aidoneus (e.g., \"Now hear the fourfold roots of everything: enlivening Hera, Hades, shining Zeus.", "And Nestis, moistening mortal springs with tears\").", "Empedocles never used the term \"element\" (, ''stoicheion''), which seems to have been first used by Plato.", "According to the different proportions in which these four indestructible and unchangeable elements are combined with each other the difference of the structure is produced.", "It is in the aggregation and segregation of elements thus arising, that Empedocles, like the atomists, found the real process which corresponds to what is popularly termed growth, increase or decrease.", "One interpreter describes his philosophy as asserting that \"Nothing new comes or can come into being; the only change that can occur is a change in the juxtaposition of element with element.\"", "This theory of the four elements became the standard dogma for the next two thousand years.The four elements, however, are simple, eternal, and unalterable, and as change is the consequence of their mixture and separation, it was also necessary to suppose the existence of moving powers that bring about mixture and separation.", "The four elements are both eternally brought into union and parted from one another by two divine powers, Love and Strife (''Philotes'' and ''Neikos'').", "Love () is responsible for the attraction of different forms of what we now call matter, and Strife () is the cause of their separation.", "If the four elements make up the universe, then Love and Strife explain their variation and harmony.", "Love and Strife are attractive and repulsive forces, respectively, which are plainly observable in human behavior, but also pervade the universe.", "The two forces wax and wane in their dominance, but neither force ever wholly escapes the imposition of the other.Empedocles' cosmic cycle is based on the conflict between love and strife.As the best and original state, there was a time when the pure elements and the two powers co-existed in a condition of rest and inertness in the form of a sphere.", "The elements existed together in their purity, without mixture and separation, and the uniting power of Love predominated in the sphere: the separating power of Strife guarded the extreme edges of the sphere.", "Since that time, strife gained more sway and the bond which kept the pure elementary substances together in the sphere was dissolved.", "The elements became the world of phenomena we see today, full of contrasts and oppositions, operated on by both Love and Strife.", "Empedocles assumed a cyclical universe whereby the elements return and prepare the formation of the sphere for the next period of the universe.Empedocles attempted to explain the separation of elements, the formation of earth and sea, of Sun and Moon, of atmosphere.", "He also dealt with the first origin of plants and animals, and with the physiology of humans.", "As the elements entered into combinations, there appeared strange results—heads without necks, arms without shoulders.", "Then as these fragmentary structures met, there were seen horned heads on human bodies, bodies of oxen with human heads, and figures of double sex.", "But most of these products of natural forces disappeared as suddenly as they arose; only in those rare cases where the parts were found to be adapted to each other did the complex structures last.", "Thus the organic universe sprang from spontaneous aggregations that suited each other as if this had been intended.", "Soon various influences reduced creatures of double sex to a male and a female, and the world was replenished with organic life.===Psychology===Like Pythagoras, Empedocles believed in the transmigration of the soul or metempsychosis, that souls can be reincarnated between humans, animals and even plants.", "According to him, all humans, or maybe only a selected few among them, were originally long-lived daimons who dwelt in a state of bliss until committing an unspecified crime, possibly bloodshed or perjury.", "As a consequence, they fell to Earth, where they would forced to spend 30,000 cycles of metempsychosis through different bodies before being able to return to the sphere of divinity.", "One's behavior during his lifetime would also determine his next incarnation.", "Wise people, who have learned the secret of life, are closer to the divine, while their souls similarly closer are to the freedom from the cycle of reincarnations, after which they are able to rest in happiness for eternity.", "This cycle of mortal incarnation seems to have been inspired by the god Apollo's punishment as a servant to Admetus.A display of two 5th century BCE clepsydras, or \"water clocks\" from the Ancient Agora Museum in AthensEmpedocles was a vegetarian and advocated vegetarianism, since the bodies of animals are also dwelling places of punished souls.", "For Empedocles, all living things were on the same spiritual plane; plants and animals are links in a chain where humans are a link too.Empedocles is credited with the first comprehensive theory of light and vision.", "Historian Will Durant noted that \"Empedocles suggested that light takes time to pass from one point to another.\"", "He put forward the idea that we see objects because light streams out of our eyes and touches them.", "While flawed, this became the fundamental basis on which later Greek philosophers and mathematicians like Euclid would construct some of the most important theories of light, vision, and optics.Knowledge is explained by the principle that elements in the things outside us are perceived by the corresponding elements in ourselves.", "Like is known by like.", "The whole body is full of pores and hence respiration takes place over the whole frame.", "In the organs of sense these pores are specially adapted to receive the effluences which are continually rising from bodies around us; thus perception occurs.", "In vision, certain particles go forth from the eye to meet similar particles given forth from the object, and the resultant contact constitutes vision.", "Perception is not merely a passive reflection of external objects.Empedocles also attempted to explain the phenomenon of respiration by means of an elaborate analogy with the clepsydra, an ancient device for conveying liquids from one vessel to another.", "This fragment has sometimes been connected to a passage in Aristotle's ''Physics'' where Aristotle refers to people who twisted wineskins and captured air in clepsydras to demonstrate that void does not exist.", "The fragment certainly implies that Empedocles knew about the corporeality of air, but he says nothing whatever about the void, and there is no evidence that Empedocles performed any experiment with clepsydras." ], [ "Writings", "The Strasbourg Empedocles papyrus contained over 50 lines from Empedocles' work ''On Nature'' that were not published until 1999.According to Diogenes Laertius, Empedocles wrote two poems, \"On Nature\" and \"On Purifications\", which together comprised 5000 lines.", "However, only some 550 lines of his poetry survive, quoted in fragments by later ancient sources.In old editions of Empedocles, about 450 lines were ascribed to \"On Nature\" which outlined his philosophical system, and explains not only the nature and history of the universe, including his theory of the four classical elements, but also theories on causation, perception, and thought, as well as explanations of terrestrial phenomena and biological processes.", "The other 100 lines were typically ascribed to his \"Purifications\", which was taken to be a poem about ritual purification, or the poem that contained all his religious and ethical thought, which early editors supposed that it was a poem that offered a mythical account of the world which may, nevertheless, have been part of Empedocles' philosophical system.A late 20th century discovery has changed this situation.", "The Strasbourg papyrus contains a large section of \"On Nature\", including many lines formerly attributed to \"On Purifications\".", "This has raised considerable debate about whether the surviving fragments of his teaching should be attributed to two separate poems, with different subject matter; whether they may all derive from one poem with two titles; or whether one title refers to part of the whole poem." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Ancient Testimony ===*=== References ===************ *===Further reading===**********" ], [ "External links", "* Empedokles: Fragments, translated by Arthur Fairbanks, 1898.", "* Empedocles by Jean-Claude Picot with an extended and updated bibliography* Empedocles: Fragments at demonax.info***" ] ]
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[ [ "Ericaceae" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Ericaceae''' () are a family of flowering plants, commonly known as the '''heath''' or '''heather family''', found most commonly in acidic and infertile growing conditions.", "The family is large, with c.4250 known species spread across 124 genera, making it the 14th most species-rich family of flowering plants.", "The many well known and economically important members of the Ericaceae include the cranberry, blueberry, huckleberry, rhododendron (including azaleas), and various common heaths and heathers (''Erica'', ''Cassiope'', ''Daboecia'', and ''Calluna'' for example)." ], [ "Description", "The Ericaceae contain a morphologically diverse range of taxa, including herbs, dwarf shrubs, shrubs, and trees.", "Their leaves are usually evergreen, alternate or whorled, simple and without stipules.", "Their flowers are hermaphrodite and show considerable variability.", "The petals are often fused (sympetalous) with shapes ranging from narrowly tubular to funnelform or widely urn-shaped.", "The corollas are usually radially symmetrical (actinomorphic) and urn-shaped, but many flowers of the genus ''Rhododendron'' are somewhat bilaterally symmetrical (zygomorphic).", "Anthers open by pores." ], [ "Taxonomy", "Michel Adanson used the term Vaccinia to describe a similar family, but first used the term Ericaceae.", "The name comes from the type genus ''Erica'', which appears to be derived from the Greek word ().", "The exact meaning is difficult to interpret, but some sources show it as meaning 'heather'.", "The name may have been used informally to refer to the plants before Linnaean times, and simply been formalised when Linnaeus described ''Erica'' in 1753, and then again when Jussieu described the Ericaceae in 1789.Historically, the Ericaceae included both subfamilies and tribes.", "In 1971, Stevens, who outlined the history from 1876 and in some instances 1839, recognised six subfamilies (Rhododendroideae, Ericoideae, Vaccinioideae, Pyroloideae, Monotropoideae, and Wittsteinioideae), and further subdivided four of the subfamilies into tribes, the Rhododendroideae having seven tribes (Bejarieae, Rhodoreae, Cladothamneae, Epigaeae, Phyllodoceae, and Diplarcheae).", "Within tribe