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[ [ "European Economic Community" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Economic Community''' ('''EEC''') was a regional organisation created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957, aiming to foster economic integration among its member states.", "It was subsequently renamed the '''European Community''' ('''EC''') upon becoming integrated into the first pillar of the newly formed European Union in 1993.In the popular language, however, the singular ''European Community'' was sometimes inaccurately used in the wider sense of the plural ''European Communities'', in spite of the latter designation covering all the three constituent entities of the first pillar.In 2009, the EC formally ceased to exist and its institutions were directly absorbed by the EU.", "This made the Union the formal successor institution of the Community.The Community's initial aim was to bring about economic integration, including a common market and customs union, among its six founding members: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany.", "It gained a common set of institutions along with the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) as one of the European Communities under the 1965 Merger Treaty (Treaty of Brussels).", "In 1993 a complete single market was achieved, known as the internal market, which allowed for the free movement of goods, capital, services, and people within the EEC.", "In 1994 the internal market was formalised by the EEA agreement.", "This agreement also extended the internal market to include most of the member states of the European Free Trade Association, forming the European Economic Area, which encompasses 15 countries.Upon the entry into force of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993, the EEC was renamed the '''European Community''' to reflect that it covered a wider range than economic policy.", "This was also when the three European Communities, including the EC, were collectively made to constitute the first of the three pillars of the European Union, which the treaty also founded.", "The EC existed in this form until it was abolished by the 2009 Treaty of Lisbon, which incorporated the EC's institutions into the EU's wider framework and provided that the EU would \"replace and succeed the European Community\".The EEC was also known as the '''European Common Market''' in the English-speaking countries and sometimes referred to as the '''European Community''' even before it was officially renamed as such in 1993." ], [ "History", "===Background===In April 1951, the Treaty of Paris was signed, creating the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).", "This was an international community based on supranationalism and international law, designed to help the economy of Europe and prevent future war by integrating its members.With the aim of creating a federal Europe two further communities were proposed: a European Defence Community and a European Political Community.", "While the treaty for the latter was being drawn up by the Common Assembly, the ECSC parliamentary chamber, the proposed defence community was rejected by the French Parliament.", "ECSC President Jean Monnet, a leading figure behind the communities, resigned from the High Authority in protest and began work on alternative communities, based on economic integration rather than political integration.", "Following the Messina Conference in 1955, Paul-Henri Spaak was given the task to prepare a report on the idea of a customs union.", "The so-called Spaak Report of the Spaak Committee formed the cornerstone of the intergovernmental negotiations at Val Duchesse conference centre in 1956.Together with the Ohlin Report the Spaak Report would provide the basis for the Treaty of Rome.In 1956, Paul-Henri Spaak led the Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom at the Val Duchesse conference centre, which prepared for the Treaty of Rome in 1957.The conference led to the signature, on 25 March 1957, of the Treaty of Rome establishing a European Economic Community.===Creation and early years===The resulting communities were the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM or sometimes EAEC).", "These were markedly less supranational than the previous communities, due to protests from some countries that their sovereignty was being infringed (however there would still be concerns with the behaviour of the Hallstein Commission).", "Germany became a founding member of the EEC, and Konrad Adenauer was made leader in a very short time.", "The first formal meeting of the Hallstein Commission was held on 16 January 1958 at the Chateau de Val-Duchesse.", "The EEC (direct ancestor of the modern Community) was to create a customs union while Euratom would promote co-operation in the nuclear power sphere.", "The EEC rapidly became the most important of these and expanded its activities.", "The first move towards political developments came at the end of 1959 when the foreign ministers of the six members announced that would be meeting quarterly to discuss political issues and international problems.", "One of the first important accomplishments of the EEC was the establishment (1962) of common price levels for agricultural products.", "In 1968, internal tariffs (tariffs on trade between member nations) were removed on certain products.French President Charles de Gaulle vetoed British membership, held back the development of Parliament's powers and was at the centre of the 'empty chair crisis' of 1965.Another crisis was triggered in regard to proposals for the financing of the Common Agricultural Policy, which came into force in 1962.The transitional period whereby decisions were made by unanimity had come to an end, and majority-voting in the council had taken effect.", "Then-French President Charles de Gaulle's opposition to supranationalism and fear of the other members challenging the CAP led to an \"empty chair policy\" whereby French representatives were withdrawn from the European institutions until the French veto was reinstated.", "Eventually, a compromise was reached with the Luxembourg compromise on 29 January 1966 whereby a gentlemen's agreement permitted members to use a veto on areas of national interest.On 1 July 1967 when the Merger Treaty came into operation, combining the institutions of the ECSC and Euratom into that of the EEC, they already shared a Parliamentary Assembly and Courts.", "Collectively they were known as the ''European Communities''.", "The Communities still had independent personalities although were increasingly integrated.", "Future treaties granted the community new powers beyond simple economic matters which had achieved a high level of integration.", "As it got closer to the goal of political integration and a peaceful and united Europe, what Mikhail Gorbachev described as a ''Common European Home''.===Enlargement and elections===The 1960s saw the first attempts at enlargement.", "In 1961, Denmark, Ireland, the United Kingdom and Norway (in 1962), applied to join the three Communities.", "However, President Charles de Gaulle saw British membership as a Trojan Horse for U.S. influence and vetoed membership, and the applications of all four countries were suspended.", "Greece became the first country to join the EC in 1961 as an associate member, however its membership was suspended in 1967 after a coup d'état established a military dictatorship called the Regime of the Colonels.A year later, in February 1962, Spain attempted to join the European Community.", "However, because Francoist Spain was not a democracy, all members rejected the request in 1964.The four countries resubmitted their applications on 11 May 1967 and with Georges Pompidou succeeding Charles de Gaulle as French president in 1969, the veto was lifted.", "Negotiations began in 1970 under the pro-European UK government of Edward Heath, who had to deal with disagreements relating to the Common Agricultural Policy and the UK's relationship with the Commonwealth of Nations.", "Nevertheless, two years later the accession treaties were signed so that Denmark, Ireland and the UK joined the Community effective 1 January 1973.The Norwegian people had rejected membership in a referendum on 25 September 1972.The Treaties of Rome had stated that the European Parliament must be directly elected, however this required the Council to agree on a common voting system first.", "The Council procrastinated on the issue and the Parliament remained appointed, French President Charles de Gaulle was particularly active in blocking the development of the Parliament, with it only being granted Budgetary powers following his resignation.Parliament pressured for agreement and on 20 September 1976 the Council agreed part of the necessary instruments for election, deferring details on electoral systems which remain varied to this day.", "During the tenure of President Jenkins, in June 1979, the elections were held in all the then-members (see 1979 European Parliament election).", "The new Parliament, galvanised by direct election and new powers, started working full-time and became more active than the previous assemblies.Shortly after its election, the Parliament proposed that the Community adopt the flag of Europe design used by the Council of Europe.", "The European Council in 1984 appointed an ''ad hoc'' committee for this purpose.", "The European Council in 1985 largely followed the Committee's recommendations, but as the adoption of a flag was strongly reminiscent of a national flag representing statehood, was controversial, the \"flag of Europe\" design was adopted only with the status of a \"logo\" or \"emblem\".The European Council, or European summit, had developed since the 1960s as an informal meeting of the Council at the level of heads of state.", "It had originated from then-French President Charles de Gaulle's resentment at the domination of supranational institutions (e.g.", "the Commission) over the integration process.", "It was mentioned in the treaties for the first time in the Single European Act (see below).Enlargement, 1957 to 2013===Toward Maastricht===Greece re-applied to join the community on 12 June 1975, following the restoration of democracy, and joined on 1 January 1981.Following on from Greece, and after their own democratic restoration, Spain and Portugal applied to the communities in 1977 and joined together on 1 January 1986.In 1987, Turkey formally applied to join the Community and began the longest application process for any country.With the prospect of further enlargement, and a desire to increase areas of co-operation, the Single European Act was signed by the foreign ministers on 17 and 28 February 1986 in Luxembourg and The Hague respectively.", "In a single document it dealt with reform of institutions, extension of powers, foreign policy cooperation and the single market.", "It came into force on 1 July 1987.The act was followed by work on what would be the Maastricht Treaty, which was agreed on 10 December 1991, signed the following year and coming into force on 1 November 1993 establishing the European Union, and paving the way for the European Monetary Union.===European Community===The EU absorbed the European Communities as one of its three pillars.", "The EEC's areas of activities were enlarged and were renamed the ''European Community'', continuing to follow the supranational structure of the EEC.", "The EEC institutions became those of the EU, however the Court, Parliament and Commission had only limited input in the new pillars, as they worked on a more intergovernmental system than the European Communities.", "This was reflected in the names of the institutions, the Council was formally the \"Council of the ''European Union''\" while the Commission was formally the \"Commission of the ''European Communities''\".There are more competencies listed in Article 3 of the European Communities pillar than there are in Article 3 of the Treaty of Rome.", "This is due to the fact that some competencies were already inherent in the Treaty of Tome, some were referred to in the Treaty of Rome, and some were extended under Article 235 of the Treaty of Rome.", "Competencies were added to cover trans-European networks, and the work of the Culture Committee and Education Committee that were previously sharing existing competencies.", "The only entry in Article 3 that represented something new is the competence covering the entry and movement of persons in the internal market.", "However, after the Treaty of Maastricht, Parliament gained a more formal role.", "Maastricht brought in the codecision procedure, which gave it equal legislative power with the Council on Community matters.", "This replaced the informal parliamentary blocking powers established by the 1979 Isoglucose decision.", "It also abolished any existing state like Simple Majority voting in the EEC, replacing it with Qualified Majority Voting, a procedure more commonly used in international organisations.", "The Treaty of Amsterdam transferred responsibility for free movement of persons (e.g., visas, illegal immigration, asylum) from the Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) pillar to the European Community (JHA was renamed Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC) as a result).", "Both Amsterdam and the Treaty of Nice also extended codecision procedure to nearly all policy areas, giving Parliament equal power to the Council in the Community.In 2002, the Treaty of Paris which established the ECSC expired, having reached its 50-year limit (as the first treaty, it was the only one with a limit).", "No attempt was made to renew its mandate; instead, the Treaty of Nice transferred certain of its elements to the Treaty of Rome and hence its work continued as part of the EC area of the European Community's remit.After the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009 the pillar structure ceased to exist.", "The European Community, together with its legal personality, was absorbed into the newly consolidated European Union which merged in the other two pillars (however Euratom remained distinct).", "This was originally proposed under the European Constitution but that treaty failed ratification in 2005." ], [ "Aims and achievements", "The main aim of the EEC, as stated in its preamble, was to \"preserve peace and liberty and to lay the foundations of an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe\".", "Calling for balanced economic growth, this was to be accomplished through:# The establishment of a customs union with a common external tariff# Common policies for agriculture, transport and trade, including standardization (for example, the CE marking designates standards compliance)# Enlargement of the EEC to the rest of EuropeCiting Article 2 from the original text of the Treaty of Rome of the 25th of March 1957, the EEC aimed at \"a harmonious development of economic activities, a continuous and balanced expansion, an increase in stability, an accelerated raising of the standard of living and closer relations between the States belonging to it\".", "Given the fear of the Cold War, many Western Europeans were afraid that poverty would make \"the population vulnerable to communist propaganda\" (Meurs 2018, p. 68), meaning that increasing prosperity would be beneficial to harmonise power between the Western and Eastern blocs, other than reconcile Member States such as France and Germany after WW2.The tasks entrusted to the Community were divided among an assembly, the European Parliament, Council, Commission, and Court of Justice.", "Moreover, restrictions to market were lifted to further liberate trade among Member States.", "Citizens of Member States (other than goods, services, and capital) were entitled to freedom of movement.", "The CAP, Common Agricultural Policy, regulated and subsided the agricultural sphere.", "A European Social Fund was implemented in favour of employees who lost their jobs.", "A European Investment Bank was established to \"facilitate the economic expansion of the Community by opening up fresh resources\" (Art.", "3 Treaty of Rome 3/25/1957).", "All these implementations included overseas territories.", "Competition was to be kept alive to make products cheaper for European consumers.For the customs union, the treaty provided for a 10% reduction in custom duties and up to 20% of global import quotas.", "Progress on the customs union proceeded much faster than the twelve years planned.", "However, France faced some setbacks due to their war with Algeria." ], [ "Members", "The six states that founded the EEC and the other two Communities were known as the \"inner six\" (the \"outer seven\" were those countries who formed the European Free Trade Association).", "The six were France, West Germany, Italy and the three Benelux countries: Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.", "The first enlargement was in 1973, with the accession of Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom.", "Greece, Spain and Portugal joined in the 1980s.", "The former East Germany became part of the EEC upon German reunification in 1990.Following the creation of the EU in 1993, it has enlarged to include an additional sixteen countries by 2013.Flag State Accession Language(s) Currency Population(1990) Belgium Dutch, French and German Franc (fr.)", "France French Franc (F) West Germany/Germany German Mark (DM) Italy Italian Lira (Lit.)", "Luxembourg French, German and Luxembourgish Franc (fr.)", "Netherlands Dutch and Frisian Guilder (ƒ) Denmark Danish Krone (kr.)", "Ireland Irish and English Punt (£) United Kingdom English Sterling (£) Greece Greek Drachma (₯) Portugal Portuguese Escudo (15px) Spain Spanish Peseta (₧) Member states are represented in some form in each institution.", "The Council is also composed of one national minister who represents their national government.", "Each state also has a right to one European Commissioner each, although in the European Commission they are not supposed to represent their national interest but that of the Community.", "Prior to 2004, the larger members (France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom) have had two Commissioners.", "In the European Parliament, members are allocated a set number seats related to their population, however these (since 1979) have been directly elected and they sit according to political allegiance, not national origin.", "Most other institutions, including the European Court of Justice, have some form of national division of its members." ], [ "Institutions", "There were three political institutions which held the executive and legislative power of the EEC, plus one judicial institution and a fifth body created in 1975.These institutions (except for the auditors) were created in 1957 by the EEC but from 1967 onwards they applied to all three Communities.", "The Council represents the state governments, the Parliament represents citizens and the Commission represents the European interest.", "Essentially, the Council, Parliament or another party place a request for legislation to the Commission.", "The Commission then drafts this and presents it to the Council for approval and the Parliament for an opinion (in some cases it had a veto, depending upon the legislative procedure in use).", "The Commission's duty is to ensure it is implemented by dealing with the day-to-day running of the Union and taking others to Court if they fail to comply.", "After the Maastricht Treaty in 1993, these institutions became those of the European Union, though limited in some areas due to the pillar structure.", "Despite this, Parliament in particular has gained more power over legislation and security of the Commission.", "The Court of Justice was the highest authority in the law, settling legal disputes in the Community, while the Auditors had no power but to investigate.===Background===The High Authority had more executive powers than the Commission which replaced it.The EEC inherited some of the Institutions of the ECSC in that the Common Assembly and Court of Justice of the ECSC had their authority extended to the EEC and Euratom in the same role.", "However the EEC, and Euratom, had different executive bodies to the ECSC.", "In place of the ECSC's Council of Ministers was the Council of the European Economic Community, and in place of the High Authority was the Commission of the European Communities.There was greater difference between these than name: the French government of the day had grown suspicious of the supranational power of the High Authority and sought to curb its powers in favour of the intergovernmental style Council.", "Hence the Council had a greater executive role in the running of the EEC than was the situation in the ECSC.", "By virtue of the Merger Treaty in 1967, the executives of the ECSC and Euratom were merged with that of the EEC, creating a single institutional structure governing the three separate Communities.", "From here on, the term ''European Communities'' were used for the institutions (for example, from ''Commission of the European Economic Community'' to the ''Commission of the European Communities'').===Council===President Jacques Delors, the last EEC Commission PresidentThe Council of the European Communities was a body holding legislative and executive powers and was thus the main decision making body of the Community.", "Its Presidency rotated between the member states every six months and it is related to the European Council, which was an informal gathering of national leaders (started in 1961) on the same basis as the Council.The Council was composed of one national minister from each member state.", "However the Council met in various forms depending upon the topic.", "For example, if agriculture was being discussed, the Council would be composed of each national minister for agriculture.", "They represented their governments and were accountable to their national political systems.", "Votes were taken either by majority (with votes allocated according to population) or unanimity.", "In these various forms they share some legislative and budgetary power of the Parliament.", "Since the 1960s the Council also began to meet informally at the level of heads of government and heads of state; these European summits followed the same presidency system and secretariat as the Council but was not a formal formation of it.===Commission===The Commission of the European Communities was the executive arm of the community, drafting Community law, dealing with the day to running of the Community and upholding the treaties.", "It was designed to be independent, representing the interest of the Community as a whole.", "Every member state submitted one commissioner (two from each of the larger states, one from the smaller states).", "One of its members was the President, appointed by the Council, who chaired the body and represented it.===Parliament===The European Parliament held its first elections in 1979, slowly gaining more influence over Community decision making.Under the Community, the European Parliament (formerly the European Parliamentary Assembly) had an advisory role to the Council and Commission.", "There were a number of Community legislative procedures, at first there was only the consultation procedure, which meant Parliament had to be consulted, although it was often ignored.", "The Single European Act gave Parliament more power, with the assent procedure giving it a right to veto proposals and the cooperation procedure giving it equal power with the Council if the Council was not unanimous.In 1970 and 1975, the Budgetary treaties gave Parliament power over the Community budget.", "The Parliament's members, up-until 1980 were national MPs serving part-time in the Parliament.", "The Treaties of Rome had required elections to be held once the Council had decided on a voting system, but this did not happen and elections were delayed until 1979 (see 1979 European Parliament election).", "After that, Parliament was elected every five years.", "In the following 20 years, it gradually won co-decision powers with the Council over the adoption of legislation, the right to approve or reject the appointment of the Commission President and the Commission as a whole, and the right to approve or reject international agreements entered into by the Community.===Court===The Court of Justice of the European Communities was the highest court of on matters of Community law and was composed of one judge per state with a president elected from among them.", "Its role was to ensure that Community law was applied in the same way across all states and to settle legal disputes between institutions or states.", "It became a powerful institution as Community law overrides national law.===Auditors===The fifth institution is the ''European Court of Auditors''.", "Its ensured that taxpayer funds from the Community budget had been correctly spent by the Community's institutions.", "The ECA provided an audit report for each financial year to the Council and Parliament and gave opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud actions.", "It is the only institution not mentioned in the original treaties, having been set up in 1975." ], [ "Policy areas", "At the time of its abolition, the European Community pillar covered the following areas;* Asylum policy* Border control* Common Agricultural Policy* Common Fisheries Policy* Competition* Consumer protection* Customs union and Single market* Economic and monetary union* Education and Culture* Employment* Environmental law* EU Citizenship* Healthcare* Immigration policy* Research* Schengen treaty* Social policy* Trade policy* Trans-European Networks" ], [ "See also", "* Economy of the European Union* Brussels and the European Union* Delors Commission* European Commission* European Customs Information Portal* European institutions in Strasbourg* History of the European Communities (1958–1972)* History of the European Communities (1973–1993)* Institutional seats of the European Union* Snake in the tunnel" ], [ "EU evolution timeline" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Acocella, Nicola (1992), ''Trade and direct investment within the EC: The impact of strategic considerations'', in: Cantwell, John (ed.", "), ''Multinational investment in modern Europe'', E. Elgar, Cheltenham, .", "* Balassa, Bela (1962).", "''The Theory of Economic Integration''.", "* * Etzioni, Amitai.", "1964.", "\"European Unification: A Strategy of Change\".", "''World Politics'' 16(1): 32-51.", "* Hallstein, Walter (1962).", "''A New Path to Peaceful Union''.", "* Milward, Alan S. (1992).", "''The European Rescue of the Nation-State''.", "* Moravcsik, Andrew (1998).", "''The Choice for Europe.", "Social Purpose and State Power from Messina to Maastricht'', .", "* Ludlow, N. Piers (2006).", "''The European Community and the Crises of the 1960s.", "Negotiating the Gaullist Challenge'', .", "* Warlouzet, Laurent (2018).", "''Governing Europe in a Globalizing World.", "Neoliberalism and its Alternatives following the 1973 Oil Crisis'', .===Primary sources===* Bliss, Howard, ed.", "''The political development of the European Community: a documentary collection'' (Blaisdell, 1969).", "* Monnet, Jean.", "''Prospect for a New Europe'' (1959).", "* Schuman, Robert.", "''French Policy towards Germany since the war'' (Oxford University Press, 1954).", "* Spaak, Paul-Henri.", "''The Continuing Battle: Memories of a European'' (1971)." ], [ "External links", "* EEC on the UK Parliament website* European Union website* Documents of the European Economic Community are consultable at the Historical Archives of the EU in Florence* Treaty establishing the European Economic Community on CVCE website* History of the Rome Treaties on CVCE website* Papers of J. Robert Schaetzel, ambassador to European Economic Community, 1966–1972, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library* European Customs Information Portal (ECIP)* The history of the European Union" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "EFTA (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''EFTA''' is the European Free Trade Association, a trade organisation and free trade area.", "'''EFTA''' may also refer to:* European Fair Trade Association, an association of eleven fair trade importers* European Federation of Taiwanese Associations" ], [ "See also", "* Free trade areas in Europe* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European Free Trade Association" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Free Trade Association''' ('''EFTA''') is a regional trade organization and free trade area consisting of four European states: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.", "The organization operates in parallel with the European Union (EU), and all four member states participate in the European Single Market and are part of the Schengen Area.", "They are not, however, party to the European Union Customs Union.EFTA was historically one of the two dominant western European trade blocs, but is now much smaller and closely associated with its historical competitor, the European Union.", "It was established on 3 May 1960 to serve as an alternative trade bloc for those European states that were unable or unwilling to join the then European Economic Community (EEC), the main predecessor of the EU.", "The Stockholm Convention (1960), to establish the EFTA, was signed on 4 January 1960 in the Swedish capital by seven countries (known as the \"outer seven\": Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom).", "A revised Convention, the Vaduz Convention, was signed on 21 June 2001 and entered into force on 1 June 2002.Since 1995, only two founding members remain, namely Norway and Switzerland.", "The other five, Austria, Denmark, Portugal, Sweden and the United Kingdom, had joined the EU at some point in the intervening years.", "The initial Stockholm Convention was superseded by the Vaduz Convention, which aimed to provide a successful framework for continuing the expansion and liberalization of trade, both among the organization's member states and with the rest of the world.Whilst the EFTA is not a customs union and member states have full rights to enter into bilateral third-country trade arrangements, it does have a coordinated trade policy.", "As a result, its member states have jointly concluded free trade agreements with the EU and a number of other countries.", "To participate in the EU's single market, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway are parties to the Agreement on a European Economic Area (EEA), with compliances regulated by the EFTA Surveillance Authority and the EFTA Court.", "Switzerland has a set of multilateral agreements with the EU and its member states instead." ], [ "Membership", "===History===leftOn 12 January 1960, the Convention establishing the European Free Trade Association was initiated in the Golden Hall of the Stockholm City Hall.", "This established the progressive elimination of customs duties on industrial products, but did not affect agricultural or fisheries products.The main difference between the early EEC and the EFTA was that the latter did not operate common external customs tariffs unlike the former: each EFTA member was free to establish its individual customs duties against, or its individual free trade agreements with, non-EFTA countries.The founding members of the EFTA were: Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.", "During the 1960s, these countries were often referred to as the \"Outer Seven\", as opposed to the Inner Six of the then European Economic Community (EEC).Finland became an associate member in 1961 and a full member in 1986, and Iceland joined in 1970.The United Kingdom and Denmark joined the EEC in 1973 and hence ceased to be EFTA members.", "Portugal also left EFTA for the European Community in 1986.Liechtenstein joined the EFTA in 1991 (previously its interests had been represented by Switzerland).", "Austria, Sweden, and Finland joined the EU in 1995 and thus ceased to be EFTA members.Twice, in 1972 and in 1994, the Norwegian government had tried to join the EU (still the EEC, in 1973) and by doing so, leave the EFTA.", "However, both the times, the membership of the EU was rejected in national referendums, keeping Norway in the EFTA.", "Iceland applied for EU membership in 2009 due to the 2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis, but has since dropped its bid.===Current members===left Contracting party Accession Population() Area Capital GDP GDP per capita Reykjavík Vaduz Oslo Bern ===Former members===Finnish post stamp about the trade union concluded between Finland and EFTA, or the so-called FINEFTA agreementStateAccessionLeft EFTAJoined EEC/EU (withdrew )===Other negotiations===Members of the European Union (blue) andEFTA (green)Between 1994 and 2011, EFTA memberships for Andorra, San Marino, Monaco, the Isle of Man, Turkey, Israel, Morocco, and other European Neighbourhood Policy partners were discussed.====Andorra, Monaco, and San Marino====In November 2012, after the Council of the European Union had called for an evaluation of the EU's relations with Andorra, Monaco, and San Marino, which they described as \"fragmented\", the European Commission published a report outlining the options for their further integration into the EU.", "Unlike Liechtenstein, which is a member of the EEA via the EFTA and the Schengen Agreement, relations with these three states are based on a collection of agreements covering specific issues.", "The report examined four alternatives to the current situation: # A Sectoral Approach with separate agreements with each state covering an entire policy area.", "# A comprehensive, multilateral Framework Association Agreement (FAA) with the three states.", "# EEA membership, and # EU membership.", "However, the Commission argued that the sectoral approach did not address the major issues and was still needlessly complicated, while EU membership was dismissed in the near future because \"the EU institutions are currently not adapted to the accession of such small-sized countries\".", "The remaining options, EEA membership and a FAA with the states, were found to be viable and were recommended by the commission.", "In response, the Council requested that negotiations with the three microstates on further integration continue, and that a report be prepared by the end of 2013 detailing the implications of the two viable alternatives and recommendations on how to proceed.As EEA membership is currently only open to EFTA or EU member states, the consent of existing EFTA member states is required for the microstates to join the EEA without becoming members of the EU.", "In 2011, Jonas Gahr Støre, then Foreign Minister of Norway which is an EFTA member state, said that EFTA/EEA membership for the microstates was not the appropriate mechanism for their integration into the internal market due to their different requirements from those of larger countries such as Norway, and suggested that a simplified association would be better suited for them.", "Espen Barth Eide, Støre's successor, responded to the commission's report in late 2012 by questioning whether the microstates have sufficient administrative capabilities to meet the obligations of EEA membership.", "However, he stated that Norway would be open to the possibility of EFTA membership for the microstates if they decided to submit an application, and that the country had not made a final decision on the matter.", "Pascal Schafhauser, the Counsellor of the Liechtenstein Mission to the EU, said that Liechtenstein, another EFTA member state, was willing to discuss EEA membership for the microstates provided their joining did not impede the functioning of the organization.", "However, he suggested that the option of direct membership in the EEA for the microstates, outside of both the EFTA and the EU, should be considered.", "On 18 November 2013, the EU Commission concluded that \"the participation of the small-sized countries in the EEA is not judged to be a viable option at present due to the political and institutional reasons\", and that Association Agreements were a more feasible mechanism to integrate the microstates into the internal market.====Norway====The Norwegian electorate had rejected treaties of accession to the EU in two referendums.", "At the time of the first referendum in 1972, their neighbour, Denmark joined.", "Since the second referendum in 1994, two other Nordic neighbours, Sweden and Finland, have joined the EU.", "The last two governments of Norway have not advanced the question, as they have both been coalition governments consisting of proponents and opponents of EU membership.====Switzerland====Since Switzerland rejected the EEA membership in a referendum in 1992, more referendums on EU membership have been initiated, the last time being in 2001.These were all rejected.", "Switzerland has been in a customs union with fellow EFTA member state and neighbour Liechtenstein since 1924.====Iceland====On 16 July 2009, the government of Iceland formally applied for EU membership, but the negotiation process was suspended in mid-2013, and in 2015 the foreign ministers wrote to withdraw its application.====Faroe Islands (Kingdom of Denmark)====Denmark was a founding member of EFTA in 1960, but its membership ended in 1973, when it joined the European Communities.", "The autonomous territories of the Kingdom of Denmark were covered by Denmark's EFTA membership: Greenland from 1961 and the Faroe Islands from 1968.In mid-2005, representatives of the Faroe Islands raised the possibility of their territory re-joining the EFTA.", "Because Article 56 of the EFTA Convention only allows sovereign states to become members of the EFTA, the Faroes considered the possibility that the \"Kingdom of Denmark in respect of the Faroes\" could join the EFTA on their behalf.", "The Danish Government has stated that this mechanism would not allow the Faroes to become a member of the EEA because Denmark was already a party to the EEA Agreement.The Faroes already have an extensive bilateral free trade agreement with Iceland, known as the Hoyvík Agreement.====United Kingdom====The United Kingdom was a co-founder of EFTA in 1960, but ceased to be a member upon joining the European Economic Community.", "The country held a referendum in 2016 on withdrawing from the EU (popularly referred to as \"Brexit\"), resulting in a 51.9% vote in favour of withdrawing.", "A 2013 research paper presented to the Parliament of the United Kingdom proposed a number of alternatives to EU membership which would continue to allow it access to the EU's internal market, including continuing EEA membership as an EFTA member state, or the Swiss model of a number of bilateral treaties covering the provisions of the single market.In the first meeting since the Brexit vote, EFTA reacted by saying both that they were open to a UK return, and that Britain has many issues to work through.", "The president of Switzerland Johann Schneider-Ammann stated that its return would strengthen the association.", "However, in August 2016 the Norwegian Government expressed reservations.", "Norway's European affairs minister, Elisabeth Vik Aspaker, told the ''Aftenposten'' newspaper: \"It's not certain that it would be a good idea to let a big country into this organization.", "It would shift the balance, which is not necessarily in Norway's interests.", "\"In late 2016, the Scottish First Minister said that her priority was to keep the whole of the UK in the European single market but that taking Scotland alone into the EEA was an option being \"looked at\".", "However, other EFTA states have stated that only sovereign states are eligible for membership, so it could only join if it became independent from the UK, unless the solution scouted for the Faroes in 2005 were to be adopted (see above).In early 2018, British MPs Antoinette Sandbach, Stephen Kinnock and Stephen Hammond all called for the UK to rejoin EFTA." ], [ "Relationship with the European Union: the European Economic Area", "In 1992, the EU, its member states, and the EFTA member states signed the Agreement on the European Economic Area in Porto, Portugal.", "However, the proposal that Switzerland ratify its participation was rejected by referendum.", "(Nevertheless, Switzerland has multiple bilateral treaties with the EU that allow it to participate in the European Single Market, the Schengen Agreement and other programmes).", "Thus, except for Switzerland, the EFTA members are also members of the European Economic Area (EEA).", "The EEA comprises three member states of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and 27 member states of the European Union (EU), including Croatia which the agreement is provisionally applied to, pending its ratification by all contracting parties.", "It was established on 1 January 1994 following an agreement with the European Economic Community (which had become the European Community two months earlier).", "It allows the EFTA-EEA states to participate in the EU's Internal Market without being members of the EU.", "They adopt almost all EU legislation related to the single market, except laws on agriculture and fisheries.", "However, they also contribute to and influence the formation of new EEA relevant policies and legislation at an early stage as part of a formal decision-shaping process.", "One EFTA member, Switzerland, has not joined the EEA but has a series of bilateral agreements, including a free trade agreement, with the EU.The following table summarises the various components of EU laws applied in the EFTA countries and their sovereign territories.", "Some territories of EU member states also have a special status in regard to EU laws applied as is the case with some European microstates.+ and territories Application EURATOM European Defence Agency Schengen area EU VAT area EU Customs Union EU single market Eurozone , ISK , VAT area, customs territory, CHF , except:, NOK Jan Mayen, VAT free, NOK Svalbard, VAT free, NOK Bouvet Island, NOK Peter I Island, NOK Queen Maud Land, NOK , except:, VAT area, customs territory, CHFlink= Samnaun, VAT free, customs territory, CHF===EEA institutions===A Joint Committee consisting of the EEA-EFTA States plus the European Commission (representing the EU) has the function of extending relevant EU law to the non EU members.", "An EEA Council meets twice yearly to govern the overall relationship between the EEA members.Rather than setting up pan-EEA institutions, the activities of the EEA are regulated by the EFTA Surveillance Authority and the EFTA Court.", "The EFTA Surveillance Authority and the EFTA Court regulate the activities of the EFTA members in respect of their obligations in the European Economic Area (EEA).", "Since Switzerland is not an EEA member, it does not participate in these institutions.The EFTA Surveillance Authority performs a role for EFTA members that is equivalent to that of the European Commission for the EU, as \"guardian of the treaties\" and the EFTA Court performs the European Court of Justice-equivalent role.The original plan for the EEA lacked the EFTA Court: the European Court of Justice was to exercise those roles.", "However, during the negotiations for the EEA agreement, the European Court of Justice ruled by the Opinion 1/91 that it would be a violation of the treaties to give to the EU institutions these powers with respect to non-EU member states.", "Therefore, the current arrangement was developed instead.===EEA and Norway Grants===The EEA and Norway Grants are the financial contributions of Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway to reduce social and economic disparities in Europe.", "They were established in conjunction with the 2004 enlargement of the European Economic Area (EEA), which brought together the EU, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway in the Internal Market.", "In the period from 2004 to 2009, €1.3 billion of project funding was made available for project funding in the 15 beneficiary states in Central and Southern Europe.", "The EEA and Norway Grants are administered by the Financial Mechanism Office, which is affiliated to the EFTA Secretariat in Brussels." ], [ "International conventions", "EFTA also originated the Hallmarking Convention and the Pharmaceutical Inspection Convention, both of which are open to non-EFTA states." ], [ "International trade relations", "Map of free trade agreements between EFTA and other countriesEFTA has 29 free trade agreements with non-EU countries as well as declarations on cooperation and joint workgroups to improve trade.", "Currently, the EFTA States have established preferential trade relations with 40 states and territories, in addition to the 27 member states of the European Union.EFTA's interactive Free Trade Map gives an overview of the partners worldwide.===Free trade agreements===Nation (s)No of nations representedSignedEffectiveCoverageRef.", "Albania117 December 20091 November 2010Goods Bosnia and Herzegovina124 June 20131 January 2015Goods Canada126 January 20081 July 2009Goods'''Central America''' Costa Rica Panama224 June 201319 August 2014Goods & Services Chile126 June 20031 December 2004Goods & Services Colombia125 November 20081 July 2011Goods & Services Ecuador125 June 20181 November 2020Goods & Services Egypt127 January 20071 August 2007Goods Georgia127 June 20161 September 2017Goods & Services''' Gulf Cooperation Council'''622 June 20091 July 2014Goods & Services Hong Kong121 June 20111 October 2012Goods & Services Indonesia116 December 20181 November 2021Goods & Services Israel117 September 19921 January 1993Goods Jordan121 June 20011 September 2002Goods Lebanon124 June 20041 July 2007Goods Mexico127 November 20001 July 2001Goods Montenegro114 November 20111 September 2012Goods Morocco119 June 19971 December 1999Goods North Macedonia119 June 20001 May 2002Goods Palestinian Authority130 November 19981 July 1999Goods Peru124 June 20101 July 2011Goods Philippines128 April 20161 June 2018Goods & Services Serbia117 December 20091 October 2010Goods Singapore126 June 20021 January 2003Goods & Services South Korea115 December 20051 September 2006Goods & Services'''Southern African Customs Union'''526 June 20061 May 2008Goods Tunisia117 December 20041 August 2005Goods Turkey125 June 20181 October 2021Goods & Services Ukraine124 June 20101 June 2012Goods & Services===Ongoing free trade negotiations==='''Central America''' (Signed 22 June 2015) (Since January 2008)* (Since June 2022)* (Since November 2012)* '''''' (Concluded 23 August 2019)* (Concluded 24 March 2023)* (Restarted June 2022)* (Since July 2012)'''Negotiations currently on hold'''* * (Central American States)* '''''''''Declarations on cooperation'''* * * (on hold since 2022)* ===Obsolete agreements===The following agreements are no longer active:* (1995–2007)* (2002–2013)* (1993–2004)* (1992–1993)* (1996–2004)* (1995–2004)* (1996–2004)* (1996–2004)* (1995–2004)* (1995–2007)* (1993–2004)* (1995–2004)* Spain (1980–1986)* (1995–2021)" ], [ "Travel policies", "===Free movement of people within EFTA and the EU/EEA===EFTA member states' citizens enjoy freedom of movement in each other's territories in accordance with the EFTA convention.", "EFTA & EEA nationals also enjoy freedom of movement in the European Union (EU).", "EFTA nationals and EU citizens are not only visa-exempt but are legally entitled to enter and reside in each other's countries.", "The '''Citizens' Rights Directive''' (also sometimes called the \"Free Movement Directive\") defines the right of free movement for citizens of the European Economic Area (EEA), which includes the three EFTA members Iceland, Norway and Liechtenstein plus the member states of the EU.", "Switzerland, which is a member of EFTA but not of the EEA, is not bound by the Directive but rather has a separate multilateral agreement on free movement with the EU and its member states.As a result, a citizen of an EFTA country can live and work in all the other EFTA countries and in all the EU countries, and a citizen of an EU country can live and work in all the EFTA countries (but for voting and working in sensitive fields, such as government / police / military, citizenship is often required, and non-citizens may not have the same rights to welfare and unemployment benefits as citizens)." ], [ "General secretaries", "#StateNameYear1Frank Figgures1960–19652John Coulson1965–19723Bengt Rabaeus1972–19754Charles Müller1976–19815Per Kleppe1981–19886Georg Reisch1988–19947Kjartan Jóhannsson1994–20008William Rossier2000–20069Kåre Bryn2006–201210Kristinn F. Árnason2012–201811Henri Gétaz2018–present" ], [ "Portugal Fund", "The Portugal Fund came into operation in February 1977 when Portugal was still a member of EFTA.", "It was to provide funding for the development of Portugal after the Carnation Revolution and the consequential restoration of democracy and the decolonization of the country's overseas possessions.", "This followed a period of economic sanctions by most of the international community, which left Portugal economically underdeveloped compared to the rest of the western Europe.", "When Portugal left EFTA in 1985 in order to join the EEC, the remaining EFTA members decided to continue the Portugal Fund so that Portugal would continue to benefit from it.", "The Fund originally took the form of a low-interest loan from the EFTA member states to the value of US$100 million.", "Repayment was originally to commence in 1988, however, EFTA then decided to postpone the start of repayments until 1998.The Portugal Fund was dissolved in January 2002." ], [ "See also", "* Central European Free Trade Agreement * Euro-Mediterranean free trade area * European Union Association Agreement* European Union free trade agreements* Free trade areas in Europe" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Archives of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), held in the European University Institute - Historical Archives of the European Union.", "** Official website* Collection of acts adopted by the EFTA and published in the Official Journal (the OJEU)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European Parliament" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Parliament''' ('''EP''') is one of the legislative bodies of the European Union and one of its seven institutions.", "Together with the Council of the European Union (known as the Council and informally as the Council of Ministers), it adopts European legislation, following a proposal by the European Commission.", "The Parliament is composed of 705 members (MEPs).", "It represents the second-largest democratic electorate in the world (after the Parliament of India), with an electorate of 375 million eligible voters in 2009.Since 1979, the Parliament has been directly elected every five years by the citizens of the European Union through universal suffrage.", "Voter turnout in parliamentary elections decreased each time after 1979 until 2019, when voter turnout increased by eight percentage points, and rose above 50% for the first time since 1994.The voting age is 18 in all EU member states except for Malta, Austria and Germany, where it is 16, and Greece, where it is 17.Belgian citizens can request to vote from the age of 16 as well.Although the European Parliament has legislative power, as does the Council, it does not formally possess the right of initiative as most national parliaments of the member states do, with the right of initiative being solely a prerogative of the European Commission.", "The Parliament is the \"first institution\" of the European Union (mentioned first in its treaties and having ceremonial precedence over the other EU institutions), and shares equal legislative and budgetary powers with the Council (except on a few issues where special legislative procedures apply).", "It likewise has equal control over the EU budget.", "Ultimately, the European Commission, which serves as the executive branch of the EU, is accountable to Parliament.", "In particular, Parliament can decide whether or not to approve the European Council's nominee for President of the Commission, and is further tasked with approving (or rejecting) the appointment of the commission as a whole.", "It can subsequently force the current Commission to resign by adopting a motion of censure.The president of the European Parliament is the body's speaker and presides over the multi-party chamber.", "The five largest political groups are the European People's Party Group (EPP), the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats (S&D), Renew Europe (previously ALDE), the Greens/European Free Alliance (Greens/EFA) and Identity and Democracy (ID).", "The last EU-wide election was held in 2019.The Parliament's headquarters are officially in Strasbourg, France, and has its administrative offices in Luxembourg City.", "Plenary sessions are \"normally held in Strasbourg for four days a month, but sometimes there are additional sessions in Brussels\", while the Parliament's committee meetings are held primarily in Brussels, Belgium.", "In practice, the Parliament works three weeks per month in Brussels and one (four day) week in Strasbourg." ], [ "History", "The European Parliament's flag until 1983The Parliament, like the other EU institutions, was not designed in its current form when it first met on 10 September 1952.One of the oldest common institutions, it began as the '''Common Assembly''' of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).", "It was a consultative assembly of 78 appointed parliamentarians drawn from the national parliaments of member states, having no legislative powers.", "The change since its foundation was highlighted by Professor David Farrell of the University of Manchester: \"For much of its life, the European Parliament could have been justly labelled a 'multi-lingual talking shop'.", "\"Its development since its foundation shows how the European Union's structures have evolved without a clear 'master plan'.", "Tom Reid of ''The Washington Post'' has said of the union that \"nobody would have deliberately designed a government as complex and as redundant as the EU\".", "Even the Parliament's three working locations, which have switched several times, are a result of various agreements or lack of agreements.", "Although most MEPs would prefer to be based just in Brussels, at John Major's 1992 Edinburgh summit, France engineered a treaty amendment to confirm the European Parliament's seat permanently in Strasbourg.===Consultative assembly===Session of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe in the former House of Europe in Strasbourg, France in January 1967.Willy Brandt, West German minister for Foreign Affairs, is speaking.The body was not mentioned in the original Schuman Declaration.", "It was assumed or hoped that difficulties with the British would be resolved to allow the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe to perform legislative tasks.", "A separate Assembly was introduced during negotiations on the Treaty as an institution to counterbalance and monitor the executive while providing democratic legitimacy.", "The wording of the ECSC Treaty demonstrated leaders' desire for more than a normal consultative assembly by allowing for direct election and using the term \"representatives of the people\".", "Its early importance was highlighted when the Assembly was given the task of drawing up the draft treaty to establish a European Political Community.", "By this document, the Ad Hoc Assembly was established on 13 September 1952 with extra members, but after the failure of the negotiated and proposed European Defence Community (French parliament veto), the project was dropped.Despite this, the European Economic Community and Euratom were established in 1958 by the Treaties of Rome.", "The Common Assembly was shared by all three communities (which had separate executives) and it renamed itself the '''European Parliamentary Assembly'''.", "The first meeting was held on 19 March 1958 having been set up in Luxembourg City, it elected Schuman as its president and on 13 May it rearranged itself to sit according to political ideology rather than nationality.", "This is seen as the birth of the modern European Parliament, with Parliament's 50 years celebrations being held in March 2008 rather than 2002.The three communities merged their remaining organs as the European Communities in 1967, and the body's name was changed to the current \"European Parliament\" in 1962.In 1970 the Parliament was granted power over areas of the Communities' budget, which were expanded to the whole budget in 1975.Under the Rome Treaties, the Parliament should have become elected.", "However, the Council was required to agree a uniform voting system beforehand, which it failed to do.", "The Parliament threatened to take the Council to the European Court of Justice; this led to a compromise whereby the Council would agree to elections, but the issue of voting systems would be put off until a later date.For its sessions the assembly, and later the parliament, until 1999 convened in the same premises as the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe: the House of Europe until 1977, and the Palace of Europe until 1999.===Elected Parliament===A plenary session in the Palace of Europe in April 1985, in Strasbourg, France.", "It was the EP's hemicycle until 1999 when a new building was constructed in Strasbourg, France.In 1979, its members were directly elected for the first time.", "This sets it apart from similar institutions such as those of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe or Pan-African Parliament which are appointed.", "After that first election, the parliament held its first session on 17 July 1979, electing Simone Veil MEP as its president.", "Veil was also the first female president of the Parliament since it was formed as the Common Assembly.As an elected body, the Parliament began to draft proposals addressing the functioning of the EU.", "For example, in 1984, inspired by its previous work on the Political Community, it drafted the \"draft Treaty establishing the European Union\" (also known as the 'Spinelli Plan' after its rapporteur Altiero Spinelli MEP).", "Although it was not adopted, many ideas were later implemented by other treaties.", "Furthermore, the Parliament began holding votes on proposed Commission Presidents from the 1980s, before it was given any formal right to veto.Since it became an elected body, the membership of the European Parliament has simply expanded whenever new nations have joined (the membership was also adjusted upwards in 1994 after German reunification).", "Following this, the Treaty of Nice imposed a cap on the number of members to be elected: 732.Like the other institutions, the Parliament's seat was not yet fixed.", "The provisional arrangements placed Parliament in Strasbourg, while the Commission and Council had their seats in Brussels.", "In 1985 the Parliament, wishing to be closer to these institutions, built a second chamber in Brussels and moved some of its work there despite protests from some states.", "A final agreement was eventually reached by the European Council in 1992.It stated the Parliament would retain its formal seat in Strasbourg, where twelve sessions a year would be held, but with all other parliamentary activity in Brussels.", "This two-seat arrangement was contested by the Parliament, but was later enshrined in the Treaty of Amsterdam.", "To this day the institution's locations are a source of contention.The Parliament gained more powers from successive treaties, namely through the extension of the ordinary legislative procedure (then called the codecision procedure), and in 1999, the Parliament forced the resignation of the Santer Commission.", "The Parliament had refused to approve the Community budget over allegations of fraud and mis-management in the commission.", "The two main parties took on a government-opposition dynamic for the first time during the crisis which ended in the Commission resigning en masse, the first of any forced resignation, in the face of an impending censure from the Parliament.===Parliament pressure on the Commission===In 2004, following the largest trans-national election in history, despite the European Council choosing a President from the largest political group (the EPP), the Parliament again exerted pressure on the commission.", "During the Parliament's hearings of the proposed Commissioners MEPs raised doubts about some nominees with the Civil Liberties committee rejecting Rocco Buttiglione from the post of Commissioner for Justice, Freedom and Security over his views on homosexuality.", "That was the first time the Parliament had ever voted against an incoming Commissioner and despite Barroso's insistence upon Buttiglione the Parliament forced Buttiglione to be withdrawn.", "A number of other Commissioners also had to be withdrawn or reassigned before Parliament allowed the Barroso Commission to take office.Parliament's overhaul of the Bolkestein directive signalled a major growth in status for Parliament.Along with the extension of the ordinary legislative procedure, the Parliament's democratic mandate has given it greater control over legislation against the other institutions.", "In voting on the Bolkestein directive in 2006, the Parliament voted by a large majority for over 400 amendments that changed the fundamental principle of the law.", "The ''Financial Times'' described it in the following terms:In 2007, for the first time, Justice Commissioner Franco Frattini included Parliament in talks on the second Schengen Information System even though MEPs only needed to be consulted on parts of the package.", "After that experiment, Frattini indicated he would like to include Parliament in all justice and criminal matters, informally pre-empting the new powers they were due to gain in 2009 as part of the Treaty of Lisbon.", "Between 2007 and 2009, a special working group on parliamentary reform implemented a series of changes to modernise the institution such as more speaking time for rapporteurs, increased committee co-operation and other efficiency reforms.===Recent history===The Lisbon Treaty came into force on 1 December 2009, granting Parliament powers over the entire EU budget, making Parliament's legislative powers equal to the Council's in nearly all areas and linking the appointment of the Commission President to Parliament's own elections.", "Barroso gained the support of the European Council for a second term and secured majority support from the Parliament in September 2009.Parliament voted 382 votes in favour and 219 votes against (117 abstentions) with support of the European People's Party, European Conservatives and Reformists and the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe.", "The liberals gave support after Barroso gave them a number of concessions; the liberals previously joined the socialists' call for a delayed vote (the EPP had wanted to approve Barroso in July of that year).Once Barroso put forward the candidates for his next Commission, another opportunity to gain concessions arose.", "Bulgarian nominee Rumiana Jeleva was forced to step down by Parliament due to concerns over her experience and financial interests.", "She only had the support of the EPP which began to retaliate on left wing candidates before Jeleva gave in and was replaced (setting back the final vote further).Before the final vote, Parliament demanded a number of concessions as part of a future working agreement under the new Lisbon Treaty.", "The deal includes that Parliament's president will attend high level Commission meetings.", "Parliament will have a seat in the EU's Commission-led international negotiations and have a right to information on agreements.", "However, Parliament secured only an observer seat.", "Parliament also did not secure a say over the appointment of delegation heads and special representatives for foreign policy.", "Although they will appear before parliament after they have been appointed by the High Representative.", "One major internal power was that Parliament wanted a pledge from the Commission that it would put forward legislation when parliament requests.", "Barroso considered this an infringement on the commission's powers but did agree to respond within three months.", "Most requests are already responded to positively.Moment of silence for victims of Hamas' terrorist attack on Israel, October 2023During the setting up of the European External Action Service (EEAS), Parliament used its control over the EU budget to influence the shape of the EEAS.", "MEPs had aimed at getting greater oversight over the EEAS by linking it to the commission and having political deputies to the High Representative.", "MEPs did not manage to get everything they demanded.", "However, they got broader financial control over the new body.In December 2017, Politico denounced the lack of racial diversity among Members of the European Parliament.", "The subsequent news coverage contributed to create the Brussels So White movement.In January 2019, Conservative MEPs supported proposals to boost opportunities for women and tackle sexual harassment in the European Parliament.In 2022, four people were arrested because of corruption.", "This came to be known as the Qatar corruption scandal at the European Parliament.In October 2023, the Parliament adopted a resolution to condemn \"Hamas' despicable terrorist attacks against Israel\"." ], [ "Powers and functions", "The Parliament and Council have been compared to the two chambers of a bicameral legislature.", "However, there are some differences from national legislatures; for example, neither the Parliament nor the Council have the power of legislative initiative (except for the fact that the Council has the power in some intergovernmental matters).", "In Community matters, this is a power uniquely reserved for the European Commission (the executive).", "Therefore, while Parliament can amend and reject legislation, to make a proposal for legislation, it needs the commission to draft a bill before anything can become law.", "The value of such a power has been questioned by noting that in the national legislatures of the member states 85% of initiatives introduced without executive support fail to become law.", "Yet it has been argued by former Parliament president Hans-Gert Pöttering that as the Parliament does have the right to ask the commission to draft such legislation, and as the commission is following Parliament's proposals more and more Parliament does have a ''de facto'' right of legislative initiative.The Parliament also has a great deal of indirect influence, through non-binding resolutions and committee hearings, as a \"pan-European soapbox\" with the ear of thousands of Brussels-based journalists.", "There is also an indirect effect on foreign policy; the Parliament must approve all development grants, including those overseas.", "For example, the support for post-war Iraq reconstruction, or incentives for the cessation of Iranian nuclear development, must be supported by the Parliament.", "Parliamentary support was also required for the transatlantic passenger data-sharing deal with the United States.", "Finally, Parliament holds a non-binding vote on new EU treaties but cannot veto it.", "However, when Parliament threatened to vote down the Nice Treaty, the Belgian and Italian Parliaments said they would veto the treaty on the European Parliament's behalf.===Legislative procedure===With each new treaty, the powers of the Parliament, in terms of its role in the Union's legislative procedures, have expanded.", "The procedure which has slowly become dominant is the \"ordinary legislative procedure\" (previously named \"codecision procedure\"), which provides an equal footing between Parliament and Council.", "In particular, under the procedure, the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the Council which can only become law if both agree on a text, which they do (or not) through successive readings up to a maximum of three.", "In its first reading, Parliament may send amendments to the Council which can either adopt the text with those amendments or send back a \"common position\".", "That position may either be approved by Parliament, or it may reject the text by an absolute majority, causing it to fail, or it may adopt further amendments, also by an absolute majority.", "If the Council does not approve these, then a \"Conciliation Committee\" is formed.", "The committee is composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs who seek to agree a compromise.", "Once a position is agreed, it has to be approved by Parliament, by a simple majority.", "This is also aided by Parliament's mandate as the only directly democratic institution, which has given it leeway to have greater control over legislation than other institutions, for example over its changes to the Bolkestein directive in 2006.The few other areas that operate the ''special legislative procedures'' are justice and home affairs, budget and taxation, and certain aspects of other policy areas, such as the fiscal aspects of environmental policy.", "In these areas, the Council or Parliament decide law alone.", "The procedure also depends upon which type of institutional act is being used.", "The strongest act is a regulation, an act or law which is directly applicable in its entirety.", "Then there are directives which bind member states to certain goals which they must achieve.", "They do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them.", "A decision is an instrument which is focused at a particular person or group and is directly applicable.", "Institutions may also issue recommendations and opinions which are merely non-binding, declarations.", "There is a further document which does not follow normal procedures, this is a \"written declaration\" which is similar to an early day motion used in the Westminster system.", "It is a document proposed by up to five MEPs on a matter within the EU's activities used to launch a debate on that subject.", "Having been posted outside the entrance to the hemicycle, members can sign the declaration and if a majority do so it is forwarded to the President and announced to the plenary before being forwarded to the other institutions and formally noted in the minutes.===Budget===The legislative branch officially holds the Union's budgetary authority with powers gained through the Budgetary Treaties of the 1970s and the Lisbon Treaty.", "The EU budget is subject to a form of the ordinary legislative procedure with a single reading giving Parliament power over the entire budget (before 2009, its influence was limited to certain areas) on an equal footing to the Council.", "If there is a disagreement between them, it is taken to a conciliation committee as it is for legislative proposals.", "If the joint conciliation text is not approved, the Parliament may adopt the budget definitively.The Parliament is also responsible for discharging the implementation of previous budgets based on the annual report of the European Court of Auditors.", "It has refused to approve the budget only twice, in 1984 and in 1998.On the latter occasion it led to the resignation of the Santer Commission; highlighting how the budgetary power gives Parliament a great deal of power over the commission.", "Parliament also makes extensive use of its budgetary, and other powers, elsewhere; for example in the setting up of the European External Action Service, Parliament has a de facto veto over its design as it has to approve the budgetary and staff changes.===Control of the executive===The President of the European Commission is proposed by the European Council on the basis of the European elections to Parliament.", "That proposal has to be approved by the Parliament (by a simple majority) who \"elect\" the President according to the treaties.", "Following the approval of the Commission President, the members of the commission are proposed by the President in accord with the member states.", "Each Commissioner comes before a relevant parliamentary committee hearing covering the proposed portfolio.", "They are then, as a body, approved or rejected by the Parliament.In practice, the Parliament has never voted against a President or his Commission, but it did seem likely when the Barroso Commission was put forward.", "The resulting pressure forced the proposal to be withdrawn and changed to be more acceptable to parliament.", "That pressure was seen as an important sign by some of the evolving nature of the Parliament and its ability to make the Commission accountable, rather than being a rubber stamp for candidates.", "Furthermore, in voting on the commission, MEPs also voted along party lines, rather than national lines, despite frequent pressure from national governments on their MEPs.", "This cohesion and willingness to use the Parliament's power ensured greater attention from national leaders, other institutions and the public who previously gave the lowest ever turnout for the Parliament's elections.The Parliament also has the power to censure the Commission if they have a two-thirds majority which will force the resignation of the entire Commission from office.", "As with approval, this power has never been used but it was threatened to the Santer Commission, who subsequently resigned of their own accord.", "There are a few other controls, such as: the requirement of Commission to submit reports to the Parliament and answer questions from MEPs; the requirement of the President-in-office of the Council to present its programme at the start of their presidency; the obligation on the President of the European Council to report to Parliament after each of its meetings; the right of MEPs to make requests for legislation and policy to the commission; and the right to question members of those institutions (e.g.", "\"Commission Question Time\" every Tuesday).", "At present, MEPs may ask a question on any topic whatsoever, but in July 2008 MEPs voted to limit questions to those within the EU's mandate and ban offensive or personal questions.===Supervisory powers===The Parliament also has other powers of general supervision, mainly granted by the Maastricht Treaty.", "The Parliament has the power to set up a Committee of Inquiry, for example over mad cow disease or CIA detention flights the former led to the creation of the European veterinary agency.", "The Parliament can call other institutions to answer questions and if necessary to take them to court if they break EU law or treaties.", "Furthermore, it has powers over the appointment of the members of the Court of Auditors and the president and executive board of the European Central Bank.", "The ECB president is also obliged to present an annual report to the parliament.The European Ombudsman is elected by the Parliament, who deals with public complaints against all institutions.", "Petitions can also be brought forward by any EU citizen on a matter within the EU's sphere of activities.", "The Committee on Petitions hears cases, some 1500 each year, sometimes presented by the citizen themselves at the Parliament.", "While the Parliament attempts to resolve the issue as a mediator they do resort to legal proceedings if it is necessary to resolve the citizens dispute." ], [ "Members", "The parliamentarians are known in English as Members of the European Parliament (MEPs).", "They are elected every five years by universal adult suffrage and sit according to political allegiance.", "About one third are women.", "Before the first direct elections, in 1979, they were appointed by their national parliaments.The Parliament has been criticized for underrepresentation of minority groups.", "In 2017, an estimated 17 MEPs were non-white, and of these, three were black, a disproportionately low number.", "According to activist organization European Network Against Racism, while an estimated 10% of Europe is composed of racial and ethnic minorities, only 5% of MEPs were members of such groups following the 2019 European Parliament election.Under the Lisbon Treaty, seats are allocated to each state according to population and the maximum number of members is set at 751 (however, as the President cannot vote while in the chair there will only be 750 voting members at any one time).", "Since 1 February 2020 and the United Kingdom's leaving the EU, 705 MEPs (including the president of the Parliament) sit in the European Parliament.Representation is currently limited to a maximum of 96 seats and a minimum of 6 seats per state and the seats are distributed according to \"degressive proportionality\", i.e., the larger the state, the more citizens are represented per MEP.", "As a result, Maltese and Luxembourgish voters have roughly 10x more influence per voter than citizens of the six largest countries., Germany (80.9 million inhabitants) has 96 seats (previously 99 seats), i.e.", "one seat for 843,000 inhabitants.", "Malta (0.4 million inhabitants) has 6 seats, i.e.", "one seat for 70,000 inhabitants.The new system implemented under the Lisbon Treaty, including revising the seating well before elections, was intended to avoid political horse trading when the allocations have to be revised to reflect demographic changes.Pursuant to this apportionment, the constituencies are formed.", "In four EU member states (Belgium, Ireland, Italy and Poland), the national territory is divided into a number of constituencies.", "In the remaining member states, the whole country forms a single constituency.", "All member states hold elections to the European Parliament using various forms of proportional representation.===Transitional arrangements===Due to the delay in ratifying the Lisbon Treaty, the seventh parliament was elected under the lower Nice Treaty cap.", "A small scale treaty amendment was ratified on 29 November 2011.This amendment brought in transitional provisions to allow the 18 additional MEPs created under the Lisbon Treaty to be elected or appointed before the 2014 election.", "Under the Lisbon Treaty reforms, Germany was the only state to lose members from 99 to 96.However, these seats were not removed until the 2014 election.===Salaries and expenses===Before 2009, members received the same salary as members of their national parliament.", "However, from 2009 a new members statute came into force, after years of attempts, which gave all members an equal monthly pay, of €8,484.05 each in 2016, subject to a European Union tax and which can also be taxed nationally.", "MEPs are entitled to a pension, paid by Parliament, from the age of 63.Members are also entitled to allowances for office costs and subsistence, and travelling expenses, based on actual cost.", "Besides their pay, members are granted a number of privileges and immunities.", "To ensure their free movement to and from the Parliament, they are accorded by their own states the facilities accorded to senior officials travelling abroad and, by other state governments, the status of visiting foreign representatives.", "When in their own state, they have all the immunities accorded to national parliamentarians, and, in other states, they have immunity from detention and legal proceedings.", "However, immunity cannot be claimed when a member is found committing a criminal offence and the Parliament also has the right to strip a member of their immunity.===Political groups===MEPs in Parliament are organised into eight different parliamentary groups, including thirty non-attached members known as ''non-inscrits''.", "The two largest groups are the European People's Party (EPP) and the Socialists & Democrats (S&D).", "These two groups have dominated the Parliament for much of its life, continuously holding between 50 and 70 percent of the seats between them.", "No single group has ever held a majority in Parliament.", "As a result of being broad alliances of national parties, European group parties are very decentralised and hence have more in common with parties in federal states like Germany or the United States than unitary states like the majority of the EU states.", "Nevertheless, the European groups were actually more cohesive than their US counterparts between 2004 and 2009.Groups are often based on a single European political party such as the European People's Party.", "However, they can, like the liberal group, include more than one European party as well as national parties and independents.", "For a group to be recognised, it needs 23 MEPs from seven different countries.", "Groups receive funding from the parliament.===Coalitions===Given that the Parliament does not form the government in the traditional sense of a Parliamentary system, its politics have developed along more consensual lines with dynamical coalitions rather than majority rule of competing parties and coalitions.", "Indeed, for much of its life it has been dominated by a grand coalition of the European People's Party and the Party of European Socialists.", "The two major parties tend to co-operate to find a compromise between their two groups leading to proposals endorsed by huge majorities.", "However, this does not always produce agreement, and each may instead try to build other alliances, the EPP normally with other centre-right or right wing Groups and the PES with centre-left or left wing groups.", "Sometimes, the Liberal Group is then in the pivotal position.", "There are also occasions where very sharp party political divisions have emerged, for example over the resignation of the Santer Commission.When the initial allegations against the Commission emerged, they were directed primarily against Édith Cresson and Manuel Marín, both socialist members.", "When the parliament was considering refusing to discharge the Community budget, President Jacques Santer stated that a no vote would be tantamount to a vote of no confidence.", "The Socialist group supported the commission and saw the issue as an attempt by the EPP to discredit their party ahead of the 1999 elections.", "Socialist leader, Pauline Green MEP, attempted a vote of confidence and the EPP put forward counter motions.", "During this period the two parties took on similar roles to a government-opposition dynamic, with the Socialists supporting the executive and EPP renouncing its previous coalition support and voting it down.", "Politicisation such as this has been increasing, in 2007 Simon Hix of the London School of Economics noted that:During the fifth term, 1999 to 2004, there was a break in the grand coalition resulting in a centre-right coalition between the Liberal and People's parties.", "This was reflected in the Presidency of the Parliament with the terms being shared between the EPP and the ELDR, rather than the EPP and Socialists.", "In the following term the liberal group grew to hold 88 seats, the largest number of seats held by any third party in Parliament.", "The EPP-S&D coalition lost their majority after the 2019 European Parliament election, requiring support by other political groups for a majority.===Elections===Elections have taken place, directly in every member state, every five years since 1979.there have been nine elections.", "When a nation joins mid-term, a by-election will be held to elect their representatives.", "This has happened six times, most recently when Croatia joined in 2013.Elections take place across four days according to local custom and, apart from having to be proportional, the electoral system is chosen by the member state.", "This includes allocation of sub-national constituencies; while most members have a national list, some divide their allocation between regions.", "Seats are allocated to member states according to their population, since 2014 with no state having more than 96, but no fewer than 6, to maintain proportionality.The most recent Union-wide elections to the European Parliament were the European elections of 2019, held from 23 to 26 May 2019.They were the largest simultaneous transnational elections ever held anywhere in the world.The first session of the ninth parliament started 2 July 2019.European political parties have the exclusive right to campaign during the European elections (as opposed to their corresponding EP groups).", "There have been a number of proposals designed to attract greater public attention to the elections.", "One such innovation in the 2014 elections was that the pan-European political parties fielded \"candidates\" for president of the Commission, the so-called ''Spitzenkandidaten'' (German, \"leading candidates\" or \"top candidates\").", "However, European Union governance is based on a mixture of intergovernmental and supranational features: the President of the European Commission is nominated by the European Council, representing the governments of the member states, and there is no obligation for them to nominate the successful \"candidate\".", "The Lisbon Treaty merely states that they should take account of the results of the elections when choosing whom to nominate.", "The so-called ''Spitzenkandidaten'' were Jean-Claude Juncker for the European People's Party, Martin Schulz for the Party of European Socialists, Guy Verhofstadt for the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party, Ska Keller and José Bové jointly for the European Green Party and Alexis Tsipras for the Party of the European Left.Turnout dropped consistently every year since the first election, and from 1999 until 2019 was below 50%.", "In 2007 both Bulgaria and Romania elected their MEPs in by-elections, having joined at the beginning of 2007.The Bulgarian and Romanian elections saw two of the lowest turnouts for European elections, just 28.6% and 28.3% respectively.", "This trend was interrupted in the 2019 election, when turnout increased by 8% EU-wide, rising to 50.6%, the highest since 1994.In England, Scotland and Wales, EP elections were originally held for a constituency MEP on a first-past-the-post basis.", "In 1999 the system was changed to a form of proportional representation where a large group of candidates stand for a post within a very large regional constituency.", "One could vote for a party, but not a candidate (unless that party had a single candidate)." ], [ "Proceedings", "These \"relocation boxes\" of the European Parliament, called \"cantines\", are ready to be transported between Strasbourg and Brussels.", "The EP moves back and forth to meet the EU treaty obligation to hold plenary sessions in Strasbourg.Each year the activities of the Parliament cycle between committee weeks where reports are discussed in committees and interparliamentary delegations meet, political group weeks for members to discuss work within their political groups and session weeks where members spend 3½ days in Strasbourg for part-sessions.", "In addition six 2-day part-sessions are organised in Brussels throughout the year.", "Four weeks are allocated as constituency week to allow members to do exclusively constituency work.", "Finally there are no meetings planned during the summer weeks.", "The Parliament has the power to meet without being convened by another authority.", "Its meetings are partly controlled by the treaties but are otherwise up to Parliament according to its own \"Rules of Procedure\" (the regulations governing the parliament).During sessions, members may speak after being called on by the President.", "Members of the Council or Commission may also attend and speak in debates.", "Partly due to the need for interpretation, and the politics of consensus in the chamber, debates tend to be calmer and more polite than, say, the Westminster system.", "Voting is conducted primarily by a show of hands, that may be checked on request by electronic voting.", "Votes of MEPs are not recorded in either case, however; that only occurs when there is a roll-call ballot.", "This is required for the final votes on legislation and also whenever a political group or 30 MEPs request it.", "The number of roll-call votes has increased with time.", "Votes can also be a completely secret ballot (for example, when the president is elected).", "All recorded votes, along with minutes and legislation, are recorded in the ''Official Journal of the European Union'' and can be accessed online.", "Votes usually do not follow a debate, but rather they are grouped with other due votes on specific occasions, usually at noon on Tuesdays, Wednesdays or Thursdays.", "This is because the length of the vote is unpredictable and if it continues for longer than allocated it can disrupt other debates and meetings later in the day.Members are arranged in a hemicycle according to their political groups (in the Common Assembly, prior to 1958, members sat alphabetically) who are ordered mainly by left to right, but some smaller groups are placed towards the outer ring of the Parliament.", "All desks are equipped with microphones, headphones for translation and electronic voting equipment.", "The leaders of the groups sit on the front benches at the centre, and in the very centre is a podium for guest speakers.", "The remaining half of the circular chamber is primarily composed of the raised area where the President and staff sit.", "Further benches are provided between the sides of this area and the MEPs, these are taken up by the Council on the far left and the commission on the far right.", "Both the Brussels and Strasbourg hemicycle roughly follow this layout with only minor differences.", "The hemicycle design is a compromise between the different Parliamentary systems.", "The British-based system has the different groups directly facing each other while the French-based system is a semicircle (and the traditional German system had all members in rows facing a rostrum for speeches).", "Although the design is mainly based on a semicircle, the opposite ends of the spectrum do still face each other.", "With access to the chamber limited, entrance is controlled by ushers who aid MEPs in the chamber (for example in delivering documents).", "The ushers can also occasionally act as a form of police in enforcing the President, for example in ejecting an MEP who is disrupting the session (although this is rare).", "The first head of protocol in the Parliament was French, so many of the duties in the Parliament are based on the French model first developed following the French Revolution.", "The 180 ushers are highly visible in the Parliament, dressed in black tails and wearing a silver chain, and are recruited in the same manner as the European civil service.", "The President is allocated a personal usher.===President and organisation===Roberta Metsola, the current President of the European ParliamentThe President is essentially the speaker of the Parliament and presides over the plenary when it is in session.", "The President's signature is required for all acts adopted by co-decision, including the EU budget.", "The President is also responsible for representing the Parliament externally, including in legal matters, and for the application of the rules of procedure.", "The President is elected for two-and-a-half-year terms, meaning two elections per parliamentary term.", "The current President of the European Parliament is Roberta Metsola, who was elected in January 2022.In most countries, the protocol of the head of state comes before all others; however, in the EU the Parliament is listed as the first institution, and hence the protocol of its president comes before any other European, or national, protocol.", "The gifts given to numerous visiting dignitaries depend upon the President.", "President Josep Borrell MEP of Spain gave his counterparts a crystal cup created by an artist from Barcelona who had engraved upon it parts of the Charter of Fundamental Rights among other things.A number of notable figures have been President of the Parliament and its predecessors.", "The first President was Paul-Henri Spaak MEP, one of the founding fathers of the Union.", "Other founding fathers include Alcide de Gasperi MEP and Robert Schuman MEP.", "The two female Presidents were Simone Veil MEP in 1979 (first President of the elected Parliament) and Nicole Fontaine MEP in 1999, both Frenchwomen.", "The previous president, Jerzy Buzek was the first East-Central European to lead an EU institution, a former Prime Minister of Poland who rose out of the Solidarity movement in Poland that helped overthrow communism in the Eastern Bloc.During the election of a President, the previous President (or, if unable to, one of the previous vice-presidents) presides over the chamber.", "Prior to 2009, the oldest member fulfilled this role but the rule was changed to prevent far-right French MEP Jean-Marie Le Pen taking the chair.Below the President, there are 14 Vice-Presidents who chair debates when the President is not in the chamber.", "There are a number of other bodies and posts responsible for the running of parliament besides these speakers.", "The two main bodies are the Bureau, which is responsible for budgetary and administration issues, and the Conference of Presidents which is a governing body composed of the presidents of each of the parliament's political groups.", "Looking after the financial and administrative interests of members are five Quaestors., the European Parliament budget was EUR 1.756 billion.", "A 2008 report on the Parliament's finances highlighted certain overspending and miss-payments.", "Despite some MEPs calling for the report to be published, Parliamentary authorities had refused until an MEP broke confidentiality and leaked it.===Committees and delegations===A Committee roomThe Parliament has 20 Standing Committees consisting of 25 to 73 MEPs each (reflecting the political make-up of the whole Parliament) including a chair, a bureau and secretariat.", "They meet twice a month in public to draw up, amend to adopt legislative proposals and reports to be presented to the plenary.", "The rapporteurs for a committee are supposed to present the view of the committee, although notably this has not always been the case.", "In the events leading to the resignation of the Santer Commission, the rapporteur went against the Budgetary Control Committee's narrow vote to discharge the budget, and urged the Parliament to reject it.Committees can also set up sub-committees (e.g.", "the Subcommittee on Human Rights) and temporary committees to deal with a specific topic (e.g.", "on extraordinary rendition).", "The chairs of the Committees co-ordinate their work through the \"Conference of Committee Chairmen\".", "When co-decision was introduced it increased the Parliament's powers in a number of areas, but most notably those covered by the Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety.", "Previously this committee was considered by MEPs as a \"Cinderella committee\"; however, as it gained a new importance, it became more professional and rigorous, attracting increasing attention to its work.The nature of the committees differ from their national counterparts as, although smaller in comparison to those of the United States Congress, the European Parliament's committees are unusually large by European standards with between eight and twelve dedicated members of staff and three to four support staff.", "Considerable administration, archives and research resources are also at the disposal of the whole Parliament when needed.Delegations of the Parliament are formed in a similar manner and are responsible for relations with Parliaments outside the EU.", "There are 34 delegations made up of around 15 MEPs, chairpersons of the delegations also cooperate in a conference like the committee chairs do.", "They include \"Interparliamentary delegations\" (maintain relations with Parliament outside the EU), \"joint parliamentary committees\" (maintaining relations with parliaments of states which are candidates or associates of the EU), the delegation to the ACP EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly and the delegation to the Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly.", "MEPs also participate in other international activities such as the Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly, the Transatlantic Legislators' Dialogue and through election observation in third countries.===Intergroups===Jože Pučnik conference roomThe Intergroups in the European Parliament are informal fora which gather MEPs from various political groups around any topic.", "They do not express the view of the European Parliament.", "They serve a double purpose: to address a topic which is transversal to several committees and in a less formal manner.", "Their daily secretariat can be run either through the office of MEPs or through interest groups, be them corporate lobbies or NGOs.", "The favored access to MEPs which the organization running the secretariat enjoys can be one explanation to the multiplication of Intergroups in the 1990s.", "They are now strictly regulated and financial support, direct or otherwise (via Secretariat staff, for example) must be officially specified in a declaration of financial interests.", "Also Intergroups are established or renewed at the beginning of each legislature through a specific process.", "Indeed, the proposal for the constitution or renewal of an Intergroup must be supported by at least 3 political groups whose support is limited to a specific number of proposals in proportion to their size (for example, for the legislature 2014–2019, the EPP or S&D political groups could support 22 proposals whereas the Greens/EFA or the EFDD political groups only 7).===Translation and interpretation===Speakers in the European Parliament are entitled to speak in any of the 24 official languages of the European Union, ranging from French and German to Maltese and Irish.", "Simultaneous interpreting is offered in all plenary sessions, and all final texts of legislation are translated.", "With twenty-four languages, the European Parliament is the most multilingual parliament in the world and the biggest employer of interpreters in the world (employing 350 full-time and 400 freelancers when there is higher demand).", "Citizens may also address the Parliament in Basque, Catalan/Valencian and Galician.Usually a language is translated from a foreign tongue into a translator's native tongue.", "Due to the large number of languages, some being minor ones, since 1995 interpreting is sometimes done the opposite way, out of an interpreter's native tongue (the \"retour\" system).", "In addition, a speech in a minor language may be interpreted through a third language for lack of interpreters (\"relay\" interpreting) for example, when interpreting out of Estonian into Maltese.", "Due to the complexity of the issues, interpretation is not word for word.", "Instead, interpreters have to convey the political meaning of a speech, regardless of their own views.", "This requires detailed understanding of the politics and terms of the Parliament, involving a great deal of preparation beforehand (e.g.", "reading the documents in question).", "Difficulty can often arise when MEPs use profanities, jokes and word play or speak too fast.While some see speaking their native language as an important part of their identity, and can speak more fluently in debates, interpretation and its cost has been criticised by some.", "A 2006 report by Alexander Stubb MEP highlighted that by only using English, French and German costs could be reduced from €118,000 per day (for 21 languages then Romanian, Bulgarian and Croatian having not yet been included) to €8,900 per day.", "There has also been a small-scale campaign to make French the reference language for all legal texts, on the basis of an argument that it is more clear and precise for legal purposes.Because the proceedings are translated into all of the official EU languages, they have been used to make a multilingual corpus known as Europarl.", "It is widely used to train statistical machine translation systems." ], [ "Corruption scandals", "The European Parliament has had criticism over its prodigality and for being too complacent with conflicts of interest.", "Its refusal to become full member of the GRECO like all its member states is also a matter of criticism.", "PACE members have been implicated in corruption scandals relating to the Qatari and Azerbaijani governments.Qatargate is an ongoing scandal, involving allegations that PACE officials, lobbyists and their families have been influenced by the governments of Qatar, Morocco and Mauritania, engaging in corruption, money laundering, and organized crime.", "Law enforcement authorities in Belgium, Italy and Greece seized €1.5 million in cash, confiscated computers and mobile phones, and charged four individuals with the alleged offences.", "On 12 December 2022, President Metsola announced that all work with Qatar would be suspended.Multiple PACE officials have been implicated in a money-laundering scheme organized by the Azerbaijani government.", "European politicians were paid off to whitewash Azerbaijan's reputation and poor human rights record.", "Several of the money recipients, such as Eduard Lintner (German politician and election monitor in European Parliament), Alain Destexhe (Belgian politician and member of PACE), Luca Volontè (Italian politician and member of PACE) and others were also implicated in a previous investigation into Azerbaijan's \"Caviar diplomacy.\"", "lobbying strategy: which involved expensive paid trips to Azerbaijan and gifts to foreign politicians.Several publications argue that these trips raise questions on the reliability of EU Parliament ethics codes.", "Following Azerbaijan's ethnic cleansing of Armenians from Nagorno-Karabakh in 2023, PACE adopted a motion which states that \"it regrets the fact that Members of the European Parliament have accepted and failed to declare trips to Azerbaijan, visits to the Nagorno-Karabakh region and luxury hotel stays that were organised and paid for by Azerbaijani officials.", "\"There are also ongoing concerns related to allegations that members of the European Parliament were illegally or unethically influenced by Russia.", "Such concerns have been raised several tiimes in 2023 and 2024 and dubbed \"Russiagate\"." ], [ "Annual costs", "According to the European Parliament website, the annual parliament budget for 2021 was €2.064 billion, which corresponds to 1.2% of EU budget.", "The main cost categories were:* 45% staff (staff expenses, contract agents, linguistic services)* 22% operational costs (buildings, IT, administration)* 26% political activities (members, activities of political groups, parties and foundations)* 6% communicationsAccording to a European Parliament study prepared in 2013, the Strasbourg seat costs an extra €103 million over maintaining a single location and according to the Court of Auditors an additional €5 million is related to travel expenses caused by having two seats.As a comparison, the German lower house of parliament (Bundestag) is estimated to cost €517 million in total for 2018, for a parliament with 709 members.", "The British House of Commons reported total annual costs in 2016-2017 of £249 million (€279 million).", "It had 650 seats.According to ''The Economist'', the European Parliament costs more than the British, French and German parliaments combined.", "A quarter of the costs is estimated to be related to translation and interpretation costs (c. €460 million) and the double seats are estimated to add an additional €180 million a year.", "For a like-for-like comparison, these two cost blocks can be excluded.On 2 July 2018, MEPs rejected proposals to tighten the rules around the General Expenditure Allowance (GEA), which \"is a controversial €4,416 per month payment that MEPs are given to cover office and other expenses, but they are not required to provide any evidence of how the money is spent\"." ], [ "Seat", "The Parliament is based in three different cities with numerous buildings.", "A protocol attached to the Treaty of Amsterdam requires that 12 plenary sessions be held in Strasbourg (none in August but two in October), which is the Parliament's official seat, while extra part sessions as well as committee meetings are held in Brussels.", "Luxembourg City hosts the Secretariat of the European Parliament.", "The European Parliament is one of at least two assemblies in the world with more than one meeting place (another being the parliament of the Isle of Man, Tynwald) and one of the few that does not have the power to decide its own location.The Strasbourg seat is seen as a symbol of reconciliation between France and Germany, the Strasbourg region having been fought over by the two countries in the past.", "However, the cost and inconvenience of having two seats is questioned.", "While Strasbourg is the official seat, and sits alongside the Council of Europe, Brussels is home to nearly all other major EU institutions, with the majority of Parliament's work being carried out there.", "Critics have described the two-seat arrangement as a \"travelling circus\", and there is a strong movement to establish Brussels as the sole seat.", "This is because the other political institutions (the commission, Council and European Council) are located there, and hence Brussels is treated as the 'capital' of the EU.", "This movement has received strong backing from numerous figures, including Margot Wallström, Commission First-Vice President from 2004 to 2010, who stated that \"something that was once a very positive symbol of the EU reuniting France and Germany has now become a negative symbol of wasting money, bureaucracy and the insanity of the Brussels institutions\".", "The Green Party has also noted the environmental cost in a study led by Jean Lambert MEP and Caroline Lucas MEP; in addition to the extra 200 million euro spent on the extra seat, there are over 20,268 tonnes of additional carbon dioxide, undermining any environmental stance of the institution and the Union.", "The campaign is further backed by a million-strong online petition started by Cecilia Malmström MEP.", "In August 2014, an assessment by the European Court of Auditors calculated that relocating the Strasbourg seat of the European Parliament to Brussels would save €113.8 million per year.", "In 2006, there were allegations of irregularities in the charges made by the city of Strasbourg on buildings the Parliament rented, thus further harming the case for the Strasbourg seat.Most MEPs prefer Brussels as a single base.", "A poll of MEPs found 89% of the respondents wanting a single seat, and 81% preferring Brussels.", "Another survey found 68% support.", "In July 2011, an absolute majority of MEPs voted in favour of a single seat.", "In early 2011, the Parliament voted to scrap one of the Strasbourg sessions by holding two within a single week.", "The mayor of Strasbourg officially reacted by stating \"we will counter-attack by upturning the adversary's strength to our own profit, as a judoka would do\".", "However, as Parliament's seat is now fixed by the treaties, it can only be changed by the Council acting unanimously, meaning that France could veto any move.", "Former French President Nicolas Sarkozy stated that the Strasbourg seat is \"non-negotiable\" and that France has no intention of surrendering the only EU Institution on French soil.", "Given France's declared intention to veto any relocation to Brussels, some MEPs have advocated civil disobedience by refusing to take part in the monthly exodus to Strasbourg.However, the main building in Brussels has been suffering for more than a decade from a state of degradation.", "Renovation or reconstruction works including an hemicycle were estimated to cost at least €500 million in 2017 with fear that the cost would be even higher and possibly escalate up to €1 billion, whereas the seat in Strasbourg already offers a fully-fledged hemicycle." ], [ "Channels of dialogue, information, and communication with European civil society", "Over the last few years, European institutions have committed to promoting transparency, openness, and the availability of information about their work.", "In particular, transparency is regarded as pivotal to the action of European institutions and a general principle of EU law, to be applied to the activities of EU institutions in order to strengthen the Union's democratic foundation.", "The general principles of openness and transparency are reaffirmed in the articles 8 A, point 3 and 10.3 of the Treaty of Lisbon and the Maastricht Treaty respectively, stating that \"every citizen shall have the right to participate in the democratic life of the Union.", "Decisions shall be taken as openly and as closely as possible to the citizen\".", "Furthermore, both treaties acknowledge the value of dialogue between citizens, representative associations, civil society, and European institutions.===Dialogue with religious and non-confessional organisations===Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) lays the juridical foundation for an open, transparent dialogue between European institutions and churches, religious associations, and non-confessional and philosophical organisations.", "In July 2014, in the beginning of the 8th term, then President of the European Parliament Martin Schulz tasked Antonio Tajani, then vice-president, with implementing the dialogue with the religious and confessional organisations included in article 17.In this framework, the European Parliament hosts high-level conferences on inter-religious dialogue, also with focus on current issues and in relation with parliamentary works.===European Parliament Mediator for International Parental Child Abduction===The chair of European Parliament Mediator for International Parental Child Abduction was established in 1987 by initiative of British MEP Charles Henry Plumb, with the goal of helping minor children of international couples victim of parental abduction.", "The Mediator finds negotiated solutions in the higher interest of the minor when said minor is abducted by a parent following separation of the couple, regardless whether married or unmarried.", "Since its institution, the chair has been held by Mairead McGuinness (since 2014), Roberta Angelilli (2009–2014), Evelyne Gebhardt (2004–2009), Mary Banotti (1995–2004), and Marie-Claude Vayssade (1987–1994).", "The Mediator's main task is to assist parents in finding a solution in the minor's best interest through mediation, i.e.", "a form of controversy resolution alternative to lawsuit.", "The Mediator is activated by request of a citizen and, after evaluating the request, starts a mediation process aimed at reaching an agreement.", "Once subscribed by both parties and the Mediator, the agreement is official.", "The nature of the agreement is that of a private contract between parties.", "In defining the agreement, the European Parliament offers the parties the juridical support necessary to reach a sound, lawful agreement based on legality and equity.", "The agreement can be ratified by the competent national courts and can also lay the foundation for consensual separation or divorce." ], [ "European Parliamentary Research Service", "The European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS) is the European Parliament's in-house research department and think tank.", "It provides Members of the European Parliament and, where appropriate, parliamentary committees with independent, objective and authoritative analysis of, and research on, policy issues relating to the European Union, in order to assist them in their parliamentary work.", "It is also designed to increase Members' and EP committees' capacity to scrutinise and oversee the European Commission and other EU executive bodies.EPRS aims to provide a comprehensive range of products and services, backed by specialist internal expertise and knowledge sources in all policy fields, so empowering Members and committees through knowledge and contributing to the Parliament's effectiveness and influence as an institution.", "In undertaking this work, the EPRS supports and promotes parliamentary outreach to the wider public, including dialogue with relevant stakeholders in the EU's system of multi-level governance.", "All EPRS publications are publicly available on the EP Think Tank platform." ], [ "Eurobarometer of the European Parliament", "The European Parliament periodically commissions opinion polls and studies on public opinion trends in Member States to survey perceptions and expectations of citizens about its work and the overall activities of the European Union.", "Topics include citizens' perception of the European Parliament's role, their knowledge of the institution, their sense of belonging in the European Union, opinions on European elections and European integration, identity, citizenship, political values, but also on current issues such as climate change, current economy and politics, etc.", "Eurobarometer analyses seek to provide an overall picture of national situations, regional specificities, socio-demographic cleavages, and historical trends." ], [ "Prizes", "===Sakharov Prize===The ceremony of the Sakharov Prize awarded to Aung San Suu Kyi by Martin Schulz, in 2013With the Sakharov Prize, created in 1988, the European Parliament supports human rights by awarding individuals that contribute to promoting human rights worldwide, thus raising awareness on human rights violations.", "Priorities include: protection of human rights and fundamental liberties, with particular focus on freedom of expression; protection of minority rights; compliance with international law; and development of democracy and authentic rule of law.===European Charlemagne Youth Prize===The European Charlemagne Youth Prize seeks to encourage youth participation in the European integration process.", "It is awarded by the European Parliament and the Foundation of the International Charlemagne Prize of Aachen to youth projects aimed at nurturing common European identity and European citizenship.===European Citizens' Prize===The European Citizens' Prize is awarded by the European Parliament to activities and actions carried out by citizens and associations to promote integration between the citizens of EU member states and transnational cooperation projects in the EU.===LUX Prize===Since 2007, the LUX Prize is awarded by the European Parliament to films dealing with current topics of public European interest that encourage reflection on Europe and its future.", "Over time, the Lux Prize has become a prestigious cinema award which supports European film and production also outside the EU.===Daphne Caruana Galizia Journalism Prize===From 2021, the Daphne Caruana Galizia Journalism prize shall be awarded by the European Parliament to outstanding journalism that reflect EU values.", "The prize consists in an award of 20,000 euros and the very first winner will be revealed in October 2021.This award is named after the late Maltese journalist, Daphne Caruana Galizia who was assassinated in Malta on 16 October 2017.In 2021 the prize was awarded to the Pegasus Project." ], [ "See also", "* Parlamentarium* Parliamentwatch* State of the Union address (European Union)* Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * The same three co-authors have written every edition since the first in 1990.", "* * ( draft version on-line)* * * * * * Lodge, Juliet, ed.", "''The 2009 Elections to the European Parliament'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 327 pages* * * Sabbati, Giulio (2015).", "''European Parliament: Facts and Figures''.", "European Parliament – European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS).", "* * * * * * Dick Toornstra; Christian Meseth (2012).", "''Inside the European Parliament: A guide to its parliamentary and administrative structures''.", "European Parliament – Office for Promotion of Parliamentary Democracy (OPPD).", "* " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European Council" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Council''' is where EU leaders meet to set EU's political agenda, but they do not pass laws.", "Established as an informal summit in 1975, the European Council was formalised as an institution in 2009 upon the commencement of the Treaty of Lisbon.", "Its current president is Charles Michel, former Prime Minister of Belgium.It is composed of the heads of state or government of the EU member states, the President of the European Council, and the President of the European Commission.", "The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy also takes part in its meetings.The European Council is part of the executive branch of the European Union (EU), beside the European Commission." ], [ "Scope", "While the European Council has no legislative power, it is a strategic (and crisis-solving) body that provides the union with general political directions and priorities, and acts as a collective presidency.", "The European Commission remains the sole initiator of legislation, but the European Council provides a guide to legislative policy.The meetings of the European Council, still commonly referred to as EU summits, are chaired by its president and take place at least twice every six months; usually in the Europa building in Brussels.", "Decisions of the European Council are taken by consensus, except where the Treaties provide otherwise." ], [ "History", "The European Council officially gained the status of an EU institution after the Treaty of Lisbon in 2007, distinct from the Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers).", "Before that, the first summits of EU heads of state or government were held in February and July 1961 (in Paris and Bonn respectively).", "They were informal summits of the leaders of the European Community, and were started due to then-French President Charles de Gaulle's resentment at the domination of supranational institutions (notably the European Commission) over the integration process, but petered out.", "The first influential summit held, after the departure of de Gaulle, was the Hague summit of 1969, which reached an agreement on the admittance of the United Kingdom into the Community and initiated foreign policy cooperation (the European Political Cooperation) taking integration beyond economics.royal palace in Brussels during Belgium's 1987 presidency of the Council of the European UnionThe summits were only formalised in the period between 1974 and 1988.At the December summit in Paris in 1974, following a proposal from then-French president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, it was agreed that more high level, political input was needed following the \"empty chair crisis\" and economic problems.", "The inaugural ''European Council'', as it became known, was held in Dublin on 10 and 11 March 1975 during Ireland's first Presidency of the Council of Ministers.", "In 1987, it was included in the treaties for the first time (the Single European Act) and had a defined role for the first time in the Maastricht Treaty.", "At first only a minimum of two meetings per year were required, which resulted in an average of three meetings per year being held for the 1975–1995 period.", "Since 1996, the number of meetings were required to be minimum four per year.", "For the latest 2008–2014 period, this minimum was well exceeded, by an average of seven meetings being held per year.", "The seat of the Council was formalised in 2002, basing it in Brussels.", "Three types of European Councils exist: Informal, Scheduled and Extraordinary.", "While the informal meetings are also scheduled 1½ years in advance, they differ from the scheduled ordinary meetings by not ending with official ''Council conclusions'', as they instead end by more broad political ''Statements'' on some cherry picked policy matters.", "The extraordinary meetings always end with official ''Council conclusions''—but differs from the scheduled meetings by not being scheduled more than a year in advance, as for example in 2001 when the European Council gathered to lead the European Union's response to the 11 September attacks.Some meetings of the European Council—and, before the European Council was formalised, meetings of the heads of government—are seen by some as turning points in the history of the European Union.", "For example:* 1969, ''The Hague'': Foreign policy and enlargement.", "* 1974, ''Paris'': Creation of the council.", "* 1985, ''Milan'': Initiate IGC leading to the Single European Act.Press conference with European Commissioner Jacques Delors and Dutch ministers Wim Kok, Hans van den Broek and Ruud Lubbers, after the European Council of 9–10 December 1991 in Maastricht, which led to the Maastricht Treaty (1992)* 1991, ''Maastricht'': Agreement on the Maastricht Treaty.", "* 1992, ''Edinburgh'': Agreement (by treaty provision) to retain at Strasbourg the plenary seat of the European Parliament.", "* 1993, ''Copenhagen'': Leading to the definition of the Copenhagen Criteria.", "* 1997, ''Amsterdam'': Agreement on the Amsterdam Treaty.", "* 1998, ''Brussels'': Selected member states to adopt the euro.", "* 1999; ''Cologne'': Declaration on military forces.", "* 1999, ''Tampere'': Institutional reform* 2000, ''Lisbon'': Lisbon Strategy* 2002, ''Copenhagen'': Agreement for May 2004 enlargement.", "* 2007, ''Lisbon'': Agreement on the Lisbon Treaty.", "* 2009, ''Brussels'': Appointment of first president and merged High Representative.", "* 2010, European Financial Stability FacilityAs such, the European Council had already existed before it gained the status as an institution of the European Union with the entering into force of the Treaty of Lisbon, but even after it had been mentioned in the treaties (since the Single European Act) it could only take political decisions, not formal legal acts.", "However, when necessary, the Heads of State or Government could also meet as the Council of Ministers and take formal decisions in that role.", "Sometimes, this was even compulsory, e.g.", "Article 214(2) of the Treaty establishing the European Community provided (before it was amended by the Treaty of Lisbon) that ‘the Council, meeting ''in the composition of Heads of State or Government'' and acting by a qualified majority, shall nominate the person it intends to appoint as President of the Commission’ (emphasis added); the same rule applied in some monetary policy provisions introduced by the Maastricht Treaty (e.g.", "Article 109j TEC).", "In that case, what was politically part of a European Council meeting was legally a meeting of the Council of Ministers.", "When the European Council, already introduced into the treaties by the Single European Act, became an institution by virtue of the Treaty of Lisbon, this was no longer necessary, and the \"Council of the European Union meeting in the composition of the Heads of State or Government\", was replaced in these instances by the European Council now taking formal legally binding decisions in these cases (Article 15 of the Treaty on European Union).The Treaty of Lisbon made the European Council a formal institution distinct from the (ordinary) Council of the EU, and created the present longer term and full-time presidency.", "As an outgrowth of the Council of the EU, the European Council had previously followed the same Presidency, rotating between each member state.", "While the Council of the EU retains that system, the European Council established, with no change in powers, a system of appointing an individual (without them being a national leader) for a two-and-a-half-year term—which can be renewed for the same person only once.", "Following the ratification of the treaty in December 2009, the European Council elected the then-Prime Minister of Belgium Herman Van Rompuy as its first permanent president (resigning from Belgian Prime Minister)." ], [ "Powers and functions", "The European Council is an official institution of the EU, described in the Lisbon Treaty as a body which \"''shall provide the Union with the necessary impetus for its development''\".", "Essentially it defines the EU's policy agenda and has thus been considered to be the motor of European integration.", "Beyond the need to provide \"impetus\", the council has developed further roles: to \"settle issues outstanding from discussions at a lower level\", to lead in foreign policy — acting externally as a \"collective Head of State\", \"formal ratification of important documents\" and \"involvement in the negotiation of the treaty changes\".Since the institution is composed of national leaders, it gathers the executive power of the member states and has thus a great influence in high-profile policy areas as for example foreign policy.", "It also exercises powers of appointment, such as appointment of its own President, the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, and the President of the European Central Bank.", "It proposes, to the European Parliament, a candidate for President of the European Commission.", "Moreover, the European Council influences police and justice planning, the composition of the commission, matters relating to the organisation of the rotating Council presidency, the suspension of membership rights, and changing the voting systems through the Passerelle Clause.", "Although the European Council has no direct legislative power, under the \"emergency brake\" procedure, a state outvoted in the Council of Ministers may refer contentious legislation to the European Council.", "However, the state may still be outvoted in the European Council.", "Hence with powers over the supranational executive of the EU, in addition to its other powers, the European Council has been described by some as the Union's \"supreme political authority\"." ], [ "Composition", "The European Council consists of the heads of state or government of the member states, alongside its own President and the Commission President (both non-voting).", "The meetings used to be regularly attended by the national foreign minister as well, and the Commission President likewise accompanied by another member of the commission.", "However, since the Treaty of Lisbon, this has been discontinued, as the size of the body had become somewhat large following successive accessions of new Member States to the Union.Meetings can also include other invitees, such as the President of the European Central Bank, as required.", "The Secretary-General of the Council attends, and is responsible for organisational matters, including minutes.", "The President of the European Parliament also attends to give an opening speech outlining the European Parliament's position before talks begin.Additionally, the negotiations involve a large number of other people working behind the scenes.", "Most of those people, however, are not allowed to the conference room, except for two delegates per state to relay messages.", "At the push of a button members can also call for advice from a Permanent Representative via the \"Antici Group\" in an adjacent room.", "The group is composed of diplomats and assistants who convey information and requests.", "Interpreters are also required for meetings as members are permitted to speak in their own languages.As the composition is not precisely defined, some states which have a considerable division of executive power can find it difficult to decide who should attend the meetings.", "While an MEP, Alexander Stubb argued that there was no need for the President of Finland to attend Council meetings with or instead of the Prime Minister of Finland (who was head of European foreign policy).", "In 2008, having become Finnish Foreign Minister, Stubb was forced out of the Finnish delegation to the emergency council meeting on the Georgian crisis because the President wanted to attend the high-profile summit as well as the Prime Minister (only two people from each country could attend the meetings).", "This was despite Stubb being Chair-in-Office of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe at the time which was heavily involved in the crisis.", "Problems also occurred in Poland where the President of Poland and the Prime Minister of Poland were of different parties and had a different foreign policy response to the crisis.", "A similar situation arose in Romania between President Traian Băsescu and Prime Minister Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu in 2007–2008 and again in 2012 with Prime Minister Victor Ponta, who both opposed the president.===Eurozone summits===A number of ad hoc meetings of heads of state or government of the member states of the euro area were held in 2010 and 2011 to discuss the Sovereign Debt crisis.", "It was agreed in October 2011 that they should meet regularly twice a year (with extra meetings if needed).", "This will normally be at the end of a European Council meeting and according to the same format (chaired by the President of the European Council and including the President of the Commission), but usually restricted to the (currently 20) heads of state or government of the member states of the eurozone.===President===The President of the European Council is elected by the European Council by a qualified majority for a once-renewable term of two and a half years.", "The President must report to the European Parliament after each European Council meeting.", "The post was created by the Treaty of Lisbon and was subject to a debate over its exact role.", "Prior to Lisbon, the Presidency rotated in accordance with the Presidency of the Council of the European Union.", "The role of that President-in-Office was in no sense (other than protocol) equivalent to an office of a head of state, merely a ''primus inter pares'' (first among equals) role among other European heads of government.", "The President-in-Office was primarily responsible for preparing and chairing the Council meetings, and had no executive powers other than the task of representing the Union externally.", "Now the leader of the Council Presidency country can still act as president when the permanent president is absent.===Members======Political alliances===European political affiliation of the current members of the European CouncilAlmost all members of the European Council are members of a political party at national level, and most of these are also members of a political party at European level or other alliances such as Renew Europe.", "These frequently hold pre-meetings of their European Council members, prior to its meetings.", "However, the European Council is composed to represent the EU's states rather than political alliances and decisions are generally made on these lines, though ideological alignment can colour their political agreements and their choice of appointments (such as their president).The charts below outline the number of leaders affiliated to each alliance and their total voting weight.", "The map indicates the alignment of each individual country.===Members timeline===" ], [ "Seat and meetings", "The European Council is required by Article 15.3 TEU to meet at least twice every six months, but convenes more frequently in practice.", "Despite efforts to contain business, meetings typically last for at least two days, and run long into the night.Until 2002, the venue for European Council summits was the member state that held the rotating Presidency of the Council of the European Union.", "However, European leaders agreed during ratification of the Nice Treaty to forego this arrangement at such a time as the total membership of the European Union surpassed 18 member states.", "An advanced implementation of this agreement occurred in 2002, with certain states agreeing to waive their right to host meetings, favouring Brussels as the location.", "Following the growth of the EU to 25 member states, with the 2004 enlargement, all subsequent official summits of the European Council have been in Brussels, with the exception of punctuated ad hoc meetings, such as the 2017 informal European Council in Malta.", "The logistical, environmental, financial and security arrangements of hosting large summits are usually cited as the primary factors in the decision by EU leaders to move towards a permanent seat for the European Council.", "Additionally, some scholars argue that the move, when coupled with the formalisation of the European Council in the Lisbon Treaty, represents an institutionalisation of an ad hoc EU organ that had its origins in Luxembourg compromise, with national leaders reasserting their dominance as the EU's \"supreme political authority\".Originally, both the European Council and the Council of the European Union utilised the Justus Lipsius building as their Brussels venue.", "In order to make room for additional meeting space a number of renovations were made, including the conversion of an underground carpark into additional press briefing rooms.", "However, in 2004 leaders decided the logistical problems created by the outdated facilities warranted the construction of a new purpose built seat able to cope with the nearly 6,000 meetings, working groups, and summits per year.", "This resulted in the Europa building, which opened its doors in 2017.The focal point of the new building, the distinctive multi-storey \"lantern-shaped\" structure in which the main meeting room is located, is utilised in both the European Council's and Council of the European Union's official logos." ], [ "Role in security and defence" ], [ "See also", "* Laeken indicators* Euro summit* Presidency of the Council of the European Union* List of members of the European Council" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " * Access to documents of the European Council on EUR-Lex* Archive of European Integration – Summit Guide* European Council Collection of documents – CVCE * Reflection Group established by the European Council* EU Council: Relations with EaP region of strategic importance" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euthanasia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Euthanasia''' (from : + ) is the practise of intentionally ending life to eliminate pain and suffering.Different countries have different euthanasia laws.", "The British House of Lords select committee on medical ethics defines euthanasia as \"a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life to relieve intractable suffering\".", "In the Netherlands and Belgium, euthanasia is understood as \"termination of life by a doctor at the request of a patient\".", "The Dutch law, however, does not use the term 'euthanasia' but includes the concept under the broader definition of \"assisted suicide and termination of life on request\".Euthanasia is categorised in different ways, which include voluntary, non-voluntary, and involuntary.", "Voluntary euthanasia is when a person wishes to have their life ended and is legal in a growing number of countries.", "Non-voluntary euthanasia occurs when a patient's consent is unavailable and is legal in some countries under certain limited conditions, in both active and passive forms.", "Involuntary euthanasia, which is done without asking for consent or against the patient's will, is illegal in all countries and is usually considered murder., euthanasia had become the most active area of research in bioethics.In some countries, divisive public controversy occurs over the moral, ethical, and legal issues associated with euthanasia.", "Passive euthanasia (known as \"pulling the plug\") is legal under some circumstances in many countries.", "Active euthanasia, however, is legal or ''de facto'' legal in only a handful of countries (for example, Belgium, Canada, and Switzerland), which limit it to specific circumstances and require the approval of counsellors, doctors, or other specialists.", "In some countries—such as Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan—support for active euthanasia is almost nonexistent." ], [ "Definition", "Like other terms borrowed from history, \"euthanasia\" has had different meanings depending on usage.", "The first apparent usage of the term \"euthanasia\" belongs to the historian Suetonius, who described how the Emperor Augustus, \"dying quickly and without suffering in the arms of his wife, Livia, experienced the 'euthanasia' he had wished for.\"", "The word \"euthanasia\" was first used in a medical context by Francis Bacon in the 17th century to refer to an easy, painless, happy death, during which it was a \"physician's responsibility to alleviate the 'physical sufferings' of the body.\"", "Bacon referred to an \"outward euthanasia\"—the term \"outward\" he used to distinguish from a spiritual concept—the euthanasia \"which regards the preparation of the soul.", "\"In current usage, euthanasia has been defined as the \"painless inducement of a quick death\".", "However, it is argued that this approach fails to properly define euthanasia, as it leaves open a number of possible actions that would meet the requirements of the definition but would not be seen as euthanasia.", "In particular, these include situations where a person kills another, painlessly, but for no reason beyond that of personal gain, or accidental deaths that are quick and painless but not intentional.Another approach incorporates the notion of suffering into the definition.", "The definition offered by the Oxford English Dictionary incorporates suffering as a necessary condition with \"the painless killing of a patient suffering from an incurable and painful disease or in an irreversible coma\", This approach is included in Marvin Khol and Paul Kurtz's definition of it as \"a mode or act of inducing or permitting death painlessly as a relief from suffering\".", "Counterexamples can be given: such definitions may encompass killing a person suffering from an incurable disease for personal gain (such as to claim an inheritance), and commentators such as Tom Beauchamp and Arnold Davidson have argued that doing so would constitute \"murder simpliciter\" rather than euthanasia.The third element incorporated into many definitions is that of intentionality: the death must be intended rather than accidental, and the intent of the action must be a \"merciful death\".", "Michael Wreen argued that \"the principal thing that distinguishes euthanasia from intentional killing simpliciter is the agent's motive: it must be a good motive insofar as the good of the person killed is concerned.\"", "Similarly, Heather Draper speaks to the importance of motive, arguing that \"the motive forms a crucial part of arguments for euthanasia, because it must be in the best interests of the person on the receiving end.\"", "Definitions such as those offered by the House of Lords Select committee on Medical Ethics take this path, where euthanasia is defined as \"a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, to relieve intractable suffering.\"", "Beauchamp and Davidson also highlight Baruch Brody's \"an act of euthanasia is one in which one person ... (A) kills another person (B) for the benefit of the second person, who actually does benefit from being killed\".Draper argued that any definition of euthanasia must incorporate four elements: an agent and a subject; an intention; causal proximity, such that the actions of the agent lead to the outcome; and an outcome.", "Based on this, she offered a definition incorporating those elements, stating that euthanasia \"must be defined as death that results from the intention of one person to kill another person, using the most gentle and painless means possible, that is motivated solely by the best interests of the person who dies.\"", "Prior to Draper, Beauchamp and Davidson had also offered a definition that included these elements.", "Their definition specifically discounts fetuses to distinguish between abortions and euthanasia:Wreen, in part responding to Beauchamp and Davidson, offered a six-part definition:Wreen also considered a seventh requirement: \"(7) The good specified in (6) is, or at least includes, the avoidance of evil\", although, as Wreen noted in the paper, he was not convinced that the restriction was required.In discussing his definition, Wreen noted the difficulty of justifying euthanasia when faced with the notion of the subject's \"right to life\".", "In response, Wreen argued that euthanasia has to be voluntary and that \"involuntary euthanasia is, as such, a great wrong\".", "Other commentators incorporate consent more directly into their definitions.", "For example, in a discussion of euthanasia presented in 2003 by the European Association of Palliative Care (EPAC) Ethics Task Force, the authors offered: \"Medicalized killing of a person without the person's consent, whether nonvoluntary (where the person is unable to consent) or involuntary (against the person's will), is not euthanasia: it is murder.", "Hence, euthanasia can be voluntary only.\"", "Although the EPAC Ethics Task Force argued that both non-voluntary and involuntary euthanasia could not be included in the definition of euthanasia, there is discussion in the literature about excluding one but not the other." ], [ "Classification", "Euthanasia may be classified into three types, according to whether a person gives informed consent: voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary.There is a debate within the medical and bioethics literature about whether or not the non-voluntary (and by extension, involuntary) killing of patients can be regarded as euthanasia, irrespective of intent or the patient's circumstances.", "In the definitions offered by Beauchamp and Davidson and, later, by Wreen, consent on the part of the patient was not considered one of their criteria, although it may have been required to justify euthanasia.", "However, others see consent as essential.===Voluntary euthanasia===Voluntary euthanasia is conducted with the consent of the patient.", "Active voluntary euthanasia is legal in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands.", "Passive voluntary euthanasia is legal throughout the US per ''Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health''.", "When the patient brings about their own death with the assistance of a physician, the term assisted suicide is often used instead.", "Assisted suicide is legal in Switzerland and the U.S. states of California, Oregon, Washington, Montana and Vermont.===Non-voluntary euthanasia===Non-voluntary euthanasia is conducted when the consent of the patient is unavailable.", "Examples include child euthanasia, which is illegal worldwide but decriminalised under certain specific circumstances in the Netherlands under the Groningen Protocol.", "Passive forms of non-voluntary euthanasia (i.e.", "withholding treatment) are legal in a number of countries under specified conditions.===Involuntary euthanasia===Involuntary euthanasia is conducted against the will of the patient.===Passive and active euthanasia===Voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary types can be further divided into passive or active variants.", "Passive euthanasia entails the withholding treatment necessary for the continuance of life.", "Active euthanasia entails the use of lethal substances or forces (such as administering a lethal injection), and is more controversial.", "While some authors consider these terms to be misleading and unhelpful, they are nonetheless commonly used.", "In some cases, such as the administration of increasingly necessary, but toxic doses of painkillers, there is a debate whether or not to regard the practice as active or passive." ], [ "History", "''The Death of Socrates'', by Jacques-Louis David (1787), depicting Socrates preparing to drink hemlock, following his conviction for corrupting the youth of AthensEuthanasia was practiced in Ancient Greece and Rome: for example, hemlock was employed as a means of hastening death on the island of Kea, a technique also employed in Massalia.", "Euthanasia, in the sense of the deliberate hastening of a person's death, was supported by Socrates, Plato and Seneca the Elder in the ancient world, although Hippocrates appears to have spoken against the practice, writing \"I will not prescribe a deadly drug to please someone, nor give advice that may cause his death\" (noting there is some debate in the literature about whether or not this was intended to encompass euthanasia).=== Early modern period ===The term ''euthanasia'', in the earlier sense of supporting someone as they died, was used for the first time by Francis Bacon.", "In his work, ''Euthanasia medica'', he chose this ancient Greek word and, in doing so, distinguished between ''euthanasia interior'', the preparation of the soul for death, and ''euthanasia exterior'', which was intended to make the end of life easier and painless, in exceptional circumstances by shortening life.", "That the ancient meaning of an easy death came to the fore again in the early modern period can be seen from its definition in the 18th century ''Zedlers Universallexikon'':Euthanasia: a very gentle and quiet death, which happens without painful convulsions.", "The word comes from ευ, ''bene'', well, and θανατος, ''mors'', death.The concept of euthanasia in the sense of alleviating the process of death goes back to the medical historian Karl Friedrich Heinrich Marx, who drew on Bacon's philosophical ideas.", "According to Marx, a doctor had a moral duty to ease the suffering of death through encouragement, support and mitigation using medication.", "Such an \"alleviation of death\" reflected the contemporary ''zeitgeist'', but was brought into the medical canon of responsibility for the first time by Marx.", "Marx also stressed the distinction of the theological care of the soul of sick people from the physical care and medical treatment by doctors.Euthanasia in its modern sense has always been strongly opposed in the Judeo-Christian tradition.", "Thomas Aquinas opposed both and argued that the practice of euthanasia contradicted our natural human instincts of survival, as did Francois Ranchin (1565–1641), a French physician and professor of medicine, and Michael Boudewijns (1601–1681), a physician and teacher.", "Other voices argued for euthanasia, such as John Donne in 1624, and euthanasia continued to be practised.", "In 1678, the publication of Caspar Questel's ''De pulvinari morientibus non-subtrahend'', (\"''On the pillow of which the dying should not be deprived''\"), initiated debate on the topic.", "Questel described various customs which were employed at the time to hasten the death of the dying, (including the sudden removal of a pillow, which was believed to accelerate death), and argued against their use, as doing so was \"against the laws of God and Nature\".", "This view was shared by others who followed, including Philipp Jakob Spener, Veit Riedlin and Johann Georg Krünitz.", "Despite opposition, euthanasia continued to be practised, involving techniques such as bleeding, suffocation, and removing people from their beds to be placed on the cold ground.Suicide and euthanasia became more accepted during the Age of Enlightenment.", "Thomas More wrote of euthanasia in ''Utopia'', although it is not clear if More was intending to endorse the practice.", "Other cultures have taken different approaches: for example, in Japan suicide has not traditionally been viewed as a sin, as it is used in cases of honor, and accordingly, the perceptions of euthanasia are different from those in other parts of the world.===Beginnings of the contemporary euthanasia debate===In the mid-1800s, the use of morphine to treat \"the pains of death\" emerged, with John Warren recommending its use in 1848.A similar use of chloroform was revealed by Joseph Bullar in 1866.However, in neither case was it recommended that the use should be to hasten death.", "In 1870 Samuel Williams, a schoolteacher, initiated the contemporary euthanasia debate through a speech given at the Birmingham Speculative Club in England, which was subsequently published in a one-off publication entitled ''Essays of the Birmingham Speculative Club'', the collected works of a number of members of an amateur philosophical society.", "Williams' proposal was to use chloroform to deliberately hasten the death of terminally ill patients:The essay was favourably reviewed in ''The Saturday Review'', but an editorial against the essay appeared in ''The Spectator''.", "From there it proved to be influential, and other writers came out in support of such views: Lionel Tollemache wrote in favour of euthanasia, as did Annie Besant, the essayist and reformer who later became involved with the National Secular Society, considering it a duty to society to \"die voluntarily and painlessly\" when one reaches the point of becoming a 'burden'.", "''Popular Science'' analyzed the issue in May 1873, assessing both sides of the argument.", "Kemp notes that at the time, medical doctors did not participate in the discussion; it was \"essentially a philosophical enterprise ... tied inextricably to a number of objections to the Christian doctrine of the sanctity of human life\".=== Early euthanasia movement in the United States ===Felix Adler, , the first prominent American to argue for permitting suicide in cases of chronic illnessThe rise of the euthanasia movement in the United States coincided with the so-called Gilded Age, a time of social and technological change that encompassed an \"individualistic conservatism that praised laissez-faire economics, scientific method, and rationalism\", along with major depressions, industrialisation and conflict between corporations and labour unions.", "It was also the period in which the modern hospital system was developed, which has been seen as a factor in the emergence of the euthanasia debate.Robert Ingersoll argued for euthanasia, stating in 1894 that where someone is suffering from a terminal illness, such as terminal cancer, they should have a right to end their pain through suicide.", "Felix Adler offered a similar approach, although, unlike Ingersoll, Adler did not reject religion.", "In fact, he argued from an Ethical Culture framework.", "In 1891, Adler argued that those suffering from overwhelming pain should have the right to commit suicide, and, furthermore, that it should be permissible for a doctor to assist – thus making Adler the first \"prominent American\" to argue for suicide in cases where people were suffering from chronic illness.", "Both Ingersoll and Adler argued for voluntary euthanasia of adults suffering from terminal ailments.", "Dowbiggin argues that by breaking down prior moral objections to euthanasia and suicide, Ingersoll and Adler enabled others to stretch the definition of euthanasia.The first attempt to legalise euthanasia took place in the United States, when Henry Hunt introduced legislation into the General Assembly of Ohio in 1906.Hunt did so at the behest of Anna Sophina Hall, a wealthy heiress who was a major figure in the euthanasia movement during the early 20th century in the United States.", "Hall had watched her mother die after an extended battle with liver cancer, and had dedicated herself to ensuring that others would not have to endure the same suffering.", "Towards this end she engaged in an extensive letter writing campaign, recruited Lurana Sheldon and Maud Ballington Booth, and organised a debate on euthanasia at the annual meeting of the American Humane Association in 1905 – described by Jacob Appel as the first significant public debate on the topic in the 20th century.Hunt's bill called for the administration of an anesthetic to bring about a patient's death, so long as the person is of lawful age and sound mind, and was suffering from a fatal injury, an irrevocable illness, or great physical pain.", "It also required that the case be heard by a physician, required informed consent in front of three witnesses, and required the attendance of three physicians who had to agree that the patient's recovery was impossible.", "A motion to reject the bill outright was voted down, but the bill failed to pass, 79 to 23.Along with the Ohio euthanasia proposal, in 1906 Assemblyman Ross Gregory introduced a proposal to permit euthanasia to the Iowa legislature.", "However, the Iowa legislation was broader in scope than that offered in Ohio.", "It allowed for the death of any person of at least ten years of age who suffered from an ailment that would prove fatal and cause extreme pain, should they be of sound mind and express a desire to artificially hasten their death.", "In addition, it allowed for infants to be euthanised if they were sufficiently deformed, and permitted guardians to request euthanasia on behalf of their wards.", "The proposed legislation also imposed penalties on physicians who refused to perform euthanasia when requested: a 6–12-month prison term and a fine of between $200 and $1,000.The proposal proved to be controversial.", "It engendered considerable debate and failed to pass, having been withdrawn from consideration after being passed to the Committee on Public Health.After 1906 the euthanasia debate reduced in intensity, resurfacing periodically, but not returning to the same level of debate until the 1930s in the United Kingdom.Euthanasia opponent Ian Dowbiggin argues that the early membership of the Euthanasia Society of America (ESA) reflected how many perceived euthanasia at the time, often seeing it as a eugenics matter rather than an issue concerning individual rights.", "Dowbiggin argues that not every eugenist joined the ESA \"solely for eugenic reasons\", but he postulates that there were clear ideological connections between the eugenics and euthanasia movements.===1930s in Britain===The Voluntary Euthanasia Legalisation Society was founded in 1935 by Charles Killick Millard (now called Dignity in Dying).", "The movement campaigned for the legalisation of euthanasia in Great Britain.In January 1936, King George V was given a fatal dose of morphine and cocaine to hasten his death.", "At the time he was suffering from cardio-respiratory failure, and the decision to end his life was made by his physician, Lord Dawson.", "Although this event was kept a secret for over 50 years, the death of George V coincided with proposed legislation in the House of Lords to legalise euthanasia.=== Nazi Euthanasia Program ===Hartheim Euthanasia Centre, where over 18,000 people were killedA 24 July 1939 killing of a severely disabled infant in Nazi Germany was described in a BBC \"Genocide Under the Nazis Timeline\" as the first \"state-sponsored euthanasia\".", "Parties that consented to the killing included Hitler's office, the parents, and the Reich Committee for the Scientific Registration of Serious and Congenitally Based Illnesses.", "''The Telegraph'' noted that the killing of the disabled infant—whose name was Gerhard Kretschmar, born blind, with missing limbs, subject to convulsions, and reportedly \"an idiot\"— provided \"the rationale for a secret Nazi decree that led to 'mercy killings' of almost 300,000 mentally and physically handicapped people\".", "While Kretchmar's killing received parental consent, most of the 5,000 to 8,000 children killed afterwards were forcibly taken from their parents.The \"euthanasia campaign\" of mass murder gathered momentum on 14 January 1940 when the \"handicapped\" were killed with gas vans and at killing centres, eventually leading to the deaths of 70,000 adult Germans.", "Professor Robert Jay Lifton, author of ''The Nazi Doctors'' and a leading authority on the T4 program, contrasts this program with what he considers to be a genuine euthanasia.", "He explains that the Nazi version of \"euthanasia\" was based on the work of Adolf Jost, who published ''The Right to Death'' (Das Recht auf den Tod) in 1895.Lifton writes:Jost argued that control over the death of the individual must ultimately belong to the social organism, the state.", "This concept is in direct opposition to the Anglo-American concept of euthanasia, which emphasizes the ''individual's'' 'right to die' or 'right to death' or 'right to his or her own death,' as the ultimate human claim.", "In contrast, Jost was pointing to the state's right to kill. ...", "Ultimately the argument was biological: 'The rights to death are the key to the fitness of life.'", "The state must own death—must kill—in order to keep the social organism alive and healthy.In modern terms, the use of \"euthanasia\" in the context of Action T4 is seen to be a euphemism to disguise a program of genocide, in which people were killed on the grounds of \"disabilities, religious beliefs, and discordant individual values\".", "Compared to the discussions of euthanasia that emerged post-war, the Nazi program may have been worded in terms that appear similar to the modern use of \"euthanasia\", but there was no \"mercy\" and the patients were not necessarily terminally ill.", "Despite these differences, historian and euthanasia opponent Ian Dowbiggin writes that \"the origins of Nazi euthanasia, like those of the American euthanasia movement, predate the Third Reich and were intertwined with the history of eugenics and Social Darwinism, and with efforts to discredit traditional morality and ethics.", "\"=== 1949 New York State Petition for Euthanasia and Catholic opposition ===On 6 January 1949, the Euthanasia Society of America presented to the New York State Legislature a petition to legalize euthanasia, signed by 379 leading Protestant and Jewish ministers, the largest group of religious leaders ever to have taken this stance.", "A similar petition had been sent to the New York Legislature in 1947, signed by approximately 1,000 New York physicians.", "Roman Catholic religious leaders criticized the petition, saying that such a bill would \"legalize a suicide-murder pact\" and a \"rationalization of the fifth commandment of God, 'Thou Shalt Not Kill.", "The Right Reverend Robert E. McCormick stated that:The petition brought tensions between the American Euthanasia Society and the Catholic Church to a head that contributed to a climate of anti-Catholic sentiment generally, regarding issues such as birth control, eugenics, and population control.", "However, the petition did not result in any legal changes." ], [ "Debate", "Historically, the euthanasia debate has tended to focus on a number of key concerns.", "According to euthanasia opponent Ezekiel Emanuel, proponents of euthanasia have presented four main arguments: a) that people have a right to self-determination, and thus should be allowed to choose their own fate; b) assisting a subject to die might be a better choice than requiring that they continue to suffer; c) the distinction between passive euthanasia, which is often permitted, and active euthanasia, which is not substantive (or that the underlying principle–the doctrine of double effect–is unreasonable or unsound); and d) permitting euthanasia will not necessarily lead to unacceptable consequences.", "Pro-euthanasia activists often point to countries like the Netherlands and Belgium, and states like Oregon, where euthanasia has been legalized, to argue that it is mostly unproblematic.Similarly, Emanuel argues that there are four major arguments presented by opponents of euthanasia: a) not all deaths are painful; b) alternatives, such as cessation of active treatment, combined with the use of effective pain relief, are available; c) the distinction between active and passive euthanasia is morally significant; and d) legalising euthanasia will place society on a slippery slope, which will lead to unacceptable consequences.", "In fact, in Oregon, in 2013, pain was not one of the top five reasons people sought euthanasia.", "Top reasons were a loss of dignity, and a fear of burdening others.In the United States in 2013, 47% nationwide supported doctor-assisted suicide.", "This included 32% of Latinos, 29% of African-Americans.", "Some U.S. disability rights organizations have also opposed bills legalizing assisted suicide.A 2015 Populus poll in the United Kingdom found broad public support for assisted dying.", "82% of people supported the introduction of assisted dying laws, including 86% of people with disabilities.An alternative approach to the question is seen in the hospice movement which promotes palliative care for the dying and terminally ill.", "This has pioneered the use of pain-relieving drugs in a holistic atmosphere in which the patient's spiritual care ranks alongside physical care.", "It 'intends neither to hasten nor postpone death'." ], [ "Legal status", "Current status of euthanasia around the world:West's ''Encyclopedia of American Law'' states that \"a 'mercy killing' or euthanasia is generally considered to be a criminal homicide\" and is normally used as a synonym of homicide committed at a request made by the patient.The judicial sense of the term \"homicide\" includes any intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, even to relieve intractable suffering.", "Not all homicide is unlawful.", "Two designations of homicide that carry no criminal punishment are justifiable and excusable homicide.", "In most countries this is not the status of euthanasia.", "The term \"euthanasia\" is usually confined to the active variety; the University of Washington website states that \"euthanasia generally means that the physician would act directly, for instance by giving a lethal injection, to end the patient's life\".", "Physician-assisted suicide is thus not classified as euthanasia by the US State of Oregon, where it is legal under the Oregon Death with Dignity Act, and despite its name, it is not legally classified as suicide either.", "Unlike physician-assisted suicide, withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatments with patient consent (voluntary) is almost unanimously considered, at least in the United States, to be legal.", "The use of pain medication to relieve suffering, even if it hastens death, has been held as legal in several court decisions.Some governments around the world have legalized voluntary euthanasia but most commonly it is still considered to be criminal homicide.", "In the Netherlands and Belgium, where euthanasia has been legalized, it still remains homicide although it is not prosecuted and not punishable if the perpetrator (the doctor) meets certain legal conditions.In a historic judgment, the Supreme court of India legalized passive euthanasia.", "The apex court remarked in the judgment that the Constitution of India values liberty, dignity, autonomy, and privacy.", "A bench headed by Chief Justice Dipak Misra delivered a unanimous judgment." ], [ "Health professionals' sentiment", "A 2010 survey in the United States of more than 10,000 physicians found that 16.3% of physicians would consider halting life-sustaining therapy because the family demanded it, even if they believed that it was premature.", "Approximately 54.5% would not, and the remaining 29.2% responded \"it depends\".", "The study also found that 45.8% of physicians agreed that physician-assisted suicide should be allowed in some cases; 40.7% did not, and the remaining 13.5% felt it depended.In the United Kingdom, the assisted dying campaign group Dignity in Dying cites research in which 54% of general practitioners support or are neutral towards a law change on assisted dying.", "Similarly, a 2017 Doctors.net.uk poll reported in the British Medical Journal stated that 55% of doctors believe assisted dying, in defined circumstances, should be legalised in the UK." ], [ "Religious views", "===Christianity=======Broadly against====The Roman Catholic Church condemns euthanasia and assisted suicide as morally wrong.", "As paragraph 2324 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church states, \"Intentional euthanasia, whatever its forms or motives, is murder.", "It is gravely contrary to the dignity of the human person and to the respect due to the living God, his Creator\".", "Because of this, per the Declaration on Euthanasia, the practice is unacceptable within the Church.", "The Orthodox Church in America, along with other Eastern Orthodox Churches, also opposes euthanasia stating that \"euthanasia is the deliberate cessation of human life, and, as such, must be condemned as murder.", "\"Many non-Catholic churches in the United States take a stance against euthanasia.", "Among Protestant denominations, the Episcopal Church passed a resolution in 1991 opposing euthanasia and assisted suicide stating that it is \"morally wrong and unacceptable to take a human life to relieve the suffering caused by incurable illnesses.\"", "Protestant and other non-Catholic churches which oppose euthanasia include:* Assemblies of God* The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints* Church of the Nazarene* Evangelical Lutheran Church in America * Presbyterian Church in America * Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod* Reformed Church in America* Salvation Army * Seventh-day Adventist Church * Southern Baptist Convention * United Methodist Church ====Partially in favor of====The Church of England accepts passive euthanasia under some circumstances, but is strongly against active euthanasia, and has led opposition against recent attempts to legalise it.", "The United Church of Canada accepts passive euthanasia under some circumstances, but is in general against active euthanasia, with growing acceptance now that active euthanasia has been partly legalised in Canada.", "The Waldensians take a liberal stance on Euthanasia and allow the decision to lie with individuals.===Islam===Euthanasia is a complex issue in Islamic theology; however, in general it is considered contrary to Islamic law and holy texts.", "Among interpretations of the Qur'an and Hadith, the early termination of life is a crime, be it by suicide or helping one commit suicide.", "The various positions on the cessation of medical treatment are mixed and considered a different class of action than direct termination of life, especially if the patient is suffering.", "Suicide and euthanasia are both crimes in almost all Muslim majority countries.===Judaism===There is much debate on the topic of euthanasia in Judaic theology, ethics, and general opinion (especially in Israel and the United States).", "Passive euthanasia was declared legal by Israel's highest court under certain conditions and has reached some level of acceptance.", "Active euthanasia remains illegal; however, the topic is actively under debate with no clear consensus through legal, ethical, theological and spiritual perspectives." ], [ "See also", "* – lists many countries with notable positions* – lists some countries with notable positions* List of deaths from legal euthanasia and assisted suicide* Advance healthcare directive* Aruna Shanbaug case* Terri Schiavo case* Child euthanasia in Nazi Germany* Coup de grâce* Dysthanasia* Euthanasia and the slippery slope* Euthanasia device* Medical law* Palliative sedation* Principle of double effect* Sarco pod" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * Physician assisted death from ''The Hastings Center''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Extraterrestrial life" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Extraterrestrial life''', '''alien life''', or colloquially simply '''aliens''' is life which does not originate from Earth.", "No extraterrestrial life has yet been conclusively detected.", "Such life might range from simple forms such as prokaryotes to intelligent beings, possibly bringing forth civilizations that might be far more advanced than humanity.", "The Drake equation speculates about the existence of sapient life elsewhere in the universe.", "The science of extraterrestrial life is known as astrobiology.Speculation about the possibility of inhabited worlds beyond Earth dates back to antiquity.", "Early Christian writers discussed the idea of a \"plurality of worlds\" as proposed by earlier thinkers such as Democritus; Augustine references Epicurus's idea of innumerable worlds \"throughout the boundless immensity of space\" (originally expressed in his ''Letter to Herodotus'') in ''The City of God''.Pre-modern writers typically assumed extraterrestrial \"worlds\" are inhabited by living beings.", "William Vorilong, in the 15th century, acknowledged the possibility that Jesus could have visited extraterrestrial worlds to redeem their inhabitants.", "Nicholas of Cusa wrote in 1440 that Earth is \"a brilliant star\" like other celestial objects visible in space; which would appear similar to the Sun from an exterior perspective due to a layer of \"fiery brightness\" in the outer layer of the atmosphere.", "He theorised all extraterrestrial bodies could be inhabited by men, plants, and animals, including the Sun.", "Descartes wrote that there was no means to prove that the stars were not inhabited by \"intelligent creatures\", but their existence was a matter of speculation.Since the mid-20th century, active research has taken place to look for signs of extraterrestrial life, encompassing searches for current and historic extraterrestrial life, and a narrower search for extraterrestrial intelligent life.", "Depending on the category of search, methods range from the analysis of telescope and specimen data to radios used to detect and transmit communications.The concept of extraterrestrial life, and particularly extraterrestrial intelligence, has had a major cultural impact, especially extraterrestrials in fiction.", "Science fiction has communicated scientific ideas, imagined a wide range of possibilities, and influenced public interest in and perspectives on extraterrestrial life.", "One shared space is the debate over the wisdom of attempting communication with extraterrestrial intelligence.", "Some encourage aggressive methods to try to contact intelligent extraterrestrial life.", "Others – citing the tendency of technologically advanced human societies to enslave or destroy less advanced societies – argue it may be dangerous to actively draw attention to Earth." ], [ "Context", "If extraterrestrial life exists, it could range from simple microorganisms and multicellular organisms similar to animals or plants, to complex alien intelligences akin to humans.", "When scientists talk about extraterrestrial life, they consider all those types.", "Although it is possible that extraterrestrial life may have other configurations, scientists use the hierarchy of lifeforms from Earth for simplicity, as it is the only one known to exist.According to the Big Bang interpretations, the universe as a whole was initially too hot to allow life.", "15 million years later, it cooled to temperate levels, but the elements that make up living things did not exist yet.", "The only freely available elements at that point were hydrogen and helium.", "Carbon and oxygen (and later, water) would not appear until 50 million years later, created through stellar fusion.", "At that point, the difficulty for life to appear was not the temperature, but the scarcity of free heavy elements.", "Planetary systems emerged, and the first organic compounds may have formed in the protoplanetary disk of dust grains that would eventually create rocky planets like Earth.", "Although Earth was in a molten state after its birth and may have burned any organics that fell in it, it would have been more receptive once it cooled down.", "Once the right conditions on Earth were met, life started by a chemical process known as abiogenesis.", "Alternatively, life may have formed less frequently, then spread – by meteoroids, for example – between habitable planets in a process called panspermia.There is an area around a star, the circumstellar habitable zone or \"Goldilocks zone\", where water may be at the right temperature to exist in liquid form at a planetary surface.", "This area is neither too close to the star, where water would become steam, nor too far away, where water would be frozen as a rock.", "However, although useful as an approximation, planetary habitability is complex and defined by several factors.", "Being in the habitable zone is not enough for a planet to be habitable, not even to actually have such liquid water.", "Venus is located in the habitable zone of the Solar System but does not have liquid water because of the conditions of its atmosphere.", "Jovian planets or Gas Giants are not considered habitable even if they orbit close enough to their stars as hot Jupiters, due to crushing atmospheric pressures.", "The actual distances for the habitable zones vary according to the type of star, and even the solar activity of each specific star influences the local habitability.", "The type of star also defines the time the habitable zone will exist, as its presence and limits will change along with the star's stellar evolution.Life on Earth is quite ubiquitous across the planet and has adapted over time to almost all the available environments in it, even the most hostile ones.", "As a result, it is inferred that life in other celestial bodies may be equally adaptive.", "However, the origin of life is unrelated to its ease of adaptation, and may have stricter requirements.", "A planet or moon may not have any life on it, even if it was habitable." ], [ "Likelihood of existence", "It is unclear if life and intelligent life are ubiquitous in the cosmos or rare.", "The hypothesis of ubiquitous extraterrestrial life relies on the vast size and consistent physical laws of the observable universe.", "According to this argument, made by scientists such as Carl Sagan and Stephen Hawking, it would be improbable for life ''not'' to exist somewhere else other than Earth.", "This argument is embodied in the Copernican principle, which states that Earth does not occupy a unique position in the Universe, and the mediocrity principle, which states that there is nothing special about life on Earth.Other authors consider instead that life in the cosmos, or at least multicellular life, may be actually rare.", "The Rare Earth hypothesis maintains that life on Earth is possible because of a series of factors that range from the location in the galaxy and the configuration of the Solar System to local characteristics of the planet, and that it is unlikely that all such requirements are simultaneously met by another planet.", "The proponents of this hypothesis consider that very little evidence suggests the existence of extraterrestrial life, and that at this point it is just a desired result and not a reasonable scientific explanation for any gathered data.In 1961, astronomer and astrophysicist Frank Drake devised the Drake equation as a way to stimulate scientific dialogue at a meeting on the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI).", "The Drake equation is a probabilistic argument used to estimate the number of active, communicative extraterrestrial civilisations in the Milky Way galaxy.", "The Drake equation is::where::''N'' = the number of Milky Way galaxy civilisations already capable of communicating across interplanetary spaceand:''R''* = the average rate of star formation in our galaxy:''f''''p'' = the fraction of those stars that have planets:''n''''e'' = the average number of planets that can potentially support life:''f''''l'' = the fraction of planets that actually support life:''f''''i'' = the fraction of planets with life that evolves to become intelligent life (civilisations):''f''''c'' = the fraction of civilisations that develop a technology to broadcast detectable signs of their existence into space:''L'' = the length of time over which such civilisations broadcast detectable signals into spaceDrake's proposed estimates are as follows, but numbers on the right side of the equation are agreed as speculative and open to substitution:The Drake equation has proved controversial since, although it is written as a math equation, none of its values were known at the time.", "Although some values may eventually be measured, others are based on social sciences and are not knowable by their very nature.", "This does not allow one to make noteworthy conclusions from the equation.Based on observations from the Hubble Space Telescope, there are nearly 2 trillion galaxies in the observable universe.", "It is estimated that at least ten per cent of all Sun-like stars have a system of planets, i.e.", "there are stars with planets orbiting them in the observable universe.", "Even if it is assumed that only one out of a billion of these stars has planets supporting life, there would be some 6.25 billion life-supporting planetary systems in the observable universe.", "A 2013 study based on results from the ''Kepler'' spacecraft estimated that the Milky Way contains at least as many planets as it does stars, resulting in 100–400 billion exoplanets.The apparent contradiction between high estimates of the probability of the existence of extraterrestrial civilisations and the lack of evidence for such civilisations is known as the Fermi paradox.", "Dennis W. Sciama claimed that life's existence in the universe depends on various fundamental constants.", "Zhi-Wei Wang and Samuel L. Braunstein suggest that without a complete understanding of these constants, one might incorrectly perceive the universe as being intelligently designed for life.", "This perspective challenges the view that our universe is unique in its ability to support life, giving a potential explanation to the Fermi paradox." ], [ "Biochemical basis", "The first basic requirement for life is an environment with non-equilibrium thermodynamics, which means that the thermodynamic equilibrium must be broken by a source of energy.", "The traditional sources of energy in the cosmos are the stars, such as for life on Earth, which depends on the energy of the sun.", "However, there are other alternative energy sources, such as volcanos, plate tectonics, and hydrothermal vents.", "There are ecosystems on Earth in deep areas of the ocean that do not receive sunlight, and take energy from black smokers instead.", "Magnetic fields and radioactivity have also been proposed as sources of energy, although they would be less efficient ones.Life on Earth requires water in a liquid state as a solvent in which biochemical reactions take place.", "It is highly unlikely that an abiogenesis process can start within a gaseous or solid medium: the atom speeds, either too fast or too slow, make it difficult for specific ones to meet and start chemical reactions.", "A liquid medium also allows the transport of nutrients and substances required for metabolism.", "Sufficient quantities of carbon and other elements, along with water, might enable the formation of living organisms on terrestrial planets with a chemical make-up and temperature range similar to that of Earth.", "Life based on ammonia rather than water has been suggested as an alternative, though this solvent appears less suitable than water.", "It is also conceivable that there are forms of life whose solvent is a liquid hydrocarbon, such as methane, ethane or propane.Another unknown aspect of potential extraterrestrial life would be the chemical elements that would compose it.", "Life on Earth is largely composed of carbon, but there could be other hypothetical types of biochemistry.", "A potential replacement for carbon should be able to create complex molecules, store information required for evolution, and be freely available in the medium.", "To create DNA, RNA, or a close analog, such an element should be able to bind its atoms with many others, creating complex and stable molecules.", "It should be able to create at least three covalent bonds; two for making long strings and at least a third to add new links and allow for diverse information.", "Only nine elements meet this requirement: boron, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony (three bonds), carbon, silicon, germanium and tin (four bonds).", "As for abundance, carbon, nitrogen, and silicon are the most abundant ones in the universe, far more than the others.", "On Earth's crust the most abundant of those elements is silicon, in the Hydrosphere it is carbon and in the atmosphere, it is carbon and nitrogen.", "Silicon, however, has disadvantages over carbon.", "The molecules formed with silicon atoms are less stable, and more vulnerable to acids, oxygen, and light.", "An ecosystem of silicon-based lifeforms would require very low temperatures, high atmospheric pressure, an atmosphere devoid of oxygen, and a solvent other than water.", "The low temperatures required would add an extra problem, the difficulty to kickstart a process of abiogenesis to create life in the first place.Even if extraterrestrial life is based on carbon and uses water as a solvent, like Earth life, it may still have a radically different biochemistry.", "Life on Earth started with an RNA world and later evolved to its current form, where some of the RNA tasks were transferred to the DNA and proteins.", "Extraterrestrial life may still be stuck on the RNA world, or evolve into other configurations.", "It is unclear if our biochemistry is the most efficient one that could be generated, or which elements would follow a similar pattern.", "However, it is likely that, even if cells had a different composition to those from Earth, they would still have a cell membrane.", "Life on Earth jumped from prokaryotes to eukaryotes and from unicellular organisms to multicellular organisms through evolution.", "So far no alternative process to achieve such a result has been conceived, even if hypothetical.", "Evolution requires life to be divided into individual organisms, and no alternative organisation has been satisfactorily proposed either.", "At the basic level, membranes define the limit of a cell, between it and its environment, while remaining partially open to exchange energy and resources with it.The evolution from simple cells to eukaryotes, and from them to multicellular lifeforms, is not guaranteed.", "The Cambrian explosion took place thousands of millions of years after the origin of life, and its causes are not fully known yet.", "On the other hand, the jump to multicellularity took place several times, which suggests that it could be a case of convergent evolution, and so likely to take place on other planets as well.", "Palaeontologist Simon Conway Morris considers that convergent evolution would lead to kingdoms similar to our plants and animals, and that many features are likely to develop in alien animals as well, such as bilateral symmetry, limbs, digestive systems and heads with sensory organs.", "Scientists from the University of Oxford analysed it from the perspective of evolutionary theory and wrote in a study in the International Journal of Astrobiology that aliens may be similar to humans.", "The planetary context would also have an influence: a planet with higher gravity would have smaller animals, and other types of stars can lead to non-green photosynthesisers.", "The amount of energy available would also affect biodiversity, as an ecosystem sustained by black smokers or hydrothermal vents would have less energy available than those sustained by a star's light and heat, and so its lifeforms would not grow beyond a certain complexity.", "There is also research in assessing the capacity of life for developing intelligence.", "It has been suggested that this capacity arises with the number of potential niches a planet contains, and that the complexity of life itself is reflected in the information density of planetary environments, which in turn can be computed from its niches." ], [ "Planetary habitability in the Solar System", "Besides Earth, Mars, Europa and Enceladus are the most likely places in the Solar System to find life.", "The Solar System has a wide variety of planets, dwarf planets, and moons, and each one is studied for its potential to host life.", "Each one has its own specific conditions that may benefit or harm life.", "So far, the only lifeforms found are those from Earth.", "No extraterrestrial intelligence other than humans exists or has ever existed within the Solar System.", "Astrobiologist Mary Voytek points out that it would be unlikely to find large ecosystems, as they would have already been detected by now.The inner Solar System is likely devoid of life.", "However, Venus is still of interest to astrobiologists, as it is a terrestrial planet that was likely similar to Earth in its early stages and developed in a different way.", "There is a greenhouse effect, the surface is the hottest in the Solar System, sulfuric acid clouds, all surface liquid water is lost, and it has a thick carbon-dioxide atmosphere with huge pressure.", "Comparing both helps to understand the precise differences that lead to beneficial or harmful conditions for life.", "And despite the conditions against life on Venus, there are suspicions that microbial lifeforms may still survive in high-altitude clouds.Mars is a cold and almost airless desert, inhospitable to life.", "However, recent studies revealed that water on Mars used to be quite abundant, forming rivers, lakes, and perhaps even oceans.", "Mars may have been habitable back then, and life on Mars may have been possible.", "But when the planetary core ceased to generate a magnetic field, solar winds removed the atmosphere and the planet became vulnerable to solar radiation.", "Ancient lifeforms may still have left fossilised remains, and microbes may still survive deep underground.As mentioned, the gas giants and ice giants are unlikely to contain life.", "The most distant solar system bodies, found in the Kuiper Belt and outwards, are locked in permanent deep-freeze, but cannot be ruled out completely.Although the giant planets themselves are highly unlikely to have life, there is much hope to find it on moons orbiting these planets.", "Europa, from the Jovian system, has a subsurface ocean below a thick layer of ice.", "Ganymede and Callisto also have subsurface oceans, but life is less likely in them because water is sandwiched between layers of solid ice.", "Europa would have contact between the ocean and the rocky surface, which helps the chemical reactions.", "It may be difficult to dig so deep in order to study those oceans, though.", "Enceladus, a tiny moon of Saturn with another subsurface ocean, may not need to be dug, as it releases water to space in eruption columns.", "The space probe ''Cassini'' flew inside one of these, but could not make a full study because NASA did not expect this phenomenon and did not equip the probe to study ocean water.", "Still, ''Cassini'' detected complex organic molecules, salts, evidence of hydrothermal activity, hydrogen, and methane.Titan is the only celestial body in the Solar System besides Earth that has liquid bodies on the surface.", "It has rivers, lakes, and rain of hydrocarbons, methane, and ethane, and even a cycle similar to Earth's water cycle.", "This special context encourages speculations about lifeforms with different biochemistry, but the cold temperatures would make such chemistry take place at a very slow pace.", "Water is rock-solid on the surface, but Titan does have subsurface water ocean like several other moons.", "However, it is of such a great depth that it would be very difficult to access it for study." ], [ "Scientific search", "The science that searches and studies life in the universe, both on Earth and elsewhere, is called astrobiology.", "With the study of Earth's life, the only known form of life, astrobiology seeks to study how life starts and evolves and the requirements for its continuous existence.", "This helps to determine what to look for when searching for life in other celestial bodies.", "This is a complex area of study, and uses the combined perspectives of several scientific disciplines, such as astronomy, biology, chemistry, geology, oceanography, and atmospheric sciences.The scientific search for extraterrestrial life is being carried out both directly and indirectly.", ", 3,667 exoplanets in 2,747 systems have been identified, and other planets and moons in the Solar System hold the potential for hosting primitive life such as microorganisms.", "As of 8 February 2021, an updated status of studies considering the possible detection of lifeforms on Venus (via phosphine) and Mars (via methane) was reported.