Rhodoreae, five genera were described, ''Rhododendron'' L. (including ''Azalea'' L. pro parte), ''Therorhodion'' Small, ''Ledum'' L., ''Tsusiophyllum'' Max., ''Menziesia'' J. E. Smith, that were eventually transferred into ''Rhododendron'', along with Diplarche from the monogeneric tribe Diplarcheae.In 2002, systematic research resulted in the inclusion of the formerly recognised families Empetraceae, Epacridaceae, Monotropaceae, Prionotaceae, and Pyrolaceae into the Ericaceae based on a combination of molecular, morphological, anatomical, and embryological data, analysed within a phylogenetic framework.", "The move significantly increased the morphological and geographical range found within the group.", "One possible classification of the resulting family includes 9 subfamilies, 126 genera, and about 4000 species:*Enkianthoideae Kron, Judd & Anderberg (one genus, 16 species)*Pyroloideae Kosteltsky (4 genera, 40 species)*Monotropoideae Arnott (10 genera, 15 species)*Arbutoideae Niedenzu (up to six genera, about 80 species)*Cassiopoideae Kron & Judd (one genus, 12 species)*Ericoideae Link (19 genera, 1790 species)*Harrimanelloideae Kron & Judd (one species)*Epacridoideae Arn.", "(=Styphelioideae Sweet) (35 genera, 545 species)*Vaccinioideae Arnott (50 genera, 1580 species)=== Genera ===:See the full list at List of Ericaceae genera.Flowers of ''Daboecia cantabrica'', showing the typical fused, bell-shaped corolla" ], [ "Distribution and ecology", "The Ericaceae have a nearly worldwide distribution.", "They are absent from continental Antarctica, parts of the high Arctic, central Greenland, northern and central Australia, and much of the lowland tropics and neotropics.The family is largely composed of plants that can tolerate acidic, infertile, shady conditions.", "Due to their tolerance of acidic conditions, this plant family is also typical of peat bogs and blanket bogs; examples include ''Rhododendron groenlandicum'' and species in the genus ''Kalmia''.", "In eastern North America, members of this family often grow in association with an oak canopy, in a habitat known as an oak-heath forest.", "Plants in Ericaceae, especially species in ''Vaccinium'', rely on buzz pollination for successful pollination to occur.The majority of ornamental species from ''Rhododendron'' are native to East Asia, but most varieties cultivated today are hybrids.", "Most rhododendrons grown in the United States are cultivated in the Pacific Northwest.", "The United States is the top producer of both blueberries and cranberries, with the state of Maine growing the majority of lowbush blueberry.", "The wide distribution of genera within Ericaceae has led to situations in which there are both American and European plants with the same name - for example, blueberry: ''Vaccinium corymbosum'' in North America, and ''Vaccinium myrtillus'' in Europe; and cranberry: ''Vaccinium macrocarpon'' in America, and ''Vaccinium oxycoccos'' in Europe.=== Mycorrhizal relationships ===Like other stress-tolerant plants, many Ericaceae have mycorrhizal fungi to assist with extracting nutrients from infertile soils, as well as evergreen foliage to conserve absorbed nutrients.", "This trait is not found in the Clethraceae and Cyrillaceae, the two families most closely related to the Ericaceae.", "Most Ericaceae (excluding the Monotropoideae, and some Epacridoideae) form a distinctive accumulation of mycorrhizae, in which fungi grow in and around the roots and provide the plant with nutrients.", "The Pyroloideae are mixotrophic and gain sugars from the mycorrhizae, as well as nutrients.The cultivation of blueberries, cranberries, and wintergreen for their fruit and oils relies especially on these unique relationships with fungi, as a healthy mycorrhizal network in the soil helps the plants to resist environmental stresses that might otherwise damage crop yield.", "Ericoid mycorrhizae are responsible for a high rate of uptake of nitrogen, which causes naturally low levels of free nitrogen in ericoid soils.", "These mycorrhizal fungi may also increase the tolerance of Ericaceae to heavy metals in soil, and may cause plants to grow faster by producing phytohormones.=== Heathlands ===In many parts of the world, a \"heath\" or \"heathland\" is an environment characterised by an open dwarf-shrub community found on low-quality acidic soils, generally dominated by plants in Ericaceae.", "Heathlands are a broadly anthropogenic habitat, requiring regular grazing or burning to prevent succession.", "Heaths are particularly abundant - and constitute important cultural elements - in Norway, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Germany, Spain, Portugal, and other countries in Central and Western Europe.", "The most common examples of plants in Ericaceae which dominate heathlands are ''Calluna vulgaris'', ''Erica cineria'', ''Erica tetralix'', and ''Vaccinium myrtillus.", "''In heathland, plants in Ericaceae serve as host plants to the butterfly ''Plebejus argus''.", "Other insects, such as ''Saturnia pavonia'', ''Myrmeleotettix maculatus'', ''Metrioptera brachyptera'', and ''Picromerus bidens'' are closely associated with heathland environments.", "Reptiles thrive in heaths due to an abundance of sunlight and prey, and birds hunt the insects and reptiles which are present.Some evidence suggests eutrophic rainwater can convert ericoid heaths with species such as ''Erica tetralix'' to grasslands.", "Nitrogen is particularly suspect in this regard, and may be causing measurable changes to the distribution and abundance of some ericaceous species." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Ericaceae at ''The Plant List'' * Ericaceae, Epacridaceae , Empetraceae, Monotropaceae, and Pyrolaceae at ''The Families of Flowering Plants (DELTA)''* Ericaceae at the ''Encyclopedia of Life''* Ericaceae at the ''Angiosperm Phylogeny Website''* Ericaceae at the online ''Flora of North America''* Ericaceae at the online ''Flora of China''* Ericaceae at the online ''Flora of Pakistan''* Ericaceae at the online ''Flora of Chile''* Epacridaceae at the online ''Flora of New Zealand''* Epacridaceae at the online ''Flora of Western Australia'' * Ericaceae at Ericaceae.org* ''Ericaceae'' at Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants* Neotropical Blueberries at the New York Botanical Garden" ] ]
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[ [ "Electrical network" ], [ "Introduction", "A simple electric circuit made up of a voltage source and a resistor.", "Here, , according to Ohm's law.An '''electrical network''' is an interconnection of electrical components (e.g., batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches, transistors) or a model of such an interconnection, consisting of electrical elements (e.g., voltage sources, current sources, resistances, inductances, capacitances).", "An '''electrical circuit''' is a network consisting of a closed loop, giving a return path for the current.", "Thus all circuits are networks, but not all networks are circuits (although networks without a closed loop are often imprecisely referred to as \"circuits\").", "Linear electrical networks, a special type consisting only of sources (voltage or current), linear lumped elements (resistors, capacitors, inductors), and linear distributed elements (transmission lines), have the property that signals are linearly superimposable.", "They are thus more easily analyzed, using powerful frequency domain methods such as Laplace transforms, to determine DC response, AC response, and transient response.A '''resistive network''' is a network containing only resistors and ideal current and voltage sources.", "Analysis of resistive networks is less complicated than analysis of networks containing capacitors and inductors.", "If the sources are constant (DC) sources, the result is a DC network.", "The effective resistance and current distribution properties of arbitrary resistor networks can be modeled in terms of their graph measures and geometrical properties.A network that contains active electronic components is known as an ''electronic circuit''.", "Such networks are generally nonlinear and require more complex design and analysis tools." ], [ "Classification", "===By passivity===An active network contains at least one voltage source or current source that can supply energy to the network indefinitely.", "A passive network does not contain an active source.An active network contains one or more sources of electromotive force.", "Practical examples of such sources include a battery or a generator.", "Active elements can inject power to the circuit, provide power gain, and control the current flow within the circuit.Passive networks do not contain any sources of electromotive force.", "They consist of passive elements like resistors and capacitors.===By linearity===A network is linear if its signals obey the principle of superposition; otherwise it is non-linear.", "Passive networks are generally taken to be linear, but there are exceptions.", "For instance, an inductor with an iron core can be driven into saturation if driven with a large enough current.", "In this region, the behaviour of the inductor is very non-linear.===By lumpiness===Discrete passive components (resistors, capacitors and inductors) are called ''lumped elements'' because all of their, respectively, resistance, capacitance and inductance is assumed to be located (\"lumped\") at one place.", "This design philosophy is called the lumped-element model and networks so designed are called ''lumped-element circuits''.", "This is the conventional approach to circuit design.", "At high enough frequencies, or for long enough circuits (such as power transmission lines), the lumped assumption no longer holds because there is a significant fraction of a wavelength across the component dimensions.", "A new design model is needed for such cases called the distributed-element model.", "Networks designed to this model are called ''distributed-element circuits''.A distributed-element circuit that includes some lumped components is called a ''semi-lumped'' design.", "An example of a semi-lumped circuit is the combline filter." ], [ "Classification of sources", "Sources can be classified as independent sources and dependent sources.===Independent===An ideal independent source maintains the same voltage or current regardless of the other elements present in the circuit.", "Its value is either constant (DC) or sinusoidal (AC).", "The strength of voltage or current is not changed by any variation in the connected network.