===Search for basic life===Lifeforms produce a variety of biosignatures that may be detectable by telescopes.Scientists search for biosignatures within the Solar System by studying planetary surfaces and examining meteorites.", "Some claim to have identified evidence that microbial life has existed on Mars.", "In 1996, a controversial report stated that structures resembling nanobacteria were discovered in a meteorite, ALH84001, formed of rock ejected from Mars.", "Although all the unusual properties of the meteorite were eventually explained as the result of inorganic processes, the controversy over its discovery laid the groundwork for the development of astrobiology.An experiment on the two Viking Mars landers reported gas emissions from heated Martian soil samples that some scientists argue are consistent with the presence of living microorganisms.", "Lack of corroborating evidence from other experiments on the same samples suggests that a non-biological reaction is a more likely hypothesis.In February 2005 NASA scientists reported they may have found some evidence of extraterrestrial life on Mars.", "The two scientists, Carol Stoker and Larry Lemke of NASA's Ames Research Center, based their claim on methane signatures found in Mars's atmosphere resembling the methane production of some forms of primitive life on Earth, as well as on their own study of primitive life near the Rio Tinto river in Spain.", "NASA officials soon distanced NASA from the scientists' claims, and Stoker herself backed off from her initial assertions.In November 2011, NASA launched the Mars Science Laboratory that landed the ''Curiosity'' rover on Mars.", "It is designed to assess the past and present habitability on Mars using a variety of scientific instruments.", "The rover landed on Mars at Gale Crater in August 2012.A group of scientists at Cornell University started a catalog of microorganisms, with the way each one reacts to sunlight.", "The goal is to help with the search for similar organisms in exoplanets, as the starlight reflected by planets rich in such organisms would have a specific spectrum, unlike that of starlight reflected from lifeless planets.", "If Earth was studied from afar with this system, it would reveal a shade of green, as a result of the abundance of plants with photosynthesis.In August 2011, NASA studied meteorites found on Antarctica, finding adenine, guanine, hypoxanthine and xanthine.", "Adenine and guanine are components of DNA, and the others are used in other biological processes.", "The studies ruled out pollution of the meteorites on Earth, as those components would not be freely available the way they were found in the samples.", "This discovery suggests that several organic molecules that serve as building blocks of life may be generated within asteroids and comets.", "In October 2011, scientists reported that cosmic dust contains complex organic compounds (\"amorphous organic solids with a mixed aromatic-aliphatic structure\") that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars.", "It is still unclear if those compounds played a role in the creation of life on Earth, but Sun Kwok, of the University of Hong Kong, thinks so.", "\"If this is the case, life on Earth may have had an easier time getting started as these organics can serve as basic ingredients for life.", "\"In August 2012, and in a world first, astronomers at Copenhagen University reported the detection of a specific sugar molecule, glycolaldehyde, in a distant star system.", "The molecule was found around the protostellar binary ''IRAS 16293-2422'', which is located 400 light years from Earth.", "Glycolaldehyde is needed to form ribonucleic acid, or RNA, which is similar in function to DNA.", "This finding suggests that complex organic molecules may form in stellar systems prior to the formation of planets, eventually arriving on young planets early in their formation.In December 2023, astronomers reported the first time discovery, in the plumes of Enceladus, moon of the planet Saturn, of hydrogen cyanide, a possible chemical essential for life as we know it, as well as other organic molecules, some of which are yet to be better identified and understood.", "According to the researchers, \"these newly discovered compounds could potentially support extant microbial communities or drive complex organic synthesis leading to the origin of life.", "\"===Search for extraterrestrial intelligences===The Green Bank Telescope is one of the radio telescopes used by the Breakthrough Listen project to search for alien communications.Although most searches are focused on the biology of extraterrestrial life, an extraterrestrial intelligence capable enough to develop a civilization may be detectable by other means as well.", "Technology may generate technosignatures, effects on the native planet that may not be caused by natural causes.", "There are three main types of technosignatures considered: interstellar communications, effects on the atmosphere, and planetary-sized structures such as Dyson spheres.Organizations such as the SETI Institute search the cosmos for potential forms of communication.", "They started with radio waves, and now search for laser pulses as well.", "The challenge for this search is that there are natural sources of such signals as well, such as gamma-ray bursts and supernovae, and the difference between a natural signal and an artificial one would be in its specific patterns.", "Astronomers intend to use artificial intelligence for this, as it can manage large amounts of data and is devoid of biases and preconceptions.", "Besides, even if there is an advanced extraterrestrial civilization, there is no guarantee that it is transmitting radio communications in the direction of Earth.", "The length of time required for a signal to travel across space means that a potential answer may arrive decades or centuries after the initial message.The atmosphere of Earth is rich in nitrogen dioxide as a result of air pollution, which can be detectable.", "The natural abundance of carbon, which is also relatively reactive, makes it likely to be a basic component of the development of a potential extraterrestrial technological civilization, as it is on Earth.", "Fossil fuels may likely be generated and used on such worlds as well.", "The abundance of chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere can also be a clear technosignature, considering their role in ozone depletion.", "Light pollution may be another technosignature, as multiple lights on the night side of a rocky planet can be a sign of advanced technological development.", "However, modern telescopes are not strong enough to study exoplanets with the required level of detail to perceive it.The Kardashev scale proposes that a civilization may eventually start consuming energy directly from its local star.", "This would require giant structures built next to it, called Dyson spheres.", "Those speculative structures would cause an excess infrared radiation, that telescopes may notice.", "The infrared radiation is typical of young stars, surrounded by dusty protoplanetary disks that will eventually form planets.", "An older star such as the Sun would have no natural reason to have excess infrared radiation.", "The presence of heavy elements in a star's light-spectrum is another potential biosignature; such elements would (in theory) be found if the star were being used as an incinerator/repository for nuclear waste products.===Extrasolar planets===Artist's impression of Gliese 581 c, the first terrestrial extrasolar planet discovered within its star's habitable zoneSome astronomers search for extrasolar planets that may be conducive to life, narrowing the search to terrestrial planets within the habitable zones of their stars.", "Since 1992, over four thousand exoplanets have been discovered ( planets in planetary systems including multiple planetary systems as of ).The extrasolar planets so far discovered range in size from that of terrestrial planets similar to Earth's size to that of gas giants larger than Jupiter.", "The number of observed exoplanets is expected to increase greatly in the coming years.", "The Kepler space telescope has also detected a few thousand candidate planets, of which about 11% may be false positives.There is at least one planet on average per star.", "About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an \"Earth-sized\" planet in the habitable zone, with the nearest expected to be within 12 light-years distance from Earth.", "Assuming 200 billion stars in the Milky Way, that would be 11 billion potentially habitable Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way, rising to 40 billion if red dwarfs are included.", "The rogue planets in the Milky Way possibly number in the trillions.The nearest known exoplanet is Proxima Centauri b, located from Earth in the southern constellation of Centaurus., the least massive exoplanet known is PSR B1257+12 A, which is about twice the mass of the Moon.", "The most massive planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is DENIS-P J082303.1−491201 b, about 29 times the mass of Jupiter, although according to most definitions of a planet, it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead.", "Almost all of the planets detected so far are within the Milky Way, but there have also been a few possible detections of extragalactic planets.", "The study of planetary habitability also considers a wide range of other factors in determining the suitability of a planet for hosting life.One sign that a planet probably already contains life is the presence of an atmosphere with significant amounts of oxygen, since that gas is highly reactive and generally would not last long without constant replenishment.", "This replenishment occurs on Earth through photosynthetic organisms.", "One way to analyse the atmosphere of an exoplanet is through spectrography when it transits its star, though this might only be feasible with dim stars like white dwarfs." ], [ "History and cultural impact", "===Cosmic pluralism===The Greek Epicurus proposed that other worlds may have their own animals and plants.The modern concept of extraterrestrial life is based on assumptions that were not commonplace during the early days of astronomy.", "The first explanations for the celestial objects seen in the night sky were based on mythology.", "The Greek scholars from Ancient Greece were the first to consider that the universe is inherently understandable and rejected explanations based on supernatural incomprehensible forces, such as the myth of the Sun being pulled across the sky in the chariot of Apollo.", "They had not developed the scientific method yet and based their ideas on pure thought and speculation, but they developed precursor ideas to it, such as that explanations had to be discarded if they contradict observable facts.", "The discussions of those Greek scholars established many of the pillars that would eventually lead to the idea of extraterrestrial life, such as Earth being round and not flat.", "The cosmos was first structured in a geocentric model that considered that the sun and all other celestial bodies revolve around Earth.", "However, they did not consider them as worlds.", "In Greek understanding, the world was composed by both Earth and the celestial objects with noticeable movements.", "Anaximander thought that the cosmos was made from ''apeiron'', a substance that created the world, and that the world would eventually return to the cosmos.", "Eventually two groups emerged, the ''atomists'' that thought that matter at both Earth and the cosmos was equally made of small atoms of the classical elements (earth, water, fire and air), and the ''Aristotelians'' who thought that those elements were exclusive of Earth and that the cosmos was made of a fifth one, the ''aether''.", "Atomist Epicurus thought that the processes that created the world, its animals and plants should have created other worlds elsewhere, along with their own animals and plants.", "Aristotle thought instead that all the earth element naturally fell towards the center of the universe, and that would made it impossible for other planets to exist elsewhere.", "Under that reasoning, Earth was not only in the center, it was also the only planet in the universe.Cosmic pluralism, the plurality of worlds, or simply pluralism, describes the philosophical belief in numerous \"worlds\" in addition to Earth, which might harbor extraterrestrial life.", "The earliest recorded assertion of extraterrestrial human life is found in ancient scriptures of Jainism.", "There are multiple \"worlds\" mentioned in Jain scriptures that support human life.", "These include, among others, ''Bharat Kshetra'', ''Mahavideh Kshetra'', ''Airavat Kshetra'', and ''Hari kshetra''.", "Medieval Muslim writers like Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and Muhammad al-Baqir supported cosmic pluralism on the basis of the Qur'an.", "Chaucer's poem ''The House of Fame'' engaged in medieval thought experiments that postulated the plurality of worlds.The Greek ideas and the disputes between atomists and Aristotelians outlived the fall of the Greek empire.", "The Great Library of Alexandria compiled information about it, part of which was translated by Islamic scholars and thus survived the end of the Library.", "Baghdad combined the knowledge of the Greeks, the Indians, the Chinese and its own scholars, and the knowledge expanded through the Byzantine Empire.", "From there it eventually returned to Europe by the time of the Middle Ages.", "However, as the Greek atomist doctrine held that the world was created by random movements of atoms, with no need for a creator deity, it became associated with atheism, and the dispute intertwined with religious ones.", "Still, the Church did not react to those topics in a homogeneous way, and there were stricter and more permissive views within the church itself.The first known mention of the term 'panspermia' was in the writings of the 5th-century BC Greek philosopher Anaxagoras.", "He proposed the idea that life exists everywhere.===Early modern period===''Galileo before the Holy Office'', a 19th-century painting by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-FleuryBy the time of the late Middle Ages there were many known inaccuracies in the geocentric model, but it was kept in use because naked eye observations provided limited data.", "Nicolaus Copernicus started the Copernican Revolution by proposing that the planets spin around the sun rather than Earth.", "His proposal had little acceptance at first because, as he kept the assumption that orbits were perfect circles, his model led to as many inaccuracies as the geocentric one.", "Tycho Brahe improved the available data with naked-eye observatories, which worked with highly complex sextants and quadrants.", "Tycho could not make sense of his observations, but Johannes Kepler did: orbits were not perfect circles, but ellipses.", "This knowledge benefited the Copernican model, which worked now almost perfectly.", "The invention of the telescope a short time later, perfected by Galileo Galilei, clarified the final doubts, and the paradigm shift was completed.", "Under this new understanding, the notion of extraterrestrial life became feasible: if Earth is but just a planet orbiting around a star, there may be planets similar to Earth elsewhere.", "The astronomical study of distant bodies also proved that physical laws are the same elsewhere in the universe as on Earth, with nothing making the planet truly special.The new ideas were met with resistance from the Catholic church.", "Galileo was trialed for the heliocentric model, which was considered heretical, and forced to recant it.", "The best-known early-modern proponent of ideas of extraterrestrial life was the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, who argued in the 16th century for an infinite universe in which every star is surrounded by its own planetary system.", "Bruno wrote that other worlds \"have no less virtue nor a nature different to that of our earth\" and, like Earth, \"contain animals and inhabitants\".", "Bruno's belief in the plurality of worlds was one of the charges leveled against him by the Venetian Holy Inquisition, which trialed and executed him.The heliocentric model was further strengthened by the postulation of the theory of gravity by Sir Isaac Newton.", "This theory provided the mathematics that explains the motions of all things in the universe, including planetary orbits.", "By this point, the geocentric model was definitely discarded.", "By this time, the use of the scientific method had become a standard, and new discoveries were expected to provide evidence and rigorous mathematical explanations.", "Science also took a deeper interest in the mechanics of natural phenomena, trying to explain not just the way nature works but also the reasons for working that way.There was very little actual discussion about extraterrestrial life before this point, as the Aristotlean ideas remained influential while geocentrism was still accepted.", "When it was finally proved wrong, it not only meant that Earth was not the center of the universe, but also that the lights seen in the sky were not just lights, but physical objects.", "The notion that life may exist in them as well soon became an ongoing topic of discussion, although one with no practical ways to investigate.The possibility of extraterrestrials remained a widespread speculation as scientific discovery accelerated.", "William Herschel, the discoverer of Uranus, was one of many 18th–19th-century astronomers who believed that the Solar System is populated by alien life.", "Other scholars of the period who championed \"cosmic pluralism\" included Immanuel Kant and Benjamin Franklin.", "At the height of the Enlightenment, even the Sun and Moon were considered candidates for extraterrestrial inhabitants.===19th century===Artificial Martian channels, depicted by Percival LowellSpeculation about life on Mars increased in the late 19th century, following telescopic observation of apparent Martian canals – which soon, however, turned out to be optical illusions.", "Despite this, in 1895, American astronomer Percival Lowell published his book ''Mars,'' followed by ''Mars and its Canals'' in 1906, proposing that the canals were the work of a long-gone civilisation.", "The idea of life on Mars led British writer H. G. Wells to write the novel ''The War of the Worlds'' in 1897, telling of an invasion by aliens from Mars who were fleeing the planet's desiccation.Spectroscopic analysis of Mars's atmosphere began in earnest in 1894, when U.S. astronomer William Wallace Campbell showed that neither water nor oxygen was present in the Martian atmosphere.", "By 1909 better telescopes and the best perihelic opposition of Mars since 1877 conclusively put an end to the canal hypothesis.As a consequence of the belief in the spontaneous generation there was little thought about the conditions of each celestial body: it was simply assumed that life would thrive anywhere.", "This theory was disproved by Louis Pasteur in the 19th century.", "Popular belief in thriving alien civilisations elsewhere in the solar system still remained strong until Mariner 4 and Mariner 9 provided close images of Mars, which debunked forever the idea of the existence of Martians and decreased the previous expectations of finding alien life in general.", "The end of the spontaneous generation belief forced to investigate the origin of life.", "Although abiogenesis is the more accepted theory, a number of authors reclaimed the term \"panspermia\" and proposed that life was brought to Earth from elsewhere.", "Some of those authors are Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1834), Kelvin (1871), Hermann von Helmholtz (1879) and, somewhat later, by Svante Arrhenius (1903).The science fiction genre, although not so named during the time, developed during the late 19th century.", "The expansion of the genre of extraterrestrials in fiction influenced the popular perception over the real-life topic, making people eager to jump to conclusions about the discovery of aliens.", "Science marched at a slower pace, some discoveries fueled expectations and others dashed excessive hopes.", "For example, with the advent of telescopes, most structures seen on the Moon or Mars were immediately attributed to Selenites or Martians, and later ones (such as more powerful telescopes) revealed that all such discoveries were natural features.", "A famous case is the Cydonia region of Mars, first imagined by the ''Viking 1'' orbiter.", "The low-resolution photos showed a rock formation that resembled a human face, but later spacecraft took photos in higher detail that showed that there was nothing special about the site.===Recent history===The Arecibo message is a digital message sent to Messier 13, and is a well-known symbol of human attempts to contact extraterrestrials.The search and study of extraterrestrial life became a science of its own, astrobiology.", "Also known as ''exobiology'', this discipline is studied by the NASA, the ESA, the INAF, and others.", "Astrobiology studies life from Earth as well, but with a cosmic perspective.", "For example, abiogenesis is of interest to astrobiology, not because of the origin of life on Earth, but for the chances of a similar process taking place in other celestial bodies.", "Many aspects of life, from its definition to its chemistry, are analyzed as either likely to be similar in all forms of life across the cosmos or only native to Earth.", "Astrobiology, however, remains constrained by the current lack of extraterrestrial lifeforms to study, as all life on Earth comes from the same ancestor, and it is hard to infer general characteristics from a group with a single example to analyse.The 20th century came with great technological advances, speculations about future hypothetical technologies, and an increased basic knowledge of science by the general population thanks to science divulgation through the mass media.", "The public interest in extraterrestrial life and the lack of discoveries by mainstream science led to the emergence of pseudosciences that provided affirmative, if questionable, answers to the existence of aliens.", "Ufology claims that many unidentified flying objects (UFOs) would be spaceships from alien species, and ancient astronauts hypothesis claim that aliens would have visited Earth in antiquity and prehistoric times but people would have failed to understand it by then.", "Most UFOs or UFO sightings can be readily explained as sightings of Earth-based aircraft (including top-secret aircraft), known astronomical objects or weather phenomenons, or as hoaxes.By the 21st century, it was accepted that multicellular life in the Solar System can only exist on Earth, but the interest in extraterrestrial life increased regardless.", "This is a result of the advances in several sciences.", "The knowledge of planetary habitability allows to consider on scientific terms the likelihood of finding life at each specific celestial body, as it is known which features are beneficial and harmful for life.", "Astronomy and telescopes also improved to the point exoplanets can be confirmed and even studied, increasing the number of search places.", "Life may still exist elsewhere in the Solar System in unicellular form, but the advances in spacecraft allow to send robots to study samples in situ, with tools of growing complexity and reliability.", "Although no extraterrestrial life has been found and life may still be just a rarity from Earth, there are scientific reasons to suspect that it can exist elsewhere, and technological advances that may detect it if it does.Many scientists are optimistic about the chances of finding alien life.", "In the words of SETI's Frank Drake, \"All we know for sure is that the sky is not littered with powerful microwave transmitters\".", "Drake noted that it is entirely possible that advanced technology results in communication being carried out in some way other than conventional radio transmission.", "At the same time, the data returned by space probes, and giant strides in detection methods, have allowed science to begin delineating habitability criteria on other worlds, and to confirm that at least other planets are plentiful, though aliens remain a question mark.", "The Wow!", "signal, detected in 1977 by a SETI project, remains a subject of speculative debate.The Wow!", "signal represented as \"6EQUJ5\".", "The original printout with Ehman's handwritten exclamation is preserved by Ohio History Connection.", "It was pointed towards the Proxima Centauri system.", "The signal was used to support the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.On the other hand, other scientists are pessimistic.", "Jacques Monod wrote that \"Man knows at last that he is alone in the indifferent immensity of the universe, whence which he has emerged by chance\".", "In 2000, geologist and paleontologist Peter Ward and astrobiologist Donald Brownlee published a book entitled ''Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe''.", "In it, they discussed the Rare Earth hypothesis, in which they claim that Earth-like life is rare in the universe, whereas microbial life is common.", "Ward and Brownlee are open to the idea of evolution on other planets that is not based on essential Earth-like characteristics such as DNA and carbon.As for the possible risks, theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking warned in 2010 that humans should not try to contact alien life forms.", "He warned that aliens might pillage Earth for resources.", "\"If aliens visit us, the outcome would be much as when Columbus landed in America, which didn't turn out well for the Native Americans\", he said.", "Jared Diamond had earlier expressed similar concerns.", "On 20 July 2015, Hawking and Russian billionaire Yuri Milner, along with the SETI Institute, announced a well-funded effort, called the Breakthrough Initiatives, to expand efforts to search for extraterrestrial life.", "The group contracted the services of the 100-meter Robert C. Byrd Green Bank Telescope in West Virginia in the United States and the 64-meter Parkes Telescope in New South Wales, Australia.", "On 13 February 2015, scientists (including Geoffrey Marcy, Seth Shostak, Frank Drake and David Brin) at a convention of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, discussed Active SETI and whether transmitting a message to possible intelligent extraterrestrials in the Cosmos was a good idea; one result was a statement, signed by many, that a \"worldwide scientific, political and humanitarian discussion must occur before any message is sent\"." ], [ "In fiction", "Grey aliens are a common way to depict extraterrestrials in fiction.Although the idea of extraterrestrial peoples became feasible once astronomy developed enough to understand the nature of planets, they were not thought of as being any different from humans.", "Having no scientific explanation for the origin of mankind and its relation to other species, there was no reason to expect them to be any other way.", "This was changed by the 1859 book ''On the Origin of Species'' by Charles Darwin, which proposed the theory of evolution.", "Now with the notion that evolution on other planets may take other directions, science fiction authors created bizarre aliens, clearly distinct from humans.", "A usual way to do that was to add body features from other animals, such as insects or octopuses.", "Budget reasons forced to tone down the fantasy in films and TV series, as actor costuming and special effects placed limits on their feasibility.", "Bizarre aliens became feasible since the 1990s with the advent of computer-generated imagery (CGI), and later on as CGI became more effective and less expensive.Real-life events sometimes captivate people's imagination and this influences the works of fiction.", "For example, during the Barney and Betty Hill incident, the first recorded claim of an alien abduction, the couple reported that they were abducted and experimented on by aliens with oversized heads, big eyes, pale grey skin, and small noses, a description that eventually became the grey alien archetype once used in works of fiction." ], [ "Government responses", "The 1967 Outer Space Treaty and the 1979 Moon Agreement define rules of planetary protection against potentially hazardous extraterrestrial life.", "COSPAR also provides guidelines for planetary protection.", "A committee of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs had in 1977 discussed for a year strategies for interacting with extraterrestrial life or intelligence.", "The discussion ended without any conclusions.", "As of 2010, the UN lacks response mechanisms for the case of an extraterrestrial contact.One of the NASA divisions is the Office of Safety and Mission Assurance (OSMA), also known as the Planetary Protection Office.", "A part of its mission is to \"rigorously preclude backward contamination of Earth by extraterrestrial life.", "\"In 2016, the Chinese Government released a white paper detailing its space program.", "According to the document, one of the research objectives of the program is the search for extraterrestrial life.", "It is also one of the objectives of the Chinese Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) program.In 2020, Dmitry Rogozin, the head of the Russian space agency, said the search for extraterrestrial life is one of the main goals of deep space research.", "He also acknowledged the possibility of existence of primitive life on other planets of the Solar System.The French space agency has an office for the study of \"non-identified aero spatial phenomena\".", "The agency is maintaining a publicly accessible database of such phenomena, with over 1600 detailed entries.", "According to the head of the office, the vast majority of entries have a mundane explanation; but for 25% of entries, their extraterrestrial origin can neither be confirmed nor denied.In 2020, chairman of the Israel Space Agency Isaac Ben-Israel stated that the probability of detecting life in outer space is \"quite large\".", "But he disagrees with his former colleague Haim Eshed who stated that there are contacts between an advanced alien civilisation and some of Earth's governments." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "***********Gribbin, John, \"Alone in the Milky Way: Why we are probably the only intelligent life in the galaxy\", ''Scientific American'', vol.", "319, no.", "3 (September 2018), pp. 94–99.", "******" ], [ "External links", " Astrobiology at NASA* European Astrobiology Institute" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European Strategic Programme on Research in Information Technology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''European Strategic Programme on Research in Information Technology''' ('''ESPRIT''') was a series of integrated programmes of information technology research and development projects and industrial technology transfer measures.", "It was a European Union initiative managed by the Directorate General for Industry (DG III) of the European Commission." ], [ "Programmes", "Five ESPRIT programmes (ESPRIT 0 to ESPRIT 4) ran consecutively from 1983 to 1998.ESPRIT 4 was succeeded by the Information Society Technologies (IST) programme in 1999." ], [ "Projects", "Some of the projects and products supported by ESPRIT were: * BBC Domesday Project, a partnership between Acorn Computers Ltd, Philips, Logica and the BBC with some funding from the European Commission's ESPRIT programme, to mark the 900th anniversary of the original Domesday Book, an 11th-century census of England.", "It is frequently cited as an example of digital obsolescence on account of the physical medium used for data storage.", "* CGAL, the Computational Geometry Algorithms Library (CGAL) is a software library that aims to provide easy access to efficient and reliable algorithms in computational geometry.", "While primarily written in C++, Python bindings are also available.", "The original funding for the project came from the ESPRIT project.", "* Eurocoop & Eurocode: ESPRIT III projects to develop systems for supporting distributed collaborative working.", "* Open Document Architecture, a free and open international standard document file format maintained by the ITU-T to replace all proprietary document file formats.", "In 1985 ESPRIT financed a pilot implementation of the ODA concept, involving, among others, Bull corporation, Olivetti, ICL and Siemens AG.", "* Paradise: A sub-project of the ESPRIT I project, COSINE which established a pan-European computer-based network infrastructure that enabled research workers to communicate with each other using OSI.", "Paradise implemented a distributed X.500 directory across the academic community.", "* Password: Part of the ESPRIT III VALUE project, developed secure applications based on the X.509 standard for use in the academic community.", "* ProCoS I Project (1989–1991), ProCoS II Project (1992–1995), and ProCoS-WG Working Group (1994–1997) on Provably Correct Systems, under ESPRIT II.", "* REDO Project (1989–1992) on software maintenance, under ESPRIT II.", "* RAISE, Rigorous Approach to Industrial Software Engineering, was developed as part of the European ESPRIT II LaCoS project in the 1990s, led by Dines Bjørner.", "* REMORA methodology is an event-driven approach for designing information systems, developed by Colette Rolland.", "This methodology integrates behavioral and temporal aspects with concepts for modelling the structural aspects of an information system.", "In the ESPRIT I project TODOS, which has led to the development of an integrated environment for the design of office information systems (OISs),* SAMPA: The Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet (SAMPA) is a computer-readable phonetic script originally developed in the late 1980s.", "* SCOPES: The Systematic Concurrent design of Products, Equipments and Control Systems project was a 3-year project launched in July, 1992, with the aim of specifying integrated computer-aided (CAD) tools for design and control of flexible assembly lines.", "* SIP (Advanced Algorithms and Architectures for Speech and Image Processing), a partnership between Thomson-CSF, AEG, CSELT and ENSPS (ESPRIT P26), to develop the algorithmic and architectural techniques required for recognizing and understanding spoken or visual signals and to demonstrate these techniques in suitable applications.", "* StatLog: \"ESPRIT project 5170.Comparative testing and evaluation of statistical and logical learning algorithms on large-scale applications to classification, prediction and control\"* SUNDIAL (Speech UNderstanding DIALgue) started in September 1988 with Logica Ltd. as prime contractor, together with Erlangen University, CSELT, Daimler-Benz, Capgemini, Politecnico di Torino.", "Followed the Esprit P.26 to implement and evaluate dialogue systems to be used in telephone industry.", "The final results were 4 prototypes in 4 languages, involving speech and understanding technologies, and some criteria for evaluation were also reported.", "* Web for Schools, an ESPRIT IV project that introduced the World Wide Web in secondary schools in Europe.", "Teachers created more than 70 international collaborative educational projects that resulted in an exponential growth of teacher communities and educational activities using the World Wide Web* AGENT: A project led by IGN-France aiming at developing an operational automated map generalisation software based on multi-agent system paradigm." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ESPRIT home page" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "E. E. Cummings" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Estlin Cummings''', who was also known as '''E.", "E. Cummings''', '''e.", "e. Cummings''', and '''e e Cummings''' (October 14, 1894 – September 3, 1962), was an American poet, painter, essayist, author, and playwright.", "He was an ambulance driver during World War I and was in an internment camp, which provided the basis for his novel ''The Enormous Room'' (1922).", "The following year he published his first collection of poetry, ''Tulips and Chimneys'', which showed his early experiments with grammar and typography.", "He wrote four plays; ''HIM'' (1927) and ''Santa Claus: A Morality'' (1946) were most successful.", "He wrote ''EIMI'' (1933), a travelogue of the Soviet Union, and delivered the Charles Eliot Norton Lectures in poetry, published as ''i—six nonlectures'' (1953).", "''Fairy Tales'' (1965), a collection of short stories, was published posthumously.", "Cummings wrote approximately 2,900 poems.", "He is often regarded as one of the most important American poets of the 20th century.", "He is associated with modernist free-form poetry, and much of his work uses idiosyncratic syntax and lower-case spellings for poetic expression.", "M. L. Rosenthal wrote that \"The chief effect of Cummings' jugglery with syntax, grammar, and diction was to blow open otherwise trite and bathetic motifs through a dynamic rediscovery of the energies sealed up in conventional usage....", "He succeeded masterfully in splitting the atom of the cute commonplace.\"", "For Norman Friedman, Cummings's inventions \"are best understood as various ways of stripping the film of familiarity from language to strip the film of familiarity from the world.", "Transform the word, he seems to have felt, and you are on the way to transforming the world.", "\"The poet Randall Jarrell said of Cummings, \"No one else has ever made avant-garde, experimental poems so attractive to the general and the special reader.\"", "James Dickey wrote, \"I think that Cummings is a daringly original poet, with more vitality and more sheer, uncompromising talent than any other living American writer.\"", "He acknowledged that while his poetry isn't perfect, he was \"ashamed and even a little guilty in picking out flaws\" in it, which he compared to noting \"the aesthetic defects in a rose.", "It is better to say what must finally be said about Cummings: that he has helped to give life to the language.\"" ], [ "Life", "===Early years===Edward Estlin Cummings was born on October 14, 1894, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to Edward Cummings and Rebecca Haswell (), a well-known Unitarian couple in the city.", "His father was a professor at Harvard University who later became nationally known as the minister of South Congregational Church (Unitarian) in Boston, Massachusetts.", "His mother, who loved to spend time with her children, played games with Edward and his sister, Elizabeth.", "From an early age, Cummings' parents supported his creative gifts.", "Cummings wrote poems and drew as a child, and he often played outdoors with the many other children who lived in his neighborhood.", "He grew up in the company of such family friends as the philosophers William James and Josiah Royce.", "Many of Cummings' summers were spent on Silver Lake in Madison, New Hampshire, where his father had built two houses along the eastern shore.", "The family ultimately purchased the nearby Joy Farm where Cummings had his primary summer residence.He expressed transcendental leanings his entire life.", "As he matured, Cummings moved to an \"I, Thou\" relationship with God.", "His journals are replete with references to ''\"le bon Dieu,\"'' as well as prayers for inspiration in his poetry and artwork (such as \"Bon Dieu!", "may i some day do something truly great.", "amen.\").", "Cummings \"also prayed for strength to be his essential self ('may I be I is the only prayer—not may I be great or good or beautiful or wise or strong'), and for relief of spirit in times of depression ('almighty God!", "I thank thee for my soul; & may I never die spiritually into a mere mind through disease of loneliness')\".Cummings wanted to be a poet from childhood and wrote poetry daily from age 8 to 22, exploring assorted forms.", "He studied Latin and Greek at Cambridge Latin High School.", "He attended Harvard University, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree magna cum laude and was elected to the Phi Beta Kappa society in 1915.The following year, he received a Master of Arts degree from the university.", "During his studies at Harvard, he developed an interest in modern poetry, which ignored conventional grammar and syntax and aimed for a dynamic use of language.", "His first published poems appeared in ''Eight Harvard Poets'' (1917).", "Upon graduating, he worked for a book dealer.Masthead from volume 56 of ''The Harvard Monthly''; Cummings was an editor and contributor to this literary journal while at Harvard===War years===In 1917, with the First World War going on in Europe, Cummings enlisted in the Norton-Harjes Ambulance Corps.", "On the boat to France, he met William Slater Brown and they quickly became friends.", "Due to an administrative error, Cummings and Brown did not receive an assignment for five weeks, a period they spent exploring Paris.", "Cummings fell in love with the city, to which he would return throughout his life.During their service in the ambulance corps, the two young writers sent letters home that drew the attention of the military censors.", "They were known to prefer the company of French soldiers over fellow ambulance drivers.", "The two openly expressed anti-war views; Cummings spoke of his lack of hatred for the Germans.", "On September 21, 1917, five months after starting his belated assignment, Cummings and William Slater Brown were arrested by the French military on suspicion of espionage and undesirable activities, they were held for three and a half months in a military detention camp at the , in La Ferté-Macé, Orne, Normandy.They were imprisoned with other detainees in a large room.", "Cummings' father made strenuous efforts to obtain his son's release through diplomatic channels; although advised his son's release was approved, there were lengthy delays, with little explanation.", "In frustration, Cummings' father wrote a letter to President Woodrow Wilson in December 1917.Cummings was released on December 19, 1917, returning to his family in the U.S. by New Year's Day, 1918.Cummings, his father, and Brown's family continued to agitate for Brown's release.", "By mid-February, he, too, was America-bound.", "Cummings used his prison experience as the basis for his novel, ''The Enormous Room'' (1922), about which F. Scott Fitzgerald said, \"Of all the work by young men who have sprung up since 1920 one book survives—''The Enormous Room'' by E. E. Cummings ... Those few who cause books to live have not been able to endure the thought of its mortality.\"", "Later in 1918 he was drafted into the army.", "He served a training deployment in the 12th Division at Camp Devens, Massachusetts, until November 1918.===Post-war years===Cummings returned to Paris in 1921, and lived there for two years before returning to New York.", "His collection ''Tulips and Chimneys,'' was published in 1923, and his inventive use of grammar and syntax is evident.", "The book was heavily cut by his editor.", "''XLI Poems'' was published in 1925.With these collections, Cummings made his reputation as an avant garde poet.During the rest of the 1920s and 1930s, Cummings returned to Paris a number of times, and traveled throughout Europe.", "In 1931 Cummings traveled to the Soviet Union, recounting his experiences in ''Eimi'', published two years later.", "During these years Cummings also traveled to Northern Africa and Mexico, and he worked as an essayist and portrait artist for ''Vanity Fair'' magazine (1924–1927).In 1926, Cummings' parents were in a car crash; only his mother survived, although she was severely injured.", "Cummings later described the crash in the following passage from his ''i: six nonlectures'' series given at Harvard (as part of the Charles Eliot Norton Lectures) in 1952 and 1953:His father's death had a profound effect on Cummings, who entered a new period in his artistic life.", "He began to focus on more important aspects of life in his poetry.", "He started this new period by paying homage to his father in the poem \"my father moved through dooms of love\".In the 1930s, Samuel Aiwaz Jacobs was Cummings' publisher; he had started the Golden Eagle Press after working as a typographer and publisher.===Final years===Grave of E. E. CummingsIn 1952, his alma mater, Harvard University, awarded Cummings an honorary seat as a guest professor.", "The Charles Eliot Norton Lectures he gave in 1952 and 1955 were later collected as ''i: six nonlectures''.Cummings spent the last decade of his life traveling, fulfilling speaking engagements, and spending time at his summer home, Joy Farm, in Silver Lake, New Hampshire.", "He died of a stroke on September 3, 1962, at the age of 67 at Memorial Hospital in North Conway, New Hampshire.", "Cummings was buried at Forest Hills Cemetery in Boston, Massachusetts.", "At the time of his death, Cummings was recognized as the \"second most widely read poet in the United States, after Robert Frost\".Cummings' papers are held at the Houghton Library at Harvard University and the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin." ], [ "Personal life", "===Marriages===Sketched self-portrait circa 1920Cummings was married briefly twice, first to Elaine Orr Thayer, then to Anne Minnerly Barton.", "His longest relationship lasted more than three decades with Marion Morehouse.In 2020, it was revealed that in 1917, before his first marriage, Cummings had shared several passionate love letters with a Parisian prostitute, Marie Louise Lallemand.", "Despite Cummings' efforts, he was unable to find Lallemand upon his return to Paris after the front.Cummings' first marriage, to Elaine Orr, began as a love affair in 1918 while she was still married to Scofield Thayer, one of Cummings' friends from Harvard.", "During this time, he wrote a good deal of his erotic poetry.", "The couple had a daughter while Orr was still married to Thayer; after Orr divorced Thayer, Cummings and Orr married on March 19, 1924.Thayer had been registered on the child's birth certificate as the father, but Cummings legally adopted her after his marriage to Orr.", "Although his relationship with Orr stretched back several years, the marriage was brief: the couple separated after two months of marriage and divorced less than nine months later.Cummings married his second wife Anne Minnerly Barton on May 1, 1929.They separated three years later in 1932.That same year, Minnerly obtained a Mexican divorce; it was not officially recognized in the United States until August 1934.Anne died in 1970 aged 72.In 1934, after his separation from his second wife, Cummings met Marion Morehouse, a fashion model and photographer.", "Although it is not clear whether the two were ever formally married, Morehouse lived with Cummings until his death in 1962.She died on May 18, 1969, while living at 4 Patchin Place, Greenwich Village, New York City, where Cummings had resided since September 1924.===Political views===According to his testimony in ''EIMI'', Cummings had little interest in politics until his trip to the Soviet Union in 1931.He subsequently shifted rightward on many political and social issues.", "Despite his radical and bohemian public image, he was a Republican and later an ardent supporter of Joseph McCarthy." ], [ "Works and style", "=== Poetry ===As well as being influenced by notable modernists, including Gertrude Stein and Ezra Pound, Cummings was particularly drawn to early imagist experiments; later, his visits to Paris exposed him to Dada and Surrealism, which was reflected in his writing style.", "Cummings critic and biographer Norman Friedman remarks that in Cummings' later work the \"shift from simile to symbol\" created poetry that is \"frequently more lucid, more moving, and more profound than his earlier\".Despite Cummings' familiarity with avant-garde styles (likely affected by the calligrammes of French poet Apollinaire, according to a contemporary observation), much of his work is quite traditional.", "For example, many of his poems are sonnets, albeit described by Richard D. Cureton as \"revisionary...with scrambled rhymes and rearranged, disproportioned structures; awkwardly unpredictable metrical variation; clashing, mawkish diction; complex, wandering syntax; etc.\"", "He occasionally drew from the blues form and used acrostics.", "Many of Cummings' poems are satirical and address social issues but have an equal or even stronger bias toward Romanticism: time and again his poems celebrate love, sex, and the season of rebirth.While his poetic forms and themes share an affinity with the Romantic tradition, critic Emily Essert asserts that Cummings' work is particularly modernist and frequently employs what linguist Irene Fairley calls \"syntatic deviance\".", "Some poems do not involve any typographical or punctuation innovations at all, but purely syntactic ones.While some of his poetry is free verse (and not beheld to rhyme or meter), Cureton has remarked that many of his sonnets follow an intricate rhyme scheme, and often employ pararhyme.", "A number of Cummings' poems feature his typographically exuberant style, with words, parts of words, or punctuation symbols scattered across the page, wherein Essert asserts \"feeling is first\" and the work begs to \"be re-read in order to be understood\"; Cummings, also a painter, created his texts not just as literature, but as \"visual objects\" on the page, and used typography to \"paint a picture\".The seeds of Cummings' unconventional style appear well established even in his earliest work.", "At age six, he wrote to his father:Following his autobiographical novel, ''The Enormous Room'', Cummings' first published work was a collection of poems titled ''Tulips and Chimneys'' (1923).", "This early work already displayed Cummings' characteristically eccentric use of grammar and punctuation, although a fair amount of the poems are written in conventional language.Cummings' works often do not follow the conventional rules that generate typical English sentences, or what Fairley identifies as \"ungrammar\".", "In addition, a number of Cummings' poems feature, in part or in whole, intentional misspellings, and several incorporate phonetic spellings intended to represent particular dialects.", "Cummings also employs what Fairley describes as \"morphological innovation\", wherein he frequently creates what critic Ian Landles calls: \"unusual compounds suggestive of 'a child's language'\" like \"'mud-luscious' and 'puddle-wonderful'\".", "Literary critic R.P.", "Blackmur has commented that this use of language is \"frequently unintelligible because Cummings disregards the historical accumulation of meaning in words in favor of merely private and personal associations\".Fellow poet Edna St. Vincent Millay, in her equivocal letter recommending Cummings for the Guggenheim Fellowship he was awarded in 1934, expressed her frustration at his opaque symbolism.", "\"If he prints and offers for sale poetry which he is quite content should be, after hours of sweating concentration, inexplicable from any point of view to a person as intelligent as myself, then he does so with a motive which is frivolous from the point of view of art, and should not be helped or encouraged by any serious person or group of persons... there is fine writing and powerful writing (as well as some of the most pompous nonsense I ever let slip to the floor with a wide yawn)... What I propose, then, is this: that you give Mr. Cummings enough rope.", "He may hang himself; or he may lasso a unicorn.", "\"Cummings also wrote children's books and novels.", "A notable example of his versatility is an introduction he wrote for a collection of the comic strip ''Krazy Kat''.Cummings included ethnic slurs in his writing, which proved controversial.", "In his 1950 collection ''Xaipe: Seventy-One Poems'', Cummings published two poems containing words that caused outrage in some quarters.", "Friedman considered these two poems to be \"condensed\" and \"cryptic\" parables, \"sparsely told\", in which setting the use of such \"inflammatory material\" was likely to meet with reader misapprehension.", "Poet William Carlos Williams spoke out in his defense.Cummings biographer Catherine Reef notes of the controversy:===Plays===During his lifetime, Cummings published four plays.", "''HIM'', a three-act play, was first produced in 1928 by the Provincetown Players in New York City.", "The production was directed by James Light.", "The play's main characters are \"Him\", a playwright, portrayed by William Johnstone, and \"Me\", his girlfriend, portrayed by Erin O'Brien-Moore.Cummings said of the unorthodox play:''Anthropos, or the Future of Art'' is a short, one-act play that Cummings contributed to the anthology ''Whither, Whither or After Sex, What?", "A Symposium to End Symposium''.", "The play consists of dialogue between Man, the main character, and three \"infrahumans\", or inferior beings.", "The word ''anthropos'' is the Greek word for \"man\", in the sense of \"mankind\".", "''Tom, A Ballet'' is a ballet based on ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''.", "The ballet is detailed in a \"synopsis\" as well as descriptions of four \"episodes\", which were published by Cummings in 1935.It remained unperformed until 2015.", "''Santa Claus: A Morality'' was probably Cummings' most successful play.", "It is an allegorical Christmas fantasy presented in one act of five scenes.", "The play was inspired by his daughter Nancy, with whom he was reunited in 1946.It was first published in the Harvard College magazine, ''Wake''.", "The play's main characters are Santa Claus, his family (Woman and Child), Death, and Mob.", "At the outset of the play, Santa Claus's family has disintegrated due to their lust for knowledge (Science).", "After a series of events, however, Santa Claus's faith in love and his rejection of the materialism and disappointment he associates with Science are reaffirmed, and he is reunited with Woman and Child.===Art===Cummings was an avid painter, referring to writing and painting as his twin obsessions and to himself as a poetandpainter.", "He painted continuously, relentlessly, from childhood until his death, and left in his estate more than 1600 oils and watercolors (a figure that does not include the works he sold during his career) and over 9,000 drawings.", "In a self-interview from ''Foreword to an Exhibit: II'' (1945), the artist asked himself, Tell me, doesn’t your painting interfere with your writing?", "and answered, Quite the contrary: they love each other dearly.Cummings had more than 30 exhibits of his paintings in his lifetime.", "He received substantial acclaim as an American cubist and an abstract, avant garde painter between the World Wars, but with the publication of his books ''The Enormous Room'' and ''Tulips and Chimneys'' in the 1920s, his reputation as a poet eclipsed his success as a visual artist.", "In 1931, he published a limited edition volume of his artwork entitled ''CIOPW'', named for his media of charcoal, ink, oil, pencil, and watercolor.", "About this same time, he began to break from Modernist aesthetics and employ a more subjective and spontaneous style; his work became more representational: landscapes, nudes, still lifes, and portraits.===Name and capitalization===Cummings' publishers and others have often echoed the unconventional orthography in his poetry by writing his name in lower case.", "Cummings himself used both the lowercase and capitalized versions, though he most often signed his name with capitals.The use of lower case for his initials was popularized in part by the title of some books, particularly in the 1960s, printing his name in lower case on the cover and spine.", "In the preface to ''E.", "E. Cummings: The Growth of a Writer'' by Norman Friedman, critic Harry T. Moore notes Cummings \"had his name put legally into lower case, and in his later books the titles and his name were always in lower case\".", "According to Cummings' widow, however, this is incorrect.", "She wrote to Friedman: \"You should not have allowed H. Moore to make such a stupid & childish statement about Cummings & his signature.\"", "On February 27, 1951, Cummings wrote to his French translator D. Jon Grossman that he preferred the use of upper case for the particular edition they were working on.", "One Cummings scholar believes that on the rare occasions that Cummings signed his name in all lower case, he may have intended it as a gesture of humility, not as an indication that it was the preferred orthography for others to use.", "Additionally, ''The Chicago Manual of Style'', which prescribes favoring non-standard capitalization of names in accordance with the bearer's strongly stated preference, notes \"E. E. Cummings can be safely capitalized; it was one of his publishers, not he himself, who lowercased his name.\"" ], [ "Adaptations", "In 1943, modern dancer and choreographer, Jean Erdman presented \"The Transformations of Medusa, Forever and Sunsmell\" with a commissioned score by John Cage and a spoken text from the title poem by E. E. Cummings, sponsored by the Arts Club of Chicago.", "Erdman also choreographed \"Twenty Poems\" (1960), a cycle of E. E. Cummings' poems for eight dancers and one actor, with a commissioned score by Teiji Ito.", "It was performed in the round at the Circle in the Square Theatre in Greenwich Village.Numerous composers have set Cummings' poems to music:* In 1961, Pierre Boulez composed ('cummings is the poet') from poems by E. E.", "Cummings.", "* Aribert Reimann set Cummings to music in \"Impression IV\" (1961) for soprano and piano.", "* Morton Feldman (1926–1987) in 1951 composed \"4 Songs to e.e.", "cummings\" for soprano, piano and cello, using material from Cummings' ''50 Poems'' of 1940: \"!Blac\", \"Air\", \"(Sitting In A Tree-)\" and \"(Moan)\".", "* The Icelandic singer Björk used lines from Cummings' poem \"I Will Wade Out\" for the lyrics of \"Sun in My Mouth\" on her 2001 album ''Vespertine''.", "On her next album, ''Medúlla'' (2004), Björk used his poem \"It May Not Always Be So\" as the lyrics for the song \"Sonnets/Unrealities XI\".", "* The American composer Eric Whitacre wrote a cycle of works for choir titled ''The City and the Sea'', which consists of five poems by Cummings set to music.", "He also wrote music for \"little tree\" and \"i carry your heart\", among others.", "* Others who have composed settings for his poems include, among many others:" ], [ "Awards", "During his lifetime, Cummings received numerous awards in recognition of his work, including:* Dial Award (1925)* Guggenheim Fellowship (1933)* Shelley Memorial Award for Poetry (1945)* Harriet Monroe Prize from ''Poetry'' magazine (1950)* Fellowship of American Academy of Poets (1950)* Guggenheim Fellowship (1951)* Charles Eliot Norton Professorship at Harvard (1952–1953)* Special citation from the National Book Award Committee for his ''Poems, 1923–1954'' (1957)* Bollingen Prize in Poetry (1958)* Boston Arts Festival Award (1957)* Two-year Ford Foundation grant of $15,000 (1959)" ], [ "Books", "wall in Leiden * ''CIOPW'' (1931), art works''i—six nonlectures'' (1953), Harvard University Press===Prose books=== ''The Enormous Room'' (1922)* ''EIMI'' (1933), Soviet travelogue* ''Fairy Tales'' (1965), collection of short stories===Poetry===* ''Tulips and Chimneys'' (1923)* ''&'' (1925), self-published* ''XLI Poems'' (1925)* ''is 5'' (1926)* ''ViVa'' (1931)* ''No Thanks'' (1935)* ''Collected Poems'' (1938)* ''50 Poems'' (1940)* ''1 × 1'' (1944)* ''XAIPE: Seventy-One Poems'' (1950)* ''Poems, 1923–1954'' (1954)* ''95 Poems'' (1958)* ''Selected Poems 1923-1958'' (1960)* ''73 Poems'' (1963, posthumous)* ''Etcetera: The Unpublished Poems'' (1983)* ''Complete Poems, 1904–1962'', edited by George James Firmage (2008), Liveright* ''Erotic Poems'', edited by George James Firmage (2010), Norton===Plays===* ''HIM'' (1927)* ''Santa Claus: A Morality'' (1946)=== Collections ===* ''CIOPW'' (1931), art works* ''i—six nonlectures'' (1953), Harvard University Press" ], [ "References", "===Poems cited===Full text of poetry available at:=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===* * * * Chapter 10.", " Chapter 11.", "* " ], [ "Further reading", " * Galgano, Andrea, ''La furiosa ricerca di Edward E. Cummings'', in ''Mosaico'', Roma, Aracne, 2013, pp.", "441–444 * Heusser, Martin.", "''I Am My Writing: The Poetry of E. E. Cummings''.", "Tübingen: Stauffenburg, 1997.", "* Hutchinson, Hazel.", "''The War That Used Up Words: American Writers and the First World War''.", "New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015.", "* James, George, ''E.", "E. Cummings: A Bibliography''.", "* McBride, Katharine, ''A Concordance to the Complete Poems of E.", "E.Cummings''.", "* Mott, Christopher. \"", "The Cummings Line on Race\", ''Spring: The Journal of the E. E. Cummings Society'', vol.", "4, pp.", "71–75, Fall 1995.", "* Norman, Charles, ''E.", "E. Cummings: The Magic-Maker'', Boston, Little Brown, 1972.", "" ], [ "External links", " * * * * E. E. Cummings, Lifelong Unitarian Biography of Cummings and his relationship with Unitarianism* E. E. Cummings Personal Library at LibraryThing* Papers of E. E. Cummings at the Houghton Library at Harvard University* E. E. Cummings Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin* Poems by E. E. Cummings at PoetryFoundation.org* Jonathan Yardley, ''E.", "E. Cummings: A Biography'', Sunday, October 17, 2004, Page BW02, ''The Washington Post Book Review''* ''SPRING'':The Journal of the E. E. Cummings Society* Modern American Poetry * E. E. Cummings at Library of Congress Authorities – with 202 catalog records* Biography and poems of E. E. Cummings at Poets.org* Finding aid to Edward Estlin Cummings correspondence at Columbia University.", "Rare Book & Manuscript Library." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "East River" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''East River''' is a saltwater tidal estuary in New York City.", "The waterway, which is actually not a river despite its name, connects Upper New York Bay on its south end to Long Island Sound on its north end.", "It separates Long Island, with the boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens, from Manhattan Island and from the Bronx (on the North American mainland).", "Because of its connection to Long Island Sound, it was once also known as the ''Sound River''.", "The tidal strait changes its direction of flow regularly, and is subject to strong fluctuations in its current, which are accentuated by its narrowness and variety of depths.", "The waterway is navigable for its entire length of , and was historically the center of maritime activities in the city." ], [ "Formation and description", "Technically a drowned valley, like the other waterways around New York City, the strait was formed approximately 11,000 years ago at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation.", "The distinct change in the shape of the strait between the lower and upper portions is evidence of this glacial activity.", "The upper portion (from Long Island Sound to Hell Gate), running largely perpendicular to the glacial motion, is wide, meandering, and has deep narrow bays on both banks, scoured out by the glacier's movement.", "The lower portion (from Hell Gate to New York Bay) runs north–south, parallel to the glacial motion.", "It is much narrower, with straight banks.", "The bays that exist, as well as those that used to exist before being filled in by human activity, are largely wide and shallow.A navigation map for Hell Gate from , after many of the obstructions had been removedThe section known as \"Hell Gate\" – from the Dutch name meaning either \"bright strait\" or \"clear opening\", given to the entire river in 1614 by explorer Adriaen Block when he passed through it in his ship ''Tyger'' – is a narrow, turbulent, and particularly treacherous stretch of the river.", "Tides from the Long Island Sound, New York Harbor and the Harlem River meet there, making it difficult to navigate, especially because of the number of rocky islets which once dotted it, with names such as \"Frying Pan\", \"Pot, Bread and Cheese\", \"Hen and Chicken\", \"Heel Top\"; \"Flood\"; and \"Gridiron\", roughly 12 islets and reefs in all, all of which led to a number of shipwrecks, including HMS ''Hussar'', a British frigate that sank in 1780 while supposedly carrying gold and silver intended to pay British troops.", "The stretch has since been cleared of rocks and widened.", "Washington Irving wrote of Hell Gate that the current sounded \"like a bull bellowing for more drink\" at half tide, while at full tide it slept \"as soundly as an alderman after dinner\".", "He said it was like \"a peaceable fellow enough when he has no liquor at all, or when he has a skinful, but who, when half-seas over, plays the very devil.\"", "The tidal regime is complex, with the two major tides – from the Long Island Sound and from the Atlantic Ocean – separated by about two hours; and this is without consideration of the tidal influence of the Harlem River, all of which creates a \"dangerous cataract\", as one ship's captain put it.The river is navigable for its entire length of .", "In 1939 it was reported that the stretch from The Battery to the former Brooklyn Navy Yard near Wallabout Bay, a run of about , was deep, the long section from there, running to the west of Roosevelt Island, through Hell Gate and to Throg's Neck was at least deep, and then eastward from there the river was, at mean low tide, deep.The broadness of the river's channel south of Roosevelt Island is caused by the dipping of the hardy Fordham gneiss underlying the island under the less strong Inwood marble which lies under the river bed.", "Why the river turns to the east as it approaches the three lower Manhattan bridges is geologically unknown.===Islands===Roosevelt Island, a long () and narrow () landmass, lies in the stretch of the river between Manhattan Island and the borough of Queens roughly paralleling Manhattan's East 46th–86th Streets.", "The abrupt termination of the island on its north end is due to an extension of the 125th Street Fault.", "Politically, the island's constitute part of the borough of Manhattan.", "It is connected to Queens by the Roosevelt Island Bridge, to Manhattan by the Roosevelt Island Tramway, and to both boroughs by a subway station served by the F train.", "The Queensboro Bridge also runs across Roosevelt Island, and an elevator allowing both pedestrian and vehicular access to the island was added to the bridge in 1930, but elevator service was discontinued in 1955 following the opening of the Roosevelt Island Bridge, and the elevator was demolished in 1970.The island, which was formerly known as Blackwell's Island and Welfare Island before being renamed in honor of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, historically served as the site of a penitentiary and a number of hospitals; today, it is dominated by residential neighborhoods consisting of large apartment buildings and parkland (much of which is dotted with the ruins of older structures).The largest land mass in the River south of Roosevelt Island is U Thant Island, an artificial islet created during the construction of the Steinway Tunnel (which currently serves the subway's 7 and lines).", "Officially named Belmont Island after one of the tunnel's financiers, the landmass owes its popular name (after Burmese diplomat U Thant, former Secretary-General of the United Nations) to the efforts of a group associated with the guru Sri Chinmoy that held mediation meetings on the island in the 1970s.", "Today, the island is owned by New York State and serves as a migratory bird sanctuary that is closed to visitors.Proceeding north and east from Roosevelt Island, the River's principal islands include Manhattan's Mill Rock, an island located about 1000 feet from Manhattan's East 96th Street; Manhattan's 520-acre Randalls and Wards Islands, two formerly separate islands joined by landfill that are home to a large public park, a number of public institutions, and the supports for the Triborough and the Hell Gate Bridges; the Bronx's Rikers Island, once under but now over following extensive landfill expansion after the island's 1884 purchase by the city as a prison farm and still home to New York City's massive and controversial primary jail complex; and North and South Brother Islands, both of which also constitute part of the Bronx.A map from 1781===Tributaries===The Bronx River, Pugsley Creek, and Westchester Creek drain into the northern bank of the East River in the northern section of the strait.", "The Flushing River, historically known as Flushing Creek, empties into the strait's southern bank near LaGuardia Airport via Flushing Bay.", "Further west, Luyster Creek drains into the East River in Astoria, Queens.North of Randalls Island, it is joined by the Bronx Kill.", "Along the east of Wards Island, at approximately the strait's midpoint, it narrows into a channel called Hell Gate, which is spanned by both the Robert F. Kennedy Bridge (formerly the Triborough), and the Hell Gate Bridge.", "On the south side of Wards Island, it is joined by the Harlem River.Newtown Creek on Long Island, which itself contained several tributaries, drains into the East River and forms part of the boundary between Queens and Brooklyn.", "Bushwick Inlet and Wallabout Bay on Long Island also drain into the strait on the Long Island side.", "The Gowanus Canal was built from Gowanus Creek, which emptied into the river.Historically, there were other small streams which emptied into the river, though these and their associated wetlands have been filled in and built over.", "These small streams included the Harlem Creek, one of the most significant tributaries originating in Manhattan.", "Other streams that emptied into the East River included the Sawkill in Manhattan, Mill Brook in the Bronx, and Sunswick Creek in Queens." ], [ "History", "Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the land north of the East River was occupied by the Siwanoys, one of many groups of Algonquin-speaking Lenapes in the area.", "Those of the Lenapes who lived in the northern part of Manhattan Island in a campsite known as Konaande Kongh used a landing at around the current location of East 119th street to paddle into the river in canoes fashioned from tree trunks in order to fish.Dutch settlement of what became New Amsterdam began in 1623.Some of the earliest of the small settlements in the area were along the west bank of the East River on sites that had previously been Native American settlements.", "As with the Native Americans, the river was central to their lives for transportation for trading and for fishing.", "They gathered marsh grass to feed their cattle, and the East River's tides helped to power mills which ground grain to flour.", "By 1642 there was a ferry running on the river between Manhattan island and what is now Brooklyn, and the first pier on the river was built in 1647 at Pearl and Broad Streets.", "After the British took over the colony in 1664, which was renamed \"New York\", the development of the waterfront continued, and a shipbuilding industry grew up once New York started exporting flour.", "By the end of the 17th century, the Great Dock, located at Corlear's Hook on the East River, had been built.===Narrowing the river===Historically, the lower portion of the strait, which separates Manhattan from Brooklyn, was one of the busiest and most important channels in the world, particularly during the first three centuries of New York City's history.", "Because the water along the lower Manhattan shoreline was too shallow for large boats to tie up and unload their goods, from 1686 on – after the signing of the Dongan Charter, which allowed intertidal land to be owned and sold – the shoreline was \"wharfed out\" to the high-water mark by constructing retaining walls that were filled in with every conceivable kind of landfill: excrement, dead animals, ships deliberately sunk in place, ship ballast, and muck dredged from the bottom of the river.", "On the new land were built warehouses and other structures necessary for the burgeoning sea trade.", "Many of the \"water-lot\" grants went to the rich and powerful families of the merchant class, although some went to tradesmen.", "By 1700, the Manhattan bank of the river had been \"wharfed-out\" up to around Whitehall Street, narrowing the strait of the river.A \"bird's-eye\" view of New York City from 1859; Wallabout Bay and the East River are in the foreground, the Hudson River and New York Bay in the backgroundAfter the signing of the Montgomerie Charter in the late 1720s, another 127 acres of land along the Manhattan shore of the East River was authorized to be filled-in, this time to a point 400 feet beyond the low-water mark; the parts that had already been expanded to the low water mark – much of which had been devastated by a coastal storm in the early 1720s and a nor'easter in 1723 – were also expanded, narrowing the channel even further.", "What had been quiet beach land was to become new streets and buildings, and the core of the city's sea-borne trade.", "This infilling went as far north as Corlear's Hook.", "In addition, the city was given control of the western shore of the river from Wallabout Bay south.===American Revolution===Expansion of the waterfront halted during the American Revolution, in which the East River played an important role early in the conflict.", "On August 28, 1776, while British and Hessian troops rested after besting the Americans at the Battle of Long Island, General George Washington was rounding up all the boats on the east shore of the river, in what is now Brooklyn, and used them to successfully move his troops across the river – under cover of night, rain, and fog – to Manhattan island, before the British could press their advantage.", "Thus, though the battle was a victory for the British, the failure of Sir William Howe to destroy the Continental Army when he had the opportunity allowed the Americans to continue fighting.", "Without the stealthy withdrawal across the East River, the American Revolution might have ended much earlier.Wallabout Bay on the River was the site of most of the British prison ships – most notoriously – where thousands of American prisoners of war were held in terrible conditions.", "These prisoners had come into the hands of the British after the fall of New York City on September 15, 1776, after the American loss at the Battle of Long Island and the loss of Fort Washington on November 16.Prisoners began to be housed on the broken-down warships and transports in December; about 24 ships were used in total, but generally only 5 or 6 at a time.", "Almost twice as many Americans died from neglect in these ships than did from all the battles in the war: as many as 12,000 soldiers, sailors and civilians.", "The bodies were thrown overboard or were buried in shallow graves on the riverbanks, but their bones – some of which were collected when they washed ashore – were later relocated and are now inside the Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument in nearby Fort Greene Park.", "The existence of the ships and the conditions the men were held in was widely known at the time through letters, diaries and memoirs, and was a factor not only in the attitude of Americans toward the British, but in the negotiations to formally end the war.===Development begins again===After the war, East River waterfront development continued once more.", "New York State legislation, which in 1807 had authorized what would become the Commissioners Plan of 1811, authorized the creation of new land out to 400 feet from the low water mark into the river, and with the advent of gridded streets along the new waterline – Joseph Mangin had laid out such a grid in 1803 in his ''A Plan and Regulation of the City of New York'', which was rejected by the city, but established the concept – the coastline become regularized at the same time that the strait became even narrower.One result of the narrowing of the East River along the shoreline of Manhattan and, later, Brooklyn – which continued until the mid-19th century when the state put a stop to it – was an increase in the speed of its current.", "Buttermilk Channel, the strait that divides Governors Island from Red Hook in Brooklyn, and which is located directly south of the \"mouth\" of the East River, was in the early 17th century a fordable waterway across which cattle could be driven.", "Further investigation by Colonel Jonathan Williams determined that the channel was by 1776 three fathoms deep (), five fathoms deep () in the same spot by 1798, and when surveyed by Williams in 1807 had deepened to 7 fathoms () at low tide.", "What had been almost a bridge between two landforms that were once connected had become a fully navigable channel, thanks to the constriction of the East River and the increased flow it caused.", "Soon, the current in the East River had become so strong that larger ships had to use auxiliary steam power in order to turn.", "The continued narrowing of the channel on both side may have been the reasoning behind the suggestion of one New York State Senator, who wanted to fill in the East River and annex Brooklyn, with the cost of doing so being covered by selling the newly made land.", "Others proposed a dam at Roosevelt Island (then Blackwell's Island) to create a wet basin for shipping.James E. Serrell's plan for an expanded Manhattan and a straightened East River===Filling in the river===Filling in part of the river was also proposed in 1867 by engineer James E. Serrell, later a city surveyor, but with emphasis on solving the problem of Hell Gate.", "Serrell proposed filling in Hell Gate and building a \"New East River\" through Queens with an extension to Westchester County.", "Serrell's plan – which he publicized with maps, essay and lectures as well as presentations to the city, state and federal governments – would have filled in the river from 14th Street to 125th Street.", "The New East River through Queens would be about three times the average width of the existing one at an even throughout, and would run as straight as an arrow for .", "The new land, and the portions of Queens which would become part of Manhattan, adding , would be covered with an extension of the existing street grid of Manhattan.Variations on Serrell's plan would be floated over the years.", "A pseudonymous \"Terra Firma\" brought up filling in the East River again in the ''Evening Post'' and ''Scientific American'' in 1904, and Thomas Alva Edison took it up in 1906.Then Thomas Kennard Thompson, a bridge and railway engineer, proposed in 1913 to fill in the river from Hell Gate to the tip of Manhattan and, as Serrell had suggested, make a new canalized East River, only this time from Flushing Bay to Jamaica Bay.", "He would also expand Brooklyn into the Upper Harbor, put up a dam from Brooklyn to Staten Island, and make extensive landfill in the Lower Bay.", "At around the same time, in the 1920s, John A. Harriss, New York City's chief traffic engineer, who had developed the first traffic signals in the city, also had plans for the river.", "Harriss wanted to dam the East River at Hell Gate and the Williamsburg Bridge, then remove the water, put a roof over it on stilts, and build boulevards and pedestrian lanes on the roof along with \"majestic structures\", with transportation services below.", "The East River's course would, once again, be shifted to run through Queens, and this time Brooklyn as well, to channel it to the Harbor.===Clearing Hell Gate===Periodically, merchants and other interested parties would try to get something done about the difficulty of navigating through Hell Gate.", "In 1832, the New York State legislature was presented with a petition for a canal to be built through nearby Hallet's Point, thus avoiding Hell Gate altogether.", "Instead, the legislature responded by providing ships with pilots trained to navigate the shoals for the next 15 years.In 1849, a French engineer whose specialty was underwater blasting, Benjamin Maillefert, had cleared some of the rocks which, along with the mix of tides, made the Hell Gate stretch of the river so dangerous to navigate.", "Ebenezer Meriam had organized a subscription to pay Maillefert $6,000 to, for instance, reduce \"Pot Rock\" to provide of depth at low-mean water.", "While ships continued to run aground (in the 1850s about 2% of ships did so) and petitions continued to call for action, the federal government undertook surveys of the area which ended in 1851 with a detailed and accurate map.", "By then Maillefert had cleared the rock \"Baldheaded Billy\", and it was reported that Pot Rock had been reduced to , which encouraged the United States Congress to appropriate $20,000 for further clearing of the strait.", "However, a more accurate survey showed that the depth of Pot Rock was actually a little more than , and eventually Congress withdrew its funding.With the main shipping channels through The Narrows into the harbor silting up with sand due to littoral drift, thus providing ships with less depth, and a new generation of larger ships coming online – epitomized by Isambard Kingdom Brunel's SS ''Great Eastern'', popularly known as \"Leviathan\" – New York began to be concerned that it would start to lose its status as a great port if a \"back door\" entrance into the harbor was not created.", "In the 1850s the depth continued to lessen – the harbor commission said in 1850 that the mean water low was and the extreme water low was – while the draft required by the new ships continued to increase, meaning it was only safe for them to enter the harbor at high tide.The U.S. Congress, realizing that the problem needed to be addressed, appropriated $20,000 for the Army Corps of Engineers to continue Maillefert's work.", "In 1851, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, \"under Lt. Bartlett of the Army Corps of Engineers,\" began to do the job, in an operation which was to span 70 years.", "The appropriated money was soon spent without appreciable change in the hazards of navigating the strait.", "An advisory council recommended in 1856 that the strait be cleared of all obstacles, but nothing was done, and the Civil War soon broke out.====After the Civil War====The 1885 explosionIn the late 1860s, after the Civil War, Congress realized the military importance of having easily navigable waterways, and charged the Army Corps of Engineers with clearing Hell Gate.", "Newton estimated that the operation would cost about half as much as the annual losses in shipping.", "The 2021 book by Thomas Barthel titled ''Opening the East River: John Newton and the Blasting of Hell Gate'' traces Newton's work on this project from 1866 to 1885.On September 24, 1876, the Corps used of explosives to blast the rocks, which was followed by further blasting.", "The process was started by excavating under Hallets reef from Astoria.", "Cornish miners, assisted by steam drills, dug galleries under the reef, which were then interconnected.", "They later drilled holes for explosives.", "A patent was issued for the detonating device.", "After the explosion, the rock debris was dredged and dropped into a deep part of the river.", "This was not repeated at the later Flood Rock explosion.On October 10, 1885, the Corps carried out the largest explosion in this process, annihilating Flood Rock with of explosives.", "The blast was felt as far away as Princeton, New Jersey (50 miles).", "It sent a geyser of water in the air.", "The blast has been described as \"the largest planned explosion before testing began for the atomic bomb\", although the detonation at the Battle of Messines in 1917 was larger.", "Some of the rubble from the detonation was used in 1890 to fill the gap between Great Mill Rock and Little Mill Rock, merging the two islands into a single island, Mill Rock.At the same time that Hell Gate was being cleared, the Harlem River Ship Canal was being planned.", "When it was completed in 1895, the \"back door\" to New York's center of ship-borne trade in the docks and warehouses of the East River was open from two directions, through the cleared East River, and from the Hudson River through the Harlem River to the East River.", "Ironically, though, while both forks of the northern shipping entrance to the city were now open, modern dredging techniques had cut through the sandbars of the Atlantic Ocean entrance, allowing new, even larger ships to use that traditional passage into New York's docks.At the beginning of the 19th century, the East River was the center of New York's shipping industry, but by the end of the century, much of it had moved to the Hudson River, leaving the East River wharves and slips to begin a long process of decay, until the area was finally rehabilitated in the mid-1960s, and the South Street Seaport Museum was opened in 1967.===A new seawall===By 1870, the condition of the Port of New York along both the East and Hudson Rivers had so deteriorated that the New York State legislature created the Department of Docks to renovate the port and keep New York competitive with other ports on the American East Coast.", "The Department of Docks was given the task of creating the master plan for the waterfront, and General George B. McClellan was engaged to head the project.", "McClellan held public hearings and invited plans to be submitted, ultimately receiving 70 of them, although in the end he and his successors put his own plan into effect.", "That plan called for the building of a seawall around Manhattan island from West 61st Street on the Hudson, around The Battery, and up to East 51st Street on the East River.", "The area behind the masonry wall (mostly concrete but in some parts granite blocks) would be filled in with landfill, and wide streets would be laid down on the new land.", "In this way, a new edge for the island (or at least the part of it used as a commercial port) would be created.The department had surveyed of shoreline by 1878, as well as documenting the currents and tides.", "By 1900, had been surveyed and core samples had been taken to inform the builders of how deep the bedrock was.", "The work was completed just as World War I began, allowing the Port of New York to be a major point of embarkation for troops and materiel.The new seawall helps protect Manhattan island from storm surges, although it is only above the mean sea level, so that particularly dangerous storms, such as the nor'easter of 1992 and Hurricane Sandy in 2012, which hit the city in a way to create surges which are much higher, can still do significant damage.", "(The Hurricane of September 3, 1821, created the biggest storm surge on record in New York City: a rise of in one hour at the Battery, flooding all of lower Manhattan up to Canal Street.)", "Still, the new seawall begun in 1871 gave the island a firmer edge, improved the quality of the port, and continues to protect Manhattan from normal storm surges.===Bridges and tunnels===The Brooklyn Bridge, completed in 1883, was the first bridge to span the East River, connecting the cities of New York and Brooklyn, and all but replacing the frequent ferry service between them, which did not return until the late 20th century.", "The bridge offered cable car service across the span.", "The Brooklyn Bridge was followed by the Williamsburg Bridge (1903), the Queensboro Bridge (1909), the Manhattan Bridge (1912) and the Hell Gate Railroad Bridge (1916).", "Later would come the Triborough Bridge (1936), the Bronx-Whitestone Bridge (1939), the Throgs Neck Bridge (1961) and the Rikers Island Bridge (1966).", "In addition, numerous rail tunnels pass under the East River – most of them part of the New York City Subway system – as does the Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel and the Queens-Midtown Tunnel.", "(See Crossings below for details.)", "Also under the river is Water Tunnel #1 of the New York City water supply system, built in 1917 to extend the Manhattan portion of the tunnel to Brooklyn, and via City Tunnel #2 (1936) to Queens; these boroughs became part of New York City after the city's consolidation in 1898.City Tunnel #3 will also run under the river, under the northern tip of Roosevelt Island, and is expected to not be completed until at least 2026; the Manhattan portion of the tunnel went into service in 2013.Robert F. Kennedy Bridge (left) and the Hell Gate Bridge (right), as seen from Astoria Park in Queens===20th century===Philanthropist John D. Rockefeller founded what is now Rockefeller University in 1901, between 63rd and 64th Streets on the river side of York Avenue, overlooking the river.", "The university is a research university for doctoral and post-doctoral scholars, primarily in the fields of medicine and biological science.", "North of it is one of the major medical centers in the city, NewYork Presbyterian / Weill Cornell Medical Center, which is associated with the medical schools of both Columbia University and Cornell University.", "Although it can trace its history back to 1771, the center on York Avenue, much of which overlooks the river, was built in 1932.Firefighters working to put out the fire on the listing ''General Slocum''The East River was the site of one of the greatest disasters in the history of New York City when, in June 1904, the PS ''General Slocum'' sank near North Brother Island due to a fire.", "It was carrying 1,400 German-Americans to a picnic site on Long Island for an annual outing.", "There were only 321 survivors of the disaster, one of the worst losses of life in the city's long history, and a devastating blow to the Little Germany neighborhood on the Lower East Side.", "The captain of the ship and the managers of the company that owned it were indicted, but only the captain was convicted; he spent 3 and a half years of his 10-year sentence at Sing Sing Prison before being released by a Federal parole board, and then pardoned by President William Howard Taft.Beginning in 1934, and then again from 1948 to 1966, the Manhattan shore of the river became the location for the limited-access East River Drive, which was later renamed after Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and is universally known by New Yorkers as the \"FDR Drive\".", "The road is sometimes at grade, sometimes runs under locations such as the site of the Headquarters of the United Nations and Carl Schurz Park and Gracie Mansion – the mayor's official residence, and is at time double-decked, because Hell Gate provides no room for more landfill.", "It begins at Battery Park, runs past the Brooklyn, Manhattan, Williamsburg and Queensboro Bridges, and the Ward's Island Footbridge, and terminates just before the Robert F. Kennedy Triboro Bridge when it connects to the Harlem River Drive.", "Between most of the FDR Drive and the River is the East River Greenway, part of the Manhattan Waterfront Greenway.", "The East River Greenway was primarily built in connection with the building of the FDR Drive, although some portions were built as recently as 2002, and other sections are still incomplete.In 1963, Con Edison built the Ravenswood Generating Station on the Long Island City shore of the river, on land some of which was once stone quarries which provided granite and marble slabs for Manhattan's buildings.", "The plant has since been owned by KeySpan.", "National Grid and TransCanada, the result of deregulation of the electrical power industry.", "The station, which can generate about 20% of the electrical needs of New York City – approximately 2,500 megawatts – receives some of its fuel by oil barge.North of the power plant can be found Socrates Sculpture Park, an illegal dumpsite and abandoned landfill that in 1986 was turned into an outdoor museum, exhibition space for artists, and public park by sculptor Mark di Suvero and local activists.", "The area also contains Rainey Park, which honors Thomas C. Rainey, who attempted for 40 years to get a bridge built in that location from Manhattan to Queens.", "The Queensboro Bridge was eventually built south of this location.===21st century===In 2011, NY Waterway started operating its East River Ferry line.", "The route was a 7-stop East River service that runs in a loop between East 34th Street and Hunters Point, making two intermediate stops in Brooklyn and three in Queens.", "The ferry, an alternative to the New York City Subway, cost $4 per one-way ticket.", "It was instantly popular: from June to November 2011, the ferry saw 350,000 riders, over 250% of the initial ridership forecast of 134,000 riders.", "In December 2016, in preparation for the start of NYC Ferry service the next year, Hornblower Cruises purchased the rights to operate the East River Ferry.", "NYC Ferry started service on May 1, 2017, with the East River Ferry as part of the system.In February 2012 the federal government announced an agreement with Verdant Power to install 30 tidal turbines in the channel of the East River.", "The turbines were projected to begin operations in 2015 and are supposed to produce 1.05 megawatts of power.", "The strength of the current foiled an earlier effort in 2007 to tap the river for tidal power.On May 7, 2017, the catastrophic failure of a Con Edison substation in Brooklyn caused a spill into the river of over of dielectric fluid, a synthetic mineral oil used to cool electrical equipment and prevent electrical discharges.", "(See below.", ")At the end of 2022, gold miner John Reeves claimed that up to 50 tons of ice age artifacts bound for the American Museum of Natural History , including mammoth remains, had been dumped into the East River near 65th Street.", "Although the museum denied that any fossils had been dumped into the river, Reeves's allegations prompted commercial divers to search the river for evidence of mammoth bones." ], [ "Ecosystem collapse, pollution and health", "Throughout most of the history of New York City, and New Amsterdam before it, the East River has been the receptacle for the city's garbage and sewage.", "\"Night men\" who collected \"night soil\" from outdoor privies would dump their loads into the river, and even after the construction of the Croton Aqueduct (1842) and then the New Croton Aqueduct (1890) gave rise to indoor plumbing, the waste that was flushed away into the sewers, where it mixed with ground runoff, ran directly into the river, untreated.", "The sewers terminated at the slips where ships docked, until the waste began to build up, preventing dockage, after which the outfalls were moved to the end of the piers.", "The \"landfill\" which created new land along the shoreline when the river was \"wharfed out\" by the sale of \"water lots\" was largely garbage such as bones, offal, and even whole dead animals, along with excrement – human and animal.", "The result was that by the 1850s, if not before, the East River, like the other waterways around the city, was undergoing the process of eutrophication where the increase in nitrogen from excrement and other sources led to a decrease in free oxygen, which in turn led to an increase in phytoplankton such as algae and a decrease in other life forms, breaking the area's established food chain.", "The East River became very polluted, and its animal life decreased drastically.In an earlier time, one person had described the transparency of the water: \"I remember the time, gentlemen, when you could go in twelve feet of water and you could see the pebbles on the bottom of this river.\"", "As the water got more polluted, it darkened, underwater vegetation (such as photosynthesizing seagrass) began dying, and as the seagrass beds declined, the many associated species of their ecosystems declined as well, contributing to the decline of the river.", "Also harmful was the general destruction of the once plentiful oyster beds in the waters around the city, and the over-fishing of menhaden, or mossbunker, a small silvery fish which had been used since the time of the Native Americans for fertilizing crops – however it took 8,000 of these schooling fish to fertilize a single acre, so mechanized fishing using the purse seine was developed, and eventually the menhaden population collapsed.", "Menhaden feed on phytoplankton, helping to keep them in check, and are also a vital step in the food chain, as bluefish, striped bass and other fish species which do not eat phytoplankton feed on the menhaden.", "The oyster is another filter feeder: oysters purify 10 to 100 gallons a day, while each menhaden filters four gallons in a minute, and their schools were immense: one report had a farmer collecting 20 oxcarts worth of menhaden using simple fishing nets deployed from the shore.", "The combination of more sewage, due to the availability of more potable water – New York's water consumption ''per capita'' was twice that of Europe – indoor plumbing, the destruction of filter feeders, and the collapse of the food chain, damaged the ecosystem of the waters around New York, including the East River, almost beyond repair.Because of these changes to the ecosystem, by 1909, the level of dissolved-oxygen in the lower part of the river had declined to less than 65%, where 55% of saturation is the point at which the amount of fish and the number of their species begins to be affected.", "Only 17 years later, by 1926, the level of dissolved oxygen in the river had fallen to 13%, below the point at which most fish species can survive.Due to heavy pollution, the East River is dangerous to people who fall in or attempt to swim in it, although as of mid-2007 the water was cleaner than it had been in decades.", ", the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) categorizes the East River as Use Classification I, meaning it is safe for secondary contact activities such as boating and fishing.", "According to the marine sciences section of the DEP, the channel is swift, with water moving as fast as four knots, just as it does in the Hudson River on the other side of Manhattan.", "That speed can push casual swimmers out to sea.", "A few people drown in the waters around New York City each year., it was reported that the level of bacteria in the river was below Federal guidelines for swimming on most days, although the readings may vary significantly, so that the outflow from Newtown Creek or the Gowanus Canal can be tens or hundreds of times higher than recommended, according to Riverkeeper, a non-profit environmentalist advocacy group.", "The counts are also higher along the shores of the strait than they are in the middle of its flow.", "Nevertheless, the \"Brooklyn Bridge Swim\" is an annual event where swimmers cross the channel from Brooklyn Bridge Park to Manhattan.Thanks to reductions in pollution, cleanups, the restriction of development, and other environmental controls, the East River along Manhattan is one of the areas of New York's waterways – including the Hudson-Raritan Estuary and both shores of Long Island – which have shown signs of the return of biodiversity.", "On the other hand, the river is also under attack from hardy, competitive, alien species, such as the European green crab, which is considered to be one of the world's ten worst invasive species, and is present in the river.===2017 oil spill===On May 7, 2017, the catastrophic failure of Con Edison's Farragut Substation at 89 John Street in Dumbo, Brooklyn, caused a spill of dielectric fluid – an insoluble synthetic mineral oil, considered non-toxic by New York state, used to cool electrical equipment and prevent electrical discharges – into the East River from a tank.", "The National Response Center received a report of the spill at 1:30pm that day, although the public did not learn of the spill for two days, and then only from tweets from NYC Ferry.", "A \"safety zone\" was established, extending from a line drawn between Dupont Street in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, to East 25th Street in Kips Bay, Manhattan, south to Buttermilk Channel.", "Recreational and human-powered vehicles such as kayaks and paddleboards were banned from the zone while the oil was being cleaned up, and the speed of commercial vehicles restricted so as not to spread the oil in their wakes, causing delays in NYC Ferry service.", "The clean-up efforts were being undertaken by Con Edison personnel and private environmental contractors, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, with the assistance of NYC Emergency Management.The loss of the sub-station caused a voltage dip in the power provided by Con Ed to the Metropolitan Transportation Authority's New York City Subway system, which disrupted its signals.The Coast Guard estimated that of oil spilled into the water, with the remainder soaking into the soil at the substation.", "In the past the Coast Guard has on average been able to recover about 10% of oil spilled, however the complex tides in the river make the recovery much more difficult, with the turbulent water caused by the river's change of tides pushing contaminated water over the containment booms, where it is then carried out to sea and cannot be recovered.", "By Friday May 12, officials from Con Edison reported that almost had been taken out of the water.Environmental damage to wildlife is expected to be less than if the spill was of petroleum-based oil, but the oil can still block the sunlight necessary for the river's fish and other organisms to live.", "Nesting birds are also in possible danger from the oil contaminating their nests and potentially poisoning the birds or their eggs.", "Water from the East River was reported to have tested positive for low levels of PCB, a known carcinogen.Putting the spill into perspective, John Lipscomb, the vice president of advocacy for Riverkeepers said that the chronic release after heavy rains of overflow from city's wastewater treatment system was \"a bigger problem for the harbor than this accident.\"", "The state Department of Environmental Conservation is investigating the spill.", "It was later reported that according to DEC data which dates back to 1978, the substation involved had spilled 179 times previously, more than any other Con Ed facility.", "The spills have included 8,400 gallons of dielectric oil, hydraulic oil, and antifreeze which leaked at various times into the soil around the substation, the sewers, and the East River.On June 22, Con Edison used non-toxic green dye and divers in the river to find the source of the leak.", "As a result, a hole was plugged.", "The utility continued to believe that the bulk of the spill went into the ground around the substation, and excavated and removed several hundred cubic yards of soil from the area.", "They estimated that about went into the river, of which were recovered.", "Con Edison said that it installed a new transformer, and intended to add new barrier around the facility to help guard against future spills propagating into the river." ], [ "Crossings", " Crossing Carries Location CoordinatesYearopenedManhattan — Manhattan (Roosevelt Island)Roosevelt Island Tramwaypedestrians, bicycles (aerial tramway)1976Manhattan — BrooklynCity Tunnel #1water1917Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel 15px (unsigned)1950Joralemon Street Tunnel1908Montague Street Tunnel1920Clark Street Tunnel1919Cranberry Street Tunnel1932Brooklyn Bridgevehicles, pedestrians, bicycles1883Manhattan Bridge, vehicles, pedestrians, bicycles1909Rutgers Street Tunnel1936Williamsburg Bridge, vehicles, pedestrians, bicycles190313th Street Pumping Station tunnelwastewater14th Street Tunnel1924Manhattan — QueensEast River TunnelsAmtrak Northeast Corridor15px Long Island Rail Road1910Queens Midtown Tunnel 15px 1940Steinway Tunnel191553rd Street Tunnel1933Ed Koch Queensboro Bridge (59th Street Bridge), pedestrians, bicycles190960th Street Tunnel192063rd Street Tunnel15px Long Island Rail Road1989Roosevelt Island Bridgevehicles, pedestrians, bicycles to Roosevelt Island1955City Tunnel #3water2018 (proj.", ")Robert F. Kennedy Triborough Bridge (East River Suspension Span), pedestrians, bicycles1936Hell Gate BridgeAmtrak Northeast CorridorCSX Transportation Fremont SecondaryProvidence & Worcester Railroad1916The Bronx — QueensRikers Island Bridgevehicles to Rikers Island1966Bronx-Whitestone Bridge1939Throgs Neck Bridge1961Historical film of the East River, leading up to a final shot of the Brooklyn Bridge (1903)Exposition display showing cross-section of East River railroad tunnel to Pennsylvania StationWilliam Glackens's 1902 painting of East River Park, in the Brooklyn Museum" ], [ "In popular culture", "The Brecker Brothers performed a song named after the river that is featured on their album ''Heavy Metal Be-Bop'' (1978) According to its author, Yasushi Akimoto, the noted Japanese song \"Kawa no Nagare no Yō ni\" – the \"swan song\" of the noted singer Hibari Misora – was inspired by the East River.", "* In the ''Seinfeld'' episode \"The Nap\", Cosmo Kramer takes up swimming in the East River.", "* In the 2004 film ''Spider-Man 2'', Doctor Octopus's run down lair is situated on the East River.", "This is also where the final battle between him and Spider-Man takes place and also where he sacrifices himself to stop the fusion reactor he created which would threaten all of New York City.", "* In ''Forever'', the immortal Dr. Henry Morgan is reborn naked in the East River each time he dies.", "* In the final ''Percy Jackson and the Olympians'' novel, ''The Last Olympian'', the East River appears as a river spirit in the form of a telkhine.", "The East River Spirit is a rival to the Hudson River Spirit, but assists the Demigods in the Battle of Manhattan by sinking the Titan's ships." ], [ "Views of the river", "File:Shot factory, East River, Manhattan.jpeg\|A shot tower at 53rd Street in Manhattan on the East River (1831)File:Blackwells Island East River 1862 crop.jpg\|''Blackwells Island from Eighty Sixth Street'', Currier & Ives (1862); Blackwell's Island is now known as Roosevelt IslandFile:Manhattan and Brooklyn bridges on the East River, New York City, 1981.jpg\|Manhattan Bridge (top) and Brooklyn Bridge (bottom); Manhattan is on the left, Brooklyn on the right (1981)File:East River Park in Fall 2008 number 3.jpg\|The East River passes children playing football in East River Park (2008)File:Powells Cove BWB jeh.jpg\|Powell's Cove, in Whitestone, Queens(2009)File:East River 59 jeh.JPG\|The East River flows past the Upper East Side(2009)File:USA-NYC-East River.jpg\|The East River with Brooklyn Heights in the background, Topsail Schooner Clipper City (2013)File:USA-NYC-Lower Manhattan from East River.jpg\|The East River and Lower Manhattan (2013)" ], [ "See also", "List of New York riversLists of crossings of the East RiverGeography and environment of New York CityGeography of New York Harbor" ], [ "References", "Barthel, Thomas.", "''Opening the East River: John Newton and the Blasting of Hell Gate''.", "McFarland, 2021.https://www.nan.usace.army.mil/Portals/37/docs/history/hellgate.pdf.", "'''Informational notes''''''Citations''''''Bibliography'''****" ], [ "External links", " East River NYC from the Greater Astoria Historical Society* LIC Community Boathouse site for free paddling on the East River* Western Queens waterfront information page" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Existentialism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Existentialism''' is a form of philosophical inquiry that explores the issue of human existence.", "Existentialist philosophers explore questions related to the meaning, purpose, and value of human existence.", "Common concepts in existentialist thought include existential crisis, dread, and anxiety in the face of an absurd world and free will, as well as authenticity, courage, and virtue.Existentialism is associated with several 19th- and 20th-century European philosophers who shared an emphasis on the human subject, despite often profound differences in thought.", "Among the earliest figures associated with existentialism are philosophers Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche and novelist Fyodor Dostoevsky, all of whom critiqued rationalism and concerned themselves with the problem of meaning.", "In the 20th century, prominent existentialist thinkers included Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, Martin Heidegger, Simone de Beauvoir, Giacomo Leopardi, Karl Jaspers, Gabriel Marcel, and Paul Tillich.", "Many existentialists considered traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in style and content, to be too abstract and removed from concrete human experience.", "A primary virtue in existentialist thought is authenticity.", "Existentialism would influence many disciplines outside of philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology.Existentialist philosophy encompasses a range of perspectives, but it shares certain underlying concepts.", "Among these, a central tenet of existentialism is that personal freedom, individual responsibility, and deliberate choice are essential to the pursuit of self-discovery and the determination of life's meaning." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''existentialism'' () was coined by the French Catholic philosopher Gabriel Marcel in the mid-1940s.", "When Marcel first applied the term to Jean-Paul Sartre, at a colloquium in 1945, Sartre rejected it.", "Sartre subsequently changed his mind and, on October 29, 1945, publicly adopted the existentialist label in a lecture to the Club Maintenant in Paris, published as (''Existentialism Is a Humanism''), a short book that helped popularize existentialist thought.", "Marcel later came to reject the label himself in favour of ''Neo-Socratic'', in honor of Kierkegaard's essay \"On the Concept of Irony\".Some scholars argue that the term should be used to refer only to the cultural movement in Europe in the 1940s and 1950s associated with the works of the philosophers Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Albert Camus.", "Others extend the term to Kierkegaard, and yet others extend it as far back as Socrates.", "However, it is often identified with the philosophical views of Sartre." ], [ "Definitional issues and background", "The labels ''existentialism'' and ''existentialist'' are often seen as historical conveniences in as much as they were first applied to many philosophers long after they had died.", "While existentialism is generally considered to have originated with Kierkegaard, the first prominent existentialist philosopher to adopt the term as a self-description was Sartre.", "Sartre posits the idea that \"what all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence\", as the philosopher Frederick Copleston explains.", "According to philosopher Steven Crowell, defining existentialism has been relatively difficult, and he argues that it is better understood as a general approach used to reject certain systematic philosophies rather than as a systematic philosophy itself.", "In a lecture delivered in 1945, Sartre described existentialism as \"the attempt to draw all the consequences from a position of consistent atheism\".", "For others, existentialism need not involve the rejection of God, but rather \"examines mortal man's search for meaning in a meaningless universe\", considering less \"What is the good life?\"", "(to feel, be, or do, good), instead asking \"What is life good for?", "\".Although many outside Scandinavia consider the term existentialism to have originated from Kierkegaard, it is more likely that Kierkegaard adopted this term (or at least the term \"existential\" as a description of his philosophy) from the Norwegian poet and literary critic Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven.", "This assertion comes from two sources:* The Norwegian philosopher Erik Lundestad refers to the Danish philosopher Fredrik Christian Sibbern.", "Sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841, the first with Welhaven and the second with Kierkegaard.", "It is in the first conversation that it is believed that Welhaven came up with \"a word that he said covered a certain thinking, which had a close and positive attitude to life, a relationship he described as existential\".", "This was then brought to Kierkegaard by Sibbern.", "* The second claim comes from the Norwegian historian Rune Slagstad, who claimed to prove that Kierkegaard himself said the term ''existential'' was borrowed from the poet.", "He strongly believes that it was Kierkegaard himself who said that \"Hegelians do not study philosophy 'existentially;' to use a phrase by Welhaven from one time when I spoke with him about philosophy.\"" ], [ "Concepts", "=== Existence precedes essence ===Sartre argued that a central proposition of existentialism is that existence precedes essence, which is to say that individuals shape themselves by existing and cannot be perceived through preconceived and ''a priori'' categories, an \"essence\".", "The actual life of the individual is what constitutes what could be called their \"true essence\" instead of an arbitrarily attributed essence others use to define them.", "Human beings, through their own consciousness, create their own values and determine a meaning to their life.", "This view is in contradiction to Aristotle and Aquinas, who taught that essence precedes individual existence.", "Although it was Sartre who explicitly coined the phrase, similar notions can be found in the thought of existentialist philosophers such as Heidegger, and Kierkegaard:Some interpret the imperative to define oneself as meaning that anyone can wish to be anything.", "However, an existentialist philosopher would say such a wish constitutes an inauthentic existence – what Sartre would call \"bad faith\".", "Instead, the phrase should be taken to say that people are defined only insofar as they act and that they are responsible for their actions.", "Someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, defined as a cruel person.", "Such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity (cruel persons).", "This is opposed to their genes, or ''human nature'', bearing the blame.As Sartre said in his lecture ''Existentialism is a Humanism'': \"Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards.\"", "The more positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied: a person can choose to act in a different way, and to be a good person instead of a cruel person.Jonathan Webber interprets Sartre's usage of the term ''essence'' not in a modal fashion, i.e.", "as necessary features, but in a teleological fashion: \"an essence is the relational property of having a set of parts ordered in such a way as to collectively perform some activity\".", "For example, it belongs to the essence of a house to keep the bad weather out, which is why it has walls and a roof.", "Humans are different from houses because—unlike houses—they do not have an inbuilt purpose: they are free to ''choose'' their own purpose and thereby shape their essence; thus, ''their existence precedes their essence''.Sartre is committed to a radical conception of freedom: nothing fixes our purpose but we ourselves, our projects have no weight or inertia except for our endorsement of them.", "Simone de Beauvoir, on the other hand, holds that there are various factors, grouped together under the term ''sedimentation'', that offer resistance to attempts to change our direction in life.", "''Sedimentations'' are themselves products of past choices and can be changed by choosing differently in the present, but such changes happen slowly.", "They are a force of inertia that shapes the agent's evaluative outlook on the world until the transition is complete.Sartre's definition of existentialism was based on Heidegger's magnum opus ''Being and Time'' (1927).", "In the correspondence with Jean Beaufret later published as the ''Letter on Humanism'', Heidegger implied that Sartre misunderstood him for his own purposes of subjectivism, and that he did not mean that actions take precedence over being so long as those actions were not reflected upon.", "Heidegger commented that \"the reversal of a metaphysical statement remains a metaphysical statement\", meaning that he thought Sartre had simply switched the roles traditionally attributed to essence and existence without interrogating these concepts and their history.=== The absurd ===Sisyphus, the symbol of the absurdity of existence, painting by Franz Stuck (1920)The notion of the absurd contains the idea that there is no meaning in the world beyond what meaning we give it.", "This meaninglessness also encompasses the amorality or \"unfairness\" of the world.", "This can be highlighted in the way it opposes the traditional Abrahamic religious perspective, which establishes that life's purpose is the fulfillment of God's commandments.", "This is what gives meaning to people's lives.", "To live the life of the absurd means rejecting a life that finds or pursues specific meaning for man's existence since there is nothing to be discovered.", "According to Albert Camus, the world or the human being is not in itself absurd.", "The concept only emerges through the juxtaposition of the two; life becomes absurd due to the incompatibility between human beings and the world they inhabit.", "This view constitutes one of the two interpretations of the absurd in existentialist literature.", "The second view, first elaborated by Søren Kierkegaard, holds that absurdity is limited to actions and choices of human beings.", "These are considered absurd since they issue from human freedom, undermining their foundation outside of themselves.The absurd contrasts with the claim that \"bad things don't happen to good people\"; to the world, metaphorically speaking, there is no such thing as a good person or a bad person; what happens happens, and it may just as well happen to a \"good\" person as to a \"bad\" person.", "Because of the world's absurdity, anything can happen to anyone at any time and a tragic event could plummet someone into direct confrontation with the absurd.", "Many of the literary works of Kierkegaard, Beckett, Kafka, Dostoevsky, Ionesco, Miguel de Unamuno, Luigi Pirandello, Sartre, Joseph Heller, and Camus contain descriptions of people who encounter the absurdity of the world.It is because of the devastating awareness of meaninglessness that Camus claimed in ''The Myth of Sisyphus'' that \"There is only one truly serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide.\"", "Although \"prescriptions\" against the possible deleterious consequences of these kinds of encounters vary, from Kierkegaard's religious \"stage\" to Camus' insistence on persevering in spite of absurdity, the concern with helping people avoid living their lives in ways that put them in the perpetual danger of having everything meaningful break down is common to most existentialist philosophers.", "The possibility of having everything meaningful break down poses a threat of quietism, which is inherently against the existentialist philosophy.", "It has been said that the possibility of suicide makes all humans existentialists.", "The ultimate hero of absurdism lives without meaning and faces suicide without succumbing to it.=== Facticity ===Facticity is defined by Sartre in ''Being and Nothingness'' (1943) as the ''in-itself'', which for humans takes the form of being and not being.", "It is the facts of one's personal life and as per Heidegger, it is \"the way in which we are thrown into the world.\"", "This can be more easily understood when considering facticity in relation to the temporal dimension of our past: one's past is what one is, meaning that it is what has formed the person who exists in the present.", "However, to say that one is only one's past would ignore the change a person undergoes in the present and future, while saying that one's past is only what one was, would entirely detach it from the present self.", "A denial of one's concrete past constitutes an inauthentic lifestyle, and also applies to other kinds of facticity (having a human body—e.g., one that does not allow a person to run faster than the speed of sound—identity, values, etc.", ").Facticity is a limitation and a condition of freedom.", "It is a limitation in that a large part of one's facticity consists of things one did not choose (birthplace, etc.", "), but a condition of freedom in the sense that one's values most likely depend on it.", "However, even though one's facticity is \"set in stone\" (as being past, for instance), it cannot determine a person: the value ascribed to one's facticity is still ascribed to it freely by that person.", "As an example, consider two men, one of whom has no memory of his past and the other who remembers everything.", "Both have committed many crimes, but the first man, remembering nothing, leads a rather normal life while the second man, feeling trapped by his own past, continues a life of crime, blaming his own past for \"trapping\" him in this life.", "There is nothing essential about his committing crimes, but he ascribes this meaning to his past.However, to disregard one's facticity during the continual process of self-making, projecting oneself into the future, would be to put oneself in denial of the conditions shaping the present self and would be inauthentic.", "The origin of one's projection must still be one's facticity, though in the mode of not being it (essentially).", "An example of one focusing solely on possible projects without reflecting on one's current facticity: would be someone who continually thinks about future possibilities related to being rich (e.g.", "a better car, bigger house, better quality of life, etc.)", "without acknowledging the facticity of ''not currently having the financial means to do so''.", "In this example, considering both facticity and transcendence, an authentic mode of being would be considering future projects that might improve one's current finances (e.g.", "putting in extra hours, or investing savings) in order to arrive at a ''future-facticity'' of a modest pay rise, further leading to purchase of an affordable car.Another aspect of facticity is that it entails angst.", "Freedom \"produces\" angst when limited by facticity and the lack of the possibility of having facticity to \"step in\" and take responsibility for something one has done also produces angst.Another aspect of existential freedom is that one can change one's values.", "One is responsible for one's values, regardless of society's values.", "The focus on freedom in existentialism is related to the limits of responsibility one bears, as a result of one's freedom.", "The relationship between freedom and responsibility is one of interdependency and a clarification of freedom also clarifies that for which one is responsible.=== Authenticity ===Many noted existentialists consider the theme of authentic existence important.", "Authenticity involves the idea that one has to \"create oneself\" and live in accordance with this self.", "For an authentic existence, one should act as oneself, not as \"one's acts\" or as \"one's genes\" or as any other essence requires.", "The authentic act is one in accordance with one's freedom.", "A component of freedom is facticity, but not to the degree that this facticity determines one's transcendent choices (one could then blame one's background for making the choice one made chosen project, from one's transcendence).", "Facticity, in relation to authenticity, involves acting on one's actual values when making a choice (instead of, like Kierkegaard's Aesthete, \"choosing\" randomly), so that one takes responsibility for the act instead of choosing either-or without allowing the options to have different values.In contrast, the inauthentic is the denial to live in accordance with one's freedom.", "This can take many forms, from pretending choices are meaningless or random, convincing oneself that some form of determinism is true, or \"mimicry\" where one acts as \"one should\".How one \"should\" act is often determined by an image one has, of how one in such a role (bank manager, lion tamer, sex worker, etc.)", "acts.", "In ''Being and Nothingness'', Sartre uses the example of a waiter in \"bad faith\".", "He merely takes part in the \"act\" of being a typical waiter, albeit very convincingly.", "This image usually corresponds to a social norm, but this does not mean that all acting in accordance with social norms is inauthentic.", "The main point is the attitude one takes to one's own freedom and responsibility and the extent to which one acts in accordance with this freedom.=== The Other and the Look ===The Other (written with a capital \"O\") is a concept more properly belonging to phenomenology and its account of intersubjectivity.", "However, it has seen widespread use in existentialist writings, and the conclusions drawn differ slightly from the phenomenological accounts.", "The Other is the experience of another free subject who inhabits the same world as a person does.", "In its most basic form, it is this experience of the Other that constitutes intersubjectivity and objectivity.", "To clarify, when one experiences someone else, and this Other person experiences the world (the same world that a person experiences)—only from \"over there\"—the world is constituted as objective in that it is something that is \"there\" as identical for both of the subjects; a person experiences the other person as experiencing the same things.", "This experience of the Other's look is what is termed the Look (sometimes the Gaze).While this experience, in its basic phenomenological sense, constitutes the world as objective and oneself as objectively existing subjectivity (one experiences oneself as seen in the Other's Look in precisely the same way that one experiences the Other as seen by him, as subjectivity), in existentialism, it also acts as a kind of limitation of freedom.", "This is because the Look tends to objectify what it sees.", "When one experiences oneself in the Look, one does not experience oneself as nothing (no thing), but as something (some thing).", "In Sartre's example of a man peeping at someone through a keyhole, the man is entirely caught up in the situation he is in.", "He is in a pre-reflexive state where his entire consciousness is directed at what goes on in the room.", "Suddenly, he hears a creaking floorboard behind him and he becomes aware of himself as seen by the Other.", "He is then filled with shame for he perceives himself as he would perceive someone else doing what he was doing—as a Peeping Tom.", "For Sartre, this phenomenological experience of shame establishes proof for the existence of other minds and defeats the problem of solipsism.", "For the conscious state of shame to be experienced, one has to become aware of oneself as an object of another look, proving a priori, that other minds exist.", "The Look is then co-constitutive of one's facticity.Another characteristic feature of the Look is that no Other really needs to have been there: It is possible that the creaking floorboard was simply the movement of an old house; the Look is not some kind of mystical telepathic experience of the actual way the Other sees one (there may have been someone there, but he could have not noticed that person).", "It is only one's perception of the way another might perceive him.=== Angst and dread ===\"Existential angst\", sometimes called existential dread, anxiety, or anguish, is a term common to many existentialist thinkers.", "It is generally held to be a negative feeling arising from the experience of human freedom and responsibility.", "The archetypal example is the experience one has when standing on a cliff where one not only fears falling off it, but also dreads the possibility of throwing oneself off.", "In this experience that \"nothing is holding me back\", one senses the lack of anything that predetermines one to either throw oneself off or to stand still, and one experiences one's own freedom.It can also be seen in relation to the previous point how angst is before nothing, and this is what sets it apart from fear that has an object.", "While one can take measures to remove an object of fear, for angst no such \"constructive\" measures are possible.", "The use of the word \"nothing\" in this context relates to the inherent insecurity about the consequences of one's actions and to the fact that, in experiencing freedom as angst, one also realizes that one is fully responsible for these consequences.", "There is nothing in people (genetically, for instance) that acts in their stead—that they can blame if something goes wrong.", "Therefore, not every choice is perceived as having dreadful possible consequences (and, it can be claimed, human lives would be unbearable if every choice facilitated dread).", "However, this does not change the fact that freedom remains a condition of every action.=== Despair ===Despair is generally defined as a loss of hope.", "In existentialism, it is more specifically a loss of hope in reaction to a breakdown in one or more of the defining qualities of one's self or identity.", "If a person is invested in being a particular thing, such as a bus driver or an upstanding citizen, and then finds their being-thing compromised, they would normally be found in a state of despair—a hopeless state.", "For example, a singer who loses the ability to sing may despair if they have nothing else to fall back on—nothing to rely on for their identity.", "They find themselves unable to be what defined their being.What sets the existentialist notion of despair apart from the conventional definition is that existentialist despair is a state one is in even when they are not overtly in despair.", "So long as a person's identity depends on qualities that can crumble, they are in perpetual despair—and as there is, in Sartrean terms, no human essence found in conventional reality on which to constitute the individual's sense of identity, despair is a universal human condition.", "As Kierkegaard defines it in ''Either/Or'': \"Let each one learn what he can; both of us can learn that a person's unhappiness never lies in his lack of control over external conditions, since this would only make him completely unhappy.\"", "In ''Works of Love'', he says:" ], [ "Opposition to positivism and rationalism", "Existentialists oppose defining human beings as primarily rational, and, therefore, oppose both positivism and rationalism.", "Existentialism asserts that people make decisions based on subjective meaning rather than pure rationality.", "The rejection of reason as the source of meaning is a common theme of existentialist thought, as is the focus on the anxiety and dread that we feel in the face of our own radical free will and our awareness of death.", "Kierkegaard advocated rationality as a means to interact with the objective world (e.g., in the natural sciences), but when it comes to existential problems, reason is insufficient: \"Human reason has boundaries\".Like Kierkegaard, Sartre saw problems with rationality, calling it a form of \"bad faith\", an attempt by the self to impose structure on a world of phenomena—\"the Other\"—that is fundamentally irrational and random.", "According to Sartre, rationality and other forms of bad faith hinder people from finding meaning in freedom.", "To try to suppress feelings of anxiety and dread, people confine themselves within everyday experience, Sartre asserted, thereby relinquishing their freedom and acquiescing to being possessed in one form or another by \"the Look\" of \"the Other\" (i.e., possessed by another person—or at least one's idea of that other person)." ], [ "Religion", "An existentialist reading of the Bible would demand that the reader recognize that they are an existing subject studying the words more as a recollection of events.", "This is in contrast to looking at a collection of \"truths\" that are outside and unrelated to the reader, but may develop a sense of reality/God.", "Such a reader is not obligated to follow the commandments as if an external agent is forcing these commandments upon them, but as though they are inside them and guiding them from inside.", "This is the task Kierkegaard takes up when he asks: \"Who has the more difficult task: the teacher who lectures on earnest things a meteor's distance from everyday life—or the learner who should put it to use?\"", "Philosophers such as Hans Jonas and Rudolph Bultmann introduced the concept of existentialist demythologization into the field of Early Christianity and Christian Theology, respectively." ], [ "Confusion with nihilism", "Although nihilism and existentialism are distinct philosophies, they are often confused with one another since both are rooted in the human experience of anguish and confusion that stems from the apparent meaninglessness of a world in which humans are compelled to find or create meaning.", "A primary cause of confusion is that Friedrich Nietzsche was an important philosopher in both fields.Existentialist philosophers often stress the importance of angst as signifying the absolute lack of any objective ground for action, a move that is often reduced to moral or existential nihilism.", "A pervasive theme in existentialist philosophy, however, is to persist through encounters with the absurd, as seen in Albert Camus's philosophical essay ''The Myth of Sisyphus'' (1942): \"One must imagine Sisyphus happy\".", "and it is only very rarely that existentialist philosophers dismiss morality or one's self-created meaning: Søren Kierkegaard regained a sort of morality in the religious (although he would not agree that it was ethical; the religious suspends the ethical), and Jean-Paul Sartre's final words in ''Being and Nothingness'' (1943): \"All these questions, which refer us to a pure and not an accessory (or impure) reflection, can find their reply only on the ethical plane.", "We shall devote to them a future work.\"" ], [ "History", "=== Precursors ===Some have argued that existentialism has long been an element of European religious thought, even before the term came into use.", "William Barrett identified Blaise Pascal and Søren Kierkegaard as two specific examples.", "Jean Wahl also identified William Shakespeare's Prince Hamlet (\"To be, or not to be\"), Jules Lequier, Thomas Carlyle, and William James as existentialists.", "According to Wahl, \"the origins of most great philosophies, like those of Plato, Descartes, and Kant, are to be found in existential reflections.\"", "Precursors to existentialism can also be identified in the works of Iranian Muslim philosopher Mulla Sadra (c. 1571–1635), who would posit that \"existence precedes essence\" becoming the principle expositor of the School of Isfahan, which is described as \"alive and active\".=== 19th century ======= Kierkegaard and Nietzsche ====Kierkegaard is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher.", "He proposed that each individual—not reason, society, or religious orthodoxy—is solely tasked with giving meaning to life and living it sincerely, or \"authentically\".Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were two of the first philosophers considered fundamental to the existentialist movement, though neither used the term \"existentialism\" and it is unclear whether they would have supported the existentialism of the 20th century.", "They focused on subjective human experience rather than the objective truths of mathematics and science, which they believed were too detached or observational to truly get at the human experience.", "Like Pascal, they were interested in people's quiet struggle with the apparent meaninglessness of life and the use of diversion to escape from boredom.", "Unlike Pascal, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche also considered the role of making free choices, particularly regarding fundamental values and beliefs, and how such choices change the nature and identity of the chooser.", "Kierkegaard's knight of faith and Nietzsche's Übermensch are representative of people who exhibit freedom, in that they define the nature of their own existence.", "Nietzsche's idealized individual invents his own values and creates the very terms they excel under.", "By contrast, Kierkegaard, opposed to the level of abstraction in Hegel, and not nearly as hostile (actually welcoming) to Christianity as Nietzsche, argues through a pseudonym that the objective certainty of religious truths (specifically Christian) is not only impossible, but even founded on logical paradoxes.", "Yet he continues to imply that a leap of faith is a possible means for an individual to reach a higher stage of existence that transcends and contains both an aesthetic and ethical value of life.", "Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were also precursors to other intellectual movements, including postmodernism, and various strands of psychotherapy.", "However, Kierkegaard believed that individuals should live in accordance with their thinking.In ''Twilight of the Idols'', Nietzsche's sentiments resonate the idea of \"existence precedes essence.\"", "He writes, \"no one ''gives'' man his qualities-- neither God, nor society, nor his parents and ancestors, nor he himself...No one is responsible for man's being there at all, for his being such-and-such, or for his being in these circumstances or in this environment...Man is not the effect of some special purpose of a will, and end...\" Within this view, Nietzsche ties in his rejection of the existence of God, which he sees as a means to \"redeem the world.\"", "By rejecting the existence of God, Nietzsche also rejects beliefs that claim humans have a predestined purpose according to what God has instructed.====Dostoyevsky====The first important literary author also important to existentialism was the Russian, Dostoyevsky.", "Dostoyevsky's ''Notes from Underground'' portrays a man unable to fit into society and unhappy with the identities he creates for himself.", "Sartre, in his book on existentialism ''Existentialism is a Humanism'', quoted Dostoyevsky's ''The Brothers Karamazov'' as an example of existential crisis.", "Other Dostoyevsky novels covered issues raised in existentialist philosophy while presenting story lines divergent from secular existentialism: for example, in ''Crime and Punishment'', the protagonist Raskolnikov experiences an existential crisis and then moves toward a Christian Orthodox worldview similar to that advocated by Dostoyevsky himself.=== Early 20th century ===In the first decades of the 20th century, a number of philosophers and writers explored existentialist ideas.", "The Spanish philosopher Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo, in his 1913 book ''The Tragic Sense of Life in Men and Nations'', emphasized the life of \"flesh and bone\" as opposed to that of abstract rationalism.", "Unamuno rejected systematic philosophy in favor of the individual's quest for faith.", "He retained a sense of the tragic, even absurd nature of the quest, symbolized by his enduring interest in the eponymous character from the Miguel de Cervantes novel ''Don Quixote''.", "A novelist, poet and dramatist as well as philosophy professor at the University of Salamanca, Unamuno wrote a short story about a priest's crisis of faith, ''Saint Manuel the Good, Martyr'', which has been collected in anthologies of existentialist fiction.", "Another Spanish thinker, José Ortega y Gasset, writing in 1914, held that human existence must always be defined as the individual person combined with the concrete circumstances of his life: \"''Yo soy yo y mi circunstancia''\" (\"I am myself and my circumstances\").", "Sartre likewise believed that human existence is not an abstract matter, but is always situated (\"''en situation''\").Although Martin Buber wrote his major philosophical works in German, and studied and taught at the Universities of Berlin and Frankfurt, he stands apart from the mainstream of German philosophy.", "Born into a Jewish family in Vienna in 1878, he was also a scholar of Jewish culture and involved at various times in Zionism and Hasidism.", "In 1938, he moved permanently to Jerusalem.", "His best-known philosophical work was the short book ''I and Thou'', published in 1922.For Buber, the fundamental fact of human existence, too readily overlooked by scientific rationalism and abstract philosophical thought, is \"man with man\", a dialogue that takes place in the so-called \"sphere of between\" (''\"das Zwischenmenschliche\"'').Two Russian philosophers, Lev Shestov and Nikolai Berdyaev, became well known as existentialist thinkers during their post-Revolutionary exiles in Paris.", "Shestov had launched an attack on rationalism and systematization in philosophy as early as 1905 in his book of aphorisms ''All Things Are Possible''.", "Berdyaev drew a radical distinction between the world of spirit and the everyday world of objects.", "Human freedom, for Berdyaev, is rooted in the realm of spirit, a realm independent of scientific notions of causation.", "To the extent the individual human being lives in the objective world, he is estranged from authentic spiritual freedom.", "\"Man\" is not to be interpreted naturalistically, but as a being created in God's image, an originator of free, creative acts.", "He published a major work on these themes, ''The Destiny of Man'', in 1931.Gabriel Marcel, long before coining the term \"existentialism\", introduced important existentialist themes to a French audience in his early essay \"Existence and Objectivity\" (1925) and in his ''Metaphysical Journal'' (1927).", "A dramatist as well as a philosopher, Marcel found his philosophical starting point in a condition of metaphysical alienation: the human individual searching for harmony in a transient life.", "Harmony, for Marcel, was to be sought through \"secondary reflection\", a \"dialogical\" rather than \"dialectical\" approach to the world, characterized by \"wonder and astonishment\" and open to the \"presence\" of other people and of God rather than merely to \"information\" about them.", "For Marcel, such presence implied more than simply being there (as one thing might be in the presence of another thing); it connoted \"extravagant\" availability, and the willingness to put oneself at the disposal of the other.Marcel contrasted ''secondary reflection'' with abstract, scientific-technical ''primary reflection'', which he associated with the activity of the abstract Cartesian ego.", "For Marcel, philosophy was a concrete activity undertaken by a sensing, feeling human being incarnate—embodied—in a concrete world.", "Although Sartre adopted the term \"existentialism\" for his own philosophy in the 1940s, Marcel's thought has been described as \"almost diametrically opposed\" to that of Sartre.", "Unlike Sartre, Marcel was a Christian, and became a Catholic convert in 1929.In Germany, the psychologist and philosopher Karl Jaspers—who later described existentialism as a \"phantom\" created by the public—called his own thought, heavily influenced by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, ''Existenzphilosophie''.", "For Jaspers, \"''Existenz''-philosophy is the way of thought by means of which man seeks to become himself...This way of thought does not cognize objects, but elucidates and makes actual the being of the thinker\".Jaspers, a professor at the university of Heidelberg, was acquainted with Heidegger, who held a professorship at Marburg before acceding to Husserl's chair at Freiburg in 1928.They held many philosophical discussions, but later became estranged over Heidegger's support of National Socialism.", "They shared an admiration for Kierkegaard, and in the 1930s, Heidegger lectured extensively on Nietzsche.", "Nevertheless, the extent to which Heidegger should be considered an existentialist is debatable.", "In ''Being and Time'' he presented a method of rooting philosophical explanations in human existence (''Dasein'') to be analysed in terms of existential categories (''existentiale''); and this has led many commentators to treat him as an important figure in the existentialist movement.=== After the Second World War ===Following the Second World War, existentialism became a well-known and significant philosophical and cultural movement, mainly through the public prominence of two French writers, Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, who wrote best-selling novels, plays and widely read journalism as well as theoretical texts.", "These years also saw the growing reputation of ''Being and Time'' outside Germany.French philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de BeauvoirSartre dealt with existentialist themes in his 1938 novel ''Nausea'' and the short stories in his 1939 collection ''The Wall'', and had published his treatise on existentialism, ''Being and Nothingness'', in 1943, but it was in the two years following the liberation of Paris from the German occupying forces that he and his close associates—Camus, Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and others—became internationally famous as the leading figures of a movement known as existentialism.", "In a very short period of time, Camus and Sartre in particular became the leading public intellectuals of post-war France, achieving by the end of 1945 \"a fame that reached across all audiences.\"", "Camus was an editor of the most popular leftist (former French Resistance) newspaper ''Combat''; Sartre launched his journal of leftist thought, ''Les Temps Modernes'', and two weeks later gave the widely reported lecture on existentialism and secular humanism to a packed meeting of the Club Maintenant.", "Beauvoir wrote that \"not a week passed without the newspapers discussing us\"; existentialism became \"the first media craze of the postwar era.", "\"By the end of 1947, Camus' earlier fiction and plays had been reprinted, his new play ''Caligula'' had been performed and his novel ''The Plague'' published; the first two novels of Sartre's ''The Roads to Freedom'' trilogy had appeared, as had Beauvoir's novel ''The Blood of Others''.", "Works by Camus and Sartre were already appearing in foreign editions.", "The Paris-based existentialists had become famous.Sartre had traveled to Germany in 1930 to study the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, and he included critical comments on their work in his major treatise ''Being and Nothingness''.", "Heidegger's thought had also become known in French philosophical circles through its use by Alexandre Kojève in explicating Hegel in a series of lectures given in Paris in the 1930s.", "The lectures were highly influential; members of the audience included not only Sartre and Merleau-Ponty, but Raymond Queneau, Georges Bataille, Louis Althusser, André Breton, and Jacques Lacan.", "A selection from ''Being and Time'' was published in French in 1938, and his essays began to appear in French philosophy journals.French philosopher, novelist, and playwright Albert CamusHeidegger read Sartre's work and was initially impressed, commenting: \"Here for the first time I encountered an independent thinker who, from the foundations up, has experienced the area out of which I think.", "Your work shows such an immediate comprehension of my philosophy as I have never before encountered.\"", "Later, however, in response to a question posed by his French follower Jean Beaufret, Heidegger distanced himself from Sartre's position and existentialism in general in his ''Letter on Humanism''.", "Heidegger's reputation continued to grow in France during the 1950s and 1960s.", "In the 1960s, Sartre attempted to reconcile existentialism and Marxism in his work ''Critique of Dialectical Reason''.", "A major theme throughout his writings was freedom and responsibility.Camus was a friend of Sartre, until their falling-out, and wrote several works with existential themes including ''The Rebel'', ''Summer in Algiers'', ''The Myth of Sisyphus'', and ''The Stranger'', the latter being \"considered—to what would have been Camus's irritation—the exemplary existentialist novel.\"", "Camus, like many others, rejected the existentialist label, and considered his works concerned with facing the absurd.", "In the titular book, Camus uses the analogy of the Greek myth of Sisyphus to demonstrate the futility of existence.", "In the myth, Sisyphus is condemned for eternity to roll a rock up a hill, but when he reaches the summit, the rock will roll to the bottom again.", "Camus believes that this existence is pointless but that Sisyphus ultimately finds meaning and purpose in his task, simply by continually applying himself to it.", "The first half of the book contains an extended rebuttal of what Camus took to be existentialist philosophy in the works of Kierkegaard, Shestov, Heidegger, and Jaspers.Simone de Beauvoir, an important existentialist who spent much of her life as Sartre's partner, wrote about feminist and existentialist ethics in her works, including ''The Second Sex'' and ''The Ethics of Ambiguity''.", "Although often overlooked due to her relationship with Sartre, de Beauvoir integrated existentialism with other forms of thinking such as feminism, unheard of at the time, resulting in alienation from fellow writers such as Camus.Paul Tillich, an important existentialist theologian following Kierkegaard and Karl Barth, applied existentialist concepts to Christian theology, and helped introduce existential theology to the general public.", "His seminal work ''The Courage to Be'' follows Kierkegaard's analysis of anxiety and life's absurdity, but puts forward the thesis that modern humans must, via God, achieve selfhood in spite of life's absurdity.", "Rudolf Bultmann used Kierkegaard's and Heidegger's philosophy of existence to demythologize Christianity by interpreting Christian mythical concepts into existentialist concepts.Maurice Merleau-Ponty, an existential phenomenologist, was for a time a companion of Sartre.", "Merleau-Ponty's ''Phenomenology of Perception'' (1945) was recognized as a major statement of French existentialism.", "It has been said that Merleau-Ponty's work ''Humanism and Terror'' greatly influenced Sartre.", "However, in later years they were to disagree irreparably, dividing many existentialists such as de Beauvoir, who sided with Sartre.Colin Wilson, an English writer, published his study ''The Outsider'' in 1956, initially to critical acclaim.", "In this book and others (e.g.", "''Introduction to the New Existentialism''), he attempted to reinvigorate what he perceived as a pessimistic philosophy and bring it to a wider audience.", "He was not, however, academically trained, and his work was attacked by professional philosophers for lack of rigor and critical standards." ], [ "Influence outside philosophy", "=== Art ======= Film and television ====Adolphe Menjou (''left'') and Kirk Douglas (''right'') in ''Paths of Glory'' (1957)Stanley Kubrick's 1957 anti-war film ''Paths of Glory'' \"illustrates, and even illuminates...existentialism\" by examining the \"necessary absurdity of the human condition\" and the \"horror of war\".", "The film tells the story of a fictional World War I French army regiment ordered to attack an impregnable German stronghold; when the attack fails, three soldiers are chosen at random, court-martialed by a \"kangaroo court\", and executed by firing squad.", "The film examines existentialist ethics, such as the issue of whether objectivity is possible and the \"problem of authenticity\".", "Orson Welles's 1962 film ''The Trial'', based upon Franz Kafka's book of the same name (''Der Prozeß''), is characteristic of both existentialist and absurdist themes in its depiction of a man (Joseph K.) arrested for a crime for which the charges are neither revealed to him nor to the reader.", "''Neon Genesis Evangelion'' is a Japanese science fiction animation series created by the anime studio Gainax and was both directed and written by Hideaki Anno.", "Existential themes of individuality, consciousness, freedom, choice, and responsibility are heavily relied upon throughout the entire series, particularly through the philosophies of Jean-Paul Sartre and Søren Kierkegaard.", "Episode 16's title, is a reference to Kierkegaard's book, ''The Sickness Unto Death''.Some contemporary films dealing with existentialist issues include ''Melancholia'', ''Fight Club'', ''I Heart Huckabees'', ''Waking Life'', ''The Matrix'', ''Ordinary People'', ''Life in a Day'', ''Barbie'', and ''Everything Everywhere All at Once''.", "Likewise, films throughout the 20th century such as ''The Seventh Seal'', ''Ikiru'', ''Taxi Driver'', the ''Toy Story'' films, ''The Great Silence'', ''Ghost in the Shell'', ''Harold and Maude'', ''High Noon'', ''Easy Rider'', ''One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest'', ''A Clockwork Orange'', ''Groundhog Day'', ''Apocalypse Now'', ''Badlands'', and ''Blade Runner'' also have existentialist qualities.", "Notable directors known for their existentialist films include Ingmar Bergman, Bela Tarr, Robert Bresson, Jean-Pierre Melville, François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Michelangelo Antonioni, Akira Kurosawa, Terrence Malick, Stanley Kubrick, Andrei Tarkovsky, Hideaki Anno, Wes Anderson, Gaspar Noé, Woody Allen, and Christopher Nolan.", "Charlie Kaufman's ''Synecdoche, New York'' focuses on the protagonist's desire to find existential meaning.", "Similarly, in Kurosawa's ''Red Beard'', the protagonist's experiences as an intern in a rural health clinic in Japan lead him to an existential crisis whereby he questions his reason for being.", "This, in turn, leads him to a better understanding of humanity.", "The French film, ''Mood Indigo'' (directed by Michel Gondry) embraced various elements of existentialism.", "The film ''The Shawshank Redemption'', released in 1994, depicts life in a prison in Maine, United States to explore several existentialist concepts.==== Literature ====First edition of ''The Trial'' by Franz Kafka (1925)\|alt=A simple book cover in green displays the name of the author and the bookExistential perspectives are also found in modern literature to varying degrees, especially since the 1920s.", "Louis-Ferdinand Céline's ''Journey to the End of the Night'' (''Voyage au bout de la nuit'', 1932) celebrated by both Sartre and Beauvoir, contained many of the themes that would be found in later existential literature, and is in some ways, the proto-existential novel.", "Jean-Paul Sartre's 1938 novel ''Nausea'' was \"steeped in Existential ideas\", and is considered an accessible way of grasping his philosophical stance.", "Between 1900 and 1960, other authors such as Albert Camus, Franz Kafka, Rainer Maria Rilke, T. S. Eliot, Hermann Hesse, Luigi Pirandello, Ralph Ellison, and Jack Kerouac composed literature or poetry that contained, to varying degrees, elements of existential or proto-existential thought.", "The philosophy's influence even reached pulp literature shortly after the turn of the 20th century, as seen in the existential disparity witnessed in Man's lack of control of his fate in the works of H. P. Lovecraft.==== Theatre ====Sartre wrote ''No Exit'' in 1944, an existentialist play originally published in French as ''Huis Clos'' (meaning ''In Camera'' or \"behind closed doors\"), which is the source of the popular quote, \"Hell is other people.\"", "(In French, \"L'enfer, c'est les autres\").", "The play begins with a Valet leading a man into a room that the audience soon realizes is in hell.", "Eventually he is joined by two women.", "After their entry, the Valet leaves and the door is shut and locked.", "All three expect to be tortured, but no torturer arrives.", "Instead, they realize they are there to torture each other, which they do effectively by probing each other's sins, desires, and unpleasant memories.Existentialist themes are displayed in the Theatre of the Absurd, notably in Samuel Beckett's ''Waiting for Godot'', in which two men divert themselves while they wait expectantly for someone (or something) named Godot who never arrives.", "They claim Godot is an acquaintance, but in fact, hardly know him, admitting they would not recognize him if they saw him.", "Samuel Beckett, once asked who or what Godot is, replied, \"If I knew, I would have said so in the play.\"", "To occupy themselves, the men eat, sleep, talk, argue, sing, play games, exercise, swap hats, and contemplate suicide—anything \"to hold the terrible silence at bay\".", "The play \"exploits several archetypal forms and situations, all of which lend themselves to both comedy and pathos.\"", "The play also illustrates an attitude toward human experience on earth: the poignancy, oppression, camaraderie, hope, corruption, and bewilderment of human experience that can be reconciled only in the mind and art of the absurdist.", "The play examines questions such as death, the meaning of human existence and the place of God in human existence.Tom Stoppard's ''Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead'' is an absurdist tragicomedy first staged at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1966.The play expands upon the exploits of two minor characters from Shakespeare's ''Hamlet''.", "Comparisons have also been drawn to Samuel Beckett's ''Waiting for Godot'', for the presence of two central characters who appear almost as two halves of a single character.", "Many plot features are similar as well: the characters pass time by playing Questions, impersonating other characters, and interrupting each other or remaining silent for long periods of time.", "The two characters are portrayed as two clowns or fools in a world beyond their understanding.", "They stumble through philosophical arguments while not realizing the implications, and muse on the irrationality and randomness of the world.Jean Anouilh's ''Antigone'' also presents arguments founded on existentialist ideas.", "It is a tragedy inspired by Greek mythology and the play of the same name (''Antigone'', by Sophocles) from the fifth century BC.", "In English, it is often distinguished from its antecedent by being pronounced in its original French form, approximately \"Ante-GŌN.\"", "The play was first performed in Paris on 6 February 1944, during the Nazi occupation of France.", "Produced under Nazi censorship, the play is purposefully ambiguous with regards to the rejection of authority (represented by Antigone) and the acceptance of it (represented by Creon).", "The parallels to the French Resistance and the Nazi occupation have been drawn.", "Antigone rejects life as desperately meaningless but without affirmatively choosing a noble death.", "The crux of the play is the lengthy dialogue concerning the nature of power, fate, and choice, during which Antigone says that she is, \"... disgusted with the...promise of a humdrum happiness.\"", "She states that she would rather die than live a mediocre existence.Critic Martin Esslin in his book ''Theatre of the Absurd'' pointed out how many contemporary playwrights such as Samuel Beckett, Eugène Ionesco, Jean Genet, and Arthur Adamov wove into their plays the existentialist belief that we are absurd beings loose in a universe empty of real meaning.", "Esslin noted that many of these playwrights demonstrated the philosophy better than did the plays by Sartre and Camus.", "Though most of such playwrights, subsequently labeled \"Absurdist\" (based on Esslin's book), denied affiliations with existentialism and were often staunchly anti-philosophical (for example Ionesco often claimed he identified more with 'Pataphysics or with Surrealism than with existentialism), the playwrights are often linked to existentialism based on Esslin's observation.=== Activism ===Black existentialism explores the existence and experiences of Black people in the world.", "Classical and contemporary thinkers include C.L.R James, Frederick Douglass, W.E.B DuBois, Frantz Fanon, Angela Davis, Cornell West, Naomi Zack, bell hooks, Stuart Hall, Lewis Gordon, and Audre Lorde.=== Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy ===A major offshoot of existentialism as a philosophy is existentialist psychology and psychoanalysis, which first crystallized in the work of Otto Rank, Freud's closest associate for 20 years.", "Without awareness of the writings of Rank, Ludwig Binswanger was influenced by Freud, Edmund Husserl, Heidegger, and Sartre.", "A later figure was Viktor Frankl, who briefly met Freud as a young man.", "His logotherapy can be regarded as a form of existentialist therapy.", "The existentialists would also influence social psychology, antipositivist micro-sociology, symbolic interactionism, and post-structuralism, with the work of thinkers such as Georg Simmel and Michel Foucault.", "Foucault was a great reader of Kierkegaard even though he almost never refers to this author, who nonetheless had for him an importance as secret as it was decisive.An early contributor to existentialist psychology in the United States was Rollo May, who was strongly influenced by Kierkegaard and Otto Rank.", "One of the most prolific writers on techniques and theory of existentialist psychology in the US is Irvin D. Yalom.", "Yalom states thatA more recent contributor to the development of a European version of existentialist psychotherapy is the British-based Emmy van Deurzen.Anxiety's importance in existentialism makes it a popular topic in psychotherapy.", "Therapists often offer existentialist philosophy as an explanation for anxiety.", "The assertion is that anxiety is manifested of an individual's complete freedom to decide, and complete responsibility for the outcome of such decisions.", "Psychotherapists using an existentialist approach believe that a patient can harness his anxiety and use it constructively.", "Instead of suppressing anxiety, patients are advised to use it as grounds for change.", "By embracing anxiety as inevitable, a person can use it to achieve his full potential in life.", "Humanistic psychology also had major impetus from existentialist psychology and shares many of the fundamental tenets.", "Terror management theory, based on the writings of Ernest Becker and Otto Rank, is a developing area of study within the academic study of psychology.", "It looks at what researchers claim are implicit emotional reactions of people confronted with the knowledge that they will eventually die.Also, Gerd B. Achenbach has refreshed the Socratic tradition with his own blend of philosophical counseling; as did Michel Weber with his Chromatiques Center in Belgium." ], [ "Criticisms", "=== General criticisms ===Walter Kaufmann criticized \"the profoundly unsound methods and the dangerous contempt for reason that have been so prominent in existentialism.\"", "Logical positivist philosophers, such as Rudolf Carnap and A. J. Ayer, assert that existentialists are often confused about the verb \"to be\" in their analyses of \"being\".", "Specifically, they argue that the verb \"is\" is transitive and pre-fixed to a predicate (e.g., an apple ''is red'') (without a predicate, the word \"is\" is meaningless), and that existentialists frequently misuse the term in this manner.", "Wilson has stated in his book ''The Angry Years'' that existentialism has created many of its own difficulties: \"We can see how this question of freedom of the will has been vitiated by post-romantic philosophy, with its inbuilt tendency to laziness and boredom, we can also see how it came about that existentialism found itself in a hole of its own digging, and how the philosophical developments since then have amounted to walking in circles round that hole.", "\"=== Sartre's philosophy ===Many critics argue Sartre's philosophy is contradictory.", "For example, see Magda Stroe's arguments.", "Specifically, they argue that Sartre makes metaphysical arguments despite his claiming that his philosophical views ignore metaphysics.", "Herbert Marcuse criticized ''Being and Nothingness'' for projecting anxiety and meaninglessness onto the nature of existence itself: \"Insofar as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it remains an idealistic doctrine: it hypostatizes specific historical conditions of human existence into ontological and metaphysical characteristics.", "Existentialism thus becomes part of the very ideology which it attacks, and its radicalism is illusory.", "\"In ''Letter on Humanism'', Heidegger criticized Sartre's existentialism:" ], [ "See also", "* Abandonment (existentialism)* Disenchantment* Existential phenomenology* Existential risk* Existentiell* List of existentialists* Meaning (existential) * Meaning-making* Philosophical pessimism* Self-reflection" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ======= Sources ====* === Bibliography ===* ''Albert Camus: Lyrical and Critical Essays''.", "Edited by Philip Thody (interviev with Jeanie Delpech, in ''Les Nouvelles littéraires'', November 15, 1945).", "p. 345.", "" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * Fallico, Arthuro B.", "(1962).", "''Art & Existentialism''.", "Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * * \"Existentialism is a Humanism\", a lecture given by Jean-Paul Sartre* ''The Existential Primer''* Buddhists, Existentialists and Situationists: Waking up in Waking Life===Journals and articles===* Stirrings Still: The International Journal of Existential Literature* Existential Analysis published by The Society for Existential Analysis" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ellipsis" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''ellipsis''' (; also known informally as '''dot dot dot''') is a series of dots that indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or whole section from a text without altering its original meaning.", "The plural is '''ellipses'''.", "The term originates from the , meaning 'leave out'.Opinions differ as to how to render ellipses in printed material.", "According to ''The Chicago Manual of Style'', it should consist of three periods, each separated from its neighbor by a non-breaking space: .", "According to the ''AP Stylebook'', the periods should be rendered with no space between them: .", "A third option is to use the Unicode character U+2026 ." ], [ "Background", "The ellipsis is also called a '''suspension point''' (or '''suspension''' for short), '''points of ellipsis''', '''periods of ellipsis''', or (colloquially) \"dot-dot-dot\".", "Depending on their context and placement in a sentence, ellipses can indicate an unfinished thought, a leading statement, a slight pause, an echoing voice, or a nervous or awkward silence.", "Aposiopesis is the use of an ellipsis to trail off into silence—for example: \"But I thought he was...\" When placed at the end of a sentence, an ellipsis may be used to suggest melancholy or longing.The most common forms of an ellipsis include a row of three periods or full points or a precomposed triple-dot glyph, the '''horizontal ellipsis''' .", "Style guides often have their own rules governing the use of ellipses.", "For example, ''The Chicago Manual of Style'' (''Chicago'' style) recommends that an ellipsis be formed by typing three periods, each with a space on both sides , while the ''Associated Press Stylebook'' (''AP'' style) puts the dots together, but retains a space before and after the group, thus: .", "Whether an ellipsis at the end of a sentence needs a fourth dot to finish the sentence is a matter of debate; ''Chicago'' advises it, as does the ''Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association'' (APA style), while some other style guides do not; the ''Merriam-Webster Dictionary'' and related works treat this style as optional, saying that it \"may\" be used.", "When text is omitted following a sentence, a normal full stop (period) terminates the sentence, and then a separate three-dot ellipsis is commonly used to indicate one or more subsequent omitted sentences before continuing a longer quotation.", "''Business Insider'' magazine suggests this style and it is also used in many academic journals.", "The ''Associated Press Stylebook'' favors this approach." ], [ "In writing", "In her book on the ellipsis, ''Ellipsis in English Literature: Signs of Omission'', Anne Toner suggests that the first use of the punctuation in the English language dates to a 1588 translation of Terence's ''Andria'', by Maurice Kyffin.", "In this case, however, the ellipsis consists not of dots but of short dashes.", "\"Subpuncting\" of medieval manuscripts also denotes omitted meaning and may be related.Occasionally, it would be used in pulp fiction and other works of early 20th-century fiction to denote expletives that would otherwise have been censored.An ellipsis may also imply an unstated alternative indicated by context.", "For example, \"I never drink wine ...\" implies that the speaker does drink something elsesuch as vodka.In reported speech, the ellipsis can be used to represent an intentional silence.In poetry, an ellipsis is used as a thought-pause or line break at the caesura or this is used to highlight sarcasm or make the reader think about the last points in the poem.In news reporting, often put inside square brackets, it is used to indicate that a quotation has been condensed for space, brevity or relevance, as in \"The President said that ... he would not be satisfied\", where the exact quotation was \"The President said that, for as long as this situation continued, he would not be satisfied\".Herb Caen, Pulitzer-prize-winning columnist for the ''San Francisco Chronicle'', became famous for his \"three-dot journalism\"." ], [ "In different languages", "===In English=======American English====''The Chicago Manual of Style'' suggests the use of an ellipsis for any omitted word, phrase, line, or paragraph from within but not at the end of a quoted passage.", "There are two commonly used methods of using ellipses: one uses three dots for any omission, while the second one makes a distinction between omissions within a sentence (using three dots: . . .)", "and omissions between sentences (using a period and a space followed by three dots: . ...).", "The ''Chicago Style'' Q&A recommends that writers avoid using the precomposed (U+2026) character in manuscripts and to place three periods plus two nonbreaking spaces (. . .)", "instead, leaving the editor, publisher, or typographer to replace them later.", "The Modern Language Association (MLA) used to indicate that an ellipsis must include spaces before and after each dot in all uses.", "If an ellipsis is meant to represent an omission, square brackets must surround the ellipsis to make it clear that there was no pause in the original quote: .", "Currently, the MLA has removed the requirement of brackets in its style handbooks.", "However, some maintain that the use of brackets is still correct because it clears confusion.The MLA now indicates that a three-dot, spaced ellipsis should be used for removing material from within one sentence within a quote.", "When crossing sentences (when the omitted text contains a period, so that omitting the end of a sentence counts), a four-dot, spaced (except for before the first dot) ellipsis should be used.", "When ellipsis points are used in the original text, ellipsis points that are not in the original text should be distinguished by enclosing them in square brackets (e.g.", ").According to the Associated Press, the ellipsis should be used to condense quotations.", "It is less commonly used to indicate a pause in speech or an unfinished thought or to separate items in material such as show business gossip.", "The stylebook indicates that if the shortened sentence before the mark can stand as a sentence, it should do so, with an ellipsis placed after the period or other ending punctuation.", "When material is omitted at the end of a paragraph and also immediately following it, an ellipsis goes both at the end of that paragraph and at the beginning of the next, according to this style.According to Robert Bringhurst's ''Elements of Typographic Style'', the details of typesetting ellipses depend on the character and size of the font being set and the typographer's preference.", "Bringhurst writes that a full space between each dot is \"another Victorian eccentricity.", "In most contexts, the Chicago ellipsis is much too wide\"—he recommends using flush dots (with a normal word space before and after), or ''thin''-spaced dots (up to one-fifth of an em), or the prefabricated ellipsis character .", "Bringhurst suggests that normally an ellipsis should be spaced fore-and-aft to separate it from the text, but when it combines with other punctuation, the leading space disappears and the other punctuation follows.", "This is the usual practice in typesetting.", "He provides the following examples: i ... j k.... l..., l l, ... l m...?", "n...!In legal writing in the United States, Rule 5.3 in the ''Bluebook'' citation guide governs the use of ellipses and requires a space before the first dot and between the two subsequent dots.", "If an ellipsis ends the sentence, then there are three dots, each separated by a space, followed by the final punctuation (e.g.", ").", "In some legal writing, an ellipsis is written as three asterisks, or , to make it obvious that text has been omitted or to signal that the omitted text extends beyond the end of the paragraph.====British English====''The Oxford Style Guide'' recommends setting the ellipsis as a single character or as a series of three (narrow) spaced dots surrounded by spaces, thus: .", "If there is an ellipsis at the end of an incomplete sentence, the final full stop is omitted.", "However, it is retained if the following ellipsis represents an omission between two complete sentences.The … fox jumps …The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.", "… And if they have not died, they are still alive today.It is not cold … it is freezing cold.Contrary to ''The Oxford Style Guide'', the ''University of Oxford Style Guide'' demands an ellipsis not to be surrounded by spaces, except when it stands for a pause; then, a space has to be set after the ellipsis (but not before).", "An ellipsis is never preceded or followed by a full stop.The...fox jumps...The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog...And if they have not died, they are still alive today.It is not cold... it is freezing cold.===In Polish===When applied in Polish syntax, the ellipsis is called , literally 'multidot'.", "The word ''wielokropek'' distinguishes the ellipsis of Polish syntax from that of mathematical notation, in which it is known as an .", "When an ellipsis replaces a fragment omitted from a quotation, the ellipsis is enclosed in parentheses or square brackets.", "An unbracketed ellipsis indicates an interruption or pause in speech.", "The syntactic rules for ellipses are standardized by the 1983 Polska Norma document PN-83/P-55366, (Rules for Setting Texts in Polish).===In Russian===The combination \"ellipsis+period\" is replaced by the ellipsis.", "The combinations \"ellipsis+exclamation mark\" and \"ellipsis+question mark\" are written in this way: !..", "?..===In Japanese===The most common character corresponding to an ellipsis is called ''3''-ten rīdā (\"''3''-dot leaders\", ).", "2-ten rīdā exists as a character, but it is used less commonly.", "In writing, the ellipsis consists usually of six dots (two ''3''-ten rīdā characters, ).", "Three dots (one ''3''-ten rīdā character) may be used where space is limited, such as in a header.", "However, variations in the number of dots exist.", "In horizontally written text the dots are commonly vertically centered within the text height (between the baseline and the ascent line), as in the standard Japanese Windows fonts; in vertically written text the dots are always centered horizontally.", "As the Japanese word for dot is pronounced \"\", the dots are colloquially called \"\" (, akin to the English \"dot dot dot\").In text in Japanese media, such as in manga or video games, ellipses are much more frequent than in English, and are often changed to another punctuation sign in translation.", "The ellipsis by itself represents speechlessness, or a \"pregnant pause\".", "Depending on the context, this could be anything from an admission of guilt to an expression of being dumbfounded at another person's words or actions.", "As a device, the ''ten-ten-ten'' is intended to focus the reader on a character while allowing the character to not speak any dialogue.", "This conveys to the reader a focus of the narrative \"camera\" on the silent subject, implying an expectation of some motion or action.", "It is not unheard of to see inanimate objects \"speaking\" the ellipsis.===In Chinese===In Chinese, the ellipsis is six dots (in two groups of three dots, occupying the same horizontal or vertical space as two characters).", "In horizontally written text the dots are commonly vertically centered along the midline (halfway between the Roman descent and Roman ascent, or equivalently halfway between the Roman baseline and the capital height, i.e.", "); in vertically written text the dots are always centered horizontally (i.e.", ").", "===In Spanish===In Spanish, the ellipsis is commonly used as a substitute of ''et cetera'' at the end of unfinished lists.", "So it means \"and so forth\" or \"and other things\".Other use is the suspension of a part of a text, or a paragraph, or a phrase or a part of a word because it is obvious, or unnecessary, or implied.", "For instance, sometimes the ellipsis is used to avoid the complete use of expletives.When the ellipsis is placed alone into a parenthesis (...) or—less often—between brackets ..., which is what happens usually within a text transcription, it means the original text had more contents on the same position but are not useful to our target in the transcription.", "When the suppressed text is at the beginning or at the end of a text, the ellipsis does not need to be placed in a parenthesis.The number of dots is three and only three.===In French===In French, the ellipsis is commonly used at the end of lists to represent .", "In French typography, the ellipsis is written immediately after the preceding word, but has a space after it, for example: .", "If, exceptionally, it begins a sentence, there is a space before and after, for example: .", "However, any omitted word, phrase or line at the end of a quoted passage would be indicated as follows: ... (space before and after the square brackets but not inside), for example: .===In German===In German, the ellipsis in general is surrounded by spaces, if it stands for one or more omitted words.", "On the other side there is no space between a letter or (part of) a word and an ellipsis, if it stands for one or more omitted letters, that should stick to the written letter or letters.Example for both cases, using German style: ''The first el...is stands for omitted letters, the second ... for an omitted word.", "''If the ellipsis is at the end of a sentence, the final full stop is omitted.Example: ''I think that ...''=== In Italian ===The suggests the use of an ellipsis () to indicate a pause longer than a period and, when placed between brackets, the omission of letters, words or phrases." ], [ "Usage in computer system menus", "A drop-down menu of file operationsIn computer menu functions or buttons, an ellipsis means that upon selection more options (sometimes in the form of a dialog box) will be displayed, where the user can or must make a choice.", "If the ellipsis is absent, the function is immediately executed upon selection.For example, the menu item \"Save\" indicates that the file will be overwritten without further input, whereas \"Save as...\" indicates that a dialog follows where the user can, for example, select another location, file name, or format.Ellipses are also used as a separate button (particularly considering the limited screen area of mobile apps) to represent partially or completely hidden options.", "This usage may alternatively be described as a \"More button\" (see also hamburger button signifying completely hidden options).In mobile, web, and general application design, the '''vertical ellipsis''', '''''', is sometimes used as an interface element, where it is sometimes called a kebab icon.", "The element typically indicates that a navigation menu can be accessed when the element is activated, and is a smaller version of the hamburger icon ('''≡''') which is a stylized rendering of a menu." ], [ "In mathematical notation", "An ellipsis is also often used in mathematics to mean \"and so forth\".", "In a list, between commas, or following a comma, a normal ellipsis is used, as in:: or to mean an infinite list, as:: To indicate the omission of values in a repeated operation, an ellipsis raised to the center of the line is used between two operation symbols or following the last operation symbol, as in:: Sometimes, e.g.", "in Russian mathematical texts, normal, non-raised, ellipses are used even in repeated summations.The latter formula means the sum of all natural numbers from 1 to 100.However, it is not a formally defined mathematical symbol.", "Repeated summations or products may similarly be denoted using capital sigma and capital pi notation, respectively:: (see termial): (see factorial)Normally dots should be used only where the pattern to be followed is clear, the exception being to show the indefinite continuation of an irrational number such as:: Sometimes, it is useful to display a formula compactly, for example:: Another example is the set of positive zeros of the cosine function:: There are many related uses of the ellipsis in set notation.The diagonal and vertical forms of the ellipsis are particularly useful for showing missing terms in matrices, such as the size-''n'' identity matrix::" ], [ "Computer science", "===Programming languages===A two- or three-dot ellipsis is used as an operator in some programming languages.", "One of its most common uses is in defining ranges or sequences, for instance means all the numbers from 1 through 10.This is used in many languages, including Pascal, Modula, Oberon, Ada, Haskell, Perl, Ruby, Rust, Swift, Kotlin, Bash shell and F#.", "It is also used to indicate variadic functions in the C, C++ and Java languages.===HTML and CSS===The CSS text-overflow property can be set to ellipsis, which cuts off text with an ellipsis when it overflows the content area." ], [ "On Internet chat rooms and in text messaging", "The ellipsis is a non-verbal cue that is often used in computer-mediated interactions, in particular in synchronous genres, such as chat.", "The reason behind its popularity is the fact that it allows people to indicate in writing several functions:* The sign of ellipsis can function as a floor holding device, and signal that more is to come, for instance when people break up longer turns in chat.", "* Dot-dot-dot can be used systematically to enact linguistic politeness, for instance indicating topic change or hesitation.", "* Suspension dots can be turn construction units to signal silence, for example when indicating disagreement, disapproval or confusion.Although an ellipsis is technically complete with three periods (...), its rise in popularity as a \"trailing-off\" or \"silence\" indicator, particularly in mid-20th-century comic strip and comic book prose writing, has led to expanded uses online.", "Today, extended ellipses anywhere from two to dozens of periods have become common constructions in Internet chat rooms and text messages.", "The extent of repetition in itself might serve as an additional contextualization or paralinguistic cue; one paper wrote that they \"extend the lexical meaning of the words, add character to the sentences, and allow fine-tuning and personalisation of the message\".In some text messaging software products, an ellipsis is displayed while the interlocutor is typing characters.", "The feature has been referred to as a typing awareness indicator." ], [ "Progress indicator", "Rows of dots are also used to indicate that a longer-lasting operation is in progress (e.g.", "in the initial startup messages of text-mode operating systems like DOS or in bootsectors, i.e.", "\"Loading...\", \"Starting...\").", "Sometimes this is implemented as an animated progress indicator where more dots are added after certain sub-operations (like loading a single sector) have finished (i.e.", "\"Loading.....\")." ], [ "Computer representations", "In computing, several ellipsis characters have been codified, depending on the system used.In the Unicode standard, there are the following characters: Name Character Unicode UTF-8 HTML entity name orNumeric character reference Use Horizontal ellipsis … U+2026 0xE2 0x80 0xA6 … General Laotian ellipsis ຯ U+0EAF 0xE0 0xBA 0xAF ຯ General Mongolian ellipsis ᠁ U+1801 0xE1 0xA0 0x81 ᠁ General Thai ellipsis ฯ U+0E2F 0xE0 0xB8 0xAF ฯ General Vertical ellipsis ⋮ U+22EE 0xE2 0x8B 0xAE &vellip; Mathematics Midline horizontal ellipsis ⋯ U+22EF 0xE2 0x8B 0xAF ⋯ Mathematics Up-right diagonal ellipsis ⋰ U+22F0 0xE2 0x8B 0xB0 ⋰ Mathematics Down-right diagonal ellipsis ⋱ U+22F1 0xE2 0x8B 0xB1 ⋱ Mathematics Presentation form for vertical horizontal ellipsis ︙ U+FE19 0xEF 0xB8 0x99 ︙ Vertical formUnicode recognizes a series of three period characters (U+002E) as compatibility equivalent (though not canonical) to the horizontal ellipsis character.In HTML, the horizontal ellipsis character may be represented by the entity reference … (since HTML 4.0), and the vertical ellipsis character by the entity reference &vellip; (since HTML 5.0).", "Alternatively, in HTML, XML, and SGML, a numeric character reference such as … or … can be used.In the TeX typesetting system, the following types of ellipsis are available: Name Glyph TeX markup Lower ellipsis \\ldots Centred ellipsis \\cdots Diagonal ellipsis \\ddots Vertical ellipsis \\vdotsIn LaTeX, note that the reverse orientation of \\ddots can be achieved with \\reflectbox provided by the graphicx package: \\reflectbox{\\ddots} yields 18px.With the amsmath package from AMS-LaTeX, more specific ellipses are provided for math mode.", "Markup Usage Example Output \\dotsc dots with commas 1, 2, \\dotsc , 9 \\dotsb dots with binary operators/relations 1 + 2 + \\dotsb + 9 \\dotsm dots with multiplication A_1 A_2 \\dotsm A_9 \\dotsi dots with integrals \\int_{A_1}\\int_{A_2}\\dotsi\\int_{A_9} \\dotso other dots 123 \\dotso 9 The horizontal ellipsis character also appears in the following older character maps:* in Windows-1250—Windows-1258 and in IBM/MS-DOS Code page 874, at code 85 (hexadecimal)* in Mac-Roman, Mac-CentEuro and several other Macintosh encodings, at code C9 (hexadecimal)* in Ventura International encoding at code C1 (hexadecimal)Note that ISO/IEC 8859 encoding series provides no code point for ellipsis.As with all characters, especially those outside the ASCII range, the author, sender and receiver of an encoded ellipsis must be in agreement upon what bytes are being used to represent the character.", "Naive text processing software may improperly assume that a particular encoding is being used, resulting in mojibake.===Input===In Windows, the horizontal ellipsis can be inserted with , using the numeric keypad.In macOS, it can be inserted with (on an English language keyboard).In some Linux distributions, it can be inserted with (this produces an interpunct on other systems), or .In Android, ellipsis is a long-press key.", "If Gboard is in alphanumeric layout, change to numeric and special characters layout by pressing from alphanumeric layout.", "Once in numeric and special characters layout, long press key to insert an ellipsis.", "This is a single symbol without spaces in between the three dots ( ).In Chinese and sometimes in Japanese, ellipsis characters are made by entering two consecutive ''horizontal ellipses'', each with Unicode code point U+2026.In vertical texts, the application should rotate the symbol accordingly." ], [ "See also", "* * * Code folding or holophrasting – switching between full text and an ellipsis* * – a row of three dots (usually widely separated) alone in the middle of a gap between two paragraphs, to indicate a sub-chapter.", "* An em dash is sometimes used instead of an ellipsis, especially in written dialogue.", "* .", "In written text, this is sometimes denoted using the horizontal ellipsis.", "* * " ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * Halliday, M. A. K., and Ruqayia, H. (1976), ''Cohesion in English'', London: Longman.", "" ], [ "External links", " *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Enola Gay" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Enola Gay''''' () is a Boeing B-29 Superfortress bomber, named after Enola Gay Tibbets, the mother of the pilot, Colonel Paul Tibbets.", "On 6 August 1945, during the final stages of World War II, it became the first aircraft to drop an atomic bomb in warfare.", "The bomb, code-named \"Little Boy\", was targeted at the city of Hiroshima, Japan, and caused the destruction of about three quarters of the city.", "''Enola Gay'' participated in the second nuclear attack as the weather reconnaissance aircraft for the primary target of Kokura.", "Clouds and drifting smoke resulted in Nagasaki, a secondary target, being bombed instead.After the war, the ''Enola Gay'' returned to the United States, where it was operated from Roswell Army Air Field, New Mexico.", "In May 1946, it was flown to Kwajalein for the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in the Pacific, but was not chosen to make the test drop at Bikini Atoll.", "Later that year, it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution and spent many years parked at air bases exposed to the weather and souvenir hunters, before its 1961 disassembly and storage at a Smithsonian facility in Suitland, Maryland.In the 1980s, veterans groups engaged in a call for the Smithsonian to put the aircraft on display, leading to an acrimonious debate about exhibiting the aircraft without a proper historical context.", "The cockpit and nose section of the aircraft were exhibited at the National Air and Space Museum (NASM) on the National Mall, for the bombing's 50th anniversary in 1995, amid controversy.", "Since 2003, the entire restored B-29 has been on display at NASM's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.", "The last survivor of its crew, Theodore Van Kirk, died on 28 July 2014 at the age of 93.==World War II== ===Early history===The ''Enola Gay'' (Model number B-29-45-MO, Serial number 44-86292, Victor number 82) was built by the Glenn L. Martin Company (later part of Lockheed Martin) at its bomber plant in Bellevue, Nebraska, located at Offutt Field, now Offutt Air Force Base.", "The bomber was one of the first fifteen B-29s built to the \"Silverplate\" specification— of 65 eventually completed during and after World War II—giving them the primary ability to function as nuclear \"weapon delivery\" aircraft.", "These modifications included an extensively modified bomb bay with pneumatic doors and British bomb attachment and release systems, reversible pitch propellers that gave more braking power on landing, improved engines with fuel injection and better cooling, and the removal of protective armor and gun turrets.", "''Enola Gay'' after the Hiroshima mission, entering hardstand.", "It is in its 6th Bombardment Group livery, with victor number 82 visible on fuselage just forward of the tail fin.", "''Enola Gay'' was personally selected by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Jr., the commander of the 509th Composite Group, on 9 May 1945, while still on the assembly line.", "The aircraft was accepted by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) on 18 May 1945 and assigned to the 393d Bombardment Squadron, Heavy, 509th Composite Group.", "Crew B-9, commanded by Captain Robert A. Lewis, took delivery of the bomber and flew it from Omaha to the 509th base at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, on 14 June 1945.Thirteen days later, the aircraft left Wendover for Guam, where it received a bomb-bay modification, and flew to North Field, Tinian, on 6 July.", "It was initially given the Victor (squadron-assigned identification) number 12, but on 1 August, was given the circle R tail markings of the 6th Bombardment Group as a security measure and had its Victor number changed to 82 to avoid misidentification with actual 6th Bombardment Group aircraft.", "During July, the bomber made eight practice or training flights and flew two missions, on 24 and 26 July, to drop pumpkin bombs on industrial targets at Kobe and Nagoya.", "''Enola Gay'' was used on 31 July on a rehearsal flight for the actual mission.The partially assembled Little Boy gun-type fission weapon L-11, weighing , was contained inside a wooden crate that was secured to the deck of the .", "Unlike the six uranium-235 target discs, which were later flown to Tinian on three separate aircraft arriving 28 and 29 July, the assembled projectile with the nine uranium-235 rings installed was shipped in a single lead-lined steel container weighing that was locked to brackets welded to the deck of Captain Charles B. McVay III's quarters.", "Both the L-11 and projectile were dropped off at Tinian on 26 July 1945.===Hiroshima mission===''Little Boy'' unit on trailer cradle in pit on Tinian, before loading into ''Enola Gay''s bomb bayOn 5 August 1945, during preparation for the first atomic mission, Tibbets assumed command of the aircraft and named it after his mother, Enola Gay Tibbets, who, in turn, had been named for the heroine of a novel.", "When it came to selecting a name for the plane, Tibbets later recalled that: In the early morning hours, just prior to the 6 August mission, Tibbets had a young Army Air Forces maintenance man, Private Nelson Miller, paint the name just under the pilot's window.", "Regularly assigned aircraft commander Robert A. Lewis was unhappy to be displaced by Tibbets for this important mission and became furious when he arrived at the aircraft on the morning of 6 August to see it painted with the now-famous nose art.Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on 6 August, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets.", "''Enola Gay'', piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, in the Northern Mariana Islands, about six hours' flight time from Japan, accompanied by two other B-29s, ''The Great Artiste'', carrying instrumentation, and a then-nameless aircraft later called ''Necessary Evil'', commanded by Captain George Marquardt, to take photographs.", "The director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves Jr., wanted the event recorded for posterity, so the takeoff was illuminated by floodlights.", "When he wanted to taxi, Tibbets leaned out the window to direct the bystanders out of the way.", "On request, he gave a friendly wave for the cameras.Hiroshima explosionAfter leaving Tinian, the three aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima, where they rendezvoused at and set course for Japan.", "The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at .", "Navy Captain William S. \"Deak\" Parsons of Project Alberta, who was in command of the mission, armed the bomb during the flight to minimize the risks during takeoff.", "His assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area.The release at 08:15 (Hiroshima time) went as planned, and the Little Boy took 53 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at to the predetermined detonation height about above the city.", "''Enola Gay'' traveled before it felt the shock waves from the blast.", "Although buffeted by the shock, neither ''Enola Gay'' nor ''The Great Artiste'' was damaged.The detonation created a blast equivalent to .", "The U-235 weapon was considered very inefficient, with only 1.7% of its fissile material reacting.", "The radius of total destruction was about , with resulting fires across .", "Americans estimated that of the city were destroyed.", "Japanese officials determined that 69% of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6–7% damaged.", "Some 70,000–80,000 people, 30% of the city's population, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm, and another 70,000 injured.", "Out of those killed, 20,000 were soldiers and 20,000 were Korean slave laborers.", "''Enola Gay'' landing at its base''Enola Gay'' returned safely to its base on Tinian to great fanfare, touching down at 2:58 pm, after 12 hours 13 minutes.", "''The Great Artiste'' and ''Necessary Evil'' followed at short intervals.", "Several hundred people, including journalists and photographers, had gathered to watch the planes return.", "Tibbets was the first to disembark and was presented with the Distinguished Service Cross on the spot.===Nagasaki mission===The Hiroshima mission was followed by another atomic strike.", "Originally scheduled for 11 August, it was brought forward by two days to 9 August owing to a forecast of bad weather.", "This time, a nuclear bomb code-named \"Fat Man\" was carried by B-29 ''Bockscar'', piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney.", "''Enola Gay'', flown by Captain George Marquardt's Crew B-10, was the weather reconnaissance aircraft for Kokura, the primary target.", "''Enola Gay'' reported clear skies over Kokura, but by the time ''Bockscar'' arrived, the city was obscured by smoke from fires from the conventional bombing of Yahata by 224 B-29s the day before.", "After three unsuccessful passes, ''Bockscar'' diverted to its secondary target, Nagasaki, where it dropped its bomb.", "In contrast to the Hiroshima mission, the Nagasaki mission has been described as tactically botched, although the mission did meet its objectives.", "The crew encountered a number of problems in execution and had very little fuel by the time they landed at the emergency backup landing site Yontan Airfield on Okinawa." ], [ "Crews", "The mission runs of 6 and 9 August, with Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and alt=map of Japan and the Marianas Islands indicating the routes taken by the raids.", "One goes straight to Iwo Jima and Hiroshima and back the same way.", "The other goes to the southern tip of Japan, up to Kokura, down to Nagasaki, and the southwest to Okinawa befofore heading back to Tinian.===Hiroshima mission===Bombardier Thomas Ferebee with the Norden Bombsight on Tinian after the dropping of the Little Boy''Enola Gay''s crew on 6 August 1945 consisted of 12 men.", "The crew was:* Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Jr. – pilot and aircraft commander* Captain Robert A. Lewis – co-pilot; ''Enola Gay'''s regularly assigned aircraft commander** Major Thomas Ferebee – bombardier* Captain Theodore \"Dutch\" Van Kirk – navigator* Captain William S. \"Deak\" Parsons, USN – weaponeer and mission commander* First Lieutenant Jacob Beser – radar countermeasures (also the only man to fly on both of the nuclear bombing aircraft.", ")* Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson – assistant weaponeer* Staff Sergeant Robert \"Bob\" Caron – tail gunner Staff Sergeant Wyatt E. Duzenbury – flight engineer Sergeant Joe S. Stiborik – radar operator Sergeant Robert H. Shumard – assistant flight engineer Private First Class Richard H. Nelson – VHF radio operatorAsterisks denote regular crewmen of the ''Enola Gay''.Of mission commander Parsons, it was said: \"There is no one more responsible for getting this bomb out of the laboratory and into some form useful for combat operations than Captain Parsons, by his plain genius in the ordnance business.", "\"===Nagasaki mission===For the Nagasaki mission, ''Enola Gay'' was flown by Crew B-10, normally assigned to ''Up An' Atom'': Captain George W. Marquardt – aircraft commander * Second Lieutenant James M. Anderson – co-pilot * Second Lieutenant Russell Gackenbach – navigator * Captain James W. Strudwick – bombardier * Technical Sergeant James R. Corliss – flight engineer * Sergeant Warren L. Coble – radio operator * Sergeant Joseph M. DiJulio – radar operator * Sergeant Melvin H. Bierman – tail gunner * Sergeant Anthony D. Capua Jr. – assistant engineer/scanner" ], [ "Subsequent history", "Suitland, 1987On 6 November 1945, Lewis flew the ''Enola Gay'' back to the United States, arriving at the 509th's new base at Roswell Army Air Field, New Mexico, on 8 November.", "On 29 April 1946, ''Enola Gay'' left Roswell as part of the Operation Crossroads nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific.", "It flew to Kwajalein Atoll on 1 May.", "It was not chosen to make the test drop at Bikini Atoll and left Kwajalein on 1 July, the date of the test, reaching Fairfield-Suisun Army Air Field, California, the next day.The decision was made to preserve the ''Enola Gay'', and on 24 July 1946, the aircraft was flown to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base, Tucson, Arizona, in preparation for storage.", "On 30 August 1946, the title to the aircraft was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution and the ''Enola Gay'' was removed from the USAAF inventory.", "From 1946 to 1961, the ''Enola Gay'' was put into temporary storage at a number of locations.", "It was at Davis-Monthan from 1 September 1946 until 3 July 1949, when it was flown to Orchard Place Air Field, Park Ridge, Illinois, by Tibbets for acceptance by the Smithsonian.", "It was moved to Pyote Air Force Base, Texas, on 12 January 1952, and then to Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, on 2 December 1953, because the Smithsonian had no storage space for the aircraft.It was hoped that the Air Force would guard the plane, but, lacking hangar space, it was left outdoors on a remote part of the air base, exposed to the elements.", "Souvenir hunters broke in and removed parts.", "Insects and birds then gained access to the aircraft.", "Paul E. Garber of the Smithsonian Institution became concerned about the ''Enola Gay''s condition, and on 10 August 1960, Smithsonian staff began dismantling the aircraft.", "The components were transported to the Smithsonian storage facility at Suitland, Maryland, on 21 July 1961.The ''Enola Gay'' remained at Suitland for many years.", "By the early 1980s, two veterans of the 509th, Don Rehl and his former navigator in the 509th, Frank B. Stewart, began lobbying for the aircraft to be restored and put on display.", "They enlisted Tibbets and Senator Barry Goldwater in their campaign.", "In 1983, Walter J. Boyne, a former B-52 pilot with the Strategic Air Command, became director of the National Air and Space Museum, and he made the ''Enola Gay''s restoration a priority.", "Looking at the aircraft, Tibbets recalled, was a \"sad meeting.", "My fond memories, and I don't mean the dropping of the bomb, were the numerous occasions I flew the airplane ...", "I pushed it very, very hard and it never failed me ...", "It was probably the most beautiful piece of machinery that any pilot ever flew.\"" ], [ "Restoration", "Restoration of the bomber began on 5 December 1984, at the Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility in Suitland-Silver Hill, Maryland.", "The propellers that were used on the bombing mission were later shipped to Texas A&M University.", "One of these propellers was trimmed to for use in the university's Oran W. Nicks Low Speed Wind Tunnel.", "The lightweight aluminum variable-pitch propeller is powered by a 1,250 kVA electric motor, providing a wind speed up to .", "Two engines were rebuilt at Garber and two at San Diego Air & Space Museum.", "Some parts and instruments had been removed and could not be located.", "Replacements were found or fabricated, and marked so that future curators could distinguish them from the original components.===Exhibition controversy===Under the cockpit window of the ''Enola Gay'', while in storage 1987The ''Enola Gay'' became the center of a controversy at the Smithsonian Institution when the museum planned to put its fuselage on public display in 1995 as part of an exhibit commemorating the 50th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.", "The exhibit, ''The Crossroads: The End of World War II, the Atomic Bomb and the Cold War,'' was drafted by the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum staff, and arranged around the restored ''Enola Gay''.Critics of the planned exhibit, especially those of the American Legion and the Air Force Association, charged that the exhibit focused too much attention on the Japanese casualties inflicted by the nuclear bomb, rather than on the motives for the bombing or the discussion of the bomb's role in ending the conflict with Japan.", "The exhibit brought to national attention many long-standing academic and political issues related to retrospective views of the bombings.", "After attempts to revise the exhibit to meet the satisfaction of competing interest groups, the exhibit was canceled on 30 January 1995.Martin O. Harwit, Director of the National Air and Space Museum, was compelled to resign over the controversy.", "He later reflected thatThe forward fuselage went on display on 28 June 1995.On 2 July 1995, three people were arrested for throwing ash and human blood on the aircraft's fuselage, following an earlier incident in which a protester had thrown red paint over the gallery's carpeting.", "The exhibition closed on 18 May 1998 and the fuselage was returned to the Garber Facility for final restoration.===Complete restoration and display===The ''Enola Gay'' on display at the National Air and Space Museum, Steven F. Udvar-Hazy CenterIts restoration work began in 1984, and eventually required 300,000 staff hours.", "While the fuselage was on display, from 1995 to 1998, work continued on the remaining unrestored components.", "The aircraft was shipped in pieces to the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia from March–June 2003, with the fuselage and wings reunited for the first time since 1960 on 10 April 2003 and assembly completed on 8 August 2003.The aircraft has been on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center since the museum annex opened on 15 December 2003.As a result of the earlier controversy, the signage around the aircraft provided only the same succinct technical data as is provided for other aircraft in the museum, without discussion of the controversial issues.", "It read:''Enola Gay'' nose, port side, at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.The display of the ''Enola Gay'' without reference to the historical context of World War II, the Cold War, or the development and deployment of nuclear weapons aroused controversy.", "A petition from a group calling themselves the Committee for a National Discussion of Nuclear History and Current Policy bemoaned the display of ''Enola Gay'' as a technological achievement, which it described as an \"extraordinary callousness toward the victims, indifference to the deep divisions among American citizens about the propriety of these actions, and disregard for the feelings of most of the world's peoples\".", "It attracted signatures from notable figures including historian Gar Alperovitz, social critic Noam Chomsky, whistle blower Daniel Ellsberg, physicist Joseph Rotblat, writer Kurt Vonnegut, producer Norman Lear, actor Martin Sheen and filmmaker Oliver Stone." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " The Smithsonian's site on ''Enola Gay'' includes links to crew lists and other details * Eyewitnesses to Hiroshima, ''Time'' magazine, 1 August 2005* \"Inside the ''Enola Gay''\", ''Air & Space'', 18 May 2010" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Electronvolt" ], [ "Introduction", "In physics, an '''electronvolt''' (symbol '''eV''', also written '''electron-volt''' and '''electron volt''') is the measure of an amount of kinetic energy gained by a single electron accelerating from rest through an electric potential difference of one volt in vacuum.", "When used as a unit of energy, the numerical value of 1 eV in joules (symbol J) is equivalent to the numerical value of the charge of an electron in coulombs (symbol C).", "Under the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, this sets 1 eV equal to the exact value Historically, the electronvolt was devised as a standard unit of measure through its usefulness in electrostatic particle accelerator sciences, because a particle with electric charge ''q'' gains an energy after passing through a voltage of ''V.''", "Since ''q'' must be an integer multiple of the elementary charge ''e'' for any isolated particle, the gained energy in units of electronvolts conveniently equals that integer times the voltage." ], [ "Definition and use", "An electronvolt is the amount of kinetic energy gained or lost by a single electron accelerating from rest through an electric potential difference of one volt in vacuum.", "Hence, it has a value of one volt, , multiplied by the elementary charge Therefore, one electronvolt is equal to The electronvolt (eV) is a unit of energy, but is not an SI unit.", "It is a common unit of energy within physics, widely used in solid state, atomic, nuclear, and particle physics, and high-energy astrophysics.", "It is commonly used with SI prefixes milli-, kilo-, mega-, giga-, tera-, peta- or exa- (meV, keV, MeV, GeV, TeV, PeV and EeV respectively).", "The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).In some older documents, and in the name Bevatron, the symbol BeV is used, where the \"B\" stands for billion.", "The symbol BeV is therefore equivalent to the GeV." ], [ "Relation to other physical properties and units", " Measurement Unit SI value of unit Energy eV Mass eV/''c''2 Momentum eV/''c'' Temperature eV/''k''B Time ''ħ''/eV Distance ''ħc''/eV ===Mass===By mass–energy equivalence, the electronvolt corresponds to a unit of mass.", "It is common in particle physics, where units of mass and energy are often interchanged, to express mass in units of eV/''c''2, where ''c'' is the speed of light in vacuum (from ).", "It is common to informally express mass in terms of eV as a unit of mass, effectively using a system of natural units with ''c'' set to 1.The kilogram equivalent of is:For example, an electron and a positron, each with a mass of , can annihilate to yield of energy.", "A proton has a mass of .", "In general, the masses of all hadrons are of the order of , which makes the GeV/''c''2 a convenient unit of mass for particle physics:The atomic mass constant (''m''u), one twelfth of the mass a carbon-12 atom, is close to the mass of a proton.", "To convert to electronvolt mass-equivalent, use the formula:===Momentum===By dividing a particle's kinetic energy in electronvolts by the fundamental constant ''c'' (the speed of light), one can describe the particle's momentum in units of eV/''c''.", "In natural units in which the fundamental velocity constant ''c'' is numerically 1, the ''c'' may informally be omitted to express momentum as electronvolts.", "The energy–momentum relation in natural units, , is a Pythagorean equation that can be visualized as a right triangle where the total energy is the hypotenuse and the momentum and rest mass are the two legs.The energy momentum relationin natural units (with )is a Pythagorean equation.", "When a relatively high energy is applied to a particle with relatively low rest mass, it can be approximated as in high-energy physics such that an applied energy in units of eV conveniently results in an approximately equivalent change of momentum in units of eV/''c''.The dimensions of momentum units are .", "The dimensions of energy units are .", "Dividing the units of energy (such as eV) by a fundamental constant (such as the speed of light) that has units of velocity () facilitates the required conversion for using energy units to describe momentum.For example, if the momentum ''p'' of an electron is said to be , then the conversion to MKS system of units can be achieved by:===Distance===In particle physics, a system of natural units in which the speed of light in vacuum ''c'' and the reduced Planck constant ''ħ'' are dimensionless and equal to unity is widely used: .", "In these units, both distances and times are expressed in inverse energy units (while energy and mass are expressed in the same units, see mass–energy equivalence).", "In particular, particle scattering lengths are often presented in units of inverse particle masses.Outside this system of units, the conversion factors between electronvolt, second, and nanometer are the following:The above relations also allow expressing the mean lifetime ''τ'' of an unstable particle (in seconds) in terms of its decay width Γ (in eV) via .", "For example, the meson has a lifetime of 1.530(9) picoseconds, mean decay length is , or a decay width of .Conversely, the tiny meson mass differences responsible for meson oscillations are often expressed in the more convenient inverse picoseconds.Energy in electronvolts is sometimes expressed through the wavelength of light with photons of the same energy:===Temperature===In certain fields, such as plasma physics, it is convenient to use the electronvolt to express temperature.", "The electronvolt is divided by the Boltzmann constant to convert to the Kelvin scale:where ''k''B is the Boltzmann constant.The ''k''B is assumed when using the electronvolt to express temperature, for example, a typical magnetic confinement fusion plasma is (kiloelectronvolt), which is equal to 174 MK (megakelvin).As an approximation: ''k''B''T'' is about (≈ ) at a temperature of .===Wavelength===239x239pxGraph of wavelength (nm) to energy (eV)The energy ''E'', frequency ''v'', and wavelength ''λ'' of a photon are related bywhere ''h'' is the Planck constant, ''c'' is the speed of light.", "This reduces toA photon with a wavelength of (green light) would have an energy of approximately .", "Similarly, would correspond to an infrared photon of wavelength or frequency ." ], [ "Scattering experiments", "In a low-energy nuclear scattering experiment, it is conventional to refer to the nuclear recoil energy in units of eVr, keVr, etc.", "This distinguishes the nuclear recoil energy from the \"electron equivalent\" recoil energy (eVee, keVee, etc.)", "measured by scintillation light.", "For example, the yield of a phototube is measured in phe/keVee (photoelectrons per keV electron-equivalent energy).", "The relationship between eV, eVr, and eVee depends on the medium the scattering takes place in, and must be established empirically for each material." ], [ "Energy comparisons", "energy of a photon varies only with the frequency of the photon, related by speed of light constant.", "This contrasts with a massive particle of which the energy depends on its velocity and rest mass.Legendγ: Gamma rays\|HF: High freq.HX: Hard X-rays FIR: Far infraredMF: Medium freq.SX: Soft X-raysRadio wavesLF: Low freq.EUV: Extreme ultravioletEHF: Extremely high freq.VLF: Very low freq.NUV: Near ultravioletSHF: Super high freq.VF/ULF: Voice freq.Visible lightUHF: Ultra high freq.SLF: Super low freq.NIR: Near InfraredVHF: Very high freq.ELF: Extremely low freq.", "Freq: Frequency Energy Source total energy released from a 20 kt nuclear fission device 12.2 ReV () the Planck energy 10 YeV () approximate grand unification energy ~624 EeV () energy consumed by a single 100-watt light bulb in one second ( = ≈ ) 300 EeV ( = ~) The first ultra-high-energy cosmic ray particle observed, the so-called Oh-My-God particle.", "two petaelectronvolts, the highest-energy neutrino detected by the IceCube neutrino telescope in Antarctica designed proton center-of-mass collision energy at the Large Hadron Collider (operated at 3.5 TeV since its start on 30 March 2010, reached 13 TeV in May 2015) a trillion electronvolts, or , about the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito172 GeVrest energy of top quark, the heaviest measured elementary particle 125.1±0.2 GeV energy corresponding to the mass of the Higgs boson, as measured by two separate detectors at the LHC to a certainty better than 5 sigma average energy released in fission of one Pu-239 atom approximate average energy released in nuclear fission fission fragments of one U-235 atom.105.7 MeVrest energy of a muon average energy released in the nuclear fusion of deuterium and tritium to form He-4; this is per kilogram of product produced2 MeVapproximate average energy released in a nuclear fission neutron released from one U-235 atom.", "1.9 MeVrest energy of up quark, the lowest mass quark.", "() about twice the rest energy of an electron1 to 10 keVapproximate thermal temperature, , in nuclear fusion systems, like the core of the sun, magnetically confined plasma, inertial confinement and nuclear weapons the energy required to ionize atomic hydrogen; molecular bond energies are on the order of to per bond to the photon energy of visible light energy required to break a covalent bond in silicon energy required to break a covalent bond in germanium< approximate rest energy of neutrinos (sum of 3 flavors) thermal energy, , at room temperature; one air molecule has an average kinetic energy thermal energy, , of the cosmic microwave background===Per mole===One mole of particles given 1 eV of energy each has approximately 96.5 kJ of energy – this corresponds to the Faraday constant (''F'' ≈ ), where the energy in joules of ''n'' moles of particles each with energy ''E'' eV is equal to ''E''·''F''·''n''." ], [ "See also", "Orders of magnitude (energy)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " physical constants reference; CODATA data" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Electrochemistry" ], [ "Introduction", "John Daniell (left) and physicist Michael Faraday (right), both credited as founders of electrochemistry.", "'''Electrochemistry''' is the branch of physical chemistry concerned with the relationship between electrical potential difference and identifiable chemical change.", "These reactions involve electrons moving via an electronically-conducting phase (typically an external electrical circuit, but not necessarily, as in electroless plating) between electrodes separated by an ionically conducting and electronically insulating electrolyte (or ionic species in a solution).When a chemical reaction is driven by an electrical potential difference, as in electrolysis, or if a potential difference results from a chemical reaction as in an electric battery or fuel cell, it is called an ''electrochemical'' reaction.", "Unlike in other chemical reactions, in electrochemical reactions electrons are not transferred directly between atoms, ions, or molecules, but via the aforementioned electronically-conducting circuit.", "This phenomenon is what distinguishes an electrochemical reaction from a conventional chemical reaction." ], [ "History", "German physicist Otto von Guericke beside his electrical generator while conducting an experiment.=== 16th–18th century ===Understanding of electrical matters began in the sixteenth century.", "During this century, the English scientist William Gilbert spent 17 years experimenting with magnetism and, to a lesser extent, electricity.", "For his work on magnets, Gilbert became known as the ''\"Father of Magnetism.\"''", "He discovered various methods for producing and strengthening magnets.In 1663, the German physicist Otto von Guericke created the first electric generator, which produced static electricity by applying friction in the machine.", "The generator was made of a large sulfur ball cast inside a glass globe, mounted on a shaft.", "The ball was rotated by means of a crank and an electric spark was produced when a pad was rubbed against the ball as it rotated.", "The globe could be removed and used as source for experiments with electricity.By the mid-18th century the French chemist Charles François de Cisternay du Fay had discovered two types of static electricity, and that like charges repel each other whilst unlike charges attract.", "Du Fay announced that electricity consisted of two fluids: ''\"vitreous\"'' (from the Latin for ''\"glass\"''), or positive, electricity; and ''\"resinous,\"'' or negative, electricity.", "This was the ''two-fluid theory'' of electricity, which was to be opposed by Benjamin Franklin's ''one-fluid theory'' later in the century.Late 1780s diagram of Galvani's experiment on frog legs.In 1785, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb developed the law of electrostatic attraction as an outgrowth of his attempt to investigate the law of electrical repulsions as stated by Joseph Priestley in England.Italian physicist Alessandro Volta showing his ''\"battery\"'' to French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in the early 19th century.In the late 18th century the Italian physician and anatomist Luigi Galvani marked the birth of electrochemistry by establishing a bridge between chemical reactions and electricity on his essay ''\"De Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius\"'' (Latin for Commentary on the Effect of Electricity on Muscular Motion) in 1791 where he proposed a ''\"nerveo-electrical substance\"'' on biological life forms.In his essay Galvani concluded that animal tissue contained a here-to-fore neglected innate, vital force, which he termed ''\"animal electricity,\"'' which activated nerves and muscles spanned by metal probes.", "He believed that this new force was a form of electricity in addition to the ''\"natural\"'' form produced by lightning or by the electric eel and torpedo ray as well as the ''\"artificial\"'' form produced by friction (i.e., static electricity).Galvani's scientific colleagues generally accepted his views, but Alessandro Volta rejected the idea of an ''\"animal electric fluid,\"'' replying that the frog's legs responded to differences in metal temper, composition, and bulk.", "Galvani refuted this by obtaining muscular action with two pieces of the same material.", "Nevertheless, Volta's experimentation led him to develop the first practical battery, which took advantage of the relatively high energy (weak bonding) of zinc and could deliver an electrical current for much longer than any other device known at the time.===19th century===Sir Humphry Davy's portrait in the 19th century.In 1800, William Nicholson and Johann Wilhelm Ritter succeeded in decomposing water into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis using Volta's battery.", "Soon thereafter Ritter discovered the process of electroplating.", "He also observed that the amount of metal deposited and the amount of oxygen produced during an electrolytic process depended on the distance between the electrodes.", "By 1801, Ritter observed thermoelectric currents and anticipated the discovery of thermoelectricity by Thomas Johann Seebeck.By the 1810s, William Hyde Wollaston made improvements to the galvanic cell.Sir Humphry Davy's work with electrolysis led to the conclusion that the production of electricity in simple electrolytic cells resulted from chemical action and that chemical combination occurred between substances of opposite charge.", "This work led directly to the isolation of metallic sodium and potassium by electrolysis of their molten salts, and of the alkaline earth metals from theirs, in 1808.Hans Christian Ørsted's discovery of the magnetic effect of electric currents in 1820 was immediately recognized as an epoch-making advance, although he left further work on electromagnetism to others.", "André-Marie Ampère quickly repeated Ørsted's experiment, and formulated them mathematically.In 1821, Estonian-German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck demonstrated the electrical potential between the juncture points of two dissimilar metals when there is a temperature difference between the joints.In 1827, the German scientist Georg Ohm expressed his law in this famous book ''\"Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet\"'' (The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically) in which he gave his complete theory of electricity.In 1832, Michael Faraday's experiments led him to state his two laws of electrochemistry.", "In 1836, John Daniell invented a primary cell which solved the problem of polarization by introducing copper ions into the solution near the positive electrode and thus eliminating hydrogen gas generation.", "Later results revealed that at the other electrode, amalgamated zinc (i.e., zinc alloyed with mercury) would produce a higher voltage.Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius portrait circa 1880s.William Grove produced the first fuel cell in 1839.In 1846, Wilhelm Weber developed the electrodynamometer.", "In 1868, Georges Leclanché patented a new cell which eventually became the forerunner to the world's first widely used battery, the zinc–carbon cell.Svante Arrhenius published his thesis in 1884 on ''Recherches sur la conductibilité galvanique des électrolytes'' (Investigations on the galvanic conductivity of electrolytes).", "From his results the author concluded that electrolytes, when dissolved in water, become to varying degrees split or dissociated into electrically opposite positive and negative ions.In 1886, Paul Héroult and Charles M. Hall developed an efficient method (the Hall–Héroult process) to obtain aluminium using electrolysis of molten alumina.In 1894, Friedrich Ostwald concluded important studies of the conductivity and electrolytic dissociation of organic acids.German scientist Walther Nernst portrait in the 1910s.Walther Hermann Nernst developed the theory of the electromotive force of the voltaic cell in 1888.In 1889, he showed how the characteristics of the voltage produced could be used to calculate the free energy change in the chemical reaction producing the voltage.", "He constructed an equation, known as Nernst equation, which related the voltage of a cell to its properties.In 1898, Fritz Haber showed that definite reduction products can result from electrolytic processes if the potential at the cathode is kept constant.", "In 1898, he explained the reduction of nitrobenzene in stages at the cathode and this became the model for other similar reduction processes.===20th century===In 1902, The Electrochemical Society (ECS) was founded.In 1909, Robert Andrews Millikan began a series of experiments (see oil drop experiment) to determine the electric charge carried by a single electron.In 1911, Harvey Fletcher, working with Millikan, was successful in measuring the charge on the electron, by replacing the water droplets used by Millikan, which quickly evaporated, with oil droplets.", "Within one day Fletcher measured the charge of an electron within several decimal places.In 1923, Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Martin Lowry published essentially the same theory about how acids and bases behave, using an electrochemical basis.In 1937, Arne Tiselius developed the first sophisticated electrophoretic apparatus.", "Some years later, he was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize for his work in protein electrophoresis.A year later, in 1949, the International Society of Electrochemistry (ISE) was founded.By the 1960s–1970s quantum electrochemistry was developed by Revaz Dogonadze and his students." ], [ "Principles", "===Oxidation and reduction===The term \"redox\" stands for '''reduction-oxidation'''.", "It refers to electrochemical processes involving electron transfer to or from a molecule or ion, changing its oxidation state.", "This reaction can occur through the application of an external voltage or through the release of chemical energy.", "Oxidation and reduction describe the change of oxidation state that takes place in the atoms, ions or molecules involved in an electrochemical reaction.", "Formally, oxidation state is the hypothetical charge that an atom would have if all bonds to atoms of different elements were 100% ionic.", "An atom or ion that gives up an electron to another atom or ion has its oxidation state increase, and the recipient of the negatively charged electron has its oxidation state decrease.For example, when atomic sodium reacts with atomic chlorine, sodium donates one electron and attains an oxidation state of +1.Chlorine accepts the electron and its oxidation state is reduced to −1.The sign of the oxidation state (positive/negative) actually corresponds to the value of each ion's electronic charge.", "The attraction of the differently charged sodium and chlorine ions is the reason they then form an ionic bond.The loss of electrons from an atom or molecule is called oxidation, and the gain of electrons is reduction.", "This can be easily remembered through the use of mnemonic devices.", "Two of the most popular are ''\"OIL RIG\"'' (Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain) and ''\"LEO\"'' the lion says ''\"GER\"'' (Lose Electrons: Oxidation, Gain Electrons: Reduction).", "Oxidation and reduction always occur in a paired fashion such that one species is oxidized when another is reduced.", "For cases where electrons are shared (covalent bonds) between atoms with large differences in electronegativity, the electron is assigned to the atom with the largest electronegativity in determining the oxidation state.The atom or molecule which loses electrons is known as the ''reducing agent'', or ''reductant'', and the substance which accepts the electrons is called the ''oxidizing agent'', or ''oxidant''.", "Thus, the oxidizing agent is always being reduced in a reaction; the reducing agent is always being oxidized.", "Oxygen is a common oxidizing agent, but not the only one.", "Despite the name, an oxidation reaction does not necessarily need to involve oxygen.", "In fact, a fire can be fed by an oxidant other than oxygen; fluorine fires are often unquenchable, as fluorine is an even stronger oxidant (it has a weaker bond and higher electronegativity, and thus accepts electrons even better) than oxygen.For reactions involving oxygen, the gain of oxygen implies the oxidation of the atom or molecule to which the oxygen is added (and the oxygen is reduced).", "In organic compounds, such as butane or ethanol, the loss of hydrogen implies oxidation of the molecule from which it is lost (and the hydrogen is reduced).", "This follows because the hydrogen donates its electron in covalent bonds with non-metals but it takes the electron along when it is lost.", "Conversely, loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen implies reduction.===Balancing redox reactions===Electrochemical reactions in water are better analyzed by using the ion-electron method, where H+, OH− ion, H2O and electrons (to compensate the oxidation changes) are added to the cell's half-reactions for oxidation and reduction.====Acidic medium====In acidic medium, H+ ions and water are added to balance each half-reaction.For example, when manganese reacts with sodium bismuthate.", ":''Unbalanced reaction'': Mn2+ + NaBiO3 → Bi3+ + :''Oxidation'': '''4 H2O''' + Mn2+ → '''+ 8 H+ + 5 e−''':''Reduction'': '''2 e− + 6 H+''' + → Bi3+ '''+ 3 H2O'''Finally, the reaction is balanced by multiplying the stoichiometric coefficients so the numbers of electrons in both half reactions match:8 H2O + 2 Mn2+ → 2 + 16 H+ + '''10 e−''':'''10 e−''' + 30 H+ + 5 → 5 Bi3+ + 15 H2Oand adding the resulting half reactions to give the balanced reaction::14 H+ + 2 Mn2+ + 5 NaBiO3 → 7 H2O + 2 + 5 Bi3+ + 5 Na+====Basic medium====In basic medium, OH− ions and water are added to balance each half-reaction.", "For example, in a reaction between potassium permanganate and sodium sulfite::''Unbalanced reaction'': KMnO4 + Na2SO3 + H2O → MnO2 + Na2SO4 + KOH:''Reduction'': 3 e− + '''2''' H2O + → MnO2 + '''4''' OH−:''Oxidation'': '''2 OH−''' + → '''+ H2O + 2 e−'''Here, 'spectator ions' (K+, Na+) were omitted from the half-reactions.", "By multiplying the stoichiometric coefficients so the numbers of electrons in both half reaction match::'''6 e−''' + 4 H2O + 2 → 2 MnO2 + 8 OH−:6 OH− + 3 → 3 + 3 H2O + '''6 e−'''the balanced overall reaction is obtained::2 KMnO4 + 3 Na2SO3 + H2O → 2 MnO2 + 3 Na2SO4 + 2 KOH====Neutral medium====The same procedure as used in acidic medium can be applied, for example, to balance the complete combustion of propane::''Unbalanced reaction'': C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O:''Reduction'': '''4 H+''' + O2 '''+ 4 e−''' → '''2''' H2O:''Oxidation'': '''6 H2O''' + C3H8 → 3 CO2 '''+ 20 e− + 20 H+'''By multiplying the stoichiometric coefficients so the numbers of electrons in both half reaction match::20 H+ + 5 O2 + '''20 e−''' → 10 H2O:6 H2O + C3H8 → 3 CO2 + '''20 e−''' + 20 H+the balanced equation is obtained::C3H8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H2O" ], [ "Electrochemical cells", "An electrochemical cell is a device that produces an electric current from energy released by a spontaneous redox reaction.", "This kind of cell includes the Galvanic cell or Voltaic cell, named after Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta, both scientists who conducted experiments on chemical reactions and electric current during the late 18th century.Electrochemical cells have two conductive electrodes (the anode and the cathode).", "The anode is defined as the electrode where oxidation occurs and the cathode is the electrode where the reduction takes place.", "Electrodes can be made from any sufficiently conductive materials, such as metals, semiconductors, graphite, and even conductive polymers.", "In between these electrodes is the electrolyte, which contains ions that can freely move.The galvanic cell uses two different metal electrodes, each in an electrolyte where the positively charged ions are the oxidized form of the electrode metal.", "One electrode will undergo oxidation (the anode) and the other will undergo reduction (the cathode).", "The metal of the anode will oxidize, going from an oxidation state of 0 (in the solid form) to a positive oxidation state and become an ion.", "At the cathode, the metal ion in solution will accept one or more electrons from the cathode and the ion's oxidation state is reduced to 0.This forms a solid metal that electrodeposits on the cathode.", "The two electrodes must be electrically connected to each other, allowing for a flow of electrons that leave the metal of the anode and flow through this connection to the ions at the surface of the cathode.", "This flow of electrons is an electric current that can be used to do work, such as turn a motor or power a light.A galvanic cell whose electrodes are zinc and copper submerged in zinc sulfate and copper sulfate, respectively, is known as a Daniell cell.The half reactions in a Daniell cell are as follows::Zinc electrode (anode): Zn → Zn2+ + 2 e−:Copper electrode (cathode): Cu2+ + 2 e− → CuA modern cell stand for electrochemical research.", "The electrodes attach to high-quality metallic wires, and the stand is attached to a potentiostat/galvanostat (not pictured).", "A shot glass-shaped container is aerated with a noble gas and sealed with the Teflon block.In this example, the anode is the zinc metal which is oxidized (loses electrons) to form zinc ions in solution, and copper ions accept electrons from the copper metal electrode and the ions deposit at the copper cathode as an electrodeposit.", "This cell forms a simple battery as it will spontaneously generate a flow of electric current from the anode to the cathode through the external connection.", "This reaction can be driven in reverse by applying a voltage, resulting in the deposition of zinc metal at the anode and formation of copper ions at the cathode.To provide a complete electric circuit, there must also be an ionic conduction path between the anode and cathode electrolytes in addition to the electron conduction path.", "The simplest ionic conduction path is to provide a liquid junction.", "To avoid mixing between the two electrolytes, the liquid junction can be provided through a porous plug that allows ion flow while minimizing electrolyte mixing.", "To further minimize mixing of the electrolytes, a salt bridge can be used which consists of an electrolyte saturated gel in an inverted U-tube.", "As the negatively charged electrons flow in one direction around this circuit, the positively charged metal ions flow in the opposite direction in the electrolyte.A voltmeter is capable of measuring the change of electrical potential between the anode and the cathode.The electrochemical cell voltage is also referred to as electromotive force or emf.A cell diagram can be used to trace the path of the electrons in the electrochemical cell.", "For example, here is a cell diagram of a Daniell cell::Zn \| Zn2+ (1 M) CuFirst, the reduced form of the metal to be oxidized at the anode (Zn) is written.", "This is separated from its oxidized form by a vertical line, which represents the limit between the phases (oxidation changes).", "The double vertical lines represent the saline bridge on the cell.", "Finally, the oxidized form of the metal to be reduced at the cathode, is written, separated from its reduced form by the vertical line.", "The electrolyte concentration is given as it is an important variable in determining the exact cell potential." ], [ "Standard electrode potential", "To allow prediction of the cell potential, tabulations of standard electrode potential are available.", "Such tabulations are referenced to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).", "The standard hydrogen electrode undergoes the reaction:2 H+ + 2 e− → H2which is shown as a reduction but, in fact, the SHE can act as either the anode or the cathode, depending on the relative oxidation/reduction potential of the other electrode/electrolyte combination.", "The term standard in SHE requires a supply of hydrogen gas bubbled through the electrolyte at a pressure of 1 atm and an acidic electrolyte with H+ activity equal to 1 (usually assumed to be H+ = 1 mol/liter, i.e.", "pH = 0).The SHE electrode can be connected to any other electrode by a salt bridge and an external circuit to form a cell.", "If the second electrode is also at standard conditions, then the measured cell potential is called the standard electrode potential for the electrode.", "The standard electrode potential for the SHE is zero, by definition.", "The polarity of the standard electrode potential provides information about the relative reduction potential of the electrode compared to the SHE.", "If the electrode has a positive potential with respect to the SHE, then that means it is a strongly reducing electrode which forces the SHE to be the anode (an example is Cu in aqueous CuSO4 with a standard electrode potential of 0.337 V).", "Conversely, if the measured potential is negative, the electrode is more oxidizing than the SHE (such as Zn in ZnSO4 where the standard electrode potential is −0.76 V).Standard electrode potentials are usually tabulated as reduction potentials.", "However, the reactions are reversible and the role of a particular electrode in a cell depends on the relative oxidation/reduction potential of both electrodes.", "The oxidation potential for a particular electrode is just the negative of the reduction potential.", "A standard cell potential can be determined by looking up the standard electrode potentials for both electrodes (sometimes called half cell potentials).", "The one that is smaller will be the anode and will undergo oxidation.", "The cell potential is then calculated as the sum of the reduction potential for the cathode and the oxidation potential for the anode.", ":''E''°cell = ''E''°red (cathode) – ''E''°red (anode) = ''E''°red (cathode) + ''E''°oxi (anode)For example, the standard electrode potential for a copper electrode is:''Cell diagram'':Pt \| H2 (1 atm) \| H+ (1 M) Cu:''E''°cell = ''E''°red (cathode) – ''E''°red (anode)At standard temperature, pressure and concentration conditions, the cell's emf (measured by a multimeter) is 0.34 V. By definition, the electrode potential for the SHE is zero.", "Thus, the Cu is the cathode and the SHE is the anode giving:''E''cell = ''E''°(Cu2+/Cu) – ''E''°(H+/H2)Or,:''E''°(Cu2+/Cu) = 0.34 VChanges in the stoichiometric coefficients of a balanced cell equation will not change the ''E''°red value because the standard electrode potential is an intensive property." ], [ "Spontaneity of redox reaction", "During operation of an electrochemical cell, chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy.", "This can be expressed mathematically as the product of the cell's emf ''E''cell measured in volts (V) and the electric charge ''Q''ele,trans transferred through the external circuit.", ":Electrical energy = ''E''cell''Q''ele,trans''Q''ele,trans is the cell current integrated over time and measured in coulombs (C); it can also be determined by multiplying the total number ''n''e of electrons transferred (measured in moles) times Faraday's constant (''F'').The emf of the cell at zero current is the maximum possible emf.", "It can be used to calculate the maximum possible electrical energy that could be obtained from a chemical reaction.", "This energy is referred to as electrical work and is expressed by the following equation::,where work is defined as positive when it increases the energy of the system.Since the free energy is the maximum amount of work that can be extracted from a system, one can write::A positive cell potential gives a negative change in Gibbs free energy.", "This is consistent with the cell production of an electric current from the cathode to the anode through the external circuit.", "If the current is driven in the opposite direction by imposing an external potential, then work is done on the cell to drive electrolysis.A spontaneous electrochemical reaction (change in Gibbs free energy less than zero) can be used to generate an electric current in electrochemical cells.", "This is the basis of all batteries and fuel cells.", "For example, gaseous oxygen (O2) andhydrogen (H2) can be combined in a fuel cell to form water and energy, typically a combination of heat and electrical energy.Conversely, non-spontaneous electrochemical reactions can be driven forward by the application of a current at sufficient voltage.", "The electrolysis of water into gaseous oxygen and hydrogen is a typical example.The relation between the equilibrium constant, ''K'', and the Gibbs free energy for an electrochemical cell is expressed as follows::.Rearranging to express the relation between standard potential and equilibrium constant yields:.At ''T'' = 298 K, the previous equation can be rewritten using the Briggsian logarithm as follows::" ], [ "Cell emf dependency on changes in concentration", "===Nernst equation===The standard potential of an electrochemical cell requires standard conditions (Δ''G''°) for all of the reactants.", "When reactant concentrations differ from standard conditions, the cell potential will deviate from the standard potential.", "In the 20th century German chemist Walther Nernst proposed a mathematical model to determine the effect of reactant concentration on electrochemical cell potential.In the late 19th century, Josiah Willard Gibbs had formulated a theory to predict whether a chemical reaction is spontaneous based on the free energy:Here Δ''G'' is change in Gibbs free energy, Δ''G''° is the cell potential when ''Q'' is equal to 1, ''T'' is absolute temperature (Kelvin), ''R'' is the gas constant and ''Q'' is the reaction quotient, which can be calculated by dividing concentrations of products by those of reactants, each raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient, using only those products and reactants that are aqueous or gaseous.Gibbs' key contribution was to formalize the understanding of the effect of reactant concentration on spontaneity.Based on Gibbs' work, Nernst extended the theory to include the contribution from electric potential on charged species.", "As shown in the previous section, the change in Gibbs free energy for an electrochemical cell can be related to the cell potential.", "Thus, Gibbs' theory becomes:Here ''ne'' is the number of electrons (in moles), ''F'' is the Faraday constant (in coulombs/mole), and Δ''E'' is the cell potential (in volts).Finally, Nernst divided through by the amount of charge transferred to arrive at a new equation which now bears his name::Assuming standard conditions (''T'' = 298 K or 25 °C) and ''R'' = 8.3145 J/(K·mol), the equation above can be expressed on base-10 logarithm as shown below::Note that '''' is also known as the thermal voltage ''V''T and is found in the study of plasmas and semiconductors as well.", "The value 0.05916 V in the above equation is just the thermal voltage at standard temperature multiplied by the natural logarithm of 10.===Concentration cells===A concentration cell is an electrochemical cell where the two electrodes are the same material, the electrolytes on the two half-cells involve the same ions, but the electrolyte concentration differs between the two half-cells.An example is an electrochemical cell, where two copper electrodes are submerged in two copper(II) sulfate solutions, whose concentrations are 0.05 M and 2.0 M, connected through a salt bridge.", "This type of cell will generate a potential that can be predicted by the Nernst equation.", "Both can undergo the same chemistry (although the reaction proceeds in reverse at the anode):Cu2+ + 2 e− → CuLe Chatelier's principle indicates that the reaction is more favorable to reduction as the concentration of Cu2+ ions increases.", "Reduction will take place in the cell's compartment where the concentration is higher and oxidation will occur on the more dilute side.The following cell diagram describes the concentration cell mentioned above::Cu \| Cu2+ (0.05 M) Cuwhere the half cell reactions for oxidation and reduction are::Oxidation: Cu → Cu2+ (0.05 M) + 2 e−:Reduction: Cu2+ (2.0 M) + 2 e− → Cu:Overall reaction: Cu2+ (2.0 M) → Cu2+ (0.05 M)The cell's emf is calculated through the Nernst equation as follows::The value of ''E''° in this kind of cell is zero, as electrodes and ions are the same in both half-cells.After replacing values from the case mentioned, it is possible to calculate cell's potential::or by::However, this value is only approximate, as reaction quotient is defined in terms of ion activities which can be approximated with the concentrations as calculated here.The Nernst equation plays an important role in understanding electrical effects in cells and organelles.", "Such effects include nerve synapses and cardiac beat as well as the resting potential of a somatic cell." ], [ "Battery", "Many types of battery have been commercialized and represent an important practical application of electrochemistry.", "Early wet cells powered the first telegraph and telephone systems, and were the source of current for electroplating.", "The zinc-manganese dioxide dry cell was the first portable, non-spillable battery type that made flashlights and other portable devices practical.", "The mercury battery using zinc and mercuric oxide provided higher levels of power and capacity than the original dry cell for early electronic devices, but has been phased out of common use due to the danger of mercury pollution from discarded cells.The lead–acid battery was the first practical secondary (rechargeable) battery that could have its capacity replenished from an external source.", "The electrochemical reaction that produced current was (to a useful degree) reversible, allowing electrical energy and chemical energy to be interchanged as needed.", "Common lead acid batteries contain a mixture of sulfuric acid and water, as well as lead plates.", "The most common mixture used today is 30% acid.", "One problem, however, is if left uncharged acid will crystallize within the lead plates of the battery rendering it useless.", "These batteries last an average of 3 years with daily use but it is not unheard of for a lead acid battery to still be functional after 7–10 years.", "Lead-acid cells continue to be widely used in automobiles.All the preceding types have water-based electrolytes, which limits the maximum voltage per cell.", "The freezing of water limits low temperature performance.", "The lithium metal battery, which does not (and cannot) use water in the electrolyte, provides improved performance over other types; a rechargeable lithium-ion battery is an essential part of many mobile devices.The flow battery, an experimental type, offers the option of vastly larger energy capacity because its reactants can be replenished from external reservoirs.", "The fuel cell can turn the chemical energy bound in hydrocarbon gases or hydrogen and oxygen directly into electrical energy with a much higher efficiency than any combustion process; such devices have powered many spacecraft and are being applied to grid energy storage for the public power system." ], [ "Corrosion", "Corrosion is an electrochemical process, which reveals itself as rust or tarnish on metals like iron or copper and their respective alloys, steel and brass.===Iron corrosion===For iron rust to occur the metal has to be in contact with oxygen and water.", "The chemical reactions for this process are relatively complex and not all of them are completely understood.", "It is believed the causes are the following:Electron transfer (reduction-oxidation):One area on the surface of the metal acts as the anode, which is where the oxidation (corrosion) occurs.", "At the anode, the metal gives up electrons.", "::Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e−:Electrons are transferred from iron, reducing oxygen in the atmosphere into water on the cathode, which is placed in another region of the metal.", "::O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e− → 2 H2O:Global reaction for the process:::2 Fe + O2 + 4 H+ → 2 Fe2+ + 2 H2O:Standard emf for iron rusting:::''E''° = ''E''° (cathode) − ''E''° (anode)::''E''° = 1.23V − (−0.44 V) = 1.67 VIron corrosion takes place in an acid medium; H+ ions come from reaction between carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and water, forming carbonic acid.", "Fe2+ ions oxidize further, following this equation:: 4 Fe2+ + O2 + (4+2) H2O → 2 Fe2O3·H2O + 8 H+Iron(III) oxide hydrate is known as rust.", "The concentration of water associated with iron oxide varies, thus the chemical formula is represented by Fe2O3·H2O.An electric circuit is formed as passage of electrons and ions occurs; thus if an electrolyte is present it will facilitate oxidation, explaining why rusting is quicker in salt water.===Corrosion of common metals===Coinage metals, such as copper and silver, slowly corrode through use.A patina of green-blue copper carbonate forms on the surface of copper with exposure to the water and carbon dioxide in the air.", "Silver coins or cutlery that are exposed to high sulfur foods such as eggs or the low levels of sulfur species in the air develop a layer of black silver sulfide.Gold and platinum are extremely difficult to oxidize under normal circumstances, and require exposure to a powerful chemical oxidizing agent such as aqua regia.Some common metals oxidize extremely rapidly in air.", "Titanium and aluminium oxidize instantaneously in contact with the oxygen in the air.", "These metals form an extremely thin layer of oxidized metal on the surface, which bonds with the underlying metal.", "This thin oxide layer protects the underlying bulk of the metal from the air preventing the entire metal from oxidizing.", "These metals are used in applications where corrosion resistance is important.", "Iron, in contrast, has an oxide that forms in air and water, called rust, that does not bond with the iron and therefore does not stop the further oxidation of the iron.", "Thus iron left exposed to air and water will continue to rust until all of the iron is oxidized.===Prevention of corrosion===Attempts to save a metal from becoming anodic are of two general types.", "Anodic regions dissolve and destroy the structural integrity of the metal.While it is almost impossible to prevent anode/cathode formation, if a non-conducting material covers the metal, contact with the electrolyte is not possible and corrosion will not occur.====Coating====Metals can be coated with paint or other less conductive metals (''passivation'').", "This prevents the metal surface from being exposed to electrolytes.", "Scratches exposing the metal substrate will result in corrosion.", "The region under the coating adjacent to the scratch acts as the anode of the reaction.====Sacrificial anodes====A method commonly used to protect a structural metal is to attach a metal which is more anodic than the metal to be protected.", "This forces the structural metal to be cathodic, thus spared corrosion.", "It is called ''\"sacrificial\"'' because the anode dissolves and has to be replaced periodically.Zinc bars are attached to various locations on steel ship hulls to render the ship hull cathodic.", "The zinc bars are replaced periodically.", "Other metals, such as magnesium, would work very well but zinc is the least expensive useful metal.To protect pipelines, an ingot of buried or exposed magnesium (or zinc) is buried beside the pipeline and is connected electrically to the pipe above ground.", "The pipeline is forced to be a cathode and is protected from being oxidized and rusting.", "The magnesium anode is sacrificed.", "At intervals new ingots are buried to replace those dissolved." ], [ "Electrolysis", "The spontaneous redox reactions of a conventional battery produce electricity through the different reduction potentials of the cathode and anode in the electrolyte.", "However, electrolysis requires an external source of electrical energy to induce a chemical reaction, and this process takes place in a compartment called an electrolytic cell.===Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride===When molten, the salt sodium chloride can be electrolyzed to yield metallic sodium and gaseous chlorine.", "Industrially this process takes place in a special cell named Downs cell.", "The cell is connected to an electrical power supply, allowing electrons to migrate from the power supply to the electrolytic cell.Reactions that take place in a Downs cell are the following::Anode (oxidation): 2 Cl− → Cl2 + 2 e−:Cathode (reduction): 2 Na+ + 2 e− → 2 Na:Overall reaction: 2 Na+ + 2 Cl− → 2 Na + Cl2This process can yield large amounts of metallic sodium and gaseous chlorine, and is widely used in mineral dressing and metallurgy industries.The emf for this process is approximately −4 V indicating a (very) non-spontaneous process.", "In order for this reaction to occur the power supply should provide at least a potential difference of 4 V. However, larger voltages must be used for this reaction to occur at a high rate.===Electrolysis of water===Water can be converted to its component elemental gases, H2 and O2, through the application of an external voltage.", "Water does not decompose into hydrogen and oxygen spontaneously as the Gibbs free energy change for the process at standard conditions is very positive, about 474.4 kJ.", "The decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen can be performed in an electrolytic cell.", "In it, a pair of inert electrodes usually made of platinum immersed in water act as anode and cathode in the electrolytic process.", "The electrolysis starts with the application of an external voltage between the electrodes.", "This process will not occur except at extremely high voltages without an electrolyte such as sodium chloride or sulfuric acid (most used 0.1 M).Bubbles from the gases will be seen near both electrodes.", "The following half reactions describe the process mentioned above::Anode (oxidation): 2 H2O → O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e−:Cathode (reduction): 2 H2O + 2 e− → H2 + 2 OH−:Overall reaction: 2 H2O → 2 H2 + O2Although strong acids may be used in the apparatus, the reaction will not net consume the acid.", "While this reaction will work at any conductive electrode at a sufficiently large potential, platinum catalyzes both hydrogen and oxygen formation, allowing for relatively low voltages (~2 V depending on the pH).===Electrolysis of aqueous solutions===Electrolysis in an aqueous solution is a similar process as mentioned in electrolysis of water.", "However, it is considered to be a complex process because the contents in solution have to be analyzed in half reactions, whether reduced or oxidized.====Electrolysis of a solution of sodium chloride====The presence of water in a solution of sodium chloride must be examined in respect to its reduction and oxidation in both electrodes.", "Usually, water is electrolysed as mentioned above in electrolysis of water yielding ''gaseous oxygen in the anode'' and gaseous hydrogen in the cathode.", "On the other hand, sodium chloride in water dissociates in Na+ and Cl− ions.", "The cation, which is the positive ion, will be attracted to the cathode (−), thus reducing the sodium ion.", "The chloride anion will then be attracted to the anode (+), where it is oxidized to chlorine gas.The following half reactions should be considered in the process mentioned:# Cathode: Na+ + e− → Na''E''°red = –2.71 V# Anode: 2 Cl− → Cl2 + 2 e−''E''°red = +1.36 V# Cathode: 2 H2O + 2 e− → H2 + 2 OH−''E''°red = –0.83 V# Anode: 2 H2O → O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e−''E''°red = +1.23 VReaction 1 is discarded as it has the most negative value on standard reduction potential thus making it less thermodynamically favorable in the process.When comparing the reduction potentials in reactions 2 and 4, the oxidation of chloride ion is favored over oxidation of water, thus chlorine gas is produced at the anode and not oxygen gas.Although the initial analysis is correct, there is another effect, known as the overvoltage effect.", "Additional voltage is sometimes required, beyond the voltage predicted by the ''E''°cell.", "This may be due to kinetic rather than thermodynamic considerations.", "In fact, it has been proven that the activation energy for the chloride ion is very low, hence favorable in kinetic terms.", "In other words, although the voltage applied is thermodynamically sufficient to drive electrolysis, the rate is so slow that to make the process proceed in a reasonable time frame, the voltage of the external source has to be increased (hence, overvoltage).The overall reaction for the process according to the analysis is the following::Anode (oxidation): 2 Cl− → Cl2 + 2 e−:Cathode (reduction): 2 H2O + 2 e− → H2 + 2 OH−:Overall reaction: 2 H2O + 2 Cl− → H2 + Cl2 + 2 OH−As the overall reaction indicates, the concentration of chloride ions is reduced in comparison to OH− ions (whose concentration increases).", "The reaction also shows the production of gaseous hydrogen, chlorine and aqueous sodium hydroxide.===Quantitative electrolysis and Faraday's laws===Quantitative aspects of electrolysis were originally developed by Michael Faraday in 1834.Faraday is also credited to have coined the terms ''electrolyte'', electrolysis, among many others while he studied quantitative analysis of electrochemical reactions.", "Also he was an advocate of the law of conservation of energy.====First law====Faraday concluded after several experiments on electric current in a non-spontaneous process that the mass of the products yielded on the electrodes was proportional to the value of current supplied to the cell, the length of time the current existed, and the molar mass of the substance analyzed.", "In other words, the amount of a substance deposited on each electrode of an electrolytic cell is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the cell.Below is a simplified equation of Faraday's first law::where:''m'' is the mass of the substance produced at the electrode (in grams),:''Q'' is the total electric charge that passed through the solution (in coulombs),:''n'' is the valence number of the substance as an ion in solution (electrons per ion),:''M'' is the molar mass of the substance (in grams per mole).====Second law====Faraday devised the laws of chemical electrodeposition of metals from solutions in 1857.He formulated the second law of electrolysis stating ''\"the amounts of bodies which are equivalent to each other in their ordinary chemical action have equal quantities of electricity naturally associated with them.\"''", "In other words, the quantities of different elements deposited by a given amount of electricity are in the ratio of their chemical equivalent weights.An important aspect of the second law of electrolysis is electroplating, which together with the first law of electrolysis has a significant number of applications in industry, as when used to protectively coat metals to avoid corrosion." ], [ "Applications", "There are various important electrochemical processes in both nature and industry, like the coating of objects with metals or metal oxides through electrodeposition, the addition (electroplating) or removal (electropolishing) of thin layers of metal from an object's surface, and the detection of alcohol in drunk drivers through the redox reaction of ethanol.", "The generation of chemical energy through photosynthesis is inherently an electrochemical process, as is production of metals like aluminum and titanium from their ores.", "Certain diabetes blood sugar meters measure the amount of glucose in the blood through its redox potential.", "In addition to established electrochemical technologies (like deep cycle lead acid batteries) there is also a wide range of new emerging technologies such as fuel cells, large format lithium-ion batteries, electrochemical reactors and super-capacitors that are becoming increasingly commercial.", "Electrochemical or coulometric titrations were introduced for quantitative analysis of minute quantities in 1938 by the Hungarian chemists László Szebellédy and Zoltan Somogyi.", "Electrochemistry also has important applications in the food industry, like the assessment of food/package interactions, the analysis of milk composition, the characterization and the determination of the freezing end-point of ice-cream mixes, or the determination of free acidity in olive oil." ], [ "See also", "BioelectromagnetismBioelectrochemistryBipolar electrochemistryContact tension – a historical forerunner to the theory of electrochemistry.", "Corrosion engineeringCyclic voltammetryElectrochemical impedance spectroscopyElectroanalytical methodsElectrocatalystElectrochemical potentialElectrochemiluminescenceElectrodeionizationElectropolishingElectroplatingElectrochemical engineeringElectrochemical energy conversionElectrosynthesisFrost diagramFuel cellsITIESList of electrochemistsImportant publications in electrochemistryMagnetoelectrochemistryNanoelectrochemistryPhotoelectrochemistryPlasma electrochemistryPourbaix diagramProtein film voltammetryReactivity seriesRedox titrationStandard electrode potential (data page)Voltammetry" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Ebbing, Darrell D. and Gammon, Steven D. General Chemistry (2007) , Nobel Lectures in Chemistry, Volume 1, World Scientific (1999) Swaddle, Thomas Wilson Inorganic chemistry: an industrial and environmental perspective, Academic Press (1997) Brett CMA, Brett AMO, ELECTROCHEMISTRY, Principles, methods, and applications, Oxford University Press, (1993) Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils and Holleman, Arnold Frederick Inorganic chemistry, Academic Press (2001)" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Edinburgh" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edinburgh''' ( ; ) is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 council areas.", "The city is located in south-east Scotland, and is bounded to the north by the Firth of Forth estuary and to the south by the Pentland Hills.", "Edinburgh had a population of in mid-2020, making it the second-most populous city in Scotland and the seventh-most populous in the United Kingdom.Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is the seat of the Scottish Government, the Scottish Parliament, the highest courts in Scotland, and the Palace of Holyroodhouse, the official residence of the British monarch in Scotland.", "It is also the annual venue of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.", "The city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scottish law, literature, philosophy, the sciences and engineering.", "The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of three in the city, is considered one of the best research institutions in the world.", "It is the second-largest financial centre in the United Kingdom, the fourth largest in Europe, and the thirteenth largest internationally.The city is a cultural centre, and is the home of institutions including the National Museum of Scotland, the National Library of Scotland and the Scottish National Gallery.", "The city is also known for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe, the latter being the world's largest annual international arts festival.", "Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, the Palace of Holyroodhouse, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, and the extensive Georgian New Town built in the 18th/19th centuries.", "Edinburgh's Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999.The city's historical and cultural attractions have made it the UK's second-most visited tourist destination, attracting 4.9 million visits, including 2.4 million from overseas in 2018.Edinburgh is governed by the City of Edinburgh Council, a unitary authority.", "The City of Edinburgh council area had an estimated population of in mid-2021, and includes outlying towns and villages which are not part of Edinburgh proper.", "The city is in the Lothian region and was historically part of the shire of Midlothian (also called Edinburghshire)." ], [ "Etymology", "\"Edin\", the root of the city's name, derives from '''', the name for the region in Cumbric, the Brittonic Celtic language formerly spoken there.", "The name's meaning is unknown.", "The district of Eidyn was centred on the stronghold of Din Eidyn, the dun or hillfort of Eidyn.", "This stronghold is believed to have been located at Castle Rock, now the site of Edinburgh Castle.", "A siege of Din Eidyn by Oswald, king of the Angles of Northumbria in 638 marked the beginning of three centuries of Germanic influence in south east Scotland that laid the foundations for the development of Scots, before the town was ultimately subsumed in 954 by the kingdom known to the English as Scotland.", "As the language shifted from Cumbric to Northumbrian Old English and then Scots, the Brittonic ''din'' in Din Eidyn was replaced by ''burh'', producing ''Edinburgh''.", "In Scottish Gaelic ''din'' becomes ''dùn'', producing modern ''Dùn Èideann''." ], [ "Nicknames", "Surgeons' Hall, one of the Greek Revival buildings that earned Edinburgh the nickname \"Athens of the North\"The city is affectionately nicknamed ''Auld Reekie'', Scots for ''Old Smoky'', for the views from the country of the smoke-covered Old Town.", "In Walter Scott's 1820 novel ''The Abbot'', a character observes that \"yonder stands Auld Reekie—you may see the smoke hover over her at twenty miles' distance\".", "In 1898, Thomas Carlyle comments on the phenomenon: \"Smoke cloud hangs over old Edinburgh, for, ever since Aeneas Silvius's time and earlier, the people have the art, very strange to Aeneas, of burning a certain sort of black stones, and Edinburgh with its chimneys is called 'Auld Reekie' by the country people\".", "19th-century historian Robert Chambers argued that the sobriquet could not be traced before the reign of Charles II in the late 17th century.", "Instead, he attributed the name to a Fife laird, Durham of Largo, who regulated the bedtime of his children by the smoke rising above Edinburgh from the fires of the tenements.", "\"It's time now bairns, to tak' the beuks, and gang to our beds, for yonder's Auld Reekie, I see, putting on her nicht -cap!", "\".Edinburgh has been popularly called the ''Athens of the North'' since the early 19th century.", "References to Athens, such as ''Athens of Britain'' and ''Modern Athens'', had been made as early as the 1760s.", "The similarities were seen to be topographical but also intellectual.", "Edinburgh's Castle Rock reminded returning grand tourists of the Athenian Acropolis, as did aspects of the neoclassical architecture and layout of New Town.", "Both cities had flatter, fertile agricultural land sloping down to a port several miles away (respectively, Leith and Piraeus).", "Intellectually, the Scottish Enlightenment, with its humanist and rationalist outlook, was influenced by Ancient Greek philosophy.", "In 1822, artist Hugh William Williams organized an exhibition that showed his paintings of Athens alongside views of Edinburgh, and the idea of a direct parallel between both cities quickly caught the popular imagination.", "When plans were drawn up in the early 19th century to architecturally develop Calton Hill, the design of the National Monument directly copied Athens' Parthenon.", "Tom Stoppard's character Archie of ''Jumpers'' said, perhaps playing on Reykjavík meaning \"smoky bay\", that the \"Reykjavík of the South\" would be more appropriate.The city has also been known by several Latin names, such as ''Edinburgum'', while the adjectival forms ''Edinburgensis'' and ''Edinensis'' are used in educational and scientific contexts.", "''Edina'' is a late 18th-century poetical form used by the Scots poets Robert Fergusson and Robert Burns.", "\"Embra\" or \"Embro\" are colloquialisms from the same time, as in Robert Garioch's ''Embro to the Ploy''.Ben Jonson described it as \"Britaine's other eye\", and Sir Walter Scott referred to it as \"yon Empress of the North\".", "Robert Louis Stevenson, also a son of the city, wrote that Edinburgh \"is what Paris ought to be\"." ], [ "History", "===Early history===Edinburgh, showing Arthur's Seat, one of the earliest known sites of human habitation in the areaThe earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c. 8500 BC.", "Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have been found on Castle Rock, Arthur's Seat, Craiglockhart Hill and the Pentland Hills.When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, they found a Brittonic Celtic tribe whose name they recorded as the Votadini.", "The Votadini transitioned into the Gododdin kingdom in the Early Middle Ages, with Eidyn serving as one of the kingdom's districts.", "During this period, the Castle Rock site, thought to have been the stronghold of Din Eidyn, emerged as the kingdom's major centre.", "The medieval poem ''Y Gododdin'' describes a war band from across the Brittonic world who gathered in Eidyn before a fateful raid; this may describe a historical event around AD 600.In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria, and around this time control of Lothian passed to the Angles.", "Their influence continued for the next three centuries until around 950, when, during the reign of Indulf, son of Constantine II, the \"burh\" (fortress), named in the 10th-century ''Pictish Chronicle'' as ''oppidum Eden'', was abandoned to the Scots.", "It thenceforth remained, for the most part, under their jurisdiction.The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, though the date of its charter is unknown.", "The first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, , by King David I granting a toft in to the Priory of Dunfermline.", "The shire of Edinburgh seems to have also been created in the reign of David I, possibly covering all of Lothian at first, but by 1305 the eastern and western parts of Lothian had become Haddingtonshire and Linlithgowshire, leaving Edinburgh as the county town of a shire covering the central part of Lothian, which was called Edinburghshire or Midlothian (the latter name being an informal, but commonly used, alternative until the county's name was legally changed in 1947).Edinburgh was largely under English control from 1291 to 1314 and from 1333 to 1341, during the Wars of Scottish Independence.", "When the English invaded Scotland in 1298, Edward I of England chose not to enter Edinburgh but passed by it with his army.In the middle of the 14th century, the French chronicler Jean Froissart described it as the capital of Scotland (c. 1365), and James III (1451–88) referred to it in the 15th century as \"the principal burgh of our kingdom\".", "In 1482 James III \"granted and perpetually confirmed to the said Provost, Bailies, Clerk, Council, and Community, and their successors, the office of Sheriff within the Burgh for ever, to be exercised by the Provost for the time as Sheriff, and by the Bailies for the time as Sheriffsdepute conjunctly and severally; with full power to hold Courts, to punish transgressors not only by banishment but by death, to appoint officers of Court, and to do everything else appertaining to the office of Sheriff; as also to apply to their own proper use the fines and escheats arising out of the exercise of the said office.\"", "Despite being burnt by the English in 1544, Edinburgh continued to develop and grow, and was at the centre of events in the 16th-century Scottish Reformation and 17th-century Wars of the Covenant.", "In 1582, Edinburgh's town council was given a royal charter by King James VI permitting the establishment of a university; founded as ''Tounis College'' (Town's College), the institution developed into the University of Edinburgh, which contributed to Edinburgh's central intellectual role in subsequent centuries.===17th century===Edinburgh in the 17th centuryEdinburgh, around 1690In 1603, King James VI of Scotland succeeded to the English throne, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England in a personal union known as the Union of the Crowns, though Scotland remained, in all other respects, a separate kingdom.", "In 1638, King Charles I's attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.", "Subsequent Scottish support for Charles Stuart's restoration to the throne of England resulted in Edinburgh's occupation by Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth of England forces – the New Model Army – in 1650.In the 17th century, Edinburgh's boundaries were still defined by the city's defensive town walls.", "As a result, the city's growing population was accommodated by increasing the height of the houses.", "Buildings of 11 storeys or more were common, and have been described as forerunners of the modern-day skyscraper.", "Most of these old structures were replaced by the predominantly Victorian buildings seen in today's Old Town.", "In 1611 an act of parliament created the High Constables of Edinburgh to keep order in the city, thought to be the oldest statutory police force in the world.===18th century===John Kay's caricatures) behind St Giles' Cathedral in the late 18th centuryFollowing the Treaty of Union in 1706, the Parliaments of England and Scotland passed Acts of Union in 1706 and 1707 respectively, uniting the two kingdoms in the Kingdom of Great Britain effective from 1 May 1707.As a consequence, the Parliament of Scotland merged with the Parliament of England to form the Parliament of Great Britain, which sat at Westminster in London.", "The Union was opposed by many Scots, resulting in riots in the city.By the first half of the 18th century, Edinburgh was described as one of Europe's most densely populated, overcrowded and unsanitary towns.", "Visitors were struck by the fact that the social classes shared the same urban space, even inhabiting the same tenement buildings; although here a form of social segregation did prevail, whereby shopkeepers and tradesmen tended to occupy the cheaper-to-rent cellars and garrets, while the more well-to-do professional classes occupied the more expensive middle storeys.During the Jacobite rising of 1745, Edinburgh was briefly occupied by the Jacobite \"Highland Army\" before its march into England.", "After its eventual defeat at Culloden, there followed a period of reprisals and pacification, largely directed at the rebellious clans.", "In Edinburgh, the Town Council, keen to emulate London by initiating city improvements and expansion to the north of the castle, reaffirmed its belief in the Union and loyalty to the Hanoverian monarch George III by its choice of names for the streets of the New Town: for example, Rose Street and Thistle Street; and for the royal family, George Street, Queen Street, Hanover Street, Frederick Street and Princes Street (in honour of George's two sons).", "The consistently geometric layout of the plan for the extension of Edinburgh was the result of a major competition in urban planning staged by the Town Council in 1766.In the second half of the century, the city was at the heart of the Scottish Enlightenment, when thinkers like David Hume, Adam Smith, James Hutton and Joseph Black were familiar figures in its streets.", "Edinburgh became a major intellectual centre, earning it the nickname \"Athens of the North\" because of its many neo-classical buildings and reputation for learning, recalling ancient Athens.", "In the 18th-century novel ''The Expedition of Humphry Clinker'' by Tobias Smollett one character describes Edinburgh as a \"hotbed of genius\".", "Edinburgh was also a major centre for the Scottish book trade.", "The highly successful London bookseller Andrew Millar was apprenticed there to James McEuen.From the 1770s onwards, the professional and business classes gradually deserted the Old Town in favour of the more elegant \"one-family\" residences of the New Town, a migration that changed the city's social character.", "According to the foremost historian of this development, \"Unity of social feeling was one of the most valuable heritages of old Edinburgh, and its disappearance was widely and properly lamented.", "\"===19th and 20th centuries===Edinburgh Castle from the Grassmarket, photographed by George Washington Wilson circa 1875Edinburgh, c. 1920Despite an enduring myth to the contrary, Edinburgh became an industrial centre with its traditional industries of printing, brewing and distilling continuing to grow in the 19th century and joined by new industries such as rubber works, engineering works and others.", "By 1821, Edinburgh had been overtaken by Glasgow as Scotland's largest city.", "The city centre between Princes Street and George Street became a major commercial and shopping district, a development partly stimulated by the arrival of railways in the 1840s.", "The Old Town became an increasingly dilapidated, overcrowded slum with high mortality rates.", "Improvements carried out under Lord Provost William Chambers in the 1860s began the transformation of the area into the predominantly Victorian Old Town seen today.", "More improvements followed in the early 20th century as a result of the work of Patrick Geddes, but relative economic stagnation during the two world wars and beyond saw the Old Town deteriorate further before major slum clearance in the 1960s and 1970s began to reverse the process.", "University building developments which transformed the George Square and Potterrow areas proved highly controversial.Since the 1990s a new \"financial district\", including the Edinburgh International Conference Centre, has grown mainly on demolished railway property to the west of the castle, stretching into Fountainbridge, a run-down 19th-century industrial suburb which has undergone radical change since the 1980s with the demise of industrial and brewery premises.", "This ongoing development has enabled Edinburgh to maintain its place as the United Kingdom's second largest financial and administrative centre after London.", "Financial services now account for a third of all commercial office space in the city.", "The development of Edinburgh Park, a new business and technology park covering , west of the city centre, has also contributed to the District Council's strategy for the city's major economic regeneration.In 1998, the Scotland Act, which came into force the following year, established a devolved Scottish Parliament and Scottish Executive (renamed the Scottish Government since September 2007).", "Both based in Edinburgh, they are responsible for governing Scotland while reserved matters such as defence, foreign affairs and some elements of income tax remain the responsibility of the Parliament of the United Kingdom in London.===21st century===In 2022, Edinburgh was affected by the 2022 Scotland bin strikes.", "In 2023, Edinburgh became the first capital city in Europe to sign the global Plant Based Treaty, which was introduced at COP26 in 2021 in Glasgow.", "Green Party councillor Steve Burgess introduced the treaty.", "The Scottish Countryside Alliance and other farming groups called the treaty \"anti-farming.\"" ], [ "Geography", "===Cityscape===Situated in Scotland's Central Belt, Edinburgh lies on the southern shore of the Firth of Forth.", "The city centre is southwest of the shoreline of Leith and inland, as the crow flies, from the east coast of Scotland and the North Sea at Dunbar.", "While the early burgh grew up near the prominent Castle Rock, the modern city is often said to be built on seven hills, namely Calton Hill, Corstorphine Hill, Craiglockhart Hill, Braid Hill, Blackford Hill, Arthur's Seat and the Castle Rock, giving rise to allusions to the seven hills of Rome.Occupying a narrow gap between the Firth of Forth to the north and the Pentland Hills and their outrunners to the south, the city sprawls over a landscape which is the product of early volcanic activity and later periods of intensive glaciation.", "Igneous activity between 350 and 400 million years ago, coupled with faulting, led to the creation of tough basalt volcanic plugs, which predominate over much of the area.", "One such example is the Castle Rock which forced the advancing ice sheet to divide, sheltering the softer rock and forming a tail of material to the east, thus creating a distinctive crag and tail formation.", "Glacial erosion on the north side of the crag gouged a deep valley later filled by the now drained Nor Loch.", "These features, along with another hollow on the rock's south side, formed an ideal natural strongpoint upon which Edinburgh Castle was built.", "Similarly, Arthur's Seat is the remains of a volcano dating from the Carboniferous period, which was eroded by a glacier moving west to east during the ice age.", "Erosive action such as plucking and abrasion exposed the rocky crags to the west before leaving a tail of deposited glacial material swept to the east.", "This process formed the distinctive Salisbury Crags, a series of teschenite cliffs between Arthur's Seat and the location of the early burgh.", "The residential areas of Marchmont and Bruntsfield are built along a series of drumlin ridges south of the city centre, which were deposited as the glacier receded.Other prominent landforms such as Calton Hill and Corstorphine Hill are also products of glacial erosion.", "The Braid Hills and Blackford Hill are a series of small summits to the south of the city centre that command expansive views looking northwards over the urban area to the Firth of Forth.View of Edinburgh from Blackford HillEdinburgh is drained by the river named the Water of Leith, which rises at the Colzium Springs in the Pentland Hills and runs for through the south and west of the city, emptying into the Firth of Forth at Leith.", "The nearest the river gets to the city centre is at Dean Village on the north-western edge of the New Town, where a deep gorge is spanned by Thomas Telford's Dean Bridge, built in 1832 for the road to Queensferry.", "The Water of Leith Walkway is a mixed-use trail that follows the course of the river for from Balerno to Leith.Excepting the shoreline of the Firth of Forth, Edinburgh is encircled by a green belt, designated in 1957, which stretches from Dalmeny in the west to Prestongrange in the east.", "With an average width of the principal objectives of the green belt were to contain the outward expansion of the city and to prevent the agglomeration of urban areas.", "Expansion affecting the green belt is strictly controlled but developments such as Edinburgh Airport and the Royal Highland Showground at Ingliston lie within the zone.", "Similarly, suburbs such as Juniper Green and Balerno are situated on green belt land.", "One feature of the Edinburgh green belt is the inclusion of parcels of land within the city which are designated green belt, even though they do not connect with the peripheral ring.", "Examples of these independent wedges of green belt include Holyrood Park and Corstorphine Hill.===Areas===Edinburgh includes former towns and villages that retain much of their original character as settlements in existence before they were absorbed into the expanding city of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.", "Many areas, such as Dalry, contain residences that are multi-occupancy buildings known as tenements, although the more southern and western parts of the city have traditionally been less built-up with a greater number of detached and semi-detached villas.Map showing the areas of central EdinburghThe historic centre of Edinburgh is divided in two by the broad green swathe of Princes Street Gardens.", "To the south, the view is dominated by Edinburgh Castle, built high on Castle Rock, and the long sweep of the Old Town descending towards Holyrood Palace.", "To the north lie Princes Street and the New Town.The West End includes the financial district, with insurance and banking offices as well as the Edinburgh International Conference Centre.Edinburgh's Old and New Towns were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995 in recognition of the unique character of the Old Town with its medieval street layout and the planned Georgian New Town, including the adjoining Dean Village and Calton Hill areas.", "There are over 4,500 listed buildings within the city, a higher proportion relative to area than any other city in the United Kingdom.The castle is perched on top of a rocky crag (the remnant of an extinct volcano) and the Royal Mile runs down the crest of a ridge from it terminating at Holyrood Palace.", "Minor streets (called closes or wynds) lie on either side of the main spine forming a herringbone pattern.", "Due to space restrictions imposed by the narrowness of this landform, the Old Town became home to some of the earliest \"high rise\" residential buildings.", "Multi-storey dwellings known as ''lands'' were the norm from the 16th century onwards with ten and eleven storeys being typical and one even reaching fourteen or fifteen storeys.", "Numerous vaults below street level were inhabited to accommodate the influx of incomers, particularly Irish immigrants, during the Industrial Revolution.", "The street has several fine public buildings such as St Giles' Cathedral, the City Chambers and the Law Courts.", "Other places of historical interest nearby are Greyfriars Kirkyard and Mary King's Close.", "The Grassmarket, running deep below the castle is connected by the steep double terraced Victoria Street.", "The street layout is typical of the old quarters of many Northern European cities.The New Town was an 18th-century solution to the problem of an increasingly crowded city which had been confined to the ridge sloping down from the castle.", "In 1766 a competition to design a \"New Town\" was won by James Craig, a 27-year-old architect.", "The plan was a rigid, ordered grid, which fitted in well with Enlightenment ideas of rationality.", "The principal street was to be George Street, running along the natural ridge to the north of what became known as the \"Old Town\".", "To either side of it are two other main streets: Princes Street and Queen Street.", "Princes Street has become Edinburgh's main shopping street and now has few of its Georgian buildings in their original state.", "The three main streets are connected by a series of streets running perpendicular to them.", "The east and west ends of George Street are terminated by St Andrew Square and Charlotte Square respectively.", "The latter, designed by Robert Adam, influenced the architectural style of the New Town into the early 19th century.", "Bute House, the official residence of the First Minister of Scotland, is on the north side of Charlotte Square.The hollow between the Old and New Towns was formerly the Nor Loch, which was created for the town's defence but came to be used by the inhabitants for dumping their sewage.", "It was drained by the 1820s as part of the city's northward expansion.", "Craig's original plan included an ornamental canal on the site of the loch, but this idea was abandoned.", "Soil excavated while laying the foundations of buildings in the New Town was dumped on the site of the loch to create the slope connecting the Old and New Towns known as The Mound.In the middle of the 19th century the National Gallery of Scotland and Royal Scottish Academy Building were built on The Mound, and tunnels for the railway line between Haymarket and Waverley stations were driven through it.The Southside is a residential part of the city, which includes the districts of St Leonards, Marchmont, Morningside, Newington, Sciennes, the Grange and Blackford.", "The Southside is broadly analogous to the area covered formerly by the Burgh Muir, and was developed as a residential area after the opening of the South Bridge in the 1780s.", "The Southside is particularly popular with families (many state and private schools are here), young professionals and students (the central University of Edinburgh campus is based around George Square just north of Marchmont and the Meadows), and Napier University (with major campuses around Merchiston and Morningside).", "The area is also well provided with hotel and \"bed and breakfast\" accommodation for visiting festival-goers.", "These districts often feature in works of fiction.", "For example, Church Hill in Morningside, was the home of Muriel Spark's Miss Jean Brodie, and Ian Rankin's Inspector Rebus lives in Marchmont and works in St Leonards.The Shore, LeithLeith was historically the port of Edinburgh, an arrangement of unknown date that was confirmed by the royal charter Robert the Bruce granted to the city in 1329.The port developed a separate identity from Edinburgh, which to some extent it still retains, and it was a matter of great resentment when the two burghs merged in 1920 into the City of Edinburgh.", "Even today the parliamentary seat is known as \"Edinburgh North and Leith\".", "The loss of traditional industries and commerce (the last shipyard closed in 1983) resulted in economic decline.", "The Edinburgh Waterfront development has transformed old dockland areas from Leith to Granton into residential areas with shopping and leisure facilities and helped rejuvenate the area.", "With the redevelopment, Edinburgh has gained the business of cruise liner companies which now provide cruises to Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands.The coastal suburb of Portobello is characterised by Georgian villas, Victorian tenements, a beach and promenade and cafés, bars, restaurants and independent shops.", "There are rowing and sailing clubs and a restored Victorian swimming pool, including Turkish baths.The urban area of Edinburgh is almost entirely within the City of Edinburgh Council boundary, merging with Musselburgh in East Lothian.", "Towns within easy reach of the city boundary include Inverkeithing, Haddington, Tranent, Prestonpans, Dalkeith, Bonnyrigg, Loanhead, Penicuik, Broxburn, Livingston and Dunfermline.", "Edinburgh lies at the heart of the Edinburgh & South East Scotland City region with a population in 2014 of 1,339,380.===Climate===Like most of Scotland, Edinburgh has a cool, temperate, maritime climate which, despite its northerly latitude, is milder than places which lie at similar latitudes such as Moscow and Labrador.", "The city's proximity to the sea mitigates any large variations in temperature or extremes of climate.", "Winter daytime temperatures rarely fall below freezing while summer temperatures are moderate, rarely exceeding .", "The highest temperature recorded in the city was on 25 July 2019 at Gogarbank, beating the previous record of on 4 August 1975 at Edinburgh Airport.", "The lowest temperature recorded in recent years was during December 2010 at Gogarbank.Given Edinburgh's position between the coast and hills, it is renowned as \"the windy city\", with the prevailing wind direction coming from the south-west, which is often associated with warm, unstable air from the North Atlantic Current that can give rise to rainfall – although considerably less than cities to the west, such as Glasgow.", "Rainfall is distributed fairly evenly throughout the year.", "Winds from an easterly direction are usually drier but considerably colder, and may be accompanied by haar, a persistent coastal fog.", "Vigorous Atlantic depressions, known as European windstorms, can affect the city between October and May.Located slightly north of the city centre, the weather station at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) has been an official weather station for the Met Office since 1956.The Met Office operates its own weather station at Gogarbank on the city's western outskirts, near Edinburgh Airport.", "This slightly inland station has a slightly wider temperature span between seasons, is cloudier and somewhat wetter, but differences are minor.Temperature and rainfall records have been kept at the Royal Observatory since 1764." ], [ "Demography", "Population pyramid of Edinburgh (local authority area) in 2020===Current===Population density mapThe most recent official population estimates (2020) are for the locality (includes Currie), for the Edinburgh settlement (includes Musselburgh).Edinburgh has a high proportion of young adults, with 19.5% of the population in their 20s (exceeded only by Aberdeen) and 15.2% in their 30s which is the highest in Scotland.", "The proportion of Edinburgh's population born in the UK fell from 92% to 84% between 2001 and 2011, while the proportion of White Scottish-born fell from 78% to 70%.", "Of those Edinburgh residents born in the UK, 335,000 or 83% were born in Scotland, with 58,000 or 14% being born in England.", "Ethnic Group199120012011Number%Number%Number%White: Total409,04497.64%430,36995.9%437,16791.7%White: Scottish - -354,05378.9%334,98770.2%White: Other British - -51,40711.4%56,13211.7%White: Irish5,5181.31%6,4701.4%8,6031.8%White: Gypsy/Traveller - - - -388 -White: Polish - - - -12,8202.68%White: Other - -18,4394.1%24,2375.1%Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Total6,9791.66%11,6002.5%26,2645.5%Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Indian1,1760.28%2,3840.53%6,4701.35%Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Pakistani2,6250.62%3,9280.87%5,8581.22%Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Bangladeshi328 -6360.14%1,2770.26%Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Chinese1,9400.46%3,5320.78%8,0761.69%Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Asian Other9100.21%1,2010.26%4,5830.96%Black, Black Scottish or Black British--174---African: Total603-1,2850.2%4,4740.9%African: African, African Scottish or African British603 -1,2850.2%4,3640.91%African: Other African - - - -110 -Caribbean or Black: Total568-292-1,0310.2%Caribbean175 -292 -5050.1%Black - - - -403 -Caribbean or Black: Other393 - - -123 -Mixed or multiple ethnic groups: Total--2,7760.6%4,0870.8%Other: Total1,7200.41%2,0470.45%3,6030.8%Other: Arab - - - -2,5000.52%Other: Any other ethnic group1,7200.41%2,0470.45%1,1030.23%Total:418,914100%448,624100%476,626100%The proportion of people born outside the UK was 15.9% compared with 8% in 2001.Place of birth Estimated resident population (2011) 11,651 4,888 4,743 4,188 3,700 3,500 2,472 2,100 2,000 2,000 1,800 1,800 1,600===Historical===A census by the Edinburgh presbytery in 1592 recorded a population of 8,003 adults spread equally north and south of the High Street which runs along the spine of the ridge sloping down from the Castle.", "In the 18th and 19th centuries, the population expanded rapidly, rising from 49,000 in 1751 to 136,000 in 1831, primarily due to migration from rural areas.", "As the population grew, problems of overcrowding in the Old Town, particularly in the cramped tenements that lined the present day Royal Mile and the Cowgate, were exacerbated.", "Poor sanitary arrangements resulted in a high incidence of disease, with outbreaks of cholera occurring in 1832, 1848 and 1866.The construction of the New Town from 1767 onwards witnessed the migration of the professional and business classes from the difficult living conditions in the Old Town to the lower density, higher quality surroundings taking shape on land to the north.", "Expansion southwards from the Old Town saw more tenements being built in the 19th century, giving rise to Victorian suburbs such as Dalry, Newington, Marchmont and Bruntsfield.Early 20th-century population growth coincided with lower-density suburban development.", "As the city expanded to the south and west, detached and semi-detached villas with large gardens replaced tenements as the predominant building style.", "Nonetheless, the 2001 census revealed that over 55% of Edinburgh's population were still living in tenements or blocks of flats, a figure in line with other Scottish cities, but much higher than other British cities, and even central London.From the early to mid 20th century, the growth in population, together with slum clearance in the Old Town and other areas, such as Dumbiedykes, Leith, and Fountainbridge, led to the creation of new estates such as Stenhouse and Saughton, Craigmillar and Niddrie, Pilton and Muirhouse, Piershill, and Sighthill.===Religion===The High Kirk of Edinburgh, also known as St Giles' CathedralIn 2018, the Church of Scotland had 20,956 members in 71 congregations in the Presbytery of Edinburgh.", "Its most prominent church is St Giles' on the Royal Mile, first dedicated in 1243 but believed to date from before the 12th century.", "Saint Giles is historically the patron saint of Edinburgh.", "St Cuthbert's, situated at the west end of Princes Street Gardens in the shadow of Edinburgh Castle and St Giles' can lay claim to being the oldest Christian sites in the city, though the present St Cuthbert's, designed by Hippolyte Blanc, was dedicated in 1894.Other Church of Scotland churches include Greyfriars Kirk, the Canongate Kirk, The New Town Church and the Barclay Church.", "The Church of Scotland Offices are in Edinburgh, as is the Assembly Hall where the annual General Assembly is held.The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of St Andrews and Edinburgh has 27 parishes across the city.", "The Archbishop of St Andrews and Edinburgh has his official residence in Greenhill, the diocesan offices are in nearby Marchmont, and its cathedral is St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh.", "The Diocese of Edinburgh of the Scottish Episcopal Church has over 50 churches, half of them in the city.", "Its centre is the late 19th-century Gothic style St Mary's Cathedral in the West End's Palmerston Place.", "Orthodox Christianity is represented by Pan, Romanian and Russian Orthodox churches.", "There are several independent churches in the city, both Catholic and Protestant, including Charlotte Chapel, Carrubbers Christian Centre, Bellevue Chapel and Sacred Heart.", "There are also churches belonging to Quakers, Christadelphians, Seventh-day Adventists, Church of Christ, Scientist, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and Elim Pentecostal Church.Muslims have several places of worship across the city.", "Edinburgh Central Mosque, the largest Islamic place of worship, is located in Potterrow on the city's Southside, near Bristo Square.", "Construction was largely financed by a gift from King Fahd of Saudi Arabia and was completed in 1998.There is also an Ahmadiyya Muslim community.The first recorded presence of a Jewish community in Edinburgh dates back to the late 18th century.", "Edinburgh's Orthodox synagogue, opened in 1932, is in Salisbury Road and can accommodate a congregation of 2000.A Liberal Jewish congregation also meets in the city.A Sikh gurdwara and a Hindu mandir are located in Leith.", "The city also has a Brahma Kumaris centre in the Polwarth area.The Edinburgh Buddhist Centre, run by the Triratna Buddhist Community, formerly situated in Melville Terrace, now runs sessions at the Healthy Life Centre, Bread Street.", "Other Buddhist traditions are represented by groups which meet in the capital: the Community of Interbeing (followers of Thich Nhat Hanh), Rigpa, Samye Dzong, Theravadin, Pure Land and Shambala.", "There is a Sōtō Zen Priory in Portobello and a Theravadin Thai Buddhist Monastery in Slateford Road.Edinburgh is home to a Baháʼí community, and a Theosophical Society meets in Great King Street.Edinburgh has an Inter-Faith Association.Edinburgh has over 39 graveyards and cemeteries, many of which are listed and of historical character, including several former church burial grounds.", "Examples include Old Calton Burial Ground, Greyfriars Kirkyard and Dean Cemetery." ], [ "Economy", "The Bank of Scotland's head office in central EdinburghEdinburgh has the strongest economy of any city in the United Kingdom outside London and the highest percentage of professionals in the UK with 43% of the population holding a degree-level or professional qualification.", "According to the Centre for International Competitiveness, it is the most competitive large city in the United Kingdom.", "It also has the highest gross value added per employee of any city in the UK outside London, measuring £57,594 in 2010.It was named European ''Best Large City of the Future for Foreign Direct Investment'' and ''Best Large City for Foreign Direct Investment Strategy'' in the ''Financial Times'' fDi magazine awards 2012/13.In the 19th century, Edinburgh's economy was known for banking and insurance, publishing and printing, and brewing and distilling.", "Today, its economy is based mainly on financial services, scientific research, higher education, and tourism.", "In March 2010, unemployment in Edinburgh was comparatively low at 3.6%, and it remains consistently below the Scottish average of 4.5%.", "Edinburgh is the second most visited city by foreign visitors in the UK after London.Banking has been a mainstay of the Edinburgh economy for over 300 years, since the Bank of Scotland was established by an act of the Scottish Parliament in 1695.Today, the financial services industry, with its particularly strong insurance and investment sectors, and underpinned by Edinburgh-based firms such as Scottish Widows and Standard Life Aberdeen, accounts for the city being the UK's second financial centre after London and Europe's fourth in terms of equity assets.", "The NatWest Group (formerly Royal Bank of Scotland Group) opened new global headquarters at Gogarburn in the west of the city in October 2005.The city is home to the headquarters of Bank of Scotland, Sainsbury's Bank, Tesco Bank, and TSB Bank.Edinburgh ParkTourism is also an important element in the city's economy.", "As a World Heritage Site, tourists visit historical sites such as Edinburgh Castle, the Palace of Holyroodhouse and the Old and New Towns.", "Their numbers are augmented in August each year during the Edinburgh Festivals, which attracts 4.4 million visitors, and generates over £100M for the local economy.As the centre of Scotland's government and legal system, the public sector plays a central role in Edinburgh's economy.", "Many departments of the Scottish Government are in the city.", "Other major employers include NHS Scotland and local government administration.", "When the £1.3bn Edinburgh & South East Scotland City Region Deal was signed in 2018, the region's Gross Value Added (GVA) contribution to the Scottish economy was cited as £33bn, or 33% of the country's output.", "The City Region Deal funds a range of \"Data Driven Innovation\" hubs which are using data to innovate in the region, recognising the region's strengths in technology and data science, the growing importance of the data economy, and the need to tackle the digital skills gap, as a route to social and economic prosperity." ], [ "Culture", "===Festivals and celebrations=======Edinburgh festival====The city hosts a series of festivals that run between the end of July and early September each year.", "The best known of these events are the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, the Edinburgh International Festival, the Edinburgh Military Tattoo, the Edinburgh Art Festival and the Edinburgh International Book Festival.Pipers emerging from Edinburgh Castle during the Edinburgh Military TattooThe longest established of these festivals is the Edinburgh International Festival, which was first held in 1947 and consists mainly of a programme of high-profile theatre productions and classical music performances, featuring international directors, conductors, theatre companies and orchestras.This has since been overtaken in size by the Edinburgh Fringe which began as a programme of marginal acts alongside the \"official\" Festival and has become the world's largest performing arts festival.", "In 2017, nearly 3400 different shows were staged in 300 venues across the city.", "Comedy has become one of the mainstays of the Fringe, with numerous well-known comedians getting their first 'break' there, often by being chosen to receive the Edinburgh Comedy Award.", "The Edinburgh Military Tattoo, occupies the Castle Esplanade every night for three weeks each August, with massed pipe bands and military bands drawn from around the world.", "Performances end with a short fireworks display.As well as the summer festivals, many other festivals are held during the rest of the year, including the Edinburgh International Film Festival and Edinburgh International Science Festival.The summer of 2020 was the first time in its 70-year history that the Edinburgh festival was not run, being cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "This affected many of the tourist-focused businesses in Edinburgh which depend on the various festivals over summer to return an annual profit.====Edinburgh's Hogmanay====A Viking longship being burnt during Edinburgh's annual Hogmanay celebrationsThe annual Edinburgh Hogmanay celebration was originally an informal street party focused on the Tron Kirk in the Old Town's High Street.", "Since 1993, it has been officially organised with the focus moved to Princes Street.", "In 1996, over 300,000 people attended, leading to ticketing of the main street party in later years up to a limit of 100,000 tickets.", "Hogmanay now covers four days of processions, concerts and fireworks, with the street party beginning on Hogmanay.", "Alternative tickets are available for entrance into the Princes Street Gardens concert and Cèilidh, where well-known artists perform and ticket holders can participate in traditional Scottish cèilidh dancing.", "The event attracts thousands of people from all over the world.====Beltane and other festivals====On the night of 30 April the Beltane Fire Festival takes place on Calton Hill, involving a procession followed by scenes inspired by pagan old spring fertility celebrations.", "At the beginning of October each year the Dussehra Hindu Festival is also held on Calton Hill.===Music, theatre and film===Edinburgh Festival TheatreOutside the Festival season, Edinburgh supports several theatres and production companies.", "The Royal Lyceum Theatre has its own company, while the King's Theatre, Edinburgh Festival Theatre and Edinburgh Playhouse stage large touring shows.", "The Traverse Theatre presents a more contemporary repertoire.", "Amateur theatre companies productions are staged at the Bedlam Theatre, Church Hill Theatre and King's Theatre among others.The Usher Hall is Edinburgh's premier venue for classical music, as well as occasional popular music concerts.", "It was the venue for the Eurovision Song Contest 1972.Other halls staging music and theatre include The Hub, the Assembly Rooms and the Queen's Hall.", "The Scottish Chamber Orchestra is based in Edinburgh.Traverse TheatreEdinburgh has one repertory cinema, The Cameo, and formerly, the Edinburgh Filmhouse as well as the independent Dominion Cinema and a range of multiplexes.Edinburgh has a healthy popular music scene.", "Occasionally large concerts are staged at Murrayfield and Meadowbank, while mid-sized events take place at smaller venues such as 'The Corn Exchange', 'The Liquid Rooms' and 'The Bongo Club'.", "In 2010, PRS for Music listed Edinburgh among the UK's top ten 'most musical' cities.", "Several city pubs are well known for their live performances of folk music.", "They include 'Sandy Bell's' in Forrest Road, 'Captain's Bar' in South College Street and 'Whistlebinkies' in South Bridge.Like many other cities in the UK, numerous nightclub venues host Electronic dance music events.Edinburgh is home to a flourishing group of contemporary composers such as Nigel Osborne, Peter Nelson, Lyell Cresswell, Hafliði Hallgrímsson, Edward Harper, Robert Crawford, Robert Dow and John McLeod.", "McLeod's music is heard regularly on BBC Radio 3 and throughout the UK.===Media=======Newspapers====The main local newspaper is the ''Edinburgh Evening News''.", "It is owned and published alongside its sister titles ''The Scotsman'' and ''Scotland on Sunday'' by JPIMedia.====Radio====The city has many commercial radio stations including Forth 1, a station which broadcasts mainstream chart music, Greatest Hits Edinburgh on DAB which plays classic hits and Edge Radio.", "Capital Scotland and Heart Scotland also have transmitters covering Edinburgh.", "Along with the UK national radio stations, BBC Radio Scotland and the Gaelic language service BBC Radio nan Gàidheal are also broadcast.", "DAB digital radio is broadcast over two local multiplexes.", "BFBS Radio broadcasts from studios on the base at Dreghorn Barracks across the city on 98.5FM as part of its UK Bases network.", "Small scale DAB started October 2022 with numerous community stations onboard====Television====Television, along with most radio services, is broadcast to the city from the Craigkelly transmitting station situated in Fife on the opposite side of the Firth of Forth and the Black Hill transmitting station in North Lanarkshire to the west.There are no television stations based in the city.", "Edinburgh Television existed in the late 1990s to early 2003 and STV Edinburgh existed from 2015 to 2018.===Museums, libraries and galleries===National Gallery of ScotlandEdinburgh has many museums and libraries.", "These include the National Museum of Scotland, the National Library of Scotland, National War Museum, the Museum of Edinburgh, Surgeons' Hall Museum, the Writers' Museum, the Museum of Childhood and Dynamic Earth.", "The Museum on The Mound has exhibits on money and banking.Edinburgh Zoo, covering on Corstorphine Hill, is the second most visited paid tourist attraction in Scotland, and was previously home to two giant pandas, Tian Tian and Yang Guang, on loan from the People's Republic of China.Edinburgh is also home to The Royal Yacht Britannia, decommissioned in 1997 and now a five-star visitor attraction and evening events venue permanently berthed at Ocean Terminal.Edinburgh contains Scotland's three National Galleries of Art as well as numerous smaller art galleries.", "The national collection is housed in the Scottish National Gallery, located on The Mound, comprising the linked National Gallery of Scotland building and the Royal Scottish Academy building.", "Contemporary collections are shown in the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art which occupies a split site at Belford.", "The Scottish National Portrait Gallery on Queen Street focuses on portraits and photography.National Museum of ScotlandThe council-owned City Art Centre in Market Street mounts regular art exhibitions.", "Across the road, The Fruitmarket Gallery offers world-class exhibitions of contemporary art, featuring work by British and international artists with both emerging and established international reputations.The city hosts several of Scotland's galleries and organisations dedicated to contemporary visual art.", "Significant strands of this infrastructure include Creative Scotland, Edinburgh College of Art, Talbot Rice Gallery (University of Edinburgh), Collective Gallery (based at the City Observatory) and the Edinburgh Annuale.There are also many small private shops/galleries that provide space to showcase works from local artists.===Shopping===The locale around Princes Street is the main shopping area in the city centre, with souvenir shops, chain stores such as Boots the Chemist, Edinburgh Woollen Mill, and H&M.", "George Street, north of Princes Street, has several upmarket shops and independent stores.", "At the east end of Princes Street, the redeveloped St James Quarter opened its doors in June 2021, while next to the Balmoral Hotel and Waverley Station is Waverley Market.", "Multrees Walk is a pedestrian shopping district, dominated by the presence of Harvey Nichols, and other names including Louis Vuitton, Mulberry and Michael Kors.Edinburgh also has substantial retail parks outside the city centre.", "These include The Gyle Shopping Centre and Hermiston Gait in the west of the city, Cameron Toll Shopping Centre, Straiton Retail Park (actually just outside the city, in Midlothian) and Fort Kinnaird in the south and east, and Ocean Terminal in the north on the Leith waterfront." ], [ "Governance", "===Local government===Edinburgh City Chambers is the headquarters of the City of Edinburgh Council.Following local government reorganisation in 1996, the City of Edinburgh Council constitutes one of the 32 council areas of Scotland.", "Like all other local authorities of Scotland, the council has powers over most matters of local administration such as housing, planning, local transport, parks, economic development and regeneration.", "The council comprises 63 elected councillors, returned from 17 multi-member electoral wards in the city.Following the 2007 City of Edinburgh Council election the incumbent Labour Party lost majority control of the council after 23 years to a Liberal Democrat/SNP coalition.After the 2017 election, the SNP and Labour formed a coalition administration, which lasted until the next election in 2022.The 2022 City of Edinburgh Council election resulted in the most politically balanced council in the UK, with 19 SNP, 13 Labour, 12 Liberal Democrat, 10 Green and 9 Conservative councillors.", "A minority Labour administration was formed, being voted in by Scottish Conservative and Scottish Liberal Democrat councillors.", "The SNP and Greens presented a coalition agreement, but could not command majority support in the Council.", "This caused controversy amongst the Scottish Labour Party group for forming an administration supported by Conservatives and led to the suspension of two Labour councillors on the Council for abstaining on the vote to approve the new administration.The city's coat of arms was registered by the Lord Lyon King of Arms in 1732.===Scottish Parliament===The debating chamber of the Scottish ParliamentEdinburgh, like all of Scotland, is represented in the Scottish Parliament, situated in the Holyrood area of the city.", "For electoral purposes, the city is divided into six constituencies which, along with 3 seats outside of the city, form part of the Lothian region.", "Each constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) by the first past the post system of election, and the region elects seven additional MSPs to produce a result based on a form of proportional representation.As of the 2021 election, the Scottish National Party have four MSPs: Ash Denham for Edinburgh Eastern, Ben Macpherson for Edinburgh Northern and Leith and Gordon MacDonald for Edinburgh Pentlands and Angus Robertson for Edinburgh Central constituencies.", "Alex Cole-Hamilton, the Leader of the Scottish Liberal Democrats represents Edinburgh Western and Daniel Johnson of the Scottish Labour Party represents Edinburgh Southern constituency.In addition, the city is also represented by seven regional MSPs representing the Lothian electoral region: The Conservatives have three regional MSPs: Jeremy Balfour, Miles Briggs and Sue Webber, Labour have two regional MSPs: Sarah Boyack and Foysol Choudhury; two Scottish Green regional MSPs were elected: Green's Co-Leader Lorna Slater and Alison Johnstone.", "However, following her election as the Presiding Officer of the 6th Session of the Scottish Parliament on 13 May 2021, Alison Johnstone has abided by the established parliamentary convention for speakers and renounced all affiliation with her former political party for the duration of her term as Presiding Officer.", "So she presently sits as an independent MSP for the Lothians Region.===UK Parliament===Edinburgh is also represented in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom by five Members of Parliament.", "The city is divided into Edinburgh North and Leith, Edinburgh East, Edinburgh South, Edinburgh South West, and Edinburgh West, each constituency electing one member by the first past the post system.Since the 2019 UK General election, Edinburgh is represented by three Scottish National Party MPs (Deirdre Brock, Edinburgh North and Leith/Tommy Sheppard, Edinburgh East/Joanna Cherry, Edinburgh South West), one Liberal Democrat MP in Edinburgh West (Christine Jardine) and one Labour MP in Edinburgh South (Ian Murray)." ], [ "Transport", "===Air===Edinburgh AirportEdinburgh Airport is Scotland's busiest airport and the principal international gateway to the capital, handling over 14.7 million passengers; it was also the sixth-busiest airport in the United Kingdom by total passengers in 2019.In anticipation of rising passenger numbers, the former operator of the airport BAA outlined a draft masterplan in 2011 to provide for the expansion of the airfield and the terminal building.", "In June 2012, Global Infrastructure Partners purchased the airport for £807 million.", "The possibility of building a second runway to cope with an increased number of aircraft movements has also been mooted.===Buses===North BridgeTravel in Edinburgh is undertaken predominantly by bus.", "Lothian Buses, the successor company to Edinburgh Corporation Transport Department, operate the majority of city bus services within the city and to surrounding suburbs, with the most routes running via Princes Street.", "Services further afield operate from the Edinburgh Bus Station off St Andrew Square and Waterloo Place and are operated mainly by Stagecoach East Scotland, Scottish Citylink, National Express Coaches and Borders Buses.Lothian Buses and McGill's Scotland East operate the city's branded public tour buses.", "The night bus service and airport buses are mainly operated by Lothian Buses link.", "In 2019, Lothian Buses recorded 124.2 million passenger journeys.To tackle traffic congestion, Edinburgh is now served by six park & ride sites on the periphery of the city at Sheriffhall (in Midlothian), Ingliston, Riccarton, Inverkeithing (in Fife), Newcraighall and Straiton (in Midlothian).", "A referendum of Edinburgh residents in February 2005 rejected a proposal to introduce congestion charging in the city.===Railway===A train preparing to depart from Edinburgh Waverley stationEdinburgh Waverley is the second-busiest railway station in Scotland, with only Glasgow Central handling more passengers.", "On the evidence of passenger entries and exits between April 2015 and March 2016, Edinburgh Waverley is the fifth-busiest station outside London; it is also the UK's second biggest station in terms of the number of platforms and area size.", "Waverley is the terminus for most trains arriving from London King's Cross and the departure point for many rail services within Scotland operated by ScotRail.To the west of the city centre lies Haymarket station, which is an important commuter stop.", "Opened in 2003, Edinburgh Park station serves the Gyle business park in the west of the city and the nearby Gogarburn headquarters of the Royal Bank of Scotland.", "The Edinburgh Crossrail route connects Edinburgh Park with Haymarket, Edinburgh Waverley and the suburban stations of Brunstane and Newcraighall in the east of the city.", "There are also commuter lines to Edinburgh Gateway, South Gyle and Dalmeny, the latter serving South Queensferry by the Forth Bridges, and to Wester Hailes and Curriehill in the south-west of the city.===Trams===Edinburgh Trams in Shandwick PlaceEdinburgh Trams became operational on 31 May 2014.The city had been without a tram system since Edinburgh Corporation Tramways ceased on 16 November 1956.Following parliamentary approval in 2007, construction began in early 2008.The first stage of the project was expected to be completed by July 2011 but, following delays caused by extra utility work and a long-running contractual dispute between the council and the main contractor, Bilfinger SE, the project was rescheduled.", "The line opened in 2014 but had been cut short to in length, running from Edinburgh Airport To York Place in the east end of the city.The line was later extended north onto Leith and Newhaven opening a further eight stops to passengers in June 2023.The York Place stop was replaced by a new island stop at Picardy Place.The original plan would have seen a second line run from Haymarket through Ravelston and Craigleith to Granton Square on the Waterfront Edinburgh.This was shelved in 2011 but is now once again under consideration, as is another line potentially linking the south of the city and the Bioquarter.There were also long-term plans for lines running west from the airport to Ratho and Newbridge and another connecting Granton to Newhaven via Lower Granton RoadOriginal Edinburgh tramway mapLothian Buses and Edinburgh Trams are both owned and operated by Transport for Edinburgh.Despite its modern transport links, in January 2021 Edinburgh was named the most congested city in the UK for the fourth year running, though has since fallen to 7th place in 2022" ], [ "Education", "New College of the University of EdinburghThere are three universities in Edinburgh: the University of Edinburgh, Heriot-Watt University and Edinburgh Napier University.Established by royal charter in 1583, the University of Edinburgh is one of Scotland's ancient universities and is the fourth oldest in the country after St Andrews, Glasgow and Aberdeen.", "Originally centred on Old College the university expanded to premises on The Mound, the Royal Mile and George Square.", "Today, the King's Buildings in the south of the city contain most of the schools within the College of Science and Engineering.", "In 2002, the medical school moved to purpose built accommodation adjacent to the new Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh at Little France.", "The university is placed 16th in the QS World University Rankings for 2022.Heriot-Watt University is based at the Riccarton campus in the west of Edinburgh.", "Originally established in 1821, as the world's first mechanics' institute, it was granted university status by royal charter in 1966.It has other campuses in the Scottish Borders, Orkney, United Arab Emirates and Putrajaya in Malaysia.", "It takes the name ''Heriot-Watt'' from Scottish inventor James Watt and Scottish philanthropist and goldsmith George Heriot.", "Heriot-Watt University has been named International University of the Year by ''The Times and Sunday Times Good University Guide 2018''.", "In the latest Research Excellence Framework, it was ranked overall in the Top 25% of UK universities and 1st in Scotland for research impact.Edinburgh Napier University was originally founded as the Napier College, which was renamed Napier Polytechnic in 1986 and gained university status in 1992.Edinburgh Napier University has campuses in the south and west of the city, including the former Merchiston Tower and Craiglockhart Hydropathic.", "It is home to the Screen Academy Scotland.Queen Margaret University was located in Edinburgh before it moved to a new campus just outside the city boundary on the edge of Musselburgh in 2008.Until 2012, further education colleges in the city included Jewel and Esk College (incorporating Leith Nautical College founded in 1903), Telford College, opened in 1968, and Stevenson College, opened in 1970.These have now been amalgamated to form Edinburgh College.", "Scotland's Rural College also has a campus in south Edinburgh.", "Other institutions include the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh and the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh which were established by royal charter in 1506 and 1681 respectively.", "The Trustees Drawing Academy of Edinburgh, founded in 1760, became the Edinburgh College of Art in 1907.There are 18 nursery, 94 primary and 23 secondary schools administered by the City of Edinburgh Council.Edinburgh is home to The Royal High School, one of the oldest schools in the country and the world.", "The city also has several independent, fee-paying schools including Edinburgh Academy, Fettes College, George Heriot's School, George Watson's College, Merchiston Castle School, Stewart's Melville College and The Mary Erskine School.", "In 2009, the proportion of pupils attending independent schools was 24.2%, far above the Scottish national average of just over 7% and higher than in any other region of Scotland.", "In August 2013, the City of Edinburgh Council opened the city's first stand-alone Gaelic primary school, Bun-sgoil Taobh na Pàirce." ], [ "Healthcare", "The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh is the main public hospital for the city.The main NHS Lothian hospitals serving the Edinburgh area are the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, which includes the University of Edinburgh Medical School, and the Western General Hospital, which has a large cancer treatment centre and nurse-led Minor Injuries Clinic.", "The Royal Edinburgh Hospital in Morningside specialises in mental health.", "The Royal Hospital for Children and Young People, colloquially referred to as ''the Sick Kids'', is a specialist paediatrics hospital.There are two private hospitals: Murrayfield Hospital in the west of the city and Shawfair Hospital in the south; both are owned by Spire Healthcare." ], [ "Sport", "===Football=======Men's====Edinburgh has three football clubs that play in the Scottish Professional Football League (SPFL): Heart of Midlothian, founded in 1874, Hibernian, founded in 1875 and Edinburgh City F.C., founded in 1966.Heart of Midlothian and Hibernian are known locally as \"Hearts\" and \"Hibs\", respectively.", "Both play in the Scottish Premiership.", "They are the oldest city rivals in Scotland and the Edinburgh derby is one of the oldest derby matches in world football.", "Both clubs have won the Scottish league championship four times.", "Hearts have won the Scottish Cup eight times and the Scottish League Cup four times.", "Hibs have won the Scottish Cup and the Scottish League Cup three times each.", "Edinburgh City were promoted to Scottish League Two in the 2015–16 season, becoming the first club to win promotion to the SPFL via the pyramid system playoffs.Edinburgh was also home to four other former Scottish Football League clubs: the original Edinburgh City (founded in 1928), Leith Athletic, Meadowbank Thistle and St Bernard's.", "Meadowbank Thistle played at Meadowbank Stadium until 1995, when the club moved to Livingston and became Livingston F.C.", "The Scottish national team has very occasionally played at Easter Road and Tynecastle, although its normal home stadium is Hampden Park in Glasgow.", "St Bernard's' New Logie Green was used to host the 1896 Scottish Cup Final, the only time the match has been played outside Glasgow.The city also plays host to Lowland Football League clubs Civil Service Strollers, Edinburgh University and Spartans, as well as East of Scotland League clubs Craigroyston, Edinburgh United, Heriot-Watt University, Leith Athletic, Lothian Thistle Hutchison Vale, and Tynecastle.====Women's====In women's football, Hearts, Hibs and Spartans play in the SWPL 1.Hutchison Vale and Boroughmuir Thistle play in the SWPL 2.===Rugby===The Scotland national rugby union team play at Murrayfield Stadium, and the professional Edinburgh Rugby team play at the nextdoor Edinburgh Rugby Stadium; both are owned by the Scottish Rugby Union and are also used for other events, including music concerts.", "Murrayfield is the largest capacity stadium in Scotland, seating 67,144 spectators.", "Edinburgh is also home to Scottish Premiership teams Boroughmuir RFC, Currie RFC, the Edinburgh Academicals, Heriot's Rugby Club and Watsonians RFC.The Edinburgh Academicals ground at Raeburn Place was the location of the world's first international rugby game on 27 March 1871, between Scotland and England.Rugby league is represented by the Edinburgh Eagles who play in the Rugby League Conference Scotland Division.", "Murrayfield Stadium has hosted the Magic Weekend where all Super League matches are played in the stadium over one weekend.Tynecastle Park, January 2018.jpg\|Tynecastle ParkEaster Road 2010.JPG\|Easter Road StadiumA pot of gold... - geograph.org.uk - 718806.jpg\|Murrayfield StadiumMeadowbank-track-and-field.jpg\|Meadowbank StadiumLoch Ness monster - geograph.org.uk - 1501091.jpg\|Edinburgh MarathonEdinburgh Capitals vs Belfast Giants.jpg\|Murrayfield Ice Rink===Other sports===The Scottish cricket team, which represents Scotland internationally, play their home matches at the Grange cricket club.The Edinburgh Capitals are the latest of a succession of ice hockey clubs in the Scottish capital.", "Previously Edinburgh was represented by the Murrayfield Racers (2018), the original Murrayfield Racers ''(who folded in 1996)'' and the Edinburgh Racers.", "The club play their home games at the Murrayfield Ice Rink and have competed in the eleven-team professional Scottish National League (SNL) since the 2018–19 season.Next door to Murrayfield Ice Rink is a 7-sheeter dedicated curling facility where curling is played from October to March each season.Caledonia Pride are the only women's professional basketball team in Scotland.", "Established in 2016, the team compete in the UK wide Women's British Basketball League and play their home matches at the Oriam National Performance Centre.", "Edinburgh also has several men's basketball teams within the Scottish National League.", "Boroughmuir Blaze, City of Edinburgh Kings and Edinburgh Lions all compete in Division 1 of the National League, and Pleasance B.C.", "compete in Division 2.The Edinburgh Diamond Devils is a baseball club which won its first Scottish Championship in 1991 as the \"Reivers.\"", "1992 saw the team repeat the achievement, becoming the first team to do so in league history.", "The same year saw the start of their first youth team, the Blue Jays.", "The club adopted its present name in 1999.Edinburgh has also hosted national and international sports events including the World Student Games, the 1970 British Commonwealth Games, the 1986 Commonwealth Games and the inaugural 2000 Commonwealth Youth Games.", "For the 1970 Games the city built Olympic standard venues and facilities including Meadowbank Stadium and the Royal Commonwealth Pool.", "The Pool underwent refurbishment in 2012 and hosted the Diving competition in the 2014 Commonwealth Games which were held in Glasgow.In American football, the Scottish Claymores played WLAF/NFL Europe games at Murrayfield, including their World Bowl 96 victory.", "From 1995 to 1997 they played all their games there, from 1998 to 2000 they split their home matches between Murrayfield and Glasgow's Hampden Park, then moved to Glasgow full-time, with one final Murrayfield appearance in 2002.The city's most successful non-professional team are the Edinburgh Wolves who play at Meadowbank Stadium.The Edinburgh Marathon has been held annually in the city since 2003 with more than 16,000 runners taking part on each occasion.", "Its organisers have called it \"the fastest marathon in the UK\" due to the elevation drop of .", "The city also organises a half-marathon, as well as 10 km () and 5 km () races, including a race on 1 January each year.Edinburgh has a speedway team, the Edinburgh Monarchs, which, since the loss of its stadium in the city, has raced at the Lothian Arena in Armadale, West Lothian.", "The Monarchs have won the Premier League championship five times in their history, in 2003 and again in 2008, 2010, 2014 and 2015.For basketball, the city has a basketball club, Edinburgh Tigers." ], [ "People", " Sir Walter ScottEdinburgh has a long literary tradition, which became especially evident during the Scottish Enlightenment.", "This heritage and the city's lively literary life in the present led to it being declared the first UNESCO City of Literature in 2004.Prominent authors who have lived in Edinburgh include the economist Adam Smith, born in Kirkcaldy and author of ''The Wealth of Nations'', James Boswell, biographer of Samuel Johnson; Sir Walter Scott, creator of the historical novel and author of works such as ''Rob Roy'', ''Ivanhoe'', and ''Heart of Midlothian''; James Hogg, author of ''The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner''; Robert Louis Stevenson, creator of ''Treasure Island'', ''Kidnapped'', and ''Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde''; Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the creator of Sherlock Holmes; Muriel Spark, author of ''The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie''; diarist Janet Harden; Irvine Welsh, author of ''Trainspotting'', whose novels are mostly set in the city and often written in colloquial Scots; Ian Rankin, author of the Inspector Rebus series of crime thrillers, Alexander McCall Smith, author of the No.", "1 Ladies' Detective Agency series, and J. K. Rowling, author of Harry Potter, who wrote much of her first book in Edinburgh coffee shops and now lives in the Cramond area of the city.Statue of James Clerk Maxwell, George Street, EdinburghScotland has a rich history of science and engineering, with Edinburgh producing a number of leading figures.", "John Napier, inventor of logarithms, was born in Merchiston Tower and lived and died in the city.", "His house now forms part of the original campus of Napier University which was named in his honour.", "He lies buried under St. Cuthbert's Church.", "James Clerk Maxwell, founder of the modern theory of electromagnetism, was born at 14 India Street (now the home of the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation) and educated at the Edinburgh Academy and the University of Edinburgh, as was the engineer and telephone pioneer Alexander Graham Bell.", "James Braidwood, who organised Britain's first municipal fire brigade, was also born in the city and began his career there.Other names connected with the city include physicist Max Born, a principle founder of Quantum mechanics and Nobel laureate; Charles Darwin, the biologist who propounded the theory of natural selection; David Hume, philosopher, economist and historian; James Hutton, regarded as the \"Father of Geology\"; Joseph Black, the chemist who discovered magnesium and carbon dioxide, and one of the founders of Thermodynamics; pioneering medical researchers Joseph Lister and James Young Simpson; chemist and discoverer of the element nitrogen Daniel Rutherford; Colin Maclaurin, mathematician and developer of the Maclaurin series, and Ian Wilmut, the geneticist involved in the cloning of Dolly the sheep just outside Edinburgh, at the Roslin Institute.", "The stuffed carcass of Dolly the sheep is now on display in the National Museum of Scotland.", "The latest in a long line of science celebrities associated with the city is theoretical physicist, Nobel laureate and professor emeritus at the University of Edinburgh Peter Higgs, born in Newcastle but resident in Edinburgh for most of his academic career, after whom the Higgs boson particle has been named.Edinburgh has been the birthplace of actors like Alastair Sim and Sir Sean Connery, known for being the first cinematic James Bond, the comedian and actor Ronnie Corbett, best known as one of The Two Ronnies, and the impressionist Rory Bremner.", "Famous artists from the city include the portrait painters Sir Henry Raeburn, Sir David Wilkie and Allan Ramsay.The city has produced or been home to some very successful musicians in recent decades, particularly Ian Anderson, front man of the band Jethro Tull, The Incredible String Band, the folk duo The Corries, Wattie Buchan, lead singer and founding member of punk band The Exploited, Shirley Manson, lead singer of the band Garbage, the Bay City Rollers, The Proclaimers, Boards of Canada and Idlewild.Edinburgh is the birthplace of former British Prime Minister Tony Blair who attended the city's Fettes College.Deacon Brodie on Edinburgh's Royal MileNotorious criminals from Edinburgh's past include Deacon Brodie, head of a trades guild and Edinburgh city councillor by day but a burglar by night, who is said to have been the inspiration for Robert Louis Stevenson's story, the ''Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde'', and murderers Burke and Hare who delivered fresh corpses for dissection to the famous anatomist Robert Knox.Greyfriars Bobby FountainAnother well-known Edinburgh resident was Greyfriars Bobby.", "The small Skye Terrier reputedly kept vigil over his dead master's grave in Greyfriars Kirkyard for 14 years in the 1860s and 1870s, giving rise to a story of canine devotion which plays a part in attracting visitors to the city." ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns and sister cities===The City of Edinburgh has entered into 14 international twinning arrangements since 1954.Most of the arrangements are styled as ''Twin Cities'' but the agreement with Kraków is designated as a ''Partner City'', and the agreement with Kyoto Prefecture is officially styled as a ''Friendship Link'', reflecting its status as the only region to be twinned with Edinburgh.", "City Since Munich, Germany 1954 Nice, France 1958 Florence, Italy 1964 Dunedin, New Zealand 1974 Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada 1977 San Diego, California, United States 1977 Xi'an, China 1985 Segovia, Spain 1985 Kyiv, Ukraine 1989 Aalborg, Denmark 1991 Kyoto Prefecture, Japan 1994 Kathmandu, Nepal 1994 Kraków, Poland 1995 Saint Petersburg, Russia 1995 Shenzhen, China 2019For a list of consulates in Edinburgh, see List of diplomatic missions in Scotland." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Edinburgh* National Archives of Scotland* OPENCities* Tourism in Scotland" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * H Coghill, ''Edinburgh, The Old Town'', John Donald, Edinburgh 1990, * A Herman, ''How the Scots Invented the Modern World: The True Story of How Western Europe's Poorest Nation Created Our World & Everything in It'', Three Rivers Press, New York, 2001, ; also published as ''The Scottish Enlightenment: The Scots' Invention of the Modern World'', HarperCollins, London, 2001, * A Massie, ''Edinburgh'', Sinclair-Stevenson, London 1994, * S Mullay, ''The Edinburgh Encyclopedia'', Mainstream Publishing, Edinburgh and London 1996, * S Mullay, ''The Illustrated History of Edinburgh's Suburbs'', Breedon Books, Derby 2008," ], [ "External links", "* City of Edinburgh Council website* Marketing Edinburgh official tourist agency*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ernest Rutherford" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson''', (30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937) was a New Zealand physicist who was a pioneering researcher in both atomic and nuclear physics.", "Rutherford has been described as \"the father of nuclear physics\", and \"the greatest experimentalist since Michael Faraday\".", "In 1908, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry \"for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances.\"", "He was the first Oceanian Nobel laureate, and the first to perform the awarded work in Canada.Rutherford's discoveries include the concept of radioactive half-life, the radioactive element radon, and the differentiation and naming of alpha and beta radiation.", "Together with Thomas Royds, Rutherford is credited with proving that alpha radiation is composed of helium nuclei.", "In 1911, he theorized that atoms have their charge concentrated in a very small nucleus.", "This was done through his discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering during the gold foil experiment performed by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, resulting in his conception of the Rutherford model of the atom.", "In 1917, he performed the first artificially-induced nuclear reaction by conducting experiments where nitrogen nuclei were bombarded with alpha particles.", "As a result, he discovered the emission of a subatomic particle which he initially called the \"hydrogen atom\", but later (more accurately) named the proton.", "He is also credited with developing the atomic numbering system alongside Henry Moseley.", "His other achievements include advancing the fields of radio communications and ultrasound technology.Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1919.Under his leadership, the neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.In the same year, the first controlled experiment to split the nucleus was performed by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, working under his direction.", "In honour of his scientific advancements, Rutherford was recognised as a Baron in the peerages of New Zealand and Britain.", "After his death in 1937, he was buried in Westminster Abbey near Charles Darwin and Isaac Newton.", "The chemical element rutherfordium (104Rf) was named after him in 1997." ], [ "Early life and education", "Ernest Rutherford was born on 30 August 1871 in Brightwater, a town near Nelson, New Zealand.", "He was the fourth of twelve children of James Rutherford, an immigrant farmer and mechanic from Perth, Scotland, and his wife Martha Thompson, a schoolteacher from Hornchurch, England.", "Rutherford's birth certificate was mistakenly written as 'Earnest'.", "He was known by his family as Ern.", "When Rutherford was five he moved to Foxhill and attended Foxhill School.", "At age 11 in 1883, the Rutherford family moved to Havelock, a town in the Marlborough Sounds.", "The move was made to be closer to the a flax mill the father was operating near the Ruapaka Stream.", "Ernest studied at Havelock School.In 1887, on his second attempt, he won a scholarship to study at Nelson College.", "On his first examination attempt, he received 75 out of 130 marks for geography, 76 out of 130 for history, 101 out of 140 for English, and 200 out of 200 for arithmetic, totalling 452 out of 600 marks.", "With these marks, he had the highest of anyone from Nelson.", "When he was awarded the scholarship, he had received 580 out of 600 possible marks.", "After being awarded the scholarship, Havelock School presented him with a five-volume set of books titled ''The Peoples of the World''.", "He studied at Nelson College between 1887 and 1889, and was head boy in 1889.He also played in the school's rugby team.", "He was offered a cadetship in government service, but he declined as he still had 15 months of college remaining.In 1889, after his second attempt, he won a scholarship to study at Canterbury College, University of New Zealand, between 1890 and 1894.He participated in its debating society and the Science Society.", "At Canterbury, he was awarded a complex BA in Latin, English, and Maths in 1892, a MA in Mathematics and Physical Science in 1893, and a BSc in Chemistry and Geology in 1894.Thereafter, he invented a new form of radio receiver, and in 1895 Rutherford was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, to travel to England for postgraduate study at the Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge.", "In 1897, he was awarded a BA Research Degree and the Coutts-Trotter Studentship from Trinity College, Cambridge." ], [ "Scientific career", "Rutherford in 1892, aged 21When Rutherford began his studies at Cambridge, he was among the first 'aliens' (those without a Cambridge degree) allowed to do research at the university, and was additionally honoured to study under J. J. Thomson.With Thomson's encouragement, Rutherford detected radio waves at , and briefly held the world record for the distance over which electromagnetic waves could be detected, although when he presented his results at the British Association meeting in 1896, he discovered he had been outdone by Guglielmo Marconi, whose radio waves had sent a message across nearly .=== Work with radioactivity ===Again under Thomson's leadership, Rutherford worked on the conductive effects of X-rays on gases, which led to the discovery of the electron, the results first presented by Thomson in 1897.Hearing of Henri Becquerel's experience with uranium, Rutherford started to explore its radioactivity, discovering two types that differed from X-rays in their penetrating power.", "Continuing his research in Canada, in 1899 he coined the terms \"alpha ray\" and \"beta ray\" to describe these two distinct types of radiation.In 1898, Rutherford was accepted to the chair of Macdonald Professor of physics position at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, on Thomson's recommendation.", "From 1900 to 1903, he was joined at McGill by the young chemist Frederick Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921) for whom he set the problem of identifying the noble gas emitted by the radioactive element thorium, a substance which was itself radioactive and would coat other substances.", "Once he had eliminated all the normal chemical reactions, Soddy suggested that it must be one of the inert gases, which they named thoron.", "This substance was later found to be 220Rn, an isotope of radon.", "They also found another substance they called Thorium X, later identified as 224Rn, and continued to find traces of helium.", "They also worked with samples of \"Uranium X\" (protactinium), from William Crookes, and radium, from Marie Curie.", "Rutherford further investigated thoron in conjunction with R.B.", "Owens and found that a sample of radioactive material of any size invariably took the same amount of time for half the sample to decay (in this case, 11 minutes), a phenomenon for which he coined the term \"half-life\".", "Rutherford and Soddy published their paper \"Law of Radioactive Change\" to account for all their experiments.", "Until then, atoms were assumed to be the indestructible basis of all matter; and although Curie had suggested that radioactivity was an atomic phenomenon, the idea of the atoms of radioactive substances breaking up was a radically new idea.", "Rutherford and Soddy demonstrated that radioactivity involved the spontaneous disintegration of atoms into other, as yet, unidentified matter.In 1903, Rutherford considered a type of radiation, discovered (but not named) by French chemist Paul Villard in 1900, as an emission from radium, and realised that this observation must represent something different from his own alpha and beta rays, due to its very much greater penetrating power.", "Rutherford therefore gave this third type of radiation the name of gamma ray.", "All three of Rutherford's terms are in standard use today – other types of radioactive decay have since been discovered, but Rutherford's three types are among the most common.", "In 1904, Rutherford suggested that radioactivity provides a source of energy sufficient to explain the existence of the Sun for the many millions of years required for the slow biological evolution on Earth proposed by biologists such as Charles Darwin.", "The physicist Lord Kelvin had argued earlier for a much younger Earth, based on the insufficiency of known energy sources, but Rutherford pointed out, at a lecture attended by Kelvin, that radioactivity could solve this problem.", "Later that year, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society, and in 1907 he returned to Britain to take the chair of physics at the Victoria University of Manchester.In Manchester, Rutherford continued his work with alpha radiation.", "In conjunction with Hans Geiger, he developed zinc sulfide scintillation screens and ionisation chambers to count alpha particles.", "By dividing the total charge they produced by the number counted, Rutherford decided that the charge on the alpha particle was two.", "In late 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds allowed alphas to penetrate a very thin window into an evacuated tube.", "As they sparked the tube into discharge, the spectrum obtained from it changed, as the alphas accumulated in the tube.", "Eventually, the clear spectrum of helium gas appeared, proving that alphas were at least ionised helium atoms, and probably helium nuclei.", "Ernest Rutherford was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry \"for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances\".=== Model of the atom ===''Top:'' Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum pudding model of the atom undisturbed.", "''Bottom:'' Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected, indicating a small, concentrated charge.", "Diagram is not to scale; in reality the nucleus is vastly smaller than the electron shell.Rutherford continued to make ground-breaking discoveries long after receiving the Nobel prize in 1908.Along with Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden in 1909, he carried out the Geiger–Marsden experiment, which demonstrated the nuclear nature of atoms by measuring the deflection of alpha particles passing through a thin gold foil.", "Rutherford was inspired to ask Geiger and Marsden in this experiment to look for alpha particles with very high deflection angles, which was not expected according to any theory of matter at that time.", "Such deflection angles, although rare, were found.", "It was Rutherford's interpretation of this data that led him to formulate the Rutherford model of the atom in 1911that a very small charged nucleus, containing much of the atom's mass, was orbited by low-mass electrons.In 1912, Rutherford was joined by Niels Bohr (who postulated that electrons moved in specific orbits).", "Bohr adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure to be consistent with Max Planck's quantum theory, and the resulting Rutherford–Bohr model is considered valid to this day.=== Piezoelectricity ===During World War I, Rutherford worked on a top-secret project to solve the practical problems of submarine detection.", "Both Rutherford and Paul Langevin suggested the use of piezoelectricity, and Rutherford successfully developed a device which measured its output.", "The use of piezoelectricity then became essential to the development of ultrasound as it is known today.", "The claim that Rutherford developed sonar, however, is a misconception, as subaquatic detection technologies utilise Langevin's transducer.=== Discovery of the proton ===Together with H.G.", "Moseley, Rutherford developed the atomic numbering system in 1913.Rutherford and Moseley's experiments used cathode rays to bombard various elements with streams of electrons and observed that each element responded in a consistent and distinct manner.", "Their research was the first to assert that each element could be defined by the properties of its inner structures – an observation that later led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus.", "This research led Rutherford to theorize that the hydrogen atom (at the time the least massive entity known to bear a positive charge) was a sort of \"positive electron\" – a component of every atomic element.It was not until 1919 that Rutherford expanded upon his theory of the \"positive electron\" with a series of experiments beginning shortly before the end of his time at Manchester.", "He found that nitrogen, and other light elements, ejected a proton, which he called a \"hydrogen atom\", when hit with α (alpha) particles.", "In particular, he showed that particles ejected by alpha particles colliding with hydrogen have unit charge and 1/4 the momentum of alpha particles.Rutherford returned to the Cavendish Laboratory in 1919, succeeding J. J. Thomson as the Cavendish professor and the laboratory's director, posts that he held until his death in 1937.During his tenure, Nobel prizes were awarded to James Chadwick for discovering the neutron (in 1932), John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton for an experiment that was to be known as ''splitting the atom'' using a particle accelerator, and Edward Appleton for demonstrating the existence of the ionosphere.=== Development of proton and neutron theory ===In 1919–1920, Rutherford continued his research on the \"hydrogen atom\" to confirm that alpha particles break down nitrogen nuclei and to affirm the nature of the products.", "This result showed Rutherford that hydrogen nuclei were a part of nitrogen nuclei (and by inference, probably other nuclei as well).", "Such a construction had been suspected for many years, on the basis of atomic weights that were integral multiples of that of hydrogen; see Prout's hypothesis.", "Hydrogen was known to be the lightest element, and its nuclei presumably the lightest nuclei.", "Now, because of all these considerations, Rutherford decided that a hydrogen nucleus was possibly a fundamental building block of all nuclei, and also possibly a new fundamental particle as well, since nothing was known to be lighter than that nucleus.", "Thus, confirming and extending the work of Wilhelm Wien, who in 1898 discovered the proton in streams of ionized gas, in 1920 Rutherford postulated the hydrogen nucleus to be a new particle, which he dubbed the ''proton''.In 1921, while working with Niels Bohr, Rutherford theorized about the existence of neutrons, (which he had christened in his 1920 Bakerian Lecture), which could somehow compensate for the repelling effect of the positive charges of protons by causing an attractive nuclear force and thus keep the nuclei from flying apart, due to the repulsion between protons.", "The only alternative to neutrons was the existence of \"nuclear electrons\", which would counteract some of the proton charges in the nucleus, since by then it was known that nuclei had about twice the mass that could be accounted for if they were simply assembled from hydrogen nuclei (protons).", "But how these nuclear electrons could be trapped in the nucleus, was a mystery.", "Rutherford is widely quoted as saying, regarding the results of these experiments: \"It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life.", "It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.", "\"In 1932, Rutherford's theory of neutrons was proved by his associate James Chadwick, who recognised neutrons immediately when they were produced by other scientists and later himself, in bombarding beryllium with alpha particles.", "In 1935, Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery.=== Re-evaluation of nuclear transmutation credit ===From as early as 1948 to at least 2017, there was a long-standing myth that Rutherford was the first scientist to observe and report an artificial transmutation of a stable element into another element: nitrogen into oxygen.", "It was thought by many people to be one of Rutherford's greatest accomplishments.", "The New Zealand government even issued a commemorative stamp in the belief that the nitrogen-to-oxygen discovery belonged to Rutherford.", "Beginning in 2017, many scientific institutions corrected their versions of this history to indicate that the credit for the discovery belongs to Patrick Blackett, who undertook this research at Rutherford's suggestion and with his help and advice.", "Rutherford did detect the ejected proton in 1919 and interpreted it as evidence for disintegration of the nitrogen nucleus (to lighter nuclei).", "In 1925, Blackett showed that the actual product is oxygen and identified the true reaction as 14N + α → 17O + p. Rutherford therefore recognised \"that the nucleus may increase rather than diminish in mass as the result of collisions in which the proton is expelled\".=== Later years and honours ===Rutherford received significant recognition in his home country of New Zealand.", "In 1901, he earned a DSc from the University of New Zealand.", "In 1916, he was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal.", "In 1925, Rutherford called for the New Zealand Government to support education and research, which led to the formation of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) in the following year.", "In 1933, Rutherford was one of the two inaugural recipients of the T. K. Sidey Medal, which was established by the Royal Society of New Zealand as an award for outstanding scientific research.Additionally, Rutherford received a number of awards from the British Crown.", "He was knighted in 1914.He was appointed to the Order of Merit in the 1925 New Year Honours.", "Between 1925 and 1930, he served as President of the Royal Society, and later as president of the Academic Assistance Council which helped almost 1,000 university refugees from Germany.", "In 1931 was raised to the peerage as '''Baron Rutherford of Nelson''', decorating his coat of arms with a kiwi and a Māori warrior.", "The title became extinct upon his unexpected death in 1937." ], [ "Personal life and death", "The young Rutherford made his grandmother a wooden potato masher, which was believed to have been made during the school holidays.", "It has been held in the collection of the Royal Society since 1888.In 1900, Rutherford married Mary Georgina Newton (1876–1954), to whom he had become engaged before leaving New Zealand, at St Paul's Anglican Church, Papanui in Christchurch.", "They had one daughter, Eileen Mary (1901–1930), who married the physicist Ralph Fowler.", "Rutherford's hobbies included golf and motoring.For some time before his death, Rutherford had a small hernia, which he neglected to have fixed, and it became strangulated, rendering him violently ill.", "Despite an emergency operation in London, he died four days afterwards, at Cambridge on 19 October 1937 at age 66, of what physicians termed \"intestinal paralysis\".", "After cremation at Golders Green Crematorium, he was given the high honour of burial in Westminster Abbey, near Isaac Newton and other illustrious British scientists such as Charles Darwin." ], [ "Legacy", "his memorial in Brightwater, New Zealand.Rutherford is considered to be among the greatest scientists in history.", "At the opening session of the 1938 Indian Science Congress, which Rutherford had been expected to preside over before his death, astrophysicist James Jeans spoke in his place and deemed him \"one of the greatest scientists of all time\", saying:=== Nuclear physics ===Rutherford is known as \"the father of nuclear physics\" because his research, and work done under him as laboratory director, established the nuclear structure of the atom and the essential nature of radioactive decay as a nuclear process.", "Patrick Blackett, a research fellow working under Rutherford, using natural alpha particles, demonstrated ''induced'' nuclear transmutation.", "Later, Rutherford's team, using protons from an accelerator, demonstrated ''artificially-induced'' nuclear reactions and transmutation.Rutherford died too early to see Leó Szilárd's idea of controlled nuclear chain reactions come into being.", "However, a speech of Rutherford's about his artificially-induced transmutation in lithium, printed in the 12 September 1933 issue of ''The Times'', was reported by Szilárd to have been his inspiration for thinking of the possibility of a controlled energy-producing nuclear chain reaction.Rutherford's speech touched on the 1932 work of his students John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton in \"splitting\" lithium into alpha particles by bombardment with protons from a particle accelerator they had constructed.", "Rutherford realised that the energy released from the split lithium atoms was enormous, but he also realised that the energy needed for the accelerator, and its essential inefficiency in splitting atoms in this fashion, made the project an impossibility as a practical source of energy (accelerator-induced fission of light elements remains too inefficient to be used in this way, even today).", "Rutherford's speech in part, read:The element rutherfordium, Rf, Z=104, was named in honour of Rutherford in 1997." ], [ "Publications", "* ''Radio-activity'' (1904), 2nd ed.", "(1905), * ''Radioactive Transformations'' (1906), * * * ''Radioactive Substances and their Radiations'' (1913)* ''The Electrical Structure of Matter'' (1926)* ''The Artificial Transmutation of the Elements'' (1933)* ''The Newer Alchemy'' (1937)=== Articles ===* \"Disintegration of the Radioactive Elements\" ''Harper's Monthly Magazine,'' January 1904, pages 279 to 284." ], [ "See also", "* Bateman equation* Hydrophone* Magnetic detector* Neutron generator* Royal Society of New Zealand* Rutherford (unit)* Rutherfordine* ''The Rutherford Journal''* List of presidents of the Royal Society" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Campbell, John.", "(1999) ''Rutherford: Scientist Supreme'', AAS Publications, Christchurch, * * Reeves, Richard (2008).", "''A Force of Nature: The Frontier Genius of Ernest Rutherford''.", "New York: W. W. Norton.", "* Rhodes, Richard (1986).", "''The Making of the Atomic Bomb''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster.", "* Wilson, David (1983).", "''Rutherford.", "Simple Genius'', Hodder & Stoughton," ], [ "External links", " * Biography and web exhibit American Institute of Physics* including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1908 ''The Chemical Nature of the Alpha Particles from Radioactive Substances''* The Rutherford Museum* Rutherford Scientist Supreme*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Many-worlds interpretation" ], [ "Introduction", "The quantum-mechanical \"Schrödinger's cat\" paradox according to the many-worlds interpretation.", "In this interpretation, every quantum event is a branch point; the cat is both alive and dead, even before the box is opened, but the \"alive\" and \"dead\" cats are in different branches of the multiverse, both of which are equally real, but which do not interact with each other.The '''many-worlds interpretation''' ('''MWI''') is a philosophical position about how the mathematics used in quantum mechanics relates to physical reality.", "It asserts that the universal wavefunction is objectively real, and that there is no wave function collapse.", "This implies that all possible outcomes of quantum measurements are physically realized in some \"world\" or universe.", "In contrast to some other interpretations, the evolution of reality as a whole in MWI is rigidly deterministic and local.", "Many-worlds is also called the '''relative state formulation''' or the '''Everett interpretation''', after physicist Hugh Everett, who first proposed it in 1957.Bryce DeWitt popularized the formulation and named it ''many-worlds'' in the 1970s.In modern versions of many-worlds, the subjective appearance of wave function collapse is explained by the mechanism of quantum decoherence.", "Decoherence approaches to interpreting quantum theory have been widely explored and developed since the 1970s.", "MWI is considered a mainstream interpretation of quantum mechanics, along with the other decoherence interpretations, the Copenhagen interpretation, and hidden variable theories such as Bohmian mechanics.The many-worlds interpretation implies that there are most likely an uncountable number of universes.", "It is one of a number of multiverse hypotheses in physics and philosophy.", "MWI views time as a many-branched tree, wherein every possible quantum outcome is realized.", "This is intended to resolve the measurement problem and thus some paradoxes of quantum theory, such as Wigner's friend, the EPR paradox and Schrödinger's cat, since every possible outcome of a quantum event exists in its own universe." ], [ "Overview of the interpretation", "The many-worlds interpretation's key idea is that the linear and unitary dynamics of quantum mechanics applies everywhere and at all times and so describes the whole universe.", "In particular, it models a measurement as a unitary transformation, a correlation-inducing interaction, between observer and object, without using a collapse postulate, and models observers as ordinary quantum-mechanical systems.", "This stands in sharp contrast to the Copenhagen interpretation, in which a measurement is a \"primitive\" concept, not describable by unitary quantum mechanics; in Copenhagen the universe is divided into a quantum and a classical domain, and the collapse postulate is central.", "In MWI there is no division between classical and quantum: everything is quantum and there is no collapse.", "MWI's main conclusion is that the universe (or multiverse in this context) is composed of a quantum superposition of an uncountable or undefinable amount or number of increasingly divergent, non-communicating parallel universes or quantum worlds.", "Sometimes dubbed Everett worlds, each is an internally consistent and actualized alternative history or timeline.The many-worlds interpretation uses decoherence to explain the measurement process and the emergence of a quasi-classical world.", "Wojciech H. Zurek, one of decoherence theory's pioneers, said: \"Under scrutiny of the environment, only pointer states remain unchanged.", "Other states decohere into mixtures of stable pointer states that can persist, and, in this sense, exist: They are einselected.\"", "Zurek emphasizes that his work does not depend on a particular interpretation.The many-worlds interpretation shares many similarities with the decoherent histories interpretation, which also uses decoherence to explain the process of measurement or wave function collapse.", "MWI treats the other histories or worlds as real, since it regards the universal wave function as the \"basic physical entity\" or \"the fundamental entity, obeying at all times a deterministic wave equation\".", "The decoherent histories interpretation, on the other hand, needs only one of the histories (or worlds) to be real.Several authors, including Everett, John Archibald Wheeler and David Deutsch, call many-worlds a theory or metatheory, rather than just an interpretation.", "Everett argued that it was the \"only completely coherent approach to explaining both the contents of quantum mechanics and the appearance of the world.\"", "Deutsch dismissed the idea that many-worlds is an \"interpretation\", saying that to call it an interpretation \"is like talking about dinosaurs as an 'interpretation' of fossil records.", "\"===Formulation===In his 1957 doctoral dissertation, Everett proposed that, rather than relying on external observation for analysis of isolated quantum systems, one could mathematically model an object, as well as its observers, as purely physical systems within the mathematical framework developed by Paul Dirac, John von Neumann, and others, discarding altogether the ''ad hoc'' mechanism of wave function collapse.===Relative state===Everett's original work introduced the concept of a ''relative state''.", "Two (or more) subsystems, after a general interaction, become ''correlated'', or as is now said, entangled.", "Everett noted that such entangled systems can be expressed as the sum of products of states, where the two or more subsystems are each in a state relative to each other.", "After a measurement or observation one of the pair (or triple...) is the measured, object or observed system, and one other member is the measuring apparatus (which may include an observer) having recorded the state of the measured system.", "Each product of subsystem states in the overall superposition evolves over time independently of other products.", "Once the subsystems interact, their states have become correlated or entangled and can no longer be considered independent.", "In Everett's terminology, each subsystem state was now ''correlated'' with its ''relative state'', since each subsystem must now be considered relative to the other subsystems with which it has interacted.In the example of Schrödinger's cat, after the box is opened, the entangled system is the cat, the poison vial and the observer.", "''One'' relative triple of states would be the alive cat, the unbroken vial and the observer seeing an alive cat.", "''Another'' relative triple of states would be the dead cat, the broken vial and the observer seeing a dead cat.In the example of a measurement of a continuous variable (e.g.", "position ''q'') the object-observer system decomposes into a continuum of pairs of relative states: the object system's relative state becomes a Dirac delta function each centered on a particular value of ''q'' and the corresponding observer relative state representing an observer having recorded the value of ''q''.", "The states of the pairs of relative states are, post measurement, ''correlated'' with each other.In Everett's scheme, there is no collapse; instead, the Schrödinger equation, or its quantum field theory, relativistic analog, holds all the time, everywhere.", "An observation or measurement is modeled by applying the wave equation to the entire system, comprising the object being observed ''and'' the observer.", "One consequence is that every observation causes the combined observer–object's wavefunction to change into a quantum superposition of two or more non-interacting branches.Thus the process of measurement or observation, or any correlation-inducing interaction, splits the system into sets of relative states, where each set of relative states, forming a branch of the universal wave function, is consistent within itself, and all future measurements (including by multiple observers) will confirm this consistency.=== Renamed many-worlds ===Everett had referred to the combined observer–object system as split by an observation, each split corresponding to the different or multiple possible outcomes of an observation.", "These splits generate a branching tree, where each branch is a set of all the states relative to each other.", "Bryce DeWitt popularized Everett's work with a series of publications calling it the Many Worlds Interpretation.", "Focusing on the splitting process, DeWitt introduced the term \"world\" to describe a single branch of that tree, which is a consistent history.", "All observations or measurements within any branch are consistent with each other.Since many observation-like events have happened and are constantly happening, there are an enormous and growing number of simultaneously existing states or \"worlds\".===Properties===MWI removes the observer-dependent role in the quantum measurement process by replacing wave function collapse with the established mechanism of quantum decoherence.", "As the observer's role lies at the heart of all \"quantum paradoxes\" such as the EPR paradox and von Neumann's \"boundary problem\", this provides a clearer and easier approach to their resolution.Since the Copenhagen interpretation requires the existence of a classical domain beyond the one described by quantum mechanics, it has been criticized as inadequate for the study of cosmology.", "While there is no evidence that Everett was inspired by issues of cosmology, he developed his theory with the explicit goal of allowing quantum mechanics to be applied to the universe as a whole, hoping to stimulate the discovery of new phenomena.", "This hope has been realized in the later development of quantum cosmology.MWI is a realist, deterministic and local theory.", "It achieves this by removing wave function collapse, which is indeterministic and nonlocal, from the deterministic and local equations of quantum theory.MWI (like other, broader multiverse theories) provides a context for the anthropic principle, which may provide an explanation for the fine-tuned universe.MWI depends crucially on the linearity of quantum mechanics, which underpins the superposition principle.", "If the final theory of everything is non-linear with respect to wavefunctions, then many-worlds is invalid.", "All quantum field theories are linear and compatible with the MWI, a point Everett emphasized as a motivation for the MWI.", "While quantum gravity or string theory may be non-linear in this respect, there is as yet no evidence of this.===Alternative to wavefunction collapse===As with the other interpretations of quantum mechanics, the many-worlds interpretation is motivated by behavior that can be illustrated by the double-slit experiment.", "When particles of light (or anything else) pass through the double slit, a calculation assuming wavelike behavior of light can be used to identify where the particles are likely to be observed.", "Yet when the particles are observed in this experiment, they appear as particles (i.e., at definite places) and not as non-localized waves.Some versions of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics proposed a process of \"collapse\" in which an indeterminate quantum system would probabilistically collapse onto, or select, just one determinate outcome to \"explain\" this phenomenon of observation.", "Wave function collapse was widely regarded as artificial and ''ad hoc'', so an alternative interpretation in which the behavior of measurement could be understood from more fundamental physical principles was considered desirable.Everett's PhD work provided such an interpretation.", "He argued that for a composite system—such as a subject (the \"observer\" or measuring apparatus) observing an object (the \"observed\" system, such as a particle)—the claim that either the observer or the observed has a well-defined state is meaningless; in modern parlance, the observer and the observed have become entangled: we can only specify the state of one ''relative'' to the other, i.e., the state of the observer and the observed are correlated ''after'' the observation is made.", "This led Everett to derive from the unitary, deterministic dynamics alone (i.e., without assuming wave function collapse) the notion of a ''relativity of states''.Everett noticed that the unitary, deterministic dynamics alone entailed that after an observation is made each element of the quantum superposition of the combined subject–object wave function contains two \"relative states\": a \"collapsed\" object state and an associated observer who has observed the same collapsed outcome; what the observer sees and the state of the object have become correlated by the act of measurement or observation.", "The subsequent evolution of each pair of relative subject–object states proceeds with complete indifference as to the presence or absence of the other elements, ''as if'' wave function collapse has occurred, which has the consequence that later observations are always consistent with the earlier observations.", "Thus the ''appearance'' of the object's wave function's collapse has emerged from the unitary, deterministic theory itself.", "(This answered Einstein's early criticism of quantum theory: that the theory should define what is observed, not for the observables to define the theory.)", "Since the wave function ''appears'' to have collapsed then, Everett reasoned, there was no need to actually assume that it ''had'' collapsed.", "And so, invoking Occam's razor, he removed the postulate of wave function collapse from the theory.