===Dependent===Dependent sources depend upon a particular element of the circuit for delivering the power or voltage or current depending upon the type of source it is." ], [ "Applying electrical laws", "A number of electrical laws apply to all linear resistive networks.", "These include:* Kirchhoff's current law: The sum of all currents entering a node is equal to the sum of all currents leaving the node.", "* Kirchhoff's voltage law: The directed sum of the electrical potential differences around a loop must be zero.", "* Ohm's law: The voltage across a resistor is equal to the product of the resistance and the current flowing through it.", "* Norton's theorem: Any network of voltage or current sources and resistors is electrically equivalent to an ideal current source in parallel with a single resistor.", "* Thévenin's theorem: Any network of voltage or current sources and resistors is electrically equivalent to a single voltage source in series with a single resistor.", "* Superposition theorem: In a linear network with several independent sources, the response in a particular branch when all the sources are acting simultaneously is equal to the linear sum of individual responses calculated by taking one independent source at a time.Applying these laws results in a set of simultaneous equations that can be solved either algebraically or numerically.", "The laws can generally be extended to networks containing reactances.", "They cannot be used in networks that contain nonlinear or time-varying components." ], [ "Design methods", "To design any electrical circuit, either analog or digital, electrical engineers need to be able to predict the voltages and currents at all places within the circuit.", "Simple linear circuits can be analyzed by hand using complex number theory.", "In more complex cases the circuit may be analyzed with specialized computer programs or estimation techniques such as the piecewise-linear model.Circuit simulation software, such as HSPICE (an analog circuit simulator), and languages such as VHDL-AMS and verilog-AMS allow engineers to design circuits without the time, cost and risk of error involved in building circuit prototypes." ], [ "Network simulation software", "More complex circuits can be analyzed numerically with software such as SPICE or GNUCAP, or symbolically using software such as SapWin.===Linearization around operating point===When faced with a new circuit, the software first tries to find a steady state solution, that is, one where all nodes conform to Kirchhoff's current law ''and'' the voltages across and through each element of the circuit conform to the voltage/current equations governing that element.Once the steady state solution is found, the ''operating points'' of each element in the circuit are known.", "For a small signal analysis, every non-linear element can be linearized around its operation point to obtain the small-signal estimate of the voltages and currents.", "This is an application of Ohm's Law.", "The resulting linear circuit matrix can be solved with Gaussian elimination.===Piecewise-linear approximation===Software such as the PLECS interface to Simulink uses piecewise-linear approximation of the equations governing the elements of a circuit.", "The circuit is treated as a completely linear network of ideal diodes.", "Every time a diode switches from on to off or vice versa, the configuration of the linear network changes.", "Adding more detail to the approximation of equations increases the accuracy of the simulation, but also increases its running time." ], [ "See also", "* Digital circuit* Ground (electricity)* Impedance* Load* Memristor* Open-circuit voltage* Short circuit* Voltage drop===Representation===* Circuit diagram* Schematic* Netlist===Design and analysis methodologies===* Network analysis (electrical circuits)* Mathematical methods in electronics* Superposition theorem* Topology (electronics)* Mesh analysis* Prototype filter===Measurement===* Network analyzer (electrical)* Network analyzer (AC power)* Continuity test===Analogies===* Hydraulic analogy* Mechanical–electrical analogies* Impedance analogy (Maxwell analogy)* Mobility analogy (Firestone analogy)* Through and across analogy (Trent analogy)===Specific topologies===* Bridge circuit* LC circuit* RC circuit* RL circuit* RLC circuit* Potential divider* Series and parallel circuits" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Euler (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leonhard Euler''' (1707–1783) was a Swiss mathematician and physicist.", "'''Euler''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Euler (programming language), a computer programming language* Euler (software), a numerical software package* EulerOS, a Linux operating system based distribution* Euler Portal to Mathematics Publications, hosted by EMIS* Euler-Werke, an aircraft manufacturer owned by August Euler.", "* AMS Euler, a typeface* Project Euler a series of challenging mathematical/computer programming problems" ], [ "Other uses", "* Euler (surname)* Euler Hermes, a global credit insurance company* EULAR, European rheumatology organization* Euler jump, an edge jump in figure skating* Euler (crater), a lunar impact crater in the southern half of the Mare Imbrium" ], [ "See also", "* List of things named after Leonhard Euler* Euller (disambiguation)* Oiler (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Empty set" ], [ "Introduction", "The empty set is the set containing no elements.In mathematics, the '''empty set''' is the unique set having no elements; its size or cardinality (count of elements in a set) is zero.", "Some axiomatic set theories ensure that the empty set exists by including an axiom of empty set, while in other theories, its existence can be deduced.", "Many possible properties of sets are vacuously true for the empty set.Any set other than the empty set is called non-empty.In some textbooks and popularizations, the empty set is referred to as the \"null set\".", "However, null set is a distinct notion within the context of measure theory, in which it describes a set of measure zero (which is not necessarily empty)." ], [ "Notation", "A symbol for the empty setCommon notations for the empty set include \"{ }\", \"\", and \"∅\".", "The latter two symbols were introduced by the Bourbaki group (specifically André Weil) in 1939, inspired by the letter Ø in the Danish and Norwegian alphabets.", "In the past, \"0\" (the numeral zero) was occasionally used as a symbol for the empty set, but this is now considered to be an improper use of notation.The symbol ∅ is available at Unicode point U+2205.It can be coded in HTML as and as .", "It can be coded in LaTeX as .", "The symbol is coded in LaTeX as .When writing in languages such as Danish and Norwegian, where the empty set character may be confused with the alphabetic letter Ø (as when using the symbol in linguistics), the Unicode character U+29B0 REVERSED EMPTY SET ⦰ may be used instead." ], [ "Properties", "In standard axiomatic set theory, by the principle of extensionality, two sets are equal if they have the same elements (that is, neither of them has an element not in the other).", "As a result, there can be only one set with no elements, hence the usage of \"the empty set\" rather than \"an empty set\".The only subset of the empty set is the empty set itself; equivalently, the power set of the empty set is the set containing only the empty set.", "The number of elements of the empty set (i.e., its cardinality) is zero.", "The empty set is the only set with either of these properties.For any set ''A'':* The empty set is a subset of ''A''* The union of ''A'' with the empty set is ''A''* The intersection of ''A'' with the empty set is the empty set* The Cartesian product of ''A'' and the empty set is the empty setFor any property ''P'':* For every element of , the property ''P'' holds (vacuous truth).", "* There is no element of for which the property ''P'' holds.Conversely, if for some property ''P'' and some set ''V'', the following two statements hold:* For every element of ''V'' the property ''P'' holds* There is no element of ''V'' for which the property ''P'' holdsthen By the definition of subset, the empty set is a subset of any set ''A''.", "That is, element ''x'' of belongs to ''A''.", "Indeed, if it were not true that every element of is in ''A'', then there would be at least one element of that is not present in ''A''.", "Since there are elements of at all, there is no element of that is not in ''A''.", "Any statement that begins \"for every element of \" is not making any substantive claim; it is a vacuous truth.", "This is often paraphrased as \"everything is true of the elements of the empty set.", "\"In the usual set-theoretic definition of natural numbers, zero is modelled by the empty set.=== Operations on the empty set ===When speaking of the sum of the elements of a finite set, one is inevitably led to the convention that the sum of the elements of the empty set is zero.", "The reason for this is that zero is the identity element for addition.", "Similarly, the product of the elements of the empty set should be considered to be one (see empty product), since one is the identity element for multiplication.A derangement is a permutation of a set without fixed points.", "The empty set can be considered a derangement of itself, because it has only one permutation (), and it is vacuously true that no element (of the empty set) can be found that retains its original position." ], [ "In other areas of mathematics", "=== Extended real numbers ===Since the empty set has no member when it is considered as a subset of any ordered set, every member of that set will be an upper bound and lower bound for the empty set.", "For example, when considered as a subset of the real numbers, with its usual ordering, represented by the real number line, every real number is both an upper and lower bound for the empty set.", "When considered as a subset of the extended reals formed by adding two \"numbers\" or \"points\" to the real numbers (namely negative infinity, denoted which is defined to be less than every other extended real number, and positive infinity, denoted which is defined to be greater than every other extended real number), we have that: andThat is, the least upper bound (sup or supremum) of the empty set is negative infinity, while the greatest lower bound (inf or infimum) is positive infinity.", "By analogy with the above, in the domain of the extended reals, negative infinity is the identity element for the maximum and supremum operators, while positive infinity is the identity element for the minimum and infimum operators.=== Topology ===In any topological space ''X'', the empty set is open by definition, as is ''X''.", "Since the complement of an open set is closed and the empty set and ''X'' are complements of each other, the empty set is also closed, making it a clopen set.", "Moreover, the empty set is compact by the fact that every finite set is compact.The closure of the empty set is empty.", "This is known as \"preservation of nullary unions.", "\"=== Category theory ===If is a set, then there exists precisely one function from to the empty function.", "As a result, the empty set is the unique initial object of the category of sets and functions.The empty set can be turned into a topological space, called the empty space, in just one way: by defining the empty set to be open.", "This empty topological space is the unique initial object in the category of topological spaces with continuous maps.", "In fact, it is a strict initial object: only the empty set has a function to the empty set.