===Testability===In 1985, David Deutsch proposed a variant of the Wigner's friend thought experiment as a test of many-worlds versus the Copenhagen interpretation.", "It consists of an experimenter (Wigner's friend) making a measurement on a quantum system in an isolated laboratory, and another experimenter (Wigner) who would make a measurement on the first one.", "According to the many-worlds theory, the first experimenter would end up in a macroscopic superposition of seeing one result of the measurement in one branch, and another result in another branch.", "The second experimenter could then interfere these two branches in order to test whether it is in fact in a macroscopic superposition or has collapsed into a single branch, as predicted by the Copenhagen interpretation.", "Since then Lockwood, Vaidman, and others have made similar proposals, which require placing macroscopic objects in a coherent superposition and interfering them, a task currently beyond experimental capability." ], [ "Probability and the Born rule", "Since the many-worlds interpretation's inception, physicists have been puzzled about the role of probability in it.", "As put by Wallace, there are two facets to the question: the ''incoherence problem'', which asks why we should assign probabilities at all to outcomes that are certain to occur in some worlds, and the ''quantitative problem'', which asks why the probabilities should be given by the Born rule.Everett tried to answer these questions in the paper that introduced many-worlds.", "To address the incoherence problem, he argued that an observer who makes a sequence of measurements on a quantum system will in general have an apparently random sequence of results in their memory, which justifies the use of probabilities to describe the measurement process.", "To address the quantitative problem, Everett proposed a derivation of the Born rule based on the properties that a measure on the branches of the wave function should have.", "His derivation has been criticized as relying on unmotivated assumptions.", "Since then several other derivations of the Born rule in the many-worlds framework have been proposed.", "There is no consensus on whether this has been successful.===Frequentism===DeWitt and Graham and Farhi et al., among others, have proposed derivations of the Born rule based on a frequentist interpretation of probability.", "They try to show that in the limit of uncountably many measurements, no worlds would have relative frequencies that didn't match the probabilities given by the Born rule, but these derivations have been shown to be mathematically incorrect.===Decision theory===A decision-theoretic derivation of the Born rule was produced by David Deutsch (1999) and refined by Wallace and Saunders.", "They consider an agent who takes part in a quantum gamble: the agent makes a measurement on a quantum system, branches as a consequence, and each of the agent's future selves receives a reward that depends on the measurement result.", "The agent uses decision theory to evaluate the price they would pay to take part in such a gamble, and concludes that the price is given by the utility of the rewards weighted according to the Born rule.", "Some reviews have been positive, although these arguments remain highly controversial; some theoretical physicists have taken them as supporting the case for parallel universes.", "For example, a ''New Scientist'' story on a 2007 conference about Everettian interpretations quoted physicist Andy Albrecht as saying, \"This work will go down as one of the most important developments in the history of science.\"", "In contrast, the philosopher Huw Price, also attending the conference, found the Deutsch–Wallace–Saunders approach fundamentally flawed.===Symmetries and invariance===In 2005, Zurek produced a derivation of the Born rule based on the symmetries of entangled states; Schlosshauer and Fine argue that Zurek's derivation is not rigorous, as it does not define what probability is and has several unstated assumptions about how it should behave.In 2016, Charles Sebens and Sean M. Carroll, building on work by Lev Vaidman, proposed a similar approach based on self-locating uncertainty.", "In this approach, decoherence creates multiple identical copies of observers, who can assign credences to being on different branches using the Born rule.", "The Sebens–Carroll approach has been criticized by Adrian Kent, and Vaidman does not find it satisfactory.===Branch counting===In 2021, Simon Saunders produced a branch counting derivation of the Born rule.", "The crucial feature of this approach is to define the branches so that they all have the same magnitude or 2-norm.", "The ratios of the numbers of branches thus defined give the probabilities of the various outcomes of a measurement, in accordance with the Born rule." ], [ "The preferred basis problem", "As originally formulated by Everett and DeWitt, the many-worlds interpretation had a privileged role for measurements: they determined which basis of a quantum system would give rise to the eponymous worlds.", "Without this the theory was ambiguous, as a quantum state can equally well be described (e.g.)", "as having a well-defined position or as being a superposition of two delocalized states.", "The assumption is that the preferred basis to use is the one which assigns a unique measurement outcome to each world.", "This special role for measurements is problematic for the theory, as it contradicts Everett and DeWitt's goal of having a reductionist theory and undermines their criticism of the ill-defined measurement postulate of the Copenhagen interpretation.", "This is known today as the ''preferred basis problem''.The preferred basis problem has been solved, according to Saunders and Wallace, among others, by incorporating decoherence into the many-worlds theory.", "In this approach, the preferred basis does not have to be postulated, but rather is identified as the basis stable under environmental decoherence.", "In this way measurements no longer play a special role; rather, any interaction that causes decoherence causes the world to split.", "Since decoherence is never complete, there will always remain some infinitesimal overlap between two worlds, making it arbitrary whether a pair of worlds has split or not.", "Wallace argues that this is not problematic: it only shows that worlds are not a part of the fundamental ontology, but rather of the ''emergent'' ontology, where these approximate, effective descriptions are routine in the physical sciences.", "Since in this approach the worlds are derived, it follows that they must be present in any other interpretation of quantum mechanics that does not have a collapse mechanism, such as Bohmian mechanics.This approach to deriving the preferred basis has been criticized as creating circularity with derivations of probability in the many-worlds interpretation, as decoherence theory depends on probability and probability depends on the ontology derived from decoherence.", "Wallace contends that decoherence theory depends not on probability but only on the notion that one is allowed to do approximations in physics." ], [ "History", "MWI originated in Everett's Princeton University PhD thesis \"The Theory of the Universal Wave Function\", developed under his thesis advisor John Archibald Wheeler, a shorter summary of which was published in 1957 under the title \"Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics\" (Wheeler contributed the title \"relative state\"; Everett originally called his approach the \"Correlation Interpretation\", where \"correlation\" refers to quantum entanglement).", "The phrase \"many-worlds\" is due to Bryce DeWitt, who was responsible for the wider popularization of Everett's theory, which had been largely ignored for a decade after publication in 1957.Everett's proposal was not without precedent.", "In 1952, Erwin Schrödinger gave a lecture in Dublin in which at one point he jocularly warned his audience that what he was about to say might \"seem lunatic\".", "He went on to assert that while the Schrödinger equation seemed to be describing several different histories, they were \"not alternatives but all really happen simultaneously\".", "According to David Deutsch, this is the earliest known reference to many-worlds; Jeffrey A. Barrett describes it as indicating the similarity of \"general views\" between Everett and Schrödinger.", "Schrödinger's writings from the period also contain elements resembling the modal interpretation originated by Bas van Fraassen.", "Because Schrödinger subscribed to a kind of post-Machian neutral monism, in which \"matter\" and \"mind\" are only different aspects or arrangements of the same common elements, treating the wave function as physical and treating it as information became interchangeable.Leon Cooper and Deborah Van Vechten developed a very similar approach before reading Everett's work.", "Zeh also came to the same conclusions as Everett before reading his work, then built a new theory of quantum decoherence based on these ideas.According to people who knew him, Everett believed in the literal reality of the other quantum worlds.", "His son and wife reported that he \"never wavered in his belief over his many-worlds theory\".", "In their detailed review of Everett's work, Osnaghi, Freitas, and Freire Jr. note that Everett consistently used quotes around \"real\" to indicate a meaning within scientific practice." ], [ "Reception", "MWI's initial reception was overwhelmingly negative, in the sense that it was ignored, with the notable exception of DeWitt.", "Wheeler made considerable efforts to formulate the theory in a way that would be palatable to Bohr, visited Copenhagen in 1956 to discuss it with him, and convinced Everett to visit as well, which happened in 1959.Nevertheless, Bohr and his collaborators completely rejected the theory.", "Everett had already left academia in 1957, never to return, and in 1980, Wheeler disavowed the theory.===Support===One of MWI's strongest longtime advocates is David Deutsch.", "According to him, the single photon interference pattern observed in the double slit experiment can be explained by interference of photons in multiple universes.", "Viewed this way, the single photon interference experiment is indistinguishable from the multiple photon interference experiment.", "In a more practical vein, in one of the earliest papers on quantum computing, Deutsch suggested that parallelism that results from MWI could lead to \"''a method by which certain probabilistic tasks can be performed faster by a universal quantum computer than by any classical restriction of it''\".", "He also proposed that MWI will be testable (at least against \"naive\" Copenhagenism) when reversible computers become conscious via the reversible observation of spin.=== Equivocal ===Philosophers of science James Ladyman and Don Ross say that MWI could be true, but do not embrace it.", "They note that no quantum theory is yet empirically adequate for describing all of reality, given its lack of unification with general relativity, and so do not see a reason to regard any interpretation of quantum mechanics as the final word in metaphysics.", "They also suggest that the multiple branches may be an artifact of incomplete descriptions and of using quantum mechanics to represent the states of macroscopic objects.", "They argue that macroscopic objects are significantly different from microscopic objects in not being isolated from the environment, and that using quantum formalism to describe them lacks explanatory and descriptive power and accuracy.===Rejection===Some scientists consider MWI unfalsifiable and hence unscientific because the multiple parallel universes are non-communicating, in the sense that no information can be passed between them.Victor J. Stenger remarked that Murray Gell-Mann's published work explicitly rejects the existence of simultaneous parallel universes.", "Collaborating with James Hartle, Gell-Mann worked toward the development a more \"palatable\" ''post-Everett quantum mechanics''.", "Stenger thought it fair to say that most physicists find MWI too extreme, though it \"has merit in finding a place for the observer inside the system being analyzed and doing away with the troublesome notion of wave function collapse\".Roger Penrose argues that the idea is flawed because it is based on an oversimplified version of quantum mechanics that does not account for gravity.", "In his view, applying conventional quantum mechanics to the universe implies the MWI, but the lack of a successful theory of quantum gravity negates the claimed universality of conventional quantum mechanics.", "According to Penrose, \"the rules must change when gravity is involved\".", "He further asserts that gravity helps anchor reality and \"blurry\" events have only one allowable outcome: \"electrons, atoms, molecules, etc., are so minute that they require almost no amount of energy to maintain their gravity, and therefore their overlapping states.", "They can stay in that state forever, as described in standard quantum theory\".", "On the other hand, \"in the case of large objects, the duplicate states disappear in an instant due to the fact that these objects create a large gravitational field\".Philosopher of science Robert P. Crease says that MWI is \"one of the most implausible and unrealistic ideas in the history of science\" because it means that everything conceivable happens.", "Science writer Philip Ball calls MWI's implications fantasies, since \"beneath their apparel of scientific equations or symbolic logic, they are acts of imagination, of 'just supposing.Theoretical physicist Gerard 't Hooft also dismisses the idea: \"I do not believe that we have to live with the many-worlds interpretation.", "Indeed, it would be a stupendous number of parallel worlds, which are only there because physicists couldn't decide which of them is real.", "\"Asher Peres was an outspoken critic of MWI.", "A section of his 1993 textbook had the title ''Everett's interpretation and other bizarre theories''.", "Peres argued that the various many-worlds interpretations merely shift the arbitrariness or vagueness of the collapse postulate to the question of when \"worlds\" can be regarded as separate, and that no objective criterion for that separation can actually be formulated.=== Polls ===A poll of 72 \"leading quantum cosmologists and other quantum field theorists\" conducted before 1991 by L. David Raub showed 58% agreement with \"Yes, I think MWI is true\".Max Tegmark reports the result of a \"highly unscientific\" poll taken at a 1997 quantum mechanics workshop.", "According to Tegmark, \"The many worlds interpretation (MWI) scored second, comfortably ahead of the consistent histories and Bohm interpretations.", "\"In response to Sean M. Carroll's statement \"As crazy as it sounds, most working physicists buy into the many-worlds theory\", Michael Nielsen counters: \"at a quantum computing conference at Cambridge in 1998, a many-worlder surveyed the audience of approximately 200 people... Many-worlds did just fine, garnering support on a level comparable to, but somewhat below, Copenhagen and decoherence.\"", "But Nielsen notes that it seemed most attendees found it to be a waste of time: Peres \"got a huge and sustained round of applause…when he got up at the end of the polling and asked 'And who here believes the laws of physics are decided by a democratic vote?A 2005 poll of fewer than 40 students and researchers taken after a course on the Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics at the Institute for Quantum Computing University of Waterloo found \"Many Worlds (and decoherence)\" to be the least favored.A 2011 poll of 33 participants at an Austrian conference found 6 endorsed MWI, 8 \"Information-based/information-theoretical\", and 14 Copenhagen; the authors remark that MWI received a similar percentage of votes as in Tegmark's 1997 poll." ], [ "Speculative implications", "DeWitt has said that \"Everett, Wheeler and Graham do not in the end exclude any element of the superposition.", "All the worlds are there, even those in which everything goes wrong and all the statistical laws break down.\"", "Tegmark affirmed that absurd or highly unlikely events are inevitable but rare under MWI: \"Things inconsistent with the laws of physics will never happen—everything else will... it's important to keep track of the statistics, since even if everything conceivable happens somewhere, really freak events happen only exponentially rarely.\"", "David Deutsch speculates in his book ''The Beginning of Infinity'' that some fiction, such as alternate history, could occur somewhere in the multiverse, as long as it is consistent with the laws of physics.According to Ladyman and Ross, many seemingly physically plausible but unrealized possibilities, such as those discussed in other scientific fields, generally have no counterparts in other branches, because they are in fact incompatible with the universal wave function.", "Carroll states that, contrary to common misconceptions, human decision-making is best thought of as a classical process, not a quantum one, because it works on the level of neurochemistry rather than fundamental particles.", "Human decisions do not cause the world to branch into equally-realized outcomes; even for subjectively difficult decisions, the 'weight' of realized outcomes is almost entirely concentrated in a single branch.", "''Quantum suicide'' is a thought experiment in quantum mechanics and the philosophy of physics that purportedly can distinguish between the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics and the many-worlds interpretation by means of a variation of the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment, from the cat's point of view.", "''Quantum immortality'' refers to the subjective experience of surviving quantum suicide.", "Most experts believe that the experiment would not work in the real world, because the world with the surviving experimenter has a lower \"measure\" than the world before the experiment, making it less likely that the experimenter will experience their survival." ], [ "See also", "* Alternate histories* Consistent histories* Many-minds interpretation* \"The Garden of Forking Paths\"* Parallel universes in fiction* ''The Beginning of Infinity''* Mathematical universe hypothesis" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Jeffrey A. Barrett, ''The Quantum Mechanics of Minds and Worlds'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999.", "* Peter Byrne, ''The Many Worlds of Hugh Everett III: Multiple Universes, Mutual Assured Destruction, and the Meltdown of a Nuclear Family'', Oxford University Press, 2010.", "* Jeffrey A. Barrett and Peter Byrne, eds., \"The Everett Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics: Collected Works 1955–1980 with Commentary\", Princeton University Press, 2012.", "* Julian Brown, ''Minds, Machines, and the Multiverse'', Simon & Schuster, 2000, * Sean M. Carroll, ''Something deeply hidden'', Penguin Random House, (2019)* Paul C.W.", "Davies, ''Other Worlds'', (1980) * A study of the painful three-way relationship between Hugh Everett, John A Wheeler and Niels Bohr and how this affected the early development of the many-worlds theory.", "* David Wallace, Worlds in the Everett Interpretation, ''Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics'', 33, (2002), pp.", "637–661, * John A. Wheeler and Wojciech Hubert Zurek (eds), ''Quantum Theory and Measurement'', Princeton University Press, (1983)," ], [ "External links", "** Everett's Relative-State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics – Jeffrey A. Barrett's article on Everett's formulation of quantum mechanics in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.", "* Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics – Lev Vaidman's article on the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.", "* Hugh Everett III Manuscript Archive (UC Irvine) – Jeffrey A. Barrett, Peter Byrne, and James O. Weatherall (eds.).", "* Henry Stapp's critique of MWI, focusing on the basis problem Canadian Journal of Physics 80, 1043–1052 (2002).", "* Scientific American report on the Many Worlds 50th anniversary conference at Oxford" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "E-commerce" ], [ "Introduction", "'''E-commerce''' ('''electronic commerce''') is the activity of electronically buying or selling products on online services or over the Internet.", "E-commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems.", "E-commerce is the largest sector of the electronics industry and is in turn driven by the technological advances of the semiconductor industry." ], [ "Defining e-commerce", "The term was coined and first employed by Robert Jacobson, Principal Consultant to the California State Assembly's Utilities & Commerce Committee, in the title and text of California's Electronic Commerce Act, carried by the late Committee Chairwoman Gwen Moore (D-L.A.) and enacted in 1984.E-commerce typically uses the web for at least a part of a transaction's life cycle although it may also use other technologies such as e-mail.", "Typical e-commerce transactions include the purchase of products (such as books from Amazon) or services (such as music downloads in the form of digital distribution such as the iTunes Store).", "There are three areas of e-commerce: online retailing, electronic markets, and online auctions.", "E-commerce is supported by electronic business.", "The existence value of e-commerce is to allow consumers to shop online and pay online through the Internet, saving the time and space of customers and enterprises, greatly improving transaction efficiency, especially for busy office workers, and also saving a lot of valuable time.E-commerce businesses may also employ some or all of the following:* Online shopping for retail sales direct to consumers via web sites and mobile apps, conversational commerce via live chat, chatbots, and voice assistants.", "* Providing or participating in online marketplaces, which process third-party business-to-consumer (B2C) or consumer-to-consumer (C2C) sales;* Business-to-business (B2B) buying and selling.", "* Gathering and using demographic data through web contacts and social media.", "* B2B electronic data interchange.", "* Marketing to prospective and established customers by e-mail or fax (for example, with newsletters).", "* Engaging in pretail for launching new products and services.", "* Online financial exchanges for currency exchanges or trading purposes.There are five essential categories of E-commerce:* Business to Business * Business to Consumer* Business to Government * Consumer to Business * Consumer to Consumer" ], [ "History", "The history of electronic commerce (EC) traces back to the 1970s when it was initially confined to operations among large corporations utilising private communication networks and electronic fund transfer systems for financial transactions and document exchanges.", "However, the true evolution of EC gained momentum with the advent of the Internet in the 1990s, which brought forth a multitude of possibilities, particularly in communication.", "Galinari et al.", "(2015) argue that while the roots of EC can be traced back to the 1970s, it was the emergence of the Internet that truly propelled its development.", "Albertin (2012) further delineates the evolution of EC into four distinct phases.", "The first phase primarily involved organisations utilising the Internet for information dissemination about their products and services.", "This initial stimulus laid the groundwork for further EC development.", "Phase Two witnessed the integration of order processing and product/service instruction dissemination, marking the onset of logistical considerations for companies.The third phase saw the distribution of products and services utilising Information Technology (IT), with digital commercialisation of goods like music and software becoming prominent.", "Finally, the fourth phase marked the consolidation of EC, emphasising interactive engagement between sellers and consumers, transcending mere data transmission or product delivery.", "With the advancement of IT and the widespread adoption of the Internet, this interactive dimension revolutionised commercial practices, empowering ordinary internet users to become potential consumers.", "The rapid evolution of EC has been deeply intertwined with the progression of information technology and the digital environment.", "Moreover, the proliferation of broadband Internet, particularly through technologies like 3G and 4G, has played a pivotal role in enhancing accessibility and driving EC growth.", "This evolution has necessitated businesses to adapt their structures to meet evolving consumer demands, propelled by globalisation and increased competitiveness.", "As EC continues to evolve, its impact on business processes and the broader economy remains profound, shaping the landscape of commerce in unprecedented ways." ], [ "Forms", "Contemporary electronic commerce can be classified into two categories.", "The first category is business based on types of goods sold (involves everything from ordering \"digital\" content for immediate online consumption, to ordering conventional goods and services, to \"meta\" services to facilitate other types of electronic commerce).", "The second category is based on the nature of the participant (B2B, B2C, C2B and C2C).On the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange financial data to facilitate domestic and international business.", "Data integrity and security are pressing issues for electronic commerce.Aside from traditional e-commerce, the terms m-Commerce (mobile commerce) as well (around 2013) t-Commerce have also been used." ], [ "Governmental regulation", "In the United States, California's Electronic Commerce Act (1984), enacted by the Legislature, the more recent California Privacy Rights Act (2020), enacted through a popular election proposition and to control specifically how electronic commerce may be conducted in California.", "In the US in its entirety, electronic commerce activities are regulated more broadly by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC).", "These activities include the use of commercial e-mails, online advertising and consumer privacy.", "The CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 establishes national standards for direct marketing over e-mail.", "The Federal Trade Commission Act regulates all forms of advertising, including online advertising, and states that advertising must be truthful and non-deceptive.", "Using its authority under Section 5 of the FTC Act, which prohibits unfair or deceptive practices, the FTC has brought a number of cases to enforce the promises in corporate privacy statements, including promises about the security of consumers' personal information.", "As a result, any corporate privacy policy related to e-commerce activity may be subject to enforcement by the FTC.The Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008, which came into law in 2008, amends the Controlled Substances Act to address online pharmacies.Conflict of laws in cyberspace is a major hurdle for harmonization of legal framework for e-commerce around the world.", "In order to give a uniformity to e-commerce law around the world, many countries adopted the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce (1996).", "'''Internationally''' there is the International Consumer Protection and Enforcement Network (ICPEN), which was formed in 1991 from an informal network of government customer fair trade organisations.", "The purpose was stated as being to find ways of co-operating on tackling consumer problems connected with cross-border transactions in both goods and services, and to help ensure exchanges of information among the participants for mutual benefit and understanding.", "From this came Econsumer.gov, an ICPEN initiative since April 2001.It is a portal to report complaints about online and related transactions with foreign companies.There is also '''Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation'''.", "APEC was established in 1989 with the vision of achieving stability, security and prosperity for the region through free and open trade and investment.", "APEC has an Electronic Commerce Steering Group as well as working on common privacy regulations throughout the APEC region.In '''Australia''', trade is covered under Australian Treasury Guidelines for electronic commerce and the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission regulates and offers advice on how to deal with businesses online, and offers specific advice on what happens if things go wrong.The '''European Union''' undertook an extensive enquiry into e-commerce in 2015-16 which observed significant growth in the development of e-commerce, along with some developments which raised concerns, such as increased use of selective distribution systems, which allow manufacturers to control routes to market, and \"increased use of contractual restrictions to better control product distribution\".", "The European Commission felt that some emerging practices might be justified if they could improve the quality of product distribution, but \"others may unduly prevent consumers from benefiting from greater product choice and lower prices in e-commerce and therefore warrant Commission action\" in order to promote compliance with EU competition rules.In '''the United Kingdom''', the Financial Services Authority (FSA) was formerly the regulating authority for most aspects of the EU's Payment Services Directive (PSD), until its replacement in 2013 by the Prudential Regulation Authority and the Financial Conduct Authority.", "The UK implemented the PSD through the Payment Services Regulations 2009 (PSRs), which came into effect on 1 November 2009.The PSR affects firms providing payment services and their customers.", "These firms include banks, non-bank credit card issuers and non-bank merchant acquirers, e-money issuers, etc.", "The PSRs created a new class of regulated firms known as payment institutions (PIs), who are subject to prudential requirements.", "Article 87 of the PSD requires the European Commission to report on the implementation and impact of the PSD by 1 November 2012.In '''India''', the Information Technology Act 2000 governs the basic applicability of e-commerce.In '''China''', the Telecommunications Regulations of the People's Republic of China (promulgated on 25 September 2000), stipulated the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) as the government department regulating all telecommunications related activities, including electronic commerce.", "On the same day, the Administrative Measures on Internet Information Services were released, the first administrative regulations to address profit-generating activities conducted through the Internet, and lay the foundation for future regulations governing e-commerce in China.", "On 28 August 2004, the eleventh session of the tenth NPC Standing Committee adopted an Electronic Signature Law, which regulates data message, electronic signature authentication and legal liability issues.", "It is considered the first law in China's e-commerce legislation.", "It was a milestone in the course of improving China's electronic commerce legislation, and also marks the entering of China's rapid development stage for electronic commerce legislation." ], [ "Global trends", "E-commerce has become an important tool for small and large businesses worldwide, not only to sell to customers, but also to engage them.Cross-border e-Commerce is also an essential field for e-Commerce businesses.", "It has responded to the trend of globalization.", "It shows that numerous firms have opened up new businesses, expanded new markets, and overcome trade barriers; more and more enterprises have started exploring the cross-border cooperation field.", "In addition, compared with traditional cross-border trade, the information on cross-border e-commerce is more concealed.", "In the era of globalization, cross-border e-commerce for inter-firm companies means the activities, interactions, or social relations of two or more e-commerce enterprises.", "However, the success of cross-border e-commerce promotes the development of small and medium-sized firms, and it has finally become a new transaction mode.", "It has helped the companies solve financial problems and realize the reasonable allocation of resources field.", "SMEs ( small and medium enterprises) can also precisely match the demand and supply in the market, having the industrial chain majorization and creating more revenues for companies.In 2012, e-commerce sales topped $1 trillion for the first time in history.Mobile devices are playing an increasing role in the mix of e-commerce, this is also commonly called mobile commerce, or m-commerce.", "In 2014, one estimate saw purchases made on mobile devices making up 25% of the market by 2017.For traditional businesses, one research stated that information technology and cross-border e-commerce is a good opportunity for the rapid development and growth of enterprises.", "Many companies have invested an enormous volume of investment in mobile applications.", "The DeLone and McLean Model stated that three perspectives contribute to a successful e-business: information system quality, service quality and users' satisfaction.", "There is no limit of time and space, there are more opportunities to reach out to customers around the world, and to cut down unnecessary intermediate links, thereby reducing the cost price, and can benefit from one on one large customer data analysis, to achieve a high degree of personal customization strategic plan, in order to fully enhance the core competitiveness of the products in the company.Modern 3D graphics technologies, such as Facebook 3D Posts, are considered by some social media marketers and advertisers as a preferable way to promote consumer goods than static photos, and some brands like Sony are already paving the way for augmented reality commerce.", "Wayfair now lets you inspect a 3D version of its furniture in a home setting before buying.=== China ===Among emerging economies, China's e-commerce presence continues to expand every year.", "With 668 million Internet users, China's online shopping sales reached $253 billion in the first half of 2015, accounting for 10% of total Chinese consumer retail sales in that period.", "The Chinese retailers have been able to help consumers feel more comfortable shopping online.", "e-commerce transactions between China and other countries increased 32% to 2.3 trillion yuan ($375.8 billion) in 2012 and accounted for 9.6% of China's total international trade.", "In 2013, Alibaba had an e-commerce market share of 80% in China.", "In 2014, Alibaba still dominated the B2B marketplace in China with a market share of 44.82%, followed by several other companies including Made-in-China.com at 3.21%, and GlobalSources.com at 2.98%, with the total transaction value of China's B2B market exceeding 4.5 billion yuan.", "In 2014, there were 600 million Internet users in China (twice as many as in the US), making it the world's biggest online market.China is also the largest e-commerce market in the world by value of sales, with an estimated in 2016.It accounted for 42.4% of worldwide retail e-commerce in that year, the most of any country.", "Research shows that Chinese consumer motivations are different enough from Western audiences to require unique e-commerce app designs instead of simply porting Western apps into the Chinese market.The expansion of e-commerce in China has resulted in the development of Taobao villages, clusters of e-commerce businesses operating in rural areas.", "Because Taobao villages have increased the incomes or rural people and entrepreneurship in rural China, Taobao villages have become a component of rural revitalization strategies.=== Europe ===In 2010, the United Kingdom had the highest per capita e-commerce spending in the world.", "As of 2013, the Czech Republic was the European country where e-commerce delivers the biggest contribution to the enterprises' total revenue.", "Almost a quarter (24%) of the country's total turnover is generated via the online channel.=== Arab states ===The rate of growth of the number of internet users in the Arab countries has been rapid – 13.1% in 2015.A significant portion of the e-commerce market in the Middle East comprises people in the 30–34 year age group.", "Egypt has the largest number of internet users in the region, followed by Saudi Arabia and Morocco; these constitute 3/4th of the region's share.", "Yet, internet penetration is low: 35% in Egypt and 65% in Saudi Arabia.The Gulf Cooperation Council countries have a rapidly growing market and are characterized by a population that becomes wealthier (Yuldashev).", "As such, retailers have launched Arabic-language websites as a means to target this population.", "Secondly, there are predictions of increased mobile purchases and an expanding internet audience (Yuldashev).", "The growth and development of the two aspects make the GCC countries become larger players in the electronic commerce market with time progress.", "Specifically, research shows that the e-commerce market is expected to grow to over $20 billion by 2020 among these GCC countries (Yuldashev).", "The e-commerce market has also gained much popularity among western countries, and in particular Europe and the U.S.", "These countries have been highly characterized by consumer-packaged goods (CPG) (Geisler, 34).", "However, trends show that there are future signs of a reverse.", "Similar to the GCC countries, there has been increased purchase of goods and services in online channels rather than offline channels.", "Activist investors are trying hard to consolidate and slash their overall cost and the governments in western countries continue to impose more regulation on CPG manufacturers (Geisler, 36).", "In these senses, CPG investors are being forced to adapt to e-commerce as it is effective as well as a means for them to thrive.The future trends in the GCC countries will be similar to that of the western countries.", "Despite the forces that push business to adapt e-commerce as a means to sell goods and products, the manner in which customers make purchases is similar in countries from these two regions.", "For instance, there has been an increased usage of smartphones which comes in conjunction with an increase in the overall internet audience from the regions.", "Yuldashev writes that consumers are scaling up to more modern technology that allows for mobile marketing.However, the percentage of smartphone and internet users who make online purchases is expected to vary in the first few years.", "It will be independent on the willingness of the people to adopt this new trend (The Statistics Portal).", "For example, UAE has the greatest smartphone penetration of 73.8 per cent and has 91.9 per cent of its population has access to the internet.", "On the other hand, smartphone penetration in Europe has been reported to be at 64.7 per cent (The Statistics Portal).", "Regardless, the disparity in percentage between these regions is expected to level out in future because e-commerce technology is expected to grow to allow for more users.The e-commerce business within these two regions will result in competition.", "Government bodies at the country level will enhance their measures and strategies to ensure sustainability and consumer protection (Krings, et al.).", "These increased measures will raise the environmental and social standards in the countries, factors that will determine the success of the e-commerce market in these countries.", "For example, an adoption of tough sanctions will make it difficult for companies to enter the e-commerce market while lenient sanctions will allow ease of companies.", "As such, the future trends between GCC countries and the Western countries will be independent of these sanctions (Krings, et al.).", "These countries need to make rational conclusions in coming up with effective sanctions.=== India ===India has an Internet user base of about 460 million as of December 2017.Despite being the third largest user base in the world, the penetration of the Internet is low compared to markets like the United States, United Kingdom or France but is growing at a much faster rate, adding around six million new entrants every month.", "In India, cash on delivery is the most preferred payment method, accumulating 75% of the e-retail activities.", "The India retail market is expected to rise from 2.5% in 2016 to 5% in 2020.=== Brazil ===In 2013, Brazil's e-commerce was growing quickly with retail e-commerce sales expected to grow at a double-digit pace through 2014.By 2016, eMarketer expected retail e-commerce sales in Brazil to reach $17.3 billion." ], [ "Logistics", "Logistics in e-commerce mainly concerns fulfillment.", "Online markets and retailers have to find the best possible way to fill orders and deliver products.", "Small companies usually control their own logistic operation because they do not have the ability to hire an outside company.", "Most large companies hire a fulfillment service that takes care of a company's logistic needs.", "The optimization of logistics processes that contains long-term investment in an efficient storage infrastructure system and adoption of inventory management strategies is crucial to prioritize customer satisfaction throughout the entire process, from order placement to final delivery." ], [ "Impacts", "===Impact on markets and retailers===Toys R Us in Deptford, New Jersey.", "Despite investments, the chain struggled to win market share in the age of digital commerce.", "E-commerce markets are growing at noticeable rates.", "The online market is expected to grow by 56% in 2015–2020.In 2017, retail e-commerce sales worldwide amounted to 2.3 trillion US dollars and e-retail revenues are projected to grow to 4.891 trillion US dollars in 2021.Traditional markets are only expected 2% growth during the same time.", "Brick and mortar retailers are struggling because of online retailer's ability to offer lower prices and higher efficiency.", "Many larger retailers are able to maintain a presence offline and online by linking physical and online offerings.E-commerce allows customers to overcome geographical barriers and allows them to purchase products anytime and from anywhere.", "Online and traditional markets have different strategies for conducting business.", "Traditional retailers offer fewer assortment of products because of shelf space where, online retailers often hold no inventory but send customer orders directly to the manufacturer.", "The pricing strategies are also different for traditional and online retailers.", "Traditional retailers base their prices on store traffic and the cost to keep inventory.", "Online retailers base prices on the speed of delivery.There are two ways for marketers to conduct business through e-commerce: fully online or online along with a brick and mortar store.", "Online marketers can offer lower prices, greater product selection, and high efficiency rates.", "Many customers prefer online markets if the products can be delivered quickly at relatively low price.", "However, online retailers cannot offer the physical experience that traditional retailers can.", "It can be difficult to judge the quality of a product without the physical experience, which may cause customers to experience product or seller uncertainty.", "Another issue regarding the online market is concerns about the security of online transactions.", "Many customers remain loyal to well-known retailers because of this issue.Security is a primary problem for e-commerce in developed and developing countries.", "E-commerce security is protecting businesses' websites and customers from unauthorized access, use, alteration, or destruction.", "The type of threats include: malicious codes, unwanted programs (ad ware, spyware), phishing, hacking, and cyber vandalism.", "E-commerce websites use different tools to avert security threats.", "These tools include firewalls, encryption software, digital certificates, and passwords.===Impact on supply chain management===For a long time, companies had been troubled by the gap between the benefits which supply chain technology has and the solutions to deliver those benefits.", "However, the emergence of e-commerce has provided a more practical and effective way of delivering the benefits of the new supply chain technologies.E-commerce has the capability to integrate all inter-company and intra-company functions, meaning that the three flows (physical flow, financial flow and information flow) of the supply chain could be also affected by e-commerce.", "The affections on physical flows improved the way of product and inventory movement level for companies.", "For the information flows, e-commerce optimized the capacity of information processing than companies used to have, and for the financial flows, e-commerce allows companies to have more efficient payment and settlement solutions.In addition, e-commerce has a more sophisticated level of impact on supply chains: Firstly, the performance gap will be eliminated since companies can identify gaps between different levels of supply chains by electronic means of solutions; Secondly, as a result of e-commerce emergence, new capabilities such implementing ERP systems, like SAP ERP, Xero, or Megaventory, have helped companies to manage operations with customers and suppliers.", "Yet these new capabilities are still not fully exploited.", "Thirdly, technology companies would keep investing on new e-commerce software solutions as they are expecting investment return.", "Fourthly, e-commerce would help to solve many aspects of issues that companies may feel difficult to cope with, such as political barriers or cross-country changes.", "Finally, e-commerce provides companies a more efficient and effective way to collaborate with each other within the supply chain.=== Impact on employment ===E-commerce helps create new job opportunities due to information related services, software app and digital products.", "It also causes job losses.", "The areas with the greatest predicted job-loss are retail, postal, and travel agencies.", "The development of e-commerce will create jobs that require highly skilled workers to manage large amounts of information, customer demands, and production processes.", "In contrast, people with poor technical skills cannot enjoy the wages welfare.", "On the other hand, because e-commerce requires sufficient stocks that could be delivered to customers in time, the warehouse becomes an important element.", "Warehouse needs more staff to manage, supervise and organize, thus the condition of warehouse environment will be concerned by employees.=== Impact on customers ===E-commerce brings convenience for customers as they do not have to leave home and only need to browse websites online, especially for buying products which are not sold in nearby shops.", "It could help customers buy a wider range of products and save customers' time.", "Consumers also gain power through online shopping.", "They are able to research products and compare prices among retailers.", "Thanks to the practice of user-generated ratings and reviews from companies like Bazaarvoice, Trustpilot, and Yelp, customers can also see what other people think of a product, and decide before buying if they want to spend money on it.", "Also, online shopping often provides sales promotion or discounts code, thus it is more price effective for customers.", "Moreover, e-commerce provides products' detailed information; even the in-store staff cannot offer such detailed explanation.", "Customers can also review and track the order history online.", "E-commerce technologies cut transaction costs by allowing both manufactures and consumers to skip through the intermediaries.", "This is achieved through by extending the search area best price deals and by group purchase.", "The success of e-commerce in urban and regional levels depend on how the local firms and consumers have adopted to e-commerce.However, e-commerce lacks human interaction for customers, especially who prefer face-to-face connection.", "Customers are also concerned with the security of online transactions and tend to remain loyal to well-known retailers.", "In recent years, clothing retailers such as Tommy Hilfiger have started adding Virtual Fit platforms to their e-commerce sites to reduce the risk of customers buying the wrong sized clothes, although these vary greatly in their fit for purpose.", "When the customer regret the purchase of a product, it involves returning goods and refunding process.", "This process is inconvenient as customers need to pack and post the goods.", "If the products are expensive, large or fragile, it refers to safety issues.=== Impact on the environment ===In 2018, E-commerce generated of container cardboard in North America, an increase from ) in 2017.Only 35 percent of North American cardboard manufacturing capacity is from recycled content.", "The recycling rate in Europe is 80 percent and Asia is 93 percent.", "Amazon, the largest user of boxes, has a strategy to cut back on packing material and has reduced packaging material used by 19 percent by weight since 2016.Amazon is requiring retailers to manufacture their product packaging in a way that does not require additional shipping packaging.", "Amazon also has an 85-person team researching ways to reduce and improve their packaging and shipping materials.Accelerated movement of packages around the world includes accelerated movement of living things, with all its attendant risks.", "Weeds, pests, and diseases all sometimes travel in packages of seeds.", "Some of these packages are part of brushing manipulation of e-commerce reviews.=== Impact on traditional retail ===E-commerce has been cited as a major force for the failure of major U.S. retailers in a trend frequently referred to as a \"retail apocalypse.\"", "The rise of e-commerce outlets like Amazon has made it harder for traditional retailers to attract customers to their stores and forced companies to change their sales strategies.", "Many companies have turned to sales promotions and increased digital efforts to lure shoppers while shutting down brick-and-mortar locations.", "The trend has forced some traditional retailers to shutter its brick and mortar operations." ], [ "E-commerce during COVID-19", "In March 2020, global retail website traffic hit 14.3 billion visits signifying an unprecedented growth of e-commerce during the lockdown of 2020.Later studies show that online sales increased by 25% and online grocery shopping increased by over 100% during the crisis in the United States.", "Meanwhile, as many as 29% of surveyed shoppers state that they will never go back to shopping in person again; in the UK, 43% of consumers state that they expect to keep on shopping the same way even after the lockdown is over.Retail sales of e-commerce shows that COVID-19 has a significant impact on e-commerce and its sales are expected to reach $6.5 trillion by 2023." ], [ "Business application", "An example of an older generation of avatar-style automated online assistant on a merchandising websiteSome common applications related to electronic commerce are:" ], [ "Timeline", "A timeline for the development of e-commerce:* 1971 or 1972: The ARPANET is used to arrange a cannabis sale between students at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, later described as \"the seminal act of e-commerce\" in John Markoff's book ''What the Dormouse Said''.", "* 1979: Michael Aldrich demonstrates the first online shopping system.", "* 1981: Thomson Holidays UK is the first business-to-business (B2B) online shopping system to be installed.", "* 1982: Minitel was introduced nationwide in France by France Télécom and used for online ordering.", "* 1983: California State Assembly holds first hearing on \"electronic commerce\" in Volcano, California.", "Testifying are CPUC, MCI Mail, Prodigy, CompuServe, Volcano Telephone, and Pacific Telesis.", "(Not permitted to testify is Quantum Technology, later to become AOL.)", "California's Electronic Commerce Act was passed in 1984.", "* 1983: Karen Earle Lile (AKA Karen Bean) and Kendall Ross Bean create e-commerce service in San Francisco Bay Area.", "Buyers and sellers of pianos connect through a database created by Piano Finders on a Kaypro personal computer using DOS interface.", "Pianos for sale are listed on a Bulletin board system.", "Buyers print list of pianos for sale by a dot matrix printer.", "Customer service happened through a Piano Advice Hotline listed in the San Francisco Chronicle classified ads and money transferred by a bank wire transfer when a sale was completed.", "* 1984: Gateshead SIS/Tesco is first B2C online shopping system and Mrs Snowball, 72, is the first online home shopper* 1984: In April 1984, CompuServe launches the Electronic Mall in the US and Canada.", "It is the first comprehensive electronic commerce service.", "* 1989: In May 1989, Sequoia Data Corp. introduced Compumarket, the first internet based system for e-commerce.", "Sellers and buyers could post items for sale and buyers could search the database and make purchases with a credit card.", "* 1990: Tim Berners-Lee writes the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, using a NeXT computer.", "* 1992: Book Stacks Unlimited in Cleveland opens a commercial sales website (www.books.com) selling books online with credit card processing.", "* 1993: Paget Press releases edition No.", "3 of the first app store, The Electronic AppWrapper* 1994: Netscape releases the Navigator browser in October under the code name Mozilla.", "Netscape 1.0 is introduced in late 1994 with SSL encryption that made transactions secure.", "* 1994: Ipswitch IMail Server becomes the first software available online for sale and immediate download via a partnership between Ipswitch, Inc. and OpenMarket.", "* 1994: \"Ten Summoner's Tales\" by Sting becomes the first secure online purchase through NetMarket.", "* 1995: The US National Science Foundation lifts its former strict prohibition of commercial enterprise on the Internet.", "* 1995: Thursday 27 April 1995, the purchase of a book by Paul Stanfield, product manager for CompuServe UK, from W H Smith's shop within CompuServe's UK Shopping Centre is the UK's first national online shopping service secure transaction.", "The shopping service at launch featured W H Smith, Tesco, Virgin Megastores/Our Price, Great Universal Stores (GUS), Interflora, Dixons Retail, Past Times, PC World (retailer) and Innovations.", "* 1995: Amazon is launched by Jeff Bezos.", "* 1995: eBay is founded by computer programmer Pierre Omidyar as AuctionWeb.", "It is the first online auction site supporting person-to-person transactions.", "* 1995: The first commercial-free 24-hour, internet-only radio stations, Radio HK and NetRadio start broadcasting.", "* 1996: The use of Excalibur BBS with replicated \"storefronts\" was an early implementation of electronic commerce started by a group of SysOps in Australia and replicated to global partner sites.", "* 1998: Electronic postal stamps can be purchased and downloaded for printing from the Web.", "* 1999: Alibaba Group is established in China.", "Business.com sold for US$7.5 million to eCompanies, which was purchased in 1997 for US$149,000.The peer-to-peer filesharing software Napster launches.", "ATG Stores launches to sell decorative items for the home online.", "* 1999: Global e-commerce reaches $150 billion* 2000: The dot-com bust.", "* 2001: eBay has the largest userbase of any e-commerce site.", "* 2001: Alibaba.com achieved profitability in December 2001.", "* 2002: eBay acquires PayPal for $1.5 billion.", "Niche retail companies Wayfair and NetShops are founded with the concept of selling products through several targeted domains, rather than a central portal.", "* 2003: Amazon posts first yearly profit.", "* 2004: DHgate.com, China's first online B2B transaction platform, is established, forcing other B2B sites to move away from the \"yellow pages\" model.", "* 2007: Business.com acquired by R.H. Donnelley for $345 million.", "* 2014: US e-commerce and online retail sales projected to reach $294 billion, an increase of 12 percent over 2013 and 9% of all retail sales.", "Alibaba Group has the largest Initial public offering ever, worth $25 billion.", "* 2015: Amazon accounts for more than half of all e-commerce growth, selling almost 500 Million SKU's in the US.", "* 2017: Retail e-commerce sales across the world reaches $2.304 trillion, which was a 24.8 percent increase than previous year.", "* 2017: Global e-commerce transactions generate , including for business-to-business (B2B) transactions and for business-to-consumer (B2C) sales.", "* 2020: Government of India launched BHIM UPI digital payment interface in 2016.In the year 2020 it had 2 billion digital payment transactions." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of free software e-commerce web application frameworks* Comparison of shopping cart software* Customer intelligence* Digital economy* E-commerce credit card payment system* Electronic bill payment* Electronic money* Non-store retailing* Online shopping* Payments as a service* South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc.* Types of e-commerce* Timeline of e-commerce" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euler's formula" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Euler's formula''', named after Leonhard Euler, is a mathematical formula in complex analysis that establishes the fundamental relationship between the trigonometric functions and the complex exponential function.", "Euler's formula states that, for any real number , one haswhere is the base of the natural logarithm, is the imaginary unit, and and are the trigonometric functions cosine and sine respectively.", "This complex exponential function is sometimes denoted (\"cosine plus ''i'' sine\").", "The formula is still valid if is a complex number, and is also called ''Euler's formula'' in this more general case.Euler's formula is ubiquitous in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and engineering.", "The physicist Richard Feynman called the equation \"our jewel\" and \"the most remarkable formula in mathematics\".When , Euler's formula may be rewritten as or , which is known as Euler's identity." ], [ "History", "In 1714, the English mathematician Roger Cotes presented a geometrical argument that can be interpreted (after correcting a misplaced factor of ) as:See:* Roger Cotes (1714) \"Logometria,\" ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London'', '''29''' (338) : 5-45 ; see especially page 32.Available on-line at: Hathi Trust* Roger Cotes with Robert Smith, ed., ''Harmonia mensurarum'' … (Cambridge, England: 1722), chapter: \"Logometria\", p.", "28.", "* https://nrich.maths.org/1384Exponentiating this equation yields Euler's formula.", "Note that the logarithmic statement is not universally correct for complex numbers, since a complex logarithm can have infinitely many values, differing by multiples of .Around 1740 Leonhard Euler turned his attention to the exponential function and derived the equation named after him by comparing the series expansions of the exponential and trigonometric expressions.", "The formula was first published in 1748 in his foundational work ''Introductio in analysin infinitorum''.Johann Bernoulli had found thatAnd sincethe above equation tells us something about complex logarithms by relating natural logarithms to imaginary (complex) numbers.", "Bernoulli, however, did not evaluate the integral.Bernoulli's correspondence with Euler (who also knew the above equation) shows that Bernoulli did not fully understand complex logarithms.", "Euler also suggested that complex logarithms can have infinitely many values.The view of complex numbers as points in the complex plane was described about 50 years later by Caspar Wessel." ], [ "Definitions of complex exponentiation", "The exponential function for real values of may be defined in a few different equivalent ways (see Characterizations of the exponential function).", "Several of these methods may be directly extended to give definitions of for complex values of simply by substituting in place of and using the complex algebraic operations.", "In particular, we may use any of the three following definitions, which are equivalent.", "From a more advanced perspective, each of these definitions may be interpreted as giving the unique analytic continuation of to the complex plane.===Differential equation definition===The exponential function is the unique differentiable function of a complex variable for which the derivative equals the function and ===Power series definition===For complex Using the ratio test, it is possible to show that this power series has an infinite radius of convergence and so defines for all complex .===Limit definition===For complex Here, is restricted to positive integers, so there is no question about what the power with exponent means." ], [ "Proofs", "Various proofs of the formula are possible.===Using differentiation===This proof shows that the quotient of the trigonometric and exponential expressions is the constant function one, so they must be equal (the exponential function is never zero, so this is permitted).Consider the function for real .", "Differentiating gives by the product ruleThus, is a constant.", "Since , then for all real , and thus ===Using power series===Here is a proof of Euler's formula using power-series expansions, as well as basic facts about the powers of :Using now the power-series definition from above, we see that for real values of where in the last step we recognize the two terms are the Maclaurin series for and .", "The rearrangement of terms is justified because each series is absolutely convergent.===Using polar coordinates===Another proof is based on the fact that all complex numbers can be expressed in polar coordinates.", "Therefore, for some and depending on ,No assumptions are being made about and ; they will be determined in the course of the proof.", "From any of the definitions of the exponential function it can be shown that the derivative of is .", "Therefore, differentiating both sides givesSubstituting for and equating real and imaginary parts in this formula gives and .", "Thus, is a constant, and is for some constant .", "The initial values and come from , giving and .", "This proves the formula" ], [ "Applications", "===Applications in complex number theory===Euler's formula illustrated in the complex plane.==== Interpretation of the formula ====This formula can be interpreted as saying that the function is a unit complex number, i.e., it traces out the unit circle in the complex plane as ranges through the real numbers.", "Here is the angle that a line connecting the origin with a point on the unit circle makes with the positive real axis, measured counterclockwise and in radians.The original proof is based on the Taylor series expansions of the exponential function (where is a complex number) and of and for real numbers (see above).", "In fact, the same proof shows that Euler's formula is even valid for all ''complex'' numbers .A point in the complex plane can be represented by a complex number written in cartesian coordinates.", "Euler's formula provides a means of conversion between cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates.", "The polar form simplifies the mathematics when used in multiplication or powers of complex numbers.", "Any complex number , and its complex conjugate, , can be written aswhere* is the real part,* is the imaginary part,* is the magnitude of and.", "is the argument of , i.e., the angle between the ''x'' axis and the vector ''z'' measured counterclockwise in radians, which is defined up to addition of .", "Many texts write instead of , but the first equation needs adjustment when .", "This is because for any real and , not both zero, the angles of the vectors and differ by radians, but have the identical value of .==== Use of the formula to define the logarithm of complex numbers ====Now, taking this derived formula, we can use Euler's formula to define the logarithm of a complex number.", "To do this, we also use the definition of the logarithm (as the inverse operator of exponentiation):and thatboth valid for any complex numbers and .", "Therefore, one can write:for any .", "Taking the logarithm of both sides shows thatand in fact, this can be used as the definition for the complex logarithm.", "The logarithm of a complex number is thus a multi-valued function, because is multi-valued.Finally, the other exponential lawwhich can be seen to hold for all integers , together with Euler's formula, implies several trigonometric identities, as well as de Moivre's formula.==== Relationship to trigonometry ====Relationship between sine, cosine and exponential functionEuler's formula, the definitions of the trigonometric functions and the standard identities for exponentials are sufficient to easily derive most trigonometric identities.", "It provides a powerful connection between analysis and trigonometry, and provides an interpretation of the sine and cosine functions as weighted sums of the exponential function:The two equations above can be derived by adding or subtracting Euler's formulas:and solving for either cosine or sine.These formulas can even serve as the definition of the trigonometric functions for complex arguments .", "For example, letting , we have:Complex exponentials can simplify trigonometry, because they are easier to manipulate than their sinusoidal components.", "One technique is simply to convert sinusoids into equivalent expressions in terms of exponentials.", "After the manipulations, the simplified result is still real-valued.", "For example:Another technique is to represent the sinusoids in terms of the real part of a complex expression and perform the manipulations on the complex expression.", "For example:This formula is used for recursive generation of for integer values of and arbitrary (in radians).===Topological interpretation===In the language of topology, Euler's formula states that the imaginary exponential function is a (surjective) morphism of topological groups from the real line to the unit circle .", "In fact, this exhibits as a covering space of .", "Similarly, Euler's identity says that the kernel of this map is , where .", "These observations may be combined and summarized in the commutative diagram below:Euler's formula and identity combined in diagrammatic form===Other applications===In differential equations, the function is often used to simplify solutions, even if the final answer is a real function involving sine and cosine.", "The reason for this is that the exponential function is the eigenfunction of the operation of differentiation.In electrical engineering, signal processing, and similar fields, signals that vary periodically over time are often described as a combination of sinusoidal functions (see Fourier analysis), and these are more conveniently expressed as the sum of exponential functions with imaginary exponents, using Euler's formula.", "Also, phasor analysis of circuits can include Euler's formula to represent the impedance of a capacitor or an inductor.In the four-dimensional space of quaternions, there is a sphere of imaginary units.", "For any point on this sphere, and a real number, Euler's formula applies:and the element is called a versor in quaternions.", "The set of all versors forms a 3-sphere in the 4-space." ], [ "See also", " Complex number* Euler's identity* Integration using Euler's formula* * List of things named after Leonhard Euler" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* " ], [ "External links", " Elements of Algebra" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Édouard Manet" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Édouard Manet''' (, ; ; 23 January 1832 – 30 April 1883) was a French modernist painter.", "He was one of the first 19th-century artists to paint modern life, as well as a pivotal figure in the transition from Realism to Impressionism.Born into an upper-class household with strong political connections, Manet rejected the naval career originally envisioned for him; he became engrossed in the world of painting.", "His early masterworks, ''The Luncheon on the Grass'' (''Le déjeuner sur l'herbe'') or ''Olympia'', \"premiering\" in 1863 and '65, respectively, caused great controversy with both critics and the Academy of Fine Arts, but soon were praised by progressive artists as the breakthrough acts to the new style, Impressionism.", "Today too, these works, along with others, are considered watershed paintings that mark the start of modern art.", "The last 20 years of Manet's life saw him form bonds with other great artists of the time; he developed his own simple and direct style that would be heralded as innovative and serve as a major influence for future painters." ], [ "Early life", "Manet's portrait painted by Henri Fantin-LatourÉdouard Manet was born in Paris on 23 January 1832, in the ancestral hôtel particulier (mansion) on the Rue des Petits Augustins (now Rue Bonaparte) to an affluent and well-connected family.", "His mother, Eugénie-Desirée Fournier, was the daughter of a diplomat and goddaughter of the Swedish crown prince Charles Bernadotte, from whom the Swedish monarchs are descended.", "His father, Auguste Manet, was a French judge who expected Édouard to pursue a career in law.", "His uncle, Edmond Fournier, encouraged him to pursue painting and took young Manet to the Louvre.", "In 1844, he enrolled at secondary school, the Collège Rollin, where he boarded until 1848.He showed little academic talent and was generally unhappy at the school.", "In 1845, at the advice of his uncle, Manet enrolled in a special course of drawing where he met Antonin Proust, future Minister of Fine Arts and subsequent lifelong friend.At his father's suggestion, in 1848 he sailed on a training vessel to Rio de Janeiro.", "After he twice failed the examination to join the Navy, his father relented to his wishes to pursue an art education.", "From 1850 to 1856, Manet studied under the academic painter Thomas Couture.", "Couture encouraged his students to paint contemporary life, though he would eventually be horrified by Manet's choice of lower-class and \"degenerate\" subjects such as ''The Absinthe Drinker''.", "In his spare time, Manet copied Old Masters such as Diego Velázquez and Titian in the Louvre.From 1853 to 1856, Manet made brief visits to Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands, during which time he was influenced by the Dutch painter Frans Hals and the Spanish artists Velázquez and Francisco José de Goya." ], [ "Career", "In 1856, Manet opened a studio.", "His style in this period was characterized by loose brush strokes, simplification of details, and the suppression of transitional tones.", "Adopting the current style of realism initiated by Gustave Courbet, he painted ''The Absinthe Drinker'' (1858–59) and other contemporary subjects such as beggars, singers, Gypsies, people in cafés, and bullfights.", "After his early career, he rarely painted religious, mythological, or historical subjects; religious paintings from 1864 include his ''Jesus Mocked by the Soldiers'' and ''The Dead Christ with Angels''.", "Manet had two canvases accepted at the Salon in 1861.A portrait of his mother and father (''Portrait of M. and Mme Auguste Manet''), the latter of whom at the time was paralysed by a stroke or advanced syphilis, was ill-received by critics.", "The other, ''The Spanish Singer'', was admired by Théophile Gautier, and placed in a more conspicuous location as a result of its popularity with Salon-goers.", "Manet's work, which appeared \"slightly slapdash\" when compared with the meticulous style of so many other Salon paintings, intrigued some young artists and brought new business to his studio.", "According to one contemporary source, ''The Spanish Singer'', painted in a \"strange new fashion, caused many painters' eyes to open and their jaws to drop.", "\"===''Music in the Tuileries''===''Music in the Tuileries'', 1862In 1862, Manet exhibited ''Music in the Tuileries'' (probably painted in 1860), one of his first masterpieces.", "With its portrayal of a crowd of subjects at the Jardin des Tuileries, the painting shows the outdoor leisure of contemporary Paris, which would be a lifelong subject of Manet's.", "Among the figures in the gardens are the poet Charles Baudelaire, the musician Jacques Offenbach, and others of Manet's family and friends, including a self-portrait of the artist.", "''Music in the Tuileries'' received substantial critical and public attention, most of it negative.", "In the words of one Manet biographer, \"it is difficult for us to imagine the kind of fury ''Music in the Tuileries'' provoked when it was exhibited\".", "By portraying Manet's social circle instead of classical heroes, historical icons, or gods, the painting could be interpreted as challenging the value of those subjects or as an attempt to elevate his contemporaries to the same level.", "The public, accustomed to the finely detailed brushwork of historical painters such as Ernest Meissonier, thought Manet's thick brushstrokes looked crude and unfinished.", "Angered by the subject matter and technique, several visitors even threatened to destroy the painting.", "One of Manet's idols, Eugène Delacroix, was of the painting's few defenders.", "Despite the largely negative reaction, the controversy made Manet a well-known name in Paris.===''Luncheon on the Grass ''(''Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe'')===The Luncheon on the Grass'' (), 1863Another major early work is ''The Luncheon on the Grass (Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe)'', originally ''Le Bain''.", "The Paris Salon rejected it for exhibition in 1863, but Manet agreed to exhibit it at the Salon des Refusés (Salon of the Rejected).", "This parallel salon was initiated by Emperor Napoleon III as a solution to the public outcry after the official salon's Selection Committee only accepted 2217 paintings out of more than 5000 submissions, and allowed rejected artists to still display their paintings if they chose.", "The painting's juxtaposition of fully dressed men and a nude woman was controversial, as was its abbreviated, sketch-like handling, an innovation that distinguished Manet from Courbet.", "One critic stated that the brushwork appeared to have been done with a \"floor mop\".", "However, others such as his friend Antonin Proust celebrated the painting, and novelist Émile Zola was so affected by the experience of viewing it that he later based the title painting in his novel ''L'Œuvre'' (\"The Work of Art\") on ''Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe''.At the same time, Manet's composition reveals his study of the old masters, as the disposition of the main figures is derived from Marcantonio Raimondi's engraving of the ''Judgement of Paris'' () based on a drawing by Raphael.", "Two additional works cited by scholars as important precedents for are ''Pastoral Concert'' () and ''The Tempest'', both of which are attributed variously to Italian Renaissance masters Giorgione or Titian.", "''Le Déjeuner'' and James McNeill Whistler's ''Symphony in White, No.", "1: The White Girl'' were the two most discussed works of the Salon des Refusés, which itself would become one of the most famous art exhibitions of all time.", "Following the Salon, Manet became yet more notorious and widely discussed.", "However, ''Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe'' and Manet's other paintings still failed to sell, and Manet continued living off of his inheritance from his recently deceased father.===''Olympia''===Olympia'', 1863As he had in ''Luncheon on the Grass'', Manet again paraphrased a respected work by a Renaissance artist in the painting ''Olympia'' (1863), a nude portrayed in a style reminiscent of early studio photographs, but whose pose was based on Titian's ''Venus of Urbino'' (1538).", "The painting is also reminiscent of Francisco Goya's painting ''The Nude Maja'' (1800).Manet embarked on the canvas after being challenged to give the Salon a nude painting to display.", "His uniquely frank depiction of a self-assured prostitute was accepted by the Paris Salon in 1865, where it created a scandal.", "According to Antonin Proust, \"only the precautions taken by the administration prevented the painting being punctured and torn\" by offended viewers.", "The painting was controversial partly because the nude is wearing some small items of clothing such as an orchid in her hair, a bracelet, a ribbon around her neck, and mule slippers, all of which accentuated her nakedness, sexuality, and comfortable courtesan lifestyle.", "The orchid, upswept hair, black cat, and bouquet of flowers were all recognized symbols of sexuality at the time.", "This modern Venus' body is thin, counter to prevailing standards; the painting's lack of idealism rankled viewers.", "The painting's flatness, inspired by Japanese wood block art, serves to make the nude more human and less voluptuous.", "A fully dressed black servant is featured, exploiting the then-current theory that black people were hyper-sexed.", "That she is wearing the clothing of a servant to a courtesan here furthers the sexual tension of the piece.Olympia's body as well as her gaze is unabashedly confrontational.", "She defiantly looks out as her servant offers flowers from one of her male suitors.", "Although her hand rests on her leg, hiding her pubic area, the reference to traditional female virtue is ironic; a notion of modesty is notoriously absent in this work.", "A contemporary critic denounced Olympia's \"shamelessly flexed\" left hand, which seemed to him a mockery of the relaxed, shielding hand of Titian's Venus.", "Likewise, the alert black cat at the foot of the bed strikes a sexually rebellious note in contrast to that of the sleeping dog in Titian's portrayal of the goddess in his ''Venus of Urbino''.", "''Olympia'' was the subject of caricatures in the popular press, but was championed by the French avant-garde community, and the painting's significance was appreciated by artists such as Gustave Courbet, Paul Cézanne, Claude Monet, and later Paul Gauguin.As with ''Luncheon on the Grass'', the painting raised the issue of prostitution within contemporary France and the roles of women within society.===Life and times===''Berthe Morisot with a Bouquet of Violets'', 1872''Berthe Morisot reclining'', 1873After the death of his father in 1862, Manet married Suzanne Leenhoff in 1863 at a Protestant church.", "Leenhoff was a Dutch-born piano teacher two years Manet's senior with whom he had been romantically involved for approximately ten years.", "Leenhoff initially had been employed by Manet's father, Auguste, to teach Manet and his younger brother piano.", "She also may have been Auguste's mistress.", "In 1852, Leenhoff gave birth, out of wedlock, to a son, Leon Koella Leenhoff.Manet painted his wife in ''The Reading'', among other paintings.", "Her son, Leon Leenhoff, whose father may have been either of the Manets, posed often for Manet.", "Most famously, he is the subject of the ''Boy Carrying a Sword'' of 1861 (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York).", "He also appears as the boy carrying a tray in the background of ''The Balcony'' (1868–69).Manet became friends with the Impressionists Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley, Paul Cézanne, and Camille Pissarro through another painter, Berthe Morisot, who was a member of the group and drew him into their activities.", "They later became widely known as the Batignolles group (Le groupe des Batignolles).The supposed grand-niece of the painter Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Morisot had her first painting accepted in the Salon de Paris in 1864, and she continued to show in the salon for the next ten years.Manet became the friend and colleague of Morisot in 1868.She is credited with convincing Manet to attempt plein air painting, which she had been practicing since she was introduced to it by another friend of hers, Camille Corot.", "They had a reciprocating relationship and Manet incorporated some of her techniques into his paintings.", "In 1874, she became his sister-in-law when she married his brother, Eugène.", "It has been speculated that there was a repressed love between Manet and Morisot, exemplified by the numerous portraits he did of her before she married his brother.Self-Portrait with Palette'', 1879Unlike the core Impressionist group, Manet maintained that modern artists should seek to exhibit at the Paris Salon rather than abandon it in favor of independent exhibitions.", "Nevertheless, when Manet was excluded from the International Exhibition of 1867, he set up his own exhibition.", "His mother worried that he would waste all his inheritance on this project, which was enormously expensive.", "While the exhibition earned poor reviews from the major critics, it also provided his first contacts with several future Impressionist painters, including Degas.Although his own work influenced and anticipated the Impressionist style, Manet resisted involvement in Impressionist exhibitions, partly because he did not wish to be seen as the representative of a group identity, and partly because he preferred to exhibit at the Salon.", "Eva Gonzalès, a daughter of the novelist Emmanuel Gonzalès, was his only formal student.He was influenced by the Impressionists, especially Monet and Morisot.", "Their influence is seen in Manet's use of lighter colors: after the early 1870s he made less use of dark backgrounds but retained his distinctive use of black, uncharacteristic of Impressionist painting.", "He painted many outdoor (plein air) pieces, but always returned to what he considered the serious work of the studio.Manet enjoyed a close friendship with composer Emmanuel Chabrier, painting two portraits of him; the musician owned 14 of Manet's paintings and dedicated his ''Impromptu'' to Manet's wife.One of Manet's frequent models at the beginning of the 1880s was the \"semimondaine\" Méry Laurent, who posed for seven portraits in pastel.", "Laurent's salons hosted many French (and even American) writers and painters of her time; Manet had connections and influence through such events.", "''Baudelaire's Mistress (Portrait of Jeanne Duval)'', 1862Throughout his life, although resisted by art critics, Manet could number as his champions Émile Zola, who supported him publicly in the press, Stéphane Mallarmé, and Charles Baudelaire, who challenged him to depict life as it was.", "Manet, in turn, drew or painted each of them.=== Café scenes ===''The Café-Concert'', 1878.Scene set in the Cabaret de Reichshoffen on the Boulevard Rochechouart, where women on the fringes of society freely intermingled with well-heeled gentlemen.", "The Walters Art Museum.Manet's paintings of café scenes are observations of social life in 19th-century Paris.", "People are depicted drinking beer, listening to music, flirting, reading, or waiting.", "Many of these paintings were based on sketches executed on the spot.", "Manet often visited the Brasserie Reichshoffen on boulevard de Rochechourt, upon which he based ''At the Cafe'' in 1878.Several people are at the bar, and one woman confronts the viewer while others wait to be served.", "Such depictions represent the painted journal of a flâneur.", "These are painted in a style which is loose, referencing Hals and Velázquez, yet they capture the mood and feeling of Parisian night life.", "They are painted snapshots of bohemianism, urban working people, as well as some of the bourgeoisie.In ''Corner of a Café-Concert'', a man smokes while behind him a waitress serves drinks.", "In ''The Beer Drinkers'' a woman enjoys her beer in the company of a friend.", "In ''The Café-Concert'', shown at right, a sophisticated gentleman sits at a bar while a waitress stands resolutely in the background, sipping her drink.", "In ''The Waitress'', a serving woman pauses for a moment behind a seated customer smoking a pipe, while a ballet dancer, with arms extended as she is about to turn, is on stage in the background.Manet also sat at the restaurant on the Avenue de Clichy called Pere Lathuille's, which had a garden in addition to the dining area.", "One of the paintings he produced here was ''Chez le père Lathuille'' (At Pere Lathuille's), in which a man displays an unrequited interest in a woman dining near him.In ''Le Bon Bock'' (1873), a large, cheerful, bearded man sits with a pipe in one hand and a glass of beer in the other, looking straight at the viewer.===Paintings of social activities===''The Races at Longchamp'', 1864Manet painted the upper class enjoying more formal social activities.", "In ''Masked Ball at the Opera'', Manet shows a lively crowd of people enjoying a party.", "Men stand with top hats and long black suits while talking to women with masks and costumes.", "He included portraits of his friends in this picture.His 1868 painting ''The Luncheon'' was posed in the dining room of the Manet house.Manet depicted other popular activities in his work.", "In ''The Races at Longchamp'', an unusual perspective is employed to underscore the furious energy of racehorses as they rush toward the viewer.", "In ''Skating'', Manet shows a well dressed woman in the foreground, while others skate behind her.", "Always there is the sense of active urban life continuing behind the subject, extending outside the frame of the canvas.In ''View of the International Exhibition'', soldiers relax, seated and standing, prosperous couples are talking.", "There is a gardener, a boy with a dog, a woman on horseback—in short, a sample of the classes and ages of the people of Paris.===War===''The Execution of Emperor Maximilian'', 1867.Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.", "The least finished of three large canvases devoted to the execution of Maximilian I of Mexico.Manet's response to modern life included works devoted to war, in subjects that may be seen as updated interpretations of the genre of \"history painting\".", "The first such work was ''The Battle of the Kearsarge and the Alabama'' (1864), a sea skirmish known as the ''Battle of Cherbourg'' from the American Civil War which took place off the French coast, and may have been witnessed by the artist.Of interest next was the French intervention in Mexico; from 1867 to 1869 Manet painted three versions of the ''Execution of Emperor Maximilian'', an event which raised concerns regarding French foreign and domestic policy.", "The several versions of the ''Execution'' are among Manet's largest paintings, which suggests that the theme was one which the painter regarded as most important.", "Its subject is the execution by Mexican firing squad of a Habsburg emperor who had been installed by Napoleon III.", "Neither the paintings nor a lithograph of the subject were permitted to be shown in France.", "As an indictment of formalized slaughter, the paintings look back to Goya, and anticipate Picasso's ''Guernica''.Boy blowing bubbles (1867), Manet paints about the fleetingness of life, a theme traditionally represented by soap bubbles in paintingDuring the Franco-Prussian War, Manet served in the National Guard to help defend the city during the siege of Paris, along with Degas.", "In January 1871, he traveled to Oloron-Sainte-Marie in the Pyrenees.", "In his absence his friends added his name to the \"Fédération des artistes\" (see: Courbet) of the Paris Commune.", "Manet stayed away from Paris, perhaps, until after the ''semaine sanglante'': in a letter to Berthe Morisot at Cherbourg (10 June 1871) he writes, ''\"We came back to Paris a few days ago...\"'' (the semaine sanglante ended on 28 May).The prints and drawings collection of the Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest) has a watercolour/gouache by Manet, ''The Barricade'', depicting a summary execution of Communards by Versailles troops based on a lithograph of the execution of Maximilian.", "A similar piece, ''The Barricade'' (oil on plywood), is held by a private collector.On 18 March 1871, he wrote to his (confederate) friend Félix Bracquemond in Paris about his visit to Bordeaux, the provisional seat of the French National Assembly of the Third French Republic where Émile Zola introduced him to the sites: \"I never imagined that France could be represented by such doddering old fools, not excepting that little twit Thiers...\" If this could be interpreted as support of the Commune, a following letter to Bracquemond (21 March 1871) expressed his idea more clearly: \"Only party hacks and the ambitious, the Henrys of this world following on the heels of the Milliéres, the grotesque imitators of the Commune of 1793\".", "He knew the communard Lucien Henry to have been a former painter's model and Millière, an insurance agent.", "\"What an encouragement all these bloodthirsty caperings are for the arts!", "But there is at least one consolation in our misfortunes: that we're not politicians and have no desire to be elected as deputies\".The public figure Manet admired most was the republican Léon Gambetta.", "In the heat of the ''seize mai'' coup in 1877, Manet opened up his atelier to a republican electoral meeting chaired by Gambetta's friend Eugène Spuller.===Paris===Manet depicted many scenes of the streets of Paris in his works.", "''The Rue Mosnier Decked with Flags'' depicts red, white, and blue pennants covering buildings on either side of the street; another painting of the same title features a one-legged man walking with crutches.", "Again depicting the same street, but this time in a different context, is ''Rue Mosnier with Pavers'', in which men repair the roadway while people and horses move past.", "''The Railway'', 1873''The Railway'', widely known as ''The Gare Saint-Lazare'', was painted in 1873.The setting is the urban landscape of Paris in the late 19th century.", "Using his favorite model in his last painting of her, a fellow painter, Victorine Meurent, also the model for ''Olympia'' and the ''Luncheon on the Grass'', sits before an iron fence holding a sleeping puppy and an open book in her lap.", "Next to her is a little girl with her back to the painter, watching a train pass beneath them.Instead of choosing the traditional natural view as background for an outdoor scene, Manet opts for the iron grating which \"boldly stretches across the canvas\".", "The only evidence of the train is its white cloud of steam.", "In the distance, modern apartment buildings are seen.", "This arrangement compresses the foreground into a narrow focus.", "The traditional convention of deep space is ignored.Historian Isabelle Dervaux has described the reception this painting received when it was first exhibited at the official Paris Salon of 1874: \"Visitors and critics found its subject baffling, its composition incoherent, and its execution sketchy.", "Caricaturists ridiculed Manet's picture, in which only a few recognized the symbol of modernity that it has become today\".", "The painting is currently in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.Manet painted several boating subjects in 1874.", "''Boating'', now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, exemplifies in its conciseness the lessons Manet learned from Japanese prints, and the abrupt cropping by the frame of the boat and sail adds to the immediacy of the image.In 1875, a book-length French edition of Edgar Allan Poe's ''The Raven'' included lithographs by Manet and translation by Mallarmé.In 1881, with pressure from his friend Antonin Proust, the French government awarded Manet the Légion d'honneur.===Late works===''A Bar at the Folies-Bergère (Un Bar aux Folies-Bergère)'', 1882, Courtauld Gallery, LondonIn his mid-forties Manet's health deteriorated, and he developed severe pain and partial paralysis in his legs.", "In 1879 he began receiving hydrotherapy treatments at a spa near Meudon intended to improve what he believed was a circulatory problem, but in reality he was suffering from locomotor ataxia, a known side-effect of syphilis.", "In 1880, he painted a portrait there of the opera singer Émilie Ambre as Carmen.", "Ambre and her lover Gaston de Beauplan had an estate in Meudon and had organized the first exhibition of Manet's ''The Execution of Emperor Maximilian'' in New York in December 1879.In his last years Manet painted many small-scale still lifes of fruits and vegetables, such as ''A'' ''Bunch of Asparagus'' and ''The Lemon'' (both 1880).", "He completed his last major work, ''A Bar at the Folies-Bergère (Un Bar aux Folies-Bergère)'', in 1882, and it hung in the Salon that year.", "Afterwards, he limited himself to small formats.", "Manet's last paintings were of flowers in glass vases.", "There are 20 such paintings known, with the last one painted in March 1883, barely two months before his death.", "Quoted in Venice thirteen years later, Manet is credited with stating that an artist can say everything he has to say with \"flowers, fruit, and clouds.\"", "His last flower paintings are a demonstration of that belief.In 2023, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City exhibited a two-person exhibition of Manet with Degas." ], [ "Death", "In April 1883, his left foot was amputated because of gangrene caused by complications from syphilis and rheumatism.", "He died eleven days later on 30 April in Paris.", "He is buried in the Passy Cemetery in the city." ], [ "Legacy", "Manet's public career lasted from 1861, the year of his first participation in the Salon, until his death in 1883.His known extant works, as catalogued in 1975 by Denis Rouart and Daniel Wildenstein, comprise 430 oil paintings, 89 pastels, and more than 400 works on paper.The grave of Manet at PassyAlthough harshly condemned by critics who decried its lack of conventional finish, Manet's work had admirers from the beginning.", "One was Émile Zola, who wrote in 1867: \"We are not accustomed to seeing such simple and direct translations of reality.", "Then, as I said, there is such a surprisingly elegant awkwardness ... it is a truly charming experience to contemplate this luminous and serious painting which interprets nature with a gentle brutality.", "\"The roughly painted style and photographic lighting in Manet's paintings was seen as specifically modern, and as a challenge to the Renaissance works he copied or used as source material.", "He rejected the technique he had learned in the studio of Thomas Couture – in which a painting was constructed using successive layers of paint on a dark-toned ground – in favor of a direct, ''alla prima'' method using opaque paint on a light ground.", "Novel at the time, this method made possible the completion of a painting in a single sitting.", "It was adopted by the Impressionists, and became the prevalent method of painting in oils for generations that followed.", "Manet's work is considered \"early modern\", partially because of the opaque flatness of his surfaces, the frequent sketch-like passages, and the black outlining of figures, all of which draw attention to the surface of the picture plane and the material quality of paint.The art historian Beatrice Farwell says Manet \"has been universally regarded as the Father of Modernism.", "With Courbet he was among the first to take serious risks with the public whose favour he sought, the first to make ''alla prima'' painting the standard technique for oil painting and one of the first to take liberties with Renaissance perspective and to offer 'pure painting' as a source of aesthetic pleasure.", "He was a pioneer, again with Courbet, in the rejection of humanistic and historical subject-matter, and shared with Degas the establishment of modern urban life as acceptable material for high art.", "\"===Art market===The late Manet painting, ''Le Printemps'' (1881), sold to the J. Paul Getty Museum for $65.1 million, setting a new auction record for Manet, exceeding its pre-sale estimate of $25–35 million at Christie's on 5 November 2014.The previous auction record was held by ''Self-Portrait With Palette'' which sold for $33.2 million at Sotheby's on 22 June 2010." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Christ as a Gardener by Edouard Manet.jpg\|''Christ as a Gardener'', c. 1856–1859, Private Collection.File:Edouard Manet - The Absinthe Drinker - Google Art Project.jpg\|''The Absinthe Drinker'' c. 1859, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, CopenhagenFile:The Spanish Singer MET dp130799.jpg\|''The Spanish Singer'', 1860, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkFile:Édouard Manet - L'Enfant à l'épée.jpg\|''Boy Carrying a Sword'', 1861, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkFile:Édouard MANET - La Nymphe surprise - Google Art Project.jpg\|''The surprised nymph'', 1861, National Museum of Fine Arts, Buenos AiresFile:Édouard Manet - Le Vieux Musicien.jpg\|''The Old Musician'', 1862, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:Edouard Manet - Mlle Victorine Meurent in the Costume of an Espada.JPG\|''Mlle.", "Victorine in the Costume of a Matador'', 1862, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkFile:Spanish Ballet.jpg\|''Spanish Ballet'', 1864, The Phillips Collection, Washington D.C.File:Édouard Manet - Le Christ mort et les anges.jpg\|''The Dead Christ with Angels'', 1864, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkFile:Édouard Manet-Kearsarge-Alabama2.jpg\|''The Battle of the Kearsarge and the Alabama'', 1864, Philadelphia Museum of Art.", "Inspired by the Battle of Cherbourg (1864)File:Edouard Manet 073.jpg\|''Dead Matador'', 1864–65, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:The Philosopher.jpg\|''The Philosopher, (Beggar with Oysters)'', 1864–67, Art Institute of ChicagoFile:The Ragpicker 1869 Edouard Manet.jpg\|''The Ragpicker'', 1865–70, Norton Simon Museum, PasadenaFile:Edouard Manet 005.jpg\|''The Reading'', 1865–1873, Musée d'Orsay, ParisFile:Manet, Edouard - Young Flautist, or The Fifer, 1866 (2).jpg\|''Young Flautist, or The Fifer'', 1866, Musée d'Orsay, ParisFile:Still Life with Melon and Peaches.JPG\|''Still Life with Melon and Peaches'', 1866, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:The Tragic Actor (Rouvière as Hamlet).JPG\|''The Tragic Actor (Rouvière as Hamlet)'', 1866, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:Édouard Manet - Young Lady in 1866 - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Woman with Parrot'', 1866, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkFile:Édouard Manet, 'The Guitar Player'.jpg\|''The Guitar Player'', c. 1866, Hill-Stead Museum, Farmington, ConnecticutFile:Portrait of Madame Brunet (also known as Young Woman in 1860), painted in 1860-1863, and reworked by 1867 by Manet, Getty.jpg\|''Portrait of Madame Brunet'', 1867, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los AngelesFile:Edouard Manet 022.jpg\|''The Execution of Emperor Maximilian'', 1868, Kunsthalle MannheimFile:Edouard Manet 049.jpg\|''Portrait of Émile Zola'', 1868, Musée d'Orsay, ParisFile:Edouard Manet 025.jpg\|''Breakfast in the Studio (the Black Jacket)'', 1868, Neue Pinakothek, Munich.", "File:Edouard Manet - The Balcony - Google Art Project.jpg\|''The Balcony'', 1868–69, Musée d'Orsay, ParisFile:Édouard Manet - Gitane avec une cigarette.jpg\|''Gypsy with a Cigarette'', c. 1860s–1870s, Princeton University Art MuseumFile:Manet - Interior at Arcachon, 1871.jpg\|''Interior at Arcachon'', c. 1871, Clark Art Institute, Williamstown, MassachusettsFile:Edouard Manet 093.jpg\|''Masked Ball at the Opera House'', 1873, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:Edouard Manet Boating.jpg\|''Boating'', 1874, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkFile:Édouard Manet - Portrait de l'abbé Hurel.jpg\|''Portrait of Abbé Hurel'', 1874, National Museum of Decorative Arts, Buenos AiresFile:The grand canal of Venice (Blue Venice) - Edouard Manet.png\|''The grand canal of Venice (Blue Venice)'', 1875, Shelburne Museum, VermontFile:Edouard Manet Full-face Portrait of Manets Wife.jpg\|''Madame Manet'', c. 1874–76, Norton Simon Museum, PasadenaFile:Portrait of Stéphane Mallarmé (Manet).jpg\|''Portrait of Stéphane Mallarmé'', 1876, Musée d'Orsay, ParisFile:Edouard Manet 037.jpg\|''Nana'', 1877, Hamburger KunsthalleFile:Édouard Manet, The Rue Mosnier with Flags, 1878.jpg\|''The Rue Mosnier with Flags'', 1878, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los AngelesFile:Edouard Manet - The Plum - National Gallery of Art.jpg\|''The Plum'', 1878, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:Manet, Edouard - At the Café, 1878.jpg\|''At the café'', 1878, Sammlung Oskar Reinhart 'Am Römerholz', WinterthurFile:Edouard Manet 055.jpg\|''The bar'', 1878–79, Pushkin Museum, MoscowFile:In the Conservatory - edited.jpg\|''In the Conservatory'', 1879, Alte Nationalgalerie, BerlinFile:Edouard Manet 031.jpg\|''Chez le père Lathuille'', 1879, Musée des Beaux-Arts TournaiFile:Edouard Manet Bunch of Asparagus.jpg\|''A Bundle of Asparagus'', 1880, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, CologneFile:Édouard Manet - Pertuiset, le chasseur de lions.jpg\|''Pertuiset, the lion hunter'', 1881, São Paulo Museum of ArtFile:'Summer' or 'The Amazon', by Edouard Manet.jpg\|''Horsewoman'', c. 1882, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid File:Edouard Manet 027.jpg\|''House in Rueil'', 1882, National Gallery of Victoria, MelbourneFile:Manet - Gartenweg in Rueil.jpg\|''Garden Path in Rueil'', 1882, Musée des Beaux-Arts de DijonFile:Flowers in a Crystal Vase, Edouard Manet, c1882.jpg\|''Flowers in a Crystal Vase'', 1882, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:Édouard Manet - Der Fliederstrauß.jpg\|''Still Life, Lilac Bouquet'', 1883, Alte Nationalgalerie, BerlinFile:Oeillets et clématite dans un vase de cristal (ca.1882) - Edouard Manet (Musée d'Orsay, Paris).jpg\|''Carnations and Clematis in a Crystal Vase'', 1883, Musée d'Orsay, ParisFile:A Parisian Lady (Édouard Manet) - Nationalmuseum - 19127.tif\|''A Parisian Lady,'' 1883, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm" ], [ "See also", "* List of paintings by Édouard Manet* Realism* Hispagnolisme* Portraiture* History of painting* Western painting" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Further reading=======Short introductory works====* * * One of the friendships is that of Manet and Edgar Degas, pp.", "91-176.====Longer works====* and * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Union List of Artist Names, Getty Vocabularies.", "ULAN Full Record Display for Édouard Manet, Getty Research Institute* '' Impressionism: a centenary exhibition'', an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (pp.", "110–130)* Manet, a video documentary about his work* Documenting the Gilded Age: New York City Exhibitions at the Turn of the 20th Century* '' The Private Collection of Edgar Degas'', material on Manet's relationship with Degas, Metropolitan Museum of Art* The Getty Manet: Is Beauty Transitory?", "2016 Getty Museum lecture by Richard Brettell.", "* Jennifer A. Thompson, \"''The Battle of the USS 'Kearsarge' and the CSS 'Alabama''' by Edouard Manet (cat.", "1027)\" in '' The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works'', a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication.", "* Manet/Degas exhibition at Musée d'Orsay, from 28 March to 23 July 2023.", "* Manet/Degas exhibition at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 24 September 2023 - 7 January 2024." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Evolutionarily stable strategy" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''evolutionarily stable strategy''' ('''ESS''') is a strategy (or set of strategies) that is ''impermeable'' when adopted by a population in adaptation to a specific environment, that is to say it cannot be displaced by an alternative strategy (or set of strategies) which may be novel or initially rare.", "Introduced by John Maynard Smith and George R. Price in 1972/3, it is an important concept in behavioural ecology, evolutionary psychology, mathematical game theory and economics, with applications in other fields such as anthropology, philosophy and political science.In game-theoretical terms, an ESS is an equilibrium refinement of the Nash equilibrium, being a Nash equilibrium that is also \"evolutionarily stable.\"", "Thus, once fixed in a population, natural selection alone is sufficient to prevent alternative (mutant) strategies from replacing it (although this does not preclude the possibility that a better strategy, or set of strategies, will emerge in response to selective pressures resulting from environmental change)." ], [ "History", "Evolutionarily stable strategies were defined and introduced by John Maynard Smith and George R. Price in a 1973 ''Nature'' paper.", "Such was the time taken in peer-reviewing the paper for ''Nature'' that this was preceded by a 1972 essay by Maynard Smith in a book of essays titled ''On Evolution''.", "The 1972 essay is sometimes cited instead of the 1973 paper, but university libraries are much more likely to have copies of ''Nature''.", "Papers in ''Nature'' are usually short; in 1974, Maynard Smith published a longer paper in the ''Journal of Theoretical Biology''.", "Maynard Smith explains further in his 1982 book ''Evolution and the Theory of Games''.", "Sometimes these are cited instead.", "In fact, the ESS has become so central to game theory that often no citation is given, as the reader is assumed to be familiar with it.Maynard Smith mathematically formalised a verbal argument made by Price, which he read while peer-reviewing Price's paper.", "When Maynard Smith realized that the somewhat disorganised Price was not ready to revise his article for publication, he offered to add Price as co-author.The concept was derived from R. H. MacArthur and W. D. Hamilton's work on sex ratios, derived from Fisher's principle, especially Hamilton's (1967) concept of an unbeatable strategy.", "Maynard Smith was jointly awarded the 1999 Crafoord Prize for his development of the concept of evolutionarily stable strategies and the application of game theory to the evolution of behaviour.Uses of ESS:* The ESS was a major element used to analyze evolution in Richard Dawkins' bestselling 1976 book ''The Selfish Gene''.", "* The ESS was first used in the social sciences by Robert Axelrod in his 1984 book ''The Evolution of Cooperation''.", "Since then, it has been widely used in the social sciences, including anthropology, economics, philosophy, and political science.", "* In the social sciences, the primary interest is not in an ESS as the end of biological evolution, but as an end point in cultural evolution or individual learning.", "* In evolutionary psychology, ESS is used primarily as a model for human biological evolution." ], [ "Motivation", "The Nash equilibrium is the traditional solution concept in game theory.", "It depends on the cognitive abilities of the players.", "It is assumed that players are aware of the structure of the game and consciously try to predict the moves of their opponents and to maximize their own payoffs.", "In addition, it is presumed that all the players know this (see common knowledge).", "These assumptions are then used to explain why players choose Nash equilibrium strategies.Evolutionarily stable strategies are motivated entirely differently.", "Here, it is presumed that the players' strategies are biologically encoded and heritable.", "Individuals have no control over their strategy and need not be aware of the game.", "They reproduce and are subject to the forces of natural selection, with the payoffs of the game representing reproductive success (biological fitness).", "It is imagined that alternative strategies of the game occasionally occur, via a process like mutation.", "To be an ESS, a strategy must be resistant to these alternatives.Given the radically different motivating assumptions, it may come as a surprise that ESSes and Nash equilibria often coincide.", "In fact, every ESS corresponds to a Nash equilibrium, but some Nash equilibria are not ESSes." ], [ "Nash equilibrium", "An ESS is a refined or modified form of a Nash equilibrium.", "(See the next section for examples which contrast the two.)", "In a Nash equilibrium, if all players adopt their respective parts, no player can ''benefit'' by switching to any alternative strategy.", "In a two player game, it is a strategy pair.", "Let E(''S'',''T'') represent the payoff for playing strategy ''S'' against strategy ''T''.", "The strategy pair (''S'', ''S'') is a Nash equilibrium in a two player game if and only if for both players, for any strategy ''T''::E(''S'',''S'') ≥ E(''T'',''S'')In this definition, a strategy ''T''≠''S'' can be a neutral alternative to ''S'' (scoring equally well, but not better).", "A Nash equilibrium is presumed to be stable even if ''T'' scores equally, on the assumption that there is no long-term incentive for players to adopt ''T'' instead of ''S''.", "This fact represents the point of departure of the ESS.Maynard Smith and Price specify two conditions for a strategy ''S'' to be an ESS.", "For all ''T''≠''S'', either# E(''S'',''S'') > E(''T'',''S''), '''or'''# E(''S'',''S'') = E(''T'',''S'') and E(''S'',''T'') > E(''T'',''T'')The first condition is sometimes called a ''strict'' Nash equilibrium.", "The second is sometimes called \"Maynard Smith's second condition\".", "The second condition means that although strategy ''T'' is neutral with respect to the payoff against strategy ''S'', the population of players who continue to play strategy ''S'' has an advantage when playing against ''T''.There is also an alternative, stronger definition of ESS, due to Thomas.", "This places a different emphasis on the role of the Nash equilibrium concept in the ESS concept.", "Following the terminology given in the first definition above, this definition requires that for all ''T''≠''S''# E(''S'',''S'') ≥ E(''T'',''S''), '''and'''# E(''S'',''T'') > E(''T'',''T'')In this formulation, the first condition specifies that the strategy is a Nash equilibrium, and the second specifies that Maynard Smith's second condition is met.", "Note that the two definitions are not precisely equivalent: for example, each pure strategy in the coordination game below is an ESS by the first definition but not the second.In words, this definition looks like this: The payoff of the first player when both players play strategy S is higher than (or equal to) the payoff of the first player when he changes to another strategy T and the second player keeps his strategy S ''and'' the payoff of the first player when only his opponent changes his strategy to T is higher than his payoff in case that both of players change their strategies to T.This formulation more clearly highlights the role of the Nash equilibrium condition in the ESS.", "It also allows for a natural definition of related concepts such as a weak ESS or an evolutionarily stable set.===Examples of differences between Nash equilibria and ESSes===In most simple games, the ESSes and Nash equilibria coincide perfectly.", "For instance, in the prisoner's dilemma there is only one Nash equilibrium, and its strategy (''Defect'') is also an ESS.Some games may have Nash equilibria that are not ESSes.", "For example, in harm thy neighbor (whose payoff matrix is shown here) both (''A'', ''A'') and (''B'', ''B'') are Nash equilibria, since players cannot do better by switching away from either.", "However, only ''B'' is an ESS (and a strong Nash).", "''A'' is not an ESS, so ''B'' can neutrally invade a population of ''A'' strategists and predominate, because ''B'' scores higher against ''B'' than ''A'' does against ''B''.", "This dynamic is captured by Maynard Smith's second condition, since E(''A'', ''A'') = E(''B'', ''A''), but it is not the case that E(''A'',''B'') > E(''B'',''B'').Nash equilibria with equally scoring alternatives can be ESSes.", "For example, in the game ''Harm everyone'', ''C'' is an ESS because it satisfies Maynard Smith's second condition.", "''D'' strategists may temporarily invade a population of ''C'' strategists by scoring equally well against ''C'', but they pay a price when they begin to play against each other; ''C'' scores better against ''D'' than does ''D''.", "So here although E(''C'', ''C'') = E(''D'', ''C''), it is also the case that E(''C'',''D'') > E(''D'',''D'').", "As a result, ''C'' is an ESS.Even if a game has pure strategy Nash equilibria, it might be that none of those pure strategies are ESS.", "Consider the Game of chicken.", "There are two pure strategy Nash equilibria in this game (''Swerve'', ''Stay'') and (''Stay'', ''Swerve'').", "However, in the absence of an uncorrelated asymmetry, neither ''Swerve'' nor ''Stay'' are ESSes.", "There is a third Nash equilibrium, a mixed strategy which is an ESS for this game (see Hawk-dove game and Best response for explanation).This last example points to an important difference between Nash equilibria and ESS.", "Nash equilibria are defined on ''strategy sets'' (a specification of a strategy for each player), while ESS are defined in terms of strategies themselves.", "The equilibria defined by ESS must always be symmetric, and thus have fewer equilibrium points." ], [ "Vs. evolutionarily stable state", "In population biology, the two concepts of an ''evolutionarily stable strategy'' (ESS) and an ''evolutionarily stable state'' are closely linked but describe different situations.In an evolutionarily stable ''strategy,'' if all the members of a population adopt it, no mutant strategy can invade.", "Once virtually all members of the population use this strategy, there is no 'rational' alternative.", "ESS is part of classical game theory.In an evolutionarily stable ''state,'' a population's genetic composition is restored by selection after a disturbance, if the disturbance is not too large.", "An evolutionarily stable state is a dynamic property of a population that returns to using a strategy, or mix of strategies, if it is perturbed from that initial state.", "It is part of population genetics, dynamical system, or evolutionary game theory.", "This is now called convergent stability.B.", "Thomas (1984) applies the term ESS to an individual strategy which may be mixed, and evolutionarily stable population state to a population mixture of pure strategies which may be formally equivalent to the mixed ESS.Whether a population is evolutionarily stable does not relate to its genetic diversity: it can be genetically monomorphic or polymorphic." ], [ "Stochastic ESS", "In the classic definition of an ESS, no mutant strategy can invade.", "In finite populations, any mutant could in principle invade, albeit at low probability, implying that no ESS can exist.", "In an infinite population, an ESS can instead be defined as a strategy which, should it become invaded by a new mutant strategy with probability p, would be able to counterinvade from a single starting individual with probability >p, as illustrated by the evolution of bet-hedging." ], [ "Prisoner's dilemma", "A common model of altruism and social cooperation is the Prisoner's dilemma.", "Here a group of players would collectively be better off if they could play ''Cooperate'', but since ''Defect'' fares better each individual player has an incentive to play ''Defect''.", "One solution to this problem is to introduce the possibility of retaliation by having individuals play the game repeatedly against the same player.", "In the so-called ''iterated'' Prisoner's dilemma, the same two individuals play the prisoner's dilemma over and over.", "While the Prisoner's dilemma has only two strategies (''Cooperate'' and ''Defect''), the iterated Prisoner's dilemma has a huge number of possible strategies.", "Since an individual can have different contingency plan for each history and the game may be repeated an indefinite number of times, there may in fact be an infinite number of such contingency plans.Three simple contingency plans which have received substantial attention are ''Always Defect'', ''Always Cooperate'', and ''Tit for Tat''.", "The first two strategies do the same thing regardless of the other player's actions, while the latter responds on the next round by doing what was done to it on the previous round—it responds to ''Cooperate'' with ''Cooperate'' and ''Defect'' with ''Defect''.If the entire population plays ''Tit-for-Tat'' and a mutant arises who plays ''Always Defect'', ''Tit-for-Tat'' will outperform ''Always Defect''.", "If the population of the mutant becomes too large — the percentage of the mutant will be kept small.", "''Tit for Tat'' is therefore an ESS, ''with respect to '''only''' these two strategies''.", "On the other hand, an island of ''Always Defect'' players will be stable against the invasion of a few ''Tit-for-Tat'' players, but not against a large number of them.", "If we introduce ''Always Cooperate'', a population of ''Tit-for-Tat'' is no longer an ESS.", "Since a population of ''Tit-for-Tat'' players always cooperates, the strategy ''Always Cooperate'' behaves identically in this population.", "As a result, a mutant who plays ''Always Cooperate'' will not be eliminated.", "However, even though a population of ''Always Cooperate'' and ''Tit-for-Tat'' can coexist, if there is a small percentage of the population that is ''Always Defect'', the selective pressure is against ''Always Cooperate'', and in favour of ''Tit-for-Tat''.", "This is due to the lower payoffs of cooperating than those of defecting in case the opponent defects.This demonstrates the difficulties in applying the formal definition of an ESS to games with large strategy spaces, and has motivated some to consider alternatives." ], [ "Human behavior", "The fields of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology attempt to explain animal and human behavior and social structures, largely in terms of evolutionarily stable strategies.", "Sociopathy (chronic antisocial or criminal behavior) may be a result of a combination of two such strategies.Evolutionarily stable strategies were originally considered for biological evolution, but they can apply to other contexts.", "In fact, there are stable states for a large class of adaptive dynamics.", "As a result, they can be used to explain human behaviours that lack any genetic influences." ], [ "See also", "Antipredator adaptationBehavioral ecologyEvolutionary psychologyFitness landscapeHawk–dove gameKoinophiliaSociobiologyWar of attrition (game)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Classic reference textbook.", "* * .", "An 88-page mathematical introduction; see Section 3.8.Free online at many universities.", "* Parker, G. A.", "(1984) Evolutionary stable strategies.", "In ''Behavioural Ecology: an Evolutionary Approach'' (2nd ed) Krebs, J. R. & Davies N.B., eds.", "pp 30–61.Blackwell, Oxford.", "* .", "A comprehensive reference from a computational perspective; see Section 7.7.Downloadable free online.", "* Maynard Smith, John.", "(1982) ''Evolution and the Theory of Games''.", ".", "Classic reference." ], [ "External links", "* Evolutionarily Stable Strategies at Animal Behavior: An Online Textbook by Michael D.", "Breed.", "* Game Theory and Evolutionarily Stable Strategies, Kenneth N. Prestwich's site at College of the Holy Cross.", "* Evolutionarily stable strategies knol" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Element" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Element''' or '''elements''' may refer to:" ], [ "Science", "* Chemical element, a pure substance of one type of atom* Heating element, a device that generates heat by electrical resistance* Orbital elements, parameters required to identify a specific orbit of one body around another* DNA element, a functional region of DNA, including genes and cis-regulatory elements." ], [ "Mathematics", "* Element (category theory)* Element (mathematics), one of the constituents of a set* Differential element, an infinitesimally small change of a quantity in an integral* Euclid's ''Elements'', a mathematical treatise on geometry and number theory* An entry, or element, of a matrix." ], [ "Philosophy and religion", "* Classical elements, ancient beliefs about the fundamental types of matter (earth, air, fire, water)* The elements, a religious term referring to the bread and wine of the Eucharist* Five elements (Japanese philosophy), the basis of the universe according to Japanese philosophy* ''Mahābhūta'', the four great elements in Buddhism, five in Hinduism* Tattva, an elemental basis of the universe according to Hindu Samkhya philosophy* ''Wuxing'' (Chinese philosophy), sometimes translated as ''five elements'', the basis of the universe according to Chinese Taoin" ], [ "Technology", "* Element (UML), part of the Unified Modeling Language superstructure* Data element, a unit of data* Electrical element, an abstract part of a circuit* HTML element, a standard part of an HTML document* Markup element, a part of a document defined by a markup language* Structural element, in construction and engineering* Adobe Photoshop Elements, a bitmap graphics program* Adobe Premiere Elements, a video editing computer program* Honda Element, a car* Element (software), a Matrix-based chat application formerly known as Riot" ], [ "Business", "* Element by Westin, a brand of Starwood Hotels and Resorts Worldwide* Element Electronics, an American electronics company* Element Skateboards, a skateboard manufacturer* Elements (restaurant), in Princeton, New Jersey* Elements, Hong Kong, a shopping mall in Hong Kong" ], [ "Entertainment", "===Music===* Element (production team), a Norwegian production and songwriting team* Elements (band), a 1980s–1990s American jazz band====Albums====* ''Elements'' (Atheist album) or the title song, 1993* ''Elements'' (B.o.B album), 2016* ''Elements'' (Elaine album), 2019* ''Elements'' (Ludovico Einaudi album) or the title song, 2015* ''Elements'' (Roger Glover album), 1978* ''Elements'' (Steve Howe album), 2003* ''Elements 1989–1990'', by Carl Craig, 1996* ''Elements Box'' by Mike Oldfield, four CD edition, 1993* ''Elements – The Best of Mike Oldfield'', single CD edition, 1993* ''Elements – The Best of Mike Oldfield'' (video), 1993* ''Elements'', by A Band of Boys, 2002* ''Elements'', by Yoso, 2010* ''Elements'', by Caliban, 2018* ''Elements'', by Sister Hazel, 2020* ''Elements'', an EP by Vicetone, 2019* ''The Elements'' (Joe Henderson album), 1974* ''The Elements'' (Second Person album), 2007* ''The Elements'' (TobyMac album) or the title song, 2018====Songs====* \"Element\" (song), by Kendrick Lamar, 2017* \"Element\", by Deerhunter from ''Why Hasn't Everything Already Disappeared?", "'', 2019* \"Element\", by Pop Smoke from ''Meet the Woo 2'', 2020* \"Element\", by Vision of Disorder from ''Vision of Disorder'', 1996* \"Elements\", by Matt Corby from ''Rainbow Valley'', 2018* \"Elements\", by Stratovarius from ''Elements Pt.", "1'', 2003* \"The Elements\" (song), by Tom Lehrer, 1959* \"The Elements\" (The Beach Boys song), 1966===Other entertainment===* Element Animation Ltd, a British Mojang-affiliated animation studio* ''Elements'' (miniseries), a Cartoon Network miniseries* ''Elements'' trilogy, three films written and directed by Deepa Mehta* Elements (esports), a team in the European ''League of Legends'' Championship Series* Element (sports)" ], [ "Other", "* Element (criminal law), a basic set of common law principles regarding criminal liability* ''Elements'' (journal), a scientific publication about mineralogy, geochemistry, and petrology* ''Element Magazine'', Asian men's magazine* ''Éléments'', French political magazine* ''Elementy'', Russian political magazine (1992–2000)The elements, a term used to refer to natural perils such as erosion, rough terrain, rust, cold, heat, and disastrous weather" ], [ "See also", " and * and * Elemental (disambiguation)* Elementary (disambiguation)* Five elements (disambiguation)* Fifth Element (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Extremophile" ], [ "Introduction", "The bright colors of Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone National Park, are produced by thermophiles, a type of extremophile.An '''extremophile''' () is an organism that is able to live (or in some cases thrive) in extreme environments, i.e., environments with conditions approaching or expanding the limits of what known life can adapt to, such as extreme temperature, radiation, salinity, or pH level.Since the definition of an extreme environment is relative to an arbitrarily defined standard, often an anthropocentric one, these organisms can be considered ecologically dominant in the evolutionary history of the planet.", "Some spores and cocooned bacteria samples have been dormant for more than 40 million years; extremophiles have continued to thrive in the most extreme conditions, making them one of the most abundant lifeforms.", "The study of extremophiles has expanded human knowledge of the limits of life, and informs speculation about extraterrestrial life.", "Extremophiles are also of interest because of their potential for bioremediation of environments made hazardous to humans due to pollution or contamination." ], [ "Characteristics", " In the 1980s and 1990s, biologists found that microbial life has great flexibility for surviving in extreme environments—niches that are acidic, extraordinarily hot, or with irregular air pressure for example—that would be completely inhospitable to complex organisms.", "Some scientists even concluded that life may have begun on Earth in hydrothermal vents far beneath the ocean's surface.According to astrophysicist Steinn Sigurdsson, \"There are viable bacterial spores that have been found that are 40 million years old on Earth—and we know they're very hardened to radiation.\"", "Some bacteria were found living in the cold and dark in a lake buried a half-mile deep under the ice in Antarctica, and in the Marianas Trench, the deepest place in Earth's oceans.", "Expeditions of the International Ocean Discovery Program found microorganisms in sediment that is below seafloor in the Nankai Trough subduction zone.", "Some microorganisms have been found thriving inside rocks up to below the sea floor under of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States.", "According to one of the researchers, \"You can find microbes everywhere—they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are.\"", "A key to extremophile adaptation is their amino acid composition, affecting their protein folding ability under particular conditions.", "Studying extreme environments on Earth can help researchers understand the limits of habitability on other worlds.Tom Gheysens from Ghent University in Belgium and some of his colleagues have presented research findings that show spores from a species of Bacillus bacteria survived and were still viable after being heated to temperatures of .", "Limits of known life on Earth Factor Environment / source Limits Examples High temperature Submarine hydrothermal vents, oceanic crust to ''Pyrolobus fumarii'', ''Pyrococcus furiosus'' Low temperature Ice to ''Rhodotorula glutinis'' Alkaline systems Soda lakes pH > 11 ''Psychrobacter'', ''Vibrio'', ''Arthrobacter'', ''Natronobacterium'' Acidic systems Volcanic springs, acid mine drainage pH 0.06 to 1.0 ''Picrophilus'' Ionizing radiation Cosmic rays, X-rays, radioactive decay 1,500 to 6,000 Gy ''Deinococcus radiodurans'', ''Rubrobacter'', ''Thermococcus gammatolerans'' UV radiation Sunlight 5,000 J/m2 High pressure Mariana Trench 1,100 bar ''Pyrococcus'' sp.", "Salinity High salt concentration aw ~ 0.6 ''Halobacteriaceae'', ''Dunaliella salina'' Desiccation Atacama Desert (Chile), McMurdo Dry Valleys (Antarctica) ~60% relative humidity ''Chroococcidiopsis'' Deep crust Accessed in some gold mines ''Halicephalobus mephisto'', ''Mylonchulus brachyurus'', unidentified arthropods" ], [ "Classifications", "There are many classes of extremophiles that range all around the globe; each corresponding to the way its environmental niche differs from mesophilic conditions.", "These classifications are not exclusive.", "Many extremophiles fall under multiple categories and are classified as '''polyextremophiles'''.", "For example, organisms living inside hot rocks deep under Earth's surface are thermophilic and piezophilic such as ''Thermococcus barophilus''.", "A polyextremophile living at the summit of a mountain in the Atacama Desert might be a radioresistant xerophile, a psychrophile, and an oligotroph.", "Polyextremophiles are well known for their ability to tolerate both high and low pH levels.===Terms=== Microscopic image from the hypersaline Lake Tyrrell (salinity> 20% w/v), in which the eukaryotic chlorophyte, ''Dunaliella salina'', can be tentatively identified.", "''Dunaliella salina'' is grown commercially for the carotenoid, β-carotene, which is widely used as a natural food colorant as well as a precursor to vitamin A. Alongside is the haloarchaeon, ''Haloquadratum walsbyi'', which has flat square-shaped cells with gas vesicles that allow flotation to the surface, most likely to acquire oxygen.", "; Acidophile:An organism with optimal growth at pH levels of 3.0 or below.", "; Alkaliphile:An organism with optimal growth at pH levels of 9.0 or above.", "; Anaerobe:An organism with optimal growth in the absence of molecular oxygen.", "Two sub-types exist: facultative anaerobe and obligate anaerobe.", "A ''facultative'' anaerobe can tolerate anoxic and oxic conditions whilst an ''obligate'' anaerobe will die in the presence of even low levels of molecular oxygen.", ":; Capnophile:An organism with optimal growth conditions in high concentrations of carbon dioxide.", "An example would be ''Mannheimia succiniciproducens,'' a bacterium that inhabits a ruminant animal's digestive system.", ";;Cryptoendolith:An organism that lives in microscopic spaces within rocks, such as pores between aggregate grains.", "These may also be called endolith, a term that also includes organisms populating fissures, aquifers, and faults filled with groundwater in the deep subsurface.", "; Halophile:An organism with optimal growth at a concentration of dissolved salts of 50 g/L (= 5% m/v) or above.", ";Hyperpiezophile:An organism with optimal growth at hydrostatic pressures above 50 MPa (= 493 atm = 7,252 psi).", ";Hyperthermophile:An organism with optimal growth at temperatures above .", "; Hypolith:An organism that lives underneath rocks in cold deserts.", ";Metallotolerant:Capable of tolerating high levels of dissolved heavy metals in solution, such as copper, cadmium, arsenic, and zinc.", "Examples include ''Ferroplasma sp.,'' ''Cupriavidus metallidurans'' and GFAJ-1.", "; Oligotroph:An organism with optimal growth in nutritionally limited environments.", "; Osmophile:An organism with optimal growth in environments with a high sugar concentration.", "; Piezophile:An organism with optimal growth in hydrostatic pressures above 10 MPa (= 99 atm = 1,450 psi).", "Also referred to as barophile.", "; Polyextremophile:A '''polyextremophile''' (faux Ancient Latin/Greek for 'affection for many extremes') is an organism that qualifies as an extremophile under more than one category.", "; Psychrophile/Cryophile:An organism with optimal growth at temperatures of or lower.", "; Radioresistant:Organisms resistant to high levels of ionizing radiation, most commonly ultraviolet radiation.", "This category also includes organisms capable of resisting nuclear radiation.", "; Sulphophile: An organism with optimal growth conditions in high concentrations of sulfur.", "An example would be ''Sulfurovum epsilonproteobacteria'', a sulfur-oxidizing bacteria that inhabits deep-water sulfur vents.", "; Thermophile: An organism with optimal growth at temperatures above .", ";Xerophile: An organism with optimal growth at water activity below 0.8." ], [ "In astrobiology", "Astrobiology is the multidisciplinary field that investigates the deterministic conditions and contingent events with which life arises, distributes, and evolves in the universe.", "Astrobiology makes use of physics, chemistry, astronomy, solar physics, biology, molecular biology, ecology, planetary science, geography, and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from that on Earth.", "Astrobiologists are particularly interested in studying extremophiles, as it allows them to map what is known about the limits of life on Earth to potential extraterrestrial environments For example, analogous deserts of Antarctica are exposed to harmful UV radiation, low temperature, high salt concentration and low mineral concentration.", "These conditions are similar to those on Mars.", "Therefore, finding viable microbes in the subsurface of Antarctica suggests that there may be microbes surviving in endolithic communities and living under the Martian surface.", "Research indicates it is unlikely that Martian microbes exist on the surface or at shallow depths, but may be found at subsurface depths of around 100 meters.Recent research carried out on extremophiles in Japan involved a variety of bacteria including ''Escherichia coli'' and ''Paracoccus denitrificans'' being subject to conditions of extreme gravity.", "The bacteria were cultivated while being rotated in an ultracentrifuge at high speeds corresponding to 403,627 g (i.e.", "403,627 times the gravity experienced on Earth).", "''P.", "denitrificans'' was one of the bacteria which displayed not only survival but also robust cellular growth under these conditions of hyperacceleration which are usually found only in cosmic environments, such as on very massive stars or in the shock waves of supernovas.", "Analysis showed that the small size of prokaryotic cells is essential for successful growth under hypergravity.", "The research has implications on the feasibility of panspermia.On 26 April 2012, scientists reported that lichen survived and showed remarkable results on the adaptation capacity of photosynthetic activity within the simulation time of 34 days under Martian conditions in the Mars Simulation Laboratory (MSL) maintained by the German Aerospace Center (DLR).On 29 April 2013, scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways \"not observed on Earth\" and in ways that \"can lead to increases in growth and virulence\".On 19 May 2014, scientists announced that numerous microbes, like ''Tersicoccus phoenicis'', may be resistant to methods usually used in spacecraft assembly clean rooms.", "It is not currently known if such resistant microbes could have withstood space travel and are present on the ''Curiosity'' rover now on the planet Mars.On 20 August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living half a mile below the ice of Antarctica.In September 2015, scientists from CNR-National Research Council of Italy reported that ''S.", "soflataricus'' was able to survive under Martian radiation at a wavelength that was considered extremely lethal to most bacteria.", "This discovery is significant because it indicates that not only bacterial spores, but also growing cells can be remarkably resistant to strong UV radiation.In June 2016, scientists from Brigham Young University conclusively reported that endospores of ''Bacillus subtilis'' were able to survive high speed impacts up to 299±28 m/s, extreme shock, and extreme deceleration.", "They pointed out that this feature might allow endospores to survive and to be transferred between planets by traveling within meteorites or by experiencing atmosphere disruption.", "Moreover, they suggested that the landing of spacecraft may also result in interplanetary spore transfer, given that spores can survive high-velocity impact while ejected from the spacecraft onto the planet surface.", "This is the first study which reported that bacteria can survive in such high-velocity impact.", "However, the lethal impact speed is unknown, and further experiments should be done by introducing higher-velocity impact to bacterial endospores.In August 2020 scientists reported that bacteria that feed on air discovered 2017 in Antarctica are likely not limited to Antarctica after discovering the two genes previously linked to their \"atmospheric chemosynthesis\" in soil of two other similar cold desert sites, which provides further information on this carbon sink and further strengthens the extremophile evidence that supports the potential existence of microbial life on alien planets.The same month, scientists reported that bacteria from Earth, particularly ''Deinococcus radiodurans'', were found to survive for three years in outer space, based on studies on the International Space Station.", "These findings support the notion of panspermia." ], [ "Bioremediation", "Extremophiles can also be useful players in the bioremediation of contaminated sites as some species are capable of biodegradation under conditions too extreme for classic bioremediation candidate species.", "Anthropogenic activity causes the release of pollutants that may potentially settle in extreme environments as is the case with tailings and sediment released from deep-sea mining activity.", "While most bacteria would be crushed by the pressure in these environments, piezophiles can tolerate these depths and can metabolize pollutants of concern if they possess bioremediation potential.=== Hydrocarbons ===There are multiple potential destinations for hydrocarbons after an oil spill has settled and currents routinely deposit them in extreme environments.", "Methane bubbles resulting from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill were found 1.1 kilometers below water surface level and at concentrations as high as 183 ''μ''mol per kilogram.", "The combination of low temperatures and high pressures in this environment result in low microbial activity.", "However, bacteria that are present including species of ''Pseudomonas'', ''Aeromonas'' and ''Vibrio'' were found to be capable of bioremediation, albeit at a tenth of the speed they would perform at sea level pressure.", "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons increase in solubility and bioavailability with increasing temperature.", "Thermophilic ''Thermus'' and ''Bacillus'' species have demonstrated higher gene expression for the alkane mono-oxygenase ''alkB'' at temperatures exceeding .", "The expression of this gene is a crucial precursor to the bioremediation process.", "Fungi that have been genetically modified with cold-adapted enzymes to tolerate differing pH levels and temperatures have been shown to be effective at remediating hydrocarbon contamination in freezing conditions in the Antarctic.=== Metals ===''Acidithiubacillus ferroxidans'' has been shown to be effective in remediating mercury in acidic soil due to its ''merA'' gene making it mercury resistant.", "Industrial effluent contain high levels of metals that can be detrimental to both human and ecosystem health.", "In extreme heat environments the extremophile ''Geobacillus thermodenitrificans'' has been shown to effectively manage the concentration of these metals within twelve hours of introduction.", "Some acidophilic microorganisms are effective at metal remediation in acidic environments due to proteins found in their periplasm, not present in any mesophilic organisms, allowing them to protect themselves from high proton concentrations.", "Rice paddies are highly oxidative environments that can produce high levels of lead or cadmium.", "''Deinococcus radiodurans'' are resistant to the harsh conditions of the environment and are therefore candidate species for limiting the extent of contamination of these metals.Some bacteria are known to also use rare earth elements on their biological processes for example ''Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum'', ''Methylorubrum extorquens,'' and ''Methylobacterium radiotolerans'' are known to be able to use lanthanides as cofactors to increase their methanol dehydrogenase activity.=== Acid mine drainage ===Acid mine drainage is a major environmental concern associated with many metal mines.", "One of the most productive methods of its remediation is through the introduction of the extremophile organism ''Thiobacillus ferrooxidans.", "''=== Radioactive materials ===Any bacteria capable of inhabiting radioactive mediums can be classified as an extremophile.", "Radioresistant organisms are therefore critical in the bioremediation of radionuclides.", "Uranium is particularly challenging to contain when released into an environment and very harmful to both human and ecosystem health.", "The NANOBINDERS project is equipping bacteria that can survive in uranium rich environments with gene sequences that enable proteins to bind to uranium in mining effluent, making it more convenient to collect and dispose of.", "Some examples are ''Shewanella putrefaciens'', ''Geobacter metallireducens'' and some strains of ''Burkholderia fungorum.", "''Radiotrophic fungi, which use radiation as an energy source, have been found inside and around the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.Radioresistance has also been observed in certain species of macroscopic lifeforms.", "The lethal dose required to kill up to 50% of a tortoise population is 40,000 roentgens, compared to only 800 roentgens needed to kill 50% of a human population.", "In experiments exposing lepidopteran insects to gamma radiation, significant DNA damage was detected only at 20 Gy and higher doses, in contrast with human cells that showed similar damage at only 2 Gy." ], [ "Examples and recent findings", "New sub-types of extremophiles are identified frequently and the sub-category list for extremophiles is always growing.", "For example, microbial life lives in the liquid asphalt lake, Pitch Lake.", "Research indicates that extremophiles inhabit the asphalt lake in populations ranging between 106 and 107 cells/gram.", "Likewise, until recently boron tolerance was unknown but a strong borophile was discovered in bacteria.", "With the recent isolation of ''Bacillus boroniphilus'', borophiles came into discussion.", "Studying these borophiles may help illuminate the mechanisms of both boron toxicity and boron deficiency.In July 2019, a scientific study of Kidd Mine in Canada discovered sulfur-breathing organisms which live below the surface, and which breathe sulfur in order to survive.", "These organisms are also remarkable due to eating rocks such as pyrite as their regular food source." ], [ "Biotechnology", "The thermoalkaliphilic catalase, which initiates the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water, was isolated from an organism, ''Thermus brockianus'', found in Yellowstone National Park by Idaho National Laboratory researchers.", "The catalase operates over a temperature range from 30 °C to over 94 °C and a pH range from 6–10.This catalase is extremely stable compared to other catalases at high temperatures and pH.", "In a comparative study, the ''T.", "brockianus'' catalase exhibited a half life of 15 days at 80 °C and pH 10 while a catalase derived from ''Aspergillus niger'' had a half life of 15 seconds under the same conditions.", "The catalase will have applications for removal of hydrogen peroxide in industrial processes such as pulp and paper bleaching, textile bleaching, food pasteurization, and surface decontamination of food packaging.DNA modifying enzymes such as ''Taq'' DNA polymerase and some ''Bacillus'' enzymes used in clinical diagnostics and starch liquefaction are produced commercially by several biotechnology companies." ], [ "DNA transfer", "Over 65 prokaryotic species are known to be naturally competent for genetic transformation, the ability to transfer DNA from one cell to another cell followed by integration of the donor DNA into the recipient cell's chromosome.", "Several extremophiles are able to carry out species-specific DNA transfer, as described below.", "However, it is not yet clear how common such a capability is among extremophiles.The bacterium ''Deinococcus radiodurans'' is one of the most radioresistant organisms known.", "This bacterium can also survive cold, dehydration, vacuum and acid and is thus known as a polyextremophile.", "''D.", "radiodurans'' is competent to perform genetic transformation.", "Recipient cells are able to repair DNA damage in donor transforming DNA that had been UV irradiated as efficiently as they repair cellular DNA when the cells themselves are irradiated.", "The extreme thermophilic bacterium ''Thermus thermophilus'' and other related ''Thermus'' species are also capable of genetic transformation.", "''Halobacterium volcanii'', an extreme halophilic (saline tolerant) archaeon, is capable of natural genetic transformation.", "Cytoplasmic bridges are formed between cells that appear to be used for DNA transfer from one cell to another in either direction.", "''Sulfolobus solfataricus'' and ''Sulfolobus acidocaldarius'' are hyperthermophilic archaea.", "Exposure of these organisms to the DNA damaging agents UV irradiation, bleomycin or mitomycin C induces species-specific cellular aggregation.", "UV-induced cellular aggregation of ''S.", "acidocaldarius'' mediates chromosomal marker exchange with high frequency.", "Recombination rates exceed those of uninduced cultures by up to three orders of magnitude.", "Frols et al.", "and Ajon et al.", "hypothesized that cellular aggregation enhances species-specific DNA transfer between ''Sulfolobus'' cells in order to repair damaged DNA by means of homologous recombination.", "Van Wolferen et al.", "noted that this DNA exchange process may be crucial under DNA damaging conditions such as high temperatures.", "It has also been suggested that DNA transfer in ''Sulfolobus'' may be an early form of sexual interaction similar to the more well-studied bacterial transformation systems that involve species-specific DNA transfer leading to homologous recombinational repair of DNA damage (and see Transformation (genetics)).Extracellular membrane vesicles (MVs) might be involved in DNA transfer between different hyperthermophilic archaeal species.", "It has been shown that both plasmids and viral genomes can be transferred via MVs.", "Notably, a horizontal plasmid transfer has been documented between hyperthermophilic ''Thermococcus'' and ''Methanocaldococcus'' species, respectively belonging to the orders ''Thermococcales'' and ''Methanococcales''." ], [ "See also", "* Earliest known life forms* Dissimilatory metal-reducing microorganisms* Extremotroph* List of microorganisms tested in outer space* Mesophile, an organism that grows best in moderate temperatures* Neutrophile, an organism that grows best in a neutral pH level* RISE project* Tardigrade" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * " ], [ "External links", " Extreme Environments - Science Education Resource Center* Extremophile Research * Eukaryotes in extreme environments* The Research Center of Extremophiles * DaveDarling's Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight* The International Society for Extremophiles* Idaho National Laboratory * Polyextremophile on David Darling's ''Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight''* T-Limit Expedition" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Education reform" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Education reform''' is the name given to the goal of changing public education.", "The meaning and education methods have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society.", "Historically, the motivations for reform have not reflected the current needs of society.", "A consistent theme of reform includes the idea that large systematic changes to educational standards will produce social returns in citizens' health, wealth, and well-being.As part of the broader social and political processes, the term education reform refers to the chronology of significant, systematic revisions made to amend the educational legislation, standards, methodology, and policy affecting a nation's public school system to reflect the needs and values of contemporary society.", "18th century, classical education instruction from an in-home personal tutor, hired at the family's expense, was primarily a privilege for children from wealthy families.", "Innovations such as encyclopedias, public libraries, and grammar schools all aimed to relieve some of the financial burden associated with the expenses of the classical education model.", "Motivations during the Victorian era emphasized the importance of self-improvement.", "Victorian education focused on teaching commercially valuable topics, such as modern languages and mathematics, rather than classical liberal arts subjects, such as Latin, art, and history.Motivations for education reformists like Horace Mann and his proponents focused on making schooling more accessible and developing a robust state-supported common school system.", "John Dewey, an early 20th-century reformer, focused on improving society by advocating for a scientific, pragmatic, or democratic principle-based curriculum.", "Whereas Maria Montessori incorporated humanistic motivations to \"meet the needs of the child\".", "In historic Prussia, a motivation to foster national unity led to formal education concentrated on teaching national language literacy to young children, resulting in Kindergarten.The history of educational pedagogy in the United States has ranged from teaching literacy and proficiency of religious doctrine to establishing cultural literacy, assimilating immigrants into a democratic society, producing a skilled labor force for the industrialized workplace, preparing students for careers, and competing in a global marketplace.", "Education inequality is also a motivation for education reform, seeking to address problems of a community." ], [ "Motivations for education reform", "Education reform, in general, implies a continual effort to modify and improve the institution of education.", "Over time, as the needs and values of society change, attitudes towards public education change.", "As a social institution, education plays an integral role in the process of socialization.", "\"Socialization is broadly composed of distinct inter- and intra-generational processes.", "Both involve the harmonization of an individual's attitudes and behaviors with that of their socio-cultural milieu.\"", "Educational matrices mean to reinforce those socially acceptable informal and formal norms, values, and beliefs that individuals need to learn in order to be accepted as good, functioning, and productive members of their society.", "Education reform is the process of constantly renegotiating and restructuring the educational standards to reflect the ever-evolving contemporary ideals of social, economic, and political culture.", "Reforms can be based on bringing education into alignment with a society's core values.", "Reforms that attempt to change a society's core values can connect alternative education initiatives with a network of other alternative institutions.Education reform has been pursued for a variety of specific reasons, but generally most reforms aim at redressing some societal ills, such as poverty-, gender-, or class-based inequities, or perceived ineffectiveness.", "Current education trends in the United States represent multiple achievement gaps across ethnicities, income levels, and geographies.", "As McKinsey and Company reported in a 2009 analysis, \"These educational gaps impose on the United States the economic equivalent of a permanent national recession.\"", "Reforms are usually proposed by thinkers who aim to redress societal ills or institute societal changes, most often through a change in the education of the members of a class of people—the preparation of a ruling class to rule or a working class to work, the social hygiene of a lower or immigrant class, the preparation of citizens in a democracy or republic, etc.", "The idea that all children should be provided with a high level of education is a relatively recent idea, and has arisen largely in the context of Western democracy in the 20th century.The \"beliefs\" of school districts are optimistic that quite literally \"all students will succeed\", which in the context of high school graduation examination in the United States, all students in all groups, regardless of heritage or income will pass tests that in the introduction typically fall beyond the ability of all but the top 20 to 30 percent of students.", "The claims clearly renounce historical research that shows that all ethnic and income groups score differently on all standardized tests and standards based assessments and that students will achieve on a bell curve.", "Instead, education officials across the world believe that by setting clear, achievable, higher standards, aligning the curriculum, and assessing outcomes, learning can be increased for all students, and more students can succeed than the 50 percent who are defined to be above or below grade level by norm referenced standards.States have tried to use state schools to increase state power, especially to make better soldiers and workers.", "This strategy was first adopted to unify related linguistic groups in Europe, including France, Germany and Italy.", "Exact mechanisms are unclear, but it often fails in areas where populations are culturally segregated, as when the U.S. Indian school service failed to suppress Lakota and Navaho, or when a culture has widely respected autonomous cultural institutions, as when the Spanish failed to suppress Catalan.Many students of democracy have desired to improve education in order to improve the quality of governance in democratic societies; the necessity of good public education follows logically if one believes that the quality of democratic governance depends on the ability of citizens to make informed, intelligent choices, and that education can improve these abilities.Politically motivated educational reforms of the democratic type are recorded as far back as Plato in ''The Republic''.", "In the United States, this lineage of democratic education reform was continued by Thomas Jefferson, who advocated ambitious reforms partly along Platonic lines for public schooling in Virginia.Another motivation for reform is the desire to address socio-economic problems, which many people see as having significant roots in lack of education.", "Starting in the 20th century, people have attempted to argue that small improvements in education can have large returns in such areas as health, wealth and well-being.", "For example, in Kerala, India in the 1950s, increases in women's health were correlated with increases in female literacy rates.", "In Iran, increased primary education was correlated with increased farming efficiencies and income.", "In both cases some researchers have concluded these correlations as representing an underlying causal relationship: education causes socio-economic benefits.", "In the case of Iran, researchers concluded that the improvements were due to farmers gaining reliable access to national crop prices and scientific farming information." ], [ "History", "===Classical education===As taught from the 18th to the 19th century, Western classical education curriculums focused on concrete details like \"Who?", "\", \"What?", "\", \"When?", "\", \"Where?\".", "Unless carefully taught, large group instruction naturally neglects asking the theoretical \"Why?\"", "and \"Which?\"", "questions that can be discussed in smaller groups.Classical education in this period also did not teach local (vernacular) languages and culture.", "Instead, it taught high-status ancient languages (Greek and Latin) and their cultures.", "This produced odd social effects in which an intellectual class might be more loyal to ancient cultures and institutions than to their native vernacular languages and their actual governing authorities.===18th century=======Child-study====Jean-Jacques RousseauJean-Jacques Rousseau, father of the Child Study Movement, centered the child as an object of study.In ''Emile: Or, On Education'', Rousseau's principal work on education lays out an educational program for a hypothetical newborn's education through adulthood.Rousseau provided a dual critique of the educational vision outlined in Plato's Republic and that of his society in contemporary Europe.", "He regarded the educational methods contributing to the child's development; he held that a person could either be a man or a citizen.", "While Plato's plan could have brought the latter at the expense of the former, contemporary education failed at both tasks.", "He advocated a radical withdrawal of the child from society and an educational process that utilized the child's natural potential and curiosity, teaching the child by confronting them with simulated real-life obstacles and conditioning the child through experience rather intellectual instruction.Rousseau ideas were rarely implemented directly, but influenced later thinkers, particularly Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel, the inventor of the kindergarten.====National identity====European and Asian nations regard education as essential to maintaining national, cultural, and linguistic unity.", "In the late 18th century (~1779), Prussia instituted primary school reforms expressly to teach a unified version of the national language, \"Hochdeutsch\".One significant reform was kindergarten whose purpose was to have the children participate in supervised activities taught by instructors who spoke the national language.", "The concept embraced the idea that children absorb new language skills more easily and quickly when they are youngThe current model of kindergarten is reflective of the Prussian model.In other countries, such as the Soviet Union, France, Spain, and Germany, the Prussian model has dramatically improved reading and math test scores for linguistic minorities.===19th century England===In the 19th century, before the advent of government-funded public schools, Protestant organizations established Charity Schools to educate the lower social classes.", "The Roman Catholic Church and governments later adopted the model.Designed to be inexpensive, Charity schools operated on minimal budgets and strived to serve as many needy children as possible.", "This led to the development of grammar schools, which primarily focused on teaching literacy, grammar, and bookkeeping skills so that the students could use books as an inexpensive resource to continue their education.", "''Grammar'' was the first third of the then-prevalent system of classical education..Educators Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell developed the monitorial system, also known as \"mutual instruction\" or the \"Bell–Lancaster method\".", "Their contemporary, educationalist and writer Elizabeth Hamilton, suggested that in some important aspects the method had been \"anticipated\" by the Belfast schoolmaster David Manson.", "In the 1760s Manson had developed a peer-teaching and monitoring system within the context of what he called a \"play school\" that dispensed with \"the discipline of the rod\".", "(More radically, Manson proposed the \"liberty of each child to take the quantity of lessons agreeable to his inclination\").Lancaster, an impoverished Quaker during the early 19th century in London and Bell at the Madras School of India developed this model independent of one another.", "However, by design, their model utilizes more advanced students as a resource to teach the less advanced students; achieving student-teacher ratios as small as 1:2 and educating more than 1000 students per adult.", "The lack of adult supervision at the Lancaster school resulted in the older children acting as disciplinary monitors and taskmasters.To provide order and promote discipline the school implemented a unique internal economic system, inventing a currency called a ''Scrip.''", "Although the currency was worthless in the outside world, it was created at a fixed exchange rate from a student's tuition and student's could use scrip to buy food, school supplies, books, and other items from the school store.", "Students could earn scrip through tutoring.", "To promote discipline, the school adopted a work-study model.", "Every job of the school was bid-for by students, with the largest bid winning.", "However, any student tutor could auction positions in his or her classes to earn scrip.", "The bids for student jobs paid for the adult supervision.Joseph LancasterLancaster promoted his system in a piece called Improvements in Education that spread widely throughout the English-speaking world.", "Lancaster schools provided a grammar-school education with fully developed internal economies for a cost per student near $40 per year in 1999 U.S. dollars.", "To reduce cost and motivated to save up scrip, Lancaster students rented individual pages of textbooks from the school library instead of purchasing the textbook.", "Student's would read aloud their pages to groups.", "Students commonly exchanged tutoring and paid for items and services with receipts from ''down tutoring''.The schools did not teach submission to orthodox Christian beliefs or government authorities.", "As a result, most English-speaking countries developed mandatory publicly paid education explicitly to keep public education in \"responsible\" hands.", "These elites said that Lancaster schools might become dishonest, provide poor education, and were not accountable to established authorities.", "Lancaster's supporters responded that any child could cheat given the opportunity, and that the government was not paying for the education and thus deserved no say in their composition.Though motivated by charity, Lancaster claimed in his pamphlets to be surprised to find that he lived well on the income of his school, even while the low costs made it available to the most impoverished street children.", "Ironically, Lancaster lived on the charity of friends in his later life.===Modern reformist===Although educational reform occurred on a local level at various points throughout history, the modern notion of education reform is tied with the spread of compulsory education.", "Economic growth and the spread of democracy raised the value of education and increased the importance of ensuring that all children and adults have access to free, high-quality, effective education.", "Modern education reforms are increasingly driven by a growing understanding of what works in education and how to go about successfully improving teaching and learning in schools.", "However, in some cases, the reformers' goals of \"high-quality education\" has meant \"high-intensity education\", with a narrow emphasis on teaching individual, test-friendly subskills quickly, regardless of long-term outcomes, developmental appropriateness, or broader educational goals.==== Horace Mann ====Horace Mann, regarded as the father of American public educationIn the United States, Horace Mann (1796 – 1859) of Massachusetts used his political base and role as Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education to promote public education in his home state and nationwide.", "Advocating a substantial public investment be made in education, Mann and his proponents developed a strong system of state supported common schools.'''.", "'''His crusading style attracted wide middle class support.", "Historian Ellwood P. Cubberley asserts:: No one did more than he to establish in the minds of the American people the conception that education should be universal, non-sectarian, free, and that its aims should be social efficiency, civic virtue, and character, rather than mere learning or the advancement of sectarian ends.In 1852, Massachusetts passed a law making education mandatory.", "This model of free, accessible education spread throughout the country and in 1917 Mississippi was the final state to adopt the law.==== John Dewey ====John DeweyJohn Dewey, a philosopher and educator based in Chicago and New York, helped conceptualize the role of American and international education during the first four decades of the 20th century.", "An important member of the American Pragmatist movement, he carried the subordination of knowledge to action into the educational world by arguing for experiential education that would enable children to learn theory and practice simultaneously; a well-known example is the practice of teaching elementary physics and biology to students while preparing a meal.", "He was a harsh critic of \"dead\" knowledge disconnected from practical human life.Dewey criticized the rigidity and volume of humanistic education, and the emotional idealizations of education based on the child-study movement that had been inspired by Rousseau and those who followed him.", "Dewey understood that children are naturally active and curious and learn by doing.", "Dewey's understanding of logic is presented in his work \"Logic, the Theory of Inquiry\" (1938).", "His educational philosophies were presented in \"My Pedagogic Creed\", ''The School and Society'', ''The Child and Curriculum'', and ''Democracy and Education'' (1916).", "Bertrand Russell criticized Dewey's conception of logic, saying \"What he calls \"logic\" does not seem to me to be part of logic at all; I should call it part of psychology.", "\"Dewey left the University of Chicago in 1904 over issues relating to the Dewey School.Dewey's influence began to decline in the time after the Second World War and particularly in the Cold War era, as more conservative educational policies came to the fore.====Administrative progressives====The form of educational progressivism which was most successful in having its policies implemented has been dubbed \"administrative progressivism\" by historians.", "This began to be implemented in the early 20th century.", "While influenced particularly in its rhetoric by Dewey and even more by his popularizers, administrative progressivism was in its practice much more influenced by the Industrial Revolution and the concept economies of scale.The administrative progressives are responsible for many features of modern American education, especially American high schools: counseling programs, the move from many small local high schools to large centralized high schools, curricular differentiation in the form of electives and tracking, curricular, professional, and other forms of standardization, and an increase in state and federal regulation and bureaucracy, with a corresponding reduction of local control at the school board level.", "(Cf.", "\"State, federal, and local control of education in the United States\", below) (Tyack and Cuban, pp.", "17–26)These reforms have since become heavily entrenched, and many today who identify themselves as progressives are opposed to many of them, while conservative education reform during the Cold War embraced them as a framework for strengthening traditional curriculum and standards.More recent methods, instituted by groups such as the think tank Reform's education division, and S.E.R.", "have attempted to pressure the government of the U.K. into more modernist educational reform, though this has met with limited success." ], [ "Public school reform in the United States", "In the United States, public education is characterized as \"any federally funded primary or secondary school, administered to some extent by the government, and charged with educating all citizens.", "Although there is typically a cost to attend some public higher education institutions, they are still considered part of public education.", "\"=== Colonial America ===In what would become the United States, the first public school was established in Boston, Massachusetts, on April 23, 1635.Puritan schoolmaster Philemon Pormont led instruction at the Boston Latin School.", "During this time, post-secondary education was a commonly utilized tool to distinguish one's social class and social status.", "Access to education was the \"privilege of white, upper-class, Christian male children\" in preparation for university education in ministry.In colonial America, to maintain Puritan religious traditions, formal and informal education instruction focused on teaching literacy.", "All colonists needed to understand the written language on some fundamental level in order to read the Bible and the colony's written secular laws.", "Religious leaders recognized that each person should be \"educated enough to meet the individual needs of their station in life and social harmony.\"", "The first compulsory education laws were passed in Massachusetts between 1642 and 1648 when religious leaders noticed not all parents were providing their children with ''proper'' education.", "These laws stated that all towns with 50 or more families were obligated to hire a schoolmaster to teach children reading, writing, and basic arithmetic.", "\"In 1642 the General Court passed a law that required heads of households to teach all their dependents — apprentices and servants as well as their own children — to read English or face a fine.", "Parents could provide the instruction themselves or hire someone else to do it.", "Selectmen were to keep 'a vigilant eye over their brethren and neighbors,' young people whose education was neglected could be removed from their parents or masters.", "\"The 1647 law eventually led to establishing publicly funded district schools in all Massachusetts towns, although, despite the threat of fines, compliance and quality of public schools were less than satisfactory.", "\"Many towns were 'shamefully neglectful' of children's education.", "In 1718 '...by sad experience, it is found that many towns that not only are obliged by law, but are very able to support a grammar school, yet choose rather to incur and pay the fine or penalty than maintain a grammar school.", "\"When John Adams drafted the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780, he included provisions for a comprehensive education law that guaranteed public education to \"all\" citizens.", "However, access to formal education in secondary schools and colleges was reserved for free, white males.", "During the 17th and 18th centuries, females received little or no formal education except for home learning or attending Dame Schools.", "Likewise, many educational institutions maintained a policy of refusing to admit Black applicants.", "The Virginia Code of 1819 outlawed teaching enslaved people to read or write.=== Post-revolution ===Soon after the American Revolution, early leaders, like Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, proposed the creation of a more \"formal and unified system of publicly funded schools\" to satiate the need to \"build and maintain commerce, agriculture and shipping interests\".", "Their concept of free public education was not well received and did not begin to take hold on until the 1830s.", "However, in 1790, evolving socio-cultural ideals in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania led to the first significant and systematic reform in education legislation that mandated economic conditions would not inhibit a child's access to education:\" Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania – 1790 ''ARTICLE VII Section I.", "The legislature shall, as soon as conveniently may be, provide, by law, for the establishment of schools throughout the state, in such manner that the poor may be taught gratis.", "''\"=== Reconstruction and the American Industrial Revolution ===During Reconstruction, from 1865 to 1877''',''' African Americans worked to encourage public education in the South.", "With the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, which held that \"segregated public facilities were constitutional so long as the black and white facilities were equal to each other\", this meant that African American children were legally allowed to attend public schools, although these schools were still segregated based on race.", "However, by the mid-twentieth century, civil rights groups would challenge racial segregation.During the second half of the nineteenth century (1870 and 1914), America's Industrial Revolution refocused the nation's attention on the need for a universally accessible public school system.", "Inventions, innovations, and improved production methods were critical to the continued growth of American manufacturing.", "To compete in the global economy, an overwhelming demand for literate workers that possessed practical training emerged.", "Citizens argued, \"educating children of the poor and middle classes would prepare them to obtain good jobs, thereby strengthen the nation's economic position.\"", "Institutions became an essential tool in yielding ideal factory workers with sought-after attitudes and desired traits such as dependability, obedience, and punctuality.", "Vocationally oriented schools offered practical subjects like shop classes for students who were not planning to attend college for financial or other reasons.", "Not until the latter part of the 19th century did public elementary schools become available throughout the country.", "Although, it would be longer for children of color, girls, and children with special needs to attain access free public education.===Mid 20th and early 21st century (United states)======= Civil rights reform ====Systemic bias remained a formidable barrier.", "From the 1950s to the 1970s, many of the proposed and implemented reforms in U.S. education stemmed from the civil rights movement and related trends; examples include ending racial segregation, and busing for the purpose of desegregation, affirmative action, and banning of school prayer.In the early 1950s, most U.S. public schools operated under a legally sanctioned racial segregation system.", "Civil Rights reform movements sought to address the biases that ensure unequal distribution of academic resources such as school funding, qualified and experienced teachers, and learning materials to those socially excluded communities.", "In the early 1950s, the NAACP lawyers brought class-action lawsuits on behalf of black schoolchildren and their families in Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware, petitioning court orders to compel school districts to let black students attend white public schools.", "Finally, in 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected that framework with Brown v. Board of Education and declared state-sponsored segregation of public schools unconstitutional.In 1964, Title VI of the Civil Rights Act \"prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, and national origin in programs and activities receiving federal financial assistance.\"", "Educational institutions could now utilize public funds to implement in-service training programs to assist teachers and administrators in establishing desegregation plans.In 1965, the Higher Education Act (HEA) authorizes federal aid for postsecondary students.The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA) represents the federal government's commitment to providing equal access to quality education; including those children from low-income families, limited English proficiency, and other minority groups.", "This legislation had positive retroactive implications for Historically Black Colleges and Universities, more commonly known as HBCUs.", "\"The Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended, defines an HBCU as: \"…any historically black college or university that was established prior to 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the education of black Americans, and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the Secretary of Education to be a reliable authority as to the quality of training offered or is, according to such an agency or association, making reasonable progress toward accreditation.", "\"Known as the Bilingual Education Act, Title VII of ESEA, offered federal aid to school districts to provide bilingual instruction for students with limited English speaking ability.The Education Amendments of 1972 (Public Law 92-318, 86 Stat.", "327) establishes the Education Division in the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and the National Institute of Education.", "Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 states, \"No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.", "\"Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 - Civil Rights Amendments to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965:\"Title I: Bilingual Education Act - Authorizes appropriations for carrying out the provisions of this Act.", "Establishes, in the Office of Education, an Office of Bilingual Education through which the Commissioner of Education shall carry out his functions relating to bilingual education.", "Authorizes appropriations for school nutrition and health services, correction education services, and ethnic heritage studies centers.Title II: Equal Educational Opportunities and the Transportation of Students: Equal Educational Opportunities Act - Provides that no state shall deny equal educational opportunity to an individual on account of his or her race, color, sex, or national origin by means of specified practices...Title IV: Consolidation of Certain Education Programs: Authorizes appropriations for use in various education programs including libraries and learning resources, education for use of the metric system of measurement, gifted and talented children programs, community schools, career education, consumers' education, women's equity in education programs, and arts in education programs.Community Schools Act - Authorizes the Commissioner to make grants to local educational agencies to assist in planning, establishing, expanding, and operating community education programsWomen's Educational Equity Act - Establishes the Advisory Council on Women's Educational Programs and sets forth the composition of such Council.", "Authorizes the Commissioner of Education to make grants to, and enter into contracts with, public agencies, private nonprofit organizations, and individuals for activities designed to provide educational equity for women in the United States.Title V: Education Administration: Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)- Provides that no funds shall be made available under the General Education Provisions Act to any State or local educational agency or educational institution which denies or prevents the parents of students to inspect and review all records and files regarding their children.Title VII: National Reading Improvement Program: Authorizes the Commissioner to contract with State or local educational agencies for the carrying out by such agencies, in schools having large numbers of children with reading deficiencies, of demonstration projects involving the use of innovative methods, systems, materials, or programs which show promise of overcoming such reading deficiencies.", "\"In 1975, The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142) ensured that all handicapped children (age 3-21) receive a \"free, appropriate public education\" designed to meet their special needs.==== 1980-1989: A Nation at Risk ====During the 1980s, some of the momentum of education reform moved from the left to the right, with the release of ''A Nation at Risk'', Ronald Reagan's efforts to reduce or eliminate the United States Department of Education.", "\"The federal government and virtually all state governments, teacher training institutions, teachers' unions, major foundations, and the mass media have all pushed strenuously for higher standards, greater accountability, more \"time on task,\" and more impressive academic results\".Per the shift in educational motivation, families sought institutional alternatives, including \"charter schools, progressive schools, Montessori schools, Waldorf schools, Afrocentric schools, religious schools - or home school instruction in their communities.", "\"In 1984 President Reagan enacted the Education for Economic Security ActIn 1989, the Child Development and Education Act of 1989 authorized funds for Head Start Programs to include child care services.In the latter half of the decade, E. D. Hirsch put forth an influential attack on one or more versions of progressive education.", "Advocating an emphasis on \"cultural literacy\"—the facts, phrases, and texts.See also Uncommon Schools.====1990-1999: standards-based education model====In 1994, the land grant system was expanded via the Elementary and Secondary Education Act to include tribal colleges.Most states and districts in the 1990s adopted outcome-based education (OBE) in some form or another.", "A state would create a committee to adopt standards, and choose a quantitative instrument to assess whether the students knew the required content or could perform the required tasks.In 1992 The National Commission on Time and Learning, Extension revise funding for civic education programs and those educationally disadvantaged children.", "\"In 1994 the Improving America's Schools Act (IASA) reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965; amended as The Eisenhower Professional Development Program; IASA designated Title I funds for low income and otherwise marginalized groups; i.e., females, minorities, individuals with disabilities, individuals with limited English proficiency (LEP).", "By tethering federal funding distributions to student achievement, IASA meant use high stakes testing and curriculum standards to hold schools accountable for their results at the same level as other students.", "The Act significantly increased impact aid for the establishment of the Charter School Program, drug awareness campaigns, bilingual education, and technology.In 1998 The Charter School Expansion Act amended the Charter School Program, enacted in 1994.==== 2000-2015: No Child Left Behind ==== Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2001 appropriated funding to repair educational institution's buildings as well as repair and renovate charter school facilities, reauthorized the Even Start program, and enacted the Children's Internet Protection Act.The standards-based National Education Goals 2000, set by the U.S. Congress in the 1990s, were based on the principles of outcomes-based education.", "In 2002, the standards-based reform movement culminated as the No Child left Behind Act of 2001 where achievement standard were set by each individual state.", "This federal policy was active until 2015 in the United States .An article released by CBNC.com said a principal Senate Committee will take into account legislation that reauthorizes and modernizes the Carl D. Perkins Act.", "President George Bush approved this statute in 2006 on August 12, 2006.This new bill will emphasize the importance of federal funding for various Career and Technical (CTE) programs that will better provide learners with in-demand skills.", "Pell Grants are specific amount of money is given by the government every school year for disadvantaged students who need to pay tuition fees in college.At present, there are many initiatives aimed at dealing with these concerns like innovative cooperation between federal and state governments, educators, and the business sector.", "One of these efforts is the Pathways to Technology Early College High School (P-TECH).", "This six-year program was launched in cooperation with IBM, educators from three cities in New York, Chicago, and Connecticut, and over 400 businesses.", "The program offers students in high school and associate programs focusing on the STEM curriculum.", "The High School Involvement Partnership, private and public venture, was established through the help of Northrop Grumman, a global security firm.", "It has given assistance to some 7,000 high school students (juniors and seniors) since 1971 by means of one-on-one coaching as well as exposure to STEM areas and careers.==== 2016-2021: Every Student Succeeds Act ====The American Reinvestment and Recovery Act, enacted in 2009, reserved more than $85 billion in public funds to be used for education.The 2009 Council of Chief State School Officers and the National Governors Association launch the Common Core State Standards Initiative.In 2012 the Obama administration launched the Race to the Top competition aimed at spurring K–12 education reform through higher standards.", "\"The Race to the Top – District competition will encourage transformative change within schools, targeted toward leveraging, enhancing, and improving classroom practices and resources.The four key areas of reform include:* Development of rigorous standards and better assessments* Adoption of better data systems to provide schools, teachers, and parents with information about student progress* Support for teachers and school leaders to become more effective* Increased emphasis and resources for the rigorous interventions needed to turn around the lowest-performing schools\"In 2015, under the Obama administration, many of the more restrictive elements that were enacted under No Child Left Behind (NCLB, 2001), were removed in the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA, 2015) which limits the role of the federal government in school liability.", "Every Student Succeeds Act reformed educational standards by \"moving away from such high stakes and assessment based accountability models\" and focused on assessing student achievement from a holistic approach by utilizing qualitative measures.", "Some argue that giving states more authority can help prevent considerable discrepancies in educational performance across different states.", "ESSA was approved by former President Obama in 2015 which amended and empowered the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965.The Department of Education has the choice to carry out measures in drawing attention to said differences by pinpointing lowest-performing state governments and supplying information on the condition and progress of each state on different educational parameters.", "It can also provide reasonable funding along with technical aid to help states with similar demographics collaborate in improving their public education programs.==== Social and emotional learning: strengths-based education model ====This uses a methodology that values purposeful engagement in activities that turn students into self-reliant and efficient learners.", "Holding on to the view that everyone possesses natural gifts that are unique to one's personality (e.g.", "computational aptitude, musical talent, visual arts abilities), it likewise upholds the idea that children, despite their inexperience and tender age, are capable of coping with anguish, able to survive hardships, and can rise above difficult times.==== Trump administration ====In 2017, Betsy DeVos was instated as the 11th Secretary of Education.", "A strong proponent of school choice, school voucher programs, and charter schools, DeVos was a much-contested choice as her own education and career had little to do with formal experience in the US education system.", "In a Republican-dominated senate, she received a 50–50 vote - a tie that was broken by Vice President Mike Pence.", "Prior to her appointment, DeVos received a BA degree in business economics from Calvin College in Grand Rapids, Michigan and she served as chairman of an investment management firm, The Windquest Group.", "She supported the idea of leaving education to state governments under the new K-12 legislation.", "DeVos cited the interventionist approach of the federal government to education policy following the signing of the ESSA.", "The primary approach to that rule has not changed significantly.", "Her opinion was that the education movement populist politics or populism encouraged reformers to commit promises which were not very realistic and therefore difficult to deliver.On July 31, 2018, President Donald Trump signed the Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act (HR 2353) The Act reauthorized the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act, a $1.2 billion program modified by the United States Congress in 2006.A move to change the Higher Education Act was also deferred.The legislation enacted on July 1, 2019, replaced the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education (Perkins IV) Act of 2006.Stipulations in Perkins V enables school districts to make use of federal subsidies for all students' career search and development activities in the middle grades as well as comprehensive guidance and academic mentoring in the upper grades.", "At the same time, this law revised the meaning of \"special populations\" to include homeless persons, foster youth, those who left the foster care system, and children with parents on active duty in the United States armed forces." ], [ "Barriers to reform", "=== Education inequalities facing students of color ===Another factor to consider in education reform is that of equity and access.", "Contemporary issues in the United States regarding education faces a history of inequalities that come with consequences for education attainment across different social groups.==== Racial and socioeconomic class segregation ====A history of racial, and subsequently class, segregation in the U.S. resulted from practices of law.", "Residential segregation is a direct result of twentieth century policies that separated by race using zoning and redlining practices, in addition to other housing policies, whose effects continue to endure in the United States.", "These neighborhoods that have been segregated de jure—by force of purposeful public policy at the federal, state, and local levels—disadvantage people of color as students must attend school near their homes.With the inception of the New Deal between 1933 and 1939, and during and following World War II, federally funded public housing was explicitly racially segregated by the local government in conjunction with federal policies through projects that were designated for Whites or Black Americans in the South, Northeast, Midwest, and West.", "Following an ease on the housing shortage post-World War II, the federal government subsidized the relocation of Whites to suburbs.", "The Federal Housing and Veterans Administration constructed such developments on the East Coast in towns like Levittown on Long Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware.", "On the West Coast, there was Panorama City, Lakewood, Westlake, and Seattle suburbs developed by Bertha and William Boeing.", "As White families left for the suburbs, Black families remained in public housing and were explicitly placed in Black neighborhoods.", "Policies such as public housing director, Harold Ickes', \"neighborhood composition rule\" maintained this segregation by establishing that public housing must not interfere with pre-existing racial compositions of neighborhoods.", "Federal loan guarantees were given to builders who adhered to the condition that no sales were made to Black families and each deed prohibited re-sales to Black families, what the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) described as an \"incompatible racial element\".", "In addition, banks and savings intuitions refused loans to Black families in White suburbs and Black families in Black neighborhoods.", "In the mid-twentieth century, urban renewal programs forced low-income black residents to reside in places farther from universities, hospitals, or business districts and relocation options consisted of public housing high-rises and ghettos.This history of de jure segregation has impacted resource allocation for public education in the United States, with schools continuing to be segregated by race and class.", "Low-income White students are more likely than Black students to be integrated into middle-class neighborhoods and less likely to attend schools with other predominantly disadvantaged students.", "Students of color disproportionately attend underfunded schools and Title I schools in environments entrenched in environmental pollution and stagnant economic mobility with limited access to college readiness resources.", "According to research, schools attended by primarily Hispanic or African American students often have high turnover of teaching staff and are labeled high-poverty schools, in addition to having limited educational specialists, less available extracurricular opportunities, greater numbers of provisionally licensed teachers, little access to technology, and buildings that are not well maintained.", "With this segregation, more local property tax is allocated to wealthier communities and public schools' dependence on local property taxes has led to large disparities in funding between neighboring districts.", "The top 10% of wealthiest school districts spend approximately ten times more per student than the poorest 10% of school districts.==== Racial wealth gap ====This history of racial and socioeconomic class segregation in the U.S. has manifested into a racial wealth divide.", "With this history of geographic and economic segregation, trends illustrate a racial wealth gap that has impacted educational outcomes and its concomitant economic gains for minorities.", "Wealth or net worth—the difference between gross assets and debt—is a stock of financial resources and a significant indicator of financial security that offers a more complete measure of household capability and functioning than income.", "Within the same income bracket, the chance of completing college differs for White and Black students.", "Nationally, White students are at least 11% more likely to complete college across all four income groups.", "Intergenerational wealth is another result of this history, with White college-educated families three times as likely as Black families to get an inheritance of $10,000 or more.", "10.6% of White children from low-income backgrounds and 2.5% of Black children from low-income backgrounds reach the top 20% of income distribution as adults.", "Less than 10% of Black children from low-income backgrounds reach the top 40%.==== Access to early childhood education ====These disadvantages facing students of color are apparent early on in early childhood education.", "By the age of five, children of color are impacted by opportunity gaps indicated by poverty, school readiness gap, segregated low-income neighborhoods, implicit bias, and inequalities within the justice system as Hispanic and African American boys account for as much as 60% of total prisoners within the incarceration population.", "These populations are also more likely to experience adverse childhood experiences (ACEs).High-quality early care and education are less accessible to children of color, particularly African American preschoolers as findings from the National Center for Education Statistics show that in 2013, 40% of Hispanic and 36% White children were enrolled in learning center-based classrooms rated as high, while 25% of African American children were enrolled in these programs.", "15% of African American children attended low ranking center-based classrooms.", "In home-based settings, 30% of White children and over 50% of Hispanic and African American children attended low rated programs." ], [ "Contemporary issues (United States)", "===Overview===In the first decade of the 21st century, several issues are salient in debates over further education reform:* Longer school day or school year* After-school tutoring* Charter schools, school choice, or school vouchers* Smaller class sizes* Improved teacher quality Improved training Higher credential standards Generally higher pay to attract more qualified applicants Performance bonuses (\"merit pay\")** Firing low-performing teachers* Internet and computer access in schools* Track and reduce drop-out rate* Track and reduce absenteeism* English-only vs. bilingual education* Mainstreaming or fully including students with special educational needs, rather than placing them in separate special schools* Content of curriculum standards and textbooks** What to teach, at what age, and to which students.", "Discussion points include the age at which children should learn to read, and the primary mathematical subject that is taught to adolescents – algebra, or statistics or personal finances.", "* Funding, neglected infrastructure, and adequacy of educational supplies* Student rightsEducation inequalities facing students of color=== Private interest in American charter schools ===Charter schools public independent institutions in which both the cost and risk are fully funded by the taxpayers.", "Some charter schools are nonprofit in name only and are structured in ways that individuals and private enterprises connected to them can make money.", "Other charter schools are for-profit.", "In many cases, the public is largely unaware of this rapidly changing educational landscape, the debate between public and private/market approaches, and the decisions that are being made that affect their children and communities.", "Critics have accused for-profit entities, (education management organizations, EMOs) and private foundations such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Eli and Edythe Broad Foundation, and the Walton Family Foundation of funding Charter school initiatives to undermine public education and turn education into a \"Business Model\" which can make a profit.", "In some cases a school's charter is held by a non-profit that chooses to contract all of the school's operations to a third party, often a for-profit, CMO.", "This arrangement is defined as a ''vendor-operated school'', (''VOS'').===School choice===Economists, such as the late Nobel laureate Milton Friedman, advocate for school choice to promote excellence in education through competition and choice.", "A competitive market for schooling provides a workable method of accountability for results.", "Public education vouchers permit guardians to select and pay any school, public or private, with public funds that were formerly allocated directly to local public schools.", "The theory is that children's guardians will naturally shop for the best schools for their children, much as is already done at college level.Many reforms based on school choice have led to slight to moderate improvements.", "Some teachers' union members see those improvements as insufficient to offset the decreased teacher pay and job security.", "For instance, New Zealand's landmark reform in 1989, during which schools were granted substantial autonomy, funding was devolved to schools, and parents were given a free choice of which school their children would attend, led to moderate improvements in most schools.", "It was argued that the associated increases in inequity and greater racial stratification in schools nullified the educational gains.", "Others, however, argued that the original system created more inequity, due to lower income students being required to attend poorer performing inner city schools and not being allowed school choice or better educations that are available to higher income inhabitants of suburbs.", "Thus, it was argued that school choice promoted social mobility and increased test scores, especially in the cases of low income students.", "Similar results have been found in other jurisdictions.", "The small improvements produced by some school choice policies seem to reflect weaknesses in the ways that choice is implemented, rather than a failure of the basic principle itself.===Teacher tenure===Critics of teacher tenure claim that the laws protect ineffective teachers from being fired, which can be detrimental to student success.", "Tenure laws vary from state to state, but generally they set a probationary period during which the teacher proves themselves worthy of the lifelong position.", "Probationary periods range from one to three years.", "Advocates for tenure reform often consider these periods too short to make such an important decision; especially when that decision is exceptionally hard to revoke.", "Due process restriction protect tenured teachers from being wrongfully fired; however these restrictions can also prevent administrators from removing ineffective or inappropriate teachers.", "A 2008 survey conducted by the US Department of Education found that, on average, only 2.1% of teachers are dismissed each year for poor performance.In October 2010 Apple Inc. CEO Steve Jobs had a consequential meeting with U.S. President Barack Obama to discuss U.S. competitiveness and the nation's education system.", "During the meeting Jobs recommended pursuing policies that would make it easier for school principals to hire and fire teachers based on merit.In 2012 tenure for school teachers was challenged in a California lawsuit called ''Vergara v. California''.", "The primary issue in the case was the impact of tenure on student outcomes and on equity in education.", "On June 10, 2014, the trial judge ruled that California's teacher tenure statute produced disparities that \" shock the conscience\" and violate the equal protection clause of the California Constitution.===Funding levels===According to a 2005 report from the OECD, the United States is tied for first place with Switzerland when it comes to annual spending per student on its public schools, with each of those two countries spending more than $11,000 (in U.S. currency).Despite this high level of funding, U.S. public schools lag behind the schools of other rich countries in the areas of reading, math, and science.", "A further analysis of developed countries shows no correlation between per student spending and student performance, suggesting that there are other factors influencing education.", "Top performers include Singapore, Finland and Korea, all with relatively low spending on education, while high spenders including Norway and Luxembourg have relatively low performance.", "One possible factor is the distribution of the funding.In the US, schools in wealthy areas tend to be over-funded while schools in poorer areas tend to be underfunded.", "These differences in spending between schools or districts may accentuate inequalities, if they result in the best teachers moving to teach in the most wealthy areas.", "The inequality between districts and schools led to 23 states instituting school finance reform based on adequacy standards that aim to increase funding to low-income districts.", "A 2018 study found that between 1990 and 2012, these finance reforms led to an increase in funding and test scores in the low income districts; which suggests finance reform is effective at bridging inter-district performance inequalities.", "It has also been shown that the socioeconomic situation of the students family has the most influence in determining success; suggesting that even if increased funds in a low income area increase performance, they may still perform worse than their peers from wealthier districts.Starting in the early 1980s, a series of analyses by Eric Hanushek indicated that the amount spent on schools bore little relationship to student learning.", "This controversial argument, which focused attention on how money was spent instead of how much was spent, led to lengthy scholarly exchanges.", "In part the arguments fed into the class size debates and other discussions of \"input policies.\"", "It also moved reform efforts towards issues of school accountability (including No Child Left Behind) and the use of merit pay and other incentives.There have been studies that show smaller class sizes and newer buildings (both of which require higher funding to implement) lead to academic improvements.", "It should also be noted that many of the reform ideas that stray from the traditional format require greater funding.According to a 1999 article, William J. Bennett, former U.S. Secretary of Education, argued that increased levels of spending on public education have not made the schools better, citing the following statistics:" ], [ "Internationally", "=== Education for All ===EDUCATION FOR ALL THROUGHOUT LIFE The EFA Assessment 2000 was launched in July 1998 with an aim to help countries to identify both problems and prospects for further progress of EFA, and to strengthen their capacity to improve and monitor the provision and outcomes of basic education.", "Some 179 countries set up National Assessment Groups which collected quantitative data focusing on eighteen core indicators and carried out case-studies to collect qualitative information.", "Education 2030 Agenda refers to the global commitment of the Education for All movement to ensure access to basic education for all.", "It is an essential part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.", "The roadmap to achieve the Agenda is the Education 2030 Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action, which outlines how countries, working with UNESCO and global partners, can translate commitments into action.The United Nations, over 70 ministers, representatives of member-countries, bilateral and multilateral agencies, regional organizations, academic institutions, teachers, civil society, and the youth supported the Framework for Action of the Education 2030 platform.", "The Framework was described as the outcome of continuing consultation to provide guidance for countries in implementing this Agenda.", "At the same time, it mobilizes various stakeholders in the new education objectives, coordination, implementation process, funding, and review of Education 2030.===Thailand===In 1995, the minister of education, Sukavich Rangsitpol, launched a series of education reforms in 1995 with the intention of the education reform is to realize the potential of Thai people to develop themselves for a better quality of life and to develop the nation for a peaceful co-existence in the global community.", "Since December 1995, activities have been conducted in four main areas:· School reform.", "Efforts have been stepped up to standardize the quality of education in all levels and types of schools and educational institutions.", "Educational coverage has been expanded.· Teacher reform.", "Training and recruitment of teachers have been reformed urgently and comprehensively both in public and private schools.", "Educational administrators and personnel have been developed continuously.Curriculum reform.", "Curriculum and teaching-learning processes have been reformed on an urgent basis in order to raise educational quality of all types and levels.· Administrative reform.", "Through devolution, educational institutions have been empowered to make administrative decisions and to offer appropriate educational services which are as consistent as possible with the local lifestyle and conditions.", "Provincial organizations have been strengthened to facilitate devolution while private participation of the family and community have been promoted and supported.", "School-based management (SBM) in Thailand implemented in 1997 in the course of a reform aimed at overcoming a profound crisis in the educación system.", "Establish effective Provincial Education Councils with strong community membership.", "The purpose of decentralization is to ensure that local education needs are met, there should be a close relationship between community representatives and officials .", "Thus, decentralization will require a careful balance between the guidance of community selected representatives and government officials.", "To representing local needs and priorities.", "The 1995 Education Reform results in 40,000 schools under the Education Reform in 1997.Project were required to improve their school environment and encourage the local community to be involved in school administration and management.", "Those schools could later accepted 4.35 students aged between 3-17years old from poor families in remote areas .Thereafter Thailand was successfully established Education For All (EFA).", "Thus, Thailand received 1997 ACEID awards for excellence in education from UNESCO in 1997According to UNESCO, Thailand education reform has led to the following results: The educational budget increased from 133 billion baht in 1996 to 163 billion baht in 1997 (22.5% increase)* Since 1996, first grade students have been taught English as a second or foreign language and computer literacy.", "* Professional advancement from teacher level 6 to teacher level 7 without having to submit academic work for consideration was approved by the Thai government.", "* Free 12 years education for all children provided by the government.", "The Eighth Thailand’s National Social and Economic Development Plan was also written to support the implemented of education reform program.", "This program was later added to the 1997 Constitution of Thailand and gave access to all citizens.World Bank report that after the 1997 Asian financial crisis Income in the northeast, the poorest part of Thailand, has risen by 46 percent from 1998 to 2006.Nationwide poverty fell from 21.3 to 11.3 percent.=== Learning crisis ===The learning crisis is the reality that while the majority of children around the world attend school, a large proportion of them are not learning.", "A World Bank study found that \"53 percent of children in low- and middle-income countries cannot read and understand a simple story by the end of primary school.\"", "While schooling has increased rapidly over the last few decades, learning has not followed suit.", "Many practitioners and academics call for education system reform in order to address the learning needs of all children." ], [ "Digital education", "The movement to use computers more in education naturally includes many unrelated ideas, methods, and pedagogies since there are many uses for digital computers.", "For example, the fact that computers are naturally good at math leads to the question of the use of calculators in math education.", "The Internet's communication capabilities make it potentially useful for collaboration, and foreign language learning.", "The computer's ability to simulate physical systems makes it potentially useful in teaching science.", "More often, however, debate of digital education reform centers around more general applications of computers to education, such as electronic test-taking and online classes.Another viable addition to digital education has been blended learning.", "In 2009, over 3 million K-12 students took an online course, compared to 2000 when 45,000 took an online course.", "Blended learning examples include pure online, blended, and traditional education.", "Research results show that the most effective learning takes place in a blended format.", "This allows children to view the lecture ahead of time and then spend class time practicing, refining, and applying what they have previously learned.The idea of creating artificial intelligence led some computer scientists to believe that teachers could be replaced by computers, through something like an expert system; however, attempts to accomplish this have predictably proved inflexible.", "The computer is now more understood to be a tool or assistant for the teacher and students.Harnessing the richness of the Internet is another goal.", "In some cases classrooms have been moved entirely online, while in other instances the goal is more to learn how the Internet can be more than a classroom.Web-based international educational software is under development by students at New York University, based on the belief that current educational institutions are too rigid: effective teaching is not routine, students are not passive, and questions of practice are not predictable or standardized.", "The software allows for courses tailored to an individual's abilities through frequent and automatic multiple intelligences assessments.", "Ultimate goals include assisting students to be intrinsically motivated to educate themselves, and aiding the student in self-actualization.", "Courses typically taught only in college are being reformatted so that they can be taught to any level of student, whereby elementary school students may learn the foundations of any topic they desire.", "Such a program has the potential to remove the bureaucratic inefficiencies of education in modern countries, and with the decreasing digital divide, help developing nations rapidly achieve a similar quality of education.", "With an open format similar to Wikipedia, any teacher may upload their courses online and a feedback system will help students choose relevant courses of the highest quality.", "Teachers can provide links in their digital courses to webcast videos of their lectures.", "Students will have personal academic profiles and a forum will allow students to pose complex questions, while simpler questions will be automatically answered by the software, which will bring you to a solution by searching through the knowledge database, which includes all available courses and topics.The 21st century ushered in the acceptance and encouragement of internet research conducted on college and university campuses, in homes, and even in gathering areas of shopping centers.", "Addition of cyber cafes on campuses and coffee shops, loaning of communication devices from libraries, and availability of more portable technology devices, opened up a world of educational resources.", "Availability of knowledge to the elite had always been obvious, yet provision of networking devices, even wireless gadget sign-outs from libraries, made availability of information an expectation of most persons.", "Cassandra B. Whyte researched the future of computer use on higher education campuses focusing on student affairs.", "Though at first seen as a data collection and outcome reporting tool, the use of computer technology in the classrooms, meeting areas, and homes continued to unfold.", "The sole dependence on paper resources for subject information diminished and e-books and articles, as well as online courses, were anticipated to become increasingly staple and affordable choices provided by higher education institutions according to Whyte in a 2002 presentation.Digitally \"flipping\" classrooms is a trend in digital education that has gained significant momentum.", "Will Richardson, author and visionary for the digital education realm, points to the not-so-distant future and the seemingly infinite possibilities for digital communication linked to improved education.", "Education on the whole, as a stand-alone entity, has been slow to embrace these changes.", "The use of web tools such as wikis, blogs, and social networking sites is tied to increasing overall effectiveness of digital education in schools.", "Examples exist of teacher and student success stories where learning has transcended the classroom and has reached far out into society.The media has been instrumental in pushing formal educational institutions to become savvier in their methods.", "Additionally, advertising has been (and continues to be) a vital force in shaping students and parents thought patterns.Technology is a dynamic entity that is constantly in flux.", "As time presses on, new technologies will continue to break paradigms that will reshape human thinking regarding technological innovation.", "This concept stresses a certain disconnect between teachers and learners and the growing chasm that started some time ago.", "Richardson asserts that traditional classroom's will essentially enter entropy unless teachers increase their comfort and proficiency with technology.Administrators are not exempt from the technological disconnect.", "They must recognize the existence of a younger generation of teachers who were born during the Digital Age and are very comfortable with technology.", "However, when old meets new, especially in a mentoring situation, conflict seems inevitable.", "Ironically, the answer to the outdated mentor may be digital collaboration with worldwide mentor webs; composed of individuals with creative ideas for the classroom." ], [ "See also", "* Anti-schooling activism* Blab school* Block scheduling* Certificate of Initial Mastery* Criterion-referenced test* Educational philosophies* Excellence and equity* Female education* High school graduation examination* Higher-order thinking* Inquiry-based Science* Learning crisis* Learning environment* Learning space* Merit pay* Multiculturalism* Political correctness* Project-based learning* Special Assistance Program* Student-centered learning* Sudbury model democratic schools* Sudbury Valley School* Teaching for social justice* University reform* Web literacy" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources" ], [ "Further reading", "* Comer, J.P. (1997).", "''Waiting for a Miracle: Why Schools Can't Solve Our Problems- and How We Can''.", "New York: Penguin Books.", "* Cuban, L. (2003).", "''Why Is It So Hard to Get Good Schools?''", "New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.", "* Darling-Hammond, Linda.", "(1997) ''The Right to Learn: A Blueprint for Creating Schools that Work''.", "Jossey-Bass.", "* Dewey, J. and Dewey, E. (1915).", "''Schools of To-morrow''.", "New York: E.P.", "Dutton and Company.", "* * Gatto, John Taylor (1992).", "''Dumbing Us Down: The Hidden Curriculum of Compulsory Schooling''.", "Canada: New Society Publishers.", "* Glazek, S.D.", "and Sarason, S.B.", "(2007).", "''Productive Learning: Science, Art, and Einstein's Relativity in Education Reform''.", "New York: Sage Publications, Inc. Goodland, J.I.", "and Anderson, R.H. (1959 and 1987).", "''The Nongraded Elementary School''.", "New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.", "* James, Laurie.", "(1994) ''Outrageous Questions: Legacy of Bronson Alcott and America's One-Room Schools'' New York.", "* Katz, M.B.", "(1971).", "''Class, Bureaucracy, and Schools: The Illusion of Educational Change in America''.", "New York: Praeger Publishers.", "* Kliebard, Herbert.", "(1987) ''The Struggle for the American Curriculum''.", "New York : Routledge & Kegan Paul.", "* Kohn, A.", "(1999).", "''The Schools Our Children Deserve: Moving Beyond Traditional Classrooms and 'Tougher Standards''.", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.* Murphy, J.H.", "and Beck, L.G.", "(1995).", "''School-Based Management as ** Ravitch, D. (1988).", "''The Great School Wars: A History of the New York City Public Schools''.", "New York: Basic Books, Inc.* Sarason, S.B.", "(1996).", "''Revisiting 'The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change''.", "New York: Teachers College Press.", "Sarason, S.B.", "(1990).", "''The Predictable Failure of Educational Reform: Can We Change Course Before Its Too Late?''", "San Francisco: Josey-Bass, Inc. Sizer, T.R.", "(1984).", "''Horace's Compromise: The Dilemma of the American High School''.", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.", "* Tough, Paul.", "(2008).", "''Whatever It Takes: Geoffrey Canada's Quest to Change Harlem and America''.", "New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.", "* Tough, Paul.", "(2012).", "''How Children Succeed''.", "New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.", "* Tyack, David and Cuban, Larry.", "(1995) ''Tinkering Toward Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform''.", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.", "* Zwaagstra, Michael; Clifton, Rodney; and Long, John.", "(2010) ''What's Wrong with Our Schools: and How We Can Fix Them''.", "Rowman & Littlefield." ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ellensburg, Washington" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ellensburg''' is a city in and the county seat of Kittitas County, Washington, United States.", "It is located just east of the Cascade Range near the junction of Interstate 90 and Interstate 82.The population was 18,666 at the 2020 census.", "and was estimated to be 19,596 in 2021.The city is located along the Yakima River in the Kittitas Valley, an agricultural region that extends east towards the Columbia River.", "The valley is a major producer of timothy hay, which is processed and shipped internationally.", "Ellensburg is also the home of Central Washington University (CWU).Ellensburg, originally named Ellensburgh for the wife of town founder John Alden Shoudy, was founded in 1871 and grew rapidly in the 1880s following the arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway.", "The city was once a leading candidate to become the state capital of Washington, but its campaign was scuppered by a major fire in 1889." ], [ "History", "Barge Hall at Central Washington UniversityJohn Alden Shoudy arrived in the Kittitas Valley in 1871 and purchased a small trading post from Andrew Jackson \"A.J.\"", "Splawn, called \"Robber's Roost\".", "Robber's Roost was the first business in the valley, aside from the early trading that occurred among Native Americans, cattle drivers, trappers, and miners.", "A small stone monument to Robber's Roost with a placard can be found at its original location, present-day 3rd Avenue, just west of Main Street near the alley.Shoudy named the new town after his wife, Mary Ellen, thus officially starting the city of Ellensburgh around 1872.Shoudy had not been the first settler nor the first business person in the Kittitas Valley, but he was responsible for platting the city of Ellensburgh in the 1870s and also named the streets in the downtown district.", "Ellensburgh was officially incorporated on November 26, 1883.In 1894, the final -''h'' was dropped under standardization pressure from the United States Postal Service and Board of Geography Names.", "Ellensburg was an early center of commerce in Washington and was among the first cities in the state to have electrical service.The city launched a bid to become Washington state's capital in 1889, preparing a site in the Capital Hill neighborhood for government offices.", "On July 4 that year, however, a major fire destroyed much of the downtown area and stalled the campaign, which resumed with a series of referendums, in which Washington voters chose Olympia.", "The state legislature selected Ellensburg as the location for the State Normal School (now Central Washington University).There were several early newspapers in Ellensburg.", "''The Daily Record'', which started in 1909, is the publication which serves the city and county today.", "Concerns over the state of Ellensburg's historic downtown led to the formation of the Ellensburg Downtown Association to work on revitalizing the area." ], [ "Arts and culture", "The City of Ellensburg has several local art museums and galleries: Kittitas County Historical MuseumThe Goodey GalleryClymer Museum and GalleryGallery One Visual Arts Center420 Loft Art GallerySarah Spurgeon Gallery, Central Washington University (CWU) Department of Art Museum of Culture & Environment, Central Washington University" ], [ "Events", "The Ellensburg Farmers Market is held every Saturday from May to October in downtown Ellensburg.", "Ellensburg hosts the annual Winterhop Brewfest in January.", "Over 21 micro breweries from around the Pacific Northwest serve their product at various venues in the downtown buildings.", "Every June, Ellensburg hosts Dachshunds on Parade.", "Events include a parade, Dachshund races, pet tricks, and a dog costume contest.", "Ellensburg hosts the annual Jazz in the Valley music festival on the last weekend in July.", "Ellensburg is a stop on the PRCA professional rodeo circuit, occurring each year on Labor Day weekend.", "The Ellensburg Rodeo has been a town tradition since 1923, and is the largest rodeo in Washington state.", "The rodeo arena is encompassed by the Kittitas County Fair, also held during Labor Day weekend.", "The Kittitas County Fair officially began in 1885, and has been held at its current location since 1923.", "Downtown Ellensburg hosts Buskers in the Burg the last Saturday in September.", "It included street performers (buskers), giant puppet art parade, tasting halls, children's activities, and an outdoor evening concert." ], [ "Geography", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.===Climate===Owing to the strong Cascade rain shadow, Ellensburg experiences a typical Intermountain cool semi-arid climate (Köppen ''BSk'').", "The hottest temperature recorded in Ellensburg was on July 26, 1928, while the coldest temperature recorded was on December 12, 1919." ], [ "Demographics", "===2010 census===As of the census of 2010, there were 18,174 people, 7,301 households, and 2,889 families living in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 7,867 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 85.7% White, 1.5% African American, 1.0% Native American, 3.2% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 4.6% from other races, and 3.7% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.7% of the population.There were 7,301 households, of which 19.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.2% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 60.4% were non-families.", "35.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 2.86.The median age in the city was 23.5 years.", "14.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 41.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.8% were from 25 to 44; 13.9% were from 45 to 64; and 8.9% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the city was 50.1% male and 49.9% female.===2000 census===As of the census of 2000, there were 15,414 people, 6,249 households, and 2,649 families living in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 6,732 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 88.07% White, 1.17% Black or African American, 0.95% Native American, 4.09% Asian, 0.16% Pacific Islander, 2.86% from other races, and 2.69% from two or more races.", "6.33% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 6,249 households, of which 20.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.4% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 57.6% were non-families.", "35.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.84.In the city, the population was spread out, with 15.8% under the age of 18, 39.3% from 18 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 12.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.4% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 24 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 95.0 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.1 males.The median income for a household in the city was $20,034, and the median income for a family was $37,625.Males had a median income of $31,022 versus $22,829 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $13,662.About 18.8% of families and 34.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.0% of those under age 18 and 11.2% of those age 65 or over." ], [ "Politics and government", "The City of Ellensburg uses the Manager/Council form of government with a City Manager hired by the City Council.", "The seven-member City Council is elected at large and serve 4-year terms.", "The City Council elects a Mayor and Deputy Mayor from the council to serve 2-year terms.On the state legislative level, Ellensburg is in the 13th district.", "As of May, 2018, its state senator is Republican Judy Warnick, and its two state representatives are Republicans Alex Ybarra and Tom Dent.", "On the congressional level, Ellensburg is located in Washington's 8th congressional district and is represented by Democrat Kim Schrier." ], [ "Media", "Kittitas County is served by the ''Daily Record'', a newspaper published in Ellensburg five days a week.The city maintains its own public library, which opened on January 20, 1910, using funds donated by Andrew Carnegie." ], [ "Education", "===Higher education===Central Washington University (est.", "1891 as Washington State Normal School) offers both bachelor's and master's degrees, with over 10,000 undergraduates.===Public schools===Public schools are operated by Ellensburg School District 401.The district includes one high school (Ellensburg High School), one middle school, and four elementary schools." ], [ "Notable people", "* Byron Beck, American Basketball Association player* Drew Bledsoe, National Football League player* John Brotherton, actor * Daryl Chapin, physicist best known for co-inventing solar cells* John Clymer, painter and illustrator* Gary Lee Conner, singer-songwriter, guitarist, co-founder of Screaming Trees grunge band* Van Conner, singer-songwriter, bassist, co-founder of Screaming Trees band* Brian Habib, National Football League player* Brian Haley, actor, comedian* John Haughm, founder, guitarist, and vocalist of the band Agalloch, and later Pillorian.", "* Dave Heaverlo, Major League baseball pitcher* Stevin John, known as \"Blippi\", YouTube creator, children's entertainer, and educator* Jon Kitna, National Football League player* Mark Lanegan, singer-songwriter, co-founder and lead singer of Screaming Trees grunge band* Ron Magers, television news anchor* Mark Pickerel, singer-songwriter acoustic guitar percussionist, co-founder of Screaming Trees grunge band* Brian Thompson, actor* David Wilkie, NHLer for the Montreal Canadiens and Tampa Bay Lightning.", "* Nick Zentner, a geology professor at Central Washington University, also known for online videos covering the geology of the Northwestern United States." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Caveness, Andrew (2009).", "''Images of America: Ellensburg''.", "Mount Pleasant, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing.", "'* Kirk, Ruth, and Carmela Alexander (1990, revised edition 1995).", "''Exploring Washington's Past''.", "Seattle: University of Washington Press.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Ellensburg official website* Kittitas County Chamber of Commerce* Ellensburg Downtown Association* Ellensburg Public Library's Historic Local Photograph Collection hosted by the CWU Brooks Library*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eugene, Oregon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eugene''' ( ) is a city in and the county seat of Lane County, Oregon, United States.", "It is located at the southern end of the Willamette Valley, near the confluence of the McKenzie and Willamette rivers, about east of the Oregon Coast.The second-most populous city in Oregon, Eugene had a population of 176,654 as of the 2020 United States census and it covers city area of .", "The Eugene-Springfield metropolitan statistical area is the second largest in Oregon after Portland.", "In 2022, Eugene's population was estimated to have reached 179,887.Eugene is home to the University of Oregon, Bushnell University, and Lane Community College.", "The city is noted for its natural environment, recreational opportunities (especially bicycling, running/jogging, rafting, and kayaking), and focus on the arts, along with its history of civil unrest, protests, and green activism.", "Eugene's official slogan is \"A Great City for the Arts and Outdoors\".", "It is also referred to as the \"Emerald City\" and as \"Track Town, USA\".", "The Nike corporation had its beginnings in Eugene.", "In July 2022, the city hosted the 18th World Athletics Championship." ], [ "History", "===Indigenous presence===The first people to settle in the Eugene area were the Kalapuyans, also written Calapooia or Calapooya.", "They made \"seasonal rounds,\" moving around the countryside to collect and preserve local foods, including acorns, the bulbs of the wapato and camas plants, and berries.", "They stored these foods in their permanent winter village.", "When crop activities waned, they returned to their winter villages and took up hunting, fishing, and trading.", "They were known as the Chifin Kalapuyans and called the Eugene area where they lived \"Chifin\", sometimes recorded as \"Chafin\" or \"Chiffin\".Camas flowerOther Kalapuyan tribes occupied villages that are also now within Eugene city limits.", "Pee-you or Mohawk Calapooians, Winefelly or Pleasant Hill Calapooians, and the Lungtum or Long Tom.", "They were close-neighbors to the Chifin, intermarried, and were political allies.", "Some authorities suggest the Brownsville Kalapuyans (Calapooia Kalapuyans) were related to the Pee-you.", "It is likely that since the Santiam had an alliance with the Brownsville Kalapuyans that the Santiam influence also went as far at Eugene.According to archeological evidence, the ancestors of the Kalapuyans may have been in Eugene for as long as 10,000 years.", "In the 1800s their traditional way of life faced significant changes due to devastating epidemics and settlement, first by French fur traders and later by an overwhelming number of American settlers.===Settlement and impact===Kalapuya man, c. 1840French fur traders had settled seasonally in the Willamette Valley by the beginning of the 19th century.", "Their settlements were concentrated in the \"French Prairie\" community in Northern Marion County but may have extended south to the Eugene area.", "Having already developed relationships with Native communities through intermarriage and trade, they negotiated for land from the Kalapuyans.", "By 1828 to 1830 they and their Native wives began year-round occupation of the land, raising crops and tending animals.", "In this process, the mixed race families began to impact Native access to land, food supply, and traditional materials for trade and religious practices.In July 1830, \"intermittent fever\" struck the lower Columbia region and a year later, the Willamette Valley.", "Natives traced the arrival of the disease, then new to the Pacific Northwest, to the ''USS Owyhee'', captained by John Dominis.", "\"Intermittent fever\" is thought by researchers now to be malaria.", "According to Robert T. Boyd, an anthropologist at Portland State University, the first three years of the epidemic, \"probably constitute the single most important epidemiological event in the recorded history of what would eventually become the state of Oregon\".", "In his book ''The Coming of the Spirit Pestilence'' Boyd reports there was a 92% population loss for the Kalapuyans between 1830 and 1841.This catastrophic event shattered the social fabric of Kalapuyan society and altered the demographic balance in the Valley.", "This balance was further altered over the next few years by the arrival of Anglo-American settlers, beginning in 1840 with 13 people and growing steadily each year until within 20 years more than 11,000 American settlers, including Eugene Skinner, had arrived.As the demographic pressure from the settlers grew, the remaining Kalapuyans were forcibly removed to Indian reservations.", "Though some Natives avoided transfer into the reservation, most were moved to the Grand Ronde reservation in 1856.Strict racial segregation was enforced and mixed race people, known as Métis in French, had to make a choice between the reservation and Anglo-American society.", "Native Americans could not leave the reservation without traveling papers and white people could not enter the reservation.Replica of Skinner's original cabinEugene Franklin Skinner, after whom Eugene is named, arrived in the Willamette Valley in 1846 with 1,200 other settlers that year.", "Advised by the Kalapuyans to build on high ground to avoid flooding, he erected the first pioneer cabin on south or west slope of what the Kalapuyans called Ya-po-ah.", "The \"isolated hill\" is now known as Skinner's Butte.", "The cabin was used as a trading post and was registered as an official post office on January 8, 1850.At this time the settlement was known by settlers as Skinner's Mudhole.", "It was relocated in 1853 and named Eugene City in 1853.Formally incorporated as a city in 1862, it was named simply Eugene in 1889.Skinner ran a ferry service across the Willamette River where the Ferry Street Bridge now stands.=== Educational institutions ===The first major educational institution in the area was Columbia College, founded a few years earlier than the University of Oregon.", "It fell victim to two major fires in four years, and after the second fire, the college decided not to rebuild again.", "The part of south Eugene known as College Hill was the former location of Columbia College.", "There is no college there today.The town raised the initial funding to start a public university, which later became the University of Oregon, with the hope of turning the small town into a center of learning.", "In 1872, the Legislative Assembly passed a bill creating the University of Oregon as a state institution.", "Eugene bested the nearby town of Albany in the competition for the state university.", "In 1873, community member J.H.D.", "Henderson donated the hilltop land for the campus, overlooking the city.", "The university first opened in 1876 with the regents electing the first faculty and naming John Wesley Johnson as president.", "The first students registered on October 16, 1876.The first building was completed in 1877; it was named Deady Hall in honor of the first Board of Regents President and community leader Judge Matthew P. Deady.Other universities in Eugene include Bushnell University and New Hope Christian College.=== Twentieth century ===Eugene grew rapidly throughout most of the twentieth century, with the exception being the early 1980s when a downturn in the timber industry caused high unemployment.", "By 1985, the industry had recovered and Eugene began to attract more high-tech industries, earning it the moniker the \"Emerald Shire\".", "In 2012, Eugene and the surrounding metro area was dubbed the Silicon shire.The first Nike shoe was used in 1972 during the US Olympic trials held in Eugene.=== Activism ===The 1970s saw an increase in community activism.", "Local activists stopped a proposed freeway and lobbied for the construction of the Washington Jefferson Park beneath the Washington-Jefferson Street Bridge.", "Community Councils soon began to form as a result of these efforts.", "A notable impact of the turn to community-organized politics came with Eugene Local Measure 51, a ballot measure in 1978 that repealed a gay rights ordinance approved by the Eugene City Council in 1977 that prohibited discrimination by sexual orientation.", "Eugene is also home to Beyond Toxics, a nonprofit environmental justice organization founded in 2000.One hotspot for protest activity since the 1990s has been the Whitaker district, located in the northwest of downtown Eugene.", "Whitaker is primarily a working-class neighborhood that has become a cultural hub, center of community and activism and home to alternative artists.", "It saw an increase of activity in the 1990s after many young people drawn to Eugene's political climate relocated there.", "Animal rights groups have had a heavy presence in the Whiteaker, and several vegan restaurants are located there.", "According to David Samuels, the Animal Liberation Front and the Earth Liberation Front have had an underground presence in the neighborhood.", "The neighborhood is home to a number of communal apartment buildings, which are often organized by anarchist or environmentalist groups.", "Local activists have also produced independent films and started art galleries, community gardens, and independent media outlets.", "Copwatch, Food Not Bombs, and Critical Mass are also active in the neighborhood." ], [ "Geography", "Spencer Butte can be seen from much of the city.According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.", "Eugene is at an elevation of .To the north of downtown is Skinner Butte.", "Northeast of the city are the Coburg Hills.", "Spencer Butte is a prominent landmark south of the city.", "Mount Pisgah is southeast of Eugene and includes the Mount Pisgah Arboretum and the Howard Buford Recreation Area, a Lane County Park.", "Eugene is surrounded by foothills and forests to the south, east, and west, while to the north the land levels out into the Willamette Valley and consists of mostly farmland.The Willamette and McKenzie Rivers run through Eugene and its neighboring city, Springfield.", "Another important stream is Amazon Creek, whose headwaters are near Spencer Butte.", "The creek discharges into the Long Tom River north Fern Ridge Reservoir, maintained for winter flood control by the Army Corps of Engineers.", "The Eugene Yacht Club hosts a sailing school and sailing regattas at Fern Ridge during summer months.===Neighborhoods===Eugene has 23 neighborhood associations:Active Bethel CitizensAmazon Neighbors AssociationCal Young Neighborhood AssociationChurchill Area NeighborsDowntown Neighborhood AssociationFairmount Neighbors AssociationFar West Neighborhood AssociationFriendly Area NeighborsGoodpasture Island NeighborsHarlowIndustrial Corridor Community OrganizationJefferson Westside NeighborsLaurel Hill Valley CitizensNortheast NeighborsRiver Road CommunitySanta Clara Community (including Irving)South University Neighborhood AssociationSoutheast NeighborsSouthwest Hills Neighborhood AssociationTrainsong NeighborsWest Eugene CommunityWest University NeighborsWhiteaker Community CouncilThe River Road and Santa Clara sections, which make up the northwestern part of the city, are within the urban growth boundary and generally perceived as part of Eugene, but are largely outside of the city limits.=== Climate ===Like the rest of the Willamette Valley, Eugene lies in the Marine West Coast climate zone, with Mediterranean characteristics.", "Under the Köppen climate classification scheme, Eugene has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: ''Csb'').", "Temperatures can vary from cool to warm, with warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters.", "Spring and fall are also moist seasons, with light rain falling for long periods.", "The average rainfall is , with the wettest \"rain year\" being from July 1973 to June 1974 with and the driest from July 2000 to June 2001 with .", "Measurements taken by NOAA over the past four decades have indicated a significant decline in average annual precipitation.", "From 1981 to 2010 inclusive, the reported annual average precipitation was , but for the thirty-year period ending in 2020, the annual average had declined , to .", "The figures from the second half of that period, or 2006 - 2020 inclusive, pointed to a further decline of more than , down to an annual average of .Winter snowfall does occur, but it is sporadic and rarely accumulates in large amounts: the normal seasonal amount is , but the median is zero.", "The record snowfall was of accumulation due to a pineapple express on January 25–29, 1969.Ice storms, like snowfall, are rare, but occur sporadically.The hottest months are July and August, with a normal monthly mean temperature of , with an average of 16 days per year reaching .", "The coolest month is December, with a mean temperature of , and there are 52 mornings per year with a low at or below freezing, and 2 afternoons with highs not exceeding the freezing mark.", "The coldest daytime high of the year averages , reaching the freezing point.The result of rare heavy snow in January 2008Eugene's average annual temperature is , and annual precipitation at .", "Eugene is slightly cooler on average than Portland.", "Despite being located about south and at an only slightly higher elevation, Eugene has a more continental climate than Portland, less subject to the maritime air that blows inland from the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia River.", "Eugene's normal annual mean minimum is , compared to in Portland; in August, the gap in the normal mean minimum widens to for Eugene and Portland, respectively.", "Eugene's warmest night annually averages a modest .", "Average winter temperatures (and summer high temperatures) are similar for the two cities.Extreme temperatures range from , recorded on December 8, 1972, to on June 27, 2021; the record cold daily maximum is , recorded on December 13, 1919, while, conversely, the record warm daily minimum is on July 22, 2006.====Air quality and allergies====Eugene is downwind of Willamette Valley grass seed farms.", "The combination of summer grass pollen and the confining shape of the hills around Eugene make it \"the area of the highest grass pollen counts in the USA (>1,500 pollen grains/m3 of air).\"", "These high pollen counts have led to difficulties for some track athletes who compete in Eugene.", "In the Olympic trials in 1972, \"Jim Ryun won the 1,500 after being flown in by helicopter because he was allergic to Eugene's grass seed pollen.\"", "Further, six-time Olympian Maria Mutola abandoned Eugene as a training area \"in part to avoid allergies\"." ], [ "Demographics", "===2010 census===According to the 2010 census, Eugene's population was 156,185.The population density was 3,572.2 people per square mile.", "There were 69,951 housing units at an average density of 1,600 per square mile.", "Those age 18 and over accounted for 81.8% of the total population.The racial makeup of the city was 85.8% White, 4.0% Asian, 1.4% Black or African American, 1.0% Native American, 0.2% Pacific Islander, and 4.7% from other races.Hispanics and Latinos of any race accounted for 7.8% of the total population.", "Of the non-Hispanics, 82% were White, 1.3% Black or African American, 0.8% Native American, 4% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 0.2% some other race alone, and 3.4% were of two or more races.Females represented 51.1% of the total population, and males represented 48.9%.", "The median age in the city was 33.8 years.===2000 census===The census of 2000 showed there were 137,893 people, 58,110 households, and 31,321 families residing in the city of Eugene.", "The population density was .", "There were 61,444 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 88.15% White, down from 99.5% in 1950, 3.57% Asian, 1.25% Black or African American, 0.93% Native American, 0.21% Pacific Islander, 2.18% from other races, and 3.72% from two or more races.", "4.96% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 58,110 households, of which 25.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.6% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.1% were non-families.", "31.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.87.In the city, the population was 20.3% under the age of 18, 17.3% from 18 to 24, 28.5% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 33 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 96.0 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.0 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $35,850, and the median income for a family was $48,527.Males had a median income of $35,549 versus $26,721 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $21,315.About 8.7% of families and 17.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.8% of those under age 18 and 7.1% of those age 65 or over." ], [ "Economy", "Eugene's largest employers are PeaceHealth Medical Group, the University of Oregon, and the Eugene School District.", "Eugene's largest industries are wood products manufacturing and recreational vehicle manufacturing.Corporate headquarters for the employee-owned Bi-Mart corporation and family-owned supermarket Market of Choice remain in Eugene.Sarvery Winery courtesy of Eugene, Cascades & CoastMany multinational businesses were launched in Eugene.", "Some of the most famous include Nike, Taco Time, and Brøderbund Software.The footwear repair product Shoe Goo is manufactured by Eclectic Products, based in Eugene.Run Gum, an energy gum created for runners, also began its life in Eugene.", "Run Gum was created by track athlete Nick Symmonds and track and field coach Sam Lapray in 2014.Burley Design LLC produces bicycle trailers and was founded in Eugene by Alan Scholz out of a Saturday Market business in 1978.Eugene is also the birthplace and home of Bike Friday bicycle manufacturer Green Gear Cycling.", "Organically Grown Company, the largest distributor of organic fruits and vegetables in the northwest, started in Eugene in 1978 as a non-profit co-op for organic farmers.", "Notable local food processors, many of whom manufacture certified organic products, include Golden Temple (Yogi Tea), Merry Hempsters, Springfield Creamery (Nancy's Yogurt), and Mountain Rose Herbs.Until July 2008, Hynix Semiconductor America had operated a large semiconductor plant in west Eugene.", "In late September 2009, Uni-Chem of South Korea announced its intention to purchase the Hynix site for solar cell manufacturing.", "However, this deal fell through and as of late 2012, is no longer planned.", "In 2015, semiconductor manufacturer Broadcom purchased the plant with plans to upgrade and reopen it.", "The company abandoned these plans and put it up for sale in November 2016.Luckey's Club Cigar Store is one of the oldest bars in Oregon.", "Tad Luckey Sr. purchased it in 1911, making it one of the oldest businesses in Eugene.", "The \"Club Cigar\", as it was called in the late 19th century, was for many years a men-only salon.", "It survived both the Great Depression and Prohibition, partly because Eugene was a \"dry town\" before the end of Prohibition.The city has over 25 breweries, offers a variety of dining options with a local focus; the city is surrounded by wineries.", "The most notable fungi here is the truffle; Eugene hosts the annual Oregon Truffle Festival in January.In 2012, the Eugene metro region was dubbed the Silicon Shire for its growing tech industry.===Top employers===According to Eugene's 2017 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the city's top employers are: # Employer Number of employees1PeaceHealth Medical Group5,8082University of Oregon5,5493Eugene School District 4J2,5534U.S.", "Government1,7505Lane Community College1,6506Springfield School District1,6107State of Oregon1,5948Lane County1,5679City of Eugene1,41710McKenzie-Willamette Medical Center898Homeless camp in Eugene, Oregon=== Homelessness ===Eugene has a growing problem with homelessness.", "The problem has been referenced in popular culture, including in the episode The 30% Iron Chef in Futurama.", "During the COVID-19 pandemic, the city experienced a controversy over its continuing policy of homeless removal, despite CDC guidelines to not engage in homeless removal." ], [ "Arts and culture", "A vendor's craft booth at the Eugene Saturday MarketEugene has a significant population of people in pursuit of alternative ideas and a large original hippie population.", "Beginning in the 1960s, the countercultural ideas and viewpoints espoused by area native Ken Kesey became established as the seminal elements of the vibrant social tapestry that continue to define Eugene.", "The Merry Prankster, as Kesey was known, has arguably left the most indelible imprint of any cultural icon in his hometown.", "He is best known as the author of ''One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest'' and as the male protagonist in Tom Wolfe's ''The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test''.In 2005, the city council unanimously approved a new slogan for the city: \"World's Greatest City for the Arts & Outdoors\".", "While Eugene has a vibrant arts community for a city its size, and is well situated near many outdoor opportunities, this slogan was frequently criticized by locals as embarrassing and ludicrous.", "In early 2010, the slogan was changed to \"A Great City for the Arts & Outdoors.", "\"Eugene's Saturday Market, open every Saturday from April through November, was founded in 1970 as the first \"Saturday Market\" in the United States.", "It is adjacent to the Lane County Farmer's Market in downtown Eugene.", "All vendors must create or grow all their own products.", "The market reappears as the \"Holiday Market\" between Thanksgiving and New Year's in the Lane County Events Center at the fairgrounds.===Community===Eugene is noted for its \"community inventiveness.\"", "Many U.S. trends in community development originated in Eugene.", "The University of Oregon's participatory planning process, known as The Oregon Experiment, was the result of student protests in the early 1970s.", "The book of the same name is a major document in modern enlightenment thinking in planning and architectural circles.", "The process, still used by the university in modified form, was created by Christopher Alexander, whose works also directly inspired the creation of the Wiki.", "Some research for the book ''A Pattern Language'', which inspired the Design Patterns movement and Extreme Programming, was done by Alexander in Eugene.", "Not coincidentally, those engineering movements also had origins here.", "Decades after its publication, ''A Pattern Language'' is still one of the best-selling books on urban design.In the 1970s, Eugene was packed with cooperative and community projects.", "It still has small natural food stores in many neighborhoods, some of the oldest student cooperatives in the country, and alternative schools have been part of the school district since 1971.The old Grower's Market, downtown near the Amtrak depot, is the only food cooperative in the U.S. with no employees.", "It is possible to see Eugene's trend-setting non-profit tendencies in much newer projects, such as Square One Villages and the Center for Appropriate Transport.", "In 2006, an initiative began to create a tenant-run development process for downtown Eugene.In the fall of 2003, neighbors noticed \"an unassuming two-acre remnant orchard tucked into the Friendly Area Neighborhood\" had been put up for sale by its owner, a resident of New York City.", "Learning a prospective buyer had plans to build several houses on the property, they formed a nonprofit organization called Madison Meadow in June 2004 in order to buy the property and \"preserve it as undeveloped space in perpetuity.\"", "In 2007 their effort was named Third Best Community Effort by the ''Eugene Weekly'', and by the end of 2008 they had raised enough money to purchase the property.The City of Eugene has an active Neighborhood Program.", "Several neighborhoods are known for their green activism.", "Friendly Neighborhood has a highly popular neighborhood garden established on the right of way of a street never built.", "There are a number of community gardens on public property.", "Amazon Neighborhood has a former church turned into a community center.", "Whiteaker hosts a housing co-op that dates from the early 1970s that has re-purposed both their parking lots into food production and play space.", "An unusual eco-village with natural building techniques and large shared garden can be found in Jefferson Westside neighborhood.", "A several block area in the River Road Neighborhood is known as a permaculture hotspot with an increasing number of suburban homes trading grass for garden, installing rain water catchment systems, food producing landscapes and solar retrofits.", "Several sites have planted gardens by removing driveways.", "Citizen volunteers are working with the City of Eugene to restore a 65-tree filbert grove on public property.", "There are deepening social and economic networks in the neighborhood.===Annual cultural events===Asian Celebration, presented by the Asian Council of Eugene and Springfield, takes place in late July at Alton Baker Park.", "The festival was changed to an outdoor venue after the start of the COVID-19 Pandemic.", "* The KLCC Microbrew Festival is held in February at the Lane County Fairgrounds.", "It provides participants with an introduction to a large range of microbrewery and craft beers, which play an important role in Pacific Northwest culture and the economy.", "Mount Pisgah Arboretum, which resides at the base of Mount Pisgah, holds a Wildflower Festival in May and a Mushroom Festival and Plant Sale in October.", "Oregon Festival of American Music, or OFAM is held annually in the early summer.", "* The Oregon Bach Festival is a major international festival in July, hosted by the University of Oregon.", "The nonprofit Oregon Country Fair takes place in July in nearby Veneta.", " The Lane County Fair occurs in July at the Lane County Fairgrounds.", "* The Eugene/Springfield Pride Festival is held annually on the second Saturday in August from noon to 7:00 p.m. at Alton Baker Park.", "A part of Eugene LGBT culture since 1993, it provides a lighthearted and supportive social venue for the LGBT community, families, and friends.", "Eugene Celebration is a three-day block party that usually takes place in the downtown area in August or September.", "The SLUG Queen coronation in August, a pageant with a campy spin, crowns a new SLUG Queen who \"rains\" over the Eugene Celebration Parade and is an unofficial ambassador of Eugene.===Museums===Eugene museums include the University of Oregon's Jordan Schnitzer Museum of Art and Museum of Natural and Cultural History, the Oregon Air and Space Museum, Lane County History Museum, Maude Kerns Art Center, Shelton McMurphey Johnson House, and the Eugene Science Center.===Performing arts===The Hult Center for the Performing ArtsEugene is home to numerous cultural organizations, including the Eugene Symphony (whose previous music directors include Marin Alsop, Giancarlo Guerrero, and Miguel Harth-Bedoya); the Eugene Ballet, a professional full-time touring company; the Eugene Opera, the Eugene Concert Choir, the Bushnell University Community Choir, the Oregon Mozart Players, the Oregon Bach Festival, the Oregon Children's Choir, the Eugene-Springfield Youth Orchestras, Ballet Fantastique and Oregon Festival of American Music.", "Principal performing arts venues include the Hult Center for the Performing Arts, The John G. Shedd Institute for the Arts (\"The Shedd\"), the McDonald Theatre, and W.O.W.", "Hall.The University of Oregon School of Music and Dance also attracts world class performers and teaching artists throughout the year, many of whom perform at Beall Concert Hall.", "The university campus also frequently hosts performances at Matthew Knight Arena and the Erb Memorial Union ballroom.A number of live theater groups are based in Eugene, including Free Shakespeare in the Park, Oregon Contemporary Theatre, The Very Little Theatre, Actors Cabaret, LCC Theatre, Rose Children's Theatre, and University Theatre.", "Each has its own performance venue.====Music====Because of its status as a college town, Eugene has been home to many music genres, musicians and bands, ranging from electronic dance music such as dubstep and drum and bass to garage rock, hip hop, folk and heavy metal.", "Eugene also has growing reggae and street-performing bluegrass and jug band scenes.", "Multi-genre act the Cherry Poppin' Daddies became a prominent figure in Eugene's music scene and became the house band at Eugene's W.O.W.", "Hall.", "In the late 1990s, their contributions to the swing revival movement propelled them to national stardom.", "Rock band Floater originated in Eugene as did the Robert Cray blues band.", "Doom metal band YOB is among the leaders of the Eugene heavy music scene.Eugene is home to \"Classical Gas\" Composer and two-time Grammy award winner Mason Williams who spent his years as a youth living between his parents in Oakridge, Oregon and Oklahoma.", "Mason Williams puts on a yearly Christmas show at the Hult center for performing arts with a full orchestra produced by author, audio engineer and University of Oregon professor Don Latarski.Dick Hyman, noted jazz pianist and musical director for many of Woody Allen's films, designs and hosts the annual Now Hear This!", "jazz festival at the Oregon Festival of American Music (OFAM).", "OFAM and the Hult Center routinely draw major jazz talent for concerts.Eugene is also home to a large Zimbabwean music community.", "Kutsinhira Cultural Arts Center, which is \"dedicated to the music and people of Zimbabwe,\" is based in Eugene.===Visual arts===Eugene's visual arts community is supported by over 20 private art galleries and several organizations, including Maude Kerns Art Center, Lane Arts Council, DIVA (the Downtown Initiative for the Visual Arts) and the Eugene Glass School.In 2015 installations from a group of Eugene-based artists known as Light At Play were showcased in several events around the world as part of the International Year of Light, including displays at the Smithsonian and the National Academy of Sciences.====Film====The Eugene area has been used as a filming location for several Hollywood films, most famously for 1978's ''National Lampoon's Animal House'', which was also filmed in nearby Cottage Grove.", "John Belushi had the idea for the film ''The Blues Brothers'' during filming of ''Animal House'' when he happened to meet Curtis Salgado at what was then the Eugene Hotel.", "''Getting Straight'', starring Elliott Gould and Candice Bergen, was filmed at Lane Community College in 1969.As the campus was still under construction at the time, the \"occupation scenes\" were easier to shoot.The \"Chicken Salad on Toast\" scene in the 1970 Jack Nicholson movie ''Five Easy Pieces'' was filmed at the Denny's restaurant at the southern I-5 freeway interchange near Glenwood.", "Nicholson directed the 1971 film ''Drive, He Said'' in Eugene.", "''How to Beat the High Co$t of Living'', starring Jane Curtin, Jessica Lange and Susan St. James, was filmed in Eugene in the fall of 1979.Locations visible in the film include Valley River Center (which is a driving force in the plot), Skinner Butte and Ya-Po-Ah Terrace, the Willamette River and River Road Hardware.Several track and field movies have used Eugene as a setting and/or a filming location.", "''Personal Best'', starring Mariel Hemingway, was filmed in Eugene in 1982.The film centered on a group of women who are trying to qualify for the Olympic track and field team.", "Two track and field movies about the life of Steve Prefontaine, ''Prefontaine'' and ''Without Limits'', were released within a year of each other in 1997–1998.Kenny Moore, Eugene-trained Olympic runner and co-star in ''Prefontaine'', co-wrote the screenplay for ''Without Limits''.", "''Prefontaine'' was filmed in Washington because the ''Without Limits'' production bought out Hayward Field for the summer to prevent its competition from shooting there.", "Kenny Moore also wrote a biography of Bill Bowerman, played in ''Without Limits'' by Donald Sutherland back in Eugene 20 years after he had appeared in ''Animal House''.", "Moore had also had a role in ''Personal Best''.", "''Stealing Time'', a 2003 independent film, was partially filmed in Eugene.", "When the film premiered in June 2001 at the Seattle International Film Festival, it was titled ''Rennie's Landing'' after a popular bar near the University of Oregon campus.", "The title was changed for its DVD release.", "''Zerophilia'' was filmed in Eugene in 2006.The 2016 ''Tracktown'' was about a distance runner training for the Olympics in Eugene.===Religion===Religious institutions of higher learning in Eugene include Bushnell University and New Hope Christian College.", "Bushnell University (formerly Northwest Christian University), founded in 1895, has ties with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).", "New Hope Christian College (formerly Eugene Bible College) originated with the Bible Standard Conference in 1915, which joined with Open Bible Evangelistic Association to create Open Bible Standard Churches in 1932.Eugene Bible College was started from this movement by Fred Hornshuh in 1925.There are two Eastern Orthodox Church parishes in Eugene: St John the Wonderworker Orthodox Christian Church in the Historic Whiteaker Neighborhood and Saint George Greek Orthodox Church.There are six Roman Catholic parishes in Eugene as well: St. Mary Catholic Church, St. Jude Catholic Church, St. Mark Catholic Church, St. Peter Catholic Church, St. Paul Catholic Church, and St. Thomas More Catholic Church.Eugene also has a Ukrainian Catholic Church named Nativity of the Mother of God.There is a mainline Protestant contingency in the city as well—such as the largest of the Lutheran Churches, Central Lutheran near the U of O Campus and the Episcopal Church of the Resurrection.The Eugene area has a sizeable LDS Church presence, with three stakes, consisting of 23 congregations (wards and branches).", "The Church of Jesus Christ announced plans in April 2020 to build a temple in Eugene.The greater Eugene-Springfield area also has a Jehovah's Witnesses presence with five Kingdom Halls, several having multiple congregations in one Kingdom Hall.The Reconstructionist Temple Beth Israel is Eugene's largest Jewish congregation.", "It was also, for many decades, Eugene's only synagogue, until Orthodox members broke away in 1992 and formed \"Congregation Ahavas Torah\".Eugene has a community of some 140 Sikhs, who have established a Sikh temple.The 340-member congregation of the Unitarian Universalist Church in Eugene (UUCE) purchased the former Eugene Scottish Rite Temple in May 2010, renovated it, and began services there in September 2012.Saraha Nyingma Buddhist Temple in Eugene opened in 2012 in the former site of the Unitarian Universalist Church.The First Congregational Church, UCC is a large progressive Christian Church with a long history of justice focused ministries and a very active membership.", "Three years ago, the congregation coordinated with the Connections Program of the St Vincent DePaul organization to provide transitional homes for two unhoused families on the church's property.", "Through life - skills support and training and a more stable housing situation these families are then able to make their way into independent living." ], [ "Sports", "\"Welcome to Track Town USA\" sign in EugeneEugene markets itself as \"Track Town USA\".", "There are close links between the University of Oregon's successful track & field program, the Oregon Track Club, and Nike, Inc, who were founded by University of Oregon track athlete Phil Knight and his coach, Bill Bowerman.Eugene's miles of running trails, through its unusually large park system, are among the most extensive in the U.S.", "Notable trails include Pre's Trail in Alton Baker Park, Rexius Trail, the Adidas Oregon Trail, and the Ridgeline Trail.", "There is also an extensive network of trails along the Willamette River that reaches into neighboring Springfield, as well as along Amazon Creek in the southern and western parts of town.Jogging was introduced to the U.S. through Eugene, brought from New Zealand by Bill Bowerman, who wrote the best-selling book \"Jogging\", and coached the champion University of Oregon track and cross country teams.", "During Bowerman's tenure, his \"Men of Oregon\" won 24 individual NCAA titles, including titles in 15 out of the 19 events contested.", "During Bowerman's 24 years at Oregon, his track teams finished in the top ten at the NCAA championships 16 times, including four team titles (1962, '64, '65, '70), and two second-place trophies.", "His teams also posted a dual meet record of 114–20.Bowerman also invented the waffle sole for running shoes in Eugene, and with Oregon alumnus Phil Knight founded shoe giant Nike.", "The city has dozens of running clubs.", "The climate is cool and temperate, good both for jogging and record-setting.", "Eugene is home to the University of Oregon's Hayward Field track, which hosts numerous collegiate and amateur track and field meets throughout the year, most notably the Prefontaine Classic.", "Hayward Field was host to the 2004 AAU Junior Olympic Games, the 1989 World Masters Athletics Championships, the track and field events of the 1998 World Masters Games, the 2006 Pacific-10 track and field championships, the 1971, 1975, 1986, 1993, 1999, 2001, 2009, and 2011 USA Track & Field Outdoor Championships and the 1972, 1976, 1980, 2008, 2012, and 2016 U.S. Olympic trials.", "Eugene is the host of the delayed 2021 World Athletics Championships.", "The city bid for the 2019 event but lost narrowly to Doha, Qatar.Eugene's Oregon Ducks are part of the Pac-12 Conference (Pac-12).", "American football is especially popular, with intense rivalries between the Ducks and both the Oregon State University Beavers and the University of Washington Huskies.", "Autzen Stadium is home to Duck football, with a seating capacity of 54,000 but has had over 60,000 with standing room only.", "The basketball arena, McArthur Court, was built in 1926.The arena was replaced by the Matthew Knight Arena in late 2010.The Nationwide Tour's golfing event Oregon Classic takes place at Shadow Hills Country Club, just north of Eugene.", "The event has been played every year since 1998, except in 2001 when it was slated to begin the day after the 9/11 terrorist attacks.", "The top 20 players from the Nationwide Tour are promoted to the PGA Tour for the following year.Eugene is also home to the Eugene Emeralds, a short-season Class A minor-league baseball team.", "The \"Ems\" play their home games in PK Park, also the home of the University of Oregon baseball team.", "The Eugene Jr.", "Generals, a Tier III Junior \"A\" ice hockey team belonging to the Northern Pacific Hockey League (NPHL) consisting of 8 teams throughout Oregon and Washington, plays at the Lane County Ice Center.", "Lane United FC, a soccer club that participates in the Northwest Division of USL League Two, was founded in 2013 and plays its home games at Civic Park.The following table lists some sports clubs in Eugene and their usual home venue:'''Club''''''Sport''''''Founded''''''League''''''Venue'''University of Oregon DucksFootball, Basketball, Track and Field, Softball, Volleyball, Golf, Tennis, Baseball, Lacrosse, Ice hockey, Soccer, Ultimate1876National Collegiate Athletic Association: Pac-12 ConferenceAutzen Stadium, Matthew Knight Arena, PK Park, Hayward FieldBushnell University BeaconsBaseball, Basketball, Beach Volleyball, Cross Country, Distance Track, Golf, Soccer, Softball, Volleyball1895National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics, Cascade Collegiate ConferenceMorse Event CenterNew Hope Christian College DeaconsBasketball, Soccer, Volleyball1925Rexius Event CenterEugene EmeraldsBaseball1955Northwest LeaguePK ParkLane Community College TitansBasketball, Cross Country, Track and Field, Soccer, Baseball1965Northwest Athletic Association of Community CollegesLane Community CollegeEugene GentlemenRugby1973Pacific Northwest Rugby Football UnionEugene ChargersBasketball2006International Basketball LeagueMorse Event CenterEugene GeneralsIce hockey2005Junior A Tier III-League Hockey: Northern Pacific Hockey LeagueLane County Ice CenterLane United FCSoccer2013USL League Two Civic Park" ], [ "Parks and recreation", "Hendricks ParkSpencer Butte Park at the southern edge of town provides access to Spencer Butte, a dominant feature of Eugene's skyline.", "Hendricks Park, situated on a knoll to the east of downtown, is known for its rhododendron garden and nearby memorial to Steve Prefontaine, known as Pre's Rock, where the legendary University of Oregon runner was killed in an auto accident.", "Alton Baker Park, next to the Willamette River, contains Pre's Trail.", "Also next to the Willamette are Skinner Butte Park and the Owen Memorial Rose Garden, which contains more than 4,500 roses of over 400 varieties, as well as the 150-year-old Black Tartarian Cherry tree, an Oregon Heritage Tree.The city of Eugene maintains an urban forest.", "The University of Oregon campus is an arboretum, with over 500 species of trees.", "The city operates and maintains scenic hiking trails that pass through and across the ridges of a cluster of hills in the southern portion of the city, on the fringe of residential neighborhoods.", "Some trails allow biking, and others are for hikers and runners only.The nearest ski resort, Willamette Pass, is one hour from Eugene by car.", "On the way, along Oregon Route 58, are several reservoirs and lakes, the Oakridge mountain bike trails, hot springs, and waterfalls within Willamette National Forest.", "Eugene residents also frequent the Hoodoo and Mount Bachelor ski resorts.", "The Three Sisters Wilderness, the Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area, and Smith Rock are just a short drive away." ], [ "Government", "In 1944, Eugene adopted a council–manager form of government, replacing the day-to-day management of city affairs by the part-time mayor and volunteer city council with a full-time professional city manager.", "The subsequent history of Eugene city government has largely been one of the dynamics—often contentious—between the city manager, the mayor and city council.According to statute, all Eugene and Lane County elections are officially non-partisan, with a primary containing all candidates in May.", "If a candidate gets more than 50% of the vote in the primary, they win the election outright, otherwise the top two candidates face off in a November runoff.", "This allows candidates to win seats during the lower-turnout primary election.The mayor of Eugene is Lucy Vinis, who has been in office since winning the popular vote in May 2016, and who was re-elected in May 2020.Recent mayors include Edwin Cone (1958–69), Les Anderson (1969–77) Gus Keller (1977–84), Brian Obie (1985–88), Jeff Miller (1989–92), Ruth Bascom (1993–96), Jim Torrey (1997–2004) and Kitty Piercy (2005-2017).===Eugene City Council===Mayor: Lucy VinisWard 1 – Emily SempleWard 2 – Matt KeatingWard 3 – Alan ZelenkaWard 4 – Jennifer YehWard 5 – Mike ClarkWard 6 – Greg EvansWard 7 – Lyndsey LeechWard 8 – Randy Groves===Public safety===The Eugene Police Department is the city's law enforcement and public safety agency.", "The Lane County Sheriff's Office also has its headquarters in Eugene.The University of Oregon is served by the University of Oregon Police Department, and Eugene Police Department also has a police station in the West University District near campus.", "Lane Community College is served by the Lane Community College Public Safety Department.", "The Oregon State Police have a presence in the rural areas and highways around the Eugene metro area.", "The LTD downtown station, and the EmX lines are patrolled by LTD Transit Officers.", "Since 1989 the mental health crisis intervention non-governmental agency CAHOOTS has responded to Eugene's mental health 911 calls.Eugene-Springfield Fire Department is the agency responsible for emergency medical services, fire suppression, HAZMAT operations and water/Confined spaces rescues in the combined Eugene-Springfield metropolitan area.Eugene used to have an ordinance which prohibited car horn usage for non-driving purposes.", "After several residents were cited for this offense during the anti-Gulf War demonstrations in January 1991, the city was taken to court and in 1992 the Oregon Court of Appeals overturned the ordinance, finding it unconstitutionally vague.", "Eugene City Hall was abandoned in 2012 for reasons of structural integrity, energy efficiency, and obsolete size.", "Various offices of city government became tenants in eight other buildings.===Politics===Being the largest city by far in Lane County, Eugene's voters almost always decide the county's partisan tilt.", "While Eugene has historically been a counter-culture-heavy and left-leaning college town, the county's partisan leanings have intensified in recent decades, mirroring the general polarization of Oregon voters along urban (pro-Democratic) and rural (pro-Republican) lines.Lane County voted for Bernie Sanders over eventual 2016 nominee Hillary Clinton by 60.6-38.1%, and Eugene offered Sanders an even larger share of its vote." ], [ "Education", "Johnson Hall, University of OregonEugene is home to the University of Oregon.", "Other institutions of higher learning include Bushnell University, Lane Community College, New Hope Christian College, Gutenberg College, and Pacific University's Eugene campus.===Schools===The Eugene School District includes four full-service high schools (Churchill, North Eugene, Sheldon, and South Eugene) and many alternative education programs, such as international schools and charter schools.", "Foreign language immersion programs in the district are available in Spanish, French, Chinese, and Japanese.The Bethel School District serves children in the Bethel neighborhood on the northwest edge of Eugene.", "The district is home to the traditional Willamette High School and the alternative Kalapuya High School.", "There are 11 schools in this district.Eugene also has several private schools, including the Eugene Waldorf School, the Outdoor High School, Eugene Montessori, Far Horizon Montessori, Eugene Sudbury School, Wellsprings Friends School, Oak Hill School, and The Little French School.Parochial schools in Eugene include Marist Catholic High School, O'Hara Catholic Elementary School, Eugene Christian School, and St. Paul Parish School.===Libraries===The Eugene Public LibraryThe largest library in Oregon is the University of Oregon's Knight Library, with collections totaling more than 3 million volumes and over 100,000 audio and video items.", "The Eugene Public Library moved into a new, larger building downtown in 2002.The four-story library is an increase from .", "There are also two branches of the Eugene Public Library, the Sheldon Branch Library in the neighborhood of Cal Young/Sheldon, and the Bethel Branch Library, in the neighborhood of Bethel.", "Eugene also has the Lane County Law Library." ], [ "Media", "===Print===The Register-Guard buildingThe largest newspaper serving the area is ''The Register-Guard'', a daily newspaper with a circulation of about 70,000, published independently by the Baker family of Eugene until 2018, before being acquired by GateHouse Media, (now owned by Gannett Company).", "Other newspapers serving the area include the ''Eugene Weekly'', the ''Emerald'', the student-run independent newspaper at the University of Oregon, now published on Mondays and Thursdays;''The Torch'', the student-run newspaper at Lane Community College, the ''Ignite'', the newspaper at New Hope Christian College and ''The Beacon Bolt,'' the student-run newspaper at Bushnell University.", "''Eugene Magazine'', ''Lifestyle Quarterly'', ''Eugene Living'', and ''Sustainable Home and Garden'' magazines also serve the area.", "''Adelante Latino'' is a Spanish language newspaper in Eugene that serves all of Lane County.===Television===Local television stations include KMTR (NBC), KVAL (CBS), KLSR-TV (Fox), KEVU-CD, KEZI (ABC), KEPB (PBS), and KTVC (independent).", "KEZI (channel 9) (ABC)KVAL (channel 13) (CBS)KMTR (channel 16) (NBC)KEVU-CD (channel 23)KEPB (channel 28) (PBS)KLSR (channel 34) (Fox)KTVC (channel 36) (independent)KHWB-LD (channel 38) (TBN)===Radio===The local NPR affiliates are KOPB, and KLCC.", "Radio station KRVM-AM is an affiliate of Jefferson Public Radio, based at Southern Oregon University.", "The Pacifica Radio affiliate is the University of Oregon student-run radio station, KWVA.", "Additionally, the community supports two other radio stations: KWAX (classical) and KRVM-FM (alternative).AM stationsKOAC 550 Corvallis – NPR News/Talk (Oregon Public Broadcasting)KUGN 590 Eugene – NEWS/TALK (Cumulus)KXOR 660 Junction City – Spanish Religious (Zion Media)KKNX 840 Eugene – Classic Hits (Mielke Broadcasting)KORE 1050 Springfield – FOX Sports RadioKPNW 1120 Eugene – NEWS/TALK (Bicostal Media)KRVM 1280 Eugene – NPR News/Talk (Eugene School District) (JPR affiliate)KNND 1400 Cottage Grove – Classic Country (Reiten Communications Inc)KEED 1450 Eugene – Classic Country (Mielke Broadcasting)KOPB 1600 Eugene – NPR News/Talk (Oregon Public Broadcasting)FM stationsKWVA 88.1 Eugene – Freeform (University of Oregon)KPIJ 88.5 Junction City – Christian (Calvary Satellite Network) (Calvary Chapel)KQFE 88.9 Springfield – Christian (Family Radio)KLCC 89.7 Eugene – NPR News/Talk/Jazz (Lane Community College)KWAX 91.1 Eugene – Classical (University of Oregon)KRVM 91.9 Eugene – Adult Album Alternative (AAA) (Eugene School District)KKNU 93.3 Springfield – Country (McKenzie River Broadcasting)KMGE 94.5 Eugene – Adult Contemporary (McKenzie River Broadcasting)KUJZ 95.3 Creswell – Sports (Cumulus)KZEL 96.1 Eugene – Classic Rock (Cumulus)KEPW-LP 97.3 Eugene - PeaceWorks Community Radio (Eugene PeaceWorks)KEQB 97.7 Coburg - Regional Mexican (McKenzie River Broadcasting)KODZ 99.1 Eugene – '90s/'00s Hits (Bicoastal Media)KRKT 99.9 Albany – Country (Bicoastal Media)KMME 100.5 Cottage Grove – Catholic Program (Catholic Radio Northwest)KFLY 101.5 Corvallis - Country (Bicoastal Media)KEHK 102.3 Brownsville – Hot Adult Contemporary (Cumulus)KNRQ 103.7 Harrisburg – Alternative Rock (Cumulus)KDUK 104.7 Florence – Top 40 (CHR) (Bicoastal Media)KEUG 105.5 Veneta – Adult Hits (McKenzie River Broadcasting)KLOO 106.3 Corvallis – Classic Rock (Bicoastal Media)KLVU 107.1 Sweet Home – Contemporary Christian Music (K-LOVE) Educational Media FoundationKHPE 107.9 Albany – Contemporary Christian Music (Extra Mile Media)" ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation=======Bus====Lane Transit District's Eugene StationLane Transit District (LTD), a public transportation agency formed in 1970, covers of Lane County, including Creswell, Cottage Grove, Junction City, Veneta, and Blue River.", "Operating more than 90 buses during peak hours, LTD carries riders on 3.7 million trips every year.", "LTD also operates a bus rapid transit line that runs between Eugene and Springfield—Emerald Express (EmX)—much of which runs in its own lane, with stations providing for off-board fare payment.", "LTD's main terminus in Eugene is at the Eugene Station.", "LTD also offers paratransit.Greyhound Lines provides service between Los Angeles and Portland on the I-5 corridor.====Cycling====Cycling is popular in Eugene and many people commute via bicycle.", "Summertime events and festivals frequently have valet bicycle parking corrals that are often filled to capacity by three hundred or more bikes.", "Many people commute to work by bicycle every month of the year.", "PeaceHealth Rides, a bike share system formerly operated by Uber subsidiary JUMP, and currently operated by non-profit Cascadia Mobility, offers 300 city-owned bicycles available to the public for a small fee.", "Bike trails take commuting and recreational bikers along the Willamette River past a scenic rose garden, along Amazon Creek, through the downtown, and through the University of Oregon campus.", "Eugene is close to many popular mountain bike trails, and Disciples of Dirt is the local mountain bike club that organizes group rides and promotes trail stewardship.The North Bank Bike Path is a popular trail for cyclists.In 2009, the League of American Bicyclists cited Eugene as 1 of 10 \"Gold-level\" cities in the U.S. because of its \"remarkable commitments to bicycling.\"", "In 2010, ''Bicycling'' magazine named Eugene the 5th most bike-friendly city in America.", "The U.S. Census Bureau's annual American Community Survey reported that Eugene had a bicycle commuting mode share of 7.3% in 2011, the fifth highest percentage nationwide among U.S. cities with 65,000 people or more, and 13 times higher than the national average of 0.56%.====Rail====The 1908 Amtrak depot downtown was restored in 2004; it is the southern terminus for two daily runs of the Amtrak ''Cascades'', and a stop along the route in each direction for the daily ''Coast Starlight''.====Air travel====Air travel is served by the Eugene Airport, also known as Mahlon Sweet Field, which is the fifth largest airport in the Northwest and second largest airport in Oregon.", "The Eugene Metro area also has numerous private airports.", "The Eugene Metro area also has several heliports, such as the Sacred Heart Medical Center Heliport and Mahlon Sweet Field Heliport, and many single helipads.====Highways====Highways traveling within and through Eugene include:Interstate 5: Interstate 5 forms much of the eastern city limit, acting as an effective, though unofficial boundary between Eugene and Springfield.", "To the north, I-5 leads to the Willamette Valley and Portland.", "To the south, I-5 leads to Roseburg, Medford, and the southwestern portion of the state.", "In full, Interstate 5 continues north to the Canada–US border at Blaine, Washington and Vancouver, British Columbia and extends south to the Mexico–US border at Tijuana and San Diego.", "Officer Chris Kilcullen Memorial Highway: Oregon Route 126 is routed along the Eugene-Springfield Highway, a limited-access freeway.", "The Eugene portion of this highway begins at an interchange with Interstate 5 and ends west at a freeway terminus.", "This portion of Oregon Route 126 is also signed Interstate 105, a spur route of Interstate 5.Oregon Route 126 continues west, a portion shared with Oregon Route 99, and continues west to Florence.", "Eastward, Oregon Route 126 crosses the Cascades and leads to central and eastern Oregon.", "Randy Papé Beltline: Beltline is a limited-access freeway which runs along the northern and western edges of incorporated Eugene.", "Delta Highway: The Delta Highway forms a connector of less than between Interstate 105 and Beltline Highway.", "Oregon Route 99: Oregon Route 99 forks off Interstate 5 south of Eugene, and forms a major surface artery in Eugene.", "It continues north into the Willamette valley, parallel to I-5.It is sometimes called the \"scenic route\" since it has a great view of the Coast Range and also stretches through many scenic farmlands of the Willamette Valley.===Utilities===Eugene is the home of Oregon's largest publicly owned water and power utility, the Eugene Water & Electric Board (EWEB).", "EWEB got its start in the first decade of the 20th century, after an epidemic of typhoid found in the groundwater supply.", "The City of Eugene condemned Eugene's private water utility and began treating river water (first the Willamette; later the McKenzie) for domestic use.", "EWEB got into the electric business when power was needed for the water pumps.", "Excess electricity generated by the EWEB's hydropower plants was used for street lighting.Natural gas service is provided by NW Natural.Wastewater treatment services are provided by the Metropolitan Wastewater Management Commission, a partnership between the Cities of Eugene and Springfield and Lane County.===Healthcare===Three hospitals serve the Eugene-Springfield area.", "Sacred Heart Medical Center University District is the only one within Eugene city limits.", "McKenzie-Willamette Medical Center and Sacred Heart Medical Center at RiverBend are in Springfield.", "Oregon Medical Group, a primary care based multi-specialty group, operates several clinics in Eugene, as does PeaceHealth Medical Group.", "White Bird Clinic provides a broad range of health and human services, including low-cost clinics.", "The Volunteers in Medicine & Occupy Medical clinics provide free medical and mental care to low-income adults without health insurance.Eugene is one of the few municipalities in the US that does not fluoridate its water supply." ], [ "In popular culture", "The DC Vertigo comic book series ''iZombie'' is set in Eugene.", "Eugene is mentioned in ''The Simpsons'' episode ''Margical History Tour'' and the ''Futurama'' episode ''The 30% Iron Chef''." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "Sister cities", "Eugene has four sister cities: Irkutsk, Russia (suspended in 2022)* Jinju, South Korea* Kakegawa, Japan* Kathmandu, Nepal" ], [ "See also", "* " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Stan Bettis, ''Market Days; An Informal History of the Eugene Producers' Public Market.''", "Eugene, OR: Lane Pomona Grange Fraternal Society, 1969.", "" ], [ "External links", " Official website* Entry for Eugene in the ''Oregon Blue Book''* ''Eugene Register-Guard,'' Google news archive.", "—PDFs for 35,126 issues, dating from 1867 through 2008.", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Elizabeth Barrett Browning" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elizabeth Barrett Browning''' (née '''Moulton-Barrett'''; 6 March 1806 – 29 June 1861) was an English poet of the Victorian era, popular in Britain and the United States during her lifetime and frequently anthologised after her death.", "Her work received renewed attention following the feminist scholarship of the 1970s and 1980s, and greater recognition of women writers in English.Born in County Durham, the eldest of 12 children, Elizabeth Barrett wrote poetry from the age of eleven.", "Her mother's collection of her poems forms one of the largest extant collections of juvenilia by any English writer.", "At 15, she became ill, suffering intense head and spinal pain for the rest of her life.", "Later in life, she also developed lung problems, possibly tuberculosis.", "She took laudanum for the pain from an early age, which is likely to have contributed to her frail health.In the 1840s, Elizabeth was introduced to literary society through her distant cousin and patron John Kenyon.", "Her first adult collection of poems was published in 1838, and she wrote prolifically from 1841 to 1844, producing poetry, translation, and prose.", "She campaigned for the abolition of slavery, and her work helped influence reform in child labour legislation.", "Her prolific output made her a rival to Tennyson as a candidate for poet laureate on the death of Wordsworth.Elizabeth's volume ''Poems'' (1844) brought her great success, attracting the admiration of the writer Robert Browning.", "Their correspondence, courtship, and marriage were carried out in secret, for fear of her father's disapproval.", "Following the wedding, she was indeed disinherited by her father.", "In 1846, the couple moved to Italy, where she lived for the rest of her life.", "Elizabeth died in Florence in 1861.A collection of her later poems were published by her husband shortly after her death.They had a son, known as \"Pen\" (Robert Barrett, 1849–1912).", "Pen devoted himself to painting until his eyesight began to fail later in life.", "He also built a large collection of manuscripts and memorabilia of his parents, but because he died intestate, it was sold by public auction to various bidders and then scattered upon his death.", "The Armstrong Browning Library has recovered some of his collection, and it now houses the world's largest collection of Browning memorabilia.Elizabeth's work had a major influence on prominent writers of the day, including the American poets Edgar Allan Poe and Emily Dickinson.", "She is remembered for such poems as \"How Do I Love Thee?\"", "(Sonnet 43, 1845) and ''Aurora Leigh ''(1856)." ], [ "Life and career", "===Family background===Some of Elizabeth Barrett's family had lived in Jamaica since 1655.Their wealth derived mainly from slave labour from their plantations in the Caribbean.", "Edward Barrett (1734–1798) was owner of in the estates of Cinnamon Hill, Cornwall, Cambridge, and Oxford in northern Jamaica.", "Elizabeth's maternal grandfather owned sugar plantations farmed by slaves they bought from Africa, mills, glassworks, and ships that traded between Jamaica and Newcastle in the United Kingdom.The family wished to hand down their name, stipulating that Barrett always should be held as a surname.", "In some cases, inheritance was given on condition that the name was used by the beneficiary; the English gentry and \"squirearchy\" had long encouraged this sort of name changing.", "Given this strong tradition, Elizabeth used \"Elizabeth Barrett Moulton Barrett\" on legal documents, and before she was married, she often signed herself \"Elizabeth Barrett Barrett\" or \"EBB\" (initials which she was able to keep after her wedding).", "Elizabeth's father chose to raise his family in England, and his business enterprises remained in Jamaica.", "Elizabeth's mother, Mary Graham Clarke, also owned plantations farmed by enslaved people in the British West Indies.===Early life===Elizabeth Barrett Moulton-Barrett was born on (it is supposed) 6 March 1806 in Coxhoe Hall, between the villages of Coxhoe and Kelloe in County Durham, England.", "Her parents were Edward Barrett Moulton-Barrett and Mary Graham Clarke.", "However, it has been suggested that, when she was christened on 9 March, she was already three or four months old, and that this was concealed because her parents had married only on 14 May 1805.Although she had already been baptised by a family friend in that first week of her life, she was baptised again, more publicly, on 10 February 1808 at Kelloe parish church, at the same time as her younger brother, Edward (known as Bro).", "He had been born in June 1807, only 15 months after Elizabeth's stated date of birth.", "A private christening might seem unlikely for a family of standing, and while Bro's birth was celebrated with a holiday on the family's Caribbean plantations, Elizabeth's was not.Elizabeth was the eldest of 12 children (eight boys and four girls).", "Eleven lived to adulthood; one daughter died at the age of 3, when Elizabeth was 8.The children all had nicknames: Elizabeth was Ba.", "She rode her pony, went for family walks and picnics, socialised with other county families, and participated in home theatrical productions.", "Unlike her siblings, she immersed herself in books as often as she could get away from the social rituals of her family.In 1809, the family moved to Hope End, a estate near the Malvern Hills in Ledbury, Herefordshire.", "Her father converted the Georgian house into stables and built a mansion of opulent Turkish design, which his wife described as something from the ''Arabian Nights' Entertainments''.The interior's brass balustrades, mahogany doors inlaid with mother-of-pearl, and finely carved fireplaces were eventually complemented by lavish landscaping: ponds, grottos, kiosks, an ice house, a hothouse, and a subterranean passage from house to gardens.", "Her time at Hope End inspired her in later life to write ''Aurora Leigh'' (1856), her most ambitious work, which went through more than 20 editions by 1900, but none from 1905 to 1978.Portrait of Elizabeth Barrett Browning in 1859She was educated at home and tutored by Daniel McSwiney with her oldest brother.", "She began writing verses at the age of four.", "During the Hope End period, she was an intensely studious, precocious child.", "She claimed that she was reading novels at age 6, having been entranced by Pope's translations of Homer at age 8, studying Greek at age 10, and writing her own Homeric epic ''The Battle of Marathon: A Poem'' at age 11.In 1820, Mr Barrett privately published ''The Battle of Marathon'', an epic-style poem, but all copies remained within the family.", "Her mother compiled the child's poetry into collections of \"Poems by Elizabeth B. Barrett\".", "Her father called her the \"Poet Laureate of Hope End\" and encouraged her work.", "The result is one of the larger collections of juvenilia of any English writer.", "Mary Russell Mitford described the young Elizabeth at this time as having \"a slight, delicate figure, with a shower of dark curls falling on each side of a most expressive face; large, tender eyes, richly fringed by dark eyelashes, and a smile like a sunbeam.", "\"At about this time, Elizabeth began to battle an illness, which the medical science of the time was unable to diagnose.", "All three sisters came down with the syndrome, but it lasted only with Elizabeth.", "She had intense head and spinal pain with loss of mobility.", "Various biographies link this to a riding accident at the time (she fell while trying to dismount a horse), but there is no evidence to support the link.", "Sent to recover at the Gloucester spa, she was treated – in the absence of symptoms supporting another diagnosis – for a spinal problem.", "This illness continued for the rest of her life, and it is believed to be unrelated to the lung disease which she developed in 1837.She began to take opiates for the pain, laudanum (an opium concoction) followed by morphine, then commonly prescribed.", "She became dependent on them for much of her adulthood; the use from an early age may well have contributed to her frail health.", "Biographers such as Alethea Hayter have suggested this dependency have contributed to the wild vividness of her imagination and the poetry that it produced.By 1821, she had read Mary Wollstonecraft's ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'' (1792), and she become a passionate supporter of Wollstonecraft's political ideas.", "The child's intellectual fascination with the classics and metaphysics was reflected in a religious intensity which she later described as \"not the deep persuasion of the mild Christian but the wild visions of an enthusiast.\"", "The Barretts attended services at the nearest Dissenting chapel, and Edward was active in Bible and missionary societies.Blue plaque outside \"Belle Vue\" in Sidmouth, Devon, where Elizabeth Barrett lived with her family from 1833 to 1835Elizabeth's mother died in 1828, and she is buried at St Michael's Church, Ledbury, next to her daughter Mary.", "Sarah Graham-Clarke, Elizabeth's aunt, helped to care for the children, and she had clashes with Elizabeth's strong will.", "In 1831, Elizabeth's grandmother, Elizabeth Moulton, died.", "Following lawsuits and the abolition of slavery, Mr Barrett incurred great financial and investment losses that forced him to sell Hope End.", "Although the family was never poor, the place was seized and sold to satisfy creditors.", "Always secret in his financial dealings, he would not discuss his situation, and the family was haunted by the idea that they might have to move to Jamaica.From 1833 to 1835, she was living with her family at Belle Vue in Sidmouth.", "The site has now been renamed Cedar Shade and redeveloped.", "A blue plaque at the entrance to the site attests to its previous existence.", "In 1838, some years after the sale of Hope End, the family settled at 50 Wimpole Street, Marylebone, London.During 1837–1838, the poet was struck with illness again, with symptoms today suggesting tuberculous ulceration of the lungs.", "The same year, at her physician's insistence, she moved from London to Torquay on the Devonshire coast.", "Her former home now forms part of the Regina Hotel.", "Two tragedies then struck.", "In February 1840, her brother Samuel died of a fever in Jamaica, then her favourite brother Edward (Bro) was drowned in a sailing accident in Torquay in July.", "These events had a serious effect on her already fragile health.", "She felt guilty as her father had disapproved of Edward's trip to Torquay.", "She wrote to Mitford: \"That was a very near escape from madness, absolute hopeless madness\".", "The family returned to Wimpole Street in 1841.===Success===Portrait of Elizabeth Barrett by Károly Brocky, 1839–1844At Wimpole Street, Elizabeth spent most of her time in her upstairs room.", "Her health began to improve, but she saw few people other than her immediate family.", "One of those was John Kenyon, a wealthy friend and distant cousin of the family and patron of the arts.", "She received comfort from a spaniel named Flush, a gift from Mary Mitford.", "(Virginia Woolf later fictionalised the life of the dog, making him the protagonist of her 1933 novel ''Flush: A Biography'').From 1841 to 1844, Elizabeth was prolific in poetry, translation, and prose.", "The poem ''The Cry of the Children'', published in 1842 in ''Blackwood's'', condemned child labour and helped bring about child-labour reforms by raising support for Lord Shaftesbury's Ten Hours Bill (1844).", "About the same time, she contributed critical prose pieces to Richard Henry Horne's ''A New Spirit of the Age'', including a laudatory essay on Thomas Carlyle.In 1844, she published the two-volume ''Poems'', which included \"A Drama of Exile\", \"A Vision of Poets\", and \"Lady Geraldine's Courtship\", and two substantial critical essays for 1842 issues of ''The Athenaeum''.", "A self-proclaimed \"adorer of Carlyle\", she sent a copy to him as \"a tribute of admiration & respect\", which began a correspondence between them.", "\"Since she was not burdened with any domestic duties expected of her sisters, Barrett Browning could now devote herself entirely to the life of the mind, cultivating an enormous correspondence, reading widely\".", "Her prolific output made her a rival to Tennyson as a candidate for poet laureate in 1850 on the death of Wordsworth.A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque now commemorates Elizabeth at 50 Wimpole Street.===Robert Browning and Italy===Elizabeth Barrett Browning with her son Pen, 1860''Clasped Hands of Robert and Elizabeth Barrett Browning'', 1853 by Harriet Hosmer.Her 1844 volume ''Poems'' made her one of the more popular writers in the country and inspired Robert Browning to write to her.", "He wrote \"I love your verses with all my heart, dear Miss Barrett,\" praising their \"fresh strange music, the affluent language, the exquisite pathos and true new brave thought.", "\"Kenyon arranged for Browning to meet Elizabeth on 20 May 1845, in her rooms, and so began one of the most famous courtships in literature.", "Elizabeth had produced a large amount of work, but Browning had a great influence on her subsequent writing as did she on his: Two of Barrett's most famous pieces were written after she met Browning, ''Sonnets from the Portuguese'' and ''Aurora Leigh''.", "Robert's ''Men and Women'' is also a product of that time.Some critics state that her activity was, in some ways, in decay before she met Browning: \"Until her relationship with Robert Browning began in 1845, Barrett's willingness to engage in public discourse about social issues and about aesthetic issues in poetry, which had been so strong in her youth, gradually diminished, as did her physical health.", "As an intellectual presence and a physical being, she was becoming a shadow of herself.", "\"Letter from Robert Browning to Elizabeth Barrett, 10 September 1846The courtship and marriage between Robert Browning and Elizabeth were made secretly as she knew her father would disapprove.", "After a private marriage at St Marylebone Parish Church, they honeymooned in Paris and then moved to Italy in September 1846, which became their home almost continuously until her death.", "Elizabeth's loyal lady's maid Elizabeth Wilson witnessed the marriage and accompanied the couple to Italy.Mr Barrett disinherited Elizabeth as he did each of his children who married.", "Elizabeth had foreseen her father's anger but had not anticipated her brothers' rejection.", "As Elizabeth had some money of her own, the couple were reasonably comfortable in Italy.", "The Brownings were well respected and even famous.", "Elizabeth grew stronger, and in 1849, at the age of 43, between four miscarriages, she gave birth to a son, Robert Wiedeman Barrett Browning, whom they called Pen.", "Their son later married, but had no legitimate children.At her husband's insistence, Elizabeth's second edition of ''Poems'' included her love sonnets; as a result, her popularity increased (as did critical regard), and her artistic position was confirmed.", "During the years of her marriage, her literary reputation far surpassed that of her poet-husband; when visitors came to their home in Florence, she was invariably the greater attraction.The couple came to know a wide circle of artists and writers, including William Makepeace Thackeray, sculptor Harriet Hosmer (who, she wrote, seemed to be the \"perfectly emancipated female\") and Harriet Beecher Stowe.", "In 1849, she met Margaret Fuller; Carlyle in 1851; French novelist George Sand in 1852, whom she had long admired.", "Among her intimate friends in Florence was the writer Isa Blagden, whom she encouraged to write novels.", "They met Alfred Tennyson in Paris, and John Forster, Samuel Rogers and the Carlyles in London, later befriending Charles Kingsley and John Ruskin.===Decline and death===Elizabeth Barrett Browning's tomb, English Cemetery, Florence.", "2007After the death of an old friend, G. B.", "Hunter, and then of her father, Barrett Browning's health started to deteriorate.", "The Brownings moved from Florence to Siena, residing at the ''Villa Alberti''.", "Engrossed in Italian politics, she issued a small volume of political poems titled ''Poems before Congress'' (1860) \"most of which were written to express her sympathy with the Italian cause after the outbreak of fighting in 1859\".", "They caused a furore in Britain, and the conservative magazines ''Blackwood's'' and the ''Saturday Review'' labelled her a fanatic.", "She dedicated this book to her husband.", "Her last work was ''A Musical Instrument'', published posthumously.Barrett Browning's sister Henrietta died in November 1860.The couple spent the winter of 1860–1861 in Rome where Barrett Browning's health deteriorated, and they returned to Florence in early June 1861.She became gradually weaker, using morphine to ease her pain.", "She died on 29 June 1861 in her husband's arms.", "Browning said that she died \"smilingly, happily, and with a face like a girl's...Her last word was...'Beautiful' \".", "She was buried in the Protestant English Cemetery of Florence.", "\"On Monday July 1 the shops in the area around Casa Guidi were closed, while Elizabeth was mourned with unusual demonstrations.\"", "The nature of her illness is still unclear.", "Some modern scientists speculate her illness may have been hypokalemic periodic paralysis, a genetic disorder that causes weakness and many of the other symptoms she described.===Publications===An engraving of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, published in ''Eclectic Magazine''Barrett Browning's first known poem \"On the Cruelty of Forcement to Man\" was written at the age of 6 or 8.The manuscript, which protests against impressment, is currently in the Berg Collection of the New York Public Library; the exact date is controversial because the \"2\" in the date 1812 is written over something else that is scratched out.Her first independent publication was \"Stanzas Excited by Reflections on the Present State of Greece\" in ''The New Monthly Magazine'' of May 1821; followed two months later by \"Thoughts Awakened by Contemplating a Piece of the Palm which Grows on the Summit of the Acropolis at Athens\".Her first collection of poems, ''An Essay on Mind, with Other Poems,'' was published in 1826 and reflected her passion for Byron and Greek politics.", "Its publication drew the attention of Hugh Stuart Boyd, a blind scholar of the Greek language, and of Uvedale Price, another Greek scholar, with whom she maintained sustained correspondence.", "Among other neighbours was Mrs James Martin from Colwall, with whom she corresponded throughout her life.", "Later, at Boyd's suggestion, she translated Aeschylus' ''Prometheus Bound'' (published in 1833; retranslated in 1850).", "During their friendship, Barrett studied Greek literature, including Homer, Pindar and Aristophanes.Elizabeth opposed slavery and published two poems highlighting the barbarity of the institution and her support for the abolitionist cause: \"The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim's Point\" and \"A Curse for a Nation\".", "The first depicts an enslaved woman whipped, raped, and made pregnant cursing her enslavers.", "Elizabeth declared herself glad that the slaves were \"virtually free\" when the Slavery Abolition Act passed in the British Parliament despite the fact that her father believed that abolition would ruin his business.The date of publication of these poems is in dispute, but her position on slavery in the poems is clear and may have led to a rift between Elizabeth and her father.", "She wrote to John Ruskin in 1855 \"I belong to a family of West Indian slaveholders, and if I believed in curses, I should be afraid\".", "Her father and uncle were unaffected by the Baptist War (1831–1832) and continued to own slaves until passage of the Slavery Abolition Act.In London, John Kenyon introduced Elizabeth to literary figures including William Wordsworth, Mary Russell Mitford, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Alfred Tennyson and Thomas Carlyle.", "Elizabeth continued to write, contributing \"The Romaunt of Margaret\", \"The Romaunt of the Page\", \"The Poet's Vow\" and other pieces to various periodicals.", "She corresponded with other writers, including Mary Russell Mitford, who became a close friend and who supported Elizabeth's literary ambitions.In 1838 ''The Seraphim and Other Poems'' appeared, the first volume of Elizabeth's mature poetry to appear under her own name.", "''Sonnets from the Portuguese'' was published in 1850.There is debate about the origin of the title.", "Some say it refers to the series of sonnets of the 16th-century Portuguese poet Luís de Camões.", "However, \"my little Portuguese\" was a pet name that Browning had adopted for Elizabeth and this may have some connection.The verse-novel ''Aurora Leigh'', her most ambitious and perhaps the most popular of her longer poems, appeared in 1856.It is the story of a female writer making her way in life, balancing work and love, and based on Elizabeth's own experiences.", "''Aurora Leigh'' was an important influence on Susan B. Anthony's thinking about the traditional roles of women, with regard to marriage versus independent individuality.", "The ''North American Review'' praised Elizabeth's poem: \"Mrs. Browning's poems are, in all respects, the utterance of a woman — of a woman of great learning, rich experience, and powerful genius, uniting to her woman's nature the strength which is sometimes thought peculiar to a man.\"" ], [ "Spiritual influence", "Much of Barrett Browning's work carries a religious theme.", "She had read and studied such works as Milton's ''Paradise Lost'' and Dante's ''Inferno''.", "She says in her writing, \"We want the sense of the saturation of Christ's blood upon the souls of our poets, that it may cry through them in answer to the ceaseless wail of the Sphinx of our humanity, expounding agony into renovation.", "Something of this has been perceived in art when its glory was at the fullest.", "Something of a yearning after this may be seen among the Greek Christian poets, something which would have been much with a stronger faculty\".", "She believed that \"Christ's religion is essentially poetry – poetry glorified\".", "She explored the religious aspect in many of her poems, especially in her early work, such as the sonnets.She was interested in theological debate, had learned Hebrew and read the Hebrew Bible.", "Her seminal ''Aurora Leigh'', for example, features religious imagery and allusion to the apocalypse.", "The critic Cynthia Scheinberg notes that female characters in ''Aurora Leigh'' and her earlier work \"The Virgin Mary to the Child Jesus\" allude to Miriam, sister and caregiver to Moses.", "These allusions to Miriam in both poems mirror the way in which Barrett Browning herself drew from Jewish history, while distancing herself from it, in order to maintain the cultural norms of a Christian woman poet of the Victorian Age.In the correspondence Barrett Browning kept with the Reverend William Merry from 1843 to 1844 on predestination and salvation by works, she identifies herself as a Congregationalist: \"I am not a Baptist — but a Congregational Christian, — in the holding of my private opinions.\"" ], [ "Barrett Browning Institute", "In 1892, Ledbury, Herefordshire, held a design competition to build an Institute in honour of Barrett Browning.", "Brightwen Binyon beat 44 other designs.", "It was based on the timber-framed Market House, which was opposite the site, and was completed in 1896.However, Nikolaus Pevsner was not impressed by its style.", "It was used as a public library from 1938 to 2021, when new library facilities were provided for the town, and is now the headquarters of the Ledbury Poetry Festival.", "It has been Grade II-listed since 2007." ], [ "Critical reception", "Barrett Browning was widely popular in the United Kingdom and the United States during her lifetime.", "Edgar Allan Poe was inspired by her poem ''Lady Geraldine's Courtship'' and specifically borrowed the poem's metre for his poem ''The Raven''.", "Poe had reviewed Barrett Browning's work in the January 1845 issue of the ''Broadway Journal'', writing that \"her poetic inspiration is the highest – we can conceive of nothing more august.", "Her sense of Art is pure in itself.\"", "In return, she praised ''The Raven'', and Poe dedicated his 1845 collection ''The Raven and Other Poems'' to her, referring to her as \"the noblest of her sex\".Barrett Browning's poetry greatly influenced Emily Dickinson, who admired her as a woman of achievement.", "Her popularity in the United States and Britain was advanced by her stands against social injustice, including slavery in the United States, injustice toward Italians from their foreign rulers, and child labour.Lilian Whiting published a biography of Barrett Browning (1899) which describes her as \"the most philosophical poet\" and depicts her life as \"a Gospel of applied Christianity\".", "To Whiting, the term \"art for art's sake\" did not apply to Barrett Browning's work, as each poem, distinctively purposeful, was borne of a more \"honest vision\".", "In this critical analysis, Whiting portrays Barrett Browning as a poet who uses knowledge of Classical literature with an \"intuitive gift of spiritual divination\".", "In ''Elizabeth Barrett Browning'', Angela Leighton suggests that the portrayal of Barrett Browning as the \"pious iconography of womanhood\" has distracted us from her poetic achievements.", "Leighton cites the 1931 play by Rudolf Besier ''The Barretts of Wimpole Street'' as evidence that 20th-century literary criticism of Barrett Browning's work has suffered more as a result of her popularity than poetic ineptitude.", "The play was popularized by actress Katharine Cornell, for whom it became a signature role.", "It was an enormous success, both artistically and commercially, and was revived several times and adapted twice into movies.", "Sampson, however, considers the play to have been the most damaging cause of false myths about Elizabeth, and particularly the relationship with her, allegedly 'tyrannical', father.Throughout the 20th century, literary criticism of Barrett Browning's poetry remained sparse until her poems were discovered by the women's movement.", "She once described herself as being inclined to reject several women's rights principles, suggesting in letters to Mary Russell Mitford and her husband that she believed that there was an inferiority of intellect in women.", "In ''Aurora Leigh'', however, she created a strong and independent woman who embraces both work and love.", "Leighton writes that because Elizabeth participates in the literary world, where voice and diction are dominated by perceived masculine superiority, she \"is defined only in mysterious opposition to everything that distinguishes the male subject who writes...\" A five-volume scholarly edition of her works was published in 2010, the first in over a century." ], [ "Works (collections)", "1820: ''The Battle of Marathon: A Poem''.", "Privately printed1826: ''An Essay on Mind, with Other Poems''.", "London: James Duncan1833: ''Prometheus Bound, Translated from the Greek of Aeschylus, and Miscellaneous Poems''.", "London: A.J.", "Valpy1838: ''The Seraphim, and Other Poems''.", "London: Saunders and Otley1844: ''Poems'' (UK) / ''A Drama of Exile, and other Poems'' (US).", "London: Edward Moxon.", "New York: Henry G. Langley1850: ''Poems'' (\"New Edition\", 2 vols.)", "Revision of 1844 edition adding ''Sonnets from the Portuguese'' and others.", "London: Chapman & Hall1851: ''Casa Guidi Windows''.", "London: Chapman & Hall1853: ''Poems'' (3d ed.).", "London: Chapman & Hall1854: ''Two Poems'': \"A Plea for the Ragged Schools of London\" (by Elizabeth Barrett Browning) and \"The Twins\" (by Robert Browning).", "London: Chapman & Hall1856: ''Poems'' (4th ed.).", "London: Chapman & Hall1856: ''Aurora Leigh''.", "London: Chapman & Hall1860: ''Poems Before Congress''.", "London: Chapman & Hall1862: ''Last Poems''.", "London: Chapman & Hall===Posthumous publications===1863: ''The Greek Christian Poets and the English Poets''.", "London: Chapman & Hall1877: ''The Earlier Poems of Elizabeth Barrett Browning,'' 1826–1833, ed.", "Richard Herne Shepherd.", "London: Bartholomew Robson1877: ''Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning Addressed to Richard Hengist Horne, with comments on contemporaries,'' 2 vols., ed.", "S.R.T.", "Mayer.", "London: Richard Bentley & Son1897: ''Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning,'' 2 vols., ed.", "Frederic G. Kenyon.", "London:Smith, Elder,& Co.1899: ''Letters of Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Barrett 1845–1846,'' 2 vol., ed Robert W. Barrett Browning.", "London: Smith, Elder & Co.1914: ''New Poems by Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning,'' ed.", "Frederic G Kenyon.", "London: Smith, Elder & Co.1929: ''Elizabeth Barrett Browning: Letters to Her Sister, 1846–1859,'' ed.", "Leonard Huxley.", "London: John Murray1935: ''Twenty-Two Unpublished Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Robert Browning to Henrietta and Arabella Moulton Barrett''.", "New York: United Feature Syndicate1939: ''Letters from Elizabeth Barrett to B.R.", "Haydon,'' ed.", "Martha Hale Shackford.", "New York: Oxford University Press1954: ''Elizabeth Barrett to Miss Mitford,'' ed.", "Betty Miller.", "London: John Murray1955: ''Unpublished Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning to Hugh Stuart Boyd,'' ed.", "Barbara P. McCarthy.", "New Heaven, Conn.: Yale University Press1958: ''Letters of the Brownings to George Barrett,'' ed.", "Paul Landis with Ronald E. Freeman.", "Urbana: University of Illinois Press1974: ''Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Letters to Mrs. David Ogilvy,'' 1849–1861, ed.", "P. Heydon and P. Kelley.", "New York: Quadrangle, New York Times Book Co., and Browning Institute1984: ''The Brownings' Correspondence'', ed.", "Phillip Kelley, Ronald Hudson, and Scott Lewis.", "Winfield, Kansas: Wedgestone Press" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Barrett, Robert Assheton.", "''The Barretts of Jamaica – The family of Elizabeth Barrett Browning'' (1927).", "Armstrong Browning Library of Baylor University, Browning Society, Wedgestone Press in Winfield, Kan, 2000.", "Elizabeth Barrett Browning.", "\"Aurora Leigh and Other Poems\", eds.", "John Robert Glorney Bolton and Julia Bolton Holloway.", "Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1995.", "Donaldson, Sandra, et al., eds.", "''The Works of Elizabeth Barrett Browning.''", "5 vols.", "London: Pickering & Chatto, 2010.", "''The Complete Works of Elizabeth Barrett Browning'', eds.", "Charlotte Porter and Helen A. Clarke.", "New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1900.", "Creston, Dormer.", "''Andromeda in Wimpole Street: The Romance of Elizabeth Barrett Browning''.", "London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1929.", "Everett, Glenn.", "''Life of Elizabeth Browning''.", "The Victorian Web 2002.", "Forster, Margaret.", "''Elizabeth Barrett Browning''.", "New York: Random House, Vintage Classics, 2004.", "Hayter, Alethea.", "''Elizabeth Barrett Browning'' (published for the British Council and the National Book League).", "London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1965.", "Kaplan, Cora.", "''Aurora Leigh and Other Poems''.", "London: The Women's Press Limited, 1978.", "Kelley, Philip et al.", "(Eds.)", "''The Brownings' Correspondence''.", "29 vols.", "to date.", "(Wedgestone, 1984–) (Complete letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Robert Browning, so far to 1861.This edition is now complete for Elizabeth.", ")Leighton, Angela.", "''Elizabeth Barrett Browning''.", "Brighton: The Harvester Press, 1986.", "Lewis, Linda.", "''Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Spiritual Progress''.", "Missouri: Missouri University Press.", "1997.", "Mander, Rosalie.", "''Mrs Browning: The Story of Elizabeth Barrett''.", "London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980.", "Marks, Jeannette.", "''The Family of the Barrett: A Colonial Romance''.", "London: Macmillan, 1938.", "Markus, Julia.", "''Dared and Done: Marriage of Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning''.", "Ohio University Press, 1995.", "Meyers, Jeffrey.", "''Edgar Allan Poe: His Life and Legacy''.", "New York City: Cooper Square Press, 1992: 160.", "Peterson, William S. ''Sonnets from the Portuguese''.", "Massachusetts: Barre Publishing, 1977.", "Pollock, Mary Sanders.", "''Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning: A Creative Partnership''.", "England: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2003.", "Richardson, Joanna.", "''The Brownings: A Biography Compiled from Contemporary Sources''.", "Folio Society, 1986.", "Sampson, Fiona.", "''Two Way Mirror: The Life of Elizabeth Barrett Browning''.", "Profile Books, 2021.", "Sova, Dawn B.", "''Edgar Allan Poe: A to Z.''", "New York City: Checkmark Books, 2001.", "Stephenson Glennis.", "''Elizabeth Barrett Browning and the Poetry of Love''.", "Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1989.", "Taplin, Gardner B.", "''The Life of Elizabeth Browning''.", "New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957.", "Thomas, Dwight and David K. Jackson.", "''The Poe Log: A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe, 1809–1849''.", "New York: G. K. Hall & Co., 1987: 591." ], [ "External links", ";Digital collections **** Works of Elizabeth Barrett Browning at Online Books Page* Selected poems by Elizabeth Barrett Browning;Physical collections** Browning Family Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin* Digitized Browning love letters at Baylor University* Elizabeth Barrett Browning at the British LibraryRobert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning Collection.", "General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.", ";Other resources* Profile of Elizabeth Barrett Browning at PoetryFoundation.org* Elizabeth Barrett Browning profile and poems at Poets.org* The Brownings: A Research Guide (Baylor University)* www.florin.ms, website on Florence's 'English' Cemetery, with Elizabeth Barrett Browning's tomb by Frederick, Lord Leighton.", "* Poems by Elizabeth Barrett Browning at English Poetry" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Enlil" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enlil''', later known as '''Elil''', is an ancient Mesopotamian god associated with wind, air, earth, and storms.", "He is first attested as the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon, but he was later worshipped by the Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Hurrians.", "Enlil's primary center of worship was the Ekur temple in the city of Nippur, which was believed to have been built by Enlil himself and was regarded as the \"mooring-rope\" of heaven and earth.", "He is also sometimes referred to in Sumerian texts as '''Nunamnir'''.", "According to one Sumerian hymn, Enlil himself was so holy that not even the other gods could look upon him.", "Enlil rose to prominence during the twenty-fourth century BC with the rise of Nippur.", "His cult fell into decline after Nippur was sacked by the Elamites in 1230 BC and he was eventually supplanted as the chief god of the Mesopotamian pantheon by the Babylonian national god Marduk.Enlil plays a vital role in the Sumerian creation myth; he separates An (heaven) from Ki (earth), thus making the world habitable for humans.", "In the Sumerian flood myth, Enlil rewards Ziusudra with immortality for having survived the flood and, in the Babylonian flood myth, Enlil is the cause of the flood himself, having sent the flood to exterminate the human race, who made too much noise and prevented him from sleeping.", "The myth of ''Enlil and Ninlil'' is about Enlil's serial seduction of the goddess Ninlil in various guises, resulting in the conception of the moon-god Nanna and the Underworld deities Nergal, Ninazu, and Enbilulu.", "Enlil was regarded as the inventor of the mattock and the patron of agriculture.", "Enlil also features prominently in several myths involving his son Ninurta, including ''Anzû and the Tablet of Destinies'' and ''Lugale''." ], [ "Etymology", "Enlil's name comes from ancient Sumerian EN (𒂗), meaning \"lord\" and LÍL (𒆤), the meaning of which is contentious, and which has sometimes been interpreted as meaning winds as a weather phenomenon (making Enlil a weather and sky god, \"Lord Wind\" or \"Lord Storm\"), or alternatively as signifying a spirit or phantom whose presence may be felt as stirring of the air, or possibly as representing a partial Semitic loanword rather than a Sumerian word at all.", "Enlil's name is not a genitive construction, suggesting that Enlil was seen as the personification of LÍL rather than merely the cause of LÍL.Piotr Steinkeller has written that the meaning of LÍL may not actually be a clue to a specific divine domain of Enlil's, whether storms, spirits, or otherwise, since Enlil may have been \"a typical universal god ... without any specific domain.\"" ], [ "Worship", "Modern photograph of the ruins of the Ekur temple at NippurFloor plan of the Ekur temple in NippurCuneiform inscription on a diorite mortar from Nippur stating that this was an offering from Gudea to Enlil ( 2144–2124 BC)Enlil was the patron god of the Sumerian city-state of Nippur and his main center of worship was the Ekur temple located there.", "The name of the temple literally means \"Mountain House\" in ancient Sumerian.", "The Ekur was believed to have been built and established by Enlil himself.", "It was believed to be the \"mooring-rope\" of heaven and earth, meaning that it was seen as \"a channel of communication between earth and heaven\".", "A hymn written during the reign of Ur-Nammu, the founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur, describes the E-kur in great detail, stating that its gates were carved with scenes of Imdugud, a lesser deity sometimes shown as a giant bird, slaying a lion and an eagle snatching up a sinner.The Sumerians believed that the sole purpose of humanity's existence was to serve the gods.", "They thought that a god's statue was a physical embodiment of the god himself.", "As such, cult statues were given constant care and attention and a set of priests were assigned to tend to them.", "People worshipped Enlil by offering food and other human necessities to him.", "The food, which was ritually laid out before the god's cult statue in the form of a feast, was believed to be Enlil's daily meal, but, after the ritual, it would be distributed among his priests.", "These priests were also responsible for changing the cult statue's clothing.The Sumerians envisioned Enlil as a benevolent, fatherly deity, who watches over humanity and cares for their well-being.", "One Sumerian hymn describes Enlil as so glorious that even the other gods could not look upon him.", "The same hymn also states that, without Enlil, civilization could not exist.", "Enlil's epithets include titles such as \"the Great Mountain\" and \"King of the Foreign Lands\".", "Enlil is also sometimes described as a \"raging storm\", a \"wild bull\", and a \"merchant\".", "The Mesopotamians envisioned him as a creator, a father, a king, and the supreme lord of the universe.", "He was also known as \"Nunamnir\" and is referred to in at least one text as the \"East Wind and North Wind\".Kings regarded Enlil as a model ruler and sought to emulate his example.", "Enlil was said to be supremely just and intolerant towards evil.", "Rulers from all over Sumer would travel to Enlil's temple in Nippur to be legitimized.", "They would return Enlil's favor by devoting lands and precious objects to his temple as offerings.", "Nippur was the only Sumerian city-state that never built a palace; this was intended to symbolize the city's importance as the center of the cult of Enlil by showing that Enlil himself was the city's king.", "Even during the Babylonian Period, when Marduk had superseded Enlil as the supreme god, Babylonian kings still traveled to the holy city of Nippur to seek recognition of their right to rule.Enlil first rose to prominence during the twenty-fourth century BC, when the importance of the god An began to wane.", "During this time period, Enlil and An are frequently invoked together in inscriptions.", "Enlil remained the supreme god in Mesopotamia throughout the Amorite Period, with Amorite monarchs proclaiming Enlil as the source of their legitimacy.", "Enlil's importance began to wane after the Babylonian king Hammurabi conquered Sumer.", "The Babylonians worshipped Enlil under the name \"Elil\" and the Hurrians syncretized him with their own god Kumarbi.", "In one Hurrian ritual, Enlil and Apantu are invoked as \"the father and mother of Išḫara\".", "Enlil is also invoked alongside Ninlil as a member of \"the mighty and firmly established gods\".During the Kassite Period ( 1592–1155 BC), Nippur briefly managed to regain influence in the region and Enlil rose to prominence once again.", "From around 1300 BC onwards, Enlil was syncretized with the Assyrian national god Aššur, who was the most important deity in the Assyrian pantheon.", "Then, in 1230 BC, the Elamites attacked Nippur and the city fell into decline, taking the cult of Enlil along with it.", "Approximately one hundred years later, Enlil's role as the head of the pantheon was given to Marduk, the national god of the Babylonians." ], [ "Iconography", "Gudea dedication tablet to God Ningirsu: \"For Ningirsu, Enlil's mighty warrior, his Master, Gudea, ensi of Lagash\"Enlil was represented by the symbol of a horned cap, which consisted of up to seven superimposed pairs of ox-horns.", "Such crowns were an important symbol of divinity; gods had been shown wearing them ever since the third millennium BC.", "The horned cap remained consistent in form and meaning from the earliest days of Sumerian prehistory up until the time of the Persian conquest and beyond.The Sumerians had a complex numerological system, in which certain numbers were believed to hold special ritual significance.", "Within this system, Enlil was associated with the number fifty, which was considered sacred to him.", "Enlil was part of a triad of deities, which also included An and Enki.", "These three deities together were the embodiment of all the fixed stars in the night sky.", "An was identified with all the stars of the equatorial sky, Enlil with those of the northern sky, and Enki with those of the southern sky.", "The path of Enlil's celestial orbit was a continuous, symmetrical circle around the north celestial pole, but those of An and Enki were believed to intersect at various points.", "Enlil was associated with the constellation Boötes." ], [ "Mythology", "===Origins myths===The main source of information about the Sumerian creation myth is the prologue to the epic poem ''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld'' (ETCSL 1.8.1.4), which briefly describes the process of creation: originally, there was only Nammu, the primeval sea.", "Then, Nammu gave birth to An, the sky, and Ki, the earth.", "An and Ki mated with each other, causing Ki to give birth to Enlil.", "Enlil separated An from Ki and carried off the earth as his domain, while An carried off the sky.", "Enlil marries his mother, Ki, and from this union all the plant and animal life on earth is produced.", "''Enlil and Ninlil'' (ETCSL 1.2.1) is a nearly complete 152-line Sumerian poem describing the affair between Enlil and the goddess Ninlil.", "First, Ninlil's mother Nunbarshegunu instructs Ninlil to go bathe in the river.", "Ninlil goes to the river, where Enlil seduces her and impregnates her with their son, the moon-god Nanna.", "Because of this, Enlil is banished to Kur, the Sumerian underworld.", "Ninlil follows Enlil to the underworld, where he impersonates the \"man of the gate\".", "Ninlil demands to know where Enlil has gone, but Enlil, still impersonating the gatekeeper, refuses to answer.", "He then seduces Ninlil and impregnates her with Nergal, the god of death.", "The same scenario repeats, only this time Enlil instead impersonates the \"man of the river of the nether world, the man-devouring river\"; once again, he seduces Ninlil and impregnates her with the god Ninazu.", "Finally, Enlil impersonates the \"man of the boat\"; once again, he seduces Ninlil and impregnates her with Enbilulu, the \"inspector of the canals\".The story of Enlil's courtship with Ninlil is primarily a genealogical myth invented to explain the origins of the moon-god Nanna, as well as the various gods of the Underworld, but it is also, to some extent, a coming-of-age story describing Enlil and Ninlil's emergence from adolescence into adulthood.", "The story also explains Ninlil's role as Enlil's consort; in the poem, Ninlil declares, \"As Enlil is your master, so am I also your mistress!\"", "The story is also historically significant because, if the current interpretation of it is correct, it is the oldest known myth in which a god changes shape.===Flood myth===In the Sumerian version of the flood story (ETCSL 1.7.4), the causes of the flood are unclear because the portion of the tablet recording the beginning of the story has been destroyed.", "Somehow, a mortal known as Ziusudra manages to survive the flood, likely through the help of the god Enki.", "The tablet begins in the middle of the description of the flood.", "The flood lasts for seven days and seven nights before it subsides.", "Then, Utu, the god of the Sun, emerges.", "Ziusudra opens a window in the side of the boat and falls down prostrate before the god.", "Next, he sacrifices an ox and a sheep in honor of Utu.", "At this point, the text breaks off again.", "When it picks back up, Enlil and An are in the midst of declaring Ziusudra immortal as an honor for having managed to survive the flood.", "The remaining portion of the tablet after this point is destroyed.In the later Akkadian version of the flood story, recorded in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', Enlil actually causes the flood, seeking to annihilate every living thing on earth because the humans, who are vastly overpopulated, make too much noise and prevent him from sleeping.", "In this version of the story, the hero is Utnapishtim, who is warned ahead of time by Ea, the Babylonian equivalent of Enki, that the flood is coming.", "The flood lasts for seven days; when it ends, Ishtar, who had mourned the destruction of humanity, promises Utnapishtim that Enlil will never cause a flood again.", "When Enlil sees that Utnapishtim and his family have survived, he is outraged, but his son Ninurta speaks up in favor of humanity, arguing that, instead of causing floods, Enlil should simply ensure that humans never become overpopulated by reducing their numbers using wild animals and famines.", "Enlil goes into the boat; Utnapishtim and his wife bow before him.", "Enlil, now appeased, grants Utnapishtim immortality as a reward for his loyalty to the gods.===Chief god and arbitrator===A nearly complete 108-line poem from the Early Dynastic Period ( 2900–2350 BC) describes Enlil's invention of the mattock, a key agricultural pick, hoe, ax, or digging tool of the Sumerians.", "In the poem, Enlil conjures the mattock into existence and decrees its fate.", "The mattock is described as gloriously beautiful; it is made of pure gold and its head is carved from lapis lazuli.", "Enlil gives the tool over to the humans, who use it to build cities, subjugate their people, and pull up weeds.", "Enlil was believed to aid in the growth of plants.The Sumerian poem ''Enlil Chooses the Farmer–God'' (ETCSL 5.3.3) describes how Enlil, hoping \"to establish abundance and prosperity\", creates two gods Emesh and Enten, a shepherd and a farmer, respectively.", "The two gods argue and Emesh lays claim to Enten's position.", "They take the dispute before Enlil, who rules in favor of Enten; the two gods rejoice and reconcile.===Ninurta myths===Ninurta with his thunderbolts pursues Anzû, who has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from Enlil's sanctuary (Austen Henry Layard ''Monuments of Nineveh'', 2nd Series, 1853)In the Sumerian poem ''Lugale'' (ETCSL 1.6.2), Enlil gives advice to his son, the god Ninurta, advising him on a strategy to slay the demon Asag.", "This advice is relayed to Ninurta by way of Sharur, his enchanted talking mace, which had been sent by Ninurta to the realm of the gods to seek counsel from Enlil directly.In the Old, Middle, and Late Babylonian myth of ''Anzû and the Tablet of Destinies'', the Anzû, a giant, monstrous bird, betrays Enlil and steals the Tablet of Destinies, a sacred clay tablet belonging to Enlil that grants him his authority, while Enlil is preparing for a bath.", "The rivers dry up and the gods are stripped of their powers.", "The gods send Adad, Girra, and Shara to defeat the Anzû, but all of them fail.", "Finally, Ea proposes that the gods should send Ninurta, Enlil's son.", "Ninurta successfully defeats the Anzû and returns the Tablet of Destinies to his father.", "As a reward, Ninurta is granted a prominent seat on the council of the gods.===War of the gods===A badly damaged text from the Neo-Assyrian Period (911–612 BC) describes Marduk leading his army of Anunnaki into the sacred city of Nippur and causing a disturbance.", "The disturbance causes a flood, which forces the resident gods of Nippur under the leadership of Enlil to take shelter in the Eshumesha temple to Ninurta.", "Enlil is enraged at Marduk's transgression and orders the gods of Eshumesha to take Marduk and the other Anunnaki as prisoners.", "The Anunnaki are captured, but Marduk appoints his front-runner Mushteshirhablim to lead a revolt against the gods of Eshumesha and sends his messenger Neretagmil to alert Nabu, the god of literacy.", "When the Eshumesha gods hear Nabu speak, they come out of their temple to search for him.", "Marduk defeats the Eshumesha gods and takes 360 of them as prisoners of war, including Enlil himself.", "Enlil protests that the Eshumesha gods are innocent, so Marduk puts them on trial before the Anunnaki.", "The text ends with a warning from Damkianna (another name for Ninhursag) to the gods and to humanity, pleading them not to repeat the war between the Anunnaki and the gods of Eshumesha." ], [ "See also", "* Ancient Mesopotamian religion* El* Hymn to Enlil* Shu (Egyptian god)* Yahweh* Ahriman* Kumarbi" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses: Enlil/Ellil (god)* Gateway to Babylon: \"Enlil and Ninlil\", trans.", "Thorkild Jacobsen* Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature: \"Enlil and Ninlil\" (original Sumerian) and English translation* Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature: Sumerian Flood myth (original Sumerian) and English translation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ecology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ecology''' () is the natural science of the relationships among living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment.", "Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level.", "Ecology overlaps with the closely related sciences of biogeography, evolutionary biology, genetics, ethology, and natural history.", "Ecology is a branch of biology, and is the study of abundance, biomass, and distribution of organisms in the context of the environment.", "It encompasses life processes, interactions, and adaptations; movement of materials and energy through living communities; successional development of ecosystems; cooperation, competition, and predation within and between species; and patterns of biodiversity and its effect on ecosystem processes.Ecology has practical applications in conservation biology, wetland management, natural resource management (agroecology, agriculture, forestry, agroforestry, fisheries, mining, tourism), urban planning (urban ecology), community health, economics, basic and applied science, and human social interaction (human ecology).The word ''ecology'' () was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel.", "The science of ecology as we know it today began with a group of American botanists in the 1890s.", "Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection are cornerstones of modern ecological theory.Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living (abiotic) components of their environment.", "Ecosystem processes, such as primary production, nutrient cycling, and niche construction, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment.", "Ecosystems have biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living (biotic) and abiotic components of the planet.", "Ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and provide ecosystem services like biomass production (food, fuel, fiber, and medicine), the regulation of climate, global biogeochemical cycles, water filtration, soil formation, erosion control, flood protection, and many other natural features of scientific, historical, economic, or intrinsic value." ], [ "Levels, scope, and scale of organization", "The scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-level (e.g., cells) to a planetary scale (e.g., biosphere) phenomena.", "Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic resources and interacting life forms (i.e., individual organisms that aggregate into populations which aggregate into distinct ecological communities).", "Because ecosystems are dynamic and do not necessarily follow a linear successional route, changes might occur quickly or slowly over thousands of years before specific forest successional stages are brought about by biological processes.", "An ecosystem's area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast.", "A single tree is of little consequence to the classification of a forest ecosystem, but is critically relevant to organisms living in and on it.", "Several generations of an aphid population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf.", "Each of those aphids, in turn, supports diverse bacterial communities.", "The nature of connections in ecological communities cannot be explained by knowing the details of each species in isolation, because the emergent pattern is neither revealed nor predicted until the ecosystem is studied as an integrated whole.", "Some ecological principles, however, do exhibit collective properties where the sum of the components explain the properties of the whole, such as birth rates of a population being equal to the sum of individual births over a designated time frame.The main subdisciplines of ecology, population (or community) ecology and ecosystem ecology, exhibit a difference not only in scale but also in two contrasting paradigms in the field.", "The former focuses on organisms' distribution and abundance, while the latter focuses on materials and energy fluxes.=== Hierarchy ===The scale of ecological dynamics can operate like a closed system, such as aphids migrating on a single tree, while at the same time remaining open with regard to broader scale influences, such as atmosphere or climate.", "Hence, ecologists classify ecosystems hierarchically by analyzing data collected from finer scale units, such as vegetation associations, climate, and soil types, and integrate this information to identify emergent patterns of uniform organization and processes that operate on local to regional, landscape, and chronological scales.To structure the study of ecology into a conceptually manageable framework, the biological world is organized into a nested hierarchy, ranging in scale from genes, to cells, to tissues, to organs, to organisms, to species, to populations, to guilds, to communities, to ecosystems, to biomes, and up to the level of the biosphere.", "This framework forms a panarchy and exhibits non-linear behaviors; this means that \"effect and cause are disproportionate, so that small changes to critical variables, such as the number of nitrogen fixers, can lead to disproportionate, perhaps irreversible, changes in the system properties.", "\"=== Biodiversity ===Biodiversity (an abbreviation of \"biological diversity\") describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization.", "The term has several interpretations, and there are many ways to index, measure, characterize, and represent its complex organization.", "Biodiversity includes species diversity, ecosystem diversity, and genetic diversity and scientists are interested in the way that this diversity affects the complex ecological processes operating at and among these respective levels.", "Biodiversity plays an important role in ecosystem services which by definition maintain and improve human quality of life.", "Conservation priorities and management techniques require different approaches and considerations to address the full ecological scope of biodiversity.", "Natural capital that supports populations is critical for maintaining ecosystem services and species migration (e.g., riverine fish runs and avian insect control) has been implicated as one mechanism by which those service losses are experienced.", "An understanding of biodiversity has practical applications for species and ecosystem-level conservation planners as they make management recommendations to consulting firms, governments, and industry.=== Habitat ===Biodiversity of a coral reef.", "Corals adapt to and modify their environment by forming calcium carbonate skeletons.", "This provides growing conditions for future generations and forms a habitat for many other species.Long-tailed broadbill building its nestThe habitat of a species describes the environment over which a species is known to occur and the type of community that is formed as a result.", "More specifically, \"habitats can be defined as regions in environmental space that are composed of multiple dimensions, each representing a biotic or abiotic environmental variable; that is, any component or characteristic of the environment related directly (e.g.", "forage biomass and quality) or indirectly (e.g.", "elevation) to the use of a location by the animal.\"", "For example, a habitat might be an aquatic or terrestrial environment that can be further categorized as a montane or alpine ecosystem.", "Habitat shifts provide important evidence of competition in nature where one population changes relative to the habitats that most other individuals of the species occupy.", "For example, one population of a species of tropical lizard (''Tropidurus hispidus'') has a flattened body relative to the main populations that live in open savanna.", "The population that lives in an isolated rock outcrop hides in crevasses where its flattened body offers a selective advantage.", "Habitat shifts also occur in the developmental life history of amphibians, and in insects that transition from aquatic to terrestrial habitats.", "Biotope and habitat are sometimes used interchangeably, but the former applies to a community's environment, whereas the latter applies to a species' environment.=== Niche ===Termite mounds with varied heights of chimneys regulate gas exchange, temperature and other environmental parameters that are needed to sustain the internal physiology of the entire colony.Definitions of the niche date back to 1917, but G. Evelyn Hutchinson made conceptual advances in 1957 by introducing a widely adopted definition: \"the set of biotic and abiotic conditions in which a species is able to persist and maintain stable population sizes.\"", "The ecological niche is a central concept in the ecology of organisms and is sub-divided into the ''fundamental'' and the ''realized'' niche.", "The fundamental niche is the set of environmental conditions under which a species is able to persist.", "The realized niche is the set of environmental plus ecological conditions under which a species persists.", "The Hutchinsonian niche is defined more technically as a \"Euclidean hyperspace whose ''dimensions'' are defined as environmental variables and whose ''size'' is a function of the number of values that the environmental values may assume for which an organism has ''positive fitness''.", "\"Biogeographical patterns and range distributions are explained or predicted through knowledge of a species' traits and niche requirements.", "Species have functional traits that are uniquely adapted to the ecological niche.", "A trait is a measurable property, phenotype, or characteristic of an organism that may influence its survival.", "Genes play an important role in the interplay of development and environmental expression of traits.", "Resident species evolve traits that are fitted to the selection pressures of their local environment.", "This tends to afford them a competitive advantage and discourages similarly adapted species from having an overlapping geographic range.", "The competitive exclusion principle states that two species cannot coexist indefinitely by living off the same limiting resource; one will always out-compete the other.", "When similarly adapted species overlap geographically, closer inspection reveals subtle ecological differences in their habitat or dietary requirements.", "Some models and empirical studies, however, suggest that disturbances can stabilize the co-evolution and shared niche occupancy of similar species inhabiting species-rich communities.", "The habitat plus the niche is called the ecotope, which is defined as the full range of environmental and biological variables affecting an entire species.===Niche construction===Organisms are subject to environmental pressures, but they also modify their habitats.", "The regulatory feedback between organisms and their environment can affect conditions from local (e.g., a beaver pond) to global scales, over time and even after death, such as decaying logs or silica skeleton deposits from marine organisms.", "The process and concept of ecosystem engineering are related to niche construction, but the former relates only to the physical modifications of the habitat whereas the latter also considers the evolutionary implications of physical changes to the environment and the feedback this causes on the process of natural selection.", "Ecosystem engineers are defined as: \"organisms that directly or indirectly modulate the availability of resources to other species, by causing physical state changes in biotic or abiotic materials.", "In so doing they modify, maintain and create habitats.", "\"The ecosystem engineering concept has stimulated a new appreciation for the influence that organisms have on the ecosystem and evolutionary process.", "The term \"niche construction\" is more often used in reference to the under-appreciated feedback mechanisms of natural selection imparting forces on the abiotic niche.", "An example of natural selection through ecosystem engineering occurs in the nests of social insects, including ants, bees, wasps, and termites.", "There is an emergent homeostasis or homeorhesis in the structure of the nest that regulates, maintains and defends the physiology of the entire colony.", "Termite mounds, for example, maintain a constant internal temperature through the design of air-conditioning chimneys.", "The structure of the nests themselves is subject to the forces of natural selection.", "Moreover, a nest can survive over successive generations, so that progeny inherit both genetic material and a legacy niche that was constructed before their time.=== Biome ===Biomes are larger units of organization that categorize regions of the Earth's ecosystems, mainly according to the structure and composition of vegetation.", "There are different methods to define the continental boundaries of biomes dominated by different functional types of vegetative communities that are limited in distribution by climate, precipitation, weather, and other environmental variables.", "Biomes include tropical rainforest, temperate broadleaf and mixed forest, temperate deciduous forest, taiga, tundra, hot desert, and polar desert.", "Other researchers have recently categorized other biomes, such as the human and oceanic microbiomes.", "To a microbe, the human body is a habitat and a landscape.", "Microbiomes were discovered largely through advances in molecular genetics, which have revealed a hidden richness of microbial diversity on the planet.", "The oceanic microbiome plays a significant role in the ecological biogeochemistry of the planet's oceans.=== Biosphere ===The largest scale of ecological organization is the biosphere: the total sum of ecosystems on the planet.", "Ecological relationships regulate the flux of energy, nutrients, and climate all the way up to the planetary scale.", "For example, the dynamic history of the planetary atmosphere's CO2 and O2 composition has been affected by the biogenic flux of gases coming from respiration and photosynthesis, with levels fluctuating over time in relation to the ecology and evolution of plants and animals.", "Ecological theory has also been used to explain self-emergent regulatory phenomena at the planetary scale: for example, the Gaia hypothesis is an example of holism applied in ecological theory.", "The Gaia hypothesis states that there is an emergent feedback loop generated by the metabolism of living organisms that maintains the core temperature of the Earth and atmospheric conditions within a narrow self-regulating range of tolerance.=== Population ecology ===Population ecology studies the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the wider environment.", "A population consists of individuals of the same species that live, interact, and migrate through the same niche and habitat.A primary law of population ecology is the Malthusian growth model which states, \"a population will grow (or decline) exponentially as long as the environment experienced by all individuals in the population remains constant.\"", "Simplified population models usually starts with four variables: death, birth, immigration, and emigration.An example of an introductory population model describes a closed population, such as on an island, where immigration and emigration does not take place.", "Hypotheses are evaluated with reference to a null hypothesis which states that random processes create the observed data.", "In these island models, the rate of population change is described by:: where ''N'' is the total number of individuals in the population, ''b'' and ''d'' are the per capita rates of birth and death respectively, and ''r'' is the per capita rate of population change.Using these modeling techniques, Malthus' population principle of growth was later transformed into a model known as the logistic equation by Pierre Verhulst:: where ''N(t)'' is the number of individuals measured as biomass density as a function of time, ''t'', ''r'' is the maximum per-capita rate of change commonly known as the intrinsic rate of growth, and is the crowding coefficient, which represents the reduction in population growth rate per individual added.", "The formula states that the rate of change in population size () will grow to approach equilibrium, where (), when the rates of increase and crowding are balanced, .", "A common, analogous model fixes the equilibrium, as ''K'', which is known as the \"carrying capacity.", "\"Population ecology builds upon these introductory models to further understand demographic processes in real study populations.", "Commonly used types of data include life history, fecundity, and survivorship, and these are analyzed using mathematical techniques such as matrix algebra.", "The information is used for managing wildlife stocks and setting harvest quotas.", "In cases where basic models are insufficient, ecologists may adopt different kinds of statistical methods, such as the Akaike information criterion, or use models that can become mathematically complex as \"several competing hypotheses are simultaneously confronted with the data.", "\"=== Metapopulations and migration ===The concept of metapopulations was defined in 1969 as \"a population of populations which go extinct locally and recolonize\".", "Metapopulation ecology is another statistical approach that is often used in conservation research.", "Metapopulation models simplify the landscape into patches of varying levels of quality, and metapopulations are linked by the migratory behaviours of organisms.", "Animal migration is set apart from other kinds of movement because it involves the seasonal departure and return of individuals from a habitat.", "Migration is also a population-level phenomenon, as with the migration routes followed by plants as they occupied northern post-glacial environments.", "Plant ecologists use pollen records that accumulate and stratify in wetlands to reconstruct the timing of plant migration and dispersal relative to historic and contemporary climates.", "These migration routes involved an expansion of the range as plant populations expanded from one area to another.", "There is a larger taxonomy of movement, such as commuting, foraging, territorial behavior, stasis, and ranging.", "Dispersal is usually distinguished from migration because it involves the one-way permanent movement of individuals from their birth population into another population.In metapopulation terminology, migrating individuals are classed as emigrants (when they leave a region) or immigrants (when they enter a region), and sites are classed either as sources or sinks.", "A site is a generic term that refers to places where ecologists sample populations, such as ponds or defined sampling areas in a forest.", "Source patches are productive sites that generate a seasonal supply of juveniles that migrate to other patch locations.", "Sink patches are unproductive sites that only receive migrants; the population at the site will disappear unless rescued by an adjacent source patch or environmental conditions become more favorable.", "Metapopulation models examine patch dynamics over time to answer potential questions about spatial and demographic ecology.", "The ecology of metapopulations is a dynamic process of extinction and colonization.", "Small patches of lower quality (i.e., sinks) are maintained or rescued by a seasonal influx of new immigrants.", "A dynamic metapopulation structure evolves from year to year, where some patches are sinks in dry years and are sources when conditions are more favorable.", "Ecologists use a mixture of computer models and field studies to explain metapopulation structure.=== Community ecology ===Interspecific interactions such as predation are a key aspect of community ecology.Community ecology is the study of the interactions among a collection of species that inhabit the same geographic area.", "Community ecologists study the determinants of patterns and processes for two or more interacting species.", "Research in community ecology might measure species diversity in grasslands in relation to soil fertility.", "It might also include the analysis of predator-prey dynamics, competition among similar plant species, or mutualistic interactions between crabs and corals.=== Ecosystem ecology ===A riparian forest in the White Mountains, New Hampshire (USA) is an example of ecosystem ecologyEcosystems may be habitats within biomes that form an integrated whole and a dynamically responsive system having both physical and biological complexes.", "Ecosystem ecology is the science of determining the fluxes of materials (e.g.", "carbon, phosphorus) between different pools (e.g., tree biomass, soil organic material).", "Ecosystem ecologists attempt to determine the underlying causes of these fluxes.", "Research in ecosystem ecology might measure primary production (g C/m^2) in a wetland in relation to decomposition and consumption rates (g C/m^2/y).", "This requires an understanding of the community connections between plants (i.e., primary producers) and the decomposers (e.g., fungi and bacteria),The underlying concept of an ecosystem can be traced back to 1864 in the published work of George Perkins Marsh (\"Man and Nature\").", "Within an ecosystem, organisms are linked to the physical and biological components of their environment to which they are adapted.", "Ecosystems are complex adaptive systems where the interaction of life processes form self-organizing patterns across different scales of time and space.", "Ecosystems are broadly categorized as terrestrial, freshwater, atmospheric, or marine.", "Differences stem from the nature of the unique physical environments that shapes the biodiversity within each.", "A more recent addition to ecosystem ecology are technoecosystems, which are affected by or primarily the result of human activity.=== Food webs ===Generalized food web of waterbirds from Chesapeake BayA food web is the archetypal ecological network.", "Plants capture solar energy and use it to synthesize simple sugars during photosynthesis.", "As plants grow, they accumulate nutrients and are eaten by grazing herbivores, and the energy is transferred through a chain of organisms by consumption.", "The simplified linear feeding pathways that move from a basal trophic species to a top consumer is called the food chain.", "Food chains in an ecological community create a complex food web.", "Food webs are a type of concept map that is used to illustrate and study pathways of energy and material flows.", "'''Empirical measurements''' are generally restricted to a specific habitat, such as a cave or a pond, and principles gleaned from small-scale studies are extrapolated to larger systems.", "Feeding relations require extensive investigations, e.g.", "into the gut contents of organisms, which can be difficult to decipher, or stable isotopes can be used to trace the flow of nutrient diets and energy through a food web.", "Despite these limitations, food webs remain a valuable tool in understanding community ecosystems.Food webs illustrate important '''principles of ecology''': some species have many weak feeding links (e.g., omnivores) while some are more specialized with fewer stronger feeding links (e.g., primary predators).", "Such linkages explain how ecological communities remain stable over time and eventually can illustrate a \"complete\" web of life.The '''disruption of food webs''' may have a dramatic impact on the ecology of individual species or whole ecosystems.", "For instance, the replacement of an ant species by another (invasive) ant species has been shown to affect how elephants reduce tree cover and thus the predation of lions on zebras.=== Trophic levels ===A trophic pyramid (a) and a food-web (b) illustrating ecological relationships among creatures that are typical of a northern boreal terrestrial ecosystem.", "The trophic pyramid roughly represents the biomass (usually measured as total dry-weight) at each level.", "Plants generally have the greatest biomass.", "Names of trophic categories are shown to the right of the pyramid.", "Some ecosystems, such as many wetlands, do not organize as a strict pyramid, because aquatic plants are not as productive as long-lived terrestrial plants such as trees.", "Ecological trophic pyramids are typically one of three kinds: 1) pyramid of numbers, 2) pyramid of biomass, or 3) pyramid of energy.A trophic level (from Greek ''troph'', τροφή, trophē, meaning \"food\" or \"feeding\") is \"a group of organisms acquiring a considerable majority of its energy from the lower adjacent level (according to ecological pyramids) nearer the abiotic source.\"", "Links in food webs primarily connect feeding relations or trophism among species.", "Biodiversity within ecosystems can be organized into trophic pyramids, in which the vertical dimension represents feeding relations that become further removed from the base of the food chain up toward top predators, and the horizontal dimension represents the abundance or biomass at each level.", "When the relative abundance or biomass of each species is sorted into its respective trophic level, they naturally sort into a 'pyramid of numbers'.Species are broadly categorized as autotrophs (or primary producers), heterotrophs (or consumers), and Detritivores (or decomposers).", "Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food (production is greater than respiration) by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.", "Heterotrophs are organisms that must feed on others for nourishment and energy (respiration exceeds production).", "Heterotrophs can be further sub-divided into different functional groups, including primary consumers (strict herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivorous predators that feed exclusively on herbivores), and tertiary consumers (predators that feed on a mix of herbivores and predators).", "Omnivores do not fit neatly into a functional category because they eat both plant and animal tissues.", "It has been suggested that omnivores have a greater functional influence as predators because compared to herbivores, they are relatively inefficient at grazing.Trophic levels are part of the holistic or complex systems view of ecosystems.", "Each trophic level contains unrelated species that are grouped together because they share common ecological functions, giving a macroscopic view of the system.", "While the notion of trophic levels provides insight into energy flow and top-down control within food webs, it is troubled by the prevalence of omnivory in real ecosystems.", "This has led some ecologists to \"reiterate that the notion that species clearly aggregate into discrete, homogeneous trophic levels is fiction.\"", "Nonetheless, recent studies have shown that real trophic levels do exist, but \"above the herbivore trophic level, food webs are better characterized as a tangled web of omnivores.", "\"=== Keystone species ===Sea otters, an example of a keystone speciesA keystone species is a species that is connected to a disproportionately large number of other species in the food-web.", "Keystone species have lower levels of biomass in the trophic pyramid relative to the importance of their role.", "The many connections that a keystone species holds means that it maintains the organization and structure of entire communities.", "The loss of a keystone species results in a range of dramatic cascading effects (termed ''trophic cascades'') that alters trophic dynamics, other food web connections, and can cause the extinction of other species.", "The term keystone species was coined by Robert Paine in 1969 and is a reference to the keystone architectural feature as the removal of a keystone species can result in a community collapse just as the removal of the keystone in an arch can result in the arch's loss of stability.Sea otters (''Enhydra lutris'') are commonly cited as an example of a keystone species because they limit the density of sea urchins that feed on kelp.", "If sea otters are removed from the system, the urchins graze until the kelp beds disappear, and this has a dramatic effect on community structure.", "Hunting of sea otters, for example, is thought to have led indirectly to the extinction of the Steller's sea cow (''Hydrodamalis gigas'').", "While the keystone species concept has been used extensively as a conservation tool, it has been criticized for being poorly defined from an operational stance.", "It is difficult to experimentally determine what species may hold a keystone role in each ecosystem.", "Furthermore, food web theory suggests that keystone species may not be common, so it is unclear how generally the keystone species model can be applied." ], [ "Complexity", "Complexity is understood as a large computational effort needed to piece together numerous interacting parts exceeding the iterative memory capacity of the human mind.", "Global patterns of biological diversity are complex.", "This biocomplexity stems from the interplay among ecological processes that operate and influence patterns at different scales that grade into each other, such as transitional areas or ecotones spanning landscapes.", "Complexity stems from the interplay among levels of biological organization as energy, and matter is integrated into larger units that superimpose onto the smaller parts.", "\"What were wholes on one level become parts on a higher one.\"", "Small scale patterns do not necessarily explain large scale phenomena, otherwise captured in the expression (coined by Aristotle) 'the sum is greater than the parts'.", "\"Complexity in ecology is of at least six distinct types: spatial, temporal, structural, process, behavioral, and geometric.\"", "From these principles, ecologists have identified emergent and self-organizing phenomena that operate at different environmental scales of influence, ranging from molecular to planetary, and these require different explanations at each integrative level.", "Ecological complexity relates to the dynamic resilience of ecosystems that transition to multiple shifting steady-states directed by random fluctuations of history.", "Long-term ecological studies provide important track records to better understand the complexity and resilience of ecosystems over longer temporal and broader spatial scales.", "These studies are managed by the International Long Term Ecological Network (LTER).", "The longest experiment in existence is the Park Grass Experiment, which was initiated in 1856.Another example is the Hubbard Brook study, which has been in operation since 1960.=== Holism ===Holism remains a critical part of the theoretical foundation in contemporary ecological studies.", "Holism addresses the biological organization of life that self-organizes into layers of emergent whole systems that function according to non-reducible properties.", "This means that higher-order patterns of a whole functional system, such as an ecosystem, cannot be predicted or understood by a simple summation of the parts.", "\"New properties emerge because the components interact, not because the basic nature of the components is changed.", "\"Ecological studies are necessarily holistic as opposed to reductionistic.", "Holism has three scientific meanings or uses that identify with ecology: 1) the mechanistic complexity of ecosystems, 2) the practical description of patterns in quantitative reductionist terms where correlations may be identified but nothing is understood about the causal relations without reference to the whole system, which leads to 3) a metaphysical hierarchy whereby the causal relations of larger systems are understood without reference to the smaller parts.", "Scientific holism differs from mysticism that has appropriated the same term.", "An example of metaphysical holism is identified in the trend of increased exterior thickness in shells of different species.", "The reason for a thickness increase can be understood through reference to principles of natural selection via predation without the need to reference or understand the biomolecular properties of the exterior shells." ], [ "Relation to evolution", "Ecology and evolutionary biology are considered sister disciplines of the life sciences.", "Natural selection, life history, development, adaptation, populations, and inheritance are examples of concepts that thread equally into ecological and evolutionary theory.", "Morphological, behavioural, and genetic traits, for example, can be mapped onto evolutionary trees to study the historical development of a species in relation to their functions and roles in different ecological circumstances.", "In this framework, the analytical tools of ecologists and evolutionists overlap as they organize, classify, and investigate life through common systematic principles, such as phylogenetics or the Linnaean system of taxonomy.", "The two disciplines often appear together, such as in the title of the journal ''Trends in Ecology and Evolution''.", "There is no sharp boundary separating ecology from evolution, and they differ more in their areas of applied focus.", "Both disciplines discover and explain emergent and unique properties and processes operating across different spatial or temporal scales of organization.", "While the boundary between ecology and evolution is not always clear, ecologists study the abiotic and biotic factors that influence evolutionary processes, and evolution can be rapid, occurring on ecological timescales as short as one generation.=== Behavioural ecology ===Social display and colour variation in differently adapted species of chameleons (''Bradypodion'' spp.).", "Chameleons change their skin colour to match their background as a behavioural defence mechanism and also use colour to communicate with other members of their species, such as dominant (left) versus submissive (right) patterns shown in the three species (A-C) above.All organisms can exhibit behaviours.", "Even plants express complex behaviour, including memory and communication.", "Behavioural ecology is the study of an organism's behaviour in its environment and its ecological and evolutionary implications.", "Ethology is the study of observable movement or behaviour in animals.", "This could include investigations of motile sperm of plants, mobile phytoplankton, zooplankton swimming toward the female egg, the cultivation of fungi by weevils, the mating dance of a salamander, or social gatherings of amoeba.Adaptation is the central unifying concept in behavioural ecology.", "Behaviours can be recorded as traits and inherited in much the same way that eye and hair colour can.", "Behaviours can evolve by means of natural selection as adaptive traits conferring functional utilities that increases reproductive fitness.", "'''Mutualism:''' Leafhoppers (''Eurymela fenestrata'') are protected by ants (''Iridomyrmex purpureus'') in a mutualistic relationship.", "The ants protect the leafhoppers from predators and stimulate feeding in the leafhoppers, and in return, the leafhoppers feeding on plants exude honeydew from their anus that provides energy and nutrients to tending ants.Predator-prey interactions are an introductory concept into food-web studies as well as behavioural ecology.", "Prey species can exhibit different kinds of behavioural adaptations to predators, such as avoid, flee, or defend.", "Many prey species are faced with multiple predators that differ in the degree of danger posed.", "To be adapted to their environment and face predatory threats, organisms must balance their energy budgets as they invest in different aspects of their life history, such as growth, feeding, mating, socializing, or modifying their habitat.", "Hypotheses posited in behavioural ecology are generally based on adaptive principles of conservation, optimization, or efficiency.", "For example, \"the threat-sensitive predator avoidance hypothesis predicts that prey should assess the degree of threat posed by different predators and match their behaviour according to current levels of risk\" or \"the optimal flight initiation distance occurs where expected postencounter fitness is maximized, which depends on the prey's initial fitness, benefits obtainable by not fleeing, energetic escape costs, and expected fitness loss due to predation risk.", "\"Elaborate sexual displays and posturing are encountered in the behavioural ecology of animals.", "The birds-of-paradise, for example, sing and display elaborate ornaments during courtship.", "These displays serve a dual purpose of signalling healthy or well-adapted individuals and desirable genes.", "The displays are driven by sexual selection as an advertisement of quality of traits among suitors.