=== Set theory ===In the von Neumann construction of the ordinals, 0 is defined as the empty set, and the successor of an ordinal is defined as .", "Thus, we have , , , and so on.", "The von Neumann construction, along with the axiom of infinity, which guarantees the existence of at least one infinite set, can be used to construct the set of natural numbers, , such that the Peano axioms of arithmetic are satisfied." ], [ "Questioned existence", "=== Historical issues ===In the context of sets of real numbers, Cantor used to denote \" contains no single point\".", "This notation was utilized in definitions, for example Cantor defined two sets as being disjoint if their intersection has an absence of points, however it is debatable whether Cantor viewed as an existent set on its own, or if Cantor merely used as an emptiness predicate.", "Zermelo accepted itself as a set, but considered it an \"improper set\".=== Axiomatic set theory ===In Zermelo set theory, the existence of the empty set is assured by the axiom of empty set, and its uniqueness follows from the axiom of extensionality.", "However, the axiom of empty set can be shown redundant in at least two ways:*Standard first-order logic implies, merely from the logical axioms, that exists, and in the language of set theory, that thing must be a set.", "Now the existence of the empty set follows easily from the axiom of separation.", "*Even using free logic (which does not logically imply that something exists), there is already an axiom implying the existence of at least one set, namely the axiom of infinity.=== Philosophical issues ===While the empty set is a standard and widely accepted mathematical concept, it remains an ontological curiosity, whose meaning and usefulness are debated by philosophers and logicians.The empty set is not the same thing as ; rather, it is a set with nothing it and a set is always .", "This issue can be overcome by viewing a set as a bag—an empty bag undoubtedly still exists.", "Darling (2004) explains that the empty set is not nothing, but rather \"the set of all triangles with four sides, the set of all numbers that are bigger than nine but smaller than eight, and the set of all opening moves in chess that involve a king.", "\"The popular syllogism:Nothing is better than eternal happiness; a ham sandwich is better than nothing; therefore, a ham sandwich is better than eternal happinessis often used to demonstrate the philosophical relation between the concept of nothing and the empty set.", "Darling writes that the contrast can be seen by rewriting the statements \"Nothing is better than eternal happiness\" and \"A ham sandwich is better than nothing\" in a mathematical tone.", "According to Darling, the former is equivalent to \"The set of all things that are better than eternal happiness is \" and the latter to \"The set {ham sandwich} is better than the set \".", "The first compares elements of sets, while the second compares the sets themselves.Jonathan Lowe argues that while the empty set:was undoubtedly an important landmark in the history of mathematics, … we should not assume that its utility in calculation is dependent upon its actually denoting some object.it is also the case that::\"All that we are ever informed about the empty set is that it (1) is a set, (2) has no members, and (3) is unique amongst sets in having no members.", "However, there are very many things that 'have no members', in the set-theoretical sense—namely, all non-sets.", "It is perfectly clear why these things have no members, for they are not sets.", "What is unclear is how there can be, uniquely amongst sets, a which has no members.", "We cannot conjure such an entity into existence by mere stipulation.", "\"George Boolos argued that much of what has been heretofore obtained by set theory can just as easily be obtained by plural quantification over individuals, without reifying sets as singular entities having other entities as members." ], [ "See also", "* * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Halmos, Paul, ''Naive Set Theory''.", "Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1960.Reprinted by Springer-Verlag, New York, 1974.", "(Springer-Verlag edition).", "Reprinted by Martino Fine Books, 2011.", "(paperback edition).", "**" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Egoism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Egoism''' is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or , as the motivation and goal of one's own action.", "Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms.", "That is, they may be interested in either describing that people ''do'' act in self-interest or prescribing that they ''should''.", "Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self-interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism.The ''New Catholic Encyclopedia'' states of egoism that it \"incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable.\"", "The moral censure of self-interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations.", "Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology, though, for example, this is not present in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche." ], [ "Overview", "The term egoism is derived from the French , from the Latin (first person singular personal pronoun; \"I\") with the French (\"-ism\").=== Descriptive theories ===The descriptive variants of egoism are concerned with self-regard as a factual description of human motivation and, in its furthest application, that all human motivation stems from the desires and interest of the ego.", "In these theories, action which is self-regarding may be simply termed ''egoistic''.The position that people ''tend'' to act in their own self-interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that ''all'' motivations are rooted in an ultimately self-serving psyche.", "That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self-serving.", "Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will.", "Also interesting is \"autoism\" as in \"autistic psychopathy\".", "In contrast to this and philosophical egoism, biological egoism (also called evolutionary egoism) describes motivations rooted solely in reproductive self-interest (i.e.", "reproductive fitness).", "Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self-interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour.=== Normative theories ===Theories which hold egoism to be normative stipulate that the ego ought to promote its own interests above other values.", "Where this ought is held to be a pragmatic judgment it is termed rational egoism and where it is held to be a moral judgment it is termed ethical egoism.", "The ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states that \"ethical egoism might also apply to things other than acts, such as rules or character traits\" but that such variants are uncommon.", "Furthermore, conditional egoism is a consequentialist form of ethical egoism which holds that egoism is morally right if it leads to morally acceptable ends.", "John F. Welsh, in his work ''Max Stirner's Dialectical Egoism: A New Interpretation'', coins the term dialectical egoism to describe an interpretation of the egoist philosophy of Max Stirner as being fundamentally dialectical.Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non-restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued.", "Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others." ], [ "Theoreticians", "=== Stirner ====== Nietzsche ===The philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche has been linked to forms of both descriptive and normative egoism.", "Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them.", "He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.In his ''On the Genealogy of Morals'', Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments.", "In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ''ressentiment'' of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal.", "This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others.", "He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others.Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states ''in the same book'' that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as \"a conscious Ego who commands mental states\".=== Other theoreticians ===* Jeremy Bentham, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism* Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevskii, a Russian literary critic and philosopher of nihilism and rational egoism* Aleister Crowley, who popularized the expression \"Do what thou wilt\"* Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)* Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism* John Henry Mackay, a British-German egoist anarchist* Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism* Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations* Dmitry Ivanovich Pisarev, a Russian literary critic and philosopher of nihilism and rational egoism* Ayn Rand, who supported an egoistic model of capitalist self-incentive and selfishness* Max Stirner, whose views were described by John F. Welsh as \"dialectical egoism\"* Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist* James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner* John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos." ], [ "Relation to altruism", "In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , ) as an antonym for egoism.", "In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self-regard must be replaced with only the regard for others.While Friedrich Nietzsche does not view altruism as a suitable antonym for egoism, Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other.", "For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit.", "Nietzsche, rather than rejecting the practice of altruism, warns that despite there being neither much altruism nor equality in the world, there is almost universal endorsement of their value and, notoriously, even by those who are its worst enemies in practice.", "Egoist philosophy commonly views the subordination of the self to altruism as either a form of domination that limits freedom, an unethical or irrational principle, or an extension of some egoistic root cause.In evolutionary theory, biological altruism is the observed occurrence of an organism acting to the benefit of others at the cost of its own reproductive fitness.", "While biological egoism does grant that an organism may act to the benefit of others, it describes only such when in accordance with reproductive self-interest.", "Kin altruism and selfish gene theory are examples of this division.", "On biological altruism, the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states: \"Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self-interest alone.", "One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be ''non''-selfish, in the psychological sense.