=== Cognitive ecology ===Cognitive ecology integrates theory and observations from evolutionary ecology and neurobiology, primarily cognitive science, in order to understand the effect that animal interaction with their habitat has on their cognitive systems and how those systems restrict behavior within an ecological and evolutionary framework.", "\"Until recently, however, cognitive scientists have not paid sufficient attention to the fundamental fact that cognitive traits evolved under particular natural settings.", "With consideration of the selection pressure on cognition, cognitive ecology can contribute intellectual coherence to the multidisciplinary study of cognition.\"", "As a study involving the 'coupling' or interactions between organism and environment, cognitive ecology is closely related to enactivism, a field based upon the view that \"...we must see the organism and environment as bound together in reciprocal specification and selection...\".=== Social ecology ===Social-ecological behaviours are notable in the social insects, slime moulds, social spiders, human society, and naked mole-rats where eusocialism has evolved.", "Social behaviours include reciprocally beneficial behaviours among kin and nest mates and evolve from kin and group selection.", "Kin selection explains altruism through genetic relationships, whereby an altruistic behaviour leading to death is rewarded by the survival of genetic copies distributed among surviving relatives.", "The social insects, including ants, bees, and wasps are most famously studied for this type of relationship because the male drones are clones that share the same genetic make-up as every other male in the colony.", "In contrast, group selectionists find examples of altruism among non-genetic relatives and explain this through selection acting on the group; whereby, it becomes selectively advantageous for groups if their members express altruistic behaviours to one another.", "Groups with predominantly altruistic members survive better than groups with predominantly selfish members.=== Coevolution ===Bumblebees and the flowers they pollinate have coevolved so that both have become dependent on each other for survival.", "'''Parasitism:''' A harvestman arachnid being parasitized by mites.", "The harvestman is being consumed, while the mites benefit from traveling on and feeding off of their host.Ecological interactions can be classified broadly into a host and an associate relationship.", "A host is any entity that harbours another that is called the associate.", "Relationships between species that are mutually or reciprocally beneficial are called mutualisms.", "Examples of mutualism include fungus-growing ants employing agricultural symbiosis, bacteria living in the guts of insects and other organisms, the fig wasp and yucca moth pollination complex, lichens with fungi and photosynthetic algae, and corals with photosynthetic algae.", "If there is a physical connection between host and associate, the relationship is called symbiosis.", "Approximately 60% of all plants, for example, have a symbiotic relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi living in their roots forming an exchange network of carbohydrates for mineral nutrients.Indirect mutualisms occur where the organisms live apart.", "For example, trees living in the equatorial regions of the planet supply oxygen into the atmosphere that sustains species living in distant polar regions of the planet.", "This relationship is called commensalism because many others receive the benefits of clean air at no cost or harm to trees supplying the oxygen.", "If the associate benefits while the host suffers, the relationship is called parasitism.", "Although parasites impose a cost to their host (e.g., via damage to their reproductive organs or propagules, denying the services of a beneficial partner), their net effect on host fitness is not necessarily negative and, thus, becomes difficult to forecast.", "Co-evolution is also driven by competition among species or among members of the same species under the banner of reciprocal antagonism, such as grasses competing for growth space.", "The Red Queen Hypothesis, for example, posits that parasites track down and specialize on the locally common genetic defense systems of its host that drives the evolution of sexual reproduction to diversify the genetic constituency of populations responding to the antagonistic pressure.=== Biogeography ===Biogeography (an amalgamation of ''biology'' and ''geography'') is the comparative study of the geographic distribution of organisms and the corresponding evolution of their traits in space and time.", "The ''Journal of Biogeography'' was established in 1974.Biogeography and ecology share many of their disciplinary roots.", "For example, the theory of island biogeography, published by the Robert MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson in 1967 is considered one of the fundamentals of ecological theory.Biogeography has a long history in the natural sciences concerning the spatial distribution of plants and animals.", "Ecology and evolution provide the explanatory context for biogeographical studies.", "Biogeographical patterns result from ecological processes that influence range distributions, such as migration and dispersal.", "and from historical processes that split populations or species into different areas.", "The biogeographic processes that result in the natural splitting of species explain much of the modern distribution of the Earth's biota.", "The splitting of lineages in a species is called vicariance biogeography and it is a sub-discipline of biogeography.", "There are also practical applications in the field of biogeography concerning ecological systems and processes.", "For example, the range and distribution of biodiversity and invasive species responding to climate change is a serious concern and active area of research in the context of global warming.==== r/K selection theory ====A population ecology concept is r/K selection theory, one of the first predictive models in ecology used to explain life-history evolution.", "The premise behind the r/K selection model is that natural selection pressures change according to population density.", "For example, when an island is first colonized, density of individuals is low.", "The initial increase in population size is not limited by competition, leaving an abundance of available resources for rapid population growth.", "These early phases of population growth experience ''density-independent'' forces of natural selection, which is called ''r''-selection.", "As the population becomes more crowded, it approaches the island's carrying capacity, thus forcing individuals to compete more heavily for fewer available resources.", "Under crowded conditions, the population experiences density-dependent forces of natural selection, called ''K''-selection.In the ''r/K''-selection model, the first variable ''r'' is the intrinsic rate of natural increase in population size and the second variable ''K'' is the carrying capacity of a population.", "Different species evolve different life-history strategies spanning a continuum between these two selective forces.", "An ''r''-selected species is one that has high birth rates, low levels of parental investment, and high rates of mortality before individuals reach maturity.", "Evolution favours high rates of fecundity in ''r''-selected species.", "Many kinds of insects and invasive species exhibit ''r''-selected characteristics.", "In contrast, a ''K''-selected species has low rates of fecundity, high levels of parental investment in the young, and low rates of mortality as individuals mature.", "Humans and elephants are examples of species exhibiting ''K''-selected characteristics, including longevity and efficiency in the conversion of more resources into fewer offspring.=== Molecular ecology ===The important relationship between ecology and genetic inheritance predates modern techniques for molecular analysis.", "Molecular ecological research became more feasible with the development of rapid and accessible genetic technologies, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).", "The rise of molecular technologies and the influx of research questions into this new ecological field resulted in the publication ''Molecular Ecology'' in 1992.Molecular ecology uses various analytical techniques to study genes in an evolutionary and ecological context.", "In 1994, John Avise also played a leading role in this area of science with the publication of his book, ''Molecular Markers, Natural History and Evolution''.", "Newer technologies opened a wave of genetic analysis into organisms once difficult to study from an ecological or evolutionary standpoint, such as bacteria, fungi, and nematodes.", "Molecular ecology engendered a new research paradigm for investigating ecological questions considered otherwise intractable.", "Molecular investigations revealed previously obscured details in the tiny intricacies of nature and improved resolution into probing questions about behavioural and biogeographical ecology.", "For example, molecular ecology revealed promiscuous sexual behaviour and multiple male partners in tree swallows previously thought to be socially monogamous.", "In a biogeographical context, the marriage between genetics, ecology, and evolution resulted in a new sub-discipline called phylogeography." ], [ "Human ecology", "Ecology is as much a biological science as it is a human science.", "Human ecology is an interdisciplinary investigation into the ecology of our species.", "\"Human ecology may be defined: (1) from a bioecological standpoint as the study of man as the ecological dominant in plant and animal communities and systems; (2) from a bioecological standpoint as simply another animal affecting and being affected by his physical environment; and (3) as a human being, somehow different from animal life in general, interacting with physical and modified environments in a distinctive and creative way.", "A truly interdisciplinary human ecology will most likely address itself to all three.\"", "The term was formally introduced in 1921, but many sociologists, geographers, psychologists, and other disciplines were interested in human relations to natural systems centuries prior, especially in the late 19th century.The ecological complexities human beings are facing through the technological transformation of the planetary biome has brought on the Anthropocene.", "The unique set of circumstances has generated the need for a new unifying science called coupled human and natural systems that builds upon, but moves beyond the field of human ecology.", "Ecosystems tie into human societies through the critical and all-encompassing life-supporting functions they sustain.", "In recognition of these functions and the incapability of traditional economic valuation methods to see the value in ecosystems, there has been a surge of interest in social-natural capital, which provides the means to put a value on the stock and use of information and materials stemming from ecosystem goods and services.", "Ecosystems produce, regulate, maintain, and supply services of critical necessity and beneficial to human health (cognitive and physiological), economies, and they even provide an information or reference function as a living library giving opportunities for science and cognitive development in children engaged in the complexity of the natural world.", "Ecosystems relate importantly to human ecology as they are the ultimate base foundation of global economics as every commodity, and the capacity for exchange ultimately stems from the ecosystems on Earth.Ecology is an employed science of restoration, repairing disturbed sites through human intervention, in natural resource management, and in environmental impact assessments.", "Edward O. Wilson predicted in 1992 that the 21st century \"will be the era of restoration in ecology\".", "Ecological science has boomed in the industrial investment of restoring ecosystems and their processes in abandoned sites after disturbance.", "Natural resource managers, in forestry, for example, employ ecologists to develop, adapt, and implement ecosystem based methods into the planning, operation, and restoration phases of land-use.", "Another example of conservation is seen on the east coast of the United States in Boston, MA.", "The city of Boston implemented the Wetland Ordinance, improving the stability of their wetland environments by implementing soil amendments that will improve groundwater storage and flow, and trimming or removal of vegetation that could cause harm to water quality.", "Ecological science is used in the methods of sustainable harvesting, disease, and fire outbreak management, in fisheries stock management, for integrating land-use with protected areas and communities, and conservation in complex geo-political landscapes." ], [ "Relation to the environment", "The environment of ecosystems includes both physical parameters and biotic attributes.", "It is dynamically interlinked and contains resources for organisms at any time throughout their life cycle.", "Like ecology, the term environment has different conceptual meanings and overlaps with the concept of nature.", "Environment \"includes the physical world, the social world of human relations and the built world of human creation.\"", "The physical environment is external to the level of biological organization under investigation, including abiotic factors such as temperature, radiation, light, chemistry, climate and geology.", "The biotic environment includes genes, cells, organisms, members of the same species (conspecifics) and other species that share a habitat.The distinction between external and internal environments, however, is an abstraction parsing life and environment into units or facts that are inseparable in reality.", "There is an interpenetration of cause and effect between the environment and life.", "The laws of thermodynamics, for example, apply to ecology by means of its physical state.", "With an understanding of metabolic and thermodynamic principles, a complete accounting of energy and material flow can be traced through an ecosystem.", "In this way, the environmental and ecological relations are studied through reference to conceptually manageable and isolated material parts.", "After the effective environmental components are understood through reference to their causes; however, they conceptually link back together as an integrated whole, or ''holocoenotic'' system as it was once called.", "This is known as the dialectical approach to ecology.", "The dialectical approach examines the parts but integrates the organism and the environment into a dynamic whole (or umwelt).", "Change in one ecological or environmental factor can concurrently affect the dynamic state of an entire ecosystem.=== Disturbance and resilience ===Ecosystems are regularly confronted with natural environmental variations and disturbances over time and geographic space.", "A disturbance is any process that removes biomass from a community, such as a fire, flood, drought, or predation.", "Disturbances occur over vastly different ranges in terms of magnitudes as well as distances and time periods, and are both the cause and product of natural fluctuations in death rates, species assemblages, and biomass densities within an ecological community.", "These disturbances create places of renewal where new directions emerge from the patchwork of natural experimentation and opportunity.", "Ecological resilience is a cornerstone theory in ecosystem management.", "Biodiversity fuels the resilience of ecosystems acting as a kind of regenerative insurance.=== Metabolism and the early atmosphere ===The Earth was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago.", "As it cooled and a crust and oceans formed, its atmosphere transformed from being dominated by hydrogen to one composed mostly of methane and ammonia.", "Over the next billion years, the metabolic activity of life transformed the atmosphere into a mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor.", "These gases changed the way that light from the sun hit the Earth's surface and greenhouse effects trapped heat.", "There were untapped sources of free energy within the mixture of reducing and oxidizing gasses that set the stage for primitive ecosystems to evolve and, in turn, the atmosphere also evolved.The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in most plants.Throughout history, the Earth's atmosphere and biogeochemical cycles have been in a dynamic equilibrium with planetary ecosystems.", "The history is characterized by periods of significant transformation followed by millions of years of stability.", "The evolution of the earliest organisms, likely anaerobic methanogen microbes, started the process by converting atmospheric hydrogen into methane (4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O).", "Anoxygenic photosynthesis reduced hydrogen concentrations and increased atmospheric methane, by converting hydrogen sulfide into water or other sulfur compounds (for example, 2H2S + CO2 + h''v'' → CH2O + H2O + 2S).", "Early forms of fermentation also increased levels of atmospheric methane.", "The transition to an oxygen-dominant atmosphere (the ''Great Oxidation'') did not begin until approximately 2.4–2.3 billion years ago, but photosynthetic processes started 0.3 to 1 billion years prior.=== Radiation: heat, temperature and light ===The biology of life operates within a certain range of temperatures.", "Heat is a form of energy that regulates temperature.", "Heat affects growth rates, activity, behaviour, and primary production.", "Temperature is largely dependent on the incidence of solar radiation.", "The latitudinal and longitudinal spatial variation of temperature greatly affects climates and consequently the distribution of biodiversity and levels of primary production in different ecosystems or biomes across the planet.", "Heat and temperature relate importantly to metabolic activity.", "Poikilotherms, for example, have a body temperature that is largely regulated and dependent on the temperature of the external environment.", "In contrast, homeotherms regulate their internal body temperature by expending metabolic energy.There is a relationship between light, primary production, and ecological energy budgets.", "Sunlight is the primary input of energy into the planet's ecosystems.", "Light is composed of electromagnetic energy of different wavelengths.", "Radiant energy from the sun generates heat, provides photons of light measured as active energy in the chemical reactions of life, and also acts as a catalyst for genetic mutation.", "Plants, algae, and some bacteria absorb light and assimilate the energy through photosynthesis.", "Organisms capable of assimilating energy by photosynthesis or through inorganic fixation of H2S are autotrophs.", "Autotrophs—responsible for primary production—assimilate light energy which becomes metabolically stored as potential energy in the form of biochemical enthalpic bonds.=== Physical environments ======= Water ====Diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen is approximately 10,000 times slower in water than in air.", "When soils are flooded, they quickly lose oxygen, becoming hypoxic (an environment with O2 concentration below 2 mg/liter) and eventually completely anoxic where anaerobic bacteria thrive among the roots.", "Water also influences the intensity and spectral composition of light as it reflects off the water surface and submerged particles.", "Aquatic plants exhibit a wide variety of morphological and physiological adaptations that allow them to survive, compete, and diversify in these environments.", "For example, their roots and stems contain large air spaces (aerenchyma) that regulate the efficient transportation of gases (for example, CO2 and O2) used in respiration and photosynthesis.", "Salt water plants (halophytes) have additional specialized adaptations, such as the development of special organs for shedding salt and osmoregulating their internal salt (NaCl) concentrations, to live in estuarine, brackish, or oceanic environments.", "Anaerobic soil microorganisms in aquatic environments use nitrate, manganese ions, ferric ions, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and some organic compounds; other microorganisms are facultative anaerobes and use oxygen during respiration when the soil becomes drier.", "The activity of soil microorganisms and the chemistry of the water reduces the oxidation-reduction potentials of the water.", "Carbon dioxide, for example, is reduced to methane (CH4) by methanogenic bacteria.", "The physiology of fish is also specially adapted to compensate for environmental salt levels through osmoregulation.", "Their gills form electrochemical gradients that mediate salt excretion in salt water and uptake in fresh water.==== Gravity ====The shape and energy of the land are significantly affected by gravitational forces.", "On a large scale, the distribution of gravitational forces on the earth is uneven and influences the shape and movement of tectonic plates as well as influencing geomorphic processes such as orogeny and erosion.", "These forces govern many of the geophysical properties and distributions of ecological biomes across the Earth.", "On the organismal scale, gravitational forces provide directional cues for plant and fungal growth (gravitropism), orientation cues for animal migrations, and influence the biomechanics and size of animals.", "Ecological traits, such as allocation of biomass in trees during growth are subject to mechanical failure as gravitational forces influence the position and structure of branches and leaves.", "The cardiovascular systems of animals are functionally adapted to overcome the pressure and gravitational forces that change according to the features of organisms (e.g., height, size, shape), their behaviour (e.g., diving, running, flying), and the habitat occupied (e.g., water, hot deserts, cold tundra).==== Pressure ====Climatic and osmotic pressure places physiological constraints on organisms, especially those that fly and respire at high altitudes, or dive to deep ocean depths.", "These constraints influence vertical limits of ecosystems in the biosphere, as organisms are physiologically sensitive and adapted to atmospheric and osmotic water pressure differences.", "For example, oxygen levels decrease with decreasing pressure and are a limiting factor for life at higher altitudes.", "Water transportation by plants is another important ecophysiological process affected by osmotic pressure gradients.", "Water pressure in the depths of oceans requires that organisms adapt to these conditions.", "For example, diving animals such as whales, dolphins, and seals are specially adapted to deal with changes in sound due to water pressure differences.", "Differences between hagfish species provide another example of adaptation to deep-sea pressure through specialized protein adaptations.==== Wind and turbulence ====The architecture of the inflorescence in grasses is subject to the physical pressures of wind and shaped by the forces of natural selection facilitating wind-pollination (anemophily).Turbulent forces in air and water affect the environment and ecosystem distribution, form, and dynamics.", "On a planetary scale, ecosystems are affected by circulation patterns in the global trade winds.", "Wind power and the turbulent forces it creates can influence heat, nutrient, and biochemical profiles of ecosystems.", "For example, wind running over the surface of a lake creates turbulence, mixing the water column and influencing the environmental profile to create thermally layered zones, affecting how fish, algae, and other parts of the aquatic ecosystem are structured.", "Wind speed and turbulence also influence evapotranspiration rates and energy budgets in plants and animals.", "Wind speed, temperature and moisture content can vary as winds travel across different land features and elevations.", "For example, the westerlies come into contact with the coastal and interior mountains of western North America to produce a rain shadow on the leeward side of the mountain.", "The air expands and moisture condenses as the winds increase in elevation; this is called orographic lift and can cause precipitation.", "This environmental process produces spatial divisions in biodiversity, as species adapted to wetter conditions are range-restricted to the coastal mountain valleys and unable to migrate across the xeric ecosystems (e.g., of the Columbia Basin in western North America) to intermix with sister lineages that are segregated to the interior mountain systems.==== Fire ====Plants convert carbon dioxide into biomass and emit oxygen into the atmosphere.", "By approximately 350 million years ago (the end of the Devonian period), photosynthesis had brought the concentration of atmospheric oxygen above 17%, which allowed combustion to occur.", "Fire releases CO2 and converts fuel into ash and tar.", "Fire is a significant ecological parameter that raises many issues pertaining to its control and suppression.", "While the issue of fire in relation to ecology and plants has been recognized for a long time, Charles Cooper brought attention to the issue of forest fires in relation to the ecology of forest fire suppression and management in the 1960s.Native North Americans were among the first to influence fire regimes by controlling their spread near their homes or by lighting fires to stimulate the production of herbaceous foods and basketry materials.", "Fire creates a heterogeneous ecosystem age and canopy structure, and the altered soil nutrient supply and cleared canopy structure opens new ecological niches for seedling establishment.", "Most ecosystems are adapted to natural fire cycles.", "Plants, for example, are equipped with a variety of adaptations to deal with forest fires.", "Some species (e.g., ''Pinus halepensis'') cannot germinate until after their seeds have lived through a fire or been exposed to certain compounds from smoke.", "Environmentally triggered germination of seeds is called serotiny.", "Fire plays a major role in the persistence and resilience of ecosystems.==== Soils ====Soil is the living top layer of mineral and organic dirt that covers the surface of the planet.", "It is the chief organizing centre of most ecosystem functions, and it is of critical importance in agricultural science and ecology.", "The decomposition of dead organic matter (for example, leaves on the forest floor), results in soils containing minerals and nutrients that feed into plant production.", "The whole of the planet's soil ecosystems is called the pedosphere where a large biomass of the Earth's biodiversity organizes into trophic levels.", "Invertebrates that feed and shred larger leaves, for example, create smaller bits for smaller organisms in the feeding chain.", "Collectively, these organisms are the detritivores that regulate soil formation.", "Tree roots, fungi, bacteria, worms, ants, beetles, centipedes, spiders, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and other less familiar creatures all work to create the trophic web of life in soil ecosystems.", "Soils form composite phenotypes where inorganic matter is enveloped into the physiology of a whole community.", "As organisms feed and migrate through soils they physically displace materials, an ecological process called bioturbation.", "This aerates soils and stimulates heterotrophic growth and production.", "Soil microorganisms are influenced by and are fed back into the trophic dynamics of the ecosystem.", "No single axis of causality can be discerned to segregate the biological from geomorphological systems in soils.", "Paleoecological studies of soils places the origin for bioturbation to a time before the Cambrian period.", "Other events, such as the evolution of trees and the colonization of land in the Devonian period played a significant role in the early development of ecological trophism in soils.==== Biogeochemistry and climate ====Ecologists study and measure nutrient budgets to understand how these materials are regulated, flow, and recycled through the environment.", "This research has led to an understanding that there is global feedback between ecosystems and the physical parameters of this planet, including minerals, soil, pH, ions, water, and atmospheric gases.", "Six major elements (hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus; H, C, N, O, S, and P) form the constitution of all biological macromolecules and feed into the Earth's geochemical processes.", "From the smallest scale of biology, the combined effect of billions upon billions of ecological processes amplify and ultimately regulate the biogeochemical cycles of the Earth.", "Understanding the relations and cycles mediated between these elements and their ecological pathways has significant bearing toward understanding global biogeochemistry.The ecology of global carbon budgets gives one example of the linkage between biodiversity and biogeochemistry.", "It is estimated that the Earth's oceans hold 40,000 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon, that vegetation and soil hold 2070 Gt, and that fossil fuel emissions are 6.3 Gt carbon per year.", "There have been major restructurings in these global carbon budgets during the Earth's history, regulated to a large extent by the ecology of the land.", "For example, through the early-mid Eocene volcanic outgassing, the oxidation of methane stored in wetlands, and seafloor gases increased atmospheric CO2 (carbon dioxide) concentrations to levels as high as 3500 ppm.In the Oligocene, from twenty-five to thirty-two million years ago, there was another significant restructuring of the global carbon cycle as grasses evolved a new mechanism of photosynthesis, C4 photosynthesis, and expanded their ranges.", "This new pathway evolved in response to the drop in atmospheric CO2 concentrations below 550 ppm.", "The relative abundance and distribution of biodiversity alters the dynamics between organisms and their environment such that ecosystems can be both cause and effect in relation to climate change.", "Human-driven modifications to the planet's ecosystems (e.g., disturbance, biodiversity loss, agriculture) contributes to rising atmospheric greenhouse gas levels.", "Transformation of the global carbon cycle in the next century is projected to raise planetary temperatures, lead to more extreme fluctuations in weather, alter species distributions, and increase extinction rates.", "The effect of global warming is already being registered in melting glaciers, melting mountain ice caps, and rising sea levels.", "Consequently, species distributions are changing along waterfronts and in continental areas where migration patterns and breeding grounds are tracking the prevailing shifts in climate.", "Large sections of permafrost are also melting to create a new mosaic of flooded areas having increased rates of soil decomposition activity that raises methane (CH4) emissions.", "There is concern over increases in atmospheric methane in the context of the global carbon cycle, because methane is a greenhouse gas that is 23 times more effective at absorbing long-wave radiation than CO2 on a 100-year time scale.", "Hence, there is a relationship between global warming, decomposition and respiration in soils and wetlands producing significant climate feedbacks and globally altered biogeochemical cycles." ], [ "History", "=== Early beginnings ===Ecology has a complex origin, due in large part to its interdisciplinary nature.", "Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle were among the first to record observations on natural history.", "However, they viewed life in terms of essentialism, where species were conceptualized as static unchanging things while varieties were seen as aberrations of an idealized type.", "This contrasts against the modern understanding of ecological theory where varieties are viewed as the real phenomena of interest and having a role in the origins of adaptations by means of natural selection.", "Early conceptions of ecology, such as a balance and regulation in nature can be traced to Herodotus (died ''c''.", "425 BC), who described one of the earliest accounts of mutualism in his observation of \"natural dentistry\".", "Basking Nile crocodiles, he noted, would open their mouths to give sandpipers safe access to pluck leeches out, giving nutrition to the sandpiper and oral hygiene for the crocodile.", "Aristotle was an early influence on the philosophical development of ecology.", "He and his student Theophrastus made extensive observations on plant and animal migrations, biogeography, physiology, and their behavior, giving an early analogue to the modern concept of an ecological niche.90px 90px Ernst Haeckel (left) and Eugenius Warming (right), two founders of ecologyEcological concepts such as food chains, population regulation, and productivity were first developed in the 1700s, through the published works of microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) and botanist Richard Bradley (1688?–1732).", "Biogeographer Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) was an early pioneer in ecological thinking and was among the first to recognize ecological gradients, where species are replaced or altered in form along environmental gradients, such as a cline forming along a rise in elevation.", "Humboldt drew inspiration from Isaac Newton, as he developed a form of \"terrestrial physics\".", "In Newtonian fashion, he brought a scientific exactitude for measurement into natural history and even alluded to concepts that are the foundation of a modern ecological law on species-to-area relationships.", "Natural historians, such as Humboldt, James Hutton, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (among others) laid the foundations of the modern ecological sciences.", "The term \"ecology\" () was coined by Ernst Haeckel in his book ''Generelle Morphologie der Organismen'' (1866).", "Haeckel was a zoologist, artist, writer, and later in life a professor of comparative anatomy.Opinions differ on who was the founder of modern ecological theory.", "Some mark Haeckel's definition as the beginning; others say it was Eugenius Warming with the writing of Oecology of Plants: An Introduction to the Study of Plant Communities (1895), or Carl Linnaeus' principles on the economy of nature that matured in the early 18th century.", "Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called the economy of nature.", "His works influenced Charles Darwin, who adopted Linnaeus' phrase on the ''economy or polity of nature'' in ''The Origin of Species''.", "Linnaeus was the first to frame the balance of nature as a testable hypothesis.", "Haeckel, who admired Darwin's work, defined ecology in reference to the economy of nature, which has led some to question whether ecology and the economy of nature are synonymous.The layout of the first ecological experiment, carried out in a grass garden at Woburn Abbey in 1816, was noted by Charles Darwin in ''The Origin of Species''.", "The experiment studied the performance of different mixtures of species planted in different kinds of soils.From Aristotle until Darwin, the natural world was predominantly considered static and unchanging.", "Prior to ''The Origin of Species'', there was little appreciation or understanding of the dynamic and reciprocal relations between organisms, their adaptations, and the environment.", "An exception is the 1789 publication ''Natural History of Selborne'' by Gilbert White (1720–1793), considered by some to be one of the earliest texts on ecology.", "While Charles Darwin is mainly noted for his treatise on evolution, he was one of the founders of soil ecology, and he made note of the first ecological experiment in ''The Origin of Species''.", "Evolutionary theory changed the way that researchers approached the ecological sciences.=== Since 1900 ===Modern ecology is a young science that first attracted substantial scientific attention toward the end of the 19th century (around the same time that evolutionary studies were gaining scientific interest).", "The scientist Ellen Swallow Richards adopted the term \"oekology\" (which eventually morphed into home economics) in the U.S. as early as 1892.In the early 20th century, ecology transitioned from a more descriptive form of natural history to a more analytical form of ''scientific natural history''.", "Frederic Clements published the first American ecology book in 1905, presenting the idea of plant communities as a superorganism.", "This publication launched a debate between ecological holism and individualism that lasted until the 1970s.", "Clements' superorganism concept proposed that ecosystems progress through regular and determined stages of seral development that are analogous to the developmental stages of an organism.", "The Clementsian paradigm was challenged by Henry Gleason, who stated that ecological communities develop from the unique and coincidental association of individual organisms.", "This perceptual shift placed the focus back onto the life histories of individual organisms and how this relates to the development of community associations.The Clementsian superorganism theory was an overextended application of an idealistic form of holism.", "The term \"holism\" was coined in 1926 by Jan Christiaan Smuts, a South African general and polarizing historical figure who was inspired by Clements' superorganism concept.", "Around the same time, Charles Elton pioneered the concept of food chains in his classical book ''Animal Ecology''.", "Elton defined ecological relations using concepts of food chains, food cycles, and food size, and described numerical relations among different functional groups and their relative abundance.", "Elton's 'food cycle' was replaced by 'food web' in a subsequent ecological text.", "Alfred J. Lotka brought in many theoretical concepts applying thermodynamic principles to ecology.In 1942, Raymond Lindeman wrote a landmark paper on the trophic dynamics of ecology, which was published posthumously after initially being rejected for its theoretical emphasis.", "Trophic dynamics became the foundation for much of the work to follow on energy and material flow through ecosystems.", "Robert MacArthur advanced mathematical theory, predictions, and tests in ecology in the 1950s, which inspired a resurgent school of theoretical mathematical ecologists.", "Ecology also has developed through contributions from other nations, including Russia's Vladimir Vernadsky and his founding of the biosphere concept in the 1920s and Japan's Kinji Imanishi and his concepts of harmony in nature and habitat segregation in the 1950s.", "Scientific recognition of contributions to ecology from non-English-speaking cultures is hampered by language and translation barriers.Ecology surged in popular and scientific interest during the 1960–1970s environmental movement.", "There are strong historical and scientific ties between ecology, environmental management, and protection.", "The historical emphasis and poetic naturalistic writings advocating the protection of wild places by notable ecologists in the history of conservation biology, such as Aldo Leopold and Arthur Tansley, have been seen as far removed from urban centres where, it is claimed, the concentration of pollution and environmental degradation is located.", "Palamar (2008) notes an overshadowing by mainstream environmentalism of pioneering women in the early 1900s who fought for urban health ecology (then called euthenics) and brought about changes in environmental legislation.", "Women such as Ellen Swallow Richards and Julia Lathrop, among others, were precursors to the more popularized environmental movements after the 1950s.In 1962, marine biologist and ecologist Rachel Carson's book ''Silent Spring'' helped to mobilize the environmental movement by alerting the public to toxic pesticides, such as DDT, bioaccumulating in the environment.", "Carson used ecological science to link the release of environmental toxins to human and ecosystem health.", "Since then, ecologists have worked to bridge their understanding of the degradation of the planet's ecosystems with environmental politics, law, restoration, and natural resources management." ], [ "See also", "* Carrying capacity* Chemical ecology* Climate justice* Circles of Sustainability* Cultural ecology* Dialectical naturalism* Ecological death* Ecological empathy* Ecological overshoot* Ecological psychology* Ecology movement* Ecosophy* Ecopsychology* Human ecology* Industrial ecology* Information ecology* Landscape ecology* Natural resource* Normative science* Philosophy of ecology* Political ecology* Theoretical ecology* Sensory ecology* Sexecology* Spiritual ecology* Sustainable development; Lists* Glossary of ecology* Index of biology articles* List of ecologists* Outline of biology* Terminology of ecology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Ecology (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)* The Nature Education Knowledge Project: Ecology" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Glossary of country dance terms" ], [ "Introduction", "An alphabetic list of modern country dance terminology:* '''Active couple''' – for longways sets, the active couple is the couple nearest the head of the set within each ''minor set.''", "There are always exactly as many active couples as ''minor sets.''", "If the dance is \"duple minor,\" this works out to every other couple, while in a \"triple minor\" it is every third couple.", "In older dances from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the active couples do more complicated figures than the inactives, whence the name; however, this is not so usual in modern dances.", "Active couples may also be termed \"first couple\" or \"the Ones,\" while inactives are \"second couple/the Twos\" and (only in a \"triple minor\" dance) \"third couple/the Threes.", "\"* '''Arm right (or left)''' – couples link right (or left) arms and move forward in a circle, returning to their starting positions.", "* '''Back to back''' – facing another person, move forward ''passing'' right shoulders and ''fall back'' to place passing left.", "May also start by passing left and falling back right.", "Called a do si do in contra dance (and ''dos-à-dos'' in France).", "* '''Balance''' – a ''single,'' generally found in pairs, as \"balance forward and back.", "\"* '''Becket formation''' – a 20th-century variation of the duple minor ''longways set.''", "Each couple stands either on the men's line or the women's line, with the lady on the right.", "Within each minor set, one couple faces the left wall of the hall and the other the right wall, rather than facing the ''head'' or ''foot.''", "There are no active or inactive couples.", "''Progression'' is accomplished by each couple moving to their own left along their line at the end of each iteration of the dance; thus the couples on the men's line go up, while those on the women's line go down.", "This was originally a contra dance form but can sometimes be found in English country dance.", "* '''Both hands''' – two dancers face each other and give hands right to left and left to right.", "* '''Cast''' – turn outward and dance up or down outside the set, as directed.", "The instruction \"cast off\" is frequently synonymous with \"cast down\".", "* '''Changes of right and left''' – like the ''circular hey'', but dancers give hands as they pass (handing hey).", "The number of changes is given first (e.g.", "two changes, three changes, etc.).", "* '''Chassé''' – slipping step to right or left as directed.", "* '''Circular hey''' – dancers face partners or along the line and ''pass'' right and left alternating a stated number of changes.", "Usually done without hands, the circular hey may also be done by more than two couples facing alternately and moving in opposite directions - usually to their original places.", "This name for the figure was invented by Cecil Sharp and does not appear in sources pre-1900.Nonetheless, some early country dances calling for heys have been interpreted in modern times using circular heys.", "In early dances, where the hey is called a \"double hey\", it works to interpret this as an oval hey, like the modern circular hey but adapted to the straight sides of a longways formation.", "* '''Clockwise''' – in a ring, move to one's left.", "In a ''turn single'' turn to the right.", "* '''Contrary''' – your contrary is not your partner.", "In Playford's original notation, this term meant the same thing that ''Corner'' (or sometimes ''Opposite'') means today.", "* '''Corner''' – in a two-couple ''minor set,'' the dancer diagonally opposite one.", "The first man and the second woman are ''first corners,'' while the first woman and second man are ''second corners.''", "In other dance formations, it has similar meanings.", "* '''Counter-clockwise''' – the opposite of clockwise - in a ring, move right.", "In a ''turn single'', turn to the left.", "* '''Cross hands''' – face and give left to left and right to right.", "* '''Cross over''' or '''pass''' – change places with another dancer moving forward and passing by the right shoulder, unless otherwise directed.", "* '''Cross and go below''' – cross as above and go outside below one couple, ending improper.", "* '''Double''' – four steps forward or back, closing the feet on the 4th step (see \"Single\" below).", "* '''Fall (back)''' – dance backwards.", "* '''Figure of 8''' – a weaving figure in which a moving couple crosses between a standing couple and casts around them in a figure 8 pattern.", "To do this once, ending in one's partner's place, is a '''half figure of 8'''; to do it twice, returning to one's own place, is a '''full figure of 8'''.", "The right of way in the cross has traditionally been given to the lady; some communities prefer to give it to whichever dancer is coming from the left-hand side.", "In a '''double figure of 8''', the other couple does not stand still, but performs their own figure of 8 simultaneously; they begin with the cast and end with the cross to avoid collision.", "* '''Forward''' – ''lead'' or move in the direction you are facing.", "* '''Grand chain''' – a handing hey (changes of right and left) done in a circle of more than two couples.", "* '''Gypsy''' – two dancers move around each other in a circular path while facing each other.", "* '''Hands across''' – right or left hands are given to ''corners'', and dancers move in the direction they face.", "In contra dance, instead of taking one's corner's hand, one grasps the wrist of the next dancer.", "Also known as a '''star right/left.", "'''* '''Hands three, four etc.'''", "– the designated number of dancers form a ring and move around in the direction indicated, usually first to the left and back to the right.", "* '''Head''' and '''foot''' – the head of a ''longways set'' is the end with the music; the foot is the other end.", "Toward the head is \"up,\" and toward the foot is \"down.", "\"* '''Hey''' – a weaving figure in which dancers move in single file along a set track, passing one another on alternating sides (see ''circular hey'' and ''straight hey'').", "In Scottish country dance, the hey is known as the '''reel.", "'''* '''\"Hole in the Wall\" cross''' – a type of ''cross''.", "In a regular cross, the dancers walk past each other and turn upon reaching the other line; in a \"Hole in the Wall\" cross, they meet in the middle, make a brief half-turn without hands, and back into one another's place, maintaining eye contact the while.", "Named for \"Hole in the Wall,\" a dance in which it appears.", "* '''Honour''' – couples step forward and right, close, shift weight, and curtsey or bow, then (usually) repeat to their left.", "In the time of Playford's original manual, a woman's curtsey was similar to the modern one, but a man's honour (or reverence) kept the upper body upright and involved sliding the left leg forward while bending the right knee * '''Improper''' – see ''proper''.", "* '''Ladies' chain''' – a figure in which ladies dance first with each other in the center of the set and then with the gentlemen on the sides.", "In its simplest form, two ladies begin in ''second corner'' positions (nearer the head on the women's line and nearer the foot on the men's line).", "The ladies pass each other by right hand and turn with the gentlemen by left hand, approximately once around, to end with the ladies in each other's place and the gentlemen where they began.", "The figure can be extended to more couples in a ring, as long as the dancers in the ring are alternating between gentlemen and ladies.", "If the gentlemen turn the ladies only by left hand, that is an '''open ladies' chain'''; if they also place their right hands on the ladies' backs during the turn, that is a '''closed ladies' chain.'''", "In English country dance, both closed and open ladies' chains are to be found, and the gentlemen make a short ''cast'' up or down the set to meet the ladies; in contra dance, only the closed ladies' chain is done, and the gentlemen sidestep to meet the ladies.", "The '''men's chain''' is a simple gender reversal, but is a much rarer figure.", "* '''Lead''' – join inside hands and walk in a certain direction.", "To lead up or down is to walk toward or away from the head of the set; to lead out is to walk away from the other line of dancers.", "* '''Link''' – see ''set and link''.", "* '''Longways set''' – a line of couples dancing together.", "This is usually \"longways for as many as will,\" indicating that any number of couples may join the longways set—although some dances require a three- or four-couple longways set.", "If the longways set is not restricted to three or four couples, it will be subdivided into ''minor sets'' of two or three couples each.", "* '''\"Mad Robin\" figure''' – a figure in which one couple dances around their respective neighbours.", "Men take one step forward and then slide to the right passing in front of their neighbour, then step backward and slide left behind their neighbour.", "Conversely women take one step backward and then slide to the left passing behind their neighbour, then step forward and slide right in front of their neighbour.", "In one version, the dancer who is going outside the set at the moment casts out to begin that motion; in the other, the active couple maintains eye contact.", "The term ''Mad Robin'' comes from the name of the dance which originated the figure.", "A version involving all four dancers was developed for contra dancing and later readmitted into some modern English dances.", "* '''Minor set''' – a ''longways set'' is subdivided into several minor sets.", "In a \"duple minor\" dance, every two couples form a minor set.", "In a \"triple minor\" dance, every three couples form a minor set.", "The ''active couple'' is always the couple in each minor set who are closest to the head.", "After every iteration of the dance, the ''progression'' will create new minor sets for the next iteration.", "* '''Neighbour''' – the person you are standing beside, but not your partner.", "* '''Opposite''' – the person you are facing, if you are not facing your partner.", "* '''Poussette''' – two dancers face, give both hands and change places as a couple with two adjacent dancers.", "One pair moves a ''double'' toward one wall, the other toward the other wall; they shift up or down, respectively, and move into the other couple's place with another ''double.''", "This completes a '''half-poussette'''; it is repeated for a '''whole poussette.'''", "In a '''draw poussette,''' each couple turns instead of reversing direction, so that the same dancer in each couple is always in the lead.", "* '''Progression''' – the process by which every couple will eventually dance with every other couple in the set, if the dance is repeated enough times.", "In a \"duple minor\" dance with five couples dancing, for example, the couples are initially in this order: Active (couple A)/Inactive (couple B)/Active (couple C)/Inactive (couple D)/Out (couple E).", "This represents two ''minor sets'' (couples A-B and couples C-D) and one couple (couple E) who are \"standing out\" due to having no one to dance with.", "After one iteration of the dance, every active couple will have moved below the inactive couple in their ''minor set,'' which in the example would be thus: Inactive (couple B)/Active (couple A)/Inactive (couple D)/Active (couple C)/Out (couple E).", "For the next iteration, any inactive couple at the top (and any active couple at the bottom) will stand out, while any couple standing out will begin dancing as actives (if at the top) or inactives (if at the bottom).", "So the next iteration would begin as follows: Out (couple B)/Active (couple A)/Inactive (couple D)/Active (couple C)/Inactive (couple E).", "The ''minor sets'' now contain couples A-D and couples C-E, while couple B is \"standing out.\"", "Dances in other forms progress differently, though the \"triple minor\" progression is quite similar.", "* '''Progression, double''' or '''triple''' – a longways dance has a double progression if the arrangement of couples into minor sets advances twice during one iteration of the dance instead of just once.", "A triple-progression dance advances thrice during one iteration.", "* '''Proper''' – with the man on the left and the woman on the right, from the perspective of someone facing the music.", "'''Improper''' is the opposite.", "The terms carry no value judgment, but only indicate whether one is on one's \"home\" side.", "A dance in duple-minor longways form is termed \"improper\" if the active couples are improper by default; this is the exception in English country dance, but the rule in contra dance.", "* '''Right and left''' – see ''changes of right and left.", "''* '''Set''' – a dancer steps right, closes with left foot and shifts weight to it, then steps back to the right foot (right-together-step); then repeats the process mirror-image (left-together-step).", "In some areas, such as the Society for Creative Anachronism, it is done starting to the left.", "It may be done in place or advancing.", "Often followed by a turn single.", "In Scottish country dance there are several variations; in contra dance its place is generally taken by a ''balance right and left.''", "Not to be confused with terms indicating groups of dancers, like ''longways set'' or ''minor set.", "''* '''Set and link''' – a figure done by a pair of dancers and simultaneously by another pair of dancers who are facing them.", "Most commonly this means that the men do it facing the women, while the women do it facing the men.", "First, all dancers ''set;'' then the dancer on the left of each pair dances a ''turn single right,'' while also moving to the right, to end in his or her neighbor's place.", "Meanwhile, the dancer on the right of each pair ''casts'' to the left into his or her neighbor's place; thus the men have traded places with each other, and so have the women.", "This figure is most commonly found in Scottish country dance.", "* '''Sicilian circle''' – a type of dance formation, roughly equivalent to a ''longways set'' rolled into a ring.", "Every couple stands along the line of a large circle, facing another couple; thus half of the couples face clockwise, while the other half face counterclockwise.", "Since, unlike the ''longways set,'' the Sicilian circle has no place for dancers to \"stand out,\" Sicilian circle dances must be done by an even number of couples.", "The ''progression'' is similar to that of a \"duple minor,\" but since there is nowhere for couples to reverse direction, every clockwise couple will only dance with the counterclockwise couples (and vice versa).", "* '''Siding''' – two dancers go forward in four counts to meet side by side, then back in four counts to where they started the figure.", "As depicted by Feuillet, this is done right side by right side the first time, left by left the second time.", "In Cecil Sharp's reconstruction, the dancers pass by left shoulder (in some versions holding hands), turn to face each other, then return along the same path, passing by right shoulder; this is then repeated.", "So-called ''Cecil Sharp siding'' is no longer considered historical, but is still used on its own merits.", "Standard siding is sometimes called ''Pat Shaw siding'' (after its reconstructor) to distinguish it from ''Cecil Sharp siding.", "''* '''Single''' – two steps in any direction, closing feet on the second step.", "The second step tends to be interpreted as a closing action in which weight usually stays on the same foot as before, consistent with descriptions from Renaissance sources.", "* '''Slipping circle (left or right)''' – dancers take hands in a circle (facing in) and chassé left or right.", "* '''Star''' – see ''hands across.", "''* '''Straight hey for four''' – dancers face alternately, the two in the middle facing out.", "Dancers pass right shoulders on either end and weave to the end opposite.", "If the last pass at the end is by the right, the dancer turns right and reenters the line by the same shoulder; vice versa if the last pass was to the left.", "Dancers end in their original places.", "* '''Straight hey for three''' – the first dancer faces the other two and ''passes'' right shoulders with the second dancer, left shoulder with the third - the other dancers moving and passing the indicated shoulder.", "On making the last pass, each dancer makes a whole turn on the end, bearing right if the last pass was by the right shoulder or left if last pass was by the left, and reenters the figure returning to place.", "Each dancer describes a figure of eight pattern.", "* '''Swing''' – a ''turn'' with two hands, but moving faster and making more than one revolution.", "Several variants exist, including the ballroom swing and the Welsh swing.", "* '''Track figure''' – a generic term for any composite figure where the dancers involved travel within the set.", "An example track figure might be \"Ones cast around the Twos, cross, cast around the Threes, and lead back up to place.\"", "The ''figure of 8'' would be considered a track figure if it were not common enough to have its own name.", "* '''Turn both-hands''' – face, give ''both hands'', and make a complete circular, clockwise turn to place.", "* '''Turn by right or left''' – dancers join right (or left) hands and turn around, separate, and ''fall'' to places.", "* '''Turn single''' – dancers turn around in four steps.", "''Turn single right'' is a clockwise turn; ''turn single left'' is a counterclockwise turn.", "May involve a backward motion, as after a ''set advancing.", "''* '''Up a double and back''' – common combination in which dancers, usually having linked hands in a line, advance a double and then retire another double." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ecosystem" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''ecosystem''' (or '''ecological system''') is a system that environments and their organisms form through their interaction.", "The biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.Ecosystems are controlled by external and internal factors.", "External factors such as climate, parent material which forms the soil and topography, control the overall structure of an ecosystem but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem.", "Internal factors are controlled, for example, by decomposition, root competition, shading, disturbance, succession, and the types of species present.", "While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors.", "Therefore, internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them.Ecosystems are dynamic entities—they are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from some past disturbance.", "The tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance, is termed its resistance.", "The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its ecological resilience.", "Ecosystems can be studied through a variety of approaches—theoretical studies, studies monitoring specific ecosystems over long periods of time, those that look at differences between ecosystems to elucidate how they work and direct manipulative experimentation.", "Biomes are general classes or categories of ecosystems.", "However, there is no clear distinction between biomes and ecosystems.", "Ecosystem classifications are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of ecosystems: a biotic component, an abiotic complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy.", "Biotic factors of the ecosystem are living things; such as plants, animals, and bacteria, while abiotic are non-living components; such as water, soil and atmosphere.Plants allow energy to enter the system through photosynthesis, building up plant tissue.", "Animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system, by feeding on plants and on one another.", "They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present.", "By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and microbes.Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend, and may be part of.", "Ecosystem goods include the \"tangible, material products\" of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and medicinal plants.", "Ecosystem services, on the other hand, are generally \"improvements in the condition or location of things of value\".", "These include things like the maintenance of hydrological cycles, cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop pollination and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research.", "Many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as soil loss, air and water pollution, habitat fragmentation, water diversion, fire suppression, and introduced species and invasive species.", "These threats can lead to abrupt transformation of the ecosystem or to gradual disruption of biotic processes and degradation of abiotic conditions of the ecosystem.", "Once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered \"collapsed\".", "Ecosystem restoration can contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals." ], [ "Definition", "An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the abiotic pools (or physical environment) with which they interact.", "The biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.", "\"Ecosystem processes\" are the transfers of energy and materials from one pool to another.", "Ecosystem processes are known to \"take place at a wide range of scales\".", "Therefore, the correct scale of study depends on the question asked.=== Origin and development of the term ===The term \"ecosystem\" was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley.", "The term was coined by Arthur Roy Clapham, who came up with the word at Tansley's request.", "Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment.", "He later refined the term, describing it as \"The whole system, ... including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment\".", "Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as \"mental isolates\".", "Tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term \"ecotope\".G.", "Evelyn Hutchinson, a limnologist who was a contemporary of Tansley's, combined Charles Elton's ideas about trophic ecology with those of Russian geochemist Vladimir Vernadsky.", "As a result, he suggested that mineral nutrient availability in a lake limited algal production.", "This would, in turn, limit the abundance of animals that feed on algae.", "Raymond Lindeman took these ideas further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the primary driver of the ecosystem.", "Hutchinson's students, brothers Howard T. Odum and Eugene P. Odum, further developed a \"systems approach\" to the study of ecosystems.", "This allowed them to study the flow of energy and material through ecological systems." ], [ "Processes", "Rainforest ecosystems are rich in biodiversity.", "This is the Gambia River in Senegal's Niokolo-Koba National Park.Flora of Baja California desert, Cataviña region, Mexico=== External and internal factors ===Ecosystems are controlled by both external and internal factors.", "External factors, also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem.", "On broad geographic scales, climate is the factor that \"most strongly determines ecosystem processes and structure\".", "Climate determines the biome in which the ecosystem is embedded.", "Rainfall patterns and seasonal temperatures influence photosynthesis and thereby determine the amount of energy available to the ecosystem.Parent material determines the nature of the soil in an ecosystem, and influences the supply of mineral nutrients.", "Topography also controls ecosystem processes by affecting things like microclimate, soil development and the movement of water through a system.", "For example, ecosystems can be quite different if situated in a small depression on the landscape, versus one present on an adjacent steep hillside.Other external factors that play an important role in ecosystem functioning include time and potential biota, the organisms that are present in a region and could potentially occupy a particular site.", "Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can end up doing things very differently simply because they have different pools of species present.", "The introduction of non-native species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function.Unlike external factors, internal factors in ecosystems not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them.", "While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and parent material, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors like decomposition, root competition or shading.", "Other factors like disturbance, succession or the types of species present are also internal factors.===Primary production===Global oceanic and terrestrial phototroph abundance, from September 1997 to August 2000.As an estimate of autotroph biomass, it is only a rough indicator of primary production potential and not an actual estimate of it.Primary production is the production of organic matter from inorganic carbon sources.", "This mainly occurs through photosynthesis.", "The energy incorporated through this process supports life on earth, while the carbon makes up much of the organic matter in living and dead biomass, soil carbon and fossil fuels.", "It also drives the carbon cycle, which influences global climate via the greenhouse effect.Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture energy from light and use it to combine carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen.", "The photosynthesis carried out by all the plants in an ecosystem is called the gross primary production (GPP).", "About half of the gross GPP is respired by plants in order to provide the energy that supports their growth and maintenance.", "The remainder, that portion of GPP that is not used up by respiration, is known as the net primary production (NPP).", "Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors.", "These include the amount of light available, the amount of leaf area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants is a major limitation of photosynthesis), the rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to the chloroplasts to support photosynthesis, the availability of water, and the availability of suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis.===Energy flow===Energy and carbon enter ecosystems through photosynthesis, are incorporated into living tissue, transferred to other organisms that feed on the living and dead plant matter, and eventually released through respiration.", "The carbon and energy incorporated into plant tissues (net primary production) is either consumed by animals while the plant is alive, or it remains uneaten when the plant tissue dies and becomes detritus.", "In terrestrial ecosystems, the vast majority of the net primary production ends up being broken down by decomposers.", "The remainder is consumed by animals while still alive and enters the plant-based trophic system.", "After plants and animals die, the organic matter contained in them enters the detritus-based trophic system.Ecosystem respiration is the sum of respiration by all living organisms (plants, animals, and decomposers) in the ecosystem.", "Net ecosystem production is the difference between gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration.", "In the absence of disturbance, net ecosystem production is equivalent to the net carbon accumulation in the ecosystem.Energy can also be released from an ecosystem through disturbances such as wildfire or transferred to other ecosystems (e.g., from a forest to a stream to a lake) by erosion.In aquatic systems, the proportion of plant biomass that gets consumed by herbivores is much higher than in terrestrial systems.", "In trophic systems, photosynthetic organisms are the primary producers.", "The organisms that consume their tissues are called primary consumers or secondary producers—herbivores.", "Organisms which feed on microbes (bacteria and fungi) are termed microbivores.", "Animals that feed on primary consumers—carnivores—are secondary consumers.", "Each of these constitutes a trophic level.The sequence of consumption—from plant to herbivore, to carnivore—forms a food chain.", "Real systems are much more complex than this—organisms will generally feed on more than one form of food, and may feed at more than one trophic level.", "Carnivores may capture some prey that is part of a plant-based trophic system and others that are part of a detritus-based trophic system (a bird that feeds both on herbivorous grasshoppers and earthworms, which consume detritus).", "Real systems, with all these complexities, form food webs rather than food chains.===Decomposition===Sequence of a decomposing pig carcass over timeThe carbon and nutrients in dead organic matter are broken down by a group of processes known as decomposition.", "This releases nutrients that can then be re-used for plant and microbial production and returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (or water) where it can be used for photosynthesis.", "In the absence of decomposition, the dead organic matter would accumulate in an ecosystem, and nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted.Decomposition processes can be separated into three categories—leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material.", "As water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water-soluble components.", "These are then taken up by organisms in the soil, react with mineral soil, or are transported beyond the confines of the ecosystem (and are considered lost to it).", "Newly shed leaves and newly dead animals have high concentrations of water-soluble components and include sugars, amino acids and mineral nutrients.", "Leaching is more important in wet environments and less important in dry ones.Fragmentation processes break organic material into smaller pieces, exposing new surfaces for colonization by microbes.", "Freshly shed leaf litter may be inaccessible due to an outer layer of cuticle or bark, and cell contents are protected by a cell wall.", "Newly dead animals may be covered by an exoskeleton.", "Fragmentation processes, which break through these protective layers, accelerate the rate of microbial decomposition.", "Animals fragment detritus as they hunt for food, as does passage through the gut.", "Freeze-thaw cycles and cycles of wetting and drying also fragment dead material.The chemical alteration of the dead organic matter is primarily achieved through bacterial and fungal action.", "Fungal hyphae produce enzymes that can break through the tough outer structures surrounding dead plant material.", "They also produce enzymes that break down lignin, which allows them access to both cell contents and the nitrogen in the lignin.", "Fungi can transfer carbon and nitrogen through their hyphal networks and thus, unlike bacteria, are not dependent solely on locally available resources.==== Decomposition rates ====Decomposition rates vary among ecosystems.", "The rate of decomposition is governed by three sets of factors—the physical environment (temperature, moisture, and soil properties), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and the nature of the microbial community itself.", "Temperature controls the rate of microbial respiration; the higher the temperature, the faster the microbial decomposition occurs.", "Temperature also affects soil moisture, which affects decomposition.", "Freeze-thaw cycles also affect decomposition—freezing temperatures kill soil microorganisms, which allows leaching to play a more important role in moving nutrients around.", "This can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available.Decomposition rates are low under very wet or very dry conditions.", "Decomposition rates are highest in wet, moist conditions with adequate levels of oxygen.", "Wet soils tend to become deficient in oxygen (this is especially true in wetlands), which slows microbial growth.", "In dry soils, decomposition slows as well, but bacteria continue to grow (albeit at a slower rate) even after soils become too dry to support plant growth.=== Dynamics and resilience ===Ecosystems are dynamic entities.", "They are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from past disturbances.", "When a perturbation occurs, an ecosystem responds by moving away from its initial state.", "The tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance, is termed its resistance.", "The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its ecological resilience.", "Resilience thinking also includes humanity as an integral part of the biosphere where we are dependent on ecosystem services for our survival and must build and maintain their natural capacities to withstand shocks and disturbances.", "Time plays a central role over a wide range, for example, in the slow development of soil from bare rock and the faster recovery of a community from disturbance.Disturbance also plays an important role in ecological processes.", "F. Stuart Chapin and coauthors define disturbance as \"a relatively discrete event in time that removes plant biomass\".", "This can range from herbivore outbreaks, treefalls, fires, hurricanes, floods, glacial advances, to volcanic eruptions.", "Such disturbances can cause large changes in plant, animal and microbe populations, as well as soil organic matter content.", "Disturbance is followed by succession, a \"directional change in ecosystem structure and functioning resulting from biotically driven changes in resource supply.", "\"The frequency and severity of disturbance determine the way it affects ecosystem function.", "A major disturbance like a volcanic eruption or glacial advance and retreat leave behind soils that lack plants, animals or organic matter.", "Ecosystems that experience such disturbances undergo primary succession.", "A less severe disturbance like forest fires, hurricanes or cultivation result in secondary succession and a faster recovery.", "More severe and more frequent disturbance result in longer recovery times.From one year to another, ecosystems experience variation in their biotic and abiotic environments.", "A drought, a colder than usual winter, and a pest outbreak all are short-term variability in environmental conditions.", "Animal populations vary from year to year, building up during resource-rich periods and crashing as they overshoot their food supply.", "Longer-term changes also shape ecosystem processes.", "For example, the forests of eastern North America still show legacies of cultivation which ceased in 1850 when large areas were reverted to forests.", "Another example is the methane production in eastern Siberian lakes that is controlled by organic matter which accumulated during the Pleistocene.===Nutrient cycling===Biological nitrogen cyclingEcosystems continually exchange energy and carbon with the wider environment.", "Mineral nutrients, on the other hand, are mostly cycled back and forth between plants, animals, microbes and the soil.", "Most nitrogen enters ecosystems through biological nitrogen fixation, is deposited through precipitation, dust, gases or is applied as fertilizer.", "Most terrestrial ecosystems are nitrogen-limited in the short term making nitrogen cycling an important control on ecosystem production.", "Over the long term, phosphorus availability can also be critical.Macronutrients which are required by all plants in large quantities include the primary nutrients (which are most limiting as they are used in largest amounts): Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium.", "Secondary major nutrients (less often limiting) include: Calcium, magnesium, sulfur.", "Micronutrients required by all plants in small quantities include boron, chloride, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc.", "Finally, there are also beneficial nutrients which may be required by certain plants or by plants under specific environmental conditions: aluminum, cobalt, iodine, nickel, selenium, silicon, sodium, vanadium.Until modern times, nitrogen fixation was the major source of nitrogen for ecosystems.", "Nitrogen-fixing bacteria either live symbiotically with plants or live freely in the soil.", "The energetic cost is high for plants that support nitrogen-fixing symbionts—as much as 25% of gross primary production when measured in controlled conditions.", "Many members of the legume plant family support nitrogen-fixing symbionts.", "Some cyanobacteria are also capable of nitrogen fixation.", "These are phototrophs, which carry out photosynthesis.", "Like other nitrogen-fixing bacteria, they can either be free-living or have symbiotic relationships with plants.", "Other sources of nitrogen include acid deposition produced through the combustion of fossil fuels, ammonia gas which evaporates from agricultural fields which have had fertilizers applied to them, and dust.", "Anthropogenic nitrogen inputs account for about 80% of all nitrogen fluxes in ecosystems.When plant tissues are shed or are eaten, the nitrogen in those tissues becomes available to animals and microbes.", "Microbial decomposition releases nitrogen compounds from dead organic matter in the soil, where plants, fungi, and bacteria compete for it.", "Some soil bacteria use organic nitrogen-containing compounds as a source of carbon, and release ammonium ions into the soil.", "This process is known as nitrogen mineralization.", "Others convert ammonium to nitrite and nitrate ions, a process known as nitrification.", "Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide are also produced during nitrification.", "Under nitrogen-rich and oxygen-poor conditions, nitrates and nitrites are converted to nitrogen gas, a process known as denitrification.Mycorrhizal fungi which are symbiotic with plant roots, use carbohydrates supplied by the plants and in return transfer phosphorus and nitrogen compounds back to the plant roots.", "This is an important pathway of organic nitrogen transfer from dead organic matter to plants.", "This mechanism may contribute to more than 70 Tg of annually assimilated plant nitrogen, thereby playing a critical role in global nutrient cycling and ecosystem function.Phosphorus enters ecosystems through weathering.", "As ecosystems age this supply diminishes, making phosphorus-limitation more common in older landscapes (especially in the tropics).", "Calcium and sulfur are also produced by weathering, but acid deposition is an important source of sulfur in many ecosystems.", "Although magnesium and manganese are produced by weathering, exchanges between soil organic matter and living cells account for a significant portion of ecosystem fluxes.", "Potassium is primarily cycled between living cells and soil organic matter.===Function and biodiversity===Loch Lomond in Scotland forms a relatively isolated ecosystem.", "The fish community of this lake has remained stable over a long period until a number of introductions in the 1970s restructured its food web.Spiny forest at Ifaty, Madagascar, featuring various ''Adansonia'' (baobab) species, ''Alluaudia procera'' (Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetationBiodiversity plays an important role in ecosystem functioning.", "Ecosystem processes are driven by the species in an ecosystem, the nature of the individual species, and the relative abundance of organisms among these species.", "Ecosystem processes are the net effect of the actions of individual organisms as they interact with their environment.", "Ecological theory suggests that in order to coexist, species must have some level of limiting similarity—they must be different from one another in some fundamental way, otherwise, one species would competitively exclude the other.", "Despite this, the cumulative effect of additional species in an ecosystem is not linear: additional species may enhance nitrogen retention, for example.", "However, beyond some level of species richness, additional species may have little additive effect unless they differ substantially from species already present.", "This is the case for example for exotic species.The addition (or loss) of species that are ecologically similar to those already present in an ecosystem tends to only have a small effect on ecosystem function.", "Ecologically distinct species, on the other hand, have a much larger effect.", "Similarly, dominant species have a large effect on ecosystem function, while rare species tend to have a small effect.", "Keystone species tend to have an effect on ecosystem function that is disproportionate to their abundance in an ecosystem.An ecosystem engineer is any organism that creates, significantly modifies, maintains or destroys a habitat." ], [ "Study approaches", "=== Ecosystem ecology ===A hydrothermal vent is an ecosystem on the ocean floor.", "(The scale bar is 1 m.)Ecosystem ecology is the \"study of the interactions between organisms and their environment as an integrated system\".", "The size of ecosystems can range up to ten orders of magnitude, from the surface layers of rocks to the surface of the planet.The Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study started in 1963 to study the White Mountains in New Hampshire.", "It was the first successful attempt to study an entire watershed as an ecosystem.", "The study used stream chemistry as a means of monitoring ecosystem properties, and developed a detailed biogeochemical model of the ecosystem.", "Long-term research at the site led to the discovery of acid rain in North America in 1972.Researchers documented the depletion of soil cations (especially calcium) over the next several decades.Ecosystems can be studied through a variety of approaches—theoretical studies, studies monitoring specific ecosystems over long periods of time, those that look at differences between ecosystems to elucidate how they work and direct manipulative experimentation.", "Studies can be carried out at a variety of scales, ranging from whole-ecosystem studies to studying microcosms or mesocosms (simplified representations of ecosystems).", "American ecologist Stephen R. Carpenter has argued that microcosm experiments can be \"irrelevant and diversionary\" if they are not carried out in conjunction with field studies done at the ecosystem scale.", "In such cases, microcosm experiments may fail to accurately predict ecosystem-level dynamics.=== Classifications ===Biomes are general classes or categories of ecosystems.", "However, there is no clear distinction between biomes and ecosystems.", "Biomes are always defined at a very general level.", "Ecosystems can be described at levels that range from very general (in which case the names are sometimes the same as those of biomes) to very specific, such as \"wet coastal needle-leafed forests\".Biomes vary due to global variations in climate.", "Biomes are often defined by their structure: at a general level, for example, tropical forests, temperate grasslands, and arctic tundra.", "There can be any degree of subcategories among ecosystem types that comprise a biome, e.g., needle-leafed boreal forests or wet tropical forests.", "Although ecosystems are most commonly categorized by their structure and geography, there are also other ways to categorize and classify ecosystems such as by their level of human impact (see anthropogenic biome), or by their integration with social processes or technological processes or their novelty (e.g.", "novel ecosystem).", "Each of these taxonomies of ecosystems tends to emphasize different structural or functional properties.", "None of these is the \"best\" classification.Ecosystem classifications are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of ecosystems: a biotic component, an abiotic complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy.", "Different approaches to ecological classifications have been developed in terrestrial, freshwater and marine disciplines, and a function-based typology has been proposed to leverage the strengths of these different approaches into a unified system." ], [ "Human interactions with ecosystems", "Human activities are important in almost all ecosystems.", "Although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate.===Ecosystem goods and services===The High Peaks Wilderness Area in the Adirondack Park is an example of a diverse ecosystem.Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend.", "Ecosystem goods include the \"tangible, material products\" of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and medicinal plants.", "They also include less tangible items like tourism and recreation, and genes from wild plants and animals that can be used to improve domestic species.Ecosystem services, on the other hand, are generally \"improvements in the condition or location of things of value\".", "These include things like the maintenance of hydrological cycles, cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop pollination and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research.", "While material from the ecosystem had traditionally been recognized as being the basis for things of economic value, ecosystem services tend to be taken for granted.The ''Millennium Ecosystem Assessment'' is an international synthesis by over 1000 of the world's leading biological scientists that analyzes the state of the Earth's ecosystems and provides summaries and guidelines for decision-makers.", "The report identified four major categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services.", "It concludes that human activity is having a significant and escalating impact on the biodiversity of the world ecosystems, reducing both their resilience and biocapacity.", "The report refers to natural systems as humanity's \"life-support system\", providing essential ecosystem services.", "The assessment measures 24 ecosystem services and concludes that only four have shown improvement over the last 50 years, 15 are in serious decline, and five are in a precarious condition.The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is an intergovernmental organization established to improve the interface between science and policy on issues of biodiversity and ecosystem services.", "It is intended to serve a similar role to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.", "Ecosystem services are limited and also threatened by human activities.", "To help inform decision-makers, many ecosystem services are being assigned economic values, often based on the cost of replacement with anthropogenic alternatives.", "The ongoing challenge of prescribing economic value to nature, for example through biodiversity banking, is prompting transdisciplinary shifts in how we recognize and manage the environment, social responsibility, business opportunities, and our future as a species.===Degradation and decline===As human population and per capita consumption grow, so do the resource demands imposed on ecosystems and the effects of the human ecological footprint.", "Natural resources are vulnerable and limited.", "The environmental impacts of anthropogenic actions are becoming more apparent.", "Problems for all ecosystems include: environmental pollution, climate change and biodiversity loss.", "For terrestrial ecosystems further threats include air pollution, soil degradation, and deforestation.", "For aquatic ecosystems threats also include unsustainable exploitation of marine resources (for example overfishing), marine pollution, microplastics pollution, the effects of climate change on oceans (e.g.", "warming and acidification), and building on coastal areas.Many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as soil loss, air and water pollution, habitat fragmentation, water diversion, fire suppression, and introduced species and invasive species.These threats can lead to abrupt transformation of the ecosystem or to gradual disruption of biotic processes and degradation of abiotic conditions of the ecosystem.", "Once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered ''collapsed'' (see also IUCN Red List of Ecosystems).", "Ecosystem collapse could be reversible and in this way differs from species extinction.", "Quantitative assessments of the risk of collapse are used as measures of conservation status and trends.=== Management ===When natural resource management is applied to whole ecosystems, rather than single species, it is termed ecosystem management.", "Although definitions of ecosystem management abound, there is a common set of principles which underlie these definitions: A fundamental principle is the long-term sustainability of the production of goods and services by the ecosystem; \"intergenerational sustainability is a precondition for management, not an afterthought\".", "While ecosystem management can be used as part of a plan for wilderness conservation, it can also be used in intensively managed ecosystems (see, for example, agroecosystem and close to nature forestry).=== Restoration and sustainable development ===Integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) aim to address conservation and human livelihood (sustainable development) concerns in developing countries together, rather than separately as was often done in the past." ], [ "See also", "* Complex system* Earth science* Ecoregion* Ecosystem-based adaptation=== Types ===The following articles are types of ecosystems for particular types of regions or zones:* Aquatic ecosystem Freshwater ecosystem* Lake ecosystem (lentic ecosystem)* River ecosystem (lotic ecosystem) Marine ecosystem* Large marine ecosystem Tropical salt pond ecosystem* Terrestrial ecosystem Boreal ecosystem Groundwater-dependent ecosystems Montane ecosystem Urban ecosystem; Ecosystems grouped by condition:* Agroecosystem* Closed ecosystem* Depauperate ecosystem* Novel ecosystem* Reference ecosystem=== Instances ===Ecosystem instances in specific regions of the world:* Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem* Leuser Ecosystem* Longleaf pine Ecosystem* Tarangire Ecosystem" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "E (mathematical constant)" ], [ "Introduction", "Graph of the equation .", "Here, is the unique number larger than 1 that makes the shaded area under the curve equal to 1.The number '''''' is a mathematical constant approximately equal to 2.71828 that can be characterized in many ways.", "It is the base of natural logarithms.", "It is the limit of as approaches infinity, an expression that arises in the computation of compound interest.", "It can also be calculated as the sum of the infinite seriesIt is also the unique positive number such that the graph of the function has a slope of 1 at .The (natural) exponential function is the unique function that equals its own derivative and satisfies the equation ; hence one can also define as .", "The natural logarithm, or logarithm to base , is the inverse function to the natural exponential function.", "The natural logarithm of a number can be defined directly as the area under the curve between and , in which case is the value of for which this area equals (see image).", "There are various other characterizations.The number is sometimes called '''Euler's number''', after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, though this can invite confusion with Euler's constant, a different constant typically denoted .", "Alternatively, can be called '''Napier's constant''' after John Napier.", "The constant was discovered by the Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli while studying compound interest.The number is of great importance in mathematics, alongside 0, 1, , and .", "All five appear in one formulation of Euler's identity and play important and recurring roles across mathematics.", "Like the constant , is irrational, meaning that it cannot be represented as a ratio of integers, and moreover it is transcendental, meaning that it is not a root of any non-zero polynomial with rational coefficients.", "To 40 decimal places, the value of is:" ], [ "History", "The first references to the constant were published in 1618 in the table of an appendix of a work on logarithms by John Napier.", "However, this did not contain the constant itself, but simply a list of logarithms to the base .", "It is assumed that the table was written by William Oughtred.", "In 1661, Christiaan Huygens studied how to compute logarithms by geometrical methods and calculated a quantity that, in retrospect, is the base-10 logarithm of , but he did not recognize itself as a quantity of interest.The constant itself was introduced by Jacob Bernoulli in 1683, for solving the problem of continuous compounding of interest.In his solution, the constant occurs as the limitwhere represents the number of intervals in a year on which the compound interest is evaluated (for example, for monthly compounding).The first symbol used for this constant was the letter by Gottfried Leibniz in letters to Christiaan Huygens in 1690 and 1691.Leonhard Euler started to use the letter for the constant in 1727 or 1728, in an unpublished paper on explosive forces in cannons, and in a letter to Christian Goldbach on 25 November 1731.The first appearance of in a printed publication was in Euler's ''Mechanica'' (1736).", "It is unknown why Euler chose the letter .", "Although some researchers used the letter in the subsequent years, the letter was more common and eventually became standard.Euler proved that is the sum of the infinite serieswhere is the factorial of .", "The equivalence of the two characterizations using the limit and the infinite series can be proved via the binomial theorem." ], [ "Applications", "=== Compound interest ===The effect of earning 20% annual interest on an investment at various compounding frequencies.", "The limiting curve on top is the graph , where is in dollars, in years, and 0.2 = 20%.Jacob Bernoulli discovered this constant in 1683, while studying a question about compound interest:If the interest is credited twice in the year, the interest rate for each 6 months will be 50%, so the initial $1 is multiplied by 1.5 twice, yielding at the end of the year.", "Compounding quarterly yields , and compounding monthly yields .", "If there are compounding intervals, the interest for each interval will be and the value at the end of the year will be $1.00 × .Bernoulli noticed that this sequence approaches a limit (the force of interest) with larger and, thus, smaller compounding intervals.", "Compounding weekly () yields $2.692596..., while compounding daily () yields $2.714567... (approximately two cents more).", "The limit as grows large is the number that came to be known as .", "That is, with ''continuous'' compounding, the account value will reach $2.718281828... More generally, an account that starts at $1 and offers an annual interest rate of will, after years, yield dollars with continuous compounding.", "Here, is the decimal equivalent of the rate of interest expressed as a ''percentage'', so for 5% interest, .=== Bernoulli trials ===Graphs of probability of observing independent events each of probability after Bernoulli trials, and vs ; it can be observed that as increases, the probability of a -chance event never appearing after ''n'' tries rapidly The number itself also has applications in probability theory, in a way that is not obviously related to exponential growth.", "Suppose that a gambler plays a slot machine that pays out with a probability of one in and plays it times.", "As increases, the probability that gambler will lose all bets approaches .", "For , this is already approximately 1/2.789509....This is an example of a Bernoulli trial process.", "Each time the gambler plays the slots, there is a one in chance of winning.", "Playing times is modeled by the binomial distribution, which is closely related to the binomial theorem and Pascal's triangle.", "The probability of winning times out of trials is::In particular, the probability of winning zero times () is:The limit of the above expression, as tends to infinity, is precisely .=== Exponential growth and decay ===Exponential growth is a process that increases quantity over time at an ever-increasing rate.", "It occurs when the instantaneous rate of change (that is, the derivative) of a quantity with respect to time is proportional to the quantity itself.", "Described as a function, a quantity undergoing exponential growth is an exponential function of time, that is, the variable representing time is the exponent (in contrast to other types of growth, such as quadratic growth).", "If the constant of proportionality is negative, then the quantity decreases over time, and is said to be undergoing exponential decay instead.", "The law of exponential growth can be written in different but mathematically equivalent forms, by using a different base, for which the number is a common and convenient choice:Here, denotes the initial value of the quantity , is the growth constant, and is the time it takes the quantity to grow by a factor of .=== Standard normal distribution ===The normal distribution with zero mean and unit standard deviation is known as the ''standard normal distribution'', given by the probability density functionThe constraint of unit standard deviation (and thus also unit variance) results in the in the exponent, and the constraint of unit total area under the curve results in the factor .", "This function is symmetric around , where it attains its maximum value , and has inflection points at .=== Derangements ===Another application of , also discovered in part by Jacob Bernoulli along with Pierre Remond de Montmort, is in the problem of derangements, also known as the ''hat check problem'': guests are invited to a party and, at the door, the guests all check their hats with the butler, who in turn places the hats into boxes, each labelled with the name of one guest.", "But the butler has not asked the identities of the guests, and so puts the hats into boxes selected at random.", "The problem of de Montmort is to find the probability that ''none'' of the hats gets put into the right box.", "This probability, denoted by , is::As tends to infinity, approaches .", "Furthermore, the number of ways the hats can be placed into the boxes so that none of the hats are in the right box is rounded to the nearest integer, for every positive .=== Optimal planning problems ===The maximum value of occurs at .", "Equivalently, for any value of the base , it is the case that the maximum value of occurs at (Steiner's problem, discussed below).This is useful in the problem of a stick of length that is broken into equal parts.", "The value of that maximizes the product of the lengths is then either: or The quantity is also a measure of information gleaned from an event occurring with probability , so that essentially the same optimal division appears in optimal planning problems like the secretary problem.=== Asymptotics ===The number occurs naturally in connection with many problems involving asymptotics.", "An example is Stirling's formula for the asymptotics of the factorial function, in which both the numbers and appear:As a consequence," ], [ "Properties", "=== Calculus ===The graphs of the functions are shown for (dotted), (blue), and (dashed).", "They all pass through the point , but the red line (which has slope ) is tangent to only there.The value of the natural log function for argument , i.e.", ", equals The principal motivation for introducing the number , particularly in calculus, is to perform differential and integral calculus with exponential functions and logarithms.", "A general exponential has a derivative, given by a limit::The parenthesized limit on the right is independent of the Its value turns out to be the logarithm of to base .", "Thus, when the value of is set this limit is equal and so one arrives at the following simple identity::Consequently, the exponential function with base is particularly suited to doing calculus.", "(as opposed to some other number) as the base of the exponential function makes calculations involving the derivatives much simpler.Another motivation comes from considering the derivative of the base- logarithm (i.e., ), for ::where the substitution was made.", "The base- logarithm of is 1, if equals .", "So symbolically,:The logarithm with this special base is called the natural logarithm, and is denoted as ; it behaves well under differentiation since there is no undetermined limit to carry through the calculations.Thus, there are two ways of selecting such special numbers .", "One way is to set the derivative of the exponential function equal to , and solve for .", "The other way is to set the derivative of the base logarithm to and solve for .", "In each case, one arrives at a convenient choice of base for doing calculus.", "It turns out that these two solutions for are actually ''the same'': the number .The five colored regions are of equal area, and define units of hyperbolic angle along the The Taylor series for the exponential function can be deduced from the facts that the exponential function is its own derivative and that it equals 1 when evaluated at 0:Setting recovers the definition of as the sum of an infinite series.The natural logarithm function can be defined as the integral from 1 to of , and the exponential function can then be defined as the inverse function of the natural logarithm.", "The number is the value of the exponential function evaluated at , or equivalently, the number whose natural logarithm is 1.It follows that is the unique positive real number such thatBecause is the unique function (up to multiplication by a constant ) that is equal to its own derivative,it is therefore its own antiderivative as well:Equivalently, the family of functionswhere is any real or complex number, is the full solution to the differential equation=== Inequalities ===Exponential functions and intersect the graph of , respectively, at and .", "The number is the unique base such that intersects only at .", "We may infer that lies between 2 and 4.The number is the unique real number such thatfor all positive .Also, we have the inequalityfor all real , with equality if and only if .", "Furthermore, is the unique base of the exponential for which the inequality holds for all .", "This is a limiting case of Bernoulli's inequality.=== Exponential-like functions ===The global maximum of Steiner's problem asks to find the global maximum for the functionThis maximum occurs precisely at .", "(One can check that the derivative of is zero only for this value of .", ")Similarly, is where the global minimum occurs for the functionThe infinite tetration: or converges if and only if , shown by a theorem of Leonhard Euler.=== Number theory ===The real number is irrational.", "Euler proved this by showing that its simple continued fraction expansion does not terminate.", "(See also Fourier's proof that is irrational.", ")Furthermore, by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem, is transcendental, meaning that it is not a solution of any non-zero polynomial equation with rational coefficients.", "It was the first number to be proved transcendental without having been specifically constructed for this purpose (compare with Liouville number); the proof was given by Charles Hermite in 1873.It is conjectured that is normal, meaning that when is expressed in any base the possible digits in that base are uniformly distributed (occur with equal probability in any sequence of given length).In algebraic geometry, a ''period'' is a number that can be expressed as an integral of an algebraic function over an algebraic domain.", "The constant is a period, but it is conjectured that is not.=== Complex numbers ===The exponential function may be written as a Taylor seriesBecause this series is convergent for every complex value of , it is commonly used to extend the definition of to the complex numbers.", "This, with the Taylor series for and , allows one to derive Euler's formula:which holds for every complex .", "The special case with is Euler's identity:which is considered to be an exemplar of mathematical beauty as it shows a profound connection between the most fundamental numbers in mathematics.", "In addition, it is directly used in a proof that is transcendental, which implies the impossibility of squaring the circle.", "Moreover, the identity implies that, in the principal branch of the logarithm,Furthermore, using the laws for exponentiation,which is de Moivre's formula.The expressions of and in terms of the exponential function can be deduced from the Taylor series:The expressionis sometimes abbreviated as ." ], [ "Representations", "The number can be represented in a variety of ways: as an infinite series, an infinite product, a continued fraction, or a limit of a sequence.", "In addition to the limit and the series given above, there is also the continued fraction:which written out looks like:The following infinite product evaluates to :Many other series, sequence, continued fraction, and infinite product representations of have been proved.=== Stochastic representations ===In addition to exact analytical expressions for representation of , there are stochastic techniques for estimating .", "One such approach begins with an infinite sequence of independent random variables , ..., drawn from the uniform distribution on 0, 1.Let be the least number such that the sum of the first observations exceeds 1::Then the expected value of is : .=== Known digits ===The number of known digits of has increased substantially during the last decades.", "This is due both to the increased performance of computers and to algorithmic improvements.+ Number of known decimal digits of Date Decimal digits Computation performed by 1690 1 Jacob Bernoulli 1714 13 Roger Cotes 1748 23 Leonhard Euler 1853 137 William Shanks 1871 205 William Shanks 1884 346 J. Marcus Boorman 1949 2,010 John von Neumann (on the ENIAC) 1961 100,265 Daniel Shanks and John Wrench 1978 116,000 Steve Wozniak on the Apple IISince around 2010, the proliferation of modern high-speed desktop computers has made it feasible for amateurs to compute trillions of digits of within acceptable amounts of time.", "On Dec 5, 2020, a record-setting calculation was made, giving to 31,415,926,535,897 (approximately ) digits." ], [ "Computing the digits", "One way to compute the digits of is with the seriesA faster method involves two recursive functions and .", "The functions are defined as The expression produces the th partial sum of the series above.", "This method uses binary splitting to compute with fewer single-digit arithmetic operations and thus reduced bit complexity.", "Combining this with fast Fourier transform-based methods of multiplying integers makes computing the digits very fast." ], [ "In computer culture", "During the emergence of internet culture, individuals and organizations sometimes paid homage to the number .In an early example, the computer scientist Donald Knuth let the version numbers of his program Metafont approach .", "The versions are 2, 2.7, 2.71, 2.718, and so forth.In another instance, the IPO filing for Google in 2004, rather than a typical round-number amount of money, the company announced its intention to raise 2,718,281,828 USD, which is billion dollars rounded to the nearest dollar.Google was also responsible for a billboardthat appeared in the heart of Silicon Valley, and later in Cambridge, Massachusetts; Seattle, Washington; and Austin, Texas.", "It read \"{first 10-digit prime found in consecutive digits of }.com\".", "The first 10-digit prime in is 7427466391, which starts at the 99th digit.", "Solving this problem and visiting the advertised (now defunct) website led to an even more difficult problem to solve, which consisted in finding the fifth term in the sequence 7182818284, 8182845904, 8747135266, 7427466391.It turned out that the sequence consisted of 10-digit numbers found in consecutive digits of whose digits summed to 49.The fifth term in the sequence is 5966290435, which starts at the 127th digit.Solving this second problem finally led to a Google Labs webpage where the visitor was invited to submit a résumé." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Maor, Eli; '': The Story of a Number'', * Commentary on Endnote 10 of the book ''Prime Obsession'' for another stochastic representation" ], [ "External links", " The number to 1 million places and NASA.gov 2 and 5 million places* Approximations – Wolfram MathWorld* Earliest Uses of Symbols for Constants Jan. 13, 2008* \"The story of \", by Robin Wilson at Gresham College, 28 February 2007 (available for audio and video download)* Search Engine 2 billion searchable digits of , and" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euler–Maclaurin formula" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, the '''Euler–Maclaurin formula''' is a formula for the difference between an integral and a closely related sum.", "It can be used to approximate integrals by finite sums, or conversely to evaluate finite sums and infinite series using integrals and the machinery of calculus.", "For example, many asymptotic expansions are derived from the formula, and Faulhaber's formula for the sum of powers is an immediate consequence.The formula was discovered independently by Leonhard Euler and Colin Maclaurin around 1735.Euler needed it to compute slowly converging infinite series while Maclaurin used it to calculate integrals.", "It was later generalized to Darboux's formula." ], [ "The formula", "If and are natural numbers and is a real or complex valued continuous function for real numbers in the interval , then the integralcan be approximated by the sum (or vice versa)(see rectangle method).", "The Euler–Maclaurin formula provides expressions for the difference between the sum and the integral in terms of the higher derivatives evaluated at the endpoints of the interval, that is to say and .Explicitly, for a positive integer and a function that is times continuously differentiable on the interval , we havewhere is the th Bernoulli number (with ) and is an error term which depends on , , , and and is usually small for suitable values of .The formula is often written with the subscript taking only even values, since the odd Bernoulli numbers are zero except for .", "In this case we haveor alternatively===The remainder term===The remainder term arises because the integral is usually not exactly equal to the sum.", "The formula may be derived by applying repeated integration by parts to successive intervals for .", "The boundary terms in these integrations lead to the main terms of the formula, and the leftover integrals form the remainder term.The remainder term has an exact expression in terms of the periodized Bernoulli functions .", "The Bernoulli polynomials may be defined recursively by and, for ,The periodized Bernoulli functions are defined aswhere denotes the largest integer less than or equal to , so that always lies in the interval .With this notation, the remainder term equalsWhen , it can be shown thatwhere denotes the Riemann zeta function; one approach to prove this inequality is to obtain the Fourier series for the polynomials .", "The bound is achieved for even when is zero.", "The term may be omitted for odd but the proof in this case is more complex (see Lehmer).", "Using this inequality, the size of the remainder term can be estimated as===Low-order cases===The Bernoulli numbers from to are .", "Therefore the low-order cases of the Euler–Maclaurin formula are:" ], [ "Applications", "===The Basel problem===The Basel problem is to determine the sumEuler computed this sum to 20 decimal places with only a few terms of the Euler–Maclaurin formula in 1735.This probably convinced him that the sum equals , which he proved in the same year.===Sums involving a polynomial===If is a polynomial and is big enough, then the remainder term vanishes.", "For instance, if , we can choose to obtain, after simplification,===Approximation of integrals===The formula provides a means of approximating a finite integral.", "Let be the endpoints of the interval of integration.", "Fix , the number of points to use in the approximation, and denote the corresponding step size by .", "Set , so that and .", "Then:This may be viewed as an extension of the trapezoid rule by the inclusion of correction terms.", "Note that this asymptotic expansion is usually not convergent; there is some , depending upon and , such that the terms past order increase rapidly.", "Thus, the remainder term generally demands close attention.The Euler–Maclaurin formula is also used for detailed error analysis in numerical quadrature.", "It explains the superior performance of the trapezoidal rule on smooth periodic functions and is used in certain extrapolation methods.", "Clenshaw–Curtis quadrature is essentially a change of variables to cast an arbitrary integral in terms of integrals of periodic functions where the Euler–Maclaurin approach is very accurate (in that particular case the Euler–Maclaurin formula takes the form of a discrete cosine transform).", "This technique is known as a periodizing transformation.===Asymptotic expansion of sums===In the context of computing asymptotic expansions of sums and series, usually the most useful form of the Euler–Maclaurin formula iswhere and are integers.", "Often the expansion remains valid even after taking the limits or or both.", "In many cases the integral on the right-hand side can be evaluated in closed form in terms of elementary functions even though the sum on the left-hand side cannot.", "Then all the terms in the asymptotic series can be expressed in terms of elementary functions.", "For example,Here the left-hand side is equal to , namely the first-order polygamma function defined by:the gamma function is equal to when is a positive integer.", "This results in an asymptotic expansion for .", "That expansion, in turn, serves as the starting point for one of the derivations of precise error estimates for Stirling's approximation of the factorial function.====Examples====If is an integer greater than 1 we have:Collecting the constants into a value of the Riemann zeta function, we can write an asymptotic expansion:For equal to 2 this simplifies toorWhen , the corresponding technique gives an asymptotic expansion for the harmonic numbers:where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant." ], [ "Proofs", "=== Derivation by mathematical induction ===We outline the argument given in Apostol.The Bernoulli polynomials and the periodic Bernoulli functions for were introduced above.The first several Bernoulli polynomials areThe values are the Bernoulli numbers .", "Notice that for we haveand for ,The functions agree with the Bernoulli polynomials on the interval and are periodic with period 1.Furthermore, except when , they are also continuous.", "Thus,Let be an integer, and consider the integralwhereIntegrating by parts, we getUsing , , and summing the above from to , we getAdding to both sides and rearranging, we haveThis is the case of the summation formula.", "To continue the induction, we apply integration by parts to the error term:whereThe result of integrating by parts isSumming from to and substituting this for the lower order error term results in the case of the formula,This process can be iterated.", "In this way we get a proof of the Euler–Maclaurin summation formula which can be formalized by mathematical induction, in which the induction step relies on integration by parts and on identities for periodic Bernoulli functions." ], [ "See also", "* Cesàro summation* Euler summation* Gauss–Kronrod quadrature formula* Darboux's formula* Euler–Boole summation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Epimenides paradox" ], [ "Introduction", "Epimenides from \"Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum\"The '''Epimenides paradox''' reveals a problem with self-reference in logic.", "It is named after the Cretan philosopher Epimenides of Knossos (alive circa 600 BC) who is credited with the original statement.", "A typical description of the problem is given in the book ''Gödel, Escher, Bach'', by Douglas Hofstadter:A paradox of self-reference arises when one considers whether it is possible for Epimenides to have spoken the truth." ], [ "Mythology of lying Cretans", "According to Ptolemaeus Chennus, Thetis and Medea had once argued in Thessaly over which was the most beautiful; they appointed the Cretan Idomeneus as the judge, who gave the victory to Thetis.", "In her anger, Medea called all Cretans liars, and cursed them to never say the truth." ], [ "Logical paradox", "Thomas Fowler (1869) states the paradox as follows: \"Epimenides the Cretan says, 'that all the Cretans are liars,' but Epimenides is himself a Cretan; therefore he is himself a liar.", "But if he is a liar, what he says is untrue, and consequently, the Cretans are veracious; but Epimenides is a Cretan, and therefore what he says is true; saying the Cretans are liars, Epimenides is himself a liar, and what he says is untrue.", "Thus we may go on alternately proving that Epimenides and the Cretans are truthful and untruthful.", "\"If we assume the statement is false and that Epimenides is lying about all Cretans being liars, then there must exist at least one Cretan who is honest.", "This does not lead to a contradiction since it is not required that this Cretan be Epimenides.", "This means that Epimenides can say the false statement that all Cretans are liars while knowing at least one honest Cretan and lying about this particular Cretan.", "Hence, from the assumption that the statement is false, it does not follow that the statement is true.", "So we can avoid a paradox as seeing the statement \"all Cretans are liars\" as a false statement, which is made by a lying Cretan, Epimenides.", "The mistake made by Thomas Fowler (and many other people) above is to think that the negation of \"all Cretans are liars\" is \"all Cretans are honest\" (a paradox) when in fact the negation is \"there exists a Cretan who is honest\", or \"not all Cretans are liars\".", "The Epimenides paradox can be slightly modified as to not allow the kind of solution described above, as it was in the first paradox of Eubulides but instead leading to a non-avoidable self-contradiction.", "Paradoxical versions of the Epimenides problem are closely related to a class of more difficult logical problems, including the liar paradox, Socratic paradox and the Burali-Forti paradox, all of which have self-reference in common with Epimenides.", "The Epimenides paradox is usually classified as a variation on the liar paradox, and sometimes the two are not distinguished.", "The study of self-reference led to important developments in logic and mathematics in the twentieth century.In other words, it is not a paradox once one realizes \"All Cretans are liars\" being untrue only means \"Not all Cretans are liars\" instead of the assumption that \"All Cretans are honest\".Perhaps better put, for \"All Cretans are liars\" to be a true statement, it does not mean that all Cretans must lie all the time.", "In fact, Cretans could tell the truth quite often, but still all be liars in the sense that liars are people prone to deception for dishonest gain.", "Considering that \"All Cretans are liars\" has been seen as a paradox only since the 19th century, this seems to resolve the alleged paradox.", "If 'all Cretans are continuous liars' is actually true, then asking a Cretan if they are honest would always elicit the dishonest answer 'yes'.", "So arguably the original proposition is not so much paradoxical as invalid.A contextual reading of the contradiction may also provide an answer to the paradox.", "The original phrase, \"The Cretans, always liars, evil beasts, idle bellies!\"", "asserts not an intrinsic paradox, but rather an opinion of the Cretans from Epimenides.", "A stereotyping of his people not intended to be an absolute statement about the people as a whole.", "Rather it is a claim made about their position regarding their religious beliefs and socio-cultural attitudes.", "Within the context of his poem the phrase is specific to a certain belief, a context that Callimachus repeats in his poem regarding Zeus.", "Further, a more poignant answer to the paradox is simply that to be a ''liar'' is to state falsehoods, nothing in the statement asserts everything said is false, but rather they're \"always\" lying.", "This is not an absolute statement of fact and thus we cannot conclude there's a true contradiction made by Epimenides with this statement." ], [ "Origin of the phrase", "Epimenides was a 6th-century BC philosopher and religious prophet who, against the general sentiment of Crete, proposed that Zeus was immortal, as in the following poem:Denying the immortality of Zeus, then, was the lie of the Cretans.The phrase \"Cretans, always liars\" was quoted by the poet Callimachus in his ''Hymn to Zeus'', with the same theological intent as Epimenides:" ], [ "Emergence as a logical contradiction", "The logical inconsistency of a Cretan asserting all Cretans are always liars may not have occurred to Epimenides, nor to Callimachus, who both used the phrase to emphasize their point, without irony, perhaps meaning that all Cretans lie routinely, but not exclusively.In the 1st century AD, the quote is mentioned by the author of the Epistle to Titus as having been spoken truly by \"one of their own prophets.", "\"Clement of Alexandria, in the late 2nd century AD, fails to indicate that the concept of logical paradox is an issue:During the early 4th century, Saint Augustine restates the closely related liar paradox in ''Against the Academicians'' (III.13.29), but without mentioning Epimenides.In the Middle Ages, many forms of the liar paradox were studied under the heading of insolubilia, but these were not explicitly associated with Epimenides.Finally, in 1740, the second volume of Pierre Bayle's ''Dictionnaire Historique et Critique'' explicitly connects Epimenides with the paradox, though Bayle labels the paradox a \"sophisme\"." ], [ "References by other authors", "All of the works of Epimenides are now lost, and known only through quotations by other authors.", "The quotation from the ''Cretica'' of Epimenides is given by R.N.", "Longenecker, \"Acts of the Apostles\", in volume 9 of ''The Expositor's Bible Commentary'', Frank E. Gaebelein, editor (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Corporation, 1976–1984), page 476.Longenecker in turn cites M.D.", "Gibson, ''Horae Semiticae X'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1913), page 40, \"in Syriac\".", "Longenecker states the following in a footnote:An oblique reference to Epimenides in the context of logic appears in \"The Logical Calculus\" by W. E. Johnson, ''Mind'' (New Series), volume 1, number 2 (April, 1892), pages 235–250.Johnson writes in a footnote,The Epimenides paradox appears explicitly in \"Mathematical Logic as Based on the Theory of Types\", by Bertrand Russell, in the ''American Journal of Mathematics'', volume 30, number 3 (July, 1908), pages 222–262, which opens with the following:In that article, Russell uses the Epimenides paradox as the point of departure for discussions of other problems, including the Burali-Forti paradox and the paradox now called Russell's paradox.", "Since Russell, the Epimenides paradox has been referenced repeatedly in logic.", "Typical of these references is ''Gödel, Escher, Bach'' by Douglas Hofstadter, which accords the paradox a prominent place in a discussion of self-reference.It is also believed that the \"Cretan tales\" told by Odysseus in ''The Odyssey'' by Homer are a reference to this paradox.In ''The Second Sex'' (1949) Simone de Beauvoir writes \"I think certain women are still best suited to elucidate the situation of women.", "It is a sophism to claim that Epimenides should be enclosed within the concept of Cretan and all Cretans within the concept of liar: it is not a mysterious essence that dictates good or bad faith to men and women\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Engine" ], [ "Introduction", "four-stroke gasoline-fueled internal combustion cycle with electrical ignition source: Jet engines use the heat of combustion to generate a high-velocity exhaust as a form of reaction engine.", "Mechanical energy to power the aircraft's electrical and hydraulic systems can be taken from the turbine shaft, but thrust is produced by expelled exhaust gas.An '''engine''' or '''motor''' is a machine designed to convert one or more forms of energy into mechanical energy.", "Available energy sources include potential energy (e.g.", "energy of the Earth's gravitational field as exploited in hydroelectric power generation), heat energy (e.g.", "geothermal), chemical energy, electric potential and nuclear energy (from nuclear fission or nuclear fusion).", "Many of these processes generate heat as an intermediate energy form, so heat engines have special importance.", "Some natural processes, such as atmospheric convection cells convert environmental heat into motion (e.g.", "in the form of rising air currents).", "Mechanical energy is of particular importance in transportation, but also plays a role in many industrial processes such as cutting, grinding, crushing, and mixing.Mechanical heat engines convert heat into work via various thermodynamic processes.", "The internal combustion engine is perhaps the most common example of a mechanical heat engine, in which heat from the combustion of a fuel causes rapid pressurisation of the gaseous combustion products in the combustion chamber, causing them to expand and drive a piston, which turns a crankshaft.", "Unlike internal combustion engines, a reaction engine (such as a jet engine) produces thrust by expelling reaction mass, in accordance with Newton's third law of motion.Apart from heat engines, electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air, and clockwork motors in wind-up toys use elastic energy.", "In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy to create forces and ultimately motion (a chemical engine, but not a heat engine).Chemical heat engines which employ air (ambient atmospheric gas) as a part of the fuel reaction are regarded as airbreathing engines.", "Chemical heat engines designed to operate outside of Earth's atmosphere (e.g.", "rockets, deeply submerged submarines) need to carry an additional fuel component called the oxidizer (although there exist super-oxidizers suitable for use in rockets, such as fluorine, a more powerful oxidant than oxygen itself); or the application needs to obtain heat by non-chemical means, such as by means of nuclear reactions." ], [ "Emission/Byproducts", "All chemically fueled heat engines emit exhaust gases.", "The cleanest engines emit water only.", "Strict zero-emissions generally means zero emissions other than water and water vapour.", "Only heat engines which combust pure hydrogen (fuel) and pure oxygen (oxidizer) achieve zero-emission by a strict definition (in practice, one type of rocket engine).", "If hydrogen is burnt in combination with air (all airbreathing engines), a side reaction occurs between atmospheric oxygen and atmospheric nitrogen resulting in small emissions of , which is adverse even in small quantities.", "If a hydrocarbon (such as alcohol or gasoline) is burnt as fuel, large quantities of are emitted, a potent greenhouse gas.", "Hydrogen and oxygen from air can be reacted into water by a fuel cell without side production of , but this is an electrochemical engine not a heat engine." ], [ "Terminology", "The word ''engine'' derives from Old French , from the Latin –the root of the word .", "Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called ''siege engines'', and knowledge of how to construct them was often treated as a military secret.", "The word ''gin'', as in ''cotton gin'', is short for ''engine''.", "Most mechanical devices invented during the industrial revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example.", "However, the original steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines but pumps.", "In this manner, a fire engine in its original form was merely a water pump, with the engine being transported to the fire by horses.In modern usage, the term ''engine'' typically describes devices, like steam engines and internal combustion engines, that burn or otherwise consume fuel to perform mechanical work by exerting a torque or linear force (usually in the form of thrust).", "Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as ''engines''.", "Examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts.", "Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets.When the internal combustion engine was invented, the term ''motor'' was initially used to distinguish it from the steam engine—which was in wide use at the time, powering locomotives and other vehicles such as steam rollers.", "The term ''motor'' derives from the Latin verb which means 'to set in motion', or 'maintain motion'.", "Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion.", "''Motor'' and ''engine'' are interchangeable in standard English.", "In some engineering jargons, the two words have different meanings, in which ''engine'' is a device that burns or otherwise consumes fuel, changing its chemical composition, and a motor is a device driven by electricity, air, or hydraulic pressure, which does not change the chemical composition of its energy source.", "However, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel.A heat engine may also serve as a ''prime mover''—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy.", "An automobile powered by an internal combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps, but ultimately all such devices derive their power from the engine.", "Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, and then converts it into mechanical energy, while an engine creates power from pressure (derived directly from the explosive force of combustion or other chemical reaction, or secondarily from the action of some such force on other substances such as air, water, or steam)." ], [ "History", "=== Antiquity ===Simple machines, such as the club and oar (examples of the lever), are prehistoric.", "More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and even steam power date back to antiquity.", "Human power was focused by the use of simple engines, such as the capstan, windlass or treadmill, and with ropes, pulleys, and block and tackle arrangements; this power was transmitted usually with the forces multiplied and the speed reduced.", "These were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome.", "The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, so their invention may be more ancient.", "By the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times.According to Strabo, a water-powered mill was built in Kaberia of the kingdom of Mithridates during the 1st century BC.", "Use of water wheels in mills spread throughout the Roman Empire over the next few centuries.", "Some were quite complex, with aqueducts, dams, and sluices to maintain and channel the water, along with systems of gears, or toothed-wheels made of wood and metal to regulate the speed of rotation.", "More sophisticated small devices, such as the Antikythera Mechanism used complex trains of gears and dials to act as calendars or predict astronomical events.", "In a poem by Ausonius in the 4th century AD, he mentions a stone-cutting saw powered by water.", "Hero of Alexandria is credited with many such wind and steam powered machines in the 1st century AD, including the Aeolipile and the vending machine, often these machines were associated with worship, such as animated altars and automated temple doors.=== Medieval ===Medieval Muslim engineers employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and used dams as a source of water power to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.", "In the medieval Islamic world, such advances made it possible to mechanize many industrial tasks previously carried out by manual labour.In 1206, al-Jazari employed a crank-conrod system for two of his water-raising machines.", "A rudimentary steam turbine device was described by Taqi al-Din in 1551 and by Giovanni Branca in 1629.In the 13th century, the solid rocket motor was invented in China.", "Driven by gunpowder, this simplest form of internal combustion engine was unable to deliver sustained power, but was useful for propelling weaponry at high speeds towards enemies in battle and for fireworks.", "After invention, this innovation spread throughout Europe.=== Industrial Revolution ===Boulton & Watt engine of 1788The Watt steam engine was the first type of steam engine to make use of steam at a pressure just above atmospheric to drive the piston helped by a partial vacuum.", "Improving on the design of the 1712 Newcomen steam engine, the Watt steam engine, developed sporadically from 1763 to 1775, was a great step in the development of the steam engine.", "Offering a dramatic increase in fuel efficiency, James Watt's design became synonymous with steam engines, due in no small part to his business partner, Matthew Boulton.", "It enabled rapid development of efficient semi-automated factories on a previously unimaginable scale in places where waterpower was not available.", "Later development led to steam locomotives and great expansion of railway transportation.As for internal combustion piston engines, these were tested in France in 1807 by de Rivaz and independently, by the Niépce brothers.", "They were theoretically advanced by Carnot in 1824.In 1853–57 Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci invented and patented an engine using the free-piston principle that was possibly the first 4-cycle engine.The invention of an internal combustion engine which was later commercially successful was made during 1860 by Etienne Lenoir.In 1877, the Otto cycle was capable of giving a far higher power-to-weight ratio than steam engines and worked much better for many transportation applications such as cars and aircraft.A V6 internal combustion engine from a Mercedes-Benz=== Automobiles ===The first commercially successful automobile, created by Karl Benz, added to the interest in light and powerful engines.", "The lightweight gasoline internal combustion engine, operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has been the most successful for light automobiles, while the more efficient Diesel engine is used for trucks and buses.", "However, in recent years, turbo Diesel engines have become increasingly popular, especially outside of the United States, even for quite small cars.==== Horizontally-opposed pistons ====In 1896, Karl Benz was granted a patent for his design of the first engine with horizontally opposed pistons.", "His design created an engine in which the corresponding pistons move in horizontal cylinders and reach top dead center simultaneously, thus automatically balancing each other with respect to their individual momentum.", "Engines of this design are often referred to as flat engines because of their shape and lower profile.", "They were used in the Volkswagen Beetle, the Citroën 2CV, some Porsche and Subaru cars, many BMW and Honda motorcycles, and propeller aircraft engines.==== Advancement ====Continuance of the use of the internal combustion engine for automobiles is partly due to the improvement of engine control systems (onboard computers providing engine management processes, and electronically controlled fuel injection).", "Forced air induction by turbocharging and supercharging have increased power outputs and engine efficiencies.", "Similar changes have been applied to smaller diesel engines giving them almost the same power characteristics as gasoline engines.", "This is especially evident with the popularity of smaller diesel engine propelled cars in Europe.", "Larger diesel engines are still often used in trucks and heavy machinery, although they require special machining not available in most factories.", "Diesel engines produce lower hydrocarbon and emissions, but greater particulate and pollution, than gasoline engines.", "Diesel engines are also 40% more fuel efficient than comparable gasoline engines.==== Increasing power ====In the first half of the 20th century, a trend of increasing engine power occurred, particularly in the U.S models.", "Design changes incorporated all known methods of increasing engine capacity, including increasing the pressure in the cylinders to improve efficiency, increasing the size of the engine, and increasing the rate at which the engine produces work.", "The higher forces and pressures created by these changes created engine vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more compact engines with V and opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer straight-line arrangements.==== Combustion efficiency ====Optimal combustion efficiency in passenger vehicles is reached with a coolant temperature of around .==== Engine configuration ====Earlier automobile engine development produced a much larger range of engines than is in common use today.", "Engines have ranged from 1- to 16-cylinder designs with corresponding differences in overall size, weight, engine displacement, and cylinder bores.", "Four cylinders and power ratings from 19 to 120 hp (14 to 90 kW) were followed in a majority of the models.", "Several three-cylinder, two-stroke-cycle models were built while most engines had straight or in-line cylinders.", "There were several V-type models and horizontally opposed two- and four-cylinder makes too.", "Overhead camshafts were frequently employed.", "The smaller engines were commonly air-cooled and located at the rear of the vehicle; compression ratios were relatively low.", "The 1970s and 1980s saw an increased interest in improved fuel economy, which caused a return to smaller V-6 and four-cylinder layouts, with as many as five valves per cylinder to improve efficiency.", "The Bugatti Veyron 16.4 operates with a W16 engine, meaning that two V8 cylinder layouts are positioned next to each other to create the W shape sharing the same crankshaft.The largest internal combustion engine ever built is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C, a 14-cylinder, 2-stroke turbocharged diesel engine that was designed to power the ''Emma Mærsk'', the largest container ship in the world when launched in 2006.This engine has a mass of 2,300 tonnes, and when running at 102 rpm (1.7 Hz) produces over 80 MW, and can use up to 250 tonnes of fuel per day." ], [ "Types", "An engine can be put into a category according to two criteria: the form of energy it accepts in order to create motion, and the type of motion it outputs.=== Heat engine ======= Combustion engine ====Combustion engines are heat engines driven by the heat of a combustion process.==== Internal combustion engine ====A three-horsepower internal combustion engine that ran on coal gasThe ''internal combustion engine'' is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (generally, fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber.", "In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and high pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to components of the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades or a nozzle, and by moving it over a distance, generates mechanical work.==== External combustion engine ====An ''external combustion engine'' (EC engine) is a heat engine where an internal working fluid is heated by combustion of an external source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger.", "The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the engine produces motion and usable work.", "The fluid is then cooled, compressed and reused (closed cycle), or (less commonly) dumped, and cool fluid pulled in (open cycle air engine).", "\"Combustion\" refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply the heat.", "Engines of similar (or even identical) configuration and operation may use a supply of heat from other sources such as nuclear, solar, geothermal or exothermic reactions not involving combustion; but are not then strictly classed as external combustion engines, but as external thermal engines.The working fluid can be a gas as in a Stirling engine, or steam as in a steam engine or an organic liquid such as n-pentane in an Organic Rankine cycle.", "The fluid can be of any composition; gas is by far the most common, although even single-phase liquid is sometimes used.", "In the case of the steam engine, the fluid changes phases between liquid and gas.==== Air-breathing combustion engines ====''Air-breathing combustion engines'' are combustion engines that use the oxygen in atmospheric air to oxidise ('burn') the fuel, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in a rocket.", "Theoretically, this should result in a better specific impulse than for rocket engines.A continuous stream of air flows through the air-breathing engine.", "This air is compressed, mixed with fuel, ignited and expelled as the exhaust gas.", "In reaction engines, the majority of the combustion energy (heat) exits the engine as exhaust gas, which provides thrust directly.", ";ExamplesTypical air-breathing engines include:* Reciprocating engine* Steam engine* Gas turbine* Airbreathing jet engine* Turbo-propeller engine* Pulse detonation engine* Pulse jet* Ramjet* Scramjet* Liquid air cycle engine/Reaction Engines SABRE.==== Environmental effects ====The operation of engines typically has a negative impact upon air quality and ambient sound levels.", "There has been a growing emphasis on the pollution producing features of automotive power systems.", "This has created new interest in alternate power sources and internal-combustion engine refinements.", "Though a few limited-production battery-powered electric vehicles have appeared, they have not proved competitive owing to costs and operating characteristics.", "In the 21st century the diesel engine has been increasing in popularity with automobile owners.", "However, the gasoline engine and the Diesel engine, with their new emission-control devices to improve emission performance, have not yet been significantly challenged.", "A number of manufacturers have introduced hybrid engines, mainly involving a small gasoline engine coupled with an electric motor and with a large battery bank, these are starting to become a popular option because of their environment awareness.==== Air quality ====Exhaust gas from a spark ignition engine consists of the following: nitrogen 70 to 75% (by volume), water vapor 10 to 12%, carbon dioxide 10 to 13.5%, hydrogen 0.5 to 2%, oxygen 0.2 to 2%, carbon monoxide: 0.1 to 6%, unburnt hydrocarbons and partial oxidation products (e.g.", "aldehydes) 0.5 to 1%, nitrogen monoxide 0.01 to 0.4%, nitrous oxide <100 ppm, sulfur dioxide 15 to 60 ppm, traces of other compounds such as fuel additives and lubricants, also halogen and metallic compounds, and other particles.", "Carbon monoxide is highly toxic, and can cause carbon monoxide poisoning, so it is important to avoid any build-up of the gas in a confined space.", "Catalytic converters can reduce toxic emissions, but not eliminate them.", "Also, resulting greenhouse gas emissions, chiefly carbon dioxide, from the widespread use of engines in the modern industrialized world is contributing to the global greenhouse effect – a primary concern regarding global warming.==== Non-combusting heat engines ====Some engines convert heat from noncombustive processes into mechanical work, for example a nuclear power plant uses the heat from the nuclear reaction to produce steam and drive a steam engine, or a gas turbine in a rocket engine may be driven by decomposing hydrogen peroxide.", "Apart from the different energy source, the engine is often engineered much the same as an internal or external combustion engine.Another group of noncombustive engines includes thermoacoustic heat engines (sometimes called \"TA engines\") which are thermoacoustic devices that use high-amplitude sound waves to pump heat from one place to another, or conversely use a heat difference to induce high-amplitude sound waves.", "In general, thermoacoustic engines can be divided into standing wave and travelling wave devices.Stirling engines can be another form of non-combustive heat engine.", "They use the Stirling thermodynamic cycle to convert heat into work.", "An example is the alpha type Stirling engine, whereby gas flows, via a recuperator, between a hot cylinder and a cold cylinder, which are attached to reciprocating pistons 90° out of phase.", "The gas receives heat at the hot cylinder and expands, driving the piston that turns the crankshaft.", "After expanding and flowing through the recuperator, the gas rejects heat at the cold cylinder and the ensuing pressure drop leads to its compression by the other (displacement) piston, which forces it back to the hot cylinder.=== Non-thermal chemically powered motor ===Non-thermal motors usually are powered by a chemical reaction, but are not heat engines.", "Examples include:* Molecular motor – motors found in living things* Synthetic molecular motor.=== Electric motor ===An ''electric motor'' uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, usually through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors.", "The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo.", "Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks.", "Electric motors can be run as generators and vice versa, although this is not always practical.Electric motors are ubiquitous, being found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives.", "They may be powered by direct current (for example a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid.", "The smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches.", "Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses.", "The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of large ships, and for such purposes as pipeline compressors, with ratings in the thousands of kilowatts.", "Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal construction, and by their application.Electric motorThe physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821.Electric motors of increasing efficiency were constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical distribution networks.To reduce the electric energy consumption from motors and their associated carbon footprints, various regulatory authorities in many countries have introduced and implemented legislation to encourage the manufacture and use of higher efficiency electric motors.", "A well-designed motor can convert over 90% of its input energy into useful power for decades.", "When the efficiency of a motor is raised by even a few percentage points, the savings, in kilowatt hours (and therefore in cost), are enormous.", "The electrical energy efficiency of a typical industrial induction motor can be improved by: 1) reducing the electrical losses in the stator windings (e.g., by increasing the cross-sectional area of the conductor, improving the winding technique, and using materials with higher electrical conductivities, such as copper), 2) reducing the electrical losses in the rotor coil or casting (e.g., by using materials with higher electrical conductivities, such as copper), 3) reducing magnetic losses by using better quality magnetic steel, 4) improving the aerodynamics of motors to reduce mechanical windage losses, 5) improving bearings to reduce friction losses, and 6) minimizing manufacturing tolerances.", "''For further discussion on this subject, see Premium efficiency).", "''By convention, ''electric engine'' refers to a railroad electric locomotive, rather than an electric motor.=== Physically powered motor ===Some motors are powered by potential or kinetic energy, for example some funiculars, gravity plane and ropeway conveyors have used the energy from moving water or rocks, and some clocks have a weight that falls under gravity.", "Other forms of potential energy include compressed gases (such as pneumatic motors), springs (clockwork motors) and elastic bands.Historic military siege engines included large catapults, trebuchets, and (to some extent) battering rams were powered by potential energy.==== Pneumatic motor ====A ''pneumatic motor'' is a machine that converts potential energy in the form of compressed air into mechanical work.", "Pneumatic motors generally convert the compressed air to mechanical work through either linear or rotary motion.", "Linear motion can come from either a diaphragm or piston actuator, while rotary motion is supplied by either a vane type air motor or piston air motor.", "Pneumatic motors have found widespread success in the hand-held tool industry and continual attempts are being made to expand their use to the transportation industry.", "However, pneumatic motors must overcome efficiency deficiencies before being seen as a viable option in the transportation industry.==== Hydraulic motor ====A ''hydraulic motor'' derives its power from a pressurized liquid.", "This type of engine is used to move heavy loads and drive machinery.====Hybrid====Some motor units can have multiple sources of energy.", "For example, a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle's electric motor could source electricity from either a battery or from fossil fuels inputs via an internal combustion engine and a generator." ], [ "Performance", "The following are used in the assessment of the performance of an engine.=== Speed ===Speed refers to crankshaft rotation in piston engines and the speed of compressor/turbine rotors and electric motor rotors.", "It is measured in revolutions per minute (rpm).=== Thrust ===Thrust is the force exerted on an airplane as a consequence of its propeller or jet engine accelerating the air passing through it.", "It is also the force exerted on a ship as a consequence of its propeller accelerating the water passing through it.=== Torque ===Torque is a turning moment on a shaft and is calculated by multiplying the force causing the moment by its distance from the shaft.=== Power ===Power is the measure of how fast work is done.=== Efficiency ===Efficiency is a proportion of useful energy output compared to total input.=== Sound levels ===Vehicle noise is predominantly from the engine at low vehicle speeds and from tires and the air flowing past the vehicle at higher speeds.", "Electric motors are quieter than internal combustion engines.", "Thrust-producing engines, such as turbofans, turbojets and rockets emit the greatest amount of noise due to the way their thrust-producing, high-velocity exhaust streams interact with the surrounding stationary air.Noise reduction technology includes intake and exhaust system mufflers (silencers) on gasoline and diesel engines and noise attenuation liners in turbofan inlets." ], [ "Engines by use", "Particularly notable kinds of engines include:* Aircraft engine* Automobile engine* Model engine* Motorcycle engine* Marine propulsion engines such as Outboard motor* Non-road engine is the term used to define engines that are not used by vehicles on roadways.", "* Railway locomotive engine* Spacecraft propulsion engines such as Rocket engine* Traction engine" ], [ "See also", "* Aircraft engine* Automobile engine replacement* Electric motor* Engine cooling* Engine swap* Gasoline engine* HCCI engine* Hesselman engine* Hot bulb engine* IRIS engine* Micromotor Flagella – biological motor used by some microorganisms Nanomotor Molecular motor Synthetic molecular motor** Adiabatic quantum motor* Multifuel* Reaction engine* Solid-state engine* Timeline of heat engine technology* Timeline of motor and engine technology" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* J.G.", "Landels, ''Engineering in the Ancient World''," ], [ "External links", "* * Detailed Engine Animations* Working 4-Stroke Engine – Animation* Animated illustrations of various engines* 5 Ways to Redesign the Internal Combustion Engine* Article on Small SI Engines.", "* Article on Compact Diesel Engines.", "* Types Of Engines" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economic and monetary union" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''economic and monetary union''' ('''EMU''') is a type of trade bloc that features a combination of a common market, customs union, and monetary union.", "Established via a trade pact, an EMU constitutes the sixth of seven stages in the process of economic integration.", "An EMU agreement usually combines a customs union with a common market.", "A typical EMU establishes free trade and a common external tariff throughout its jurisdiction.", "It is also designed to protect freedom in the movement of goods, services, and people.", "This arrangement is distinct from a monetary union (e.g., the Latin Monetary Union), which does not usually involve a common market.", "As with the economic and monetary union established among the 27 member states of the European Union (EU), an EMU may affect different parts of its jurisdiction in different ways.", "Some areas are subject to separate customs regulations from other areas subject to the EMU.", "These various arrangements may be established in a formal agreement, or they may exist on a ''de facto'' basis.", "For example, not all EU member states use the Euro established by its currency union, and not all EU member states are part of the Schengen Area.", "Some EU members participate in both unions, and some in neither.Territories of the United States, Australian External Territories and New Zealand territories each share a currency and, for the most part, the market of their respective mainland states.", "However, they are generally not part of the same customs territories." ], [ "History", "Several countries initially attempted to form an EMU at the Hague Summit in 1969.Afterward, a \"draft plan\" was announced.", "During this time, the main member presiding over this decision was Pierre Werner, Prime Minister of Luxembourg.", "The decision to form the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union (EMU) was accepted in which later became part of the Maastricht Treaty (the Treaty on European Union)." ], [ "Processes in the European EMU", "The EMU involves four main activities.The first responsibility is to be in charge of implementing effective monetary policy for the euro area with price stability.", "There is a group of economists whose only role is studying how to improve the monetary policy while maintaining price stability.", "They conduct research, and their results are presented to the leaders of the EMU.", "Thereafter, the role of the leaders is to find a suitable way to implement the economists' work into their country's policies.", "Maintaining price stability is a long-term goal for all states in the EU, due to the effects it might have on the Euro as a currency.Secondly, the EMU must coordinate economic and fiscal policies in EU countries.", "They must find an equilibrium between the implementation of monetary and fiscal policies.", "They will advise countries to have greater coordination, even if that means having countries tightly coupled with looser monetary and tighter fiscal policy.", "Not coordinating the monetary market could result in risking an unpredictable situation.", "The EMU also deliberates on a mixed policy option, which has been shown to be beneficial in some empirical studies.Thirdly, the EMU ensures that the single market runs smoothly.", "The member countries respect the decisions made by the EMU and ensure that their actions will be in favor of a stable market.Finally, regulations of the EMU aid in supervising and monitoring financial institutions.", "There is an imperative need for all members of the EMU to act in unison.", "Therefore, the EMU has to have institutions supervising all the member states to protect the main aim of the EMU.===Roles of national governments===The economic roles of nations within the EMU are to:* control fiscal policy that concerns government budgets* control tax policies that determine how income is raised* control structural policies that determine pension systems, labor, and capital-market regulations" ], [ "List of economic and monetary unions", "* Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union (EMU) (1999/2002) with the Euro for the Eurozone members* ''de facto'' the sovereign states in the OECS Eastern Caribbean Currency Union with the East Caribbean dollar in the CSME (2006)* ''de facto'' Switzerland–Liechtenstein===Proposed=== Community Currency Region Target date NotesEconomic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC)Central African CFA francAfrica Not yet functioning common marketWest African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA)West African CFA francAfrica Not yet functioning common market Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Khaleeji Middle East Possibly gold backed, but postponed due to the financial crisis of 2007–2008.East African Community (EAC) East African shilling Africa 2015 To be used by the future East African Federation Caribbean Single Market and Economy (as part of the CARICOM) Latin America/Caribbean 2015 To supplement the OECS Eastern Caribbean Currency Union Southern African Customs Union (SACU) South African Rand Africa 2015 ''de facto'' for the CMA member when the SADC economic union is established Southern African Development Community (SADC) South African Rand(interim proposal) Africa 2016 To supplement or succeed the CMA and Southern Africa Customs Union South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation South Asia 2016 Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) Latino Latin America/Caribbean 2019 Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) Africa To supplement the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Africa 2020 To succeed UEMOA and WAMZ African Economic Community Africa 2028 See African Monetary Union Union State of Russia and Belarus Russian ruble Europe Arab League Arab Dinar Arab states Arab Dinar has been proposed ever since the creation of the Arab Monetary Fund, expected for serious plans of doing so, after the creation of the proposed Arab Union.", "Eurasian Economic Union Altyn Eurasia 2025 Kazakhstani President Nursultan Nazarbayev had first proposed, in 2009, the creation of a common noncash currency called \"yevraz\" for the Eurasian Economic Community.", "It would have reportedly helped insulate the countries from the global economic crisis.", "In 2012, the idea of the new joint currency found support from Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev and by 2014 proposals were drafted in Eurasian Commission documents for the establishment of a Eurasian Central Bank and a common currency to be called the altyn which is to be introduced by 2025.===Previous EMUs===* Monetary union of the Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union (1922–2002), superseded by the European EMU." ], [ "See also", "* North American Union and North American Currency Union (Amero)* Pacific Union (one proposal for Australian dollar)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Acocella, N. and Di Bartolomeo, G. and Tirelli, P. 2007, ‘''Fiscal leadership and coordination in the EMU''’, in: ‘''Open Economies Review''’, 18(3): 281–9.", "" ], [ "External links", " African monetary union inches closer* United States of Southern Africa?", "* East Africa's first steps towards union* West Africa opts for currency union* Gulf States push for single currency* 'Limited gains' from Gulf single currency* Do the Mercosur Countries Form an Optimum Currency Area?", "* Argentina plans monetary union* Economist – Antipodean currencies (Australia and New Zealand)* Three Perspectives on an Australasian Monetary Union* Reasons for the collapse of the Rouble Zone* In Search of the \"Ruble Zone\"* OECD Development Centre – the Rand Zone* A single African currency in our time?", "* South Africa proposes adoption of the rand as provisional SADC common currency" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European Environment Agency" ], [ "Introduction", "European Environment Agency Building in Copenhagen in winterThe '''European Environment Agency''' ('''EEA''') is the agency of the European Union (EU) which provides independent information on the environment." ], [ "Definition", "The European Environment Agency (EEA) is the agency of the European Union (EU) which provides independent information on the environment.", "Its goal is to help those involved in developing, implementing and evaluating environmental policy, and to inform the general public." ], [ "Organization", "The EEA was established by the European Economic Community (EEC) Regulation 1210/1990 (amended by EEC Regulation 933/1999 and EC Regulation 401/2009) and became operational in 1994, headquartered in Copenhagen, Denmark.The agency is governed by a management board composed of representatives of the governments of its 32 member states, a European Commission representative and two scientists appointed by the European Parliament, assisted by its Scientific Committee.", "The current Executive Director of the agency is Leena Ylä-Mononen, who has been appointed for a five-year term, starting on 1 June 2023.Ms Ylä-Mononen is the successor of professor Hans Bruyninckx." ], [ "Member countries", "The member states of the European Union are members; however other states may become members of it by means of agreements concluded between them and the EU.It was the first EU body to open its membership to the 13 candidate countries (pre-2004 enlargement).The EEA has 32 member countries and six cooperating countries.", "The members are the 27 European Union member states together with Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland and Turkey.Since Brexit in 2020, the UK is not a member of the EU anymore and therefore not a member state of the EEA.The six Western Balkan countries are cooperating countries: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia as well as Kosovo under the UN Security Council Resolution 1244/99.These cooperation activities are integrated into Eionet and are supported by the EU under the \"Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance\".The EEA is an active member of the EPA Network.", "EU Member countries non-EU Member countries Cooperating countries" ], [ "Reports, data and knowledge", "The European Environment Agency (EEA) produces assessments based on quality-assured data on a wide range of issues from biodiversity, air quality, transport to climate change.", "These assessments are closely linked to the European Union's environment policies and legislation and help monitor progress in some areas and indicate areas where additional efforts are needed.", "As required in its founding regulation, the EEA publishes its flagship report the State and Outlook of Europe's environment (SOER), which is an integrated assessment, analysing trends, progress to targets as well as outlook for the mid- to long-term.", "The agency publishes annually a report on Europe's most polluted provinces for air quality, detailing fine particulate matter PM 2.5.The EEA shares this information, including the datasets used in its assessments, through its main website and a number of thematic information platforms such as Biodiversity Information System for Europe (BISE), Water Information System for Europe (WISE) and ClimateADAPT.", "The Climate-ADAPT knowledge platform presents information and data on expected climatic changes, the vulnerability of regions and sectors, adaptation case studies, and adaptation options, adaptation planning tools, and EU policy.===European Nature Information System===The '''European Nature Information System (EUNIS)''' provides access to the publicly available data in the EUNIS database for species, habitat types and protected sites across Europe.", "It is part of the European Biodiversity data centre (BDC), and is maintained by the EEA.The database contains data* on species, habitat types and designated sites from the framework of Natura 2000,* from material compiled by the European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity* mentioned in relevant international conventions and in the IUCN Red Lists,* collected in the framework of the EEA's reporting activities." ], [ "European environment information and observation network", "The European Environment Information and Observation Network (Eionet) is a collaboration network between EEA member countries and non-member, cooperating nations.", "Cooperation is facilitated through different national environmental agencies, ministries, or offices.", "Eionet encourages the sharing of data and highlights specific topics for discussion and cooperation among participating countries.Eionet currently includes covers seven European Topic Centres (ETCs):* ETC on Biodiversity and Ecosystems (ETC BE)* ETC on Climate Change Adaptation and LULUCF (ETC CA)* ETC on Climate Change Mitigation (ETC CM)* ETC on Data Integration and Digitalisation (ETC DI)* ETC on Human Health and the Environment (ETC HE)* ETC on Circular Economy and Resource Use (ETC CE)* ETC on Sustainability Transitions (ETC ST)The European Environment Agency (EEA) implements the \"Shared Environmental Information System\" principles and best practices via projects such as the \"ENI SEIS II EAST PROJECT\" & the \"ENI SEIS II SOUTH PROJECT\" to support environmental protection within the six eastern partnership countries (ENP) & to contribute to the reduction in marine pollution in the Mediterranean through the shared availability and access to relevant environmental information." ], [ "Budget management and discharge", "As for every EU body and institution, the EEA's budget is subject to a discharge process, consisting of external examination of its budget execution and financial management, to ensure sound financial management of its budget.", "Since its establishment, the EEA has been granted discharge for its budget without exception.", "The EEA provides full access to its administrative and budgetary documents in its public documents register.", "The discharge process for the 2010 budget required additional clarifications.", "In February 2012, the European Parliament's Committee on Budgetary Control published a draft report, identifying areas of concern in the use of funds and its influence for the 2010 budget such as a 26% budget increase from 2009 to 2010 to €50 600 000.and questioned that maximum competition and value-for-money principles were honored in hiring, also possible fictitious employees.The EEA's Executive Director refuted allegations of irregularities in a public hearing.", "On 27 March 2012 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) voted on the report and commended the cooperation between the Agency and NGOs working in the environmental area.", "On 23 October 2012, the European Parliament voted and granted the discharge to the European Environment Agency for its 2010 budget." ], [ "Executive directors", " Name Nationality Term(s)Domingo Jiménez-Beltrán Spain 1994–2003Jacqueline McGlade United Kingdom 2003–2013Hans Bruyninckx Belgium 2013–2023Leena Ylä-Mononen Finland 2023–" ], [ "International cooperation", "In addition to its 32 members and six Balkan cooperating countries, the EEA also cooperates and fosters partnerships with its neighbours and other countries and regions, mostly in the context of the European Neighbourhood Policy:* Eastern Partnership member states: Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia* Union for the Mediterranean member states: Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestinian Authority, Syria, Tunisia* Other ENPI states: Russia* Central Asian states: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, UzbekistanAdditionally the EEA cooperates with multiple international organizations and the corresponding agencies of the following countries:* United States (Environmental Protection Agency)* Canada (Environment Canada)" ], [ "Official languages", "The 26 official languages used by the EEA are: Bulgarian, Czech, Croatian, Danish, German, Greek, English, Spanish, Estonian, Finnish, French, Hungarian, Icelandic, Italian, Lithuanian, Latvian, Malti, Dutch, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Swedish and Turkish." ], [ "See also", "Agencies of the European UnionCitizen Science, cleanup projects that people can take part in.", "EU environmental policyList of atmospheric dispersion modelsList of environmental organizationsConfederation of European Environmental Engineering SocietiesCoordination of Information on the EnvironmentEuropean Agency for Safety and Health at WorkEnvironment Agency" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* European Topic Centre on Land Use and Spatial Information (ETC LUSI)* European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change(ETC/ACC)* European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity(ETC/BD) * Model Documentation System (MDS)* The European Environment Agency's near real-time ozone map (ozoneweb)* The European Climate Adaptation Platform Climate-ADAPT* EUNIS homepage" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "EV" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ev''' or '''EV''' may refer to:" ], [ "Businesses", "* Electro-Voice, a United States manufacturer of amplifiers, microphones, other audio equipment and speakers* Expressjet Airlines (IATA designator)* Atlantic Southeast Airlines (IATA designator)* EV Direct, exclusive distributor of BYD in Australia" ], [ "In economics", "* Embedded value, the present value of future profits for a life insurance company* Enterprise value, an economic measure reflecting the market value of a whole business* Equivalent variation, a measure of how much more money a consumer would pay before a price increase to avert the price increase" ], [ "People", "* Ev (given name)" ], [ "Science, technology, and mathematics", "* Electric vehicle, a vehicle using an electric motor instead of an internal combustion engineElectric car, a type of electric vehicleElectronvolt (eV), in physics, a unit of energy* Estradiol valerate, an estrogen medication* Evolution-Data Optimized, a telecommunications standard for the wireless transmission of data through radio signals* Expected value, the mean of a random variable's probability distribution* Exposure value, a combination of shutter speed and aperture in photography* Extended Validation Certificate, a type of X.509 Certificate used in securing computer communications* Extracellular vesicle, a membrane-bound vesicle* Stereo-4, also known as EV (Electro-Voice), a quadraphonic sound system developed in 1970* Exploration vessel (E/V), a type of marine vessel" ], [ "Other uses", "* Land of Ev, a fictional country in the Oz books of L. Frank Baum and his successors* , Estonian for Republic of Estonia* ('registered association'; ), a legal status for a registered voluntary association in Germany and Austria* Enterprise Village, an educational program co-managed by the Stavros Institute in Pinellas County, Florida* , pseudo-Latin for the Common Era* EuroVelo, a network of long-distance cycling routes in Europe" ], [ "See also", "* * * EV1 (disambiguation)* EVS (disambiguation)* VE (disambiguation)* V (disambiguation)* E (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Erlang (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Erlang''' ( ) is a general-purpose, concurrent, functional high-level programming language, and a garbage-collected runtime system.", "The term Erlang is used interchangeably with Erlang/OTP, or Open Telecom Platform (OTP), which consists of the Erlang runtime system, several ready-to-use components (OTP) mainly written in Erlang, and a set of design principles for Erlang programs.The Erlang runtime system is designed for systems with these traits:DistributedFault-tolerantSoft real-timeHighly available, non-stop applicationsHot swapping, where code can be changed without stopping a system.The Erlang programming language has immutable data, pattern matching, and functional programming.", "The sequential subset of the Erlang language supports eager evaluation, single assignment, and dynamic typing.A normal Erlang application is built out of hundreds of small Erlang processes.It was originally proprietary software within Ericsson, developed by Joe Armstrong, Robert Virding, and Mike Williams in 1986, but was released as free and open-source software in 1998.Erlang/OTP is supported and maintained by the Open Telecom Platform (OTP) product unit at Ericsson." ], [ "History", "The name ''Erlang'', attributed to Bjarne Däcker, has been presumed by those working on the telephony switches (for whom the language was designed) to be a reference to Danish mathematician and engineer Agner Krarup Erlang and a syllabic abbreviation of \"Ericsson Language\".", "Erlang was designed with the aim of improving the development of telephony applications.", "The initial version of Erlang was implemented in Prolog and was influenced by the programming language PLEX used in earlier Ericsson exchanges.", "By 1988 Erlang had proven that it was suitable for prototyping telephone exchanges, but the Prolog interpreter was far too slow.", "One group within Ericsson estimated that it would need to be 40 times faster to be suitable for production use.", "In 1992, work began on the BEAM virtual machine (VM) which compiles Erlang to C using a mix of natively compiled code and threaded code to strike a balance between performance and disk space.", "According to co-inventor Joe Armstrong, the language went from lab product to real applications following the collapse of the next-generation AXE telephone exchange named ''AXE-N'' in 1995.As a result, Erlang was chosen for the next Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) exchange ''AXD''.Robert Virding and Joe Armstrong, 2013Mike WilliamsIn February 1998, Ericsson Radio Systems banned the in-house use of Erlang for new products, citing a preference for non-proprietary languages.", "The ban caused Armstrong and others to make plans to leave Ericsson.", "In March 1998 Ericsson announced the AXD301 switch, containing over a million lines of Erlang and reported to achieve a high availability of nine \"9\"s. In December 1998, the implementation of Erlang was open-sourced and most of the Erlang team resigned to form a new company Bluetail AB.", "Ericsson eventually relaxed the ban and re-hired Armstrong in 2004.In 2006, native symmetric multiprocessing support was added to the runtime system and VM.===Processes===Erlang applications are built of very lightweight Erlang processes in the Erlang runtime system.", "Erlang processes can be seen as \"living\" objects (object-oriented programming), with data encapsulation and message passing, but capable of changing behavior during runtime.", "The Erlang runtime system provides strict process isolation between Erlang processes (this includes data and garbage collection, separated individually by each Erlang process) and transparent communication between processes (see Location transparency) on different Erlang nodes (on different hosts).Joe Armstrong, co-inventor of Erlang, summarized the principles of processes in his PhD thesis:Everything is a process.", "Processes are strongly isolated.", "Process creation and destruction is a lightweight operation.", "Message passing is the only way for processes to interact.", "Processes have unique names.", "If you know the name of a process you can send it a message.", "Processes share no resources.", "Error handling is non-local.", "Processes do what they are supposed to do or fail.Joe Armstrong remarked in an interview with Rackspace in 2013: \"If Java is 'write once, run anywhere', then Erlang is 'write once, run forever'.", "\"===Usage===In 2014, Ericsson reported Erlang was being used in its support nodes, and in GPRS, 3G and LTE mobile networks worldwide and also by Nortel and T-Mobile.Erlang is used in RabbitMQ.", "As Tim Bray, director of Web Technologies at Sun Microsystems, expressed in his keynote at O'Reilly Open Source Convention (OSCON) in July 2008:Erlang is the programming language used to code WhatsApp.It is also the language of choice for Ejabberd – an XMPP messaging server.Elixir is a programming language that compiles into BEAM byte code (via Erlang Abstract Format).Since being released as open source, Erlang has been spreading beyond telecoms, establishing itself in other vertical markets such as FinTech, gaming, healthcare, automotive, internet of things and blockchain.", "Apart from WhatsApp, there are other companies listed as Erlang's success stories: Vocalink (a MasterCard company), Goldman Sachs, Nintendo, AdRoll, Grindr, BT Mobile, Samsung, OpenX, and SITA." ], [ "Functional programming examples", "===Factorial===A factorial algorithm implemented in Erlang:-module(fact).", "% This is the file 'fact.erl', the module and the filename must match-export(fac/1).", "% This exports the function 'fac' of arity 1 (1 parameter, no type, no name)fac(0) -> 1; % If 0, then return 1, otherwise (note the semicolon ; meaning 'else')fac(N) when N > 0, is_integer(N) -> N * fac(N-1).% Recursively determine, then return the result% (note the period .", "meaning 'endif' or 'function end')%% This function will crash if anything other than a nonnegative integer is given.%% It illustrates the \"Let it crash\" philosophy of Erlang.===Fibonacci sequence===A tail recursive algorithm that produces the Fibonacci sequence:%% The module declaration must match the file name \"series.erl\" -module(series).%% The export statement contains a list of all those functions that form%% the module's public API.", "In this case, this module exposes a single%% function called fib that takes 1 argument (I.E.", "has an arity of 1)%% The general syntax for -export is a list containing the name and%% arity of each public function-export(fib/1).%% ---------------------------------------------------------------------%% Public API%% ---------------------------------------------------------------------%% Handle cases in which fib/1 receives specific values%% The order in which these function signatures are declared is a vital%% part of this module's functionality%% If fib/1 is passed precisely the integer 0, then return 0fib(0) -> 0;%% If fib/1 receives a negative number, then return the atom err_neg_val%% Normally, such defensive coding is discouraged due to Erlang's 'Let%% it Crash' philosophy; however, in this case we should explicitly%% prevent a situation that will crash Erlang's runtime enginefib(N) when N err_neg_val;%% If fib/1 is passed an integer less than 3, then return 1%% The preceding two function signatures handle all cases where N 1;%% For all other values, call the private function fib_int/3 to perform%% the calculationfib(N) -> fib_int(N, 0, 1).%% ---------------------------------------------------------------------%% Private API%% ---------------------------------------------------------------------%% If fib_int/3 receives a 1 as its first argument, then we're done, so%% return the value in argument B.", "Since we are not interested in the%% value of the second argument, we denote this using _ to indicate a%% \"don't care\" valuefib_int(1, _, B) -> B;%% For all other argument combinations, recursively call fib_int/3%% where each call does the following:%% - decrement counter N%% - Take the previous fibonacci value in argument B and pass it as%% argument A%% - Calculate the value of the current fibonacci number and pass it%% as argument Bfib_int(N, A, B) -> fib_int(N-1, B, A+B).Here is the same program without the explanatory comments:-module(series).-export(fib/1).fib(0) -> 0;fib(N) when N err_neg_val;fib(N) when N 1;fib(N) -> fib_int(N, 0, 1).fib_int(1, _, B) -> B;fib_int(N, A, B) -> fib_int(N-1, B, A+B).===Quicksort===Quicksort in Erlang, using list comprehension:%% qsort:qsort(List)%% Sort a list of items-module(qsort).", "% This is the file 'qsort.erl'-export(qsort/1).", "% A function 'qsort' with 1 parameter is exported (no type, no name)qsort() -> ; % If the list is empty, return an empty list (nothing to sort)qsort(Rest) -> % Compose recursively a list with 'Front' for all elements that should be before 'Pivot' % then 'Pivot' then 'Back' for all elements that should be after 'Pivot' qsort( Front = Pivot).The above example recursively invokes the function qsort until nothing remains to be sorted.", "The expression Front Front is a list comprehension, meaning \"Construct a list of elements Front such that Front is a member of Rest, and Front is less than Pivot.\"", "++ is the list concatenation operator.A comparison function can be used for more complicated structures for the sake of readability.The following code would sort lists according to length:% This is file 'listsort.erl' (the compiler is made this way)-module(listsort).% Export 'by_length' with 1 parameter (don't care about the type and name)-export(by_length/1).by_length(Lists) -> % Use 'qsort/2' and provides an anonymous function as a parameter qsort(Lists, fun(A,B) -> length(A) ; % If list is empty, return an empty list (ignore the second parameter)qsort(Rest, Smaller) -> % Partition list with 'Smaller' elements in front of 'Pivot' and not-'Smaller' elements % after 'Pivot' and sort the sublists.", "qsort(X X A Pivot is taken from the first parameter given to qsort() and the rest of Lists is named Rest.", "Note that the expressionX X is no different in form fromFront Front (in the previous example) except for the use of a comparison function in the last part, saying \"Construct a list of elements X such that X is a member of Rest, and Smaller is true\", with Smaller being defined earlier asfun(A,B) -> length(A) The anonymous function is named Smaller in the parameter list of the second definition of qsort so that it can be referenced by that name within that function.", "It is not named in the first definition of qsort, which deals with the base case of an empty list and thus has no need of this function, let alone a name for it." ], [ "Data types", "Erlang has eight primitive data types:;Integers: Integers are written as sequences of decimal digits, for example, 12, 12375 and -23427 are integers.", "Integer arithmetic is exact and only limited by available memory on the machine.", "(This is called arbitrary-precision arithmetic.", ");Atoms: Atoms are used within a program to denote distinguished values.", "They are written as strings of consecutive alphanumeric characters, the first character being lowercase.", "Atoms can contain any character if they are enclosed within single quotes and an escape convention exists which allows any character to be used within an atom.", "Atoms are never garbage collected and should be used with caution, especially if using dynamic atom generation.", ";Floats: Floating point numbers use the IEEE 754 64-bit representation.", ";References: References are globally unique symbols whose only property is that they can be compared for equality.", "They are created by evaluating the Erlang primitive make_ref().", ";Binaries: A binary is a sequence of bytes.", "Binaries provide a space-efficient way of storing binary data.", "Erlang primitives exist for composing and decomposing binaries and for efficient input/output of binaries.", ";Pids: Pid is short for ''process identifier''a Pid is created by the Erlang primitive spawn(...) Pids are references to Erlang processes.", ";Ports: Ports are used to communicate with the external world.", "Ports are created with the built-in function open_port.", "Messages can be sent to and received from ports, but these messages must obey the so-called \"port protocol.", "\";Funs: Funs are function closures.", "Funs are created by expressions of the form: fun(...) -> ... end.And three compound data types:;Tuples: Tuples are containers for a fixed number of Erlang data types.", "The syntax {D1,D2,...,Dn} denotes a tuple whose arguments are D1, D2, ... Dn.", "The arguments can be primitive data types or compound data types.", "Any element of a tuple can be accessed in constant time.", ";Lists: Lists are containers for a variable number of Erlang data types.", "The syntax Dt denotes a list whose first element is Dh, and whose remaining elements are the list Dt.", "The syntax denotes an empty list.", "The syntax D1,D2,..,Dn is short for D1\|.", "The first element of a list can be accessed in constant time.", "The first element of a list is called the ''head'' of the list.", "The remainder of a list when its head has been removed is called the ''tail'' of the list.", ";Maps: Maps contain a variable number of key-value associations.", "The syntax is#{Key1=>Value1,...,KeyN=>ValueN}.Two forms of syntactic sugar are provided:;Strings: Strings are written as doubly quoted lists of characters.", "This is syntactic sugar for a list of the integer Unicode code points for the characters in the string.", "Thus, for example, the string \"cat\" is shorthand for 99,97,116.;Records: Records provide a convenient way for associating a tag with each of the elements in a tuple.", "This allows one to refer to an element of a tuple by name and not by position.", "A pre-compiler takes the record definition and replaces it with the appropriate tuple reference.Erlang has no method to define classes, although there are external libraries available." ], [ "\"Let it crash\" coding style", "Erlang is designed with a mechanism that makes it easy for external processes to monitor for crashes (or hardware failures), rather than an in-process mechanism like exception handling used in many other programming languages.", "Crashes are reported like other messages, which is the only way processes can communicate with each other, and subprocesses can be spawned cheaply (see below).", "The \"let it crash\" philosophy prefers that a process be completely restarted rather than trying to recover from a serious failure.", "Though it still requires handling of errors, this philosophy results in less code devoted to defensive programming where error-handling code is highly contextual and specific.