\"", "This is a central topic within contemporary discourse of psychological egoism." ], [ "Relation to nihilism", "The history of egoist thought has often overlapped with that of nihilism.", "For example, Max Stirner's rejection of absolutes and abstract concepts often places him among the first philosophical nihilists.", "The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought.", "The ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, \"Stirner is clearly committed to the non-nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others.", "His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement.\"", "Stirner's nihilism may instead be understood as cosmic nihilism.", "Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism.", "Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism.Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it.", "In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world.", "The ''Stanford Encyclopedia'' states that Stirner's historical analyses serve to \"undermine historical narratives which portray the modern development of humankind as the progressive realisation of freedom, but also to support an account of individuals in the modern world as increasingly oppressed\".", "This critique of humanist discourses especially has linked Stirner to more contemporary poststructuralist thought." ], [ "Political egoism", "Since normative egoism rejects the moral obligation to subordinate the ego to society-at-large or a ruling class, it may be predisposed to certain political implications.", "The ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states:In contrast with this however, such an ethic may not morally obligate against the egoistic exercise of power over others.", "On these grounds, Friedrich Nietzsche criticizes egalitarian morality and political projects as unconducive to the development of human excellence.", "Max Stirner's own conception, the union of egoists as detailed in his work ''The Ego and Its Own'', saw a proposed form of societal relations whereby limitations on egoistic action are rejected.", "When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism.Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not.", "Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.", "In contrast to this, Ayn Rand incorporates capitalist property rights into her egoist theory.=== Revolutionary politics ===Egoist philosopher Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevskii was the dominant intellectual figure behind the 1860–1917 revolutionary movement in Russia, which resulted in the assassination of Tsar Alexander II eight years before his death in 1889.Dmitry Pisarev was a similarly radical influence within the movement, though he did not personally advocate political revolution.Philosophical egoism has also found wide appeal among anarchist revolutionaries and thinkers, such as John Henry Mackay, Benjamin Tucker, Émile Armand, Han Ryner Gérard de Lacaze-Duthiers, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Giménez Igualada, and Lev Chernyi.", "Though he did not involve in any revolutionary movements himself, the entire school of individualist anarchism owes much of its intellectual heritage to Max Stirner.Egoist philosophy may be misrepresented as a principally revolutionary field of thought.", "However, neither Hobbesian nor Nietzschean theories of egoism approve of political revolution.", "Anarchism and revolutionary socialism were also strongly rejected by Ayn Rand and her followers.=== Fascism ===The philosophies of both Nietzsche and Stirner were heavily appropriated by fascist and proto-fascist ideologies.", "Nietzsche in particular has infamously been represented as a predecessor to Nazism and a substantial academic effort was necessary to disassociate his ideas from their aforementioned appropriation." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Endomorphism" ], [ "Introduction", "Orthogonal projection onto a line, , is a linear operator on the plane.", "This is an example of an endomorphism that is not an automorphism.In mathematics, an '''endomorphism''' is a morphism from a mathematical object to itself.", "An endomorphism that is also an isomorphism is an automorphism.", "For example, an endomorphism of a vector space is a linear map , and an endomorphism of a group is a group homomorphism .", "In general, we can talk about endomorphisms in any category.", "In the category of sets, endomorphisms are functions from a set ''S'' to itself.In any category, the composition of any two endomorphisms of is again an endomorphism of .", "It follows that the set of all endomorphisms of forms a monoid, the full transformation monoid, and denoted (or to emphasize the category )." ], [ "Automorphisms", "An invertible endomorphism of is called an automorphism.", "The set of all automorphisms is a subset of with a group structure, called the automorphism group of and denoted .", "In the following diagram, the arrows denote implication: Automorphism ⇒ Isomorphism ⇓ ⇓ Endomorphism ⇒ (Homo)morphism" ], [ "Endomorphism rings", "Any two endomorphisms of an abelian group, , can be added together by the rule .", "Under this addition, and with multiplication being defined as function composition, the endomorphisms of an abelian group form a ring (the endomorphism ring).", "For example, the set of endomorphisms of is the ring of all matrices with integer entries.", "The endomorphisms of a vector space or module also form a ring, as do the endomorphisms of any object in a preadditive category.", "The endomorphisms of a nonabelian group generate an algebraic structure known as a near-ring.", "Every ring with one is the endomorphism ring of its regular module, and so is a subring of an endomorphism ring of an abelian group; however there are rings that are not the endomorphism ring of any abelian group." ], [ "Operator theory", "In any concrete category, especially for vector spaces, endomorphisms are maps from a set into itself, and may be interpreted as unary operators on that set, acting on the elements, and allowing the notion of element orbits to be defined, etc.Depending on the additional structure defined for the category at hand (topology, metric, ...), such operators can have properties like continuity, boundedness, and so on.", "More details should be found in the article about operator theory." ], [ "Endofunctions", "An '''endofunction''' is a function whose domain is equal to its codomain.", "A homomorphic endofunction is an endomorphism.Let be an arbitrary set.", "Among endofunctions on one finds permutations of and constant functions associating to every in the same element in .", "Every permutation of has the codomain equal to its domain and is bijective and invertible.", "If has more than one element, a constant function on has an image that is a proper subset of its codomain, and thus is not bijective (and hence not invertible).", "The function associating to each natural number the floor of has its image equal to its codomain and is not invertible.Finite endofunctions are equivalent to directed pseudoforests.", "For sets of size there are endofunctions on the set.Particular examples of bijective endofunctions are the involutions; i.e., the functions coinciding with their inverses." ], [ "See also", "*Adjoint endomorphism*Epimorphism (surjective homomorphism)*Frobenius endomorphism*Monomorphism (injective homomorphism)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eric Hoffer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eric Hoffer''' (July 25, 1902 – May 21, 1983) was an American moral and social philosopher.", "He was the author of ten books and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in February 1983.His first book, ''The True Believer'' (1951), was widely recognized as a classic, receiving critical acclaim from both scholars and laymen, although Hoffer believed that ''The Ordeal of Change'' (1963) was his finest work.", "The Eric Hoffer Book Award is an international literary prize established in his honor.", "The University of California, Berkeley awards an annual literary prize named jointly for Hoffer." ], [ "Early life", "Many elements of Hoffer's early life are in doubt and never verified, but in autobiographical statements, Hoffer claimed to have been born in 1902 in The Bronx, New York City, New York, to Knut and Elsa (Goebel) Hoffer.", "His parents were immigrants from Alsace, then part of Imperial Germany.", "By age five, Hoffer could already read in both English and his parents' native German.", "When he was five, his mother fell down the stairs with him in her arms.", "He later recalled, \"I lost my sight at the age of seven.", "Two years before, my mother and I fell down a flight of stairs.", "She did not recover and died in that second year after the fall.", "I lost my sight and, for a time, my memory.\"", "Hoffer spoke with a pronounced German accent all his life, and spoke the language fluently.", "He was raised by a live-in relative or servant, a German immigrant named Martha.", "His eyesight inexplicably returned when he was 15.Fearing he might lose it again, he seized on the opportunity to read as much as he could.", "His recovery proved permanent, but Hoffer never abandoned his reading habit.Hoffer was a young man when he also lost his father.", "The cabinetmaker's union paid for Knut Hoffer's funeral and gave Hoffer about $300 insurance money.", "He took a bus to Los Angeles and spent the next 10 years wandering, as he remembered, “up and down the land, dodging hunger and grieving over the world.” Hoffer eventually landed on Skid Row, reading, occasionally writing, and working at odd jobs.In 1931, he considered suicide by drinking a solution of oxalic acid, but he could not bring himself to do it.", "He left Skid Row and became a migrant worker, following the harvests in California.", "He acquired a library card where he worked, dividing his time \"between the books and the brothels.\"", "He also prospected for gold in the mountains.", "Snowed in for the winter, he read the ''Essays'' by Michel de Montaigne.", "Montaigne impressed Hoffer deeply, and Hoffer often made reference to him.", "He also developed a respect for America's underclass, which he said was \"lumpy with talent.\"" ], [ "Career", "He wrote a novel, ''Four Years in Young Hank's Life,'' and a novella, ''Chance and Mr. Kunze,'' both partly autobiographical.", "He also penned a long article based on his experiences in a federal work camp, \"Tramps and Pioneers.\"", "It was never published, but a truncated version appeared in ''Harper's Magazine'' after he became well known.Hoffer tried to enlist in the U.S. Army at age 40 during World War II, but he was rejected due to a hernia.", "Instead, he began work as a longshoreman on the docks of San Francisco in 1943.At the same time, he began to write seriously.Hoffer left the docks in 1964, and shortly after became an adjunct professor at the University of California, Berkeley.", "He later retired from public life in 1970.“I'm going to crawl back into my hole where I started,” he said.", "“I don't want to be a public person or anybody's spokesman... Any man can ride a train.", "Only a wise man knows when to get off.” In 1970, he endowed the Lili Fabilli and Eric Hoffer Laconic Essay Prize for students, faculty, and staff at the University of California, Berkeley.Hoffer called himself an atheist but had sympathetic views of religion and described it as a positive force.He died at his home in San Francisco in 1983 at the age of 80." ], [ "Working-class roots", "Hoffer was influenced by his modest roots and working-class surroundings, seeing in it vast human potential.", "In a letter to Margaret Anderson in 1941, he wrote: \"My writing is done in railroad yards while waiting for a freight, in the fields while waiting for a truck, and at noon after lunch.", "Towns are too distracting.\"", "He once remarked, \"my writing grows out of my life just as a branch from a tree.\"", "When he was called an intellectual, he insisted that he simply was a longshoreman.", "Hoffer has been dubbed by some authors a \"longshoreman philosopher.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "Hoffer, who was an only child, never married.", "He fathered a child with Lili Fabilli Osborne, named Eric Osborne, who was born in 1955 and raised by Lili Osborne and her husband, Selden Osborne.", "Lili Fabilli Osborne had become acquainted with Hoffer through her husband, a fellow longshoreman and acquaintance of Hoffer's.", "Despite this, Selden Osborne and Hoffer remained on good terms.Hoffer referred to Eric Osborne as his son or godson.", "Lili Fabilli Osborne died in 2010 at the age of 93.Prior to her death, Osborne was the executor of Hoffer's estate, and vigorously controlled the rights to his intellectual property.In his 2012 book ''Eric Hoffer: The Longshoreman Philosopher,'' journalist Tom Bethell revealed doubts about Hoffer's account of his early life.", "Although Hoffer claimed his parents were from Alsace-Lorraine, Hoffer himself spoke with a pronounced Bavarian accent.", "He claimed to have been born and raised in the Bronx but had no Bronx accent.", "His lover and executor Lili Fabilli stated that she always thought Hoffer was an immigrant.", "Her son, Eric Fabilli, said that Hoffer's life might have been comparable to that of B. Traven and considered hiring a genealogist to investigate Hoffer's early life, to which Hoffer reportedly replied, \"Are you ''sure'' you want to know?\"", "Pescadero land-owner Joe Gladstone, a family friend of the Fabilli's who also knew Hoffer, said of Hoffer's account of his early life: \"I don't believe a word of it.\"", "To this day, no one ever has claimed to have known Hoffer in his youth, and no records apparently exist of his parents, nor indeed of Hoffer himself until he was about forty, when his name appeared in a census." ], [ "Books and opinions", "===''The True Believer''===Hoffer came to public attention with the 1951 publication of his first book, ''The True Believer: Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements'', which consists of a preface and 125 sections, which are divided into 18 chapters.", "Hoffer analyzes the phenomenon of \"mass movements,\" a general term that he applies to revolutionary parties, nationalistic movements, and religious movements.", "He summarizes his thesis in §113: \"A movement is pioneered by men of words, materialized by fanatics and consolidated by men of actions.", "\"Hoffer argues that fanatical and extremist cultural movements, whether religious, social, or national, arise when large numbers of frustrated people, believing their own individual lives to be worthless or spoiled, join a movement demanding radical change.", "But the real attraction for this population is an escape from the self, not a realization of individual hopes: \"A mass movement attracts and holds a following not because it can satisfy the desire for self-advancement, but because it can satisfy the passion for self-renunciation.", "\"Hoffer consequently argues that the appeal of mass movements is interchangeable: in the Germany of the 1920s and the 1930s, for example, the Communists and National Socialists were ostensibly enemies, but sometimes enlisted each other's members, since they competed for the same kind of marginalized, angry, frustrated people.", "For the \"true believer,\" Hoffer argues that particular beliefs are less important than escaping from the burden of the autonomous self.Harvard historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. said of ''The True Believer'': \"This brilliant and original inquiry into the nature of mass movements is a genuine contribution to our social thought.", "\"===Later works===Subsequent to the publication of ''The True Believer'' (1951), Eric Hoffer touched upon Asia and American interventionism in several of his essays.", "In \"The Awakening of Asia\" (1954), published in ''The Reporter'' and later his book ''The Ordeal of Change'' (1963), Hoffer discusses the reasons for unrest on the continent.", "In particular, he argues that the root cause of social discontent in Asia was not government corruption, \"communist agitation,\" or the legacy of European colonial \"oppression and exploitation,\" but rather that a \"craving for pride\" was the central problem in Asia, suggesting a problem that could not be relieved through typical American intervention.During the Vietnam War, despite his objections to the antiwar movement and acceptance of the notion that the war was somehow necessary to prevent a third world war, Hoffer remained skeptical concerning American interventionism, specifically the intelligence with which the war was being conducted in Southeast Asia.", "After the United States became involved in the war, Hoffer wished to avoid defeat in Vietnam because of his fear that such a defeat would transform American society for ill, opening the door to those who would preach a stab-in-the-back myth and allow for the rise of an American version of Hitler.In ''The Temper of Our Time'' (1967), Hoffer implies that the United States as a rule should avoid interventions in the first place: \"the better part of statesmanship might be to know clearly and precisely what not to do, and leave action to the improvisation of chance.\"", "In fact, Hoffer indicates that \"it might be wise to wait for enemies to defeat themselves,\" as they might fall upon each other with the United States out of the picture.", "The view was somewhat borne out with the Cambodian-Vietnamese War and Chinese-Vietnamese War of the late 1970s." ], [ "Papers", "Hoffer's papers, including 131 of the notebooks he carried in his pockets, were acquired in 2000 by the Hoover Institution Archives.", "The papers fill of shelf space.", "Because Hoffer cultivated an aphoristic style, the unpublished notebooks (dated from 1949 to 1977) contain very significant work.", "Although available for scholarly study since at least 2003, little of their contents has been published.", "A selection of fifty aphorisms, focusing on the development of unrealized human talents through the creative process, appeared in the July 2005 issue of ''Harper's Magazine''." ], [ "Published works", ":1951 ''The True Believer: Thoughts On The Nature of Mass Movements''.", ":1955 ''The Passionate State of Mind, and Other Aphorisms''.", ":1963 ''The Ordeal of Change''.", ":1967 ''The Temper of Our Time''.", ":1968 ''Nature and The City'':1969 ''Working and Thinking on the Waterfront: A Journal, June 1958 to May 1959'':1971 ''First Things, Last Things'':1973 ''Reflections on the Human Condition''.", ":1976 ''In Our Time'':1979 ''Before the Sabbath'':1982 ''Between the Devil and the Dragon: The Best Essays and Aphorisms of Eric Hoffer''.", ":1983 ''Truth Imagined''." ], [ "Interviews", "* ''Conversations with Eric Hoffer'', twelve-part television interview by James Day of KQED, San Francisco, 1963.", "* \"Eric Hoffer: The Passionate State of Mind\" with Eric Sevareid, CBS, September 19, 1967 (re-broadcast on November 14, due to popular demand).", "* \"The Savage Heart: A Conversation with Eric Hoffer,\" with Eric Sevareid, CBS, January 28, 1969." ], [ "Awards and recognition", "* 1971, May – Honorary Doctorate; Stonehill College* 1971, June – Honorary Doctorate; Michigan Technological University* 1978 – Bust of Eric Hoffer by sculptor Jonathan Hirschfeld; commissioned by Charles Kittrell and placed in Bartlesville, Oklahoma* 1983, February 13 – Presidential Medal of Freedom awarded by Ronald Reagan* 1985, September 17 – Skygate unveiling in San Francisco; dedication speech by Eric Sevareid" ], [ "See also", "* American philosophy* List of American philosophers* Ivan Ilyin* Eric Voegelin" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''American Iconoclast: The Life and Times of Eric Hoffer'', Shachtman, Tom, Titusville, NJ, Hopewell Publications, 2011..* ''Hoffer's America'', Koerner, James D., La Salle, Ill., Library Press, 1973 * ''Eric Hoffer'', Baker, James Thomas.", "Boston : Twayne, 1982 Twayne's United States authors series* ''Eric Hoffer: The Longshoreman Philosopher'', Bethell, Tom, Stanford, CA, Hoover Institution Press, 2012" ], [ "External links", "* * The Eric Hoffer Project, preserving the legacy of Eric Hoffer" ] ]