===Supervisor trees===A typical Erlang application is written in the form of a supervisor tree.", "This architecture is based on a hierarchy of processes in which the top level process is known as a \"supervisor\".", "The supervisor then spawns multiple child processes that act either as workers or more, lower level supervisors.", "Such hierarchies can exist to arbitrary depths and have proven to provide a highly scalable and fault-tolerant environment within which application functionality can be implemented.Within a supervisor tree, all supervisor processes are responsible for managing the lifecycle of their child processes, and this includes handling situations in which those child processes crash.", "Any process can become a supervisor by first spawning a child process, then calling erlang:monitor/2 on that process.", "If the monitored process then crashes, the supervisor will receive a message containing a tuple whose first member is the atom 'DOWN'.", "The supervisor is responsible firstly for listening for such messages and secondly, for taking the appropriate action to correct the error condition." ], [ "Concurrency and distribution orientation", "Erlang's main strength is support for concurrency.", "It has a small but powerful set of primitives to create processes and communicate among them.", "Erlang is conceptually similar to the language occam, though it recasts the ideas of communicating sequential processes (CSP) in a functional framework and uses asynchronous message passing.", "Processes are the primary means to structure an Erlang application.", "They are neither operating system processes nor threads, but lightweight processes that are scheduled by BEAM.", "Like operating system processes (but unlike operating system threads), they share no state with each other.", "The estimated minimal overhead for each is 300 words.", "Thus, many processes can be created without degrading performance.", "In 2005, a benchmark with 20 million processes was successfully performed with 64-bit Erlang on a machine with 16 GB random-access memory (RAM; total 800 bytes/process).", "Erlang has supported symmetric multiprocessing since release R11B of May 2006.While threads need external library support in most languages, Erlang provides language-level features to create and manage processes with the goal of simplifying concurrent programming.", "Though all concurrency is explicit in Erlang, processes communicate using message passing instead of shared variables, which removes the need for explicit locks (a locking scheme is still used internally by the VM).Inter-process communication works via a shared-nothing asynchronous message passing system: every process has a \"mailbox\", a queue of messages that have been sent by other processes and not yet consumed.", "A process uses the receive primitive to retrieve messages that match desired patterns.", "A message-handling routine tests messages in turn against each pattern, until one of them matches.", "When the message is consumed and removed from the mailbox the process resumes execution.", "A message may comprise any Erlang structure, including primitives (integers, floats, characters, atoms), tuples, lists, and functions.The code example below shows the built-in support for distributed processes: % Create a process and invoke the function web:start_server(Port, MaxConnections) ServerProcess = spawn(web, start_server, Port, MaxConnections), % Create a remote process and invoke the function % web:start_server(Port, MaxConnections) on machine RemoteNode RemoteProcess = spawn(RemoteNode, web, start_server, Port, MaxConnections), % Send a message to ServerProcess (asynchronously).", "The message consists of a tuple % with the atom \"pause\" and the number \"10\".", "ServerProcess !", "{pause, 10}, % Receive messages sent to this process receive a_message -> do_something; {data, DataContent} -> handle(DataContent); {hello, Text} -> io:format(\"Got hello message: ~s\", Text); {goodbye, Text} -> io:format(\"Got goodbye message: ~s\", Text) end.As the example shows, processes may be created on remote nodes, and communication with them is transparent in the sense that communication with remote processes works exactly as communication with local processes.Concurrency supports the primary method of error-handling in Erlang.", "When a process crashes, it neatly exits and sends a message to the controlling process which can then take action, such as starting a new process that takes over the old process's task." ], [ "Implementation", "The official reference implementation of Erlang uses BEAM.", "BEAM is included in the official distribution of Erlang, called Erlang/OTP.", "BEAM executes bytecode which is converted to threaded code at load time.", "It also includes a native code compiler on most platforms, developed by the High Performance Erlang Project (HiPE) at Uppsala University.", "Since October 2001 the HiPE system is fully integrated in Ericsson's Open Source Erlang/OTP system.", "It also supports interpreting, directly from source code via abstract syntax tree, via script as of R11B-5 release of Erlang." ], [ "Hot code loading and modules", "Erlang supports language-level Dynamic Software Updating.", "To implement this, code is loaded and managed as \"module\" units; the module is a compilation unit.", "The system can keep two versions of a module in memory at the same time, and processes can concurrently run code from each.", "The versions are referred to as the \"new\" and the \"old\" version.", "A process will not move into the new version until it makes an external call to its module.An example of the mechanism of hot code loading: %% A process whose only job is to keep a counter.", "%% First version -module(counter).", "-export(start/0, codeswitch/1).", "start() -> loop(0).", "loop(Sum) -> receive {increment, Count} -> loop(Sum+Count); {counter, Pid} -> Pid !", "{counter, Sum}, loop(Sum); code_switch -> ?MODULE:codeswitch(Sum) % Force the use of 'codeswitch/1' from the latest MODULE version end.", "codeswitch(Sum) -> loop(Sum).For the second version, we add the possibility to reset the count to zero.", "%% Second version -module(counter).", "-export(start/0, codeswitch/1).", "start() -> loop(0).", "loop(Sum) -> receive {increment, Count} -> loop(Sum+Count); reset -> loop(0); {counter, Pid} -> Pid !", "{counter, Sum}, loop(Sum); code_switch -> ?MODULE:codeswitch(Sum) end.", "codeswitch(Sum) -> loop(Sum).Only when receiving a message consisting of the atom code_switch will the loop execute an external call to codeswitch/1 (?MODULE is a preprocessor macro for the current module).", "If there is a new version of the ''counter'' module in memory, then its codeswitch/1 function will be called.", "The practice of having a specific entry-point into a new version allows the programmer to transform state to what is needed in the newer version.", "In the example, the state is kept as an integer.In practice, systems are built up using design principles from the Open Telecom Platform, which leads to more code upgradable designs.", "Successful hot code loading is exacting.", "Code must be written with care to make use of Erlang's facilities." ], [ "Distribution", "In 1998, Ericsson released Erlang as free and open-source software to ensure its independence from a single vendor and to increase awareness of the language.", "Erlang, together with libraries and the real-time distributed database Mnesia, forms the OTP collection of libraries.", "Ericsson and a few other companies support Erlang commercially.Since the open source release, Erlang has been used by several firms worldwide, including Nortel and T-Mobile.", "Although Erlang was designed to fill a niche and has remained an obscure language for most of its existence, its popularity is growing due to demand for concurrent services.Erlang has found some use in fielding massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) servers." ], [ "See also", "* Elixir – a functional, concurrent, general-purpose programming language that runs on BEAM* Luerl - Lua on the BEAM, designed and implemented by one of the creators of Erlang.", "* Lisp Flavored Erlang (LFE) – a Lisp-based programming language that runs on BEAM* Mix (build tool)* Phoenix (web framework)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Early history of Erlang by Bjarne Däcker** * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euphoria (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Euphoria''' is a programming language created by Robert Craig of Rapid Deployment Software in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.", "Initially developed (though not publicly released) on the Atari ST, the first commercial release was for MS-DOS as proprietary software.", "In 2006, with the release of version 3, Euphoria became open-source software.", "The openEuphoria Group continues to administer and develop the project.", "In December 2010, the openEuphoria Group released version 4 of openEuphoria along with a new identity and mascot for the project.", "OpenEuphoria is currently available for Windows, Linux, macOS and three flavors of BSD.Euphoria is a general-purpose high-level imperative-procedural interpreted language.", "A translator generates C source code and the GNU compiler collection (GCC) and Open Watcom compilers are supported.", "Alternatively, Euphoria programs may be bound with the interpreter to create stand-alone executables.", "A number of graphical user interface (GUI) libraries are supported including Win32lib and wrappers for wxWidgets, GTK+ and IUP.", "Euphoria has a simple built-in database and wrappers for a variety of other databases." ], [ "Overview", "The Euphoria language is a general purpose procedural language that focuses on simplicity, legibility, rapid development and performance via several means.", "''Simplicity'' – It uses just four built-in data types (see below) and implements automatic garbage collection.", "''Legibility'' – The syntax favors simple English keywords over the use of punctuation to delineate constructs.", "''Rapid development'' – An interpreter encourages prototyping and incremental development.", "''Performance'' – An efficient reference-counting garbage collector correctly handles cyclic references." ], [ "History", "Developed as a personal project to invent a programming language from scratch, Euphoria was created by Robert Craig on an Atari Mega-ST.", "Many design ideas for the language came from Craig's Master's thesis in computer science at the University of Toronto.", "Craig's thesis was heavily influenced by the work of John Backus on functional programming (FP) languages.Craig ported his original Atari implementation to the 16-bit DOS platform and Euphoria was first released, version 1.0, in July 1993 under a proprietary licence.", "The original Atari implementation is described by Craig as \"primitive\" and has not been publicly released.", "Euphoria continued to be developed and released by Craig via his company Rapid Deployment Software (RDS) and website rapideuphoria.com.", "In October 2006 RDS released version 3 of Euphoria and announced that henceforth Euphoria would be freely distributed under an open-source software licence.RDS continued to develop Euphoria, culminating with the release of version 3.1.1 in August, 2007.Subsequently, RDS ceased unilateral development of Euphoria and the openEuphoria Group took over ongoing development.", "The openEuphoria Group released version 4 in December, 2010 along with a new logo and mascot for the openEuphoria project.Version 3.1.1 remains an important milestone release, being the last version of Euphoria which supports the DOS platform.Euphoria is an acronym for ''End-User Programming with Hierarchical Objects for Robust Interpreted Applications'' although there is some suspicion that this is a backronym.The Euphoria interpreter was originally written in C. With the release of version 2.5 in November 2004 the Euphoria interpreter was split into two parts: a front-end parser, and a back-end interpreter.", "The front-end is now written in Euphoria (and used with the Euphoria-to-C translator and the Binder).", "The main back-end and run time library are written in C." ], [ "Features", "Euphoria was conceived and developed with the following design goals and features: Ease of learning and with consistent high-level constructs (more so than, for example, the BASIC language)* Implementation of flat-form 32-bit memory to avoid complex memory management and size-addressing limits* Debugging support and run-time error-handling* Subscript and type checking* Loose and strict variable typing* Programming via objects as types (user-defined or otherwise)* Interpreted, with automatic memory management and garbage collection* Heterogeneous collection types (sequences)* DOS graphics library (Euphoria language versions up to and including 3.1.1)* Debugger* Integrated database system* Low-level memory handling* Straightforward wrapping of (or access to) C libraries" ], [ "Execution modes", "* Interpreter* C translator (E2C) for standalone executables or dynamic linking* Bytecode compiler and interpreter (shrouder)* The Binder binds the Euphoria source code to the interpreter to create an executable.", "* A read–eval–print loop (REPL) version is on the openEuphoria roadmap." ], [ "Use", "Euphoria is designed to readily facilitate handling of dynamic sets of data of varying types and is particularly useful for string and image processing.", "Euphoria has been used in artificial intelligence experiments, the study of mathematics, for teaching programming, and to implement fonts involving thousands of characters.", "A large part of the Euphoria interpreter is written in Euphoria." ], [ "Data types", "Euphoria has two basic data types::Atom – A number, implemented as a 31-bit signed integer or a 64-bit IEEE floating-point.", "Euphoria dynamically changes between integer and floating point representation according to the current value.", ":Sequence – A vector (array) with zero or more elements.", "Each element may be an ''atom'' or another ''sequence''.", "The number of elements in a sequence is not fixed (i.e., the size of the vector/array does not have to be declared).", "The program may add or remove elements as needed during run-time.", "Memory allocation-deallocation is automatically handled by reference counting.", "Individual elements are referenced using an index value enclosed in square brackets.", "The first element in a sequence has an index of one 1.Elements inside embedded sequences are referenced by additional bracked index values, thus X32 refers to the second element contained in the sequence that is the third element of X.", "Each element of a sequence is an ''object'' type (see below).Euphoria has two additional data types predefined::Integer – An ''atom'', restricted to 31-bit signed integer values in the range to ( to ).", "''Integer'' data types are more efficient than the ''atom'' data types, but cannot contain the same range of values.", "Characters are stored as integers, e.g., coding ASCII-'A' is exactly the same as coding 65.:Object – A generic datatype which may contain any of the above (i.e., ''atom'', ''sequence'' or ''integer'') and which may be changed to another type during run-time.There is no character string data type.", "Strings are represented by a ''sequence'' of ''integer'' values.", "However, because literal strings are so commonly used in programming, Euphoria interprets double-quote enclosed characters as a sequence of integers.", "Thus \"ABC\"is seen as if the coder had written: {'A', 'B', 'C'}which is the same as: {65, 66, 67}" ], [ "Hello, World!", " puts(1, \"Hello, World!\\n\")" ], [ "Examples", "Program comments start with a double hyphen -- and go through the end of line.The following code looks for an old item in a group of items.", "If found, it removes it by concatenating all the elements before it with all the elements after it.", "Note that the first element in a sequence has the index one 1 and that $ refers to the length (i.e., total number of elements) of the sequence.", "global function delete_item( object old, sequence group ) integer pos -- Code begins -- pos = find( old, group ) if pos > 0 then group = group1 .. pos-1 & grouppos+1 .. $ end if return group end functionThe following modification to the above example replaces an old item with a new item.", "As the variables ''old'' and ''new'' have been defined as objects, they could be ''atoms'' or ''sequences''.", "Type checking is not needed as the function will work with any sequence of data of any type and needs no external libraries.", "global function replace_item( object old, object new, sequence group ) integer pos -- Code begins -- pos = find( old, group ) if pos > 0 then grouppos = new end if return group end functionFurthermore, no pointers are involved and subscripts are automatically checked.", "Thus the function cannot access memory out-of-bounds.", "There is no need to allocate or deallocate memory explicitly and no chance of a memory leak.The line group = group1 .. pos-1 & grouppos+1 .. $shows some of the ''sequence'' handling facilities.", "A ''sequence'' may contain a set of any types, and this can be sliced (to take a subset of the data in a ''sequence'') and concatenated in expressions with no need for special functions." ], [ "Parameter passing", "Arguments to routines are always passed by value; there is no pass-by-reference facility.", "However, parameters are allowed to be modified ''locally'' (i.e., within the callee) which is implemented very efficiently as sequences have automatic copy-on-write semantics.", "In other words, when you pass a sequence to a routine, initially only a reference to it is passed, but at the point the routine modifies this sequence parameter the sequence is copied and the routine updates only a copy of the original." ], [ "Comparable languages", "* Lua* Phix* Python* REBOL* Nim* Ruby" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "Free downloads of Euphoria for the various platforms, packages, Windows IDE, Windows API libraries, a cross-platform GTK3 wrapper for Linux and Windows, graphics libraries (DOS, OpenGL, etc.).", "* OpenEuphoria* RapidEuphoria* openEuphoria Wiki* openEuphoria Forum* OpenEuphoria · GitHub Development repositories.", "* Using Euphoria" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Energy" ], [ "Introduction", "In physics, '''energy''' () is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat and light.", "Energy is a conserved quantity—the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed.", "The unit of measurement for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J).Common forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object (for instance due to its position in a field), the elastic energy stored in a solid object, chemical energy associated with chemical reactions, the radiant energy carried by electromagnetic radiation, and the internal energy contained within a thermodynamic system.", "All living organisms constantly take in and release energy.Due to mass–energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy.", "Human civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy.", "The Earth's climate and ecosystems processes are driven by the energy the planet receives from the Sun (although a small amount is also contributed by geothermal energy)." ], [ "Forms", "In a typical lightning strike, 500 megajoules of electric potential energy is converted into the same amount of energy in other forms, mostly light energy, sound energy and thermal energy.Thermal energy is energy of microscopic constituents of matter, which may include both kinetic and potential energy.The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified into potential energy, kinetic energy, or combinations of the two in various ways.", "Kinetic energy is determined by the movement of an object – or the composite motion of the object's components – while potential energy reflects the potential of an object to have motion, generally being based upon the object's position within a field or what is stored within the field itself.While these two categories are sufficient to describe all forms of energy, it is often convenient to refer to particular combinations of potential and kinetic energy as its own form.", "For example, the sum of translational and rotational kinetic and potential energy within a system is referred to as mechanical energy, whereas nuclear energy refers to the combined potentials within an atomic nucleus from either the nuclear force or the weak force, among other examples.+Some forms of energy (that an object or system can have as a measurable property) Type of energy DescriptionMechanicalthe sum of macroscopic translational and rotational kinetic and potential energiesElectricpotential energy due to or stored in electric fieldsMagneticpotential energy due to or stored in magnetic fieldsGravitationalpotential energy due to or stored in gravitational fieldsChemicalpotential energy due to chemical bondsIonizationpotential energy that binds an electron to its atom or moleculeNuclearpotential energy that binds nucleons to form the atomic nucleus (and nuclear reactions)Chromodynamicpotential energy that binds quarks to form hadronsElasticpotential energy due to the deformation of a material (or its container) exhibiting a restorative force as it returns to its original shapeMechanical wavekinetic and potential energy in an elastic material due to a propagating oscillation of matterSound wavekinetic and potential energy in a material due to a sound propagated wave (a particular type of mechanical wave)Radiantpotential energy stored in the fields of waves propagated by electromagnetic radiation, including lightRestpotential energy due to an object's rest massThermal kinetic energy of the microscopic motion of particles, a kind of disordered equivalent of mechanical energy" ], [ "History", "Thomas Young, the first person to use the term \"energy\" in the modern senseThe word ''energy'' derives from the , which possibly appears for the first time in the work of Aristotle in the 4th century BC.", "In contrast to the modern definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness and pleasure.In the late 17th century, Gottfried Leibniz proposed the idea of the , or living force, which defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total ''vis viva'' was conserved.", "To account for slowing due to friction, Leibniz theorized that thermal energy consisted of the motions of the constituent parts of matter, although it would be more than a century until this was generally accepted.", "The modern analog of this property, kinetic energy, differs from ''vis viva'' only by a factor of two.", "Writing in the early 18th century, Émilie du Châtelet proposed the concept of conservation of energy in the marginalia of her French language translation of Newton's ''Principia Mathematica'', which represented the first formulation of a conserved measurable quantity that was distinct from momentum, and which would later be called \"energy\".In 1807, Thomas Young was possibly the first to use the term \"energy\" instead of ''vis viva'', in its modern sense.", "Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described \"kinetic energy\" in 1829 in its modern sense, and in 1853, William Rankine coined the term \"potential energy\".", "The law of conservation of energy was also first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system.", "It was argued for some years whether heat was a physical substance, dubbed the caloric, or merely a physical quantity, such as momentum.", "In 1845 James Prescott Joule discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat.These developments led to the theory of conservation of energy, formalized largely by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) as the field of thermodynamics.", "Thermodynamics aided the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Walther Nernst.", "It also led to a mathematical formulation of the concept of entropy by Clausius and to the introduction of laws of radiant energy by Jožef Stefan.", "According to Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time.", "Thus, since 1918, theorists have understood that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time." ], [ "Units of measure", "Joule's apparatus for measuring the mechanical equivalent of heat.", "A descending weight attached to a string causes a paddle immersed in water to rotate.In 1843, James Prescott Joule independently discovered the mechanical equivalent in a series of experiments.", "The most famous of them used the \"Joule apparatus\": a descending weight, attached to a string, caused rotation of a paddle immersed in water, practically insulated from heat transfer.", "It showed that the gravitational potential energy lost by the weight in descending was equal to the internal energy gained by the water through friction with the paddle.In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of energy is the joule, named after Joule.", "It is a derived unit.", "It is equal to the energy expended (or work done) in applying a force of one newton through a distance of one metre.", "However energy is also expressed in many other units not part of the SI, such as ergs, calories, British thermal units, kilowatt-hours and kilocalories, which require a conversion factor when expressed in SI units.The SI unit of energy rate (energy per unit time) is the watt, which is a joule per second.", "Thus, one joule is one watt-second, and 3600 joules equal one watt-hour.", "The CGS energy unit is the erg and the imperial and US customary unit is the foot pound.", "Other energy units such as the electronvolt, food calorie or thermodynamic kcal (based on the temperature change of water in a heating process), and BTU are used in specific areas of science and commerce." ], [ "Scientific use", "===Classical mechanics===In classical mechanics, energy is a conceptually and mathematically useful property, as it is a conserved quantity.", "Several formulations of mechanics have been developed using energy as a core concept.Work, a function of energy, is force times distance.", ": This says that the work () is equal to the line integral of the force '''F''' along a path ''C''; for details see the mechanical work article.", "Work and thus energy is frame dependent.", "For example, consider a ball being hit by a bat.", "In the center-of-mass reference frame, the bat does no work on the ball.", "But, in the reference frame of the person swinging the bat, considerable work is done on the ball.The total energy of a system is sometimes called the Hamiltonian, after William Rowan Hamilton.", "The classical equations of motion can be written in terms of the Hamiltonian, even for highly complex or abstract systems.", "These classical equations have remarkably direct analogs in nonrelativistic quantum mechanics.Another energy-related concept is called the Lagrangian, after Joseph-Louis Lagrange.", "This formalism is as fundamental as the Hamiltonian, and both can be used to derive the equations of motion or be derived from them.", "It was invented in the context of classical mechanics, but is generally useful in modern physics.", "The Lagrangian is defined as the kinetic energy ''minus'' the potential energy.", "Usually, the Lagrange formalism is mathematically more convenient than the Hamiltonian for non-conservative systems (such as systems with friction).Noether's theorem (1918) states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law.", "Noether's theorem has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics and the calculus of variations.", "A generalisation of the seminal formulations on constants of motion in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics (1788 and 1833, respectively), it does not apply to systems that cannot be modeled with a Lagrangian; for example, dissipative systems with continuous symmetries need not have a corresponding conservation law.===Chemistry===In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular, or aggregate structure.", "Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is usually accompanied by a decrease, and sometimes an increase, of the total energy of the substances involved.", "Some energy may be transferred between the surroundings and the reactants in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction have sometimes more but usually less energy than the reactants.", "A reaction is said to be exothermic or exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the less common case of endothermic reactions the situation is the reverse.", "Chemical reactions are usually not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy.", "The ''speed'' of a chemical reaction (at a given temperature ''T'') is related to the activation energy ''E'' by the Boltzmann's population factor e−''E''/''kT''; that is, the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to ''E'' at a given temperature ''T''.", "This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation.", "The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be provided in the form of thermal energy.===Biology===energy and human lifeIn biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems, from the biosphere to the smallest living organism.", "Within an organism it is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell or organelle of a biological organism.", "Energy used in respiration is stored in substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins stored by cells.", "In human terms, the human equivalent (H-e) (Human energy conversion) indicates, for a given amount of energy expenditure, the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, using as a standard an average human energy expenditure of 12,500 kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts.", "For example, if our bodies run (on average) at 80 watts, then a light bulb running at 100 watts is running at 1.25 human equivalents (100 ÷ 80) i.e.", "1.25 H-e. For a difficult task of only a few seconds' duration, a person can put out thousands of watts, many times the 746 watts in one official horsepower.", "For tasks lasting a few minutes, a fit human can generate perhaps 1,000 watts.", "For an activity that must be sustained for an hour, output drops to around 300; for an activity kept up all day, 150 watts is about the maximum.", "The human equivalent assists understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a \"feel\" for the use of a given amount of energy.Sunlight's radiant energy is also captured by plants as ''chemical potential energy'' in photosynthesis, when carbon dioxide and water (two low-energy compounds) are converted into carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and oxygen.", "Release of the energy stored during photosynthesis as heat or light may be triggered suddenly by a spark in a forest fire, or it may be made available more slowly for animal or human metabolism when organic molecules are ingested and catabolism is triggered by enzyme action.All living creatures rely on an external source of energy to be able to grow and reproduce – radiant energy from the Sun in the case of green plants and chemical energy (in some form) in the case of animals.", "The daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as food molecules, mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (C6H12O6) and stearin (C57H110O6) are convenient examples.", "The food molecules are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondriaC6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2OC57H110O6 + (81 1/2) O2 -> 57CO2 + 55H2Oand some of the energy is used to convert ADP into ATP:The rest of the chemical energy of the carbohydrate or fat are converted into heat: the ATP is used as a sort of \"energy currency\", and some of the chemical energy it contains is used for other metabolism when ATP reacts with OH groups and eventually splits into ADP and phosphate (at each stage of a metabolic pathway, some chemical energy is converted into heat).", "Only a tiny fraction of the original chemical energy is used for work::gain in kinetic energy of a sprinter during a 100 m race: 4 kJ:gain in gravitational potential energy of a 150 kg weight lifted through 2 metres: 3 kJ:Daily food intake of a normal adult: 6–8 MJIt would appear that living organisms are remarkably inefficient (in the physical sense) in their use of the energy they receive (chemical or radiant energy); most machines manage higher efficiencies.", "In growing organisms the energy that is converted to heat serves a vital purpose, as it allows the organism tissue to be highly ordered with regard to the molecules it is built from.", "The second law of thermodynamics states that energy (and matter) tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe: to concentrate energy (or matter) in one specific place, it is necessary to spread out a greater amount of energy (as heat) across the remainder of the universe (\"the surroundings\").", "Simpler organisms can achieve higher energy efficiencies than more complex ones, but the complex organisms can occupy ecological niches that are not available to their simpler brethren.", "The conversion of a portion of the chemical energy to heat at each step in a metabolic pathway is the physical reason behind the pyramid of biomass observed in ecology.", "As an example, to take just the first step in the food chain: of the estimated 124.7 Pg/a of carbon that is fixed by photosynthesis, 64.3 Pg/a (52%) are used for the metabolism of green plants, i.e.", "reconverted into carbon dioxide and heat.===Earth sciences===In geology, continental drift, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth's interior, while meteorological phenomena like wind, rain, hail, snow, lightning, tornadoes and hurricanes are all a result of energy transformations in our atmosphere brought about by solar energy.Sunlight is the main input to Earth's energy budget which accounts for its temperature and climate stability.", "Sunlight may be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example when) water evaporates from oceans and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbines or generators to produce electricity).", "Sunlight also drives most weather phenomena, save a few exceptions, like those generated by volcanic events for example.", "An example of a solar-mediated weather event is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, suddenly give up some of their thermal energy to power a few days of violent air movement.In a slower process, radioactive decay of atoms in the core of the Earth releases heat.", "This thermal energy drives plate tectonics and may lift mountains, via orogenesis.", "This slow lifting represents a kind of gravitational potential energy storage of the thermal energy, which may later be transformed into active kinetic energy during landslides, after a triggering event.", "Earthquakes also release stored elastic potential energy in rocks, a store that has been produced ultimately from the same radioactive heat sources.", "Thus, according to present understanding, familiar events such as landslides and earthquakes release energy that has been stored as potential energy in the Earth's gravitational field or elastic strain (mechanical potential energy) in rocks.", "Prior to this, they represent release of energy that has been stored in heavy atoms since the collapse of long-destroyed supernova stars (which created these atoms).===Cosmology===In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of stars, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma-ray bursts are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter.", "All stellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations.", "Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.", "), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen).", "The nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun also releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang.", "At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements.", "This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion.", "Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight.===Quantum mechanics===In quantum mechanics, energy is defined in terms of the energy operator(Hamiltonian) as a time derivative of the wave function.", "The Schrödinger equation equates the energy operator to the full energy of a particle or a system.", "Its results can be considered as a definition of measurement of energy in quantum mechanics.", "The Schrödinger equation describes the space- and time-dependence of a slowly changing (non-relativistic) wave function of quantum systems.", "The solution of this equation for a bound system is discrete (a set of permitted states, each characterized by an energy level) which results in the concept of quanta.", "In the solution of the Schrödinger equation for any oscillator (vibrator) and for electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, the resulting energy states are related to the frequency by Planck's relation: (where is the Planck constant and the frequency).", "In the case of an electromagnetic wave these energy states are called quanta of light or photons.===Relativity===When calculating kinetic energy (work to accelerate a massive body from zero speed to some finite speed) relativistically – using Lorentz transformations instead of Newtonian mechanics – Einstein discovered an unexpected by-product of these calculations to be an energy term which does not vanish at zero speed.", "He called it rest energy: energy which every massive body must possess even when being at rest.", "The amount of energy is directly proportional to the mass of the body:where''m''0 is the rest mass of the body,''c'' is the speed of light in vacuum,* is the rest energy.For example, consider electron–positron annihilation, in which the rest energy of these two individual particles (equivalent to their rest mass) is converted to the radiant energy of the photons produced in the process.", "In this system the matter and antimatter (electrons and positrons) are destroyed and changed to non-matter (the photons).", "However, the total mass and total energy do not change during this interaction.", "The photons each have no rest mass but nonetheless have radiant energy which exhibits the same inertia as did the two original particles.", "This is a reversible process – the inverse process is called pair creation – in which the rest mass of particles is created from the radiant energy of two (or more) annihilating photons.In general relativity, the stress–energy tensor serves as the source term for the gravitational field, in rough analogy to the way mass serves as the source term in the non-relativistic Newtonian approximation.Energy and mass are manifestations of one and the same underlying physical property of a system.", "This property is responsible for the inertia and strength of gravitational interaction of the system (\"mass manifestations\"), and is also responsible for the potential ability of the system to perform work or heating (\"energy manifestations\"), subject to the limitations of other physical laws.In classical physics, energy is a scalar quantity, the canonical conjugate to time.", "In special relativity energy is also a scalar (although not a Lorentz scalar but a time component of the energy–momentum 4-vector).", "In other words, energy is invariant with respect to rotations of space, but not invariant with respect to rotations of spacetime (= boosts)." ], [ "Transformation", "+Some forms of transfer of energy (\"energy in transit\") from one object or system to another Type of transfer process DescriptionHeatequal amount of thermal energy in transit spontaneously towards a lower-temperature objectWorkequal amount of energy in transit due to a displacement in the direction of an applied forceTransfer of materialequal amount of energy carried by matter that is moving from one system to anotherA turbo generator transforms the energy of pressurized steam into electrical energy.Energy may be transformed between different forms at various efficiencies.", "Items that transform between these forms are called transducers.", "Examples of transducers include a battery (from chemical energy to electric energy), a dam (from gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy of moving water (and the blades of a turbine) and ultimately to electric energy through an electric generator), and a heat engine (from heat to work).Examples of energy transformation include generating electric energy from heat energy via a steam turbine, or lifting an object against gravity using electrical energy driving a crane motor.", "Lifting against gravity performs mechanical work on the object and stores gravitational potential energy in the object.", "If the object falls to the ground, gravity does mechanical work on the object which transforms the potential energy in the gravitational field to the kinetic energy released as heat on impact with the ground.", "The Sun transforms nuclear potential energy to other forms of energy; its total mass does not decrease due to that itself (since it still contains the same total energy even in different forms) but its mass does decrease when the energy escapes out to its surroundings, largely as radiant energy.There are strict limits to how efficiently heat can be converted into work in a cyclic process, e.g.", "in a heat engine, as described by Carnot's theorem and the second law of thermodynamics.", "However, some energy transformations can be quite efficient.", "The direction of transformations in energy (what kind of energy is transformed to what other kind) is often determined by entropy (equal energy spread among all available degrees of freedom) considerations.", "In practice all energy transformations are permitted on a small scale, but certain larger transformations are not permitted because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces.Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy, that has been available since the Big Bang, being \"released\" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy) when a triggering mechanism is available.", "Familiar examples of such processes include nucleosynthesis, a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae to \"store\" energy in the creation of heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), and nuclear decay, a process in which energy is released that was originally stored in these heavy elements, before they were incorporated into the Solar System and the Earth.", "This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs or in civil nuclear power generation.", "Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to kinetic and thermal energy in a very short time.Yet another example is that of a pendulum.", "At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at its maximum.", "At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at its maximum and is equal to the decrease in potential energy.", "If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the pendulum would continue swinging forever.Energy is also transferred from potential energy () to kinetic energy () and then back to potential energy constantly.", "This is referred to as conservation of energy.", "In this isolated system, energy cannot be created or destroyed; therefore, the initial energy and the final energy will be equal to each other.", "This can be demonstrated by the following:The equation can then be simplified further since (mass times acceleration due to gravity times the height) and (half mass times velocity squared).", "Then the total amount of energy can be found by adding .===Conservation of energy and mass in transformation===Energy gives rise to weight when it is trapped in a system with zero momentum, where it can be weighed.", "It is also equivalent to mass, and this mass is always associated with it.", "Mass is also equivalent to a certain amount of energy, and likewise always appears associated with it, as described in mass–energy equivalence.", "The formula ''E'' = ''mc''², derived by Albert Einstein (1905) quantifies the relationship between relativistic mass and energy within the concept of special relativity.", "In different theoretical frameworks, similar formulas were derived by J.J. Thomson (1881), Henri Poincaré (1900), Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1904) and others (see Mass–energy equivalence#History for further information).Part of the rest energy (equivalent to rest mass) of matter may be converted to other forms of energy (still exhibiting mass), but neither energy nor mass can be destroyed; rather, both remain constant during any process.", "However, since is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of an everyday amount of rest mass (for example, 1 kg) from rest energy to other forms of energy (such as kinetic energy, thermal energy, or the radiant energy carried by light and other radiation) can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~ joules = 21 megatons of TNT), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons.", "Conversely, the mass equivalent of an everyday amount energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy (loss of mass) from most systems is difficult to measure on a weighing scale, unless the energy loss is very large.", "Examples of large transformations between rest energy (of matter) and other forms of energy (e.g., kinetic energy into particles with rest mass) are found in nuclear physics and particle physics.", "Often, however, the complete conversion of matter (such as atoms) to non-matter (such as photons) is forbidden by conservation laws.===Reversible and non-reversible transformations===Thermodynamics divides energy transformation into two kinds: reversible processes and irreversible processes.", "An irreversible process is one in which energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy.", "A reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen.", "For example, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another is reversible, as in the pendulum system described above.", "In processes where heat is generated, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible excitations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 100% efficiency into other forms of energy.", "In this case, the energy must partly stay as thermal energy and cannot be completely recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in some other kind of heat-like increase in disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomization in a crystal).As the universe evolves with time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in irreversible states (i.e., as heat or as other kinds of increases in disorder).", "This has led to the hypothesis of the inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe.", "In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change, but the fraction of energy which is available to do work through a heat engine, or be transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of generators attached to heat engines), continues to decrease." ], [ "Conservation of energy", "The fact that energy can be neither created nor destroyed is called the law of conservation of energy.", "In the form of the first law of thermodynamics, this states that a closed system's energy is constant unless energy is transferred in or out as work or heat, and that no energy is lost in transfer.", "The total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system.", "Whenever one measures (or calculates) the total energy of a system of particles whose interactions do not depend explicitly on time, it is found that the total energy of the system always remains constant.While heat can always be fully converted into work in a reversible isothermal expansion of an ideal gas, for cyclic processes of practical interest in heat engines the second law of thermodynamics states that the system doing work always loses some energy as waste heat.", "This creates a limit to the amount of heat energy that can do work in a cyclic process, a limit called the available energy.", "Mechanical and other forms of energy can be transformed in the other direction into thermal energy without such limitations.", "The total energy of a system can be calculated by adding up all forms of energy in the system.Richard Feynman said during a 1961 lecture:Most kinds of energy (with gravitational energy being a notable exception) are subject to strict local conservation laws as well.", "In this case, energy can only be exchanged between adjacent regions of space, and all observers agree as to the volumetric density of energy in any given space.", "There is also a global law of conservation of energy, stating that the total energy of the universe cannot change; this is a corollary of the local law, but not vice versa.This law is a fundamental principle of physics.", "As shown rigorously by Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time, a property of most phenomena below the cosmic scale that makes them independent of their locations on the time coordinate.", "Put differently, yesterday, today, and tomorrow are physically indistinguishable.", "This is because energy is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time.", "This mathematical entanglement of energy and time also results in the uncertainty principle – it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval (though this is practically significant only for very short time intervals).", "The uncertainty principle should not be confused with energy conservation – rather it provides mathematical limits to which energy can in principle be defined and measured.Each of the basic forces of nature is associated with a different type of potential energy, and all types of potential energy (like all other types of energy) appear as system mass, whenever present.", "For example, a compressed spring will be slightly more massive than before it was compressed.", "Likewise, whenever energy is transferred between systems by any mechanism, an associated mass is transferred with it.In quantum mechanics energy is expressed using the Hamiltonian operator.", "On any time scales, the uncertainty in the energy is by: which is similar in form to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (but not really mathematically equivalent thereto, since ''H'' and ''t'' are not dynamically conjugate variables, neither in classical nor in quantum mechanics).In particle physics, this inequality permits a qualitative understanding of virtual particles, which carry momentum.", "The exchange of virtual particles with real particles is responsible for the creation of all known fundamental forces (more accurately known as fundamental interactions).", "Virtual photons are also responsible for the electrostatic interaction between electric charges (which results in Coulomb's law), for spontaneous radiative decay of excited atomic and nuclear states, for the Casimir force, for the Van der Waals force and some other observable phenomena." ], [ "Energy transfer", "===Closed systems===Energy transfer can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter.", "The portion of the energy which is transferred by conservative forces over a distance is measured as the work the source system does on the receiving system.", "The portion of the energy which does not do work during the transfer is called heat.", "Energy can be transferred between systems in a variety of ways.", "Examples include the transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons, physical collisions which transfer kinetic energy, tidal interactions, and the conductive transfer of thermal energy.Energy is strictly conserved and is also locally conserved wherever it can be defined.", "In thermodynamics, for closed systems, the process of energy transfer is described by the first law:where is the amount of energy transferred, represents the work done on or by the system, and represents the heat flow into or out of the system.", "As a simplification, the heat term, , can sometimes be ignored, especially for fast processes involving gases, which are poor conductors of heat, or when the thermal efficiency of the transfer is high.", "For such adiabatic processes,This simplified equation is the one used to define the joule, for example.===Open systems===Beyond the constraints of closed systems, open systems can gain or lose energy in association with matter transfer (this process is illustrated by injection of an air-fuel mixture into a car engine, a system which gains in energy thereby, without addition of either work or heat).", "Denoting this energy by , one may write" ], [ "Thermodynamics", "===Internal energy===Internal energy is the sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a system.", "It is the energy needed to create the system.", "It is related to the potential energy, e.g., molecular structure, crystal structure, and other geometric aspects, as well as the motion of the particles, in form of kinetic energy.", "Thermodynamics is chiefly concerned with changes in internal energy and not its absolute value, which is impossible to determine with thermodynamics alone.===First law of thermodynamics===The first law of thermodynamics asserts that the total energy of a system and its surroundings (but not necessarily thermodynamic free energy) is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer.", "For homogeneous systems, with a well-defined temperature and pressure, a commonly used corollary of the first law is that, for a system subject only to pressure forces and heat transfer (e.g., a cylinder-full of gas) without chemical changes, the differential change in the internal energy of the system (with a ''gain'' in energy signified by a positive quantity) is given as:,where the first term on the right is the heat transferred into the system, expressed in terms of temperature ''T'' and entropy ''S'' (in which entropy increases and its change d''S'' is positive when heat is added to the system), and the last term on the right hand side is identified as work done on the system, where pressure is ''P'' and volume ''V'' (the negative sign results since compression of the system requires work to be done on it and so the volume change, d''V'', is negative when work is done on the system).This equation is highly specific, ignoring all chemical, electrical, nuclear, and gravitational forces, effects such as advection of any form of energy other than heat and ''PV''-work.", "The general formulation of the first law (i.e., conservation of energy) is valid even in situations in which the system is not homogeneous.", "For these cases the change in internal energy of a ''closed'' system is expressed in a general form by:where is the heat supplied to the system and is the work applied to the system.===Equipartition of energy===The energy of a mechanical harmonic oscillator (a mass on a spring) is alternately kinetic and potential energy.", "At two points in the oscillation cycle it is entirely kinetic, and at two points it is entirely potential.", "Over a whole cycle, or over many cycles, average energy is equally split between kinetic and potential.", "This is an example of the equipartition principle: the total energy of a system with many degrees of freedom is equally split among all available degrees of freedom, on average.This principle is vitally important to understanding the behavior of a quantity closely related to energy, called entropy.", "Entropy is a measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system.", "When an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom (i.e., given new available energy states that are the same as existing states), then total energy spreads over all available degrees equally without distinction between \"new\" and \"old\" degrees.", "This mathematical result is part of the second law of thermodynamics.", "The second law of thermodynamics is simple only for systems which are near or in a physical equilibrium state.", "For non-equilibrium systems, the laws governing the systems' behavior are still debatable.", "One of the guiding principles for these systems is the principle of maximum entropy production.", "It states that nonequilibrium systems behave in such a way as to maximize their entropy production." ], [ "See also", "* Combustion* Energy democracy* Index of energy articles* Index of wave articles* Orders of magnitude (energy)* Power station* Transfer energy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * ''The Biosphere'' (A ''Scientific American'' Book), San Francisco, W.H.", "Freeman and Co., 1970, .", "This book, originally a 1970 ''Scientific American'' issue, covers virtually every major concern and concept since debated regarding materials and energy resources, population trends, and environmental degradation.", "* * ''Energy and Power'' (A ''Scientific American'' Book), San Francisco, W.H.", "Freeman and Co., 1971, .", "* * Santos, Gildo M. \"Energy in Brazil: a historical overview,\" ''The Journal of Energy History'' (2018), online * * ===Journals===* ''The Journal of Energy History / Revue d'histoire de l'énergie'' (JEHRHE), 2018–" ], [ "External links", "* * Differences between Heat and Thermal energy () – BioCab" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Expected value" ], [ "Introduction", "In probability theory, the '''expected value''' (also called '''expectation''', '''expectancy''', '''expectation operator''', '''mathematical expectation''', '''mean''', '''expectation value''', or '''first moment''') is a generalization of the weighted average.", "Informally, the expected value is the arithmetic mean of the possible values a random variable can take, weighted by the probability of those outcomes.", "Since it is obtained through arithmetic, the expected value sometimes may not even be included in the sample data set; it is not the value you would \"expect\" to get in reality.The expected value of a random variable with a finite number of outcomes is a weighted average of all possible outcomes.", "In the case of a continuum of possible outcomes, the expectation is defined by integration.", "In the axiomatic foundation for probability provided by measure theory, the expectation is given by Lebesgue integration.The expected value of a random variable is often denoted by , , or , with also often stylized as or" ], [ "History", "The idea of the expected value originated in the middle of the 17th century from the study of the so-called problem of points, which seeks to divide the stakes ''in a fair way'' between two players, who have to end their game before it is properly finished.", "This problem had been debated for centuries.", "Many conflicting proposals and solutions had been suggested over the years when it was posed to Blaise Pascal by French writer and amateur mathematician Chevalier de Méré in 1654.Méré claimed that this problem could not be solved and that it showed just how flawed mathematics was when it came to its application to the real world.", "Pascal, being a mathematician, was provoked and determined to solve the problem once and for all.He began to discuss the problem in the famous series of letters to Pierre de Fermat.", "Soon enough, they both independently came up with a solution.", "They solved the problem in different computational ways, but their results were identical because their computations were based on the same fundamental principle.", "The principle is that the value of a future gain should be directly proportional to the chance of getting it.", "This principle seemed to have come naturally to both of them.", "They were very pleased by the fact that they had found essentially the same solution, and this in turn made them absolutely convinced that they had solved the problem conclusively; however, they did not publish their findings.", "They only informed a small circle of mutual scientific friends in Paris about it.In Dutch mathematician Christiaan Huygens' book, he considered the problem of points, and presented a solution based on the same principle as the solutions of Pascal and Fermat.", "Huygens published his treatise in 1657, (see Huygens (1657)) \"''De ratiociniis in ludo aleæ''\" on probability theory just after visiting Paris.", "The book extended the concept of expectation by adding rules for how to calculate expectations in more complicated situations than the original problem (e.g., for three or more players), and can be seen as the first successful attempt at laying down the foundations of the theory of probability.In the foreword to his treatise, Huygens wrote:During his visit to France in 1655, Huygens learned about de Méré's Problem.", "From his correspondence with Carcavine a year later (in 1656), he realized his method was essentially the same as Pascal's.", "Therefore, he knew about Pascal's priority in this subject before his book went to press in 1657.In the mid-nineteenth century, Pafnuty Chebyshev became the first person to think systematically in terms of the expectations of random variables.===Etymology===Neither Pascal nor Huygens used the term \"expectation\" in its modern sense.", "In particular, Huygens writes:More than a hundred years later, in 1814, Pierre-Simon Laplace published his tract \"''Théorie analytique des probabilités''\", where the concept of expected value was defined explicitly:" ], [ "Notations", "The use of the letter to denote \"expected value\" goes back to W. A. Whitworth in 1901.The symbol has since become popular for English writers.", "In German, stands for ''Erwartungswert'', in Spanish for ''esperanza matemática'', and in French for ''espérance mathématique.", "''When \"E\" is used to denote \"expected value\", authors use a variety of stylizations: the expectation operator can be stylized as (upright), (italic), or (in blackboard bold), while a variety of bracket notations (such as , , and ) are all used.Another popular notation is , whereas , , and are commonly used in physics, and in Russian-language literature." ], [ "Definition", "As discussed above, there are several context-dependent ways of defining the expected value.", "The simplest and original definition deals with the case of finitely many possible outcomes, such as in the flip of a coin.", "With the theory of infinite series, this can be extended to the case of countably many possible outcomes.", "It is also very common to consider the distinct case of random variables dictated by (piecewise-)continuous probability density functions, as these arise in many natural contexts.", "All of these specific definitions may be viewed as special cases of the general definition based upon the mathematical tools of measure theory and Lebesgue integration, which provide these different contexts with an axiomatic foundation and common language.Any definition of expected value may be extended to define an expected value of a multidimensional random variable, i.e.", "a random vector .", "It is defined component by component, as .", "Similarly, one may define the expected value of a random matrix with components by .===Random variables with finitely many outcomes===Consider a random variable with a ''finite'' list of possible outcomes, each of which (respectively) has probability of occurring.", "The expectation of is defined as:Since the probabilities must satisfy , it is natural to interpret as a weighted average of the values, with weights given by their probabilities .In the special case that all possible outcomes are equiprobable (that is, ), the weighted average is given by the standard average.", "In the general case, the expected value takes into account the fact that some outcomes are more likely than others.====Examples====An illustration of the convergence of sequence averages of rolls of a die to the expected value of 3.5 as the number of rolls (trials) grows* Let represent the outcome of a roll of a fair six-sided .", "More specifically, will be the number of pips showing on the top face of the after the toss.", "The possible values for are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, all of which are equally likely with a probability of .", "The expectation of is:::If one rolls the times and computes the average (arithmetic mean) of the results, then as grows, the average will almost surely converge to the expected value, a fact known as the strong law of large numbers.", "* The roulette game consists of a small ball and a wheel with 38 numbered pockets around the edge.", "As the wheel is spun, the ball bounces around randomly until it settles down in one of the pockets.", "Suppose random variable represents the (monetary) outcome of a $1 bet on a single number (\"straight up\" bet).", "If the bet wins (which happens with probability in American roulette), the payoff is $35; otherwise the player loses the bet.", "The expected profit from such a bet will be:::That is, the expected value to be won from a $1 bet is −$.", "Thus, in 190 bets, the net loss will probably be about $10.===Random variables with countably infinitely many outcomes===Informally, the expectation of a random variable with a countably infinite set of possible outcomes is defined analogously as the weighted average of all possible outcomes, where the weights are given by the probabilities of realizing each given value.", "This is to say that:where are the possible outcomes of the random variable and are their corresponding probabilities.", "In many non-mathematical textbooks, this is presented as the full definition of expected values in this context.However, there are some subtleties with infinite summation, so the above formula is not suitable as a mathematical definition.", "In particular, the Riemann series theorem of mathematical analysis illustrates that the value of certain infinite sums involving positive and negative summands depends on the order in which the summands are given.", "Since the outcomes of a random variable have no naturally given order, this creates a difficulty in defining expected value precisely.For this reason, many mathematical textbooks only consider the case that the infinite sum given above converges absolutely, which implies that the infinite sum is a finite number independent of the ordering of summands.", "In the alternative case that the infinite sum does not converge absolutely, one says the random variable ''does not have finite expectation.", "''====Examples====* Suppose and for where is the scaling factor which makes the probabilities sum to 1.Then we have ===Random variables with density===Now consider a random variable which has a probability density function given by a function on the real number line.", "This means that the probability of taking on a value in any given open interval is given by the integral of over that interval.", "The expectation of is then given by the integral:A general and mathematically precise formulation of this definition uses measure theory and Lebesgue integration, and the corresponding theory of ''absolutely continuous random variables'' is described in the next section.", "The density functions of many common distributions are piecewise continuous, and as such the theory is often developed in this restricted setting.", "For such functions, it is sufficient to only consider the standard Riemann integration.", "Sometimes ''continuous random variables'' are defined as those corresponding to this special class of densities, although the term is used differently by various authors.Analogously to the countably-infinite case above, there are subtleties with this expression due to the infinite region of integration.", "Such subtleties can be seen concretely if the distribution of is given by the Cauchy distribution , so that .", "It is straightforward to compute in this case that:The limit of this expression as and does not exist: if the limits are taken so that , then the limit is zero, while if the constraint is taken, then the limit is .To avoid such ambiguities, in mathematical textbooks it is common to require that the given integral converges absolutely, with left undefined otherwise.", "However, measure-theoretic notions as given below can be used to give a systematic definition of for more general random variables .===Arbitrary real-valued random variables===All definitions of the expected value may be expressed in the language of measure theory.", "In general, if is a real-valued random variable defined on a probability space , then the expected value of , denoted by , is defined as the Lebesgue integral:Despite the newly abstract situation, this definition is extremely similar in nature to the very simplest definition of expected values, given above, as certain weighted averages.", "This is because, in measure theory, the value of the Lebesgue integral of is defined via weighted averages of ''approximations'' of which take on finitely many values.", "Moreover, if given a random variable with finitely or countably many possible values, the Lebesgue theory of expectation is identical with the summation formulas given above.", "However, the Lebesgue theory clarifies the scope of the theory of probability density functions.", "A random variable is said to be ''absolutely continuous'' if any of the following conditions are satisfied:* there is a nonnegative measurable function on the real line such that:::for any Borel set , in which the integral is Lebesgue.", "* the cumulative distribution function of is absolutely continuous.", "* for any Borel set of real numbers with Lebesgue measure equal to zero, the probability of being valued in is also equal to zero* for any positive number there is a positive number such that: if is a Borel set with Lebesgue measure less than , then the probability of being valued in is less than .These conditions are all equivalent, although this is nontrivial to establish.", "In this definition, is called the ''probability density function'' of (relative to Lebesgue measure).", "According to the change-of-variables formula for Lebesgue integration, combined with the law of the unconscious statistician, it follows that:for any absolutely continuous random variable .", "The above discussion of continuous random variables is thus a special case of the general Lebesgue theory, due to the fact that every piecewise-continuous function is measurable.borderThe expected value of any real-valued random variable can also be defined on the graph of its cumulative distribution function by a nearby equality of areas.", "In fact, with a real number if and only if the two surfaces in the --plane, described by: or respectively, have the same finite area, i.e.", "if:and both improper Riemann integrals converge.", "Finally, this is equivalent to the representation:also with convergent integrals.===Infinite expected values===Expected values as defined above are automatically finite numbers.", "However, in many cases it is fundamental to be able to consider expected values of .", "This is intuitive, for example, in the case of the St. Petersburg paradox, in which one considers a random variable with possible outcomes , with associated probabilities , for ranging over all positive integers.", "According to the summation formula in the case of random variables with countably many outcomes, one hasIt is natural to say that the expected value equals .There is a rigorous mathematical theory underlying such ideas, which is often taken as part of the definition of the Lebesgue integral.", "The first fundamental observation is that, whichever of the above definitions are followed, any ''nonnegative'' random variable whatsoever can be given an unambiguous expected value; whenever absolute convergence fails, then the expected value can be defined as .", "The second fundamental observation is that any random variable can be written as the difference of two nonnegative random variables.", "Given a random variable , one defines the positive and negative parts by and .", "These are nonnegative random variables, and it can be directly checked that .", "Since and are both then defined as either nonnegative numbers or , it is then natural to define:According to this definition, exists and is finite if and only if and are both finite.", "Due to the formula , this is the case if and only if is finite, and this is equivalent to the absolute convergence conditions in the definitions above.", "As such, the present considerations do not define finite expected values in any cases not previously considered; they are only useful for infinite expectations.", "* In the case of the St. Petersburg paradox, one has and so as desired.", "* Suppose the random variable takes values with respective probabilities .", "Then it follows that takes value with probability for each positive integer , and takes value with remaining probability.", "Similarly, takes value with probability for each positive integer and takes value with remaining probability.", "Using the definition for non-negative random variables, one can show that both and (see Harmonic series).", "Hence, in this case the expectation of is undefined.", "* Similarly, the Cauchy distribution, as discussed above, has undefined expectation." ], [ "Expected values of common distributions", "The following table gives the expected values of some commonly occurring probability distributions.", "The third column gives the expected values both in the form immediately given by the definition, as well as in the simplified form obtained by computation therefrom.", "The details of these computations, which are not always straightforward, can be found in the indicated references.DistributionNotationMean E(X)BernoulliBinomialPoissonGeometricUniformExponentialNormalStandard NormalParetoCauchy is undefined" ], [ "Properties", "The basic properties below (and their names in bold) replicate or follow immediately from those of Lebesgue integral.", "Note that the letters \"a.s.\" stand for \"almost surely\"—a central property of the Lebesgue integral.", "Basically, one says that an inequality like is true almost surely, when the probability measure attributes zero-mass to the complementary event * Non-negativity: If (a.s.), then * Linearity of expectation: The expected value operator (or ''expectation operator'') is linear in the sense that, for any random variables and and a constant :whenever the right-hand side is well-defined.", "By induction, this means that the expected value of the sum of any finite number of random variables is the sum of the expected values of the individual random variables, and the expected value scales linearly with a multiplicative constant.", "Symbolically, for random variables and constants we have If we think of the set of random variables with finite expected value as forming a vector space, then the linearity of expectation implies that the expected value is a linear form on this vector space.", "* Monotonicity: If (a.s.), and both and exist, then Proof follows from the linearity and the non-negativity property for since (a.s.).", "* Non-degeneracy: If then (a.s.).", "* If (a.s.), then In other words, if X and Y are random variables that take different values with probability zero, then the expectation of X will equal the expectation of Y.", "* If (a.s.) for some real number , then In particular, for a random variable with well-defined expectation, A well defined expectation implies that there is one number, or rather, one constant that defines the expected value.", "Thus follows that the expectation of this constant is just the original expected value.", "* As a consequence of the formula as discussed above, together with the triangle inequality, it follows that for any random variable with well-defined expectation, one has * Let denote the indicator function of an event , then is given by the probability of .", "This is nothing but a different way of stating the expectation of a Bernoulli random variable, as calculated in the table above.", "* Formulas in terms of CDF: If is the cumulative distribution function of a random variable , then::where the values on both sides are well defined or not well defined simultaneously, and the integral is taken in the sense of Lebesgue-Stieltjes.", "As a consequence of integration by parts as applied to this representation of , it can be proved that with the integrals taken in the sense of Lebesgue.", "As a special case, for any random variable valued in the nonnegative integers , one has :where denotes the underlying probability measure.", "* Non-multiplicativity: In general, the expected value is not multiplicative, i.e.", "is not necessarily equal to If and are independent, then one can show that If the random variables are dependent, then generally although in special cases of dependency the equality may hold.", "* Law of the unconscious statistician: The expected value of a measurable function of given that has a probability density function is given by the inner product of and : This formula also holds in multidimensional case, when is a function of several random variables, and is their joint density.=== Inequalities===Concentration inequalities control the likelihood of a random variable taking on large values.", "Markov's inequality is among the best-known and simplest to prove: for a ''nonnegative'' random variable and any positive number , it states that If is any random variable with finite expectation, then Markov's inequality may be applied to the random variable to obtain Chebyshev's inequality where is the variance.", "These inequalities are significant for their nearly complete lack of conditional assumptions.", "For example, for any random variable with finite expectation, the Chebyshev inequality implies that there is at least a 75% probability of an outcome being within two standard deviations of the expected value.", "However, in special cases the Markov and Chebyshev inequalities often give much weaker information than is otherwise available.", "For example, in the case of an unweighted die, Chebyshev's inequality says that odds of rolling between 1 and 6 is at least 53%; in reality, the odds are of course 100%.", "The Kolmogorov inequality extends the Chebyshev inequality to the context of sums of random variables.The following three inequalities are of fundamental importance in the field of mathematical analysis and its applications to probability theory.", "* Jensen's inequality: Let be a convex function and a random variable with finite expectation.", "Then :Part of the assertion is that the negative part of has finite expectation, so that the right-hand side is well-defined (possibly infinite).", "Convexity of can be phrased as saying that the output of the weighted average of ''two'' inputs under-estimates the same weighted average of the two outputs; Jensen's inequality extends this to the setting of completely general weighted averages, as represented by the expectation.", "In the special case that for positive numbers , one obtains the Lyapunov inequality :This can also be proved by the Hölder inequality.", "In measure theory, this is particularly notable for proving the inclusion of , in the special case of probability spaces.", "* Hölder's inequality: if and are numbers satisfying , then : for any random variables and .", "The special case of is called the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, and is particularly well-known.", "* Minkowski inequality: given any number , for any random variables and with and both finite, it follows that is also finite and The Hölder and Minkowski inequalities can be extended to general measure spaces, and are often given in that context.", "By contrast, the Jensen inequality is special to the case of probability spaces.===Expectations under convergence of random variables===In general, it is not the case that even if pointwise.", "Thus, one cannot interchange limits and expectation, without additional conditions on the random variables.", "To see this, let be a random variable distributed uniformly on For define a sequence of random variables:with being the indicator function of the event Then, it follows that pointwise.", "But, for each Hence, Analogously, for general sequence of random variables the expected value operator is not -additive, i.e.", ":An example is easily obtained by setting and for where is as in the previous example.A number of convergence results specify exact conditions which allow one to interchange limits and expectations, as specified below.", "* Monotone convergence theorem: Let be a sequence of random variables, with (a.s) for each Furthermore, let pointwise.", "Then, the monotone convergence theorem states that Using the monotone convergence theorem, one can show that expectation indeed satisfies countable additivity for non-negative random variables.", "In particular, let be non-negative random variables.", "It follows from monotone convergence theorem that * Fatou's lemma: Let be a sequence of non-negative random variables.", "Fatou's lemma states that '''Corollary.'''", "Let with for all If (a.s), then '''Proof''' is by observing that (a.s.) and applying Fatou's lemma.", "* Dominated convergence theorem: Let be a sequence of random variables.", "If pointwise (a.s.), (a.s.), and Then, according to the dominated convergence theorem, ; ** * Uniform integrability: In some cases, the equality holds when the sequence is ''uniformly integrable.", "''===Relationship with characteristic function===The probability density function of a scalar random variable is related to its characteristic function by the inversion formula::For the expected value of (where is a Borel function), we can use this inversion formula to obtain:If is finite, changing the order of integration, we get, in accordance with Fubini–Tonelli theorem,:where:is the Fourier transform of The expression for also follows directly from the Plancherel theorem." ], [ "Uses and applications", "The expectation of a random variable plays an important role in a variety of contexts.In statistics, where one seeks estimates for unknown parameters based on available data gained from samples, the sample mean serves as an estimate for the expectation, and is itself a random variable.", "In such settings, the sample mean is considered to meet the desirable criterion for a \"good\" estimator in being unbiased; that is, the expected value of the estimate is equal to the true value of the underlying parameter.", "For a different example, in decision theory, an agent making an optimal choice in the context of incomplete information is often assumed to maximize the expected value of their utility function.It is possible to construct an expected value equal to the probability of an event by taking the expectation of an indicator function that is one if the event has occurred and zero otherwise.", "This relationship can be used to translate properties of expected values into properties of probabilities, e.g.", "using the law of large numbers to justify estimating probabilities by frequencies.The expected values of the powers of ''X'' are called the moments of ''X''; the moments about the mean of ''X'' are expected values of powers of .", "The moments of some random variables can be used to specify their distributions, via their moment generating functions.To empirically estimate the expected value of a random variable, one repeatedly measures observations of the variable and computes the arithmetic mean of the results.", "If the expected value exists, this procedure estimates the true expected value in an unbiased manner and has the property of minimizing the sum of the squares of the residuals (the sum of the squared differences between the observations and the estimate).", "The law of large numbers demonstrates (under fairly mild conditions) that, as the size of the sample gets larger, the variance of this estimate gets smaller.This property is often exploited in a wide variety of applications, including general problems of statistical estimation and machine learning, to estimate (probabilistic) quantities of interest via Monte Carlo methods, since most quantities of interest can be written in terms of expectation, e.g.", "where is the indicator function of the set The mass of probability distribution is balanced at the expected value, here a Beta(α,β) distribution with expected value α/(α+β).In classical mechanics, the center of mass is an analogous concept to expectation.", "For example, suppose ''X'' is a discrete random variable with values ''xi'' and corresponding probabilities ''pi.''", "Now consider a weightless rod on which are placed weights, at locations ''xi'' along the rod and having masses ''pi'' (whose sum is one).", "The point at which the rod balances is E''X''.Expected values can also be used to compute the variance, by means of the computational formula for the variance:A very important application of the expectation value is in the field of quantum mechanics.", "The expectation value of a quantum mechanical operator operating on a quantum state vector is written as The uncertainty in can be calculated by the formula ." ], [ "See also", "* Central tendency* Conditional expectation* Expectation (epistemic)* Law of total expectation – the expected value of the conditional expected value of ''X'' given ''Y'' is the same as the expected value of ''X''* Nonlinear expectation – a generalization of the expected value* Population mean* Predicted value* Wald's equation – an equation for calculating the expected value of a random number of random variables" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Electric light" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''electric light''', '''lamp''', or '''light bulb''' is an electrical component that produces light.", "It is the most common form of artificial lighting.", "Lamps usually have a base made of ceramic, metal, glass, or plastic, which secures the lamp in the socket of a light fixture, which is often called a \"lamp\" as well.", "The electrical connection to the socket may be made with a screw-thread base, two metal pins, two metal caps or a bayonet mount.The three main categories of electric lights are incandescent lamps, which produce light by a filament heated white-hot by electric current, gas-discharge lamps, which produce light by means of an electric arc through a gas, such as fluorescent lamps, and LED lamps, which produce light by a flow of electrons across a band gap in a semiconductor.The energy efficiency of electric lighting has increased radically since the first demonstration of arc lamps and the incandescent light bulb of the 19th century.", "Modern electric light sources come in a profusion of types and sizes adapted to many applications.", "Most modern electric lighting is powered by centrally generated electric power, but lighting may also be powered by mobile or standby electric generators or battery systems.", "Battery-powered light is often reserved for when and where stationary lights fail, often in the form of flashlights or electric lanterns, as well as in vehicles." ], [ "History", "Before electric lighting became common in the early 20th century, people used candles, gas lights, oil lamps, and fires.", "In 1799–1800, Alessandro Volta created the voltaic pile, the first electric battery.", "Current from these batteries could heat copper wire to incandescence.", "Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov developed the first persistent electric arc in 1802, and English chemist Humphry Davy gave a practical demonstration of an arc light in 1806.In 1840, Warren de la Rue enclosed a platinum coil in a vacuum tube and passed an electric current through it, thus creating one of the world's first electric light bulbs.", "The design was based on the concept that the high melting point of platinum would allow it to operate at high temperatures and that the evacuated chamber would contain fewer gas molecules to react with the platinum, improving its longevity.", "Although it was an efficient design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use.William Greener, an English inventor, made significant contributions to early electric lighting with his lamp in 1846 (patent specification 11076), laying the groundwork for future innovations such as Thomas Edison.The late 1870s and 1880s were marked by intense competition and innovation, with inventors like Joseph Swan in the UK and Thomas Edison in the US independently developing functional incandescent lamps.", "Swan's bulbs, based on designs by William Staite, were successful, but the filaments were too thick.", "Edison worked to create bulbs with thinner filaments, leading to a better design.", "The rivalry between Swan and Edison eventually led to a merger, forming the Edison and Swan Electric Light Company.", "By the early twentieth century these had completely replaced arc lamps.While the ability of wires to illuminate when supplied with current was first discovered during the Enlightenment, it took more than a century of continuous and incremental improvement, including numerous designs, patents, and resulting intellectual property disputes, until incandescent light bulbs became commercially available in the 1920s.", "The first home to be lit by an electric light was Underhill, the home of Joseph Swan, around 1880.The turn of the century saw further improvements in bulb longevity and efficiency, notably with the introduction of the tungsten filament by William D. Coolidge, who applied for a patent in 1912.This innovation became a standard for incandescent bulbs for many years.In 1910, Georges Claude introduced the first neon light, paving the way for neon signs which would become ubiquitous in advertising.In 1934, Arthur Compton, a renowned physicist and GE consultant, reported to the GE lamp department on successful experiments with fluorescent lighting at General Electric Co., Ltd. in Great Britain (unrelated to General Electric in the United States).", "Stimulated by this report, and with all of the key elements available, a team led by George E. Inman built a prototype fluorescent lamp in 1934 at General Electric’s Nela Park (Ohio) engineering laboratory.", "This was not a trivial exercise; as noted by Arthur A.", "Bright, \"A great deal of experimentation had to be done on lamp sizes and shapes, cathode construction, gas pressures of both argon and mercury vapor, colors of fluorescent powders, methods of attaching them to the inside of the tube, and other details of the lamp and its auxiliaries before the new device was ready for the public.", "\"The first practical LED arrived in 1962.=== U.S. transition to LED bulbs ===In the United States, incandescent light bulbs including halogen bulbs will stop being sold effective August 2023, because they do not meet minimum lumens per watt performance metrics established by the U.S. Department of Energy.", "Compact fluorescent bulbs are also banned despite their lumens per watt performance, because of their toxic mercury that can be released into the home if broken and widespread problems with proper disposal of mercury-containing bulbs." ], [ "Types", "=== Incandescent ===Sign with instructions on the use of light bulbsSt John the Baptist Church, Hagley commemorates the installation of electric light in 1934.In its modern form, the incandescent light bulb consists of a coiled filament of tungsten sealed in a globular glass chamber, either a vacuum or full of an inert gas such as argon.", "When an electric current is connected, the tungsten is heated to 2,000 to 3,300 K (1,730 to 3,030 °C; 3,140 to 5,480 °F) and glows, emitting light that approximates a continuous spectrum.Incandescent bulbs are highly inefficient, in that just 2–5% of the energy consumed is emitted as visible, usable light.", "The remaining 95% is lost as heat.", "In warmer climates, the emitted heat must then be removed, putting additional pressure on ventilation or air conditioning systems.", "In colder weather, the heat byproduct has some value, and has been successfully harnessed for warming in devices such as heat lamps.", "Incandescent bulbs are nonetheless being phased out in favor of technologies like CFLs and LED bulbs in many countries due to their low energy efficiency.", "The European Commission estimated in 2012 that a complete ban on incandescent bulbs would contribute 5 to 10 billion euros to the economy and save 15 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.=== Halogen ===Halogen lamps are usually much smaller than standard incandescent lamps, because for successful operation a bulb temperature over 200 °C is generally necessary.", "For this reason, most have a bulb of fused silica (quartz) or aluminosilicate glass.", "This is often sealed inside an additional layer of glass.", "The outer glass is a safety precaution, to reduce ultraviolet emission and to contain hot glass shards should the inner envelope explode during operation.", "Oily residue from fingerprints may cause a hot quartz envelope to shatter due to excessive heat buildup at the contamination site.", "The risk of burns or fire is also greater with bare bulbs, leading to their prohibition in some places, unless enclosed by the luminaire.Those designed for 12- or 24-volt operation have compact filaments, useful for good optical control.", "Also, they have higher efficacies (lumens per watt) and longer lives than non-halogen types.", "The light output remains almost constant throughout their life.=== Fluorescent ===Top, two compact fluorescent lamps.", "Bottom, two fluorescent tube lamps.", "A matchstick, left, is shown for scale.Fluorescent lamps consist of a glass tube that contains mercury vapour or argon under low pressure.", "Electricity flowing through the tube causes the gases to give off ultraviolet energy.", "The inside of the tubes are coated with phosphors that give off visible light when struck by ultraviolet photons.", "They have much higher efficiency than incandescent lamps.", "For the same amount of light generated, they typically use around one-quarter to one-third the power of an incandescent.", "The typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with comparable light output.", "Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps, because they require a ballast to regulate the current through the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost.", "Compact fluorescent lamps are available in the same popular sizes as incandescent lamps and are used as an energy-saving alternative in homes.", "Because they contain mercury, many fluorescent lamps are classified as hazardous waste.", "The United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends that fluorescent lamps be segregated from general waste for recycling or safe disposal, and some jurisdictions require recycling of them.=== LED ===LED lamp with E27 Edison screw baseThe solid-state light-emitting diode (LED) has been popular as an indicator light in consumer electronics and professional audio gear since the 1970s.", "In the 2000s, efficacy and output have risen to the point where LEDs are now being used in lighting applications such as car headlights and brake lights, in flashlights and bicycle lights, as well as in decorative applications, such as holiday lighting.", "Indicator LEDs are known for their extremely long life, up to 100,000 hours, but lighting LEDs are operated much less conservatively, and consequently have shorter lives.", "LED technology is useful for lighting designers, because of its low power consumption, low heat generation, instantaneous on/off control, and in the case of single color LEDs, continuity of color throughout the life of the diode and relatively low cost of manufacture.", "LED lifetime depends strongly on the temperature of the diode.", "Operating an LED lamp in conditions that increase the internal temperature can greatly shorten the lamp's life.", "Some lasers have been adapted as an alternative to LEDs to provide highly focused illumination.=== Carbon arc ===xenon short-arc lamp used in the IMAX projection system.mercury arc lamp from a fluorescence microscope.Carbon arc lamps consist of two carbon rod electrodes in open air, supplied by a current-limiting ballast.", "The electric arc is struck by touching the rod tips then separating them.", "The ensuing arc produces a white-hot plasma between the rod tips.", "These lamps have higher efficacy than filament lamps, but the carbon rods are short-lived and require constant adjustment in use, as the intense heat of the arc erodes them.", "The lamps produce significant ultraviolet output, they require ventilation when used indoors, and due to their intensity they need protection from direct sight.Invented by Humphry Davy around 1805, the carbon arc was the first practical electric light.", "It was used commercially beginning in the 1870s for large building and street lighting until it was superseded in the early 20th century by the incandescent light.", "Carbon arc lamps operate at high power and produce high intensity white light.", "They also are a point source of light.", "They remained in use in limited applications that required these properties, such as movie projectors, stage lighting, and searchlights, until after World War II.=== Discharge ===A discharge lamp has a glass or silica envelope containing two metal electrodes separated by a gas.", "Gases used include, neon, argon, xenon, sodium, metal halides, and mercury.", "The core operating principle is much the same as the carbon arc lamp, but the term \"arc lamp\" normally refers to carbon arc lamps, with more modern types of gas discharge lamp normally called discharge lamps.", "With some discharge lamps, very high voltage is used to strike the arc.", "This requires an electrical circuit called an igniter, which is part of the electrical ballast circuitry.", "After the arc is struck, the internal resistance of the lamp drops to a low level, and the ballast limits the current to the operating current.", "Without a ballast, excess current would flow, causing rapid destruction of the lamp.Some lamp types contain a small amount of neon, which permits striking at normal running voltage with no external ignition circuitry.", "Low-pressure sodium lamps operate this way.", "The simplest ballasts are just an inductor, and are chosen where cost is the deciding factor, such as street lighting.", "More advanced electronic ballasts may be designed to maintain constant light output over the life of the lamp, may drive the lamp with a square wave to maintain completely flicker-free output, and shut down in the event of certain faults.The most efficient source of electric light is the low-pressure sodium lamp.", "It produces, for all practical purposes, a monochromatic orange-yellow light, which gives a similarly monochromatic perception of any illuminated scene.", "For this reason, it is generally reserved for outdoor public lighting applications.", "Low-pressure sodium lights are favoured for public lighting by astronomers, since the light pollution that they generate can be easily filtered, contrary to broadband or continuous spectra." ], [ "Characteristics", "=== Form factor ===Many lamp units, or light bulbs, are specified in standardized shape codes and socket names.", "Incandescent bulbs and their retrofit replacements are often specified as \"A19/A60 E26/E27\", a common size for those kinds of light bulbs.", "In this example, the \"A\" parameters describe the bulb size and shape within the A-series light bulb while the \"E\" parameters describe the Edison screw base size and thread characteristics.=== Comparison parameters ===Common comparison parameters include:* Luminous flux (in lumens)* Energy consumption (in watts)* Luminous efficacy (in lumens per watt)* Color temperature (in kelvins)Less common parameters include color rendering index (CRI).=== Life expectancy ===Life expectancy for many types of lamp is defined as the number of hours of operation at which 50% of them fail, that is the median life of the lamps.", "Production tolerances as low as 1% can create a variance of 25% in lamp life, so in general some lamps will fail well before the rated life expectancy, and some will last much longer.", "For LEDs, lamp life is defined as the operation time at which 50% of lamps have experienced a 70% decrease in light output.", "In the 1900s the Phoebus cartel formed in an attempt to reduce the life of electric light bulbs, an example of planned obsolescence.", "Some types of lamp are also sensitive to switching cycles.", "Rooms with frequent switching, such as bathrooms, can expect much shorter lamp life than what is printed on the box.", "Compact fluorescent lamps are particularly sensitive to switching cycles." ], [ "Uses", "A clear glass 60 W light bulbThe total amount of artificial light (especially from street light) is sufficient for cities to be easily visible at night from the air, and from space.", "External lighting grew at a rate of 3–6 percent for the later half of the 20th century and is the major source of light pollution that burdens astronomers and others with 80% of the world's population living in areas with night time light pollution.", "Light pollution has been shown to have a negative effect on some wildlife.Electric lamps can be used as heat sources, for example in incubators, as infrared lamps in fast food restaurants and toys such as the Kenner Easy-Bake Oven.Lamps can also be used for light therapy to deal with such issues as vitamin D deficiency, skin conditions such as acne and dermatitis, skin cancers, and seasonal affective disorder.", "Lamps which emit a specific frequency of blue light are also used to treat neonatal jaundice with the treatment which was initially undertaken in hospitals being able to be conducted at home.Electric lamps can also be used as a grow light to aid in plant growth especially in indoor hydroponics and aquatic plants with recent research into the most effective types of light for plant growth.Due to their nonlinear resistance characteristics, tungsten filament lamps have long been used as fast-acting thermistors in electronic circuits.", "Popular uses have included:* Stabilization of sine wave oscillators* Protection of tweeters in loudspeaker enclosures; excess current that is too high for the tweeter illuminates the light rather than destroying the tweeter.", "* Automatic volume control in telephones" ], [ "Cultural symbolism", "In Western culture, a lightbulb — in particular, the appearance of an illuminated lightbulb above a person's head — signifies sudden inspiration.In the Middle East, a light bulb symbol has a sexual connotation.A stylized depiction of a light bulb features as the logo of the Turkish AK Party." ], [ "See also", "* Flameless candle* Light tube* List of light sources" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dark Sacred Night\" (2023) is a short science film from the Princeton University Office of Sustainability about lighting obscuring the stars and affecting health and the environment." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Edgar Rice Burroughs" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edgar Rice Burroughs''' (September 1, 1875 – March 19, 1950) was an American writer, best known for his prolific output in the adventure, science fiction, and fantasy genres.", "Best known for creating the characters Tarzan and John Carter, he also wrote the ''Pellucidar'' series, the ''Amtor'' series, and the ''Caspak'' trilogy.Tarzan was immediately popular, and Burroughs capitalized on it in every possible way, including a syndicated Tarzan comic strip, films, and merchandise.", "Tarzan remains one of the most successful fictional characters to this day and is a cultural icon.", "Burroughs's California ranch is now the center of the Tarzana neighborhood in Los Angeles, named after the character.", "Burroughs was an explicit supporter of eugenics and scientific racism in both his fiction and nonfiction; Tarzan was meant to reflect these concepts." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life and family===Burroughs was born on September 1, 1875, in Chicago (he later lived for many years in the suburb of Oak Park), the fourth son of Major George Tyler Burroughs, a businessman and Civil War veteran, and his wife, Mary Evaline (Zieger) Burroughs.", "His middle name is from his paternal grandmother, Mary Coleman Rice Burroughs.Burroughs was of almost entirely English ancestry, with a family line that had been in North America since the Colonial era.Through his Rice grandmother, Burroughs was descended from settler Edmund Rice, one of the English Puritans who moved to Massachusetts Bay Colony in the early 17th century.", "He once remarked: \"I can trace my ancestry back to Deacon Edmund Rice.", "\"The Burroughs side of the family was also of English origin, having emigrated to Massachusetts around the same time.", "Many of his ancestors fought in the American Revolution.", "Some of his ancestors settled in Virginia during the colonial period, and Burroughs often emphasized his connection with that side of his family, seeing it as romantic and warlike.Burroughs was educated at a number of local schools.", "He then attended Phillips Academy, in Andover, Massachusetts, and then the Michigan Military Academy.", "Graduating in 1895, but failing the entrance exam for the United States Military Academy at West Point, he instead became an enlisted soldier with the 7th U.S. Cavalry in Fort Grant, Arizona Territory.", "After being diagnosed with a heart problem and thus ineligible to serve, he was discharged in 1897.Burroughs's bookplate, showing Tarzan holding the planet Mars, surrounded by other characters from his stories and symbols relating to his personal interests and career.Typescript letter, with Tarzana Ranch letterhead, from Burroughs to Ruthven Deane, explaining the design and significance of his bookplate.After his discharge, Burroughs worked at a number of different jobs.", "During the Chicago influenza epidemic of 1891, he spent half a year at his brother's ranch on the Raft River in Idaho, as a cowboy, drifted somewhat afterward, then worked at his father's Chicago battery factory in 1899, marrying his childhood sweetheart, Emma Hulbert (1876–1944), in January 1900.In 1903, Burroughs joined his brothers, Yale graduates George and Harry, who were, by then, prominent Pocatello area ranchers in southern Idaho, and partners in the Sweetser-Burroughs Mining Company, where he took on managing their ill-fated Snake River gold dredge, a classic bucket-line dredge.", "The Burroughs brothers were also the sixth cousins, once removed, of famed miner Kate Rice who, in 1914, became the first female prospector in the Canadian North.", "Journalist and publisher C. Allen Thorndike Rice was also his third cousin.When the new mine proved unsuccessful, the brothers secured for Burroughs a position with the Oregon Short Line Railroad in Salt Lake City.", "Burroughs resigned from the railroad in October 1904.===Later life===By 1911, around age 36, after seven years of low wages as a pencil-sharpener wholesaler, Burroughs began to write fiction.", "By this time, Emma and he had two children, Joan (1908–1972), and Hulbert (1909–1991).", "During this period, he had copious spare time and began reading pulp-fiction magazines.", "In 1929, he recalled thinking that:In 1913, Burroughs and Emma had their third and last child, John Coleman Burroughs (1913–1979), later known for his illustrations of his father's books.In the 1920s, Burroughs became a pilot, purchased a Security Airster S-1, and encouraged his family to learn to fly.Daughter Joan married ''Tarzan'' film actor James Pierce.", "She starred with her husband as the voice of ''Jane'', during 1932–1934 for the ''Tarzan'' radio series.Burroughs divorced Emma in 1934, and, in 1935, married the former actress Florence Gilbert Dearholt, who was the former wife of his friend (who was then himself remarrying), Ashton Dearholt, with whom he had co-founded Burroughs-Tarzan Enterprises while filming ''The New Adventures of Tarzan''.", "Burroughs adopted the Dearholts' two children.", "He and Florence divorced in 1942.Burroughs was in his late 60s and was in Honolulu at the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.", "Despite his age, he applied for and received permission to become a war correspondent, becoming one of the oldest U.S. war correspondents during World War II.", "This period of his life is mentioned in William Brinkley's bestselling novel ''Don't Go Near the Water''.===Death===After the war ended, Burroughs moved back to Encino, California, where after many health problems, he died of a heart attack on March 19, 1950, having written almost 80 novels.", "He is buried in Tarzana, California, US.At the time of his death he was believed to have been the writer who had made the most from films, earning over US$2 million in royalties from 27 Tarzan pictures.The Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted Burroughs in 2003." ], [ "Literary career", "Aiming his work at the pulps—under the name \"Norman Bean\" to protect his reputation—Burroughs had his first story, ''Under the Moons of Mars'', serialized by Frank Munsey in the February to July 1912 issues of ''The All-Story''.", "''Under the Moons of Mars'' inaugurated the ''Barsoom'' series, introduced John Carter, and earned Burroughs ($11,922 today).", "It was first published as a book by A. C. McClurg of Chicago in 1917, entitled ''A Princess of Mars'', after three Barsoom sequels had appeared as serials and McClurg had published the first four serial Tarzan novels as books.Burroughs soon took up writing full-time, and by the time the run of ''Under the Moons of Mars'' had finished, he had completed two novels, including ''Tarzan of the Apes'', published from October 1912 and one of his most successful series.Burroughs also wrote popular science fiction and fantasy stories involving adventurers from Earth transported to various planets (notably Barsoom, Burroughs's fictional name for Mars, and Amtor, his fictional name for Venus), lost islands (Caspak), and into the interior of the Hollow Earth in his ''Pellucidar'' stories.", "He also wrote Westerns and historical romances.", "Besides those published in ''All-Story'', many of his stories were published in ''The Argosy'' magazine.Tarzan was a cultural sensation when introduced.", "Burroughs was determined to capitalize on Tarzan's popularity in every way possible.", "He planned to exploit Tarzan through several different media including a syndicated Tarzan comic strip, movies, and merchandise.", "Experts in the field advised against this course of action, stating that the different media would just end up competing against each other.", "Burroughs went ahead, however, and proved the experts wrong – the public wanted Tarzan in whatever fashion he was offered.", "Tarzan remains one of the most successful fictional characters to this day and is a cultural icon.In either 1915 or 1919, Burroughs purchased a large ranch north of Los Angeles, California, which he named \"Tarzana\".", "The citizens of the community that sprang up around the ranch voted to adopt that name when their community, Tarzana, California, was formed in 1927.Also, the unincorporated community of Tarzan, Texas, was formally named in 1927 when the US Postal Service accepted the name, reputedly coming from the popularity of the first (silent) ''Tarzan of the Apes'' film, starring Elmo Lincoln, and an early \"Tarzan\" comic strip.In 1923, Burroughs set up his own company, Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc., and began printing his own books through the 1930s." ], [ "Reception and criticism", "Because of the part Burroughs's science fiction played in inspiring real exploration of Mars, an impact crater on Mars was named in his honor after his death.", "In a ''Paris Review'' interview, Ray Bradbury said of Burroughs: In ''Something of Myself'' (published posthumously in 1937) Rudyard Kipling wrote: \"My ''Jungle Books'' begat Zoos of .", "But the genius of all the genii was one who wrote a series called ''Tarzan of the Apes''.", "I read it, but regret I never saw it on the films, where it rages most successfully.", "He had 'jazzed' the motif of the ''Jungle Books'' and, I imagine, had thoroughly enjoyed himself.", "He was reported to have said that he wanted to find out how bad a book he could write and 'get away with', which is a legitimate ambition.", "\"By 1963, Floyd C. Gale of ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' wrote when discussing reprints of several Burroughs novels by Ace Books, \"an entire generation has grown up inexplicably Burroughs-less\".", "He stated that most of the author's books had been out of print for years and that only the \"occasional laughable Tarzan film\" reminded public of his fiction.", "Gale reported his surprise that after two decades his books were again available, with Canaveral Press, Dover Publications, and Ballantine Books also reprinting them.Few critical books have been written about Burroughs.", "From an academic standpoint, the most helpful are Erling Holtsmark's two books: ''Tarzan and Tradition'' and ''Edgar Rice Burroughs''; Stan Galloway's ''The Teenage Tarzan: A Literary Analysis of Edgar Rice Burroughs' ''Jungle Tales of Tarzan; and Richard Lupoff's two books: ''Master of Adventure: Edgar Rice Burroughs'' and ''Barsoom: Edgar Rice Burroughs and the Martian Vision''.", "Galloway was identified by James Edwin Gunn as \"one of the half-dozen finest Burroughs scholars in the world\"; Galloway called Holtsmark his \"most important predecessor\".Burroughs strongly supported eugenics and scientific racism.", "His views held that English nobles made up a particular heritable elite among Anglo-Saxons.", "Tarzan was meant to reflect this, with him being born to English nobles and then adopted by talking apes (the Mangani).", "They express eugenicist views themselves, but Tarzan is permitted to live despite being deemed \"unfit\" in comparison, and grows up to surpass not only them but black Africans, whom Burroughs clearly presents as inherently inferior, even not wholly human.", "In one Tarzan story, he finds an ancient civilization where eugenics has been practiced for over 2,000 years, with the result that it is free of all crime.", "Criminal behavior is held to be entirely hereditary, with the solution having been to kill not only criminals but also their families.", "''Lost on Venus'', a later novel, presents a similar utopia where forced sterilization is practiced and the \"unfit\" are killed.", "Burroughs explicitly supported such ideas in his unpublished nonfiction essay ''I See A New Race''.", "Additionally, his ''Pirate Blood'', which is not speculative fiction and remained unpublished after his death, portrayed the characters as victims of their hereditary criminal traits (one a descendant of the corsair Jean Lafitte, another from the Jukes family).", "These views have been compared with Nazi eugenics (though noting that they were popular and common at the time), with his ''Lost on Venus'' being released the same year the Nazis took power (in 1933).In 2003, Burroughs was inducted into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame." ], [ "Selected works", "===''Barsoom'' series (aka Martian series)===# ''A Princess of Mars'' (1912)# ''The Gods of Mars'' (1913)# ''The Warlord of Mars'' (1914)# ''Thuvia, Maid of Mars'' (1916)# ''The Chessmen of Mars'' (1922)# ''The Master Mind of Mars'' (1927)# ''A Fighting Man of Mars'' (1930)# ''Swords of Mars'' (1934)# ''Synthetic Men of Mars'' (1939)# ''Llana of Gathol'' (1941)# ''John Carter of Mars'' (1964, two stories from 1940 and 1943)===''Tarzan'' series===# ''Tarzan of the Apes'' (1912)# ''The Return of Tarzan'' (1913)# ''The Beasts of Tarzan'' (1914)# ''The Son of Tarzan'' (1915)# ''Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar'' (1916)# ''Jungle Tales of Tarzan'' (stories 1916–1917)# ''Tarzan the Untamed'' (1919)# ''Tarzan the Terrible'' (1921)# ''Tarzan and the Golden Lion'' (1922)# ''Tarzan and the Ant Men'' (1924)# ''Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle'' (1927)# ''Tarzan and the Lost Empire'' (1928)# ''Tarzan at the Earth's Core'' (1929)# ''Tarzan the Invincible'' (1930)# ''Tarzan Triumphant'' (1931)# ''Tarzan and the City of Gold'' (1932)# ''Tarzan and the Lion Man'' (1933)# ''Tarzan and the Leopard Men'' (1932)# ''Tarzan's Quest'' (1935) # ''Tarzan the Magnificent'' (1936)# ''Tarzan and the Forbidden City'' (1938)# ''Tarzan and the Foreign Legion'' (1947, written in 1944)# ''Tarzan and the Tarzan Twins'' (1963, collects 1927 and 1936 children's books)# ''Tarzan and the Madman'' (1964, written in 1940)# ''Tarzan and the Castaways'' (1965, stories from 1940 to 1941)# ''Tarzan: The Lost Adventure'' (1995, rewritten version of 1946 fragment, completed by Joe R. Lansdale)===''Pellucidar'' series===# ''At the Earth's Core'' (1914)# ''Pellucidar'' (1915)# ''Tanar of Pellucidar'' (1929)# ''Tarzan at the Earth's Core'' (1929)# ''Back to the Stone Age'' (1937)# ''Land of Terror'' (1944, written in 1939)# ''Savage Pellucidar'' (1963, stories from 1942)===''Venus'' series===# ''Pirates of Venus'' (1932)# ''Lost on Venus'' (1933)# ''Carson of Venus'' (1938)# ''Escape on Venus'' (1946, stories from 1941 to 1942)# ''The Wizard of Venus'' (1970, written in 1941)===''Caspak'' series===# ''The Land That Time Forgot'' (1918)# ''The People That Time Forgot'' (1918)# ''Out of Time's Abyss'' (1918)===''Moon'' series===* ''Part I: The Moon Maid'' (1923, serialized in ''Argosy'', May 5 – June 2, 1923)* ''Part II: The Moon Men'' (1925, serialized in ''Argosy'', February 21 – March 14, 1925)* ''Part III: The Red Hawk'' (1925 serialized in ''Argosy'', September 5–19, 1925)These three texts have been published by various houses in one or two volumes.", "Adding to the confusion, some editions have the original (significantly longer) introduction to Part I from the first publication as a magazine serial, and others have the shorter version from the first book publication, which included all three parts under the title ''The Moon Maid''.===''Mucker'' series===* ''The Mucker'' (1914)* ''The Return of the Mucker'' (1916)* ''The Oakdale Affair'' (1918)===Other science fiction===* ''The Monster Men'' (1913)* ''The Lost Continent'' (1916; a.k.a.", "''Beyond Thirty'')* ''The Resurrection of Jimber-Jaw'' (1937)* ''Beyond the Farthest Star'' (1942)===Jungle adventure novels===* ''The Cave Girl'' (1913, revised 1917)* ''The Eternal Lover'' (1914, rev.", "1915; A.K.A.", "''The Eternal Savage'')* ''The Man-Eater'' (1915)* ''The Lad and the Lion'' (1917)* ''Jungle Girl'' (1931; A.K.A.", "''The Land of Hidden Men'')===Western novels===* ''The Bandit of Hell's Bend'' (1924)* ''The War Chief'' (1927)* ''Apache Devil'' (1933)* ''The Deputy Sheriff of Comanche County'' (1940)===Historical novels===* ''The Outlaw of Torn'' (1914)* ''I am a Barbarian'' (1967; written in 1941)===Other works===* ''Minidoka: 937th Earl of One Mile Series M'' (1998; written in 1903)* ''The Mad King'' (1914, rev.", "1915)* ''The Girl from Farris's'' (1916)* ''The Rider'' (1918)* ''The Efficiency Expert'' (1921)* ''The Girl from Hollywood'' (1922)* ''Marcia of the Doorstep'' (1924)* ''You Lucky Girl!''", "(1927)* ''Pirate Blood'' (1970; written in 1932)* ''Forgotten Tales of Love and Murder'' (2001; stories from 1910 to 1944)* ''Brother Men'' (2005; nonfiction)" ], [ "See also", "* Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc.* Mars in fiction* Otis Adelbert Kline* Sword and planet" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===**" ], [ "Further reading", " ''Master of Adventure: The Worlds of Edgar Rice Burroughs'' by Richard A. Lupoff* ''Tarzan Forever: The Life of Edgar Rice Burroughs, Creator of Tarzan'' by John Taliaferro* ''Golden Anniversary Bibliography of Edgar Rice Burroughs'' by the Rev.", "Henry Hardy Heins* ''Tarzan Alive'' by Philip Jose Farmer* ''Burroughs's Science Fiction'' by Robert R. Kudlay and Joan Leiby* ''Tarzan and Tradition'' and ''Edgar Rice Burroughs'' by Erling B. Holtsmark* ''Edgar Rice Burroughs'' by Irwin Porges* ''Edgar Rice Burroughs'' by Robert B. Zeuschner* ''The Burroughs Cyclopædia'' ed.", "by Clark A. Brady* ''A Guide to Barsoom'' by John Flint Roy* ''Tarzan: the Centennial Celebration'' by Scott Tracy Griffin* ''Edgar Rice Burroughs: The Descriptive Bibliography of the Grosset & Dunlap Reprints'' by B. J. Lukes" ], [ "External links", "* * Works by Edgar Rice Burroughs at Project Gutenberg Australia* ** Complete Edgar Rice Burroughs Illustrated Bibliography by Bill Hillman's ERBzine.com * (official website)* Bibliography on SciFan*Works by Edgar Rice Burroughs / 1st UK editions list with pictures of the books * * The Fantastic Worlds of Edgar Rice Burroughs (podcasts)* ERBzine.com* list of UK 1st edition paperbacks" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eugène Viollet-le-Duc" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc''' (; 27 January 181417 September 1879) was a French architect and author, famous for his restoration of the most prominent medieval landmarks in France.", "His major restoration projects included Notre-Dame de Paris, the Basilica of Saint Denis, Mont Saint-Michel, Sainte-Chapelle, the medieval walls of the city of Carcassonne, and Roquetaillade castle in the Bordeaux region.His writings on decoration and on the relationship between form and function in architecture had a fundamental influence on a whole new generation of architects, including all the major Art Nouveau artists: Antoni Gaudí, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, Henry van de Velde, Henri Sauvage and the École de Nancy, Paul Hankar, Otto Wagner, Eugène Grasset, Émile Gallé, and Hendrik Petrus Berlage.", "He also influenced the first modern architects, Frank Lloyd Wright, Mies van der Rohe, Auguste Perret, Louis Sullivan, and Le Corbusier, who considered Viollet-le-Duc as the father of modern architecture.", "The English architect William Burges admitted in his late life \"We all cribbed on Viollet-le-Duc even though no one could read French\".His writings also influenced John Ruskin, William Morris, and the Arts and Crafts movement.", "At the International Exhibition of 1862 in London, the aesthetic works of Edward Burne-Jones, Christina Rossetti, Philip Webb, William Morris, Simeon Solomon, and Edward Poynter were directly influenced from drawings in Viollet-le-Duc's Dictionary." ], [ "Youth and education", "Viollet-le-Duc was born in Paris in 1814.His grandfather was an architect, and his father was a high-ranking civil servant, who in 1816 became the overseer of the royal residences of Louis XVIII.", "His uncle Étienne-Jean Delécluze was a painter, a former student of Jacques-Louis David, an art critic and hosted a literary salon, which was attended by Stendhal and Sainte-Beuve.", "His mother hosted her own salon, which women could attend as well as men.", "There, in 1822 or 1823, Eugène met Prosper Mérimée, a writer who would play a decisive role in his career.In 1825 he began his education at the Pension Moran, in Fontenay-aux-Roses.", "He returned to Paris in 1829 as a student at the college de Bourbon (now the Lycée Condorcet).", "He passed his baccalaureate examination in 1830.His uncle urged him to enter the École des Beaux-Arts, which had been created in 1806, but the ''École '' had an extremely rigid system, based entirely on copying classical models, and Eugène was not interested.", "Instead he decided to get practical experience in the architectural offices of Jacques-Marie Huvé and Achille Leclère, while devoting much of his time to drawing medieval churches and monuments around Paris.At sixteen he participated in the July 1830 revolution which overthrew Charles X, building a barricade.", "Following the revolution, which brought Louis Philippe to power, his father became chief of the bureau of royal residences.", "The new government created, for the first time, the position of Inspector General of Historic Monuments.", "Eugène's uncle Delécluze agreed to take Eugène on a long tour of France to see monuments.", "They travelled from July to October 1831 throughout the south of France, and he returned with a large collection of detailed paintings and watercolours of churches and monuments.", "''Women's Banquet at the Tuileries'' painted by Viollet-le-Duc (1835)On his return to Paris, he moved with his family into the Tuileries Palace, where his father was now governor of royal residences.", "His family again urged him to attend the École des Beaux-Arts, but he still refused.", "He wrote in his journal in December 1831, \"the ''École'' is just a mould for architects.", "they all come out practically identical.\"", "He was a talented and meticulous artist; he travelled around France to visit monuments, cathedrals, and other medieval architecture, made detailed drawings and watercolours.", "In 1834, at the age of twenty, he married Élisabeth Templier, and in the same year he was named an associate professor of ornamental decoration at the Royal School of Decorative Arts, which gave him a more regular income.", "His first pupils there included Léon Gaucherel.With the money from the sale of his drawings and paintings, Viollet-le-Duc set off on a long tour of the monuments of Italy, visiting Rome, Venice, Florence and other sites, drawing and painting.", "In 1838, he presented several of his drawings at the Paris Salon, and began making a travel book, ''Picturesque and romantic images of the old France'', for which, between 1838 and 1844, he made nearly three hundred engravings." ], [ "First architectural restorations", "Vézelay Abbey, Viollet-le-Duc's first restoration projectIn October 1838, with the recommendation of Achille Leclère, the architect with whom he had trained, he was named deputy inspector of the enlargement of the Hôtel Soubise, the new home of the French National Archives.", "His uncle, Delécluze, then recommended him to the new Commission of Historic Monuments of France, led by Prosper Mérimée, who had just published a book on medieval French monuments.", "Though he was just twenty-four years old and had no degree in architecture, he was asked to go to Narbonne to propose a plan for the completion of the cathedral there.", "The project was rejected by the local authorities as too ambitious and too expensive.His first real project was a restoration of the Vézelay Abbey, which many considered as impossible.", "The church had been sacked by the Huguenots in 1569, and during the French Revolution, the facade and statuary on the facade were destroyed.", "The vaults of the roof were weakened, and many of the stones had been carried off for other projects.", "When Mérimée visited to inspect the structure he heard stones falling around him.", "In February 1840 he gave Viollet-le-Duc the mission of restoring and reconstructing the church so it would not collapse, while \"respecting exactly in his project of restoration all the ancient dispositions of the church\".The task was all the more difficult because up until that time no scientific studies had been made of medieval building techniques, and there were no schools of restoration.", "He had no plans for the original building to work from.", "Viollet-le-Duc had to discover the flaws of construction that had caused the building to start to collapse in the first place and to construct a more solid and stable structure.", "He lightened the roof and built new arches to stabilize the structure, and slightly changed the shape of the vaults and arches.", "He was criticized for these modifications in the 1960s, though, as his defenders pointed out, without them the roof would have collapsed under its own weight.", "Mérimée's deputy, Lenormant, inspected the construction and reported to Mérimée: \"The young Leduc seems entirely worthy of your confidence.", "He needed a magnificent audacity to take charge of such a desperate enterprise; it's certain that he arrived just in time, and if we had waited only ten years the church would have been a pile of stones.\"", "This restoration work lasted 19 years." ], [ "Sainte-Chapelle and Amboise", "Viollet-le-Duc's success at Vezelay led to a large series of projects.", "In 1840, in collaboration with his friend the architect Jean-Baptiste Lassus he began the restoration of Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, which had been turned into a storage depot after the Revolution.", "In February 1843, King Louis Philippe sent him to the Château of Amboise, to restore the stained glass windows in the chapel holding the tomb of Leonardo da Vinci.", "The windows were unfortunately destroyed in 1940 during World War II.In 1843, Mérimée took Viollet-le-Duc with him to Burgundy and the south of France, on one of his long inspection tours of monuments.", "Viollet-le-Duc made drawings of the buildings and wrote detailed accounts of each site, illustrated with his drawing, which were published in architectural journals.", "With his experience he became the most prominent academic scholar on French medieval architecture and his medieval dictionnary, with over 4000 drawings, contains the largest iconography on the subject to this day." ], [ "Notre-Dame de Paris", "File:ND de Paris avant 1841.jpg\|Facade about 1841, pre-restorationFile:Lassus, Viollet-le-Duc - Projet de restauration de Notre-Dame de Paris - page 4.jpg\|Proposed doorway decorationFile:Notre Dame de Paris, East View 140207 1.jpg\|View of the spire of Notre-Dame restored by Viollet-le-DucFile:Treasury of Notre Dame Cathedral.jpg\|The treasury of the cathedral, designed by Viollet-le-Duc to replace destroyed Archbishop's residence (1849)File:Notre Dame Cathedral- Window of Chapelle Saint-Clotilde by Eugene Viollet-le-Duc.jpg\|Window of the Chapel of Saint-Clotilde designed by Viollet-le-Duc (1864)File:Vue.interieure.travee.cathedrale.Paris.png\|Drawing of the interior traverseFile:Viollet-le-Duc, les visions d'un architecte (4).jpg\|Choir gate designed by Viollet-le-DucFile:Reliquaire du Clou et du Bois de la Croix.jpg\|Reliquary designed by Viollet-le-DucFile:Fleche.Notre.Dame.Paris.png\|Drawing of the spireFile:Notre-Dame de Paris 086.jpg\|Saint Thomas on the spire, resembling Viollet-le-DucIn 1844, with the backing of Mérimée, Viollet-le-Duc, just thirty years old, and Lassus, then thirty-seven, won a competition for the restoration of Notre-Dame Cathedral which lasted twenty-five years.", "Their project involved primarily the facade, where many of the statues over the portals had been beheaded or smashed during the Revolution.", "They proposed two major changes to the interior: rebuilding two of the bays to their original medieval height of four storeys, and removing the marble neoclassical structures and decoration which had been added to the choir during the reign of Louis XIV.", "Mérimée warned them to be careful: \"In such a project, one cannot act with too much prudence or discretion...A restoration may be more disastrous for a monument than the ravages of centuries.\"", "The Commission on Historical Monuments approved most of Viollet-le-Duc's plans, but rejected his proposal to remove the choir built under Louis XIV.", "Viollet-le-Duc himself turned down a proposal to add two new spires atop the towers, arguing that such a monument \"would be remarkable but would not be Notre-Dame de Paris\".", "Instead, he proposed to rebuild the original medieval spire and bell tower over the transept, which had been removed in 1786 because it was unstable in the wind.Once the project was approved, Viollet-le-Duc made drawings and photographs of the existing decorative elements; then they were removed and a stream of sculptors began making new statues of saints, gargoyles, chimeras and other architectural elements in a workshop he established, working from his drawings and photographs of similar works in other cathedrals of the same period.", "He also designed a new treasury in the Gothic style to serve as the museum of the cathedral, replacing the residence of the Archbishop, which had been destroyed in a riot in 1831.The bells in the two towers had been taken out in 1791 and melted down to make cannons.", "Viollet-le-Duc had new bells cast for the north tower and a new structure built inside to support them.", "Viollet-le-Duc and Lassus also rebuilt the sacristy, on the south side of the church, which had been built in 1756, but had been burned by rioters during the July Revolution of 1830.The new spire was completed, taller and more strongly built to withstand the weather; it was decorated with statues of the apostles, and the face of Saint Thomas, patron saint of architects, bore a noticeable resemblance to Viollet-le-Duc.", "The spire was destroyed on 15 April 2019, as a result of the Notre-Dame de Paris fire.File:Bayard, Hippolyte - Notre-Dame de Paris (2) (Zeno Fotografie).jpg\|The southern façade of Notre-Dame pictured in 1847, early in the restoration.File:Édouard Baldus - Notre-Dame de Paris.jpg\|The western façade of Notre-Dame pictured in the early 1860s towards the end of the restoration.", "The spire has been rebuilt and the statues of the kings are only partially restored." ], [ "Saint-Denis and Amiens", "When not engaged in Paris, Viollet-le-Duc continued his long tours into the French provinces, inspecting and checking the progress of more than twenty different restoration projects that were under his control, including seven in Burgundy alone.", "New projects included the Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, and the Basilica of Saint-Denis just outside Paris.", "Saint-Denis had undergone a restoration by a different architect, Francois Debret, who had rebuilt one of the two towers.", "However, in 1846, the new tower, overloaded with masonry, began to crack, and Viollet-le-Duc was called in.", "He found no way the building could be saved and had to oversee the demolition of the tower, saving the stones.", "He concentrated on restoring the interior of the church, and was able to restore the original burial chamber of the kings of France.In May 1849, he was named the architect for the restoration of Amiens Cathedral, one of the largest in France, which had been built over many centuries in a variety of different styles.", "He wrote, \"his goal should be to save in each part of the monument its own character, and yet to make it so that the united parts don't conflict with each other; and that can be maintained in a state that is durable and simple.\"" ], [ "Imperial projects: Carcassonne, Vincennes and Pierrefonds", "File:Carcasonneouterwall.jpg\|The walled town of Carcassonne (restored 1853–1879)File:Donjon of Château de Vincennes, South-West View 140308 1.jpg\|The keep of the Château de Vincennes (restored in the 1860s)File:Description du chateau de pierrefonds Figure 00.png\|Drawing by VLD of the Château de Pierrefonds before restorationFile:Замки, с.", "6–7.jpg\|Plans of Pierrefonds by Viollet-le-DucFile:Château de Pierrefonds exterior Oise.jpg\|The Château de Pierrefonds todayFile:0 Chapiteau polychrome du château de Pierrefonds (1).JPG\|Polychrome decoration at Pierrefonds by Viollet-le-DucThe French coup d'état of 1851 brought Napoleon III to power and transformed France from a republic to an empire.", "The coup accelerated some of Viollet-le-Duc's projects as his patron Prosper Mérimée had introduced him to the new Emperor.", "He moved forward with the slow work of restoration of the Cathedral of Reims and Cathedral of Amiens.", "In Amiens, he cleared the interior of the French classical decoration added under Louis XIV, and proposed to make it resolutely Gothic.", "He gave the Emperor a tour of his project in September 1853; the Empress immediately offered to pay two-thirds of the cost of the restoration.", "In the same year he undertook the restoration of the Château de Vincennes, long occupied by the military, along with its chapel, similar to Sainte-Chapelle.", "A devotee of the pure Gothic, he described the chapel as \"one of the finest specimens of Gothic in decline\".In November 1853, he provided the costs and plans for the medieval ramparts of Carcassonne which he had first begun planning in 1849.The first fortifications had been built by the Visigoths; on top of these, in the Middle Ages Louis XI and then Philip the Bold had built a formidable series of towers, galleries, walls, gates and interlocking defences that resisted all sieges until 1355.The fortifications were largely intact, since the surroundings of the city were still a military defensive zone in the 19th century, but the towers were without tops and a large number of structures had been built up against the old walls.", "Once he obtained funding and made his plans, he began demolishing all structures which had been added to the ramparts over the centuries, and restored the gates, walls and towers to their original form, including the defence platforms, roofs on the towers and shelters for archers that would have been used during a siege.", "He found many of the original mountings for weapons still in place.", "To accompany his work, he published a detailed history of the city and its fortifications, with his drawings.", "Carcassonne became the best example of medieval military architecture in France, and also an important tourist attraction.Napoleon III provided additional funding for the continued restoration of Notre-Dame.", "Viollet-le-Duc was also to replace the great bestiary of mythical beasts and animals which had decorated the cathedral in the 18th century.", "In 1856, using examples from other medieval churches and debris from Notre-Dame as his model, his workshop produced dragons, chimeras, grotesques, and gargoyles, as well as an assortment of picturesque pinnacles and fleurons.", "He engaged in a new project for restoration of the Cathedral of Clermont-Ferrand, a project which continued for ten years.", "He also undertook an unusual project for Napoleon III; the design and construction of six railway coaches with neo-Gothic interior décor for the Emperor and his entourage.", "Two of the cars still exist; the salon of honour car, with a fresco on the ceiling, is at the Château de Compiègne, and the dining car, with a massive golden eagle as the centrepiece of the décor, is at the Railroad Museum of Mulhouse.Napoleon III asked Viollet-le-Duc if he could restore a medieval chateau for the Emperor's own use near Compiègne, where the Emperor traditionally passed September and October.", "Viollet-le-Duc first studied a restoration of the Château de Coucy, which had the highest medieval tower in France.", "When this proved too complicated, he settled upon Château de Pierrefonds, a castle begun by Louis of Orleans in 1396, then dismantled in 1617 after several sieges by Louis XIII of France.", "Napoleon bought the ruin for 5000 francs in 1812, and Mérimée declared it an historic monument in 1848.In 1857 Viollet-le-Duc began designing an entirely new chateau on the ruins.", "This structure was not designed to recreate anything exactly that had existed, but a castle which recaptured the spirit of the Gothic, with lavish neo-Gothic decoration and 19th-century comforts.", "Pierrefonds and its inside decorations would not only influence William Burges and his Cardiff and Coch castles but also the castles of Ludwig II of Bavaria (Neuschwanstein Castle) and the Haut-Kœnigsbourg of the Emperor Wilhelm II.----While most of his attention was devoted to restorations, Viollet-le-Duc designed and built a number of private residences and new buildings in Paris.", "He also participated in the most important competition of the period, for the new Paris Opera.", "There were one hundred seventy-one projects proposed in the original competition, presented the 1855 Paris Universal Exposition.", "A jury of noted architects narrowed it down to five, including projects from Viollet-le-Duc and Charles Garnier, age thirty-five.", "Viollet-le-Duc was finally eliminated and this put an end to Viollet le Duc's wish to construct public buildings.Napoleon III also called upon Viollet-le-Duc for a wide variety of archeological and architectural tasks.", "When he wished to put up a monument to mark the Battle of Alesia, where Julius Caesar defeated the Gauls, a siege whose actual site was disputed by historians, he asked Viollet-le-Duc to locate the exact battlefield.", "Viollet-le-Duc conducted excavations at various purported sites, and finally found vestiges of the walls built at the time.", "He also designed the metal frame for the six-metre-high statue of the Gallic chief Vercingétorix that would be placed on the site.", "He later designed a similar frame for a much larger statue, the Statue of Liberty, but died before that statue was finished." ], [ "End of the Empire and of Restoration", "In 1863, Viollet-le-Duc was named a professor at the École des Beaux-Arts, the school where he had refused to become a student.", "In the fortress of neoclassical Beaux-Arts architecture there was much resistance against him, but he attracted two hundred students to his course, who applauded his lecture at the end.", "But while he had many supporters, the faculty professors and certain students campaigned against him.", "His critics complained that, aside from having little formal architectural training himself, he had only built a handful of new buildings.", "He tired of the confrontations and resigned on 16 May 1863, and continued his writing and teaching outside the Beaux-Arts.", "In response to the Beaux-Arts he initiated the creation of the École Spéciale d'Architecture in Paris in 1865.In the beginning of 1864, he celebrated the conclusion of his most important project, the restoration of Notre-Dame.", "In January of the same year he completed the first phase of the restoration of the Cathedral of Saint Sernin in Toulouse, one of the landmarks of French Romanesque architecture.", "Napoleon III invited Viollet-le-Duc to study possible restorations overseas, including in Algeria, Corsica, and in Mexico, where Napoleon had installed a new Emperor, Maximilian, under French sponsorship.", "He also saw the consecration of the third church that he had designed, the neo-Gothic church of Saint-Denis de l'Estree, in the Paris suburb of Saint-Denis.", "Between 1866 and 1870, his major project was the ongoing transformation of Pierrefonds from a ruin into a royal residence.", "His plans for the metal framework he had designed for Pierrefonds were displayed at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1867.He also began a new area of study, researching the geology and geography of the region around Mont Blanc in the Alps.", "While on his mapping excursion in the Alps in July 1870, he learned that war had been declared between Prussia and France.As the Franco-Prussian War commenced, Viollet-le-Duc hurried back to Paris, and offered his services as a military engineer; he was put into service as a colonel of engineers, preparing the defenses of Paris.", "In September, the Emperor was captured at the Battle of Sedan, a new Republican government took power, and the Empress Eugénie fled into exile, as Germans marched as far as Paris and put it under siege.", "At the same time, on September 23, Viollet-le-Duc's primary patron and supporter, Prosper Mérimée, died peacefully in the south of France.", "Viollet-le-Duc supervised the construction of new defensive works outside Paris.", "The war was a disaster as he wrote in his journal on the 14th December 1870: \"Disorganization is everywhere.", "The officers have no confidence in the troops, and the troops have no confidence in the officers.", "Each day, new orders and new projects which contravene those of the day before.\"", "He fought with the French army against the Germans at Buzenval on 24 January 1871.The battle was lost, and the French capitulated on 28 January.", "Viollet-le-Duc wrote to his wife on February 28, \"I don't know what will become of me, but I do not want to return any more to administration.", "I am disgusted by it forever, and want nothing more than to pass the years that remain to me in study and in the most modest possible life.\"", "Always the scholar, he wrote a detailed study of the effectiveness and deficiencies of the fortifications of Paris during the siege, which was to be used for the 1917 defense of Verdun and the construction of the Maginot line in 1938.In May 1871 he left his home in Paris just before national guardsmen arrived to draft him into the armed force of the Paris Commune who subsequently condemned him to death.", "He escaped to Pierrefonds, where he had a small apartment before going in exile in Lausanne, where he engage in his passion for mountains, making detailed maps and a series of thirty-two drawings of the alpine scenery.", "While in Lausanne he was also asked to undertake the restoration of the cathedral.He returned later to Paris after the Commune had been suppressed and saw the ruins of most of the public buildings of the city, burned by the Commune in its last days.", "He received his only commission from the new government of the French Third Republic; Jules Simon, the new Minister of Culture and Public Instruction, asked him to design a plaque to be placed before Notre-Dame to honor the hostages killed by the Paris Commune in its final days.The new government of the French Third Republic made little use of his expertise in the restoration of the major government buildings which had been burned by the Paris Commune, including the Tuileries Palace, the Palace of the Legion of Honor, the Palais-Royal, the library of the Louvre, the Ministry of Justice and the Ministry of Finance.", "The only reconstruction on which he was consulted was that of the Hotel de Ville.", "The writer Edmond de Goncourt called for leaving the ruin of the Hotel de Ville exactly as it was, \"a ruin of a magical palace, A marvel of the picturesque.", "The country should not condemn it without appeal to restoration by Viollet-le-Duc.\"", "The government asked Viollet-le-Duc to organize a competition.", "He presented two options; to either restore the building to its original state, with its historic interior; or to demolish it and build a new city hall.", "In July 1872 the government decided to preserve the Renaissance facade, but otherwise to completely demolish and rebuild the building." ], [ "Author and theorist", "Throughout his life Viollet le Duc wrote over 100 publications on architecture, decoration, history, archeology etc.... some of which would become international best-sellers: ''Dictionary of French Architecture from 11th to 16th Century'' (1854–1868), ''Entretiens sur l'architecture'' (1863–1872), ''L'histoire d'une Maison'' (1873) and ''Histoire d'un Dessinateur: Comment on Apprend à Dessiner'' (1879).In his ''Entretiens sur l'architecture'' he concentrated in particular on the use of iron and other new materials, and the importance of designing buildings whose architecture was adapted to their function, rather than to a particular style.", "The book was translated into English in 1881 and won a large following in the United States.", "The Chicago architect Louis Sullivan, one of the inventors of the skyscraper, often invoked the phrase, \"Form follows function.", "\"Lausanne Cathedral was his final major restoration project; it was rebuilt following his plans between 1873 and 1876.Work continued after his death.", "His reconstruction of the bell tower was later criticized; he eliminated the original octagonal base and added a new spire, which rested on the walls, and not on the vaulting, like the original spire.", "He also added new decoration, crowning the spire at mid-height with gables, another original element, and removing the original tiles.", "He was also criticized for the materials and ornaments he added to the towers, including gargoyles.", "His structural design was preserved, but in 1925 his gargoyles and original ornamentation were removed, and the spire was recovered with tiles.His reputation had reached outside of France.", "The spire and roof of Strasbourg Cathedral had been damaged by German artillery during the Franco-Prussian War, and the city was now part of Germany.", "The German government invited Viollet-le-Duc to comment on their plans for the restoration, which involved a more grandiose Romanesque tower.", "Viollet-le-Duc informed the German architect that the planned new tower was completely out of character with the original facade and style of the cathedral.", "His advice was accepted, and the church was restored to its original form.In 1872 Viollet-le-Duc was engaged in the reconstruction of the Château d'Amboise, owned by the descendants of the former King, Louis-Philippe.", "The chateau had been confiscated by Napoleon III in 1848 but was returned to the family in 1872.It was a massive project to turn it into a residence, involving at times three hundred workers.", "Viollet-le-Duc designed all the work to the finest details, including the floor tiles, the gas lights in the salons, the ovens in the kitchen, and the electric bells for summoning servants.In 1874 Viollet-le-Duc resigned as diocesan architect of Paris and was succeeded by his contemporary, Paul Abadie.", "In his final years, he continued to supervise the restoration projects that were underway for the Commission of Historical Monuments.", "He engaged in polemics about architecture in the press, and was elected to the Paris municipal council." ], [ "Statue of Liberty", "While planning the design and construction of the Statue of Liberty (''Liberty Enlightening the World'') sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi interested Viollet-le-Duc, his friend and mentor, in the project.", "As chief engineer, Viollet-le-Duc designed a brick pier within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored.After consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet-le-Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it, repoussé, in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers.", "An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only thick." ], [ "National Museum of French Monuments and final years", "National Museum of French MonumentsHe became engaged in the planning and construction of the Paris Universal Exposition of 1878.He proposed to the Minister of Education, Jules Ferry, that the Trocadéro Palace, the main building of the Exposition on the hilltop of Chaillot, be transformed after the Exposition into a museum of French monuments, displaying models of architecture and sculpture from landmarks around France.", "This idea was accepted.", "The National Museum of French Monuments opened in 1882, after his death.", "The Palais was reconstructed into the Palais de Chaillot in 1937, but the Museum of French Monuments was preserved and can be seen there today.In his final years his son Eugène-Louis became the head of the Commission of Historic Monuments.", "He took on just one new project, the restoration of the cloister of the Augustines at Toulouse.", "He completed his series of dictionaries of architectural periods, designed for a general audience.", "He also devoted more time to studying the geography of the Alps around Mont-Blanc.", "He spent his summers hiking in the mountains and writing articles about his travels.", "He launched a public campaign for the re-forestation of the Alps, and published a detailed map of the area in 1876.He spent more and more time at ''La Vedette'', the villa he constructed in Lausanne, a house on the model of a Savoyard chalet, but with a minimum of decoration, illustrating his new doctrine of form following function.", "He made one last visit to inspect Carcassonne, whose work was now under his son's direction.", "After an exhausting summer of hiking in the Alps in 1879, he became ill and died in Lausanne on 17 September 1879.He was buried in the cemetery of La Sallaz in Lausanne.", "In 1946 his grave and monument were transferred to the Cemetery of Bois-le-Vaux (Section XVIII) in Lausanne." ], [ "Family", "Viollet-le-Duc married Elisabeth Tempier in Paris on 3 May 1834.The couple had two children, but separated a few years after marriage, and spent little time together; he was continually on the road.", "The writer Geneviève Viollet-le-Duc (winner of the prix Broquette-Gonin in 1978) was his great-granddaughter." ], [ "Doctrine", "Viollet-le-Duc famously defined restoration in volume eight of his ''Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XI au XVI siecle'' of 1858: \"To restore a building is not to maintain it, repair it or remake it: it is to re-establish it in a complete state which may never have existed at any given moment.\"", "He then explained that it had to meet four conditions: (1) The \"re-establishment\" had to be scientifically documented with plans and photographs and archeological records, which would guarantee exactness.", "(2) The restoration had to involve not just the appearance of the monument, or the effect that it produced, but also its structure; it had to use the most efficient means to assure the long life of the building, including using more solid materials, used more wisely.", "(3) the restoration had to exclude any modification contrary to obvious evidence; but the structure could be adapted to conform to more modern or rational uses and practices, which meant alterations to the original plan; and (4) The restoration should preserve older modifications made to the building, with the exception of those which compromised its stability or its conservation, or those which gravely violated the value of its historical presence.He drew conclusions from medieval architecture that he applied to modern architecture.", "He noted that it was sometimes necessary to employ an iron frame in restoration to avoid the danger of fires, as long as the new structure was not heavier than the original, and kept the original balance of forces found in medieval structures.", "\"The monuments of the Middle Ages were carefully calculated, and their organism is delicate.", "There is nothing in excess in their works, nothing useless.", "If you change one of the conditions of these organisms, you change all the others.", "Many people consider this a fault; for us, this is a quality which we too often neglect in our modern construction....Why should we build expensive walls two meters thick, if walls fifty centimeters thick with reinforced supports, offer sufficient stability?", "In the structure of the Middle Ages, every portion of a work fulfilled a function and possessed an action.\"" ], [ "Gothic vs. Beaux-Arts", "During the entire career of Viollet-le-Duc, he was engaged in a dispute with the doctrines of the École des Beaux-Arts, the leading architectural school of France, which he refused to attend as a student, and where he taught briefly as a professor, before being pressured to depart.", "In 1846 he engaged in a fervent exchange in print with Quatremère de Quincy, the Perpetual Secretary of the French Academy, on the question, \"Is it suitable, in the 19th century, to build churches in the Gothic style?\"", "De Quincy and his followers denounced the Gothic style as incoherent, disorderly, unintelligent, decadent and without taste.", "Viollet-le-Duc responded, \"What we want, ''messieurs'', is the return of an art which was born in our country....Leave to Rome what belongs to Rome, and to Athens what belongs to Athens.", "Rome didn't want our Gothic (and was perhaps the only one in Europe to reject it) and they were right, because when one has the good fortune to possess a national architecture, the best thing is to keep it.", "\"\"If you study for a moment a church of the 13th century\", he wrote, \"you see that all of the construction is carried out according to an invariable system.", "All the forces and the weights are thrust out to the exterior, a disposition which gives the interior the greatest open space possible.", "The flying buttresses and contreforts alone support the entire structure, and always have an aspect of resistance, of force and stability which reassures the eye and the spirit; The vaults, built with materials that are easy to mount and to place at a great height, are combined in a easy that places the totality of their weight on the piles; that the most simple means are always employed...and that all the parts of these constructions, independent of each other, even as they rely on each other, present an elasticity and a lightness needed in a building of such great dimensions.", "We can still see (and this is only found in Gothic architecture) that human proportions are the one fixed rule.\"" ], [ "Controversy", "Viollet-le-Duc was often accused by certain critics, in his own time and later, of pursuing the spirit of the Gothic style in some of his restorations instead of strict historical accuracy.", "Many art historians also consider that the British architectural writer John Ruskin and William Morris were ferocious opponents of Viollet le Duc’s restorations.", "But Ruskin never criticised Viollet le Duc’s restoration work in itself, but criticised the principal of restoration itself.", "Indeed at the beginning of his career Ruskin had a very radical opinion on restoration: \"a building should be looked after and if not it should be left to die\".", "Viollet le Duc's position on the subject was more nuanced: \"if a building has not been upkept it should be restored\".The existence of an opposition between Ruskin and Viollet le Duc on restoration is today questioned by new research based on Ruskin's own writtings: \"there is no book on architecture which has everything correct apart from Viollet le Duc’s Dictionnary\".", "And at the end of his life Ruskin expressed the regret that \"no one in England had done the work that Viollet le Duc had done in France\".Viollet-le-Duc's restorations sometimes involved non-historical additions, either to assure the stability of the building, or sometimes simply to maintain the harmony of the design.", "The flèche or spire of Notre-Dame de Paris, which had been constructed in about 1250, was removed in 1786 after it was damaged by the wind.", "Viollet-le-Duc designed and constructed a new spire, ornamented with statuary, which was taller than the original and modified to resist the weather, but in harmony with the rest of the design.", "In the 19th and 20th century, his flèche was a target for critics.He was also criticized later for his modifications of the choir of Notre-Dame, which had been rebuilt in the Louis XIV style during the reign of that king.", "Viollet-le-Duc took out the old choir, including the altar where Napoleon Bonaparte had been crowned Emperor and replaced them with a Gothic altar and decoration which he designed.", "When he modified the choir, he also constructed new bays with small Gothic rose windows modelled on those in the church of Chars, in the Oise Valley.", "Some historians condemned these restorations as non-historical invention.", "His defenders pointed out that Viollet-le-Duc did not make any decisions on the restoration of Notre-Dame by himself; all of his plans were approved by Prosper Mérimée, the Inspector of Historical Monuments, and by the Commission of historic monuments.He was criticized for the abundance of Gothic gargoyles, chimeras, fleurons, and pinnacles which he added to Notre-Dame Cathedral.", "These decorations had existed in the Middle Ages but had largely been removed during the reign of Louis XIV.", "The last original gargoyles had been taken down in 1813.He modelled the new gargoyles and monsters on examples from other cathedrals of the period.He was later criticized also for the stained glass windows he designed and had made for the chapels around the ground level of the cathedral, which feature intricate Gothic designs in grisaille, which allow more light into the church.", "The contemporary view of the controversy of his restoration is summarized on a descriptive panel near the altar of the cathedral: \"The great restoration, carried to fruition by Viollet-le-Duc following the death of Lassus, supplied new radiance to the cathedral – whatever reservations one might have about the choices that were made.", "The work of the nineteenth century is now as much a part of the architectural history of Notre-Dame as that undertaken in previous centuries.", "\"The restoration of ramparts of Carcassonne was also criticized in the 20th century.", "His critics pointed out that the pointed caps of the towers he constructed were more typical of northern France, not the region where Carcassonne was located, near the Spanish border.", "Similarly he added roofs of northern slate tiles rather than southern clay tiles, a choice that has been reversed in more recent restorations.", "His critics also claimed that Viollet-le-Duc sought a \"condition of completeness\" which never actually existed at any given time.The principal counter-argument made by Viollet-le-Duc's defenders was that, without his prompt restorations, many of the buildings that he restored would have been lost, and that he did the best that he could with the knowledge that was then available.Mortimer Wheeler's entry on English archaeologist Charles R Peers for the Dictionary of National Biography (1971) is worth quoting for its critique of Viollet-le-Duc:“he Peers laid down the principles which have governed architectural conservation in the United Kingdom and have served as a model in other parts of the world.", "His cardinal principle was to retain but not to restore the surviving remains of an ancient structure; and in this respect he departed emphatically from the tradition of Viollet-le-Duc and his successors in France and Italy, where exuberant restoration frequently obscured the evidence upon which it was based ...”" ], [ "Existing buildings designed and constructed by Viollet-le-Duc", "Paris residence of Viollet-le-Duc.jpg\|Residence and studio of Viollet-le-Duc at 68 rue Condorcet, Paris (1862)Maison Courmont 2012-09-02 14-48-15.jpg\|Maison Courmont, 28 rue de Liège, Paris15 rue de Douai, Paris.jpeg\|15 rue de Douai, ParisParis 9 - Immeuble 23 rue Chauchat 42 rue La Fayette -931.JPG\|23 rue Chauchat, ParisEglise Ecossaise.JPG\|Scots Kirk, Avenue de Rumine 26, Lausanne, Switzerland (1879)" ], [ "Partial list of restorations", ";Churches* Basilica of St. Mary Magdalene in Vézelay* St. Martin in Clamecy* Notre-Dame in Paris* Sainte-Chapelle in Paris (under Félix Duban)* Basilica of St. Denis near Paris* St. Louis in Poissy* Notre-Dame in Semur-en-Auxois* Basilica of St. Nazarius and St. Celsus in Carcassonne* Basilica of St. Sernin, Toulouse* Notre-Dame in Lausanne, Switzerland;Town halls* Saint-Antonin-Noble-Val* Narbonne;Castles* Château de Roquetaillade, in Bordeaux* Château de Pierrefonds* Fortified city of Carcassonne* Château de Coucy* Antoing in Belgium * Château de Vincennes, Paris* Château d'Amboise, Amboise" ], [ "Partial list of architectural design", "* Château du Tertre, Ambrières-les-Vallées (Mayenne)* Château d'Abbadia (Hendaye)* Château de la Flachère, Saint-Vérand (Rhône)* Saint-Gimer Church, Carcassonne, Carcassonne (Aude)* Église écossaise de Lausanne, Suisse* Saint-Martin Church, Aillant-sur-Tholon (Yonne)* Château de Montdardier, Montdardier (Gard)* Château Jacquesson, Châlons-en-Champagne (Marne)* Église Saint-Denis-de-l'Estrée, Saint-Denis (Seine-Saint-Denis)* Duc de Morny's Funeral chapel, cemetery du Père-Lachaise, Paris* Barons d'Arbelles' Funeral chapel, cemetery des Carmes, Clermont-Ferrand (Puy-de-Dôme)* Indoor mainrooms, Château de Pregny, Pregny (Suisse)" ], [ "Partial list of buidings", "* Building, 28 rue de Liège, Paris (1846)* Building, 80 boulevard du Montparnasse, Paris (1859)* Building, 15 rue de Douai, Paris (1860) * His own property, building, 68 rue Condorcet, Paris (1862)* Building, 23 rue Chauchat - 42 rue Lafayette, Paris (1864)" ], [ "Restorations by Viollet-le-Duc", "File:Notre Dame dalla Senna.jpg\|Notre-Dame de Paris (restored 1845–1870)File:Chateau-de-Vincennes-donjon.jpg\|The keep of the Château de Vincennes (restored in the 1860s) File:Carcasonneouterwall.jpg\|The walled town of Carcassonne (restored 1853–1879)File:St Sernin Toulouse.JPG\|Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse (restored in the 1860s to the 1880s)File:Château de Pierrefonds vu depuis le Parc.jpg\|Château de Pierrefonds (carried out 1857–1885)File:Lausanne-cathe7.JPG\|Lausanne Cathedral, Switzerland (restored 1874–1910)" ], [ "Publications", "Dictionnaire Raisonné de L'Architecture Française du XIe au XVIe siècle'', A. Morel editor, Paris, 1868Throughout his career Viollet-le-Duc made notes and drawings, not only for the buildings he was working on but also on Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance buildings that were to be soon demolished.", "His notes were useful when preparing his published works.", "His study of medieval and Renaissance periods was not limited to architecture but extended also to such areas as furniture, clothing, musical instruments, armament, and geology.His work was published, first in serial form, and then as full-scale books, as:* ''Dictionary of French Architecture from 11th to 16th Century'' (1854–1868) (''Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle'') – Original language edition, including numerous illustrations.", "* ''Dictionary of French Furnishings'' (1858–1870) (''Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français de l'époque Carolingienne à la Renaissance.", "'')* ''Cités et ruines américaines Mitla, Palenqué, Izamal, Chichen-Itza, Uxmal'' (1863)* ''Entretiens sur l'architecture'' (in 2 volumes, 1863–1872), in which Viollet-le-Duc systematized his approach to architecture and architectural education, in a system radically opposed to that of the ''École des Beaux-Arts'', which he had avoided in his youth and despised.", "Henry Van Brunt's translation, ''Discourses on Architecture'', was published in 1875, making it available to an American audience little more than a decade after its initial publication in France.", "* ''Histoire de l'habitation humaine, depuis les temps préhistoriques jusqu'à nos jours'' (1875).", "Published in English in 1876 as ''Habitations of Man in All Ages''.", "Viollet-Le-Duc traces the history of domestic architecture among the different \"races\" of mankind.", "* ''L'art russe: ses origines, ses éléments constructifs, son apogée, son avenir'' (1877), where Viollet-le-Duc applied his ideas of rational construction to Russian architecture.", "* ''Histoire d'un Dessinateur: Comment on Apprend à Dessiner'' (1879)" ], [ "Architectural theory and new building projects", "Project for an iron-frame house with glazed earthenware cladding (1871)Design for a concert hall, dated 1864, expressing Gothic principles in modern materials; brick, stone and cast iron.", "''Entretiens sur l'architecture''Viollet-le-Duc is considered by many to be the first theorist of modern architecture.", "Sir John Summerson wrote that \"there have been two supremely eminent theorists in the history of European architecture – Leon Battista Alberti and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc.", "\"His architectural theory was largely based on finding the ideal forms for specific materials and using these forms to create buildings.", "His writings centered on the idea that materials should be used \"honestly\".", "He believed that the outward appearance of a building should reflect the rational construction of the building.", "In ''Entretiens sur l'architecture'', Viollet-le-Duc praised the Greek temple for its rational representation of its construction.", "For him, \"Greek architecture served as a model for the correspondence of structure and appearance.", "\"Another component in Viollet-le-Duc's theory was how the design of a building should start from its program and the plan, and end with its decorations.", "If this resulted in an asymmetrical exterior, so be it.", "He dismissed the symmetry of classicist buildings as vain, caring too much about appearances at the expense of practicality and convenience for the inhabitants of the house.In several unbuilt projects for new buildings, Viollet-le-Duc applied the lessons he had derived from Gothic architecture, applying its rational structural systems to modern building materials such as cast iron.", "For inspiration, he also examined organic structures, such as leaves and animal skeletons.", "He was especially interested in the wings of bats, an influence represented by his Assembly Hall project.Viollet-le-Duc's drawings of iron trusswork were innovative for the time.", "Many of his designs emphasizing iron would later influence the Art Nouveau movement, most noticeably in the work of Hector Guimard, Victor Horta, Antoni Gaudí and Hendrik Petrus Berlage.", "His writings inspired several American architects, including Frank Furness, John Wellborn Root, Louis Sullivan, and Frank Lloyd Wright." ], [ "Military career and influence", "Viollet-le-Duc had a second career in the military, primarily in the defense of Paris during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71).", "He was so influenced by the conflict that during his later years he described the idealized defense of France by the analogy of the military history of Le Roche-Pont, an imaginary castle, in his work ''Histoire d'une Forteresse'' (''Annals of a Fortress'', twice translated into English).", "Accessible and well researched, it is partly fictional.", "''Annals of a Fortress'' strongly influenced French military defensive thinking.", "Viollet-le-Duc's critique of the effect of artillery (applying his practical knowledge from the 1870–1871 war) is so complete that it accurately describes the principles applied to the defense of France until World War II.", "The physical results of his theories are present in the fortification of Verdun prior to World War I and the Maginot Line prior to World War II.", "His theories are also represented by the French military theory of \"Deliberate Advance\", which stresses that artillery and a strong system of fortresses in the rear of an army are essential." ], [ "Legacy", "An imported idiom: Viollet-le-Duc's slate-covered conical towers at CarcassonneThe English architect Benjamin Bucknall (1833–1895) was a devotee of Viollet-le-Duc and during 1874 to 1881 translated several of his publications into English to popularise his principles in Great Britain.", "The later works of the English designer and architect William Burges were greatly influenced by Viollet-le-Duc, most strongly in Burges's designs for his own home, The Tower House in London's Holland Park district, and Burges's designs for Castell Coch near Cardiff, Wales.An exhibition, ''Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 1814–1879'' was presented in Paris in 1965, and there was a larger, centennial exhibition in 1980.Viollet-le-Duc was the subject of a Google Doodle on January 27, 2014." ], [ "See also", "* Abbatial church of Notre-Dame de Mouzon" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "**" ], [ "References", " Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc ''Dictionary of Art Historians''" ], [ "External links", "* ''Military Architecture'', English translation of ''Essai sur l'architecture militaire au Moyen Âge'' (1854).", "3rd English ed., James Parker & Co., Oxford & London (1907).", "* , English translation: as of September 2021, only a grand total of ten terms have been translated (see here).", "French original (full content): see here, or at the Internet Archive:''Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle'' (1875 edition, in French) at the Internet Archive:* Vol.", "1 Abaque – Aronde Vol.", "2 Arts – Chapiteau Vol.", "3 Charnier – Console Vol.", "4 Construction – Cyborium Vol.", "5 Dais – Fût Vol.", "6 Gable – Ouvrier Vol.", "7 Palais – Puits Vol.", "8 Quai – Synagogue Vol.", "9 Tabernacle – Zodiaque Vol.", "10 Table analytique * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Endocarditis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Endocarditis''' is an inflammation of the inner layer of the heart, the endocardium.", "It usually involves the heart valves.", "Other structures that may be involved include the interventricular septum, the chordae tendineae, the mural endocardium, or the surfaces of intracardiac devices.", "Endocarditis is characterized by lesions, known as ''vegetations'', which are masses of platelets, fibrin, microcolonies of microorganisms, and scant inflammatory cells.", "In the subacute form of infective endocarditis, a vegetation may also include a center of granulomatous tissue, which may fibrose or calcify.There are several ways to classify endocarditis.", "The simplest classification is based on cause: either ''infective'' or ''non-infective'', depending on whether a microorganism is the source of the inflammation or not.", "Regardless, the diagnosis of endocarditis is based on clinical features, investigations such as an echocardiogram, and blood cultures demonstrating the presence of endocarditis-causing microorganisms.Signs and symptoms include fever, chills, sweating, malaise, weakness, anorexia, weight loss, splenomegaly, flu-like feeling, cardiac murmur, heart failure, petechia (red spots on the skin), Osler's nodes (subcutaneous nodules found on hands and feet), Janeway lesions (nodular lesions on palms and soles), and Roth's spots (retinal hemorrhages)." ], [ "Infective endocarditis", "Infective endocarditis is an infection of the inner surface of the heart, usually the valves.", "Symptoms may include fever, small areas of bleeding into the skin, heart murmur, feeling tired, and low red blood cells.", "Complications may include valvular insufficiency, heart failure, stroke, and kidney failure.The cause is typically a bacterial infection and less commonly a fungal infection.", "Risk factors include valvular heart disease including rheumatic disease, congenital heart disease, artificial valves, hemodialysis, intravenous drug use, and electronic pacemakers.", "The bacterial most commonly involved are streptococci or staphylococci.The diagnosis of infective endocarditis relies on the Duke criteria, which were originally described in 1994 and modified in 2000.Clinical features and microbiological examinations are the first steps to diagnose an infective endocarditis.", "The imaging is also crucial.", "Echocardiography is the cornerstone of imaging modality in the diagnosis of infective endocarditis.", "Alternative imaging modalities as computer tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography/computer tomography (PET/CT) with Fluorodeoxyglucose (18F)\|2-18Ffluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) are playing an increasing role in the diagnosis and management of infective endocarditis.The usefulness of antibiotics following dental procedures has changed over time.", "Prevention is recommended in patients at high risk.", "Treatment is generally with intravenous antibiotics.", "The choice of antibiotics is based on the blood cultures.", "Occasionally heart surgery is required.", "Populations at high risk of infective endocarditis include patients with previous infective endocarditis, patients with surgical or transcatheter prosthetic valves or post-cardiac valve repair, and patients with untreated CHD and surgically corrected congenital heart disease.The number of people affected is about 5 per 100,000 per year.", "Rates, however, vary between regions of the world.", "Males are affected more often than females.", "The risk of death among those infected is about 25%.", "Without treatment it is almost universally fatal." ], [ "Non-infective endocarditis", "Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis (NBTE) is most commonly found on previously undamaged valves.", "As opposed to infective endocarditis, the vegetations in NBTE are small, sterile, and tend to aggregate along the edges of the valve or the cusps.", "Also unlike infective endocarditis, NBTE does not cause an inflammation response from the body.", "NBTE usually occurs during a hypercoagulable state such as system-wide bacterial infection, or pregnancy, though it is also sometimes seen in patients with venous catheters.", "NBTE may also occur in patients with cancer, particularly mucinous adenocarcinoma where Trousseau syndrome can be encountered.", "Typically NBTE does not cause many problems on its own, but parts of the vegetations may break off and embolize to the heart or brain, or they may serve as a focus where bacteria can lodge, thus causing infective endocarditis.Another form of sterile endocarditis is termed Libman–Sacks endocarditis; this form occurs more often in patients with lupus erythematosus and is thought to be due to the deposition of immune complexes.", "Like NBTE, Libman-Sacks endocarditis involves small vegetations, while infective endocarditis is composed of large vegetations.", "These immune complexes precipitate an inflammation reaction, which helps to differentiate it from NBTE.", "Also unlike NBTE, Libman-Sacks endocarditis does not seem to have a preferred location of deposition and may form on the undersurfaces of the valves or even on the endocardium." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euler's sum of powers conjecture" ], [ "Introduction", " In number theory, '''Euler's conjecture''' is a disproved conjecture related to Fermat's Last Theorem.", "It was proposed by Leonhard Euler in 1769.It states that for all integers and greater than 1, if the sum of many th powers of positive integers is itself a th power, then is greater than or equal to :The conjecture represents an attempt to generalize Fermat's Last Theorem, which is the special case : if then .Although the conjecture holds for the case (which follows from Fermat's Last Theorem for the third powers), it was disproved for and .", "It is unknown whether the conjecture fails or holds for any value ." ], [ "Background", "Euler was aware of the equality involving sums of four fourth powers; this, however, is not a counterexample because no term is isolated on one side of the equation.", "He also provided a complete solution to the four cubes problem as in Plato's number or the taxicab number 1729.The general solution of the equation iswhere and are any integers." ], [ "Counterexamples", "Euler's conjecture was disproven by L. J. Lander and T. R. Parkin in 1966 when, through a direct computer search on a CDC 6600, they found a counterexample for .", "This was published in a paper comprising just two sentences.", "A total of three primitive (that is, in which the summands do not all have a common factor) counterexamples are known:(Lander & Parkin, 1966); (Scher & Seidl, 1996); (Frye, 2004).In 1988, Noam Elkies published a method to construct an infinite sequence of counterexamples for the case.", "His smallest counterexample wasA particular case of Elkies' solutions can be reduced to the identitywhereThis is an elliptic curve with a rational point at .", "From this initial rational point, one can compute an infinite collection of others.", "Substituting into the identity and removing common factors gives the numerical example cited above.In 1988, Roger Frye found the smallest possible counterexample for by a direct computer search using techniques suggested by Elkies.", "This solution is the only one with values of the variables below 1,000,000." ], [ "Generalizations", "One interpretation of Plato's number, In 1967, L. J. Lander, T. R. Parkin, and John Selfridge conjectured that if :,where are positive integers for all and , then .", "In the special case , the conjecture states that if:(under the conditions given above) then .The special case may be described as the problem of giving a partition of a perfect power into few like powers.", "For and or , there are many known solutions.", "Some of these are listed below.", "See for more data.======:: (Plato's number 216):This is the case , of Srinivasa Ramanujan's formula :A cube as the sum of three cubes can also be parameterized in one of two ways::The number 2 100 0003 can be expressed as the sum of three cubes in nine different ways.======(R. Frye, 1988); (R. Norrie, smallest, 1911).======(Lander & Parkin, 1966); (Lander, Parkin, Selfridge, smallest, 1967); (Lander, Parkin, Selfridge, second smallest, 1967); (Sastry, 1934, third smallest).======As of 2002, there are no solutions for whose final term is ≤ 730000.======(M. Dodrill, 1999).======(S. Chase, 2000)." ], [ "See also", "* Jacobi–Madden equationProuhet–Tarry–Escott problemBeal's conjecturePythagorean quadrupleGeneralized taxicab numberSums of powers, a list of related conjectures and theorems" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Tito Piezas III, A Collection of Algebraic Identities* Jaroslaw Wroblewski, Equal Sums of Like Powers* Ed Pegg Jr., Math Games, Power Sums* James Waldby, A Table of Fifth Powers equal to a Fifth Power (2009) * R. Gerbicz, J.-C. Meyrignac, U. Beckert, All solutions of the Diophantine equation ''a''6 + ''b''6 = ''c''6 + ''d''6 + ''e''6 + ''f''6 + ''g''6 for ''a'',''b'',''c'',''d'',''e'',''f'',''g'' < 250000 found with a distributed Boinc project* EulerNet: Computing Minimal Equal Sums Of Like Powers* * * * Euler's Conjecture at library.thinkquest.org* A simple explanation of Euler's Conjecture at Maths Is Good For You!" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Book of Exodus" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Book of Exodus''' (from ; ''Šəmōṯ'', 'Names'; ) is the second book of the Bible.", "It is a narrative of the Exodus, the origin myth of the Israelites leaving slavery in Biblical Egypt through the strength of their deity named Yahweh, who according to the story chose them as his people.", "The Israelites then journey with the legendary prophet Moses to Mount Sinai, where Yahweh gives the 10 commandments and they enter into a covenant with Yahweh, who promises to make them a \"holy nation, and a kingdom of priests\" on condition of their faithfulness.", "He gives them their laws and instructions to build the Tabernacle, the means by which he will come from heaven and dwell with them and lead them in a holy war to conquer Canaan (the \"Promised Land\"), which has earlier, according to the myth of Genesis, been promised to the \"seed\" of Abraham, the legendary patriarch of the Israelites.Traditionally ascribed to Moses himself, modern scholars see its initial composition as a product of the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE), based on earlier written sources and oral traditions, with final revisions in the Persian post-exilic period (5th century BCE).", "American biblical scholar Carol Meyers, in her commentary on Exodus, suggests that it is arguably the most important book in the Bible, as it presents the defining features of Israel's identity—memories of a past marked by hardship and escape, a binding covenant with their God, who chooses Israel, and the establishment of the life of the community and the guidelines for sustaining it.", "The consensus of modern scholars is that the Pentateuch does not give an accurate account of the origins of the Israelites, who appear instead to have formed as an entity in the central highlands of Canaan in the late second millennium BCE (around the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse) from the indigenous Canaanite culture." ], [ "Title", "The English name ''Exodus'' comes from the , from and .", "In Hebrew the book's title is שְׁמוֹת, ''shemōt'', \"Names\", from the beginning words of the text: \"These are the names of the sons of Israel\" ()." ], [ "Historicity", "Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1075, a 3rd or 4th century CE manuscript showing part of Exodus 40Most mainstream scholars do not accept the biblical Exodus account as historical for a number of reasons.", "It is generally agreed that the Exodus stories were written centuries after the apparent setting of the stories.", "Archaeologists Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman argue that archaeology has not found evidence for even a small band of wandering Israelites living in the Sinai: \"The conclusion – that Exodus did not happen at the time and in the manner described in the Bible – seems irrefutable ... repeated excavations and surveys throughout the entire area have not provided even the slightest evidence\".", "Instead, they argue how modern archaeology suggests continuity between Canaanite and Israelite settlements, indicating a heavily Canaanite origin for Israel, with little suggestion that a group of foreigners from Egypt comprised early Israel.However, a majority of scholars believe that the story has some historical basis, though disagreeing widely about what that historical kernel might have been.", "Kenton Sparks refers to it as \"mythologized history\".", "However, there is an increasing trend among scholars to see the biblical exodus traditions as the invention of the exilic and post-exilic Jewish community, with little to no historical basis." ], [ "Structure", "There is no unanimous agreement among scholars on the structure of Exodus.", "One strong possibility is that it is a diptych (i.e., divided into two parts), with the division between parts 1 and 2 at the crossing of the Red Sea or at the beginning of the theophany (appearance of God) in chapter 19.On this plan, the first part tells of God's rescue of his people from Egypt and their journey under his care to Sinai (chapters 1–19) and the second tells of the covenant between them (chapters 20–40)." ], [ "Summary", "The text of the Book of Exodus begins after the events at the end of the Book of Genesis where Jacob's sons and their families joined their brother Joseph in Egypt, which Joseph had saved from famine.", "It is 400 years later and Egypt's new Pharaoh, who does not remember Joseph, is fearful that the enslaved and now numerous Israelites could become a fifth column.", "He hardens their labor and orders the killing of all newborn boys.", "A Levite woman named Jochebed saves her baby by setting him adrift on the Nile in an ark of bulrushes.", "Pharaoh's daughter finds the child, names him Moses, and brings him up as her own.", "''Finding of Moses'' in the Dura-Europos synagogue, c. 244Later, a grown Moses goes out to see his kinsmen.", "He witnesses the abuse of a Hebrew slave by an Egyptian overseer.", "Angered, Moses kills him and flees into Midian to escape punishment.", "There, he marries Zipporah, daughter of Jethro, a Midianite priest.", "While tending Jethro's flock, Moses encounters God in a burning bush.", "Moses asks God for his name, to which God replies with three words, often translated as \"I Am that I Am.\"", "This is the book's explanation for the origin of the name Yahweh, as God is thereafter known.", "God tells Moses to return to Egypt, free the Hebrews from slavery and lead them into Canaan, the land promised to the seed of Abraham in Genesis.", "On the journey back to Egypt, God seeks to kill Moses.", "Zipporah circumcises their son and the attack stops.", "''(See Zipporah at the inn.", ")''Moses reunites with his brother Aaron and, returning to Egypt, convenes the Israelite elders, preparing them to go into the wilderness to worship God.", "Pharaoh refuses to release the Israelites from their work for the festival, and so God curses the Egyptians with ten terrible plagues, such as a river of blood, an outbreak of frogs, and the thick darkness.", "Moses is commanded by God to fix the spring month of Aviv at the head of the Hebrew calendar.", "The Israelites are to take a lamb on the 10th day of the month, sacrifice the lamb on the 14th day, daub its blood on their mezuzot—doorposts and lintels, and to observe the Passover meal that night, during the full moon.", "The 10th plague comes that night, causing the death of all Egyptian firstborn sons, prompting Pharaoh to expel the Israelites.", "Regretting his decision, Pharaoh commands his chariot army after the Israelites, who appear trapped at the Red Sea.", "God parts the sea, allowing the Israelites to pass through, before drowning Pharaoh's pursuing forces.Geography of the Book of Exodus, with the Nile River and its delta, left, the Red Sea and Sinai desert, center, and the land of Israel, upper rightAs desert life proves arduous, the Israelites complain and long for Egypt, but God miraculously provides manna for them to eat and water to drink.", "The Israelites arrive at the mountain of God, where Moses's father-in-law Jethro visits Moses; at his suggestion, Moses appoints judges over Israel.", "God asks whether they will agree to be his people – They accept.", "The people gather at the foot of the mountain, and with thunder and lightning, fire and clouds of smoke, the sound of trumpets, and the trembling of the mountain, God appears on the peak, and the people see the cloud and hear the voice (or possibly sound) of God.", "God tells Moses to ascend the mountain.", "God pronounces the Ten Commandments (the Ethical Decalogue) in the hearing of all Israel.", "Moses goes up the mountain into the presence of God, who pronounces the Covenant Code of ritual and civil law and promises Canaan to them if they obey.", "Moses comes down from the mountain and writes down God's words, and the people agree to keep them.", "God calls Moses up the mountain again, where he remains for forty days and forty nights, after which he returns, bearing the set of stone tablets.God gives Moses instructions for the construction of the tabernacle so that God may dwell permanently among his chosen people, along with instructions for the priestly vestments, the altar and its appurtenances, procedures for the ordination of priests, and the daily sacrifice offerings.", "Aaron becomes the first hereditary high priest.", "God gives Moses the two tablets of stone containing the words of the ten commandments, written with the \"finger of God\".''", "Worship of the Golden Calf'', Gerrit de Wet, 17th centuryWhile Moses is with God, Aaron casts a golden calf, which the people worship.", "God informs Moses of their apostasy and threatens to kill them all, but relents when Moses pleads for them.", "Moses comes down from the mountain, smashes the stone tablets in anger, and commands the Levites to massacre the unfaithful Israelites.", "God commands Moses to construct two new tablets.", "Moses ascends the mountain again, where God dictates the Ten Commandments for Moses to write on the tablets.Moses descends from the mountain with a transformed face; from that time onwards he must hide his face with a veil.", "Moses assembles the Hebrews and repeats to them the commandments he has received from God, which are to keep the Sabbath and to construct the Tabernacle.", "The Israelites do as they are commanded.", "From that time God dwells in the Tabernacle and orders the travels of the Hebrews." ], [ "Composition", "=== Authorship ===Children of Israel in Egypt (1867 painting by Edward Poynter)Jewish and Christian tradition viewed Moses as the author of Exodus and the entire Torah, but by the end of the 19th century the increasing awareness of discrepancies, inconsistencies, repetitions and other features of the Pentateuch had led scholars to abandon this idea.", "In approximate round dates, the process which produced Exodus and the Pentateuch probably began around 600 BCE when existing oral and written traditions were brought together to form books recognizable as those we know, reaching their final form as unchangeable sacred texts around 400 BCE.