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[ [ "European Coal and Steel Community" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Coal and Steel Community''' ('''ECSC''') was a European organization created after World War II to integrate Europe's coal and steel industries into a single common market based on the principle of supranationalism.", "It was formally established in 1951 by the Treaty of Paris, signed by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany.", "The organization's subsequent enlargement of both members and duties ultimately led to the creation of the European Union.The ECSC was first proposed via the Schuman Declaration by French foreign minister Robert Schuman on 9 May 1950 (commemorated in the EU as Europe Day), the day after the fifth anniversary of the end of World War II, to prevent another war between France and Germany.", "He declared \"the solidarity in production\" from pooling \"coal and steel production\" would make war between the two \"not only unthinkable but materially impossible\".", "The Treaty created a common market among member states that stipulated free movement of goods (without customs duties or taxes) and prohibited states from introducing unfair competitive or discriminatory practices.Its terms were enforced by four institutions: a High Authority composed of independent appointees, a Common Assembly composed of national parliamentarians, a Special Council composed of national ministers, and a Court of Justice.", "These would ultimately form the blueprint for today's European Commission, European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, and the Court of Justice of the European Union, respectively.The ECSC set an example for the pan-European organizations created by the Treaty of Rome in 1957: the European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy Community, with whom it shared its membership and some institutions.", "The 1967 Merger (Brussels) Treaty merged the ECSC's institutions into the European Economic Community, but the former retained its own independent legal personality until the Treaty of Paris expired in 2002, leaving its activities fully absorbed by the European Community under the frameworks of the Treaties of Amsterdam and Nice." ], [ "History", "As Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Schuman was instrumental in turning French policy away from the Gaullist objective of permanent occupation or control of parts of German territory such as the Ruhr or the Saar.", "Despite stiff ultra-nationalist, Gaullist and communist opposition, the French Assembly voted a number of resolutions in favour of his new policy of integrating Germany into a community.", "The International Authority for the Ruhr changed in consequence.===Schuman declaration===The Schuman Declaration had the stated aim of preventing further antagonism between France and Germanyand among other European states by tackling the root cause of war through the establishment of common foundations for economic development.", "Schuman proposed the formation of the ECSC primarily with France and Germany in mind: \"The coming together of the nations of Europe requires the elimination of the age-old opposition of France and Germany.", "Any action taken must in the first place concern these two countries.\"", "Portraying the coal and steel industries as integral to the production of munitions,Schuman proposed that uniting these two industries across France and Germany under an innovative supranational system (that also included a European anti-cartel agency) would \"make war between France and Germany ... not only unthinkable but materially impossible\".===Negotiations===Following the Schuman Declaration in May 1950, negotiations on what became the Treaty of Paris (1951) began on 20 June 1950.The objective of the treaty was to create a single market in the coal and steel industries of the member states.", "Customs duties, subsidies, discriminatory and restrictive practices were all to be abolished.", "The single market was to be supervised by a High Authority, with powers to handle extreme shortages of supply or demand, to tax, and to prepare production forecasts as guidelines for investment.A key issue in the negotiations for the treaty was the break-up of the excessive concentrations in the coal and steel industries of the Ruhr, where the ''Konzerne'', or trusts, had underlain the military power of the former Reich.", "The Germans regarded the concentration of coal and steel as one of the bases of their economic efficiency, and a right.", "The steel barons were a formidable lobby because they embodied a national tradition.The US was not officially part of the treaty negotiations, but it was a major force behind the scenes.", "The US High Commissioner for Occupied Germany, John McCloy, was an advocate of decartelization and his chief advisor in Germany was a Harvard anti-trust lawyer, Robert Bowie.", "Bowie was asked to draft anti-trust articles, and texts of the two articles he prepared (on cartels and the abuse of monopoly power) became the basis of the treaty's competition policy regime.", "Also, Raymond Vernon (of later fame for his studies on industrial policy at Harvard university) was passing every clause of successive drafts of the treaty under his microscope down in the bowels of the State Department.", "He stressed the importance of the freedom of the projected common market from restrictive practices.The Americans insisted that the German coal sales monopoly, the ''Deutscher Kohlenverkauf'' (''DKV''), should lose its monopoly, and that the steel industries should no longer own the coalmines.", "It was agreed that the ''DKV'' would be broken up into four independent sales agencies.", "The steel firm ''Vereinigte Stahlwerke'' was to be divided into thirteen firms, and Krupp into two.", "Ten years after the Schuman negotiations, a US State Department official noted that while the articles as finally agreed were more qualified than American officials in touch with the negotiations would have wished, they were \"almost revolutionary\" in terms of the traditional European approach to these basic industries.===Political pressures and treaty ratification===In West Germany, Karl Arnold, the Minister President of North Rhine-Westphalia, the state that included the coal and steel producing Ruhr, was initially spokesman for German foreign affairs.", "He gave a number of speeches and broadcasts on a supranational coal and steel community at the same time as Robert Schuman began to propose this Community in 1948 and 1949.The Social Democratic Party of Germany (, SPD), in spite of support from unions and other socialists in Europe, decided it would oppose the Schuman plan.", "Kurt Schumacher's personal distrust of France, capitalism, and Konrad Adenauer aside, he claimed that a focus on integrating with a \"Little Europe of the Six\" would override the SPD's prime objective of German reunification and thus empower ultra-nationalist and Communist movements in democratic countries.", "He also thought the ECSC would end any hopes of nationalising the steel industry and lock in a Europe of \"cartels, clerics and conservatives\".", "Younger members of the party like Carlo Schmid, were, however, in favor of the Community and pointed to the long socialist support for the supranational idea.In France, Schuman had gained strong political and intellectual support from all sections of the nation and many non-communist parties.", "Notable amongst these were ministerial colleague Andre Philip, president of the Foreign Relations Committee Edouard Bonnefous, and former prime minister, Paul Reynaud.", "Projects for a coal and steel authority and other supranational communities were formulated in specialist subcommittees of the Council of Europe in the period before it became French government policy.", "Charles de Gaulle, who was then out of power, had been an early supporter of \"linkages\" between economies, on French terms, and had spoken in 1945 of a \"European confederation\" that would exploit the resources of the Ruhr.", "However, he opposed the ECSC as a ''faux'' (false) pooling (\"''le pool, ce faux semblant''\") because he considered it an unsatisfactory \"piecemeal approach\" to European unity and because he considered the French government \"too weak\" to dominate the ECSC as he thought proper.", "De Gaulle also felt that the ECSC had an insufficient supranational mandate because its Assembly was not ratified by a European referendum and he did not accept Raymond Aron's contention that the ECSC was intended as a movement away from United States domination.", "Consequently, de Gaulle and his followers in the RPF voted against ratification in the lower house of the French Parliament.Despite these attacks and those from the extreme left, the ECSC found substantial public support.", "It gained strong majority votes in all eleven chambers of the parliaments of the Six, as well as approval among associations and European public opinion.", "In 1950, many had thought another war was inevitable.", "The steel and coal interests, however, were quite vocal in their opposition.", "The Council of Europe, created by a proposal of Schuman's first government in May 1948, helped articulate European public opinion and gave the Community idea positive support.The UK Prime Minister Clement Attlee opposed Britain joining the proposed European Coal and Steel Community, saying that he 'would not accept the UK economy being handed over to an authority that is utterly undemocratic and is responsible to nobody.", "'===Treaty===leftThe 100-article Treaty of Paris, which established the ECSC, was signed on 18 April 1951 by \"the inner six\": France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.", "The ECSC was based on supranational principles and was, through the establishment of a common market for coal and steel, intended to expand the economy, increase employment, and raise the standard of living within the Community.", "The market was also intended to progressively rationalise the distribution of production whilst ensuring stability and employment.", "The common market for coal was opened on 10 February 1953, and for steel on 1 May 1953.Upon taking effect, the ECSC replaced the International Authority for the Ruhr.On 11 August 1952, the United States was the first non-ECSC member to recognise the Community and stated it would now deal with the ECSC on coal and steel matters, establishing its delegation in Brussels.", "Monnet responded by choosing Washington, D.C. as the site of the ECSC's first external presence.", "The headline of the delegation's first bulletin read \"Towards a Federal Government of Europe\".Six years after the Treaty of Paris, the Treaties of Rome were signed by the six ECSC members, creating the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom).", "These Communities were based, with some adjustments, on the ECSC.", "The Treaties of Rome were to be in force indefinitely, unlike the Treaty of Paris, which was to last for a renewable period of fifty years.", "These two new Communities worked on the creation of a customs union and nuclear power community respectively.===Merger Treaty and expiry===Despite being separate legal entities, the ECSC, EEC and Euratom initially shared the Common Assembly and the European Court of Justice, although the Councils and the High Authority/Commissions remained separate.", "To avoid duplication, the Merger Treaty merged these separate bodies of the ECSC and Euratom with the EEC.", "The EEC later became one of the three pillars of the present day European Union.The Treaty of Paris was frequently amended as the EC and EU evolved and expanded.", "With the treaty due to expire in 2002, debate began at the beginning of the 1990s on what to do with it.", "It was eventually decided that it should be left to expire.", "The areas covered by the ECSC's treaty were transferred to the Treaty of Rome and the financial loose ends and the ECSC research fund were dealt with via a protocol of the Treaty of Nice.", "The treaty finally expired on 23 July 2002.That day, the ECSC flag was lowered for the final time outside the European Commission in Brussels and replaced with the EU flag." ], [ "Institutions", "The institutions of the ECSC were the High Authority, the Common Assembly, the Special Council of Ministers and the Court of Justice.", "A Consultative Committee was established alongside the High Authority, as a fifth institution representing producers, workers, consumers and dealers (article 18).", "These institutions were merged in 1967 with those of the European Community, except for the Consultative Committee, which continued to be independent until the expiration of the Treaty of Paris in 2002.The Treaty stated that the location of the institutions would be decided by common accord of the members, yet the issue was hotly contested.", "As a temporary compromise, the institutions were provisionally located in the City of Luxembourg, while the Assembly was based in Strasbourg.===High Authority===High Authority in LuxembourgThe High Authority (the predecessor to the European Commission) was a nine-member executive body which governed the ECSC.", "The Authority consisted of nine members in office for a term of six years, appointed by the governments of the six signatories.", "Two were from each of France, Germany and Italy; and one from each of Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.", "These members appointed a person among themselves to be President of the High Authority.Despite being appointed by agreement of national governments acting together, the members were to pledge not to represent their national interest, but rather took an oath to defend the general interests of the Community as a whole.", "Their independence was aided by members being barred from having any occupation outside the Authority or having any business interests (paid or unpaid) during their tenure and for three years after they left office.", "To further ensure impartiality, one third of the membership was to be renewed every two years (article 10).The Authority had a broad area of competence to ensure the objectives of the treaty were met and that the common market functioned smoothly.", "The High Authority could issue three types of legal instruments: Decisions, which were entirely binding laws; Recommendations, which had binding aims but the methods were left to member states; and Opinions, which had no legal force.Up to the merger in 1967, the authority had five Presidents followed by an interim President serving for the final days.===Other institutions===The Common Assembly (the forerunner to the European Parliament) was composed of 78 representatives: 18 from each of France, Germany, and Italy; 10 from Belgium and the Netherlands; and 4 from Luxembourg (article 21).", "It exercised supervisory powers over the executive High Authority (article 20).", "The Common Assembly representatives were to be national MPs delegated each year by their Parliaments to the Assembly or directly elected \"by universal suffrage\" (article 21), though in practice it was the former, as there was no requirement for elections until the Treaties of Rome and no actual election until 1979, as Rome required agreement in the council on the electoral system first.", "However, to emphasise that the chamber was not a traditional international organisation composed of representatives of national governments, the Treaty of Paris used the term \"representatives of the peoples\".", "Some hoped the Community would use the institutions (Assembly, Court) of the Council of Europe, and The Treaty's ''Protocol on Relations with the Council of Europe'' encouraged links between the two institutions' assemblies.", "The ECSC Assembly was intended as a democratic counter-weight and check to the High Authority, to advise but also to have power to sack the Authority (article 24).", "The first President (akin to a Speaker) was Paul-Henri Spaak.The Special Council of Ministers (the forerunner to the Council of the European Union) was composed of representatives of national governments.", "The Presidency was held by each state for a period of three months, rotating between them in alphabetical order.", "One of its key aspects was the harmonisation of the work of the High Authority and that of national governments.", "The council was also required to issue opinions on certain areas of work of the High Authority.", "Issues relating only to coal and steel were in the exclusive domain of the High Authority, and in these areas the council (unlike the modern council) could only act as a scrutiny on the Authority.", "However, areas outside coal and steel required the consent of the council.The Court of Justice was to ensure the observation of ECSC law along with the interpretation and application of the Treaty.", "The Court was composed of seven judges, appointed by common accord of the national governments for six years.", "There were no requirements that the judges had to be of a certain nationality, simply that they be qualified and that their independence be beyond doubt.", "The Court was assisted by two Advocates General.The Consultative Committee (forerunner to the Economic and Social Committee) had between 30 and 51 members equally divided between producers, workers, consumers and dealers in the coal and steel sector (article 18).", "There were no national quotas, and the treaty required representatives of European associations to organise their own democratic procedures.", "They were to establish rules to make their membership fully representative for democratic organised civil society.", "Members were appointed for two years and were not bound by any mandate or instruction of the organisations which appointed them.", "The committee had a plenary assembly, bureau and president.", "Nomination of these members remained in the hands of the council.", "The High Authority was obliged to consult the committee in certain cases where it was appropriate and to keep it informed.", "The Consultative Committee remained separate (despite the merger of the other institutions) until 2002, when the Treaty expired and its duties were taken over by the Economic and Social Committee (ESC)." ], [ "Members", "The 15 ECSC (EU) members in 2002DateMembersMembers added23 July 19526The ''Inner Six'': Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands9Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom10Greece12Portugal and Spain1 January 199515Austria, Finland and SwedenAfter the original six members, the ESCS expanded to all members of the European Economic Community (later renamed the European Community) and the European Union (15 countries in 2002 at the time of the expiry of the Treaty of Paris)." ], [ "Achievements and shortcomings", "===Major Goal: ending war between Member States===Schuman described the goal as to \"make war not only unthinkable but materially impossible\" for signatory States.", "This is described in the treaty's preamble.", "It commences quoting the French Government Proposal of Schuman:\"World peace cannot be safeguarded without creative measures commensurate with the dangers which threaten it.\"", "Europe had been at the centre of world wars.", "For this the Community created the world's first international anti-cartel agency.", "Treaty Chapters VI ''Ententes et Concentrations'' and VII on the Free Market describe joint action against cartels and trusts which were instrumental in world war arms races, and activities leading to the disruption of the free market.The Six Founder Member States are now living in the longest period of peace in more than 2000 years of their histories.===Economic===The economic mission of the ECSC (article 2) was to \"contribute to economic expansion, the development of employment and the improvement of the standard of living in participating countries\".", "Writing in ''Le Monde'' in 1970, Gilbert Mathieu argued the Community had little effect on coal and steel ''production'', which was influenced more by global trends.", "From 1952, oil, gas, and electricity became competitors to coal, so the 28% reduction in the amount of coal mined in the Six had little connection with the Treaty of Paris.", "However, the Treaty caused costs to be reduced by the abolition of discriminatory railway tariffs, and this promoted trade between members: steel trade increased tenfold.", "The High Authority also issued 280 modernization loans which helped the industry to improve output and reduce costs.Mathieu claims the ECSC failed to achieve several fundamental aims of the Treaty of Paris.", "He argues that the \"pool\" did not prevent the resurgence of large coal and steel groups, such as the ''Konzerne'', which helped Adolf Hitler build his war machine.", "The cartels and major companies re-emerged, leading to apparent price fixing.", "Furthermore, the Community failed to define a common energy policy.", "Mathieu also argues the ECSC fell short of ensuring an upward equalisation of pay of workers within the industry.", "These failures could be put down to overambition in a short period of time, or that the goals were merely political posturing to be ignored.The ECSC's greatest achievements relate to welfare issues, according to Mathieu.", "Some miners had extremely poor housing and over 15 years the ECSC financed 112,500 flats for workers, paying US$1,770 per flat, enabling workers to buy a home they could not have otherwise afforded.", "The ECSC also paid half the occupational redeployment costs of those workers who had lost their jobs as coal and steel facilities began to close down.", "Combined with regional redevelopment aid the ECSC spent $150 million (835 million francs) creating around 100,000 jobs, a third of which were offered to unemployed coal and steel workers.", "The welfare guarantees invented by the ECSC were copied and extended by several of the Six to workers outside the coal and steel sectors.Far more important than creating Europe's first social and regional policy, Robert Schuman argued that the ECSC introduced European peace.", "It involved the continent's first European tax.", "This was a flat tax, a levy on production with a maximum rate of one percent.", "Given that the European Community countries are now experiencing the longest period of peace in more than seventy years, this has been described as the cheapest tax for peace in history.", "Another world war, or \"world suicide\" as Schuman called this threat in 1949, was avoided." ], [ "See also", "* Energy Community* Energy policy of the European Union* Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community* History of the European Union* History of the Ruhr District* Industrial plans for Germany* Monnet plan* Schuman Declaration* Supranationalism* Supranational union" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Documents of the European Coal and Steel Community are consultable at the Historical Archives of the EU in Florence* rtsp://rtsppress.cec.eu.int/Archive/video/mpeg/i000679/i000679.rm (insert address into RealPlayer) Common Destiny, a period film explaining the Coal and Steel Community, Europa (web portal)* Treaty constituting the European Coal and Steel Community, CVCE* Schuman info* The institutions of the European Coal and Steel Community, CVCE* Ruhr Delegation of the United States of America, Council of Foreign Ministers American Embassy Moscow, 24 March 1947 , Truman Library" ] ]
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