=== Sources ===Although patent mythical elements are not so prominent in Exodus as in Genesis, ancient legends may have an influence on the book's form or content: for example, the story of the infant Moses's salvation from the Nile is argued to be based on an earlier legend of king Sargon of Akkad, while the story of the parting of the Red Sea may trade on Mesopotamian creation mythology.", "Similarly, the Covenant Code (the law code in Exodus 20:22–23:33) has some similarities in both content and structure with the Laws of Hammurabi.", "These potential influences serve to reinforce the conclusion that the Book of Exodus originated in the exiled Jewish community of 6th-century BCE Babylon, but not all the potential sources are Mesopotamian: the story of Moses's flight to Midian following the murder of the Egyptian overseer may draw on the Egyptian ''Story of Sinuhe''.=== Textual witnesses ===" ], [ "Themes", "David Roberts (1829)=== Salvation ===Biblical scholars describe the Bible's theologically-motivated history writing as \"salvation history\", meaning a history of God's saving actions that give identity to Israel – the promise of offspring and land to the ancestors, the Exodus from Egypt (in which God saves Israel from slavery), the wilderness wandering, the revelation at Sinai, and the hope for the future life in the promised land.=== Theophany ===A theophany is a manifestation (appearance) of a god – in the Bible, an appearance of the God of Israel, accompanied by storms – the earth trembles, the mountains quake, the heavens pour rain, thunder peals and lightning flashes.", "The theophany in Exodus begins \"the third day\" from their arrival at Sinai in chapter 19: Yahweh and the people meet at the mountain, God appears in the storm and converses with Moses, giving him the Ten Commandments while the people listen.", "The theophany is therefore a public experience of divine law.The second half of Exodus marks the point at which, and describes the process through which, God's theophany becomes a permanent presence for Israel via the Tabernacle.", "That so much of the book (chapters 25–31, 35–40) describes the plans of the Tabernacle demonstrates the importance it played in the perception of Second Temple Judaism at the time of the text's redaction by the Priestly writers: the Tabernacle is the place where God is physically present, where, through the priesthood, Israel could be in direct, literal communion with him.=== Covenant ===''Crossing of the Red Sea'', Nicolas PoussinThe heart of Exodus is the Sinaitic covenant.", "A covenant is a legal document binding two parties to take on certain obligations towards each other.", "There are several covenants in the Bible, and in each case they exhibit at least some of the elements in real-life treaties of the ancient Middle East: a preamble, historical prologue, stipulations, deposition and reading, list of witnesses, blessings and curses, and ratification by animal sacrifice.", "Biblical covenants, in contrast to Eastern covenants in general, are between a god, Yahweh, and a people, Israel, instead of between a strong ruler and a weaker vassal.=== Election of Israel ===God elects Israel for salvation because the \"sons of Israel\" are \"the firstborn son\" of the God of Israel, descended through Shem and Abraham to the chosen line of Jacob whose name is changed to Israel.", "The goal of the divine plan in Exodus is a return to humanity's state in Eden, so that God can dwell with the Israelites as he had with Adam and Eve through the Ark and Tabernacle, which together form a model of the universe; in later Abrahamic religions Israel becomes the guardian of God's plan for humanity, to bring \"God's creation blessing to mankind\" begun in Adam." ], [ "Judaism's weekly Torah portions in the Book of Exodus", "Moses with the Ten Commandments, by Rembrandt (1659)List of Torah portions in the Book of Exodus:* Shemot, on Exodus 1–5: Affliction in Egypt, discovery of baby Moses, Pharaoh* Va'eira, on Exodus 6–9: Plagues 1 to 7 of Egypt* Bo, on Exodus 10–13: Last plagues of Egypt, first Passover* Beshalach, on Exodus 13–17: Parting the Sea, water, manna, Amalek* Yitro, on Exodus 18–20: Jethro's advice, The Ten Commandments* Mishpatim, on Exodus 21–24: The Covenant Code* Terumah, on Exodus 25–27: God's instructions on the Tabernacle and furnishings* Tetzaveh, on Exodus 27–30: God's instructions on the first priests* Ki Tissa, on Exodus 30–34: Census, anointing oil, golden calf, stone tablets, Moses radiant* Vayakhel, on Exodus 35–38: Israelites collect gifts, make the Tabernacle and furnishings* Pekudei, on Exodus 38–40: Setting up and filling of The Tabernacle" ], [ "See also", "* Film adaptations of the Book of Exodus* History of the Jews in Ancient Egypt* Ketef Hinnom* Song of the Sea" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Levy, Thomas E., Thomas Schneider, William H.C. Propp.", "(2015).", "\"Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience\".", "Springer International Publishing.", "* * * * Newman, Murray L. (2000) ''Exodus'' Forward Movement Publications* * Plaut, Gunther.", "''The Torah: A Modern Commentary'' (1981), * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Exodus at BibleGateway.com* Exodus at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation)* Exodus (The Living Torah) —Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's translation and commentary at Ort.org* Shemot—Exodus (Judaica Press) translation (with Rashi's commentary) at Chabad.org* ''Shmot'' (Original Hebrew—English at Mechon-Mamre.org)* —Various versions" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Electronics" ], [ "Introduction", "surface-mount electronic components on a printed circuit board, with a large integrated circuit at the top'''Electronics''' is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of physics to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate electrons and other electrically charged particles.", "Electronics is a subfield of electrical engineering, but it differs from it in that it focuses on using active devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits to control and amplify the flow of electric current and to convert it from one form to another, such as from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) or from analog to digital.", "Electronics also encompasses the fields of microelectronics, nanoelectronics, optoelectronics, and quantum electronics, which deal with the fabrication and application of electronic devices at microscopic, nanoscopic, optical, and quantum scales.", "Electronics have a profound impact on various aspects of modern society and culture, such as communication, entertainment, education, health care, industry, and security.", "The main driving force behind the advancement of electronics is the semiconductor industry, which produces the basic materials and components for electronic devices and circuits.", "The semiconductor industry is one of the largest and most profitable sectors in the global economy, with annual revenues exceeding $481 billion in 2018.The electronics industry also encompasses other sectors that rely on electronic devices and systems, such as e-commerce, which generated over $29 trillion in online sales in 2017." ], [ "History and development", "One of the earliest Audion radio receivers, constructed by De Forest in 1914 Electronics has hugely influenced the development of modern society.", "The identification of the electron in 1897, along with the subsequent invention of the vacuum tube which could amplify and rectify small electrical signals, inaugurated the field of electronics and the electron age.", "Practical applications started with the invention of the diode by Ambrose Fleming and the triode by Lee De Forest in the early 1900s, which made the detection of small electrical voltages such as radio signals from a radio antenna possible with a non-mechanical device.Vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) were the first active electronic components which controlled current flow by influencing the flow of individual electrons, They were responsible for the electronics revolution of the first half of the twentieth century, They enabled the construction of equipment that used current amplification and rectification to give us radio, television, radar, long-distance telephony and much more.", "The early growth of electronics was rapid, and by the 1920s, commercial radio broadcasting and communications were becoming widespread and electronic amplifiers were being used in such diverse applications as long-distance telephony and the music recording industry.The next big technological step took several decades to appear, when the first working point-contact transistor was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947.However, vacuum tubes played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s.Since then, solid-state devices have all but completely taken over.", "Vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode-ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices.In April 1955, the IBM 608 was the first IBM product to use transistor circuits without any vacuum tubes and is believed to be the first all-transistorized calculator to be manufactured for the commercial market.", "The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors.", "Thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design.", "From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic and peripherals.", "However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.The MOSFET (MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.", "Its advantages include high scalability, affordability, low power consumption, and high density.", "It revolutionized the electronics industry, becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.", "The MOSFET is the basic element in most modern electronic equipment.As the complexity of circuits grew, problems arose.", "One problem was the size of the circuit.", "A complex circuit like a computer was dependent on speed.", "If the components were large, the wires interconnecting them must be long.", "The electric signals took time to go through the circuit, thus slowing the computer.", "The invention of the integrated circuit by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce solved this problem by making all the components and the chip out of the same block (monolith) of semiconductor material.", "The circuits could be made smaller, and the manufacturing process could be automated.", "This led to the idea of integrating all components on a single-crystal silicon wafer, which led to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, and then medium-scale integration (MSI) in the late 1960s, followed by VLSI.", "In 2008, billion-transistor processors became commercially available." ], [ "Subfields", "* Analog electronics* Audio electronics* Bioelectronics* Circuit design* Digital electronics* Embedded systems* Integrated circuits* Microelectronics* Nanoelectronics* Optoelectronics* Power electronics* Semiconductor devices* Telecommunications" ], [ "Devices and components", "Various electronic componentsAn electronic component is any component in an electronic system either active or passive.", "Components are connected together, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function.", "Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits.", "Passive electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, whilst active components are such as semiconductor devices; transistors and thyristors, which control current flow at electron level." ], [ "Types of circuits", "Electronic circuit functions can be divided into two function groups: analog and digital.", "A particular device may consist of circuitry that has either or a mix of the two types.", "Analog circuits are becoming less common, as many of their functions are being digitized.=== Analog circuits ===Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits.", "Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits.The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components.Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc.", "Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog – these days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance.", "This type of circuit is usually called \"mixed signal\" rather than analog or digital.Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation.", "An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit.", "Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially two levels of output.", "In fact, many digital circuits are actually implemented as variations of analog circuits similar to this example – after all, all aspects of the real physical world are essentially analog, so digital effects are only realized by constraining analog behaviour.=== Digital circuits ===Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels.", "Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers.", "To most engineers, the terms \"digital circuit\", \"digital system\" and \"logic\" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits.Most digital circuits use a binary system with two voltage levels labelled \"0\" and \"1\".", "Often logic \"0\" will be a lower voltage and referred to as \"Low\" while logic \"1\" is referred to as \"High\".", "However, some systems use the reverse definition (\"0\" is \"High\") or are current based.", "Quite often the logic designer may reverse these definitions from one circuit to the next as they see fit to facilitate their design.", "The definition of the levels as \"0\" or \"1\" is arbitrary.Ternary (with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made.", "Mass-produced binary systems have caused lower significance for using ternary logic.", "Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits.", "Digital signal processors, which measure, filter or compress continuous real-world analog signals, are another example.", "Transistors such as MOSFET are used to control binary states.", "* Logic gates* Adders* Flip-flops* Counters* Registers* Multiplexers* Schmitt triggersHighly integrated devices:* Memory chip* Microprocessors* Microcontrollers* Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)* Digital signal processor (DSP)* Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)* Field-programmable analog array (FPAA)* System on chip (SOC)" ], [ "Design", "Electronic systems design deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electronic devices and systems, such as mobile phones and computers.", "The subject covers a broad spectrum, from the design and development of an electronic system (new product development) to assuring its proper function, service life and disposal.", "Electronic systems design is therefore the process of defining and developing complex electronic devices to satisfy specified requirements of the user.Due to the complex nature of electronics theory, laboratory experimentation is an important part of the development of electronic devices.", "These experiments are used to test or verify the engineer's design and detect errors.", "Historically, electronics labs have consisted of electronics devices and equipment located in a physical space, although in more recent years the trend has been towards electronics lab simulation software, such as CircuitLogix, Multisim, and PSpice.=== Computer-aided design ===Today's electronics engineers have the ability to design circuits using premanufactured building blocks such as power supplies, semiconductors (i.e.", "semiconductor devices, such as transistors), and integrated circuits.", "Electronic design automation software programs include schematic capture programs and printed circuit board design programs.", "Popular names in the EDA software world are NI Multisim, Cadence (ORCAD), EAGLE PCB and Schematic, Mentor (PADS PCB and LOGIC Schematic), Altium (Protel), LabCentre Electronics (Proteus), gEDA, KiCad and many others." ], [ "Negative qualities", "=== Thermal management ===Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long term reliability.", "Heat dissipation is mostly achieved by passive conduction/convection.", "Means to achieve greater dissipation include heat sinks and fans for air cooling, and other forms of computer cooling such as water cooling.", "These techniques use convection, conduction, and radiation of heat energy.=== Noise ===Electronic noise is defined as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its information content.", "Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit.", "Noise is associated with all electronic circuits.", "Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally generated, which can be decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the circuit.", "Other types of noise, such as shot noise cannot be removed as they are due to limitations in physical properties." ], [ "Packaging methods", "Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years.", "For instance, early electronics often used point to point wiring with components attached to wooden breadboards to construct circuits.", "Cordwood construction and wire wrap were other methods used.", "Most modern day electronics now use printed circuit boards made of materials such as FR4, or the cheaper (and less hard-wearing) Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (SRBP, also known as Paxoline/Paxolin (trade marks) and FR2) – characterised by its brown colour.", "Health and environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly have gained increased attention in recent years, especially for products destined to go to European markets.Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s home computer.", "Axial-lead devices are at upper left, while blue radial-lead capacitors are at upper right.Electrical components are generally mounted in the following ways:* Through-hole (sometimes referred to as 'Pin-Through-Hole')* Surface mount* Chassis mount* Rack mount* LGA/BGA/PGA socket" ], [ "Industry", "The electronics industry consists of various sectors.", "The central driving force behind the entire electronics industry is the semiconductor industry sector, which has annual sales of over as of 2018.The largest industry sector is e-commerce, which generated over in 2017.The most widely manufactured electronic device is the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), with an estimated 13sextillion MOSFETs having been manufactured between 1960 and 2018.In the 1960s, U.S. manufacturers were unable to compete with Japanese companies such as Sony and Hitachi who could produce high-quality goods at lower prices.", "By the 1980s, however, U.S. manufacturers became the world leaders in semiconductor development and assembly.However, during the 1990s and subsequently, the industry shifted overwhelmingly to East Asia (a process begun with the initial movement of microchip mass-production there in the 1970s), as plentiful, cheap labor, and increasing technological sophistication, became widely available there.Over three decades, the United States' global share of semiconductor manufacturing capacity fell, from 37% in 1990, to 12% in 2022.America's pre-eminent semiconductor manufacturer, Intel Corporation, fell far behind its subcontractor Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) in manufacturing technology.By that time, Taiwan had become the world's leading source of advanced semiconductors—followed by South Korea, the United States, Japan, Singapore, and China.Important semiconductor industry facilities (which often are subsidiaries of a leading producer based elsewhere) also exist in Europe (notably the Netherlands), Southeast Asia, South America, and Israel." ], [ "See also", "* Index of electronics articles* Outline of electronics* Atomtronics* Audio engineering* Avionics* Biodegradable electronics* Broadcast engineering* Computer engineering* Electronics engineering* Electronics engineering technology* Fuzzy electronics* Marine electronics* Photonics* Robotics" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1980).", "''The Art of Electronics''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "." ], [ "External links", "* * Navy 1998 Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series (NEETS) * DOE 1998 Electrical Science, Fundamentals Handbook, 4 vols.", " Vol.", "1, Basic Electrical Theory, Basic DC Theory Vol.", "2, DC Circuits, Batteries, Generators, Motors Vol.", "3, Basic AC Theory, Basic AC Reactive Components, Basic AC Power, Basic AC Generators Vol.", "4, AC Motors, Transformers, Test Instruments & Measuring Devices, Electrical Distribution Systems" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Erewhon" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of part of New Zealand to illustrate ''Erewhon'' and ''Erewhon Revisited'''''''Erewhon: or, Over the Range''''' () is a novel by English writer Samuel Butler, first published anonymously in 1872, set in a fictional country discovered and explored by the protagonist.", "The book is a satire on Victorian society.The first few chapters of the novel dealing with the discovery of Erewhon are in fact based on Butler's own experiences in New Zealand, where, as a young man, he worked as a sheep farmer on Mesopotamia Station for about four years (1860–64), and explored parts of the interior of the South Island and wrote about in his ''A First Year in Canterbury Settlement'' (1863).The novel is one of the first to explore ideas of artificial intelligence, as influenced by Darwin's recently published ''On the Origin of Species'' (1859) and the machines developed out of the Industrial Revolution (late 18th to early 19th centuries).", "Specifically, it concerns itself, in the three-chapter \"Book of the Machines\", with the potentially dangerous ideas of machine consciousness and self-replicating machines." ], [ "Content", "The greater part of the book consists of a description of Erewhon.", "The nature of this nation is intended to be ambiguous.", "At first glance, Erewhon appears to be a Utopia, yet it soon becomes clear that this is far from the case.", "Yet for all the failings of Erewhon, it is also clearly not a dystopia, such as that depicted in 1949 in George Orwell's ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.As a satirical utopia, ''Erewhon'' has sometimes been compared to ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), a classic novel by Jonathan Swift; the image of Utopia in this latter case also bears strong parallels with the self-view of the British Empire at the time.", "It can also be compared to the William Morris novel, ''News from Nowhere'' (1890).", "''Erewhon'' satirises various aspects of Victorian society, including criminal punishment, religion, and anthropocentrism.", "For example, according to Erewhonian law, offenders are treated as if they were ill, whereas ill people are looked upon as criminals.", "Another feature of Erewhon is the absence of machines; this is due to the widely shared perception by the Erewhonians that machines are potentially dangerous.===The Book of the Machines===Butler developed the three chapters of ''Erewhon'' that make up \"The Book of the Machines\" from a number of articles he had contributed to ''The Press'', which had just begun publication in Christchurch, New Zealand, beginning with \"Darwin among the Machines\" (1863).", "Butler was the first to write about the possibility that machines might develop consciousness by natural selection.Many dismissed this as a joke, but, in his preface to the second edition, Butler wrote, \"I regret that reviewers have in some cases been inclined to treat the chapters on Machines as an attempt to reduce Mr Darwin's theory to an absurdity.", "Nothing could be further from my intention, and few things would be more distasteful to me than any attempt to laugh at Mr Darwin.", "\"===Characters===* Higgs—The narrator who informs the reader of the nature of Erewhonian society.", "* Chowbok (Kahabuka)—Higgs' guide into the mountains; he is a native who greatly fears the Erewhonians.", "He eventually abandons Higgs.", "* Yram—The daughter of Higgs' jailer who takes care of him when he first enters Erewhon.", "Her name is Mary spelled backwards.", "* Senoj Nosnibor—Higgs' host after he is released from prison; he hopes that Higgs will marry his elder daughter.", "His name is Robinson Jones backwards.", "* Zulora—Senoj Nosnibor's elder daughter—Higgs finds her unpleasant, but her father hopes Higgs will marry her.", "Her name is Aroluz backwards.", "* Arowhena—Senoj Nosnibor's younger daughter; she falls in love with Higgs and runs away with him.", "* Mahaina—A woman who claims to suffer from alcoholism but is believed to have a weak temperament.", "* Ydgrun—The incomprehensible goddess of the Erewhonians.", "Her name is an anagram of Grundy (from Mrs. Grundy, a character in Thomas Morton's play ''Speed the Plough'')." ], [ "Reception", "In a 1945 broadcast, George Orwell praised the book and said that when Butler wrote ''Erewhon'' it needed \"imagination of a very high order to see that machinery could be dangerous as well as useful\".", "He recommended the novel, though not its sequel, ''Erewhon Revisited''." ], [ "Influence and legacy", "===Deleuze and Guattari===The French philosopher Gilles Deleuze used ideas from Butler's book at various points in the development of his philosophy of difference.", "In ''Difference and Repetition'' (1968), Deleuze refers to what he calls \"Ideas\" as \"Erewhon\".", "\"Ideas are not concepts\", he argues, but rather \"a form of eternally positive differential multiplicity, distinguished from the identity of concepts.\"", "\"Erewhon\" refers to the \"nomadic distributions\" that pertain to simulacra, which \"are not universals like the categories, nor are they the ''hic et nunc'' or ''nowhere'', the diversity to which categories apply in representation.\"", "\"Erewhon\", in this reading, is \"not only a disguised ''no-where'' but a rearranged ''now-here''.", "\"In his collaboration with Félix Guattari, ''Anti-Oedipus'' (1972), Deleuze draws on Butler's \"The Book of the Machines\" to \"go beyond\" the \"usual polemic between vitalism and mechanism\" as it relates to their concept of \"desiring-machines\":===Other uses===C.", "S. Lewis alludes to the book in his essay, ''The Humanitarian Theory of Punishment'' in the posthumously published collection, ''God in the Dock'' (1970).Aldous Huxley alludes to the book in his novels ''Island'' (1962) and ''The Doors of Perception'' (1954), as does Agatha Christie in ''Death on the Nile'' (1937).", "A copy of the book figures in Elizabeth Bowen's short story 'The Cat Jumps' (1934).In 1994, a group of ex-Yugoslavian writers in Amsterdam, who had established the PEN centre of Yugoslav Writers in Exile, published a single issue of a literary journal ''Erewhon''.The 1973 movie ''The Day of the Dolphin'' features a boat named ''Erewhon.", "''New Zealand sound art organisation, the Audio Foundation, published in 2012 an anthology edited by Bruce Russell named ''Erewhon Calling'' after Butler's book.In 2014, New Zealand artist Gavin Hipkins released his first feature film, titled ''Erewhon'' and based on Butler's book.", "It premiered at the New Zealand International Film Festival and the Edinburgh Art Festival.In \"Smile\", the second episode of the 2017 season of ''Doctor Who'', the Doctor and Bill explore a spaceship named ''Erehwon''.", "Despite the slightly different spelling, the episode writer Frank Cottrell-Boyce confirmed that this was a reference to Butler's novel.The book ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'', by Karl Popper, reproduces on its first page the following citation of Butler: ''\"It will be seen ... that the Erewhonians are a meek and long-suffering people easily led by the nose, and quick to offer up common sense at the shrine of logic, when a philosopher arises among them who carries them away ... by convincing them that their existing institutions are not based on the strictest principles of morality\".", "''\"Erewhon\" is the unofficial name US astronauts gave Regan Station, a military space station in David Brin's 1990 novel ''Earth''.The 'Butlerian Jihad' is the name of the crusade to wipe out 'thinking machines' in the novel, ''Dune'', by Frank Herbert.Erewhon is the name of a Los Angeles-based natural foods grocery store originally founded in Boston in 1966.Erewhon is also the name of an independent speculative fiction publishing company founded in 2018 by Liz Gorinsky.A copy of Erewhon figures prominently in the video for \"A Barely Lit Path,\" the lead single from Oneohtrix Point Never's 2023 album ''Again.''" ], [ "See also", "* Rangitata River – the location of the Erewhon sheep station named by Butler who was the first white settler in the area and lived at the Mesopotamia Sheep Station* Nacirema - another piece of satirical writing with a similar backwards pun" ], [ "References", "* \"Mesopotamia Station\", Newton, P. (1960)* \"Early Canterbury Runs\", Acland, L. G. D. (1946)* \"Samuel Butler of Mesopotamia\", Maling, P. B.", "(1960)* \"The Cradle of Erewhon\", Jones, J.", "(1959)* ''The Day of the Dolphin'' (1973 film starring George C. Scott); it is the name of a motorboat that appears approx.", "12 min.", "into the film." ], [ "External links", "* * * \"Darwin Among the Machines\" (To the Editor of ''The Press'', Christchurch, New Zealand, 13 June 1863) from the New Zealand Electronic Text Centre*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ectopia (medicine)" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''ectopia''' () is a displacement or malposition of an organ or other body part, which is then referred to as '''ectopic''' ()." ], [ "Examples", "Ectopic ACTH syndrome, also known as small-cell carcinoma.", "Ectopic calcification, a pathologic deposition of calcium salts in tissues or bone growth in soft tissuesCerebellar tonsillar ectopia, aka Chiari malformation, a herniation of the brain through the foramen magnum, which may be congenital or caused by trauma.", "Ectopic cilia, a hair growing where it isn't supposed to be, commonly an eyelash on an abnormal spot on the eyelid, distichiaEctopia cordis, the displacement of the heart outside the body during fetal development Ectopic enamel, a tooth abnormality, where enamel is found in an unusual location, such as at the root of a toothEctopic expression, the expression of a gene in an abnormal place in an organismEctopic hormone, a hormone produced by a tumor, such as small-cell carcinoma, can cause Cushing's syndrome Ectopia lentis, the displacement of the crystalline lens of the eyeNeuronal ectopiaEctopic pancreas, displacement of pancreatic tissue in the body with no connection, anatomical or vascular, to the pancreasEctopic recombination, the recombination between sequences (like leu2 sequences) present at different genomic locationsRenal ectopia occurs when both kidneys are on the same side of the bodyEctopic testis, a testis that has moved to an unusual locationEctopic thymus, where thymus tissue is found in an abnormal locationEctopic thyroid, where an entire or parts of the thyroid are located elsewhere in the bodyEctopic tooth, a tooth that erupted outside the dental archEctopic ureter, where the ureter terminates somewhere other than the urinary bladderEctopia vesicae, a congenital anomaly in which part of the urinary bladder is present outside the body" ], [ "See also", "Ectopic beat of the heartCervical ectropionEctopic pregnancy, where the fertilized egg implants anywhere other than the uterine wall*Heterotopia (medicine)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Entorhinal cortex" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''entorhinal cortex''' ('''EC''') is an area of the brain's allocortex, located in the medial temporal lobe, whose functions include being a widespread network hub for memory, navigation, and the perception of time.", "The EC is the main interface between the hippocampus and neocortex.", "The EC-hippocampus system plays an important role in declarative (autobiographical/episodic/semantic) memories and in particular spatial memories including memory formation, memory consolidation, and memory optimization in sleep.", "The EC is also responsible for the pre-processing (familiarity) of the input signals in the reflex nictitating membrane response of classical trace conditioning; the association of impulses from the eye and the ear occurs in the entorhinal cortex." ], [ "Anatomy", "The entorhinal cortex is a portion of the rostral parahippocampal gyrus.=== Structure ===It is usually divided into medial and lateral regions with three bands with distinct properties and connectivity running perpendicular across the whole area.", "A distinguishing characteristic of the EC is the lack of cell bodies where layer IV should be; this layer is called the ''Lamina dissecans''.===Connections===View of left entorhinal cortex (red) from beneath the brain, with front of brain at top.", "Artist's rendering.The superficial layers – layers II and III – of EC project to the dentate gyrus and hippocampus: Layer II projects primarily to dentate gyrus and hippocampal region CA3; layer III projects primarily to hippocampal region CA1 and the subiculum.", "These layers receive input from other cortical areas, especially associational, perirhinal, and parahippocampal cortices, as well as prefrontal cortex.", "EC as a whole, therefore, receives highly processed input from every sensory modality, as well as input relating to ongoing cognitive processes, though it should be stressed that, within EC, this information remains at least partially segregated.The deep layers, especially layer V, receive one of the three main outputs of the hippocampus and, in turn, reciprocate connections from other cortical areas that project to superficial EC.===Brodmann's areas===* Brodmann area 28 is known as the \"area entorhinalis\"* Brodmann area 34 is known as the \"area entorhinalis dorsalis\"" ], [ "Function", "===Neuron information processing===In 2005, it was discovered that entorhinal cortex contains a neural map of the spatial environment in rats.", "In 2014, John O'Keefe, May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, partly because of this discovery.In rodents, neurons in the lateral entorhinal cortex exhibit little spatial selectivity, whereas neurons of the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC), exhibit multiple \"place fields\" that are arranged in a hexagonal pattern, and are, therefore, called \"grid cells\".", "These fields and spacing between fields increase from the dorso-lateral MEA to the ventro-medial MEA.The same group of researchers has found speed cells in the medial entorhinal cortex of rats.", "The speed of movement is translated from proprioceptive information and is represented as firing rates in these cells.", "The cells are known to fire in correlation to future speed of the rodent.Recently, a general theory has been proposed to elucidate the function of the reelin positive cells in the layer II of the entorhinal cortex.", "According to this concept, these cells would be generally organized into 1-dimensional ring attractors, and in the ''medial'' (in humans: ''posteromedial'') portion, would function as grid cells (anatomically: stellate cells) while in ''lateral'' (in humans: ''anterolateral'') portion, where they appear as fan cells, would enable the encoding of new episodic memories.", "This concept is underscored by the fact that fan cells of the entorhinal cortex are indispensable for the formation of episodic-like memories in rodents.Single-unit recording of neurons in humans playing video games find path cells in the EC, the activity of which indicates whether a person is taking a clockwise or counterclockwise path.", "Such EC \"direction\" path cells show this directional activity irrespective of the location of where a person experiences themselves, which contrasts them to place cells in the hippocampus, which are activated by specific locations.EC neurons process general information such as directional activity in the environment, which contrasts to that of the hippocampal neurons, which usually encode information about specific places.", "This suggests that EC encodes general properties about current contexts that are then used by hippocampus to create unique representations from combinations of these properties.Research generally highlights a useful distinction in which the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) mainly supports processing of space, whereas the lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC) mainly supports the processing of time.", "The MEC exhibits a strong ~8 Hz rhythmic neural activity known as theta.", "Alterations in the neural activity across the brain region results in an observed \"traveling wave\" phenomena across the MEC long-axis, similar to that of the hippocampus, due to asymmetric theta oscillations.", "The underlying cause of these phase shifts and their waveform changes is unknown.", "Individual variation in the volume of EC is linked to taste perception.", "People with a larger EC in the left hemisphere found quinine, the source of bitterness in tonic water, less bitter." ], [ "Clinical significance", "===Alzheimer's disease===The entorhinal cortex is the first area of the brain to be affected in Alzheimer's disease; in year 2013, a functional magnetic resonance imaging study has localised the area to the lateral entorhinal cortex.", "Lopez ''et al.''", "have shown, in a multimodal study, that there are differences in the volume of the left entorhinal cortex between progressing (to Alzheimer's disease) and stable mild cognitive impairment patients.", "These authors also found that the volume of the left entorhinal cortex inversely correlates with the level of alpha band phase synchronization between the right anterior cingulate and temporo-occipital regions.In 2012, neuroscientists at UCLA conducted an experiment using a virtual taxi video game connected to seven epilepsy patients with electrodes already implanted in their brains, allowing the researchers to monitor neuronal activity whenever memories were being formed.", "As the researchers stimulated the nerve fibers of each of the patients' entorhinal cortex as they were learning, they were then able to better navigate themselves through various routes and recognize landmarks more quickly.", "This signified an improvement in the patients' spatial memory." ], [ "Research", "'''Effect of aerobic exercise'''A study on young subjects found aerobic fitness to be positively correlated with entorhinal cortex volume, indicating that aerobic exercise may have a positive effect on the medial temporal lobe memory system (which includes the entorhinal cortex)." ], [ "In other animals", "In rodents, the EC is located at the caudal end of the temporal lobe.", "The rodent entorhinal cortex shows a modular organization, with different properties and connections in different areas.In primates it is located at the rostral end of the temporal lobe and stretches dorsolaterally." ], [ "Additional Images", " File:Entorhinal - DK ATLAS.png\|Entorhinal cortex, shown in the right cerebral hemisphere." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * NIF Search - Entorhinal Cortex via the Neuroscience Information Framework* For delineating the Entorhinal cortex, see Desikan RS, Ségonne F, Fischl B, Quinn BT, Dickerson BC, Blacker D, Buckner RL, Dale AM, Maguire RP, Hyman BT, Albert MS, Killiany RJ.", "An automated labeling system for subdividing the human cerebral cortex on MRI scans into gyral based regions of interest.", "Neuroimage.", "2006 Jul 1;31(3):968-80." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ernst Haeckel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel''' (; 16 February 1834 – 9 August 1919) was a German zoologist, naturalist, eugenicist, philosopher, physician, professor, marine biologist and artist.", "He discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms and coined many terms in biology, including ''ecology'', ''phylum'', ''phylogeny'', and ''Protista.''", "Haeckel promoted and popularised Charles Darwin's work in Germany and developed the influential but no longer widely held recapitulation theory (\"ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny\") claiming that an individual organism's biological development, or ontogeny, parallels and summarises its species' evolutionary development, or phylogeny.The published artwork of Haeckel includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of animals and sea creatures, collected in his ''Kunstformen der Natur'' (\"Art Forms of Nature\"), a book which would go on to influence the Art Nouveau artistic movement.", "As a philosopher, Ernst Haeckel wrote ''Die Welträthsel'' (1895–1899; in English: ''The Riddle of the Universe'', 1901), the genesis for the term \"world riddle\" (''Welträtsel''); and ''Freedom in Science and Teaching'' to support teaching evolution.Haeckel was also a promoter of scientific racism and embraced the idea of Social Darwinism.", "He was the first person to characterize the Great War the \"first\" World War, which he did as early as 1914." ], [ "Early life and education", "Christmas of 1860Ernst Haeckel was born on 16 February 1834, in Potsdam (then part of the Kingdom of Prussia).In 1852 Haeckel completed studies at the ''Domgymnasium'', the cathedral high-school of Merseburg.", "He then studied medicine in Berlin and Würzburg, particularly with Albert von Kölliker, Franz Leydig, Rudolf Virchow (with whom he later worked briefly as assistant), and with the anatomist-physiologist Johannes Peter Müller (1801–1858).", "Together with Hermann Steudner he attended botany lectures in Würzburg.", "In 1857 Haeckel attained a doctorate in medicine, and afterwards he received the license to practice medicine.", "The occupation of physician appeared less worthwhile to Haeckel after contact with suffering patients." ], [ "Career", "Haeckel studied under Carl Gegenbaur at the University of Jena for three years.", "In 1861 he earned a habilitation in comparative anatomy and became a professor of zoology at the University at Jena, where he remained for 47 years, from 1862 to 1909.Between 1859 and 1866 Haeckel worked on many phyla, such as radiolarians, poriferans (sponges) and annelids (segmented worms).", "During a trip to the Mediterranean, Haeckel named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians.From 1866 to 1867 Haeckel made an extended journey to the Canary Islands with Hermann Fol.", "On 17 October 1866 he arrived in London.", "Over the next few days he met Charles Lyell, and visited Thomas Huxley and family at their home.", "On 21 October he visited Charles Darwin at Down House in Kent.", "In 1867 he married Agnes Huschke.", "Their son Walter was born in 1868, their daughters Elizabeth in 1871 and Emma in 1873.In 1869 he traveled as a researcher to Norway, in 1871 to Croatia (where he lived on the island of Hvar in a monastery), and in 1873 to Egypt, Turkey, and Greece.", "In 1907 he had a museum built in Jena to teach the public about evolution.", "Haeckel retired from teaching in 1909, and in 1910 he withdrew from the Evangelical Church of Prussia.In later lifeOn the occasion of his 80th birthday celebration he was presented with a two-volume work entitled ''Was wir Ernst Haeckel verdanken (What We Owe to Ernst Haeckel)'', edited at the request of the German Monistenbund by Heinrich Schmidt of Jena." ], [ "Personal life and death", "In 1864, his first wife, Anna Sethe, died.", "Haeckel dedicated some species of jellyfish that he found beautiful (such as ''Desmonema annasethe'') to her.Haeckel's second wife, Agnes, died in 1915, and he became substantially frailer, breaking his leg and arm.", "He sold his \"Villa Medusa\" in Jena in 1918 to the Carl Zeiss foundation, which preserved his library.", "Haeckel died on 9 August 1919.=== Religious views ===In ''Monism as Connecting Religion and Science'' (1892), he argued in favor of monism as the view most compatible with the current scientific understanding of the natural world.", "His perspective of monism was pantheistic and impersonal.", "The monistic idea of God, which alone is compatible with our present knowledge of nature, recognizes the divine spirit in all things.", "It can never recognise in God a \"personal being,\" or, in other words, an individual of limited extension in space, or even of human form.", "God is everywhere.Haeckel became the most famous proponent of Monism in Germany.In 1906 Haeckel belonged to the founders of the Monist League (Deutscher Monistenbund), which took a stance against philosophical materialism and promote a \"natural Weltanschauung\".", "This organization lasted until 1933 and included such notable members as Wilhelm Ostwald, Georg von Arco (1869–1940), Helene Stöcker and Walter Arthur Berendsohn.=== Politics ===Haeckel's affinity for the German Romantic movement, coupled with his acceptance of a form of Lamarckism, influenced his political beliefs.", "Rather than being a strict Darwinian, Haeckel believed that the characteristics of an organism were acquired through interactions with the environment and that ontogeny reflected phylogeny.", "He saw the social sciences as instances of \"applied biology\", and that phrase was picked up and used for Nazi propaganda.He was the first person to use the term \"first world war\" about World War I.However, Haeckel's books were banned by the Nazi Party, which refused Monism and Haeckel's freedom of thought.", "Moreover, it is worth mentioning that Haeckel had often overtly recognized the great contribution of educated Jews to the German culture." ], [ "Research", "Sea anemones from Ernst Haeckel's ''Kunstformen der Natur'' (Art forms of Nature) of 1904Haeckel was a zoologist, an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later a professor of comparative anatomy.", "Although Haeckel's ideas are important to the history of evolutionary theory, and although he was a competent invertebrate anatomist most famous for his work on radiolaria, many speculative concepts that he championed are now considered incorrect.", "For example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral microorganisms that have never been found.He was one of the first to consider psychology as a branch of physiology.", "He also proposed the kingdom ''Protista'' in 1866.His chief interests lay in evolution and life development processes in general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully illustrated ''Kunstformen der Natur'' (''Art forms of nature'').", "Haeckel did not support natural selection, rather believing in Lamarckism.Embryology theories of Ernst Haeckel and Karl Ernst von Baer comparedHaeckel advanced a version of the earlier recapitulation theory previously set out by Étienne Serres in the 1820s and supported by followers of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire including Robert Edmond Grant.", "It proposed a link between ontogeny (development of form) and phylogeny (evolutionary descent), summed up by Haeckel in the phrase \"ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny\".", "His concept of recapitulation has been refuted in the form he gave it (now called \"strong recapitulation\"), in favour of the ideas first advanced by Karl Ernst von Baer.", "The strong recapitulation hypothesis views ontogeny as repeating forms of adult ancestors, while weak recapitulation means that what is repeated (and built upon) is the ancestral embryonic development process.", "Haeckel supported the theory with embryo drawings that have since been shown to be oversimplified and in part inaccurate, and the theory is now considered an oversimplification of quite complicated relationships, however comparison of embryos remains a powerful way to demonstrate that all animals are related.", "Haeckel introduced the concept of heterochrony, the change in timing of embryonic development over the course of evolution.Haeckel (left) with Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai, his assistant, in the Canaries, 1866Portrait of two , speculative species.Haeckel was a flamboyant figure, who sometimes took great, non-scientific leaps from available evidence.", "For example, at the time when Darwin published ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection'' (1859), Haeckel postulated that evidence of human evolution would be found in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).", "At that time, no remains of human ancestors had yet been identified.", "He described these theoretical remains in great detail and even named the as-yet unfound species, ''Pithecanthropus alalus'', and instructed his students such as Richard and Oskar Hertwig to go and find it.One student did find some remains: a Dutchman named Eugène Dubois searched the East Indies from 1887 to 1895, discovering the remains of Java Man in 1891, consisting of a skullcap, thighbone, and a few teeth.", "These remains are among the oldest hominid remains ever found.", "Dubois classified Java Man with Haeckel's ''Pithecanthropus'' label, though they were later reclassified as ''Homo erectus''.", "Some scientists of the day suggested Dubois' Java Man as a potential intermediate form between modern humans and the common ancestor we share with the other great apes.", "The current consensus of anthropologists is that the direct ancestors of modern humans were African populations of ''Homo erectus'' (possibly ''Homo ergaster''), rather than the Asian populations exemplified by Java Man and Peking Man.", "(Ironically, a new human species, Homo floresiensis, a dwarf human type, has recently been discovered in the island of Flores)." ], [ "Polygenism and racial theory", "The creationist polygenism of Samuel George Morton and Louis Agassiz, which presented human races as separately created species, was rejected by Charles Darwin, who argued for the monogenesis of the human species and the African origin of modern humans.", "In contrast to most of Darwin's supporters, Haeckel put forward a doctrine of evolutionary polygenism based on the ideas of the linguist August Schleicher, in which several different language groups had arisen separately from speechless prehuman ''Urmenschen'' (), which themselves had evolved from simian ancestors.", "These separate languages had completed the transition from animals to man, and under the influence of each main branch of languages, humans had evolved – in a kind of Lamarckian use-inheritance – as separate species, which could be subdivided into races.", "From this, Haeckel drew the implication that languages with the most potential yield the human races with the most potential, led by the Semitic and Indo-Germanic groups, with Berber, Jewish, Greco-Roman and Germanic varieties to the fore.", "As Haeckel stated:Haeckel's view can be seen as a forerunner of the views of Carleton Coon, who also believed that human races evolved independently and in parallel with each other.", "These ideas eventually fell from favour.Haeckel also applied the hypothesis of polygenism to the modern diversity of human groups.", "He became a key figure in social darwinism and leading proponent of scientific racism, stating for instance:Haeckel divided human beings into ten races, of which the Caucasian was the highest and the primitives were doomed to extinction.", "In his view, 'Negroes' were savages and Whites were the most civilised: for instance, he claimed that 'the Negro' had stronger and more freely movable toes than any other race, which, he argued, was evidence of their being less evolved, and which led him to compare them to four-handed\" Apes'.In his ''Ontogeny and Phylogeny'' Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould wrote: \"Haeckel's evolutionary racism; his call to the German people for racial purity and unflinching devotion to a 'just' state; his belief that harsh, inexorable laws of evolution ruled human civilization and nature alike, conferring upon favored races the right to dominate others ... all contributed to the rise of Nazism.", "\"In his introduction to the Nazi party ideologue Alfred Rosenberg's 1930 book, ''The Myth of the Twentieth Century'', Peter Peel affirms that Rosenberg had indeed read Haeckel.In the same line of thought, historian Daniel Gasman states that Haeckel's ideology stimulated the birth of Fascist ideology in Italy and France.However, in 2009 Robert J. Richards noted: \"Haeckel, on his travels to Ceylon and Indonesia, often formed closer and more intimate relations with natives, even members of the untouchable classes, than with the European colonials.\"", "and says the Nazis rejected Haeckel, since he opposed antisemitism, while supporting ideas they disliked (for instance atheism, feminism, internationalism, pacifism etc.", ").The Jena Declaration, published by the German Zoological Society, rejects the idea of human \"races\" and distances itself from the racial theories of Ernst Haeckel and other 20th century scientists.", "It claims that genetic variation between human populations is smaller than within them, demonstrating that the biological concept of \"races\" is invalid.", "The statement highlights that there are no specific genes or genetic markers that match with conventional racial categorizations.", "It also indicates that the idea of \"races\" is based on racism rather than any scientific factuality.=== Asia hypothesis ===Haeckel in Ceylon, 1882Haeckel claimed the origin of humanity was to be found in Asia: he believed that Hindustan (Indian subcontinent) was the actual location where the first humans had evolved.", "Haeckel argued that humans were closely related to the primates of Southeast Asia and rejected Darwin's hypothesis of Africa.Haeckel later claimed that the missing link was to be found on the lost continent of Lemuria located in the Indian Ocean.", "He believed that Lemuria was the home of the first humans and that Asia was the home of many of the earliest primates; he thus supported that Asia was the cradle of hominid evolution.", "Haeckel also claimed that Lemuria connected Asia and Africa, which allowed the migration of humans to the rest of the world.In Haeckel's book ''The History of Creation'' (1884) he included migration routes which he thought the first humans had used outside of Lemuria." ], [ "Embryology and recapitulation theory", "Illustrations of dog and human embryos, looking almost identical at 4 weeks then differing at 6 weeks, shown above a 6-week turtle embryo and 8-day hen embryo, presented by Haeckel in 1868 as convincing proof of evolution.", "The pictures of the earliest embryonic stages are now considered inaccurate.When Haeckel was a student in the 1850s he showed great interest in embryology, attending the rather unpopular lectures twice and in his notes sketched the visual aids: textbooks had few illustrations, and large format plates were used to show students how to see the tiny forms under a reflecting microscope, with the translucent tissues seen against a black background.", "Developmental series were used to show stages within a species, but inconsistent views and stages made it even more difficult to compare different species.", "It was agreed by all European evolutionists that all vertebrates looked very similar at an early stage, in what was thought of as a common ideal type, but there was a continuing debate from the 1820s between the Romantic recapitulation theory that human embryos developed through stages of the forms of all the major groups of adult animals, literally manifesting a sequence of organisms on a linear chain of being, and Karl Ernst von Baer's opposing view, stated in von Baer's laws of embryology, that the early general forms diverged into four major groups of specialised forms without ever resembling the adult of another species, showing affinity to an archetype but no relation to other types or any transmutation of species.", "By the time Haeckel was teaching he was able to use a textbook with woodcut illustrations written by his own teacher Albert von Kölliker, which purported to explain human development while also using other mammalian embryos to claim a coherent sequence.", "Despite the significance to ideas of transformism, this was not really polite enough for the new popular science writing, and was a matter for medical institutions and for experts who could make their own comparisons.=== Darwin, Naturphilosophie and Lamarck ===Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'', which made a powerful impression on Haeckel when he read it in 1864, was very cautious about the possibility of ever reconstructing the history of life, but did include a section reinterpreting von Baer's embryology and revolutionising the field of study, concluding that \"Embryology rises greatly in interest, when we thus look at the embryo as a picture, more or less obscured, of the common parent-form of each great class of animals.\"", "It mentioned von Baer's 1828 anecdote (misattributing it to Louis Agassiz) that at an early stage embryos were so similar that it could be impossible to tell whether an unlabelled specimen was of a mammal, a bird, or of a reptile, and Darwin's own research using embryonic stages of barnacles to show that they are crustaceans, while cautioning against the idea that one organism or embryonic stage is \"higher\" or \"lower\", or more or less evolved.", "Haeckel disregarded such caution, and in a year wrote his massive and ambitious ''Generelle Morphologie'', published in 1866, presenting a revolutionary new synthesis of Darwin's ideas with the German tradition of ''Naturphilosophie'' going back to Goethe and with the progressive evolutionism of Lamarck in what he called ''Darwinismus''.", "He used morphology to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life, in the absence of fossil evidence using embryology as evidence of ancestral relationships.", "He invented new terms, including ontogeny and phylogeny, to present his evolutionised recapitulation theory that \"ontogeny recapitulated phylogeny\".", "The two massive volumes sold poorly, and were heavy going: with his limited understanding of German, Darwin found them impossible to read.", "Haeckel's publisher turned down a proposal for a \"strictly scholarly and objective\" second edition.=== Embryological drawings ===tree of lifeHaeckel's aim was a reformed morphology with evolution as the organising principle of a cosmic synthesis unifying science, religion, and art.", "He was giving successful \"popular lectures\" on his ideas to students and townspeople in Jena, in an approach pioneered by his teacher Rudolf Virchow.", "To meet his publisher's need for a popular work he used a student's transcript of his lectures as the basis of his ''Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte'' of 1868, presenting a comprehensive presentation of evolution.", "In the Spring of that year he drew figures for the book, synthesising his views of specimens in Jena and published pictures to represent types.", "After publication he told a colleague that the images \"are completely exact, partly copied from nature, partly assembled from all illustrations of these early stages that have hitherto become known\".", "There were various styles of embryological drawings at that time, ranging from more schematic representations to \"naturalistic\" illustrations of specific specimens.", "Haeckel believed privately that his figures were both exact and synthetic, and in public asserted that they were schematic like most figures used in teaching.", "The images were reworked to match in size and orientation, and though displaying Haeckel's own views of essential features, they support von Baer's concept that vertebrate embryos begin similarly and then diverge.", "Relating different images on a grid conveyed a powerful evolutionary message.", "As a book for the general public, it followed the common practice of not citing sources.In 1868 Haeckel illustrated von Baer's observation that early embryos of different species could not be told apart by using the same woodcut three times as dog, chick and turtle embryos: he changed this in the next edition.The book sold very well, and while some anatomical experts hostile to Haeckel's evolutionary views expressed some private concerns that certain figures had been drawn rather freely, the figures showed what they already knew about similarities in embryos.", "The first published concerns came from Ludwig Rütimeyer, a professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at the University of Basel who had placed fossil mammals in an evolutionary lineage early in the 1860s and had been sent a complimentary copy.", "At the end of 1868 his review in the ''Archiv für Anthropologie'' wondered about the claim that the work was \"popular and scholarly\", doubting whether the second was true, and expressed horror about such public discussion of man's place in nature with illustrations such as the evolutionary trees being shown to non-experts.", "Though he made no suggestion that embryo illustrations should be directly based on specimens, to him the subject demanded the utmost \"scrupulosity and conscientiousness\" and an artist must \"not arbitrarily model or generalise his originals for speculative purposes\" which he considered proved by comparison with works by other authors.", "In particular, \"one and the same, moreover incorrectly interpreted woodcut, is presented to the reader three times in a row and with three different captions as the embryo of the dog, the chick, and the turtle\".", "He accused Haeckel of \"playing fast and loose with the public and with science\", and failing to live up to the obligation to the truth of every serious researcher.", "Haeckel responded with angry accusations of bowing to religious prejudice, but in the second (1870) edition changed the duplicated embryo images to a single image captioned \"embryo of a mammal or bird\".", "Duplication using galvanoplastic stereotypes (clichés) was a common technique in textbooks, but not on the same page to represent different eggs or embryos.", "In 1891 Haeckel made the excuse that this \"extremely rash foolishness\" had occurred in undue haste but was \"bona fide\", and since repetition of incidental details was obvious on close inspection, it is unlikely to have been intentional deception.The revised 1870 second edition of 1,500 copies attracted more attention, being quickly followed by further revised editions with larger print runs as the book became a prominent part of the optimistic, nationalist, anticlerical \"culture of progress\" in Otto von Bismarck's new German Empire.", "The similarity of early vertebrate embryos became common knowledge, and the illustrations were praised by experts such as Michael Foster of the University of Cambridge.", "In the introduction to his 1871 ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex'', Darwin gave particular praise to Haeckel, writing that if ''Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte'' \"had appeared before my essay had been written, I should probably never have completed it\".", "The first chapter included an illustration: \"As some of my readers may never have seen a drawing of an embryo, I have given one of man and another of a dog, at about the same early stage of development, carefully copied from two works of undoubted accuracy\" with a footnote citing the sources and noting that \"Häckel has also given analogous drawings in his ''Schöpfungsgeschichte.''\"", "The fifth edition of Haeckel's book appeared in 1874, with its frontispiece a heroic portrait of Haeckel himself, replacing the previous controversial image of the heads of apes and humans.1874 illustration from ''Anthropogenie'' showing \"very early\", \"somewhat later\" and \"still later\" stages of embryos of fish (F), salamander (A), turtle (T), chick (H), pig (S), cow (R), rabbit (K), and human (M)=== Controversy ===Later in 1874, Haeckel's simplified embryology textbook ''Anthropogenie'' made the subject into a battleground over Darwinism aligned with Bismarck's ''Kulturkampf'' (\"culture struggle\") against the Catholic Church.", "Haeckel took particular care over the illustrations, changing to the leading zoological publisher Wilhelm Engelmann of Leipzig and obtaining from them use of illustrations from their other textbooks as well as preparing his own drawings including a dramatic double page illustration showing \"early\", \"somewhat later\" and \"still later\" stages of 8 different vertebrates.", "Though Haeckel's views had attracted continuing controversy, there had been little dispute about the embryos and he had many expert supporters, but Wilhelm His revived the earlier criticisms and introduced new attacks on the 1874 illustrations.", "Others joined in: both expert anatomists and Catholic priests and supporters were politically opposed to Haeckel's views.While it has been widely claimed that Haeckel was charged with fraud by five professors and convicted by a university court at Jena, there does not appear to be an independently verifiable source for this claim.", "Recent analyses (Richardson 1998, Richardson and Keuck 2002) have found that some of the criticisms of Haeckel's embryo drawings were legitimate, but others were unfounded.", "There were multiple versions of the embryo drawings, and Haeckel rejected the claims of fraud.", "It was later said that \"there is evidence of sleight of hand\" on both sides of the feud between Haeckel and Wilhelm His.", "Robert J. Richards, in a paper published in 2008, defends the case for Haeckel, shedding doubt against the fraud accusations based on the material used for comparison with what Haeckel could access at the time." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Haeckel was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1885.He was awarded the title of Excellency by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1907 and the Linnean Society of London's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1908.In the United States, ''Mount Haeckel'', a summit in the Eastern Sierra Nevada, overlooking the Evolution Basin, is named in his honour, as is another ''Mount Haeckel'', a summit in New Zealand; and the asteroid 12323 Haeckel.In Jena he is remembered with a monument at Herrenberg (erected in 1969), an exhibition at Ernst-Haeckel-Haus, and at the Jena Phyletic Museum, which continues to teach about evolution and share his work to this day.The ratfish, ''Harriotta haeckeli'' is named in his honor.The research vessel ''Ernst Haeckel'' is named in his honor.In 1981, a botanical journal called ''Ernstia'' was started being published in the city of Maracay, Venezuela.In 2013, ''Ernstia'', a genus of calcareous sponges in the family Clathrinidae.", "The genus was erected to contain five species previously assigned to ''Clathrina''.", "The genus name honors Ernst Haeckel for his contributions towards sponge taxonomy and phylogeny." ], [ "Publications", "''Kunstformen'' – plate 72: Muscinae''Kunstformen'' – plate 96: ChaetopodaMedusa of Aeginura grimaldii (bottom view)Darwin's 1859 book ''On the Origin of Species'' had immense popular influence, but although its sales exceeded its publisher's hopes it was a technical book rather than a work of popular science: long, difficult and with few illustrations.", "One of Haeckel's books did a great deal to explain his version of \"Darwinism\" to the world.", "It was a bestselling, provocatively illustrated book in German, titled ''Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte'', published in Berlin in 1868, and translated into English as ''The History of Creation'' in 1876.Until 1909, eleven editions had appeared, as well as 25 translations into other languages.", "The ''Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte'' cemented Haeckel's reputation as one of Germany's most forceful popularizers of science.", "His ''Welträthsel'' were reprinted ten times after the book's first publication in 1899; ultimately, over 400,000 copies were sold.Haeckel argued that human evolution consisted of precisely 22 phases, the 21st – the \"missing link\" – being a halfway step between apes and humans.", "He even formally named this missing link ''Pithecanthropus alalus'', translated as \"ape man without speech\".Haeckel's literary output was extensive, including many books, scientific papers, and illustrations.===Monographs===* ''Radiolaria'' (1862)* ''Siphonophora'' (1869)* ''Monera'' (1870)* ''Calcareous Sponges'' (1872)===''Challenger'' reports===* ''Deep-Sea Medusae'' (1881)* ''Siphonophora'' (1888)* ''Deep-Sea Keratosa'' (1889)* ''Radiolaria'' (1887)===Books on biology and its philosophy===\"\" from (1866) with the three branches Plantae, Protista, Animalia.", "* ''Generelle Morphologie der Organismen: allgemeine Grundzüge der organischen Formen-Wissenschaft, mechanisch begründet durch die von Charles Darwin reformirte Descendenz-Theorie.''", "(1866) Berlin (''General morphology of organisms: general foundations of form-science, mechanically grounded by the descendance theory reformed by Charles Darwin'')* ''Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte'' (1868); in English ''The History of Creation'' (1876; 6th ed.", ": New York, D. Appleton and Co., 1914, 2 volumes)* ''Freie Wissenschaft und freie Lehre'' (1877), in English, ''Free Science and Free Teaching''* ''Die systematische Phylogenie'' (1894) – ''Systematic Phylogeny''* * ''Die Welträthsel'' (1895–1899), also spelled ''Die Welträtsel'' – in English ''The Riddle of the Universe: At the Close of the Nineteenth Century'', Translated by Joseph McCabe, New York and London: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1900.", "* ''Über unsere gegenwärtige Kenntnis vom Ursprung des Menschen'' (1898) (''On our current understanding of the origin of man'') – in English ''The Last Link'', 1898* ''Der Kampf um den Entwickelungsgedanken'' (1905) (''The struggle over thought on evolution'') – in English ''Last Words on Evolution: A Popular Retrospect and Summary'', Translated from the Second Edition by Joseph McCabe, New York: Peter Eckler, Publisher; London: A. Owen & Co., 1906.", "* ''Die Lebenswunder'' (1904) – in English '' The Wonders of Life''* '' Kristallseelen : Studien über das anorganische Leben'' (1917) (''Crystal souls: studies on inorganic life'')===Travel books===* ''Indische Reisebriefe'' (1882) – ''Travel notes of India''* ''Aus Insulinde: Malayische Reisebriefe'' (1901) – ''Travel notes of Malaysia''* ''Kunstformen der Natur'' (1904) – ''Art forms of Nature'', Digital Edition (1924) * ''Wanderbilder'' (1905) – \"Travel Images\"* '' A visit to Ceylon''For a fuller list of works of and about Haeckel, see his entry in the German Wikisource." ], [ "Assessments of potential influence on Nazism", "Some historians have seen Haeckel's social Darwinism as a forerunner to Nazi ideology.", "Others have denied the relationship altogether.The evidence is in some respects ambiguous.", "On one hand, Haeckel was an advocate of scientific racism.", "He held that evolutionary biology had definitively proven that races were unequal in intelligence and ability, and that their lives were also of unequal value, e.g., \"These lower races (such as the Veddahs or Australian negroes) are psychologically nearer to the mammals (apes or dogs) than to civilised Europeans; we must therefore, assign a totally different value to their lives.\"", "As a result of the \"struggle for existence\", it followed that the \"lower\" races would eventually be exterminated.", "He was also a social Darwinist who believed that \"survival of the fittest\" was a natural law, and that struggle led to improvement of the race.", "As an advocate of eugenics, he also believed that about 200,000 mentally and congenitally ill should be killed by a medical control board.", "This idea was later put into practice by Nazi Germany, as part of the Aktion T4 program.", "Alfred Ploetz, founder of the German Society for Racial Hygiene, praised Haeckel repeatedly, and invited him to become an honorary member.", "Haeckel accepted the invitation.", "Haeckel also believed that Germany should be governed by an authoritarian political system, and that inequalities both within and between societies were an inevitable product of evolutionary law.", "Haeckel was also an extreme German nationalist who believed strongly in the superiority of German culture.On the other hand, Haeckel was not an anti-Semite.", "In the racial hierarchies he constructed Jews tended to appear closer to the top, rather than closer to the bottom as in Nazi racial thought.", "He was also a pacifist until the First World War, when he wrote propaganda in favor of the war.", "The principal arguments of historians who deny a meaningful connection between Haeckel and Nazism are that Haeckel's ideas were very common at the time, that Nazis were much more strongly influenced by other thinkers, and that Haeckel is properly classified as a 19th-century German liberal, rather than a forerunner to Nazism.", "They also point to incompatibilities between evolutionary biology and Nazi ideology.Nazis themselves divided on the question of whether Haeckel should be counted as a pioneer of their ideology.", "SS captain and biologist Heinz Brücher wrote a biography of Haeckel in 1936, in which he praised Haeckel as a \"pioneer in biological state thinking\".", "This opinion was also shared by the scholarly journal, ''Der Biologe'', which celebrated Haeckel's 100th birthday, in 1934, with several essays acclaiming him as a pioneering thinker of Nazism.", "Other Nazis kept their distance from Haeckel.", "Nazi propaganda guidelines issued in 1935 listed books which popularized Darwin and evolution on an \"expunged list\".", "Haeckel was included by name as a forbidden author.", "Gunther Hecht, a member of the Nazi Department of Race Politics, also issued a memorandum rejecting Haeckel as a forerunner of Nazism.", "Kurt Hildebrandt, a Nazi political philosopher, also rejected Haeckel.", "Eventually Haeckel was rejected by Nazi bureaucrats." ], [ "See also", "* Dysteleology* Embryology* Haeckelites* ''Haeckel's Tale''* Heinrich Schmidt (philosopher)* Karl Blossfeldt* List of wildlife artists* ''Magosphaera planula''* ''Proteus'' (2004 film)" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Sources", "* * * " ], [ "External links", " E. Haeckel: Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte 1868 (front page of 1st edition, German)* E. Haeckel: Die Welträthsel 1899 (front page of 1st edition, German)* University of California, Berkeley – biography* Ernst Haeckel – Evolution's controversial artist.", "A slide-show essay* ''Kunstformen der Natur'' (from biolib.de)'' Kunstformen der Natur'' (Digitization from Phaidra) PNG alpha-transparencies of Haeckel's \"Kustformen der natur\"* Proteus – Animated documentary film on Haeckel's life and work* Ernst Haeckel Haus and Museum in Jena* * View works by Haeckel at the Biodiversity Heritage Library* aDiatomea: artificial life experiment with 3d generated diatoms, influenced by Haeckel* Images from ''Anthropogenie, oder, Entwickelungsgeschichte des menschen''* * * * * Ernst Haeckel's Radiolarians and Medusa – article on Haeckel in Villefranche-sur-Mer" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Evolutionism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Evolutionism''' is a term used (often derogatorily) to denote the theory of evolution.", "Its exact meaning has changed over time as the study of evolution has progressed.", "In the 19th century, it was used to describe the belief that organisms deliberately improved themselves through progressive inherited change (orthogenesis).", "The teleological belief went on to include cultural evolution and social evolution.", "In the 1970s, the term \"Neo-Evolutionism\" was used to describe the idea that \"human beings sought to preserve a familiar style of life unless change was forced on them by factors that were beyond their control.", "\"The term is most often used by creationists to describe adherence to the scientific consensus on evolution as equivalent to a secular religion.", "The term is very seldom used within the scientific community, since the scientific position on evolution is accepted by the overwhelming majority of scientists.", "Because evolutionary biology is the default scientific position, it is assumed that \"scientists\" or \"biologists\" are \"evolutionists\" unless specifically noted otherwise.", "In the creation–evolution controversy, creationists often call those who accept the validity of the modern evolutionary synthesis \"evolutionists\" and the theory itself \"evolutionism\"." ], [ "19th-century teleological use", "Before its use to describe biological evolution, the term \"evolution\" was originally used to refer to any orderly sequence of events with the outcome somehow contained at the start.", "The first five editions of Darwin's in ''Origin of Species'' used the word \"evolved\", but the word \"evolution\" was only used in its sixth edition in 1872.By then, Herbert Spencer had developed the concept theory that organisms strive to evolve due to an internal \"driving force\" (orthogenesis) in 1862.Edward B. Tylor and Lewis H Morgan brought the term \"evolution\" to anthropology though they tended toward the older pre-Spencerian definition helping to form the concept of unilineal (social) evolution used during the later part of what Trigger calls the Antiquarianism-Imperial Synthesis period (c1770-c1900).", "The term evolutionism subsequently came to be used for the now discredited theory that evolution contained a deliberate component, rather than the selection of beneficial traits from random variation by differential survival." ], [ "Modern use by creationists", "The term ''evolution'' is widely used, but the term ''evolutionism'' is not used in the scientific community to refer to evolutionary biology as it is redundant and anachronistic.However, the term has been used by creationists in discussing the creation–evolution controversy.", "For example, the Institute for Creation Research, in order to imply placement of evolution in the category of 'religions', including atheism, fascism, humanism and occultism, commonly uses the words ''evolutionism'' and ''evolutionist'' to describe the consensus of mainstream science and the scientists subscribing to it, thus implying through language that the issue is a matter of religious belief.", "The BioLogos Foundation, an organization that promotes the idea of theistic evolution, uses the term \"evolutionism\" to describe \"the atheistic worldview that so often accompanies the acceptance of biological evolution in public discourse.\"", "It views this as a subset of scientism." ], [ "See also", "* Alternatives to evolution by natural selection* Darwinism* Evolution as fact and theory* Evidence of common descent* Social Darwinism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Carneiro, Robert, ''Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Critical History'' * (on the applicability of this notion to the study of social evolution)* Review of ''Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise'', ''The Times'' Tuesday, November 15, 1836; pg.", "3; Issue 16261; col E. (\"annihilates the doctrine of spontaneous and progressive evolution of life, and its impious corollary, chance\")* Review of Charles Darwin's ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'' ''The Times'' Friday, December 13, 1872; pg.", "4; Issue 27559; col A.", "(\"His Darwin's thorough-going 'evolutionism' tends to eliminate...\")* Ruse, Michael.", "2003.''", "Is Evolution a Secular Religion?''", "Science 299:1523-1524 (concluding that evolutionary biology is not a religion in any sense but noting that several evolutionary biologists, such as Edward O. Wilson, in their roles as citizens concerned about getting the public to deal with reality, have made statements like \"evolution is a myth that is now ready to take over Christianity\").", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Entscheidungsproblem" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics and computer science, the ; ) is a challenge posed by David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann in 1928.The problem asks for an algorithm that considers, as input, a statement and answers \"yes\" or \"no\" according to whether the statement is ''universally valid'', i.e., valid in every structure." ], [ "Completeness theorem", "By the completeness theorem of first-order logic, a statement is universally valid if and only if it can be deduced using logical rules and axioms, so the '''' can also be viewed as asking for an algorithm to decide whether a given statement is provable using the rules of logic.In 1936, Alonzo Church and Alan Turing published independent papers showing that a general solution to the '''' is impossible, assuming that the intuitive notion of \"effectively calculable\" is captured by the functions computable by a Turing machine (or equivalently, by those expressible in the lambda calculus).", "This assumption is now known as the Church–Turing thesis." ], [ "History of the problem", "The origin of the goes back to Gottfried Leibniz, who in the seventeenth century, after having constructed a successful mechanical calculating machine, dreamt of building a machine that could manipulate symbols in order to determine the truth values of mathematical statements.", "He realized that the first step would have to be a clean formal language, and much of his subsequent work was directed toward that goal.", "In 1928, David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann posed the question in the form outlined above.In continuation of his \"program\", Hilbert posed three questions at an international conference in 1928, the third of which became known as \"Hilbert's \".", "In 1929, Moses Schönfinkel published one paper on special cases of the decision problem, that was prepared by Paul Bernays.As late as 1930, Hilbert believed that there would be no such thing as an unsolvable problem." ], [ "Negative answer<!--'Church's theorem' redirects here-->", "Before the question could be answered, the notion of \"algorithm\" had to be formally defined.", "This was done by Alonzo Church in 1935 with the concept of \"effective calculability\" based on his λ-calculus, and by Alan Turing the next year with his concept of Turing machines.", "Turing immediately recognized that these are equivalent models of computation.A negative answer to the was then given by Alonzo Church in 1935–36 ('''Church's theorem''') and independently shortly thereafter by Alan Turing in 1936 (Turing's proof).", "Church proved that there is no computable function which decides, for two given λ-calculus expressions, whether they are equivalent or not.", "He relied heavily on earlier work by Stephen Kleene.", "Turing reduced the question of the existence of an 'algorithm' or 'general method' able to solve the to the question of the existence of a 'general method' which decides whether any given Turing machine halts or not (the halting problem).", "If 'algorithm' is understood as meaning a method that can be represented as a Turing machine, and with the answer to the latter question negative (in general), the question about the existence of an algorithm for the also must be negative (in general).", "In his 1936 paper, Turing says: \"Corresponding to each computing machine 'it' we construct a formula 'Un(it)' and we show that, if there is a general method for determining whether 'Un(it)' is provable, then there is a general method for determining whether 'it' ever prints 0\".The work of both Church and Turing was heavily influenced by Kurt Gödel's earlier work on his incompleteness theorem, especially by the method of assigning numbers (a Gödel numbering) to logical formulas in order to reduce logic to arithmetic.The '''' is related to Hilbert's tenth problem, which asks for an algorithm to decide whether Diophantine equations have a solution.", "The non-existence of such an algorithm, established by the work of Yuri Matiyasevich, Julia Robinson, Martin Davis, and Hilary Putnam, with the final piece of the proof in 1970, also implies a negative answer to the ''Entscheidungsproblem''." ], [ "Generalizations", "Using the deduction theorem, the Entscheidungsproblem encompasses the more general problem of deciding whether a given first-order sentence is entailed by a given finite set of sentences, but validity in first-order theories with infinitely many axioms cannot be directly reduced to the Entscheidungsproblem.", "Such more general decision problems are, however, of practical interest.", "Some first-order theories are algorithmically decidable; examples of this include Presburger arithmetic, real closed fields, and static type systems of many programming languages.", "On the other hand, the first-order theory of the natural numbers with addition and multiplication expressed by Peano's axioms cannot be decided with an algorithm." ], [ "Fragments", "By default, the citations in the section are from Pratt-Hartmann (2023).The classical ''Entscheidungsproblem'' asks that, given a first-order formula, whether it is true in all models.", "The finitary problem asks whether it is true in all finite models.", "Trakhtenbrot's theorem shows that this is also undecidable.Some notations: means the problem of deciding whether there exists a model for a set of logical formulas .", "is the same problem, but for ''finite'' models.", "The -problem for a logical fragment is called decidable if there exists a program that can decide, for each finite set of logical formulas in the fragment, whether or not.There is a hierarchy of decidabilities.", "On the top are the undecidable problems.", "Below it are the decidable problems.", "Furthermore, the decidable problems can be divided into a complexity hierarchy.=== Aristotelean and relational ===Aristotelean logic considers 4 kinds of sentences: \"All p are q\", \"All p are not q\", \"Some p is q\", \"Some p is not q\".", "We can formalize these kinds of sentences as a fragment of first-order logic:where are atomic predicates, and .", "Given a finite set of Aristotelean logic formulas, it is NLOGSPACE-complete to decide its .", "It is also NLOGSPACE-complete to decide for a slight extension (Theorem 2.7):Relational logic extends Aristotelean logic by allowing a relational predicate.", "For example, \"Everybody loves somebody\" can be written as .", "Generally, we have 8 kinds of sentences:It is NLOGSPACE-complete to decide its (Theorem 2.15).", "Relational logic can be extended to 32 kinds of sentences by allowing , but this extension is EXPTIME-complete (Theorem 2.24).=== Arity ===The first-order logic fragment where the only variable names are is NEXPTIME-complete (Theorem 3.18).", "With , it is RE-complete to decide its , and co-RE-complete to decide (Theorem 3.15), thus undecidable.The monadic predicate calculus is the fragment where each formula contains only 1-ary predicates and no function symbols.", "Its is NEXPTIME-complete (Theorem 3.22).=== Quantifier prefix ===Any first-order formula has a prenex normal form.", "For each possible quantifier prefix to the prenex normal form, we have a fragment of first-order logic.", "For example, the Bernays–Schönfinkel class, , is the class of first-order formulas with quantifier prefix , equality symbols, and no function symbols.For example, Turing's 1936 paper (p. 263) observed that since the halting problem for each Turing machine is equivalent to a first-order logical formula of form , the problem is undecidable.The precise boundaries are known, sharply:* and are co-RE-complete, and the problems are RE-complete (Theorem 5.2).", "* Same for (Theorem 5.3).", "* is decidable, proved independently by Gödel, Schütte, and Kalmár.", "* is undecidable.", "* For any , both and are NEXPTIME-complete (Theorem 5.1).", "** This implies that is decidable, a result first published by Bernays and Schönfinkel.", "* For any , is EXPTIME-complete (Section 5.4.1).", "* For any , is NEXPTIME-complete (Section 5.4.2).", "** This implies that is decidable, a result first published by Ackermann.", "* For any , and are PSPACE-complete (Section 5.4.3).Börger et al.", "(2001) describes the level of computational complexity for every possible fragment with every possible combination of quantifier prefix, functional arity, predicate arity, and equality/no-equality." ], [ "Practical decision procedures", "Having practical decision procedures for classes of logical formulas is of considerable interest for program verification and circuit verification.", "Pure Boolean logical formulas are usually decided using SAT-solving techniques based on the DPLL algorithm.For more general decision problems of first-order theories, conjunctive formulas over linear real or rational arithmetic can be decided using the simplex algorithm, formulas in linear integer arithmetic (Presburger arithmetic) can be decided using Cooper's algorithm or William Pugh's Omega test.", "Formulas with negations, conjunctions and disjunctions combine the difficulties of satisfiability testing with that of decision of conjunctions; they are generally decided nowadays using SMT-solving techniques, which combine SAT-solving with decision procedures for conjunctions and propagation techniques.", "Real polynomial arithmetic, also known as the theory of real closed fields, is decidable; this is the Tarski–Seidenberg theorem, which has been implemented in computers by using the cylindrical algebraic decomposition." ], [ "See also", "* Automated theorem proving* Hilbert's second problem* Oracle machine* Turing's proof" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * Alonzo Church, \"An unsolvable problem of elementary number theory\", American Journal of Mathematics, 58 (1936), pp 345–363* Alonzo Church, \"A note on the Entscheidungsproblem\", Journal of Symbolic Logic, 1 (1936), pp 40–41.", "* * Alan Turing, \"On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem\", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2, 42 (1936–7), pp 230–265.Online versions: from journal website, from Turing Digital Archive, from abelard.org.", "Errata appeared in Series 2, 43 (1937), pp 544–546.", "* Davis, Martin, \"The Undecidable, Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems And Computable Functions\", Raven Press, New York, 1965.Turing's paper is #3 in this volume.", "Papers include those by Gödel, Church, Rosser, Kleene, and Post.", "* Biography of Alan M. Turing.", "Cf Chapter \"The Spirit of Truth\" for a history leading to, and a discussion of, his proof.", "* Soare, Robert I., \"Computability and recursion\", Bull.", "Symbolic Logic 2 (1996), no.", "3, 284–321.", "* Toulmin, Stephen, \"Fall of a Genius\", a book review of \"Alan Turing: The Enigma by Andrew Hodges\", in The New York Review of Books, 19 January 1984, p. 3ff.", "* Whitehead, Alfred North; Russell, Bertrand, Principia Mathematica to 56, Cambridge at the University Press, 1962.Re: the problem of paradoxes, the authors discuss the problem of a set not be an object in any of its \"determining functions\", in particular \"Introduction, Chap.", "1 p. 24 \"...difficulties which arise in formal logic\", and Chap.", "2.I.", "\"The Vicious-Circle Principle\" p. 37ff, and Chap.", "2.VIII.", "\"The Contradictions\" p. 60 ff." ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Einhard" ], [ "Introduction", "Einhard as scribe.", "Manuscript depiction from 1050'''Einhard''' (also '''Eginhard''' or '''Einhart'''; ; 775 – 14 March 840) was a Frankish scholar and courtier.", "Einhard was a dedicated servant of Charlemagne and his son Louis the Pious; his main work is a biography of Charlemagne, the ''Vita Karoli Magni'', \"one of the most precious literary bequests of the early Middle Ages\"." ], [ "Public life", "Einhard was from the eastern German-speaking part of the Frankish Kingdom.", "Born into a family of landowners of some importance, his parents sent him to be educated by the monks of Fulda, one of the most impressive centers of learning in the Frank lands.", "Perhaps due to his small stature, which restricted his riding and sword-fighting ability, Einhard concentrated his energies on scholarship, especially the mastering of Latin.", "He was accepted into the hugely wealthy court of Charlemagne around 791 or 792.Charlemagne actively sought to amass scholarly men around him and established a royal school led by the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin.", "Einhard was evidently a talented builder and construction manager, because Charlemagne put him in charge of the completion of several palace complexes including Aachen and Ingelheim.", "Despite the fact that Einhard was on intimate terms with Charlemagne, he never achieved office in his reign.", "In 814, on Charlemagne's death, his son Louis the Pious made Einhard his private secretary.", "Einhard retired from court during the time of the disputes between Louis and his sons in the spring of 830.He died at Seligenstadt in 840." ], [ "Private life", "Einhard was married to Emma, of whom little is known.", "There is a possibility that their marriage bore a son, Vussin.", "Their marriage also appears to have been exceptionally liberal for the period, with Emma being as active as Einhard, if not more so, in the handling of their property.", "It is said that in the later years of their marriage Emma and Einhard abstained from sexual relations, choosing instead to focus their attentions on their many religious commitments.", "Though he was undoubtedly devoted to her, Einhard wrote nothing of his wife until after her death on 13 December 835, when he wrote to a friend that he was reminded of her loss in ‘every day, in every action, in every undertaking, in all the administration of the house and household, in everything needing to be decided upon and sorted out in my religious and earthly responsibilities’.Einhard memorial in the German city of Eschweiler" ], [ "Religious beliefs", "Einhard made numerous references to himself as a \"sinner\" according to his strong Christian faith.", "He erected churches at both of his estates in Michelstadt and Mulinheim.", "In Michelstadt, he also saw fit to build a basilica completed in 827 and then sent a servant, Ratleic, to Rome with an end to find relics for the new building.", "Once in Rome, Ratleic robbed a catacomb of the bones of the Martyrs Marcellinus and Peter and had them translated to Michelstadt.", "Once there, the relics made it known they were unhappy with their new tomb and thus had to be moved again to Mulinheim.", "Once established there, they proved to be miracle workers.", "Although unsure as to why these saints should choose such a \"sinner\" as their patron, Einhard nonetheless set about ensuring they continued to receive a resting place fitting of their honour.", "Between 831 and 834 he founded a Benedictine Monastery and, after the death of his wife, served as its Abbot until his own death in 840." ], [ "Local lore", "Local lore from Seligenstadt portrays Einhard as the lover of Emma, one of Charlemagne's daughters, and has the couple elope from court.", "Charlemagne found them at Seligenstadt (then called Obermühlheim) and forgave them.", "This account is used to explain the name \"Seligenstadt\" by folk etymology.", "Einhard and his wife were originally buried in one sarcophagus in the choir of the church in Seligenstadt, but in 1810 the sarcophagus was presented by the Grand Duke of Hesse to the count of Erbach, who claims descent from Einhard as the husband of Imma, the reputed daughter of Charlemagne.", "The count put it in the famous chapel of his castle at Erbach in the Odenwald." ], [ "Works", "The most famous of Einhard's works is his biography of Charlemagne, the ''Vita Karoli Magni'', \"The Life of Charlemagne\" (c. 817–836), which provides much direct information about Charlemagne's life and character, written sometime between 817 and 830.In composing this he relied heavily upon the Royal Frankish Annals.", "Einhard's literary model was the classical work of the Roman historian Suetonius, the ''Lives of the Caesars'', though it is important to stress that the work is very much Einhard's own, that is to say he adapts the models and sources for his own purposes.", "His work was written as a praise of Charlemagne, whom he regarded as a foster-father (''nutritor'') and to whom he was a debtor \"in life and death\".", "The work thus contains an understandable degree of bias, Einhard taking care to exculpate Charlemagne in some matters, not mention others, and to gloss over certain issues which would be of embarrassment to Charlemagne, such as the morality of his daughters; by contrast, other issues are curiously not glossed over, like his concubines.", "Einhard is also responsible for three other extant works: a collection of letters, ''On the Translations and the Miracles of SS.", "Marcellinus and Petrus'', and ''On the Adoration of the Cross''.", "The latter dates from ca.", "830 and was not rediscovered until 1885, when Ernst Dümmler identified a text in a manuscript in Vienna as the missing ''Libellus de adoranda cruce'', which Einhard had dedicated to his pupil Lupus Servatus.The Arch of Einhard was a reliquary made by Einhard, which reproduced on a small scale a Roman triumphal arch that represented the victory of Christianity.", "It has not survived." ], [ "See also", "* Royal Frankish Annals" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * Tischler, Matthias M. (2001) ''Einharts Vita Karoli.", "Studien zur Entstehung, Überlieferung und Rezeption'' (MGH.", "Schriften 48, I–II), Hanover: Hahn.", ".", "* * " ], [ "External links", " Holland, Arthur William (1911).", "\"Einhard\".", "In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).", "''Encyclopædia Britannica''.", "'''9.'''", "(11th ed.).", "Cambridge University Press.", "pp. 134–135.", " Schlager, Patricius (1909).", "\"Einhard\".", "In ''Catholic Encyclopedia''.", "'''5'''.", "New York: Robert Appleton Company.", "pp. 82–83.", "* * * ''Vita Karoli Magni''—Einhard's ''Life of Charlemagne,'' Latin text at The Latin Library* , translated by * Einhard-Preis Literature prize awarded by the Einhard-Foundation of Seligenstadt to authors for writing an outstanding biography* Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes* * Einhardi vita Karoli Magni in Bibliotheca Augustana* The Einhard Way from Michelstadt to Seligenstadt* Home page of the Einhard Foundation at Seligenstadt* Home page of the Einhard Society, Seligenstadt" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ester" ], [ "Introduction", "An ester of a carboxylic acid.", "R stands for any group (typically hydrogen or organyl) and R stands for any organyl group.In chemistry, an '''ester''' is a compound derived from an acid (organic or inorganic) in which the hydrogen atom (H) of at least one acidic hydroxyl group () of that acid is replaced by an organyl group ().", "Analogues derived from oxygen replaced by other chalcogens belong to the ester category as well.", "According to some authors, organyl derivatives of acidic hydrogen of other acids are esters as well (e.g.", "amides), but not according to the IUPAC.Glycerides are fatty acid esters of glycerol; they are important in biology, being one of the main classes of lipids and comprising the bulk of animal fats and vegetable oils.", "Lactones are cyclic carboxylic esters; naturally occurring lactones are mainly 5- and 6-membered ring lactones.", "Lactones contribute to the aroma of fruits, butter, cheese, vegetables like celery and other foods.Esters can be formed from oxoacids (e.g.", "esters of acetic acid, carbonic acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, nitric acid, xanthic acid), but also from acids that do not contain oxygen (e.g.", "esters of thiocyanic acid and trithiocarbonic acid).", "An example of an ester formation is the substitution reaction between a carboxylic acid () and an alcohol (), forming an ester (), where R stands for any group (typically hydrogen or organyl) and R stands for organyl group.Organyl esters of carboxylic acids typically have a pleasant smell; those of low molecular weight are commonly used as fragrances and are found in essential oils and pheromones.", "They perform as high-grade solvents for a broad array of plastics, plasticizers, resins, and lacquers, and are one of the largest classes of synthetic lubricants on the commercial market.", "Polyesters are important plastics, with monomers linked by ester moieties.", "Esters of phosphoric acid form the backbone of DNA molecules.", "Esters of nitric acid, such as nitroglycerin, are known for their explosive properties.There are compounds in which an acidic hydrogen of acids mentioned in this article are not replaced by an organyl, but by some other group.", "According to some authors, those compounds are esters as well, especially when the first carbon atom of the organyl group replacing acidic hydrogen, is replaced by another atom from the group 14 elements (Si, Ge, Sn, Pb); for example, according to them, trimethylstannyl acetate (or trimethyltin acetate) is a trimethylstannyl ester of acetic acid, and dibutyltin dilaurate is a dibutylstannylene ester of lauric acid, and the Phillips catalyst is a trimethoxysilyl ester of chromic acid ()." ], [ "Nomenclature", "=== Etymology ===The word ''ester'' was coined in 1848 by a German chemist Leopold Gmelin,Original text:Translation:b. Ester or oxy-acid ethers.Ethers of the third type.Many mineral and organic acids containing oxygen combine with an alcohol upon elimination of water to form neutral, volatile ether compounds, which one can view as coupled compounds of alcohol and acid-water, or, according to the theory of radicals, as salts in which an acid is bonded with an ether.", "probably as a contraction of the German , \"acetic ether\".=== IUPAC nomenclature ===The names of esters that are formed from an alcohol and an acid, are derived from the parent alcohol and the parent acid, where the latter may be organic or inorganic.", "Esters derived from the simplest carboxylic acids are commonly named according to the more traditional, so-called \"trivial names\" e.g.", "as formate, acetate, propionate, and butyrate, as opposed to the IUPAC nomenclature methanoate, ethanoate, propanoate, and butanoate.", "Esters derived from more complex carboxylic acids are, on the other hand, more frequently named using the systematic IUPAC name, based on the name for the acid followed by the suffix ''-oate''.", "For example, the ester hexyl octanoate, also known under the trivial name hexyl caprylate, has the formula .Butyl acetate, an ester derived from butanol (right side of the picture, blue) and acetic acid (left side of the picture, orange).", "The acidic hydrogen atom from acetic acid is replaced by a butyl group.The chemical formulas of organic esters formed from carboxylic acids and alcohols usually take the form or RCOOR', where R and R' are the organyl parts of the carboxylic acid and the alcohol, respectively, and R can be a hydrogen in the case of esters of formic acid.", "For example, butyl acetate (systematically butyl ethanoate), derived from butanol and acetic acid (systematically ethanoic acid) would be written .", "Alternative presentations are common including BuOAc and .Cyclic esters are called lactones, regardless of whether they are derived from an organic or inorganic acid.", "One example of an organic lactone is γ-valerolactone.=== Orthoesters ===An uncommon class of esters are the orthoesters.", "One of them are the esters of orthocarboxylic acids.", "Those esters have the formula , where R stands for any group (organic or inorganic) and R stands for organyl group.", "For example, triethyl orthoformate () is derived, in terms of its name (but not its synthesis) from esterification of orthoformic acid () with ethanol.===Esters of inorganic acids===A phosphoric acid ester, where R stands for an organyl group.Esters can also be derived from inorganic acids.", "Perchloric acid forms perchlorate esters, e.g., methyl perchlorate ()Sulfuric acid forms sulfate esters, e.g., dimethyl sulfate () and methyl bisulfate ()Nitric acid forms nitrate esters, e.g.", "methyl nitrate () and nitroglycerin ()Phosphoric acid forms phosphate esters, e.g.", "triphenyl phosphate () and methyl dihydrogen phosphate ()Carbonic acid forms carbonate esters, e.g.", "dimethyl carbonate () and 5-membered cyclic ethylene carbonate () (if one classifies carbonic acid as an inorganic compound)Trithiocarbonic acid forms trithiocarbonate esters, e.g.", "dimethyl trithiocarbonate () (if one classifies trithiocarbonic acid as an inorganic compound)Chloroformic acid forms chloroformate esters, e.g.", "methyl chloroformate () (if one classifies chloroformic acid as an inorganic compound)Boric acid forms borate esters , e.g.", "trimethyl borate ()Chromic acid forms di-''tert''-butyl chromate ()Inorganic acids that exist as tautomers form two or more types of esters.", "Thiosulfuric acid forms two types of thiosulfate esters, e.g.", "''O'',''O''-dimethyl thiosulfate () and ''O'',''S''-dimethyl thiosulfate ()Thiocyanic acid forms thiocyanate esters, e.g.", "methyl thiocyanate () (if one classifies thiocyanic acid as an inorganic compound), but forms isothiocyanate \"esters\" as well, e.g.", "methyl isothiocyanate (), although organyl isothiocyanates are not clasified as esters by the IUPACPhosphorous acid forms two types of esters: phosphite esters, e.g.", "triethyl phosphite (), and phosphonate esters, e.g.", "diethyl phosphonate ()Some inorganic acids that are unstable or elusive form stable esters.", "Sulfurous acid, which is unstable, forms stable dimethyl sulfite ()In principle, a part of metal and metalloid alkoxides, of which many hundreds are known, could be classified as esters of the corresponding acids (e.g.", "aluminium triethoxide () could be classified as an ester of aluminic acid which is aluminium hydroxide, tetraethyl orthosilicate () could be classified as an ester of orthosilicic acid, and titanium ethoxide () could be classified as an ester of orthotitanic acid)." ], [ "Structure and bonding", "Esters derived from carboxylic acids and alcohols contain a carbonyl group C=O, which is a divalent group at C atom, which gives rise to C–C–O and O–C–O angles.", "Unlike amides, carboxylic acid esters are structurally flexible functional groups because rotation about the C–O–C bonds has a low barrier.", "Their flexibility and low polarity is manifested in their physical properties; they tend to be less rigid (lower melting point) and more volatile (lower boiling point) than the corresponding amides.", "The p''K''a of the alpha-hydrogens on esters of carboxylic acids is around 25 (alpha-hydrogen is a hydrogen bound to the carbon adjacent to the carbonyl group (C=O) of carboxylate esters).Many carboxylic acid esters have the potential for conformational isomerism, but they tend to adopt an ''S''-''cis'' (or ''Z'') conformation rather than the ''S''-''trans'' (or ''E'') alternative, due to a combination of hyperconjugation and dipole minimization effects.", "The preference for the ''Z'' conformation is influenced by the nature of the substituents and solvent, if present.", "Lactones with small rings are restricted to the ''s''-trans (i.e.", "''E'') conformation due to their cyclic structure.300pxMetrical details for methyl benzoate, distances in picometers." ], [ "Physical properties and characterization", "Esters derived from carboxylic acids and alcohols are more polar than ethers but less polar than alcohols.", "They participate in hydrogen bonds as hydrogen-bond acceptors, but cannot act as hydrogen-bond donors, unlike their parent alcohols.", "This ability to participate in hydrogen bonding confers some water-solubility.", "Because of their lack of hydrogen-bond-donating ability, esters do not self-associate.", "Consequently, esters are more volatile than carboxylic acids of similar molecular weight.=== Characterization and analysis ===Esters are generally identified by gas chromatography, taking advantage of their volatility.", "IR spectra for esters feature an intense sharp band in the range 1730–1750 cm−1 assigned to ''ν''C=O.", "This peak changes depending on the functional groups attached to the carbonyl.", "For example, a benzene ring or double bond in conjugation with the carbonyl will bring the wavenumber down about 30 cm−1." ], [ "Applications and occurrence", "Esters are widespread in nature and are widely used in industry.", "In nature, fats are, in general, triesters derived from glycerol and fatty acids.", "Esters are responsible for the aroma of many fruits, including apples, durians, pears, bananas, pineapples, and strawberries.", "Several billion kilograms of polyesters are produced industrially annually, important products being polyethylene terephthalate, acrylate esters, and cellulose acetate.", ":Representative triglyceride found in a linseed oil, a triester of '''glycerol''' (center, black) derived of '''linoleic acid''' (bottom right, green), '''alpha-linolenic acid''' (left, red), and '''oleic acid''' (top right, blue)." ], [ "Preparation", "Esterification is the general name for a chemical reaction in which two reactants (typically an alcohol and an acid) form an ester as the reaction product.", "Esters are common in organic chemistry and biological materials, and often have a pleasant characteristic, fruity odor.", "This leads to their extensive use in the fragrance and flavor industry.", "Ester bonds are also found in many polymers.===Esterification of carboxylic acids with alcohols===The classic synthesis is the Fischer esterification, which involves treating a carboxylic acid with an alcohol in the presence of a dehydrating agent::The equilibrium constant for such reactions is about 5 for typical esters, e.g., ethyl acetate.", "The reaction is slow in the absence of a catalyst.", "Sulfuric acid is a typical catalyst for this reaction.", "Many other acids are also used such as polymeric sulfonic acids.", "Since esterification is highly reversible, the yield of the ester can be improved using Le Chatelier's principle: Using the alcohol in large excess (i.e., as a solvent).", "* Using a dehydrating agent: sulfuric acid not only catalyzes the reaction but sequesters water (a reaction product).", "Other drying agents such as molecular sieves are also effective.", "* Removal of water by physical means such as distillation as a low-boiling azeotropes with toluene, in conjunction with a Dean-Stark apparatus.Reagents are known that drive the dehydration of mixtures of alcohols and carboxylic acids.", "One example is the Steglich esterification, which is a method of forming esters under mild conditions.", "The method is popular in peptide synthesis, where the substrates are sensitive to harsh conditions like high heat.", "DCC (dicyclohexylcarbodiimide) is used to activate the carboxylic acid to further reaction.", "4-Dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) is used as an acyl-transfer catalyst.", ":300pxAnother method for the dehydration of mixtures of alcohols and carboxylic acids is the Mitsunobu reaction::Carboxylic acids can be esterified using diazomethane::Using this diazomethane, mixtures of carboxylic acids can be converted to their methyl esters in near quantitative yields, e.g., for analysis by gas chromatography.", "The method is useful in specialized organic synthetic operations but is considered too hazardous and expensive for large-scale applications.===Esterification of carboxylic acids with epoxides===Carboxylic acids are esterified by treatment with epoxides, giving β-hydroxyesters::This reaction is employed in the production of vinyl ester resin from acrylic acid.=== Alcoholysis of acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides ===Alcohols react with acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides to give esters:::The reactions are irreversible simplifying work-up.", "Since acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides also react with water, anhydrous conditions are preferred.", "The analogous acylations of amines to give amides are less sensitive because amines are stronger nucleophiles and react more rapidly than does water.", "This method is employed only for laboratory-scale procedures, as it is expensive.===Alkylation of carboxylic acids and their salts===Trimethyloxonium tetrafluoroborate can be used for esterification of carboxylic acids under conditions where acid-catalyzed reactions are infeasible: :Although rarely employed for esterifications, carboxylate salts (often generated ''in situ'') react with electrophilic alkylating agents, such as alkyl halides, to give esters.", "Anion availability can inhibit this reaction, which correspondingly benefits from phase transfer catalysts or such highly polar aprotic solvents as DMF.", "An additional iodide salt may, via the Finkelstein reaction, catalyze the reaction of a recalcitrant alkyl halide.", "Alternatively, salts of a coordinating metal, such as silver, may improve the reaction rate by easing halide elimination.===Transesterification===Transesterification, which involves changing one ester into another one, is widely practiced::Like the hydrolysation, transesterification is catalysed by acids and bases.", "The reaction is widely used for degrading triglycerides, e.g.", "in the production of fatty acid esters and alcohols.", "Poly(ethylene terephthalate) is produced by the transesterification of dimethyl terephthalate and ethylene glycol: :A subset of transesterification is the alcoholysis of diketene.", "This reaction affords 2-ketoesters.", ":===Carbonylation===Alkenes undergo \"hydroesterification\" in the presence of metal carbonyl catalysts.", "Esters of propanoic acid are produced commercially by this method::A preparation of methyl propionate is one illustrative example.", ":The carbonylation of methanol yields methyl formate, which is the main commercial source of formic acid.", "The reaction is catalyzed by sodium methoxide::===Addition of carboxylic acids to alkenes and alkynes===In hydroesterification, alkenes and alkynes insert into the bond of carboxylic acids.", "Vinyl acetate is produced industrially by the addition of acetic acid to acetylene in the presence of zinc acetate catalysts: Presently, zinc acetate is used as the catalyst::Vinyl acetate can also be produced by palladium-catalyzed reaction of ethylene, acetic acid, and oxygen::Silicotungstic acid is used to manufacture ethyl acetate by the alkylation of acetic acid by ethylene::===From aldehydes===The Tishchenko reaction involve disproportionation of an aldehyde in the presence of an anhydrous base to give an ester.", "Catalysts are aluminium alkoxides or sodium alkoxides.", "Benzaldehyde reacts with sodium benzyloxide (generated from sodium and benzyl alcohol) to generate benzyl benzoate.", "The method is used in the production of ethyl acetate from acetaldehyde.=== Other methods ===* Favorskii rearrangement of α-haloketones in presence of base* Baeyer–Villiger oxidation of ketones with peroxides* Pinner reaction of nitriles with an alcohol* Nucleophilic abstraction of a metal–acyl complexHydrolysis of orthoesters in aqueous acidCellulolysis via esterification* Ozonolysis of alkenes using a work up in the presence of hydrochloric acid and various alcohols.", "* Anodic oxidation of methyl ketones leading to methyl esters.", "* Interesterification exchanges the fatty acid groups of different esters." ], [ "Reactions", "Esters react with nucleophiles at the carbonyl carbon.", "The carbonyl is weakly electrophilic but is attacked by strong nucleophiles (amines, alkoxides, hydride sources, organolithium compounds, etc.).", "The C–H bonds adjacent to the carbonyl are weakly acidic but undergo deprotonation with strong bases.", "This process is the one that usually initiates condensation reactions.", "The carbonyl oxygen in esters is weakly basic, less so than the carbonyl oxygen in amides due to resonance donation of an electron pair from nitrogen in amides, but forms adducts.===Hydrolysis and saponification===Esterification is a reversible reaction.", "Esters undergo hydrolysis under acidic and basic conditions.", "Under acidic conditions, the reaction is the reverse reaction of the Fischer esterification.", "Under basic conditions, hydroxide acts as a nucleophile, while an alkoxide is the leaving group.", "This reaction, saponification, is the basis of soap making.", ":Ester saponification (basic hydrolysis)The alkoxide group may also be displaced by stronger nucleophiles such as ammonia or primary or secondary amines to give amides: (ammonolysis reaction):This reaction is not usually reversible.", "Hydrazines and hydroxylamine can be used in place of amines.", "Esters can be converted to isocyanates through intermediate hydroxamic acids in the Lossen rearrangement.Sources of carbon nucleophiles, e.g., Grignard reagents and organolithium compounds, add readily to the carbonyl.=== Reduction ===Compared to ketones and aldehydes, esters are relatively resistant to reduction.", "The introduction of catalytic hydrogenation in the early part of the 20th century was a breakthrough; esters of fatty acids are hydrogenated to fatty alcohols.", ":A typical catalyst is copper chromite.", "Prior to the development of catalytic hydrogenation, esters were reduced on a large scale using the Bouveault–Blanc reduction.", "This method, which is largely obsolete, uses sodium in the presence of proton sources.Especially for fine chemical syntheses, lithium aluminium hydride is used to reduce esters to two primary alcohols.", "The related reagent sodium borohydride is slow in this reaction.", "DIBAH reduces esters to aldehydes.Direct reduction to give the corresponding ether is difficult as the intermediate hemiacetal tends to decompose to give an alcohol and an aldehyde (which is rapidly reduced to give a second alcohol).", "The reaction can be achieved using triethylsilane with a variety of Lewis acids.=== Claisen condensation and related reactions ===As for aldehydes, the hydrogen atoms on the carbon adjacent (\"α to\") the carboxyl group in esters are sufficiently acidic to undergo deprotonation, which in turn leads to a variety of useful reactions.", "Deprotonation requires relatively strong bases, such as alkoxides.", "Deprotonation gives a nucleophilic enolate, which can further react, e.g., the Claisen condensation and its intramolecular equivalent, the Dieckmann condensation.", "This conversion is exploited in the malonic ester synthesis, wherein the diester of malonic acid reacts with an electrophile (e.g., alkyl halide), and is subsequently decarboxylated.", "Another variation is the Fráter–Seebach alkylation.=== Other reactions ===* Methyl esters are often susceptible to decarboxylation in the Krapcho decarboxylation.", "* Phenyl esters react to hydroxyarylketones in the Fries rearrangement.", "* Specific esters are functionalized with an α-hydroxyl group in the Chan rearrangement.", "* Esters with β-hydrogen atoms can be converted to alkenes in ester pyrolysis.", "A direct conversion of esters to nitriles.", " Pairs of esters are coupled to give α-hydroxyketones in the acyloin condensation=== Protecting groups ===As a class, esters serve as protecting groups for carboxylic acids.", "Protecting a carboxylic acid is useful in peptide synthesis, to prevent self-reactions of the bifunctional amino acids.", "Methyl and ethyl esters are commonly available for many amino acids; the ''t''-butyl ester tends to be more expensive.", "However, ''t''-butyl esters are particularly useful because, under strongly acidic conditions, the ''t''-butyl esters undergo elimination to give the carboxylic acid and isobutylene, simplifying work-up." ], [ "Hazards", "Esters react with strong oxidizing acids, which may cause a violent reaction that is sufficiently exothermic to ignite the esters and the reaction products.", "Heat is also generated by the interaction of esters with alkali solutions.", "Very flammable hydrogen gas is generated by mixing esters with alkali metals and ionic hydrides." ], [ "List of ester odorants", "Many esters have distinctive fruit-like odors, and many occur naturally in the essential oils of plants.", "This has also led to their common use in artificial flavorings and fragrances which aim to mimic those odors.Ester nameStructureOdor or occurrenceAllyl hexanoate 75pxpineappleBenzyl acetate75pxpear, strawberry, jasmineBornyl acetate75pxpineButyl acetate75px apple, honeyButyl butyrate75pxpineappleButyl propionate75pxpear drops, appleEthyl acetate75pxnail polish remover, model paint, model airplane glue, pearsEthyl benzoate75pxsweet, wintergreen, fruity, medicinal, cherry, grapeEthyl butyrate75pxbanana, pineapple, strawberryEthyl hexanoate 75pxpineapple, waxy-green bananaEthyl cinnamate75pxcinnamonEthyl formate75x75pxlemon, rum, strawberryEthyl heptanoate75pxapricot, cherry, grape, raspberryEthyl isovalerate75pxappleEthyl lactate 75pxbutter, creamEthyl nonanoate75pxgrapeEthyl pentanoate75pxappleGeranyl acetate75pxgeraniumGeranyl butyrate75pxcherryGeranyl pentanoate75pxappleIsobutyl acetate75pxcherry, raspberry, strawberryIsobutyl formate75pxraspberryIsoamyl acetate75pxpear, banana (flavoring in Pear drops)Isopropyl acetate 75pxfruityLinalyl acetate75pxlavender, sageLinalyl butyrate75pxpeachLinalyl formate75pxapple, peachMethyl acetate75pxglueMethyl anthranilate75pxgrape, jasmineMethyl benzoate75pxfruity, ylang ylang, feijoaMethyl butyrate (methyl butanoate)75pxpineapple, apple, strawberryMethyl cinnamate75pxstrawberryMethyl formate75pxpleasant, ethereal, rum, sweetMethyl pentanoate (methyl valerate)75pxfloweryMethyl phenylacetate75pxhoneyMethyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen)75pxModern root beer, wintergreen, Germolene and Ralgex ointments (UK)Nonyl caprylate75pxorangeOctyl acetate75pxfruity-orangeOctyl butyrate75pxparsnipAmyl acetate (pentyl acetate)75pxapple, bananaPentyl butyrate (amyl butyrate)75pxapricot, pear, pineapplePentyl hexanoate (amyl caproate)75pxapple, pineapplePentyl pentanoate (amyl valerate)75pxapplePropyl acetate75pxpearPropyl hexanoate75pxblackberry, pineapple, cheese, winePropyl isobutyrate75pxrumTerpinyl butyrate75pxcherry" ], [ "See also", "* List of esters* Amide* Thioamide* Carboximidate* Carbamate* Xanthate* Amidine* Cyanate* Thiocyanate* Selenocyanate* Tellurocyanate* Polyester, plastics made of polymeric ester* Oligoester, a polymeric ester made of small number of ester monomers* Polyolester, an ester that is a synthetic oil used in refrigeration compressors* Thioester* Transesterification* Ether lipid, an ester that is a lipid and an ether* Acylal ()* Ortho ester, an ester of an ortho acid (e.g.", "esters of orthocarboxylic acids, orthocarbonic acid, orthosilicic acid, orthotelluric acid, orthophosphoric acid, orthoboric acid, ...)* Depside, a polymeric ester, a type of polyphenolic compound composed of two or more monocyclic aromatic units linked by an ester group* Depsipeptide, a type of ester that is a peptide in which one or more of its amide groups () are replaced by the corresponding ester groups ()* Glyceride (), an ester of fatty acids and glycerol* Lactone, a cyclic carboxylic ester* Lactide, a type of lactone ester* Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), a lactone ester, an essential nutrient for humans and other animals* Phthalide, a type of lactone ester* Coumarin, a type of lactone ester* Macrolide, a class of natural esters that consist of a large macrocyclic lactone ring to which one or more deoxy sugars may be attached* Formate* Chloroformate" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* An introduction to esters* Molecule of the month: Ethyl acetate and other esters" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Endosymbiont" ], [ "Introduction", "A representation of the endosymbiotic theoryAn '''endosymbiont''' or '''endobiont''' is any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism most often, though not always, in a mutualistic relationship.", "This phenomenon is known as '''endosymbiosis''' (from the Greek: ἔνδον ''endon'' \"within\", σύν ''syn'' \"together\" and βίωσις ''biosis'' \"living\").", "Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria (called rhizobia), which live in the root nodules of legumes, single-cell algae inside reef-building corals and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to insects.The history behind the concept of endosymbiosis stems from the postulates of the endosymbiotic theory.", "The endosymbiotic theory (symbiogenesis) pushes the notion of bacteria exclusively living in eukaryotic organisms after being engulfed by them.", "This is popular with the concept of organelle development observed with eukaryotes.", "Two major types of organelle in eukaryotic cells, mitochondria and plastids such as chloroplasts, are considered to be obtained from bacterial endosymbionts.There are two main types of symbiont transmissions.", "In horizontal transmission, each new generation acquires free living symbionts from the environment.", "An example is the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in certain plant roots.", "Vertical transmission takes place when the symbiont is transferred directly from parent to offspring.", "An example is pea aphid symbionts.", "Also, it is possible for both to be involved in a mixed-mode transmission, where symbionts are transferred vertically for some generation before a switch of host occurs and new symbionts are horizontally acquired from the environment.", "Other examples include ''Wigglesworthia'' nutritional symbionts of tse-tse flies, or in sponges.", "When a symbiont reaches this stage, it begins to resemble a cellular organelle, similar to mitochondria or chloroplasts.Many instances of endosymbiosis are '''obligate'''; that is, either the endosymbiont or the host cannot survive without the other, such as the gutless marine worms of the genus ''Riftia'', which obtain nutrition from their endosymbiotic bacteria.", "The most common examples of obligate endosymbioses are mitochondria and chloroplasts.", "Some human parasites, e.g.", "''Wuchereria bancrofti'' and ''Mansonella perstans'', thrive in their intermediate insect hosts because of an obligate endosymbiosis with ''Wolbachia spp.''", "They can both be eliminated from hosts by treatments that target this bacterium.", "However, not all endosymbioses are obligate and some endosymbioses can be harmful to either of the organisms involved." ], [ "Symbiogenesis and organelles", "An overview of the endosymbiosis theory of eukaryote origin (symbiogenesis).Symbiogenesis explains the origins of eukaryotes, whose cells contain two major kinds of organelle: mitochondria and chloroplasts.", "The theory proposes that these organelles evolved from certain types of bacteria that eukaryotic cells engulfed through phagocytosis.", "These cells and the bacteria trapped inside them entered an endosymbiotic relationship, meaning that the bacteria took up residence and began living exclusively within the eukaryotic cells.Numerous insect species have endosymbionts at different stages of symbiogenesis.", "A common theme of symbiogenesis involves the reduction of the genome to only essential genes for the host and symbiont collective genome.", "A remarkable example of this is the fractionation of the ''Hodgkinia'' genome of ''Magicicada'' cicadas.", "Because the cicada life cycle takes years underground, natural selection on endosymbiont populations is relaxed for many bacterial generations.", "This allows the symbiont genomes to diversify within the host for years with only punctuated periods of selection when the cicadas reproduce.", "As a result, the ancestral ''Hodgkinia'' genome has split into three groups of primary endosymbiont, each encoding only a fraction of the essential genes for the symbiosis—an instance of punctuated equilibrium producing distinct lineages of the symbiont.", "The host now requires all three sub-groups of symbiont, each with degraded genomes lacking most essential genes for bacterial viability." ], [ "Symbiont transmission", "Symbiont transmission is the process where the host in a symbiotic relationship between two organisms acquires an organism (internally or externally) that serves as its symbiont.", "Most symbionts are either obligatory (require their host to survive) or facultative (do not necessarily need their host to survive).", "Many instances of endosymbiosis are obligate; that is, either the endosymbiont or the host cannot survive without the other, such as the gutless marine worms of the genus ''Riftia'', which get nutrition from their endosymbiotic bacteria.", "The most common examples of obligate endosymbiosis are mitochondria and chloroplasts.", "Some human parasites, e.g.", "''Wuchereria bancrofti'' and ''Mansonella perstans'', thrive in their intermediate insect hosts because of an obligate endosymbiosis with ''Wolbachia'' spp.", "They can both be eliminated from hosts by treatments that target this bacterium.Horizontal (lateral), vertical, and mix-mode (hybrid of horizonal and vertical) transmission are the three paths for symbiont transfer.", "Horizontal symbiont transfer (horizontal transmission) is a process where a host acquires a facultative symbiont from the environment or from another host.", "The Rhizobia-Legume symbiosis (bacteria-plant endosymbiosis) is a prime example of horizontal symbiont transmission.", "The Rhizobia-legume symbiotic relationship is important for processes like the formation of root nodules.", "It starts with flavonoids released by the plant host (Legume), which causes the rhizobia species (endosymbiont) to activate its ''nod'' genes.", "These ''Nod'' genes generate lipooligosaccharide signals which the legume(host) detects, thus leading to root nodule formation.", "This process bleeds on to other unique processes like nitrogen fixation in plants.", "The evolutionary advantage of such an interaction allows genetic exchange between both organisms involved increasing the propensity for novel functions as seen in the plant-bacterium interaction (holobiont formation).In vertical transmission, the symbionts often have a reduced genome and are no longer able to survive on their own.", "As a result, the symbiont depends on the host, resulting in a highly intimate co-dependent relationship.", "For instance, pea aphid symbionts have lost genes for essential molecules, now relying on the host to supply them with nutrients.", "In return, the symbionts synthesize essential amino acids for the aphid host.", "Other examples include ''Wigglesworthia'' nutritional symbionts of tsetse flies, or in sponges.", "When a symbiont reaches this stage, it begins to resemble a cellular organelle, similar to mitochondria or chloroplasts.", "The evolutionary consequences causes the host and the symbiont to be dependent and form a holobiont, and in the event of a bottleneck a decrease in symbiont diversity could affect the host-symbiont interactions adversely, when deleterious mutations build up over time." ], [ "Bacterial endosymbionts of invertebrates", "The best-studied examples of endosymbiosis are known from invertebrates.", "These symbioses affect organisms with global impact, including ''Symbiodinium'' of corals, or ''Wolbachia'' of insects.", "Many insect agricultural pests and human disease vectors have intimate relationships with primary endosymbionts.=== Of insects ===Diagram of cospeciation, where parasites or endosymbionts speciate or branch alongside their hosts.", "This process is more common in hosts with primary endosymbionts.Scientists classify insect endosymbionts in two broad categories, 'Primary' and 'Secondary'.", "Primary endosymbionts (sometimes referred to as P-endosymbionts) have been associated with their insect hosts for many millions of years (from 10 to several hundred million years in some cases).", "They form obligate associations (see below), and display cospeciation with their insect hosts.", "Secondary endosymbionts exhibit a more recently developed association, are sometimes horizontally transferred between hosts, live in the hemolymph of the insects (not specialized bacteriocytes, see below), and are not obligate.==== Primary ====Among primary endosymbionts of insects, the best-studied are the pea aphid (''Acyrthosiphon pisum'') and its endosymbiont ''Buchnera sp.''", "APS, the tsetse fly ''Glossina morsitans morsitans'' and its endosymbiont ''Wigglesworthia glossinidia brevipalpis'' and the endosymbiotic protists in lower termites.", "As with endosymbiosis in other insects, the symbiosis is obligate in that neither the bacteria nor the insect is viable without the other.", "Scientists have been unable to cultivate the bacteria in lab conditions outside of the insect.", "With special nutritionally-enhanced diets, the insects can survive, but are unhealthy, and at best survive only a few generations.In some insect groups, these endosymbionts live in specialized insect cells called bacteriocytes (also called ''mycetocytes''), and are maternally-transmitted, i.e.", "the mother transmits her endosymbionts to her offspring.", "In some cases, the bacteria are transmitted in the egg, as in ''Buchnera''; in others like ''Wigglesworthia'', they are transmitted via milk to the developing insect embryo.", "In termites, the endosymbionts reside within the hindguts and are transmitted through trophallaxis among colony members.The primary endosymbionts are thought to help the host either by providing nutrients that the host cannot obtain itself or by metabolizing insect waste products into safer forms.", "For example, the putative primary role of ''Buchnera'' is to synthesize essential amino acids that the aphid cannot acquire from its natural diet of plant sap.", "Likewise, the primary role of ''Wigglesworthia'', it is presumed, is to synthesize vitamins that the tsetse fly does not get from the blood that it eats.", "In lower termites, the endosymbiotic protists play a major role in the digestion of lignocellulosic materials that constitute a bulk of the termites' diet.Bacteria benefit from the reduced exposure to predators and competition from other bacterial species, the ample supply of nutrients and relative environmental stability inside the host.Genome sequencing reveals that obligate bacterial endosymbionts of insects have among the smallest of known bacterial genomes and have lost many genes that are commonly found in closely related bacteria.", "Several theories have been put forth to explain the loss of genes.", "It is presumed that some of these genes are not needed in the environment of the host insect cell.", "A complementary theory suggests that the relatively small numbers of bacteria inside each insect decrease the efficiency of natural selection in 'purging' deleterious mutations and small mutations from the population, resulting in a loss of genes over many millions of years.", "Research in which a parallel phylogeny of bacteria and insects was inferred supports the belief that the primary endosymbionts are transferred only vertically (i.e., from the mother), and not horizontally (i.e., by escaping the host and entering a new host).Attacking obligate bacterial endosymbionts may present a way to control their insect hosts, many of which are pests or carriers of human disease.", "For example, aphids are crop pests and the tsetse fly carries the organism ''Trypanosoma brucei'' that causes African sleeping sickness.", "Other motivations for their study involve understanding the origins of symbioses in general, as a proxy for understanding e.g.", "how chloroplasts or mitochondria came to be obligate symbionts of eukaryotes or plants.==== Secondary ====Pea aphids are commonly infested by parasitic wasps.", "Their secondary endosymbionts attack the infesting parasitoid wasp larvae promoting the survival of both the aphid host and its endosymbionts.The pea aphid (''Acyrthosiphon pisum'') is known to contain at least three secondary endosymbionts, ''Hamiltonella defensa'', ''Regiella insecticola'', and ''Serratia symbiotica''.", "''Hamiltonella defensa'' defends its aphid host from parasitoid wasps.", "This defensive symbiosis improves the survival of aphids, which have lost some elements of the insect immune response.One of the best-understood defensive symbionts is the spiral bacteria ''Spiroplasma poulsonii''.", "''Spiroplasma sp.''", "can be reproductive manipulators, but also defensive symbionts of ''Drosophila'' flies.", "In ''Drosophila neotestacea'', ''S.", "poulsonii'' has spread across North America owing to its ability to defend its fly host against nematode parasites.", "This defence is mediated by toxins called \"ribosome-inactivating proteins\" that attack the molecular machinery of invading parasites.", "These ''Spiroplasma'' toxins represent one of the first examples of a defensive symbiosis with a mechanistic understanding for defensive symbiosis between an insect endosymbiont and its host.", "''Sodalis glossinidius'' is a secondary endosymbiont of tsetse flies that lives inter- and intracellularly in various host tissues, including the midgut and hemolymph.", "Phylogenetic studies have not indicated a correlation between evolution of ''Sodalis'' and tsetse.", "Unlike tsetse's primary symbiont ''Wigglesworthia'', though, ''Sodalis'' has been cultured ''in vitro''.Many other insects have secondary endosymbionts not reviewed here.=== Of ants ===The best-studied endosymbiont of ants are bacteria of the genus Blochmannia, which are the primary endosymbiont of ''Camponotus'' ants.", "In 2018 a new ant-associated symbiont was discovered in ''Cardiocondyla'' ants.", "This symbiont was named Candidatus Westeberhardia Cardiocondylae and it is also believed to be a primary symbiont.=== Of marine invertebrates===Extracellular endosymbionts are also represented in all four extant classes of Echinodermata (Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea, and Holothuroidea).", "Little is known of the nature of the association (mode of infection, transmission, metabolic requirements, etc.)", "but phylogenetic analysis indicates that these symbionts belong to the class Alphaproteobacteria, relating them to ''Rhizobium'' and ''Thiobacillus''.", "Other studies indicate that these subcuticular bacteria may be both abundant within their hosts and widely distributed among the Echinoderms in general.Some marine oligochaeta (e.g., ''Olavius algarvensis'' and ''Inanidrillus spp.'')", "have obligate extracellular endosymbionts that fill the entire body of their host.", "These marine worms are nutritionally dependent on their symbiotic chemoautotrophic bacteria lacking any digestive or excretory system (no gut, mouth, or nephridia).The sea slug ''Elysia chlorotica'' lives in endosymbiotic relationship with the algae ''Vaucheria litorea'', and the jellyfish ''Mastigias'' have a similar relationship with an algae.", "''Elysia chlorotica'' forms this relationship intracellularly with the chloroplasts from the algae.", "These chloroplast retain their photosynthetic capabilities and structures for several months after being taken into the cells of the slug.The very simple animal ''Trichoplax'' have two bacterial endosymbionts.", "One of them is called Ruthmannia, and lives inside the animal's digestive cells.", "The other is Grellia which lives permanently inside the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of Trichoplax, the first known symbiont to do so.", "''Paracatenula'' is a flatworm which have lived in symbiosis with an endosymbiotic bacteria for 500 million years.", "The bacteria, which have lost much of its genome as a symbiont, produce numerous small, droplet-like vesicles which provide the host with all the nutrients it needs.==== Dinoflagellate endosymbionts ====Dinoflagellate endosymbionts of the genus ''Symbiodinium'', commonly known as zooxanthellae, are found in corals, mollusks (esp.", "giant clams, the ''Tridacna''), sponges, and the unicellular foraminifera.", "These endosymbionts drive the formation of coral reefs by capturing sunlight and providing their hosts with energy for carbonate deposition.Previously thought to be a single species, molecular phylogenetic evidence over the past couple decades has shown there to be great diversity in ''Symbiodinium''.", "In some cases, there is specificity between host and ''Symbiodinium'' clade.", "More often, however, there is an ecological distribution of ''Symbiodinium'', the symbionts switching between hosts with apparent ease.", "When reefs become environmentally stressed, this distribution of symbionts is related to the observed pattern of coral bleaching and recovery.", "Thus, the distribution of ''Symbiodinium'' on coral reefs and its role in coral bleaching presents one of the most complex and interesting current problems in reef ecology." ], [ "Of phytoplankton", "In marine environments, bacterial endosymbionts have more recently been discovered.", "These endosymbiotic relationships are especially prevalent in oligotrophic or nutrient-poor regions of the ocean like that of the North Atlantic.", "In these oligotrophic waters, cell growth of larger phytoplankton like that of diatoms is limited by low nitrate concentrations.", "Endosymbiotic bacteria fix nitrogen for their diatom hosts and in turn receive organic carbon from photosynthesis.", "These symbioses play an important role in global carbon cycling in oligotrophic regions.One known symbiosis between the diatom ''Hemialus'' spp.", "and the cyanobacterium ''Richelia intracellularis'' has been found in the North Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Pacific Ocean.", "The ''Richelia'' endosymbiont is found within the diatom frustule of ''Hemiaulus'' spp., and has a reduced genome likely losing genes related to pathways the host now provides.", "Research by Foster et al.", "(2011) measured nitrogen fixation by the cyanobacterial host ''Richelia intracellularis'' well above intracellular requirements, and found the cyanobacterium was likely fixing excess nitrogen for Hemiaulus host cells.", "Additionally, both host and symbiont cell growth were much greater than free-living ''Richelia intracellularis'' or symbiont-free ''Hemiaulus'' spp.", "The ''Hemaiulus''-''Richelia'' symbiosis is not obligatory especially in areas with excess nitrogen (nitrogen replete).", "''Richelia intracellularis'' is also found in ''Rhizosolenia'' spp., a diatom found in oligotrophic oceans.", "Compared to the ''Hemaiulus'' host, the endosymbiosis with ''Rhizosolenia'' is much more consistent, and ''Richelia intracellularis'' is generally found in ''Rhizosolenia''.", "There are some asymbiotic (occurs without an endosymbiont) Rhizosolenia, however there appears to be mechanisms limiting growth of these organisms in low nutrient conditions.", "Cell division for both the diatom host and cyanobacterial symbiont can be uncoupled and mechanisms for passing bacterial symbionts to daughter cells during cell division are still relatively unknown.Other endosymbiosis with nitrogen fixers in open oceans include ''Calothrix'' in ''Chaetoceros'' spp.", "and UNCY-A in prymnesiophyte microalga.", "The ''Chaetoceros''-''Calothrix'' endosymbiosis is hypothesized to be more recent, as the ''Calothrix'' genome is generally intact.", "While other species like that of the UNCY-A symbiont and Richelia have reduced genomes.", "This reduction in genome size occurs within nitrogen metabolism pathways indicating endosymbiont species are generating nitrogen for their hosts and losing the ability to use this nitrogen independently.", "This endosymbiont reduction in genome size, might be a step that occurred in the evolution of organelles (above)." ], [ "Of protists", "''Mixotricha paradoxa'' is a protozoan that lacks mitochondria.", "However, spherical bacteria live inside the cell and serve the function of the mitochondria.", "''Mixotricha'' also has three other species of symbionts that live on the surface of the cell.", "''Paramecium bursaria'', a species of ciliate, has a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with green alga called ''Zoochlorella''.", "The algae live inside the cell, in the cytoplasm.", "''Platyophrya chlorelligera'' is a freshwater ciliate which harbors Chlorella that performs photosynthesis.", "''Strombidium purpureum'', a marine ciliate which use endosymbiotic purple non-sulphur bacteria for anoxygenic photosynthesis.", "''Paulinella chromatophora'' is a freshwater amoeboid which has recently (evolutionarily speaking) taken on a cyanobacterium as an endosymbiont.Many foraminifera are hosts to several types of algae, such as red algae, diatoms, dinoflagellates and chlorophyta.", "These endosymbionts can be transmitted vertically to the next generation via asexual reproduction of the host, but because the endosymbionts are larger than the foraminiferal gametes, they need to acquire new algae again after sexual reproduction.Several species of radiolaria have photosynthetic symbionts.", "In some species the host will sometimes digest algae to keep their population at a constant level.", "''Hatena arenicola'' is a flagellate protist with a complicated feeding apparaturs that feed on other microbes.", "But when it engulfs a green alga from the genus ''Nephroselmis'', the feeding apparatus disappears and it becomes photosynthetic.", "During mitosis the algae is transferred to only one of the two cells, and the cell without the algae needs to start the cycle all over again.In 1966, biologist Kwang W. Jeon found that a lab strain of ''Amoeba proteus'' had been infected by bacteria that lived inside the cytoplasmic vacuoles.", "This infection killed all the protists except for a few individuals.", "After the equivalent of 40 host generations, the two organisms gradually became mutually interdependent.", "Over many years of study, it has been confirmed that a genetic exchange between the prokaryotes and protists had occurred." ], [ "Of vertebrates", "The spotted salamander (''Ambystoma maculatum'') lives in a relationship with the algae ''Oophila amblystomatis'', which grows in the egg cases." ], [ "Of plants", "Plants are diverse photosynthetic eukaryotes having wide variety of cell morphologies and lifestyles.", "Plants are considered one of the primary producers.", "Plants with all photosynthetic eukaryotes are dependent on an intracellular organelle known as plastid or chloroplast (in case of plants and green algae).", "The chloroplast is derived from a cyanobacterial primary endosymbiosis over one billion years ago.", "The oxygenic photosynthetic free-living cyanobacterium was engulfed and kept by a heterotrophic protist and eventually evolved into the present intracellular organelle over the course of many years.", "The plant symbioses can be categorized into epiphytic, endophytic, and mycorrhizal.", "The mycorrhizal category is only used for fungi.", "The endosymbiosis relation of plants and endosymbionts can also be categorized into beneficial, mutualistic, neutral, and pathogenic.", "Typically, most of the studies related to plant symbioses or plant endosymbionts such as endophytic bacteria or fungi, are focused on a single category or specie to better understand the biological processes and functions one at a time.", "But this approach is not helping to understand the complex endosymbiotic interactions and biological functions in natural habitat.", "Microorganisms living in association as endosymbionts with plants can enhance the primary productivity of plants either by producing or capturing the limiting resources.", "These endosymbionts can also enhance the productivity of plants by the production of toxic metabolites helping plant defenses against herbivores '''.'''", "Although, the role and potential of microorganisms in community regulations has been neglected since long, may because of the microscopic size and unseen lifestyle.", "Theoretically, all the vascular plants harbor endosymbionts (e.g., fungi and bacteria).", "these endosymbionts colonize the plants cells and tissue predominantly but not exclusively.", "Plant endosymbionts can be categorized into different types based on the function, relation and location, some common plant endosymbionts are discussed as follow.Plant endosymbionts, also called endophytes, include bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa and even microalgae.", "Endophytes help plant in biological processes such as growth and development, nutrient uptake and defense against biotic and abiotic stresses like drought, salinity, heat, and herbivores.=== Fungi as plant endosymbionts ===All vascular plants have fungal and bacterial endophytes or endosymbionts which colonize predominantly but not exclusively, roots.", "Fungal endosymbionts can be found all out the plant tissues and based on their location in the plant, fungal endosymbionts can be defined in multiple ways like fungi living in plant tissues above the ground are termed as endophytes, while fungi living below the ground (roots) are known as mycorrhizal, but the mycorrhizal fungi also have different names based on their location inside the root which are ecto, endo, arbuscular, ericoid, etc.", "Furthermore, the fungal endosymbionts living in the roots and extending their extraradical hyphae into the outer rhizosphere are known as ectendosymbionts.=== Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) ===Among the plant microbial endosymbionts arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi or AMF are the most diverse group.", "With some exceptions Ericaceae family, almost all vascular plants are harboring the AMF endosymbionts both as endo and ecto as well.", "The AMF plant endosymbionts systematically colonize the plant roots and helping plant host by soil nutrients and as a return it takes the plant organic carbon sources.", "Plant roots exudates contain a diversity of secondary metabolites especially flavonoids and strigolactones which acts as chemical signals and attracts the AMF.", "Arbuscular mycyrrizal fungus ''Gigaspora margarita'' not only lives as a plant endosymbiont but also harbor further endosymbiont intracytoplasmic bacterium-like organisms.", "By isolating the pure cultures of AMF endosymbionts, it has been reported that it has different effects to the different plant hosts.", "By introducing the AMF of one plant can reduce the net growth of the other plant host which might have to do something with already present AMF.", "Furthermore, the AMF are reported in numerous studies as plant health and growth promoting and as an alleviating agent for abiotic stresses like salinity, drought, heat, poor nutrition and metal toxicity.=== Endophytic fungi ===In addition to mycorrhizal endosymbionts, the endophytic fungi are also catching the interest of scientist by showing so much potential not only in its mutualistic relation where it is benefiting host plant and taking advantages as well but also showing promising results in other domains like helping plant to grow in polluted environment such as high polluted environment with toxic metals.", "Fungal endophytes are taxonomically diverse group of omnipresent fungi which is divided into different categories based on mode of transmission, biodiversity, in planta colonization and host plant type.", "These categories are clavicipitaceous and non-clavicipitaceous, the former one systematically colonizes the temperate season grasses while the later one colonizes higher plants and even roots and that’s why can be divided into further categories.", "''Bacillus amyloliquefaciens'' is a seed born endophytic fungi which produces gibberellins and promotes the physiology.", "''Bacillus amyloliquefaciens'' has been evaluated in a study for its growth promoting potential where it promotes the longer height of transgenic dwarf rice plants.", "Similarly, ''Aureobasidium ''and ''preussia'' species of endophytic fungi isolated from Boswellia sacra are producing indole acetic acid hormone to promote plant health and development.Aphids are most common insects and can be found in most of the plants and carnivorous ladybirds are the specialized predators of the aphids.", "These ladybirds are used in different programs for the pest control.", "A study conducted on the effect of plant-endophyte symbiosis on the population and fitness of carnivorous ladybirds.", "The plant endophytic fungus ''Neotyphodium lolii'' is producing alkaloid mycotoxins in response to aphid invasions.", "The ladybirds picking on the aphids from the infected plants exhibited reduced rate of fertility and abnormal reproductive performance.", "Adult ladybirds were not significantly affected in terms of their body symmetries and size.", "But the consistently strong negative effects of endophytes overall fitness of ladybirds suggest that the mycotoxins are transmitted along the food chain and effecting the top predators.=== Endophytic bacteria ===Endophytic bacteria belong to a diverse group of plant endosymbionts and characterized by systematically colonization of plant internal tissues.", "Endophytic bacteria most common genera include ''Pseudomonas'', ''Bacillus'', ''Acinetobacter'', ''Actinobacteria'', ''Sphingomonas.''", "Some endophytic bacteria genera additionally belong to the Enterobacteriaceae family (Pirttila and Frank, 2011).", "Endophytic bacteria mostly colonize the leaf tissues from plant roots, but can also enter the plant through the leaves through leaf stomata (Senthilkumar et al., 2011).Generally, the endophytic bacteria are isolated from the plant tissues by surface sterilization of the plant tissue in a sterile environment.", "Moreover, the isolation of endophytic bacteria according to their essential needs in niche occupations has been explored.", "That’s why the endophytic bacterial community can be divided into \"passenger\" and \"true\" endophytes.", "The passenger endophytic bacteria are those who eventually colonize inner tissue of plant by stochastic events while the true endophytes possess adaptive traits because of which they live in association with plants strictly.", "the in vitro cultivated endophytic bacteria association with plant is considered a more intimate relationship where it helps plant acclimatize to the conditions and promotes health and growth.", "The endophytic bacteria are considered as plant's essential endosymbionts because virtually all plants harbor it, and these endosymbionts play essential roles in host plant survival.", "This plant-endosymbiont relation is important in terms of ecology, evolution and diversity.", "Moreover, the endophytic bacteria such as ''Sphingomonas'' sp.", "and ''Serratia'' sp.", "being isolated from arid land plants regulate endogenous hormone content and promote growth in crop plants.=== Archaea as plant endosymbionts ===Archaea are members of most microbiomes.", "While archaea are highly abundant in extreme environments, they are less abundant and diverse in association with eukaryotic hosts.", "Nevertheless, archaea are a substantial constituent of plant-associated ecosystems in the aboveground and belowground phytobiome, and play a role in host plant’s health, growth and survival in biotic and abiotic stresses.", "However, only a few studies have investigated the role of archaea in plant health and its potential symbiosis in ecosystems.", "Generally, most of the plant endosymbiont related studies focus on fungal or bacterial endosymbionts using metagenomic approaches.The characterization of archaea is not only limited to crop plants like rice and maize but also identified in many aquatic plant species.", "The abundance of archaea is different in different tissues for example archaea are more abundant in the rhizosphere than the phyllosphere and endosphere.", "This archaeal abundance is highly associated with plant species type, environment and plant’s developmental stage.", "In a study conducted on the detection of plant-genotype specific archaeal and bacterial endophytes, 35% of archaeal sequences were detected in overall sequences (achieved using amplicon sequencing and verified by real time-PCR).", "The archaeal sequences belong to the phyla ''Thaumarchaeota'', ''Crenarchaeota,'' and ''Euryarchaeota''." ], [ "Endosymbionts of bacteria", "Some Betaproteobacteria have Gammaproteobacteria endosymbionts." ], [ "Endosymbionts of fungi", "Fungi harbor endohyphal bacteria; however, the effects of the bacteria on the fungi are not well studied.", "Many fungi that harbor these endohyphal bacteria in turn live within plants.", "These fungi are otherwise known as fungal endophytes.", "It is hypothesized that the fungi offers a safe haven for the bacteria, and diverse bacteria colonize these refugia creating a micro-ecosystem.", "These interactions are important because they may impact the way that fungi interact with the environment by modulating their phenotypes.The way in which the bacteria do this is by altering the gene expression of the fungi.", "For example, ''Luteibacter'' sp.", "has been shown to naturally infect the ascomycetous endophyte ''Pestalotiopsis'' sp.", "isolated from ''Platycladus orientalis.''", "The ''Luteibacter'' sp.", "influences the auxin and enzyme production within its host, which, in turn, may influence the effect the fungus has on its plant host''.''", "Another interesting example of a bacteria living in symbiosis with a fungus is with the fungus ''Mortierella.''", "This soil-dwelling fungus lives in close association with a toxin-producing bacteria, ''Mycoavidus'', which helps the fungus to defend against nematodes.", "This is a very new, but potentially very important, area of study within the study of symbiosis." ], [ "Virus-host associations", "The human genome project found several thousand endogenous retroviruses, endogenous viral elements in the genome that closely resemble and can be derived from retroviruses, organized into 24 families." ], [ "See also", "* Epibiont, organism living ''on the surface'' of another organism* Anagenesis* Endophyte* Ectosymbiosis* List of symbiotic organisms* List of symbiotic relationships* Multigenomic organism* Protocell* Fungal-bacterial endosymbiosis" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Exponential function" ], [ "Introduction", "Exponential functions with bases 2 and 1/2The '''exponential function''' is a mathematical function denoted by or (where the argument is written as an exponent).", "Unless otherwise specified, the term generally refers to the positive-valued function of a real variable, although it can be extended to the complex numbers or generalized to other mathematical objects like matrices or Lie algebras.", "The exponential function originated from the operation of taking powers of a number (repeated multiplication), but various modern definitions allow it to be rigorously extended to all real arguments , including irrational numbers.", "Its ubiquitous occurrence in pure and applied mathematics led mathematician Walter Rudin to consider the exponential function to be \"the most important function in mathematics\".", "The functions for positive real numbers are also known as '''exponential functions''', and satisfy the exponentiation identity:This implies (with factors) for positive integers , where , relating exponential functions to the elementary notion of exponentiation.", "The natural base is a ubiquitous mathematical constant called Euler's number.", "To distinguish it, is called '''''the'' exponential function''' or the '''natural exponential function''': it is the unique real-valued function of a real variable whose derivative is itself and whose value at is : for all , and The relation for and real or complex allows general exponential functions to be expressed in terms of the natural exponential.More generally, especially in applied settings, any function defined by is also known as an exponential function, as it solves the initial value problem , meaning its rate of change at each point is proportional to the value of the function at that point.", "This behavior models diverse phenomena in the biological, physical, and social sciences, for example the unconstrained growth of a self-reproducing population, the decay of a radioactive element, the compound interest accruing on a financial fund, or a growing body of manufacturing expertise.The real exponential function can also be defined as a power series, which is readily extended to complex arguments to define the complex exponential function .", "This function takes on all complex values except for 0 and is closely related to the complex trigonometric functions, as shown by Euler's formula: Motivated by its more abstract properties and characterizations, the exponential function can be generalized to much larger contexts such as square matrices and Lie groups.", "Even further, the differential equation definition can be generalized to a Riemannian manifold.The real exponential function is a bijection from to the interval .", "Its inverse function is the natural logarithm, denoted , , or , and some old texts called it the ''antilogarithm''." ], [ "Graph", "The graph of is upward-sloping, and increases faster as increases.", "The graph always lies above the -axis, but becomes arbitrarily close to it for large negative ; thus, the -axis is a horizontal asymptote.", "The equation means that the slope of the tangent to the graph at each point is equal to its -coordinate at that point." ], [ "Relation to more general exponential functions", "The exponential function is sometimes called the ''natural exponential function'' in order to distinguish it from the other exponential functions.", "The study of any exponential function can easily be reduced to that of the natural exponential function, since per definition, for positive ,As functions of a real variable, exponential functions are uniquely characterized by the fact that the derivative of such a function is directly proportional to the value of the function.", "The constant of proportionality of this relationship is the natural logarithm of the base :For , the function is increasing (as depicted for and ), because makes the derivative always positive; this is often referred to as exponential growth.", "For positive , the function is decreasing (as depicted for ); this is often referred to as exponential decay.", "For , the function is constant.Euler's number is the unique base for which the constant of proportionality is 1, since , so that the function is its own derivative:This function, also denoted as , is called the \"natural exponential function\", or simply \"the exponential function\".", "Since any exponential function defined by can be written in terms of the natural exponential as , it is computationally and conceptually convenient to reduce the study of exponential functions to this particular one.", "The natural exponential is hence denoted by or The former notation is commonly used for simpler exponents, while the latter is preferred when the exponent is more complicated and harder to read in a small font.For real numbers and , a function of the form is also an exponential function, since it can be rewritten as" ], [ "Formal definition", "The exponential function (in blue), and the sum of the first terms of its power series (in red).The real exponential function can be characterized in a variety of equivalent ways.", "It is commonly defined by the following power series:Since the radius of convergence of this power series is infinite, this definition is, in fact, applicable to all complex numbers; see for the extension of to the complex plane.", "Using the power series, the constant can be defined as The term-by-term differentiation of this power series reveals that for all real , leading to another common characterization of as the unique solution of the differential equationthat satisfies the initial condition Based on this characterization, the chain rule shows that its inverse function, the natural logarithm, satisfies for or This relationship leads to a less common definition of the real exponential function as the solution to the equationSolving the ordinary differential equation with the initial condition using Euler's method gives the product limit formula, valid for all complex values of :It can be shown that every continuous, nonzero solution of the functional equation for is an exponential function, with" ], [ "Overview", "The red curve is the exponential function.", "The black horizontal lines show where it crosses the green vertical lines.The exponential function arises whenever a quantity grows or decays at a rate proportional to its current value.", "One such situation is continuously compounded interest, and in fact it was this observation that led Jacob Bernoulli in 1683 to the numbernow known as .", "Later, in 1697, Johann Bernoulli studied the calculus of the exponential function.If a principal amount of 1 earns interest at an annual rate of compounded monthly, then the interest earned each month is times the current value, so each month the total value is multiplied by , and the value at the end of the year is .", "If instead interest is compounded daily, this becomes .", "Letting the number of time intervals per year grow without bound leads to the limit definition of the exponential function,first given by Leonhard Euler.This is one of a number of characterizations of the exponential function; others involve series or differential equations.From any of these definitions it can be shown that is the reciprocal of .", "For example from the differential equation definition, when and its derivative using the product rule is for all , so for all .From any of these definitions it can be shown that the exponential function obeys the basic exponentiation identity.", "For example from the power series definition,This justifies the notation for .The derivative (rate of change) of the exponential function is the exponential function itself.", "More generally, a function with a rate of change ''proportional'' to the function itself (rather than equal to it) is expressible in terms of the exponential function.", "This function property leads to exponential growth or exponential decay.The exponential function extends to an entire function on the complex plane.", "Euler's formula relates its values at purely imaginary arguments to trigonometric functions.", "The exponential function also has analogues for which the argument is a matrix, or even an element of a Banach algebra or a Lie algebra." ], [ "Derivatives and differential equations", "The derivative of the exponential function is equal to the value of the function.", "From any point on the curve (blue), let a tangent line (red), and a vertical line (green) with height be drawn, forming a right triangle with a base on the -axis.", "Since the slope of the red tangent line (the derivative) at is equal to the ratio of the triangle's height to the triangle's base (rise over run), and the derivative is equal to the value of the function, must be equal to the ratio of to .", "Therefore, the base must always be 1.The importance of the exponential function in mathematics and the sciences stems mainly from its property as the unique function which is equal to its derivative and is equal to 1 when .", "That is,Functions of the form for constant are the only functions that are equal to their derivative (by the Picard–Lindelöf theorem).", "Other ways of saying the same thing include:* The slope of the graph at any point is the height of the function at that point.", "* The rate of increase of the function at is equal to the value of the function at .", "* The function solves the differential equation .", "* is a fixed point of derivative as a functional.If a variable's growth or decay rate is proportional to its size—as is the case in unlimited population growth (see Malthusian catastrophe), continuously compounded interest, or radioactive decay—then the variable can be written as a constant times an exponential function of time.", "Explicitly for any real constant , a function satisfies if and only if for some constant .", "The constant ''k'' is called the '''decay constant''', '''disintegration constant''', '''rate constant''', or '''transformation constant'''.Furthermore, for any differentiable function , we find, by the chain rule:" ], [ "Continued fractions for {{small\|{{math\|''e''<sup>''x''</sup>}}}}", "A continued fraction for can be obtained via an identity of Euler:The following generalized continued fraction for converges more quickly:or, by applying the substitution :with a special case for :This formula also converges, though more slowly, for .", "For example:" ], [ "{{anchor\|On the complex plane}}Complex plane", "The exponential function e^z plotted in the complex plane from -2-2i to 2+2icomplex plot of , with the argument represented by varying hue.", "The transition from dark to light colors shows that is increasing only to the right.", "The periodic horizontal bands corresponding to the same hue indicate that is periodic in the imaginary part of .As in the real case, the exponential function can be defined on the complex plane in several equivalent forms.", "The most common definition of the complex exponential function parallels the power series definition for real arguments, where the real variable is replaced by a complex one:Alternatively, the complex exponential function may be defined by modelling the limit definition for real arguments, but with the real variable replaced by a complex one:For the power series definition, term-wise multiplication of two copies of this power series in the Cauchy sense, permitted by Mertens' theorem, shows that the defining multiplicative property of exponential functions continues to hold for all complex arguments:The definition of the complex exponential function in turn leads to the appropriate definitions extending the trigonometric functions to complex arguments.In particular, when ( real), the series definition yields the expansionIn this expansion, the rearrangement of the terms into real and imaginary parts is justified by the absolute convergence of the series.", "The real and imaginary parts of the above expression in fact correspond to the series expansions of and , respectively.This correspondence provides motivation for cosine and sine for all complex arguments in terms of and the equivalent power series:for all The functions , , and so defined have infinite radii of convergence by the ratio test and are therefore entire functions (that is, holomorphic on ).", "The range of the exponential function is , while the ranges of the complex sine and cosine functions are both in its entirety, in accord with Picard's theorem, which asserts that the range of a nonconstant entire function is either all of , or excluding one lacunary value.These definitions for the exponential and trigonometric functions lead trivially to Euler's formula:We could alternatively define the complex exponential function based on this relationship.", "If , where and are both real, then we could define its exponential aswhere , , and on the right-hand side of the definition sign are to be interpreted as functions of a real variable, previously defined by other means.For , the relationship holds, so that for real and maps the real line (mod ) to the unit circle in the complex plane.", "Moreover, going from to , the curve defined by traces a segment of the unit circle of lengthstarting from in the complex plane and going counterclockwise.", "Based on these observations and the fact that the measure of an angle in radians is the arc length on the unit circle subtended by the angle, it is easy to see that, restricted to real arguments, the sine and cosine functions as defined above coincide with the sine and cosine functions as introduced in elementary mathematics via geometric notions.The complex exponential function is periodic with period and holds for all .When its domain is extended from the real line to the complex plane, the exponential function retains the following properties:for all Extending the natural logarithm to complex arguments yields the complex logarithm , which is a multivalued function.We can then define a more general exponentiation:for all complex numbers and .", "This is also a multivalued function, even when is real.", "This distinction is problematic, as the multivalued functions and are easily confused with their single-valued equivalents when substituting a real number for .", "The rule about multiplying exponents for the case of positive real numbers must be modified in a multivalued context:See failure of power and logarithm identities for more about problems with combining powers.The exponential function maps any line in the complex plane to a logarithmic spiral in the complex plane with the center at the origin.", "Two special cases exist: when the original line is parallel to the real axis, the resulting spiral never closes in on itself; when the original line is parallel to the imaginary axis, the resulting spiral is a circle of some radius.", "Image:ExponentialAbs_real_SVG.svg\| Image:ExponentialAbs_image_SVG.svg\| Image:ExponentialAbs_SVG.svg\| Considering the complex exponential function as a function involving four real variables:the graph of the exponential function is a two-dimensional surface curving through four dimensions.Starting with a color-coded portion of the domain, the following are depictions of the graph as variously projected into two or three dimensions.File: Complex exponential function graph domain xy dimensions.svg\|Checker board key: File: Complex exponential function graph range vw dimensions.svg\|Projection onto the range complex plane (V/W).", "Compare to the next, perspective picture.File: Complex exponential function graph horn shape xvw dimensions.jpg\|Projection into the , , and dimensions, producing a flared horn or funnel shape (envisioned as 2-D perspective image).File: Complex exponential function graph spiral shape yvw dimensions.jpg\|Projection into the , , and dimensions, producing a spiral shape.", "( range extended to ±2, again as 2-D perspective image).The second image shows how the domain complex plane is mapped into the range complex plane:* zero is mapped to 1* the real axis is mapped to the positive real axis* the imaginary axis is wrapped around the unit circle at a constant angular rate* values with negative real parts are mapped inside the unit circle* values with positive real parts are mapped outside of the unit circle* values with a constant real part are mapped to circles centered at zero* values with a constant imaginary part are mapped to rays extending from zeroThe third and fourth images show how the graph in the second image extends into one of the other two dimensions not shown in the second image.The third image shows the graph extended along the real axis.", "It shows the graph is a surface of revolution about the axis of the graph of the real exponential function, producing a horn or funnel shape.The fourth image shows the graph extended along the imaginary axis.", "It shows that the graph's surface for positive and negative values doesn't really meet along the negative real axis, but instead forms a spiral surface about the axis.", "Because its values have been extended to , this image also better depicts the 2π periodicity in the imaginary value.===Computation of where both and are complex===Complex exponentiation can be defined by converting to polar coordinates and using the identity :However, when is not an integer, this function is multivalued, because is not unique (see '''')." ], [ "Matrices and Banach algebras", "The power series definition of the exponential function makes sense for square matrices (for which the function is called the matrix exponential) and more generally in any unital Banach algebra .", "In this setting, , and is invertible with inverse for any in .", "If , then , but this identity can fail for noncommuting and .Some alternative definitions lead to the same function.", "For instance, can be defined asOr can be defined as , where is the solution to the differential equation , with initial condition ; it follows that for every in ." ], [ "Lie algebras", "Given a Lie group and its associated Lie algebra , the exponential map is a map satisfying similar properties.", "In fact, since is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of all positive real numbers under multiplication, the ordinary exponential function for real arguments is a special case of the Lie algebra situation.", "Similarly, since the Lie group of invertible matrices has as Lie algebra , the space of all matrices, the exponential function for square matrices is a special case of the Lie algebra exponential map.The identity can fail for Lie algebra elements and that do not commute; the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formula supplies the necessary correction terms." ], [ "Transcendency", "The function is not in the rational function ring : it is not the quotient of two polynomials with complex coefficients.If are distinct complex numbers, then are linearly independent over , and hence is transcendental over ." ], [ "{{anchor\|exp\|expm1}}Computation", "When computing (an approximation of) the exponential function near the argument , the result will be close to 1, and computing the value of the difference with floating-point arithmetic may lead to the loss of (possibly all) significant figures, producing a large calculation error, possibly even a meaningless result.Following a proposal by William Kahan, it may thus be useful to have a dedicated routine, often called expm1, for computing directly, bypassing computation of .", "For example, if the exponential is computed by using its Taylor seriesone may use the Taylor series of :This was first implemented in 1979 in the Hewlett-Packard HP-41C calculator, and provided by several calculators, operating systems (for example Berkeley UNIX 4.3BSD), computer algebra systems, and programming languages (for example C99).In addition to base , the IEEE 754-2008 standard defines similar exponential functions near 0 for base 2 and 10: and .A similar approach has been used for the logarithm (see lnp1).An identity in terms of the hyperbolic tangent,gives a high-precision value for small values of on systems that do not implement ." ], [ "See also", "* Carlitz exponential, a characteristic analogue* * * Gaussian function* Half-exponential function, a compositional square root of an exponential function* - Used for solving exponential equations* List of exponential topics* List of integrals of exponential functions* Mittag-Leffler function, a generalization of the exponential function* -adic exponential function* Padé table for exponential function – Padé approximation of exponential function by a fraction of polynomial functions* Phase factor" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Prince Eugene of Savoy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Prince Eugene Francis of Savoy-Carignano''' (18 October 1663 – 21 April 1736), better known as '''Prince Eugene''', was a field marshal in the Army of the Holy Roman Empire and of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty during the 17th and 18th centuries.", "He was one of the most successful military commanders of his time, and rose to the highest offices of state at the Imperial court in Vienna.Born in Paris, Eugene was brought up in the court of King Louis XIV of France.", "Based on the custom that the youngest sons of noble families were destined for the priesthood, the Prince was initially prepared for a clerical career, but by the age of 19, he had determined on a military career.", "Based on his poor physique and bearing, and perhaps due to a scandal involving his mother Olympe, he was rejected by Louis for service in the French Royal Army.", "Eugene moved to Austria and transferred his loyalty to the Holy Roman Empire.In a career spanning six decades, Eugene served three Holy Roman Emperors: Leopold I, Joseph I, and Charles VI.", "His first battle experiences were fought against the Ottomans at the Siege of Vienna in 1683 and the subsequent War of the Holy League, before serving in the Nine Years' War, in which he fought alongside his cousin, the Duke of Savoy.", "The Prince's fame was secured with his decisive victory against the Ottomans at the Battle of Zenta in 1697, earning him Europe-wide fame.", "Eugene enhanced his standing during the War of the Spanish Succession, where his partnership with the Duke of Marlborough secured victories against the French on the fields of Blenheim (1704), Oudenarde (1708), and Malplaquet (1709); he gained further success in the war as Imperial commander in northern Italy, most notably at the Battle of Turin (1706).", "Renewed hostilities against the Ottomans in the Austro-Turkish War consolidated his reputation, with victories at the battles of Petrovaradin (1716), and the decisive encounter at the Siege of Belgrade in 1717.Throughout the late 1720s, Eugene's influence and skilful diplomacy managed to secure the Emperor powerful allies in his dynastic struggles with the Bourbon powers, but physically and mentally fragile in his later years, Eugene enjoyed less success as commander-in-chief of the army during his final conflict, the War of the Polish Succession.", "Nevertheless, in Austria, Eugene's reputation remains unrivalled.", "Although opinions differ as to his character, there is no dispute over his great achievements: he helped to save the Habsburg Empire from French conquest; he broke the westward thrust of the Ottomans, re-occupying areas that had been under Turkish control for a century and a half; and he was one of the great patrons of the arts whose building legacy can still be seen in Vienna today.", "Eugene died in his sleep at his home on 21 April 1736, aged 72." ], [ "Early years (1663–1699)", "=== Hôtel de Soissons ===Hôtel de Soissons, Eugene's birthplace.", "Engraving by Israel Silvestre c. 1650.Prince Eugene was born at the Hôtel de Soissons in Paris on 18 October 1663.His mother, Olympia Mancini, was one of Cardinal Mazarin's nieces whom the Cardinal had brought to Paris from Rome in 1647 to further his (and, to a lesser extent, their) ambitions.", "The Mancinis were raised at the Palais-Royal along with the young Louis XIV, with whom Olympia formed an intimate relationship.", "Yet to her great disappointment, her chance to become queen passed by, and in 1657, she married Eugene Maurice, Count of Soissons, Count of Dreux and Prince of Savoy.Eugene Maurice and Olympia Mancini, Count and Countess of Soissons, parents of Prince EugeneTogether they had had five sons (Eugene being the youngest) and three daughters, but neither parent spent much time with the children: the father, a French general officer, spent much of his time away campaigning, while Olympia's passion for court intrigue meant the children received little attention from her.The King remained strongly attached to Olympia, so much so that many believed them to be lovers; but her scheming eventually led to her downfall.", "After falling out of favour at court, Olympia turned to Catherine Deshayes (known as ''La Voisin''), and to the arts of black magic and astrology.", "It proved a fatal relationship.", "She became embroiled in the \"Affaire des poisons\"; suspicions abounded of her involvement in her husband's premature death in 1673, and even implicated her in a plot to kill the King himself.", "Whatever the truth, Olympia, rather than face trial, subsequently fled France for Brussels in January 1680, leaving Eugene in the care of his paternal grandmother, Marie de Bourbon, Countess of Soissons, and of his paternal aunt, Louise Christine of Savoy, Hereditary Princess of Baden, mother of Prince Louis of Baden.From the age of ten, Eugene had been brought up for a career in the church since he was the youngest of his family.", "Eugene's appearance was not impressive—\"He was never good-looking ...\" wrote the Duchess of Orléans, \"It is true that his eyes are not ugly, but his nose ruins his face; he has two large teeth which are visible at all times\" According to the duchess, who was married to Louis XIV's bisexual brother, the Duke of Orléans, Eugene lived a life of \"debauchery\" and belonged to a small, effeminate set that included the famous cross-dresser Abbé François-Timoléon de Choisy.", "In February 1683, to the surprise of his family, the 19-year-old Eugene declared his intention of joining the army.", "Eugene applied directly to Louis XIV for command of a company in French service, but the King—who had shown no compassion for Olympia's children since her disgrace—refused him out of hand.", "\"The request was modest, not so the petitioner\", he remarked.", "\"No one else ever presumed to stare me out so insolently.\"", "Whatever the case, Louis XIV's choice would cost him dearly twenty years later, for it would be precisely Eugene, in collaboration with the Duke of Marlborough, who would defeat the French army at Blenheim, a decisive battle which checked French military supremacy and political power.Denied a military career in France, Eugene decided to seek service abroad.", "One of Eugene's brothers, Louis Julius, had entered Imperial service the previous year, but he had been immediately killed fighting the Ottoman Empire in 1683.When news of his death reached Paris, Eugene decided to travel to Austria in the hope of taking over his brother's command.", "It was not an unnatural decision: his cousin, Louis of Baden, was already a leading general in the Imperial army, as was a more distant cousin, Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria.", "On the night of 26 July 1683, Eugene left Paris and headed east.", "Years later, in his memoirs, Eugene recalled his early years in France:200x200px=== Great Turkish War ===By May 1683, the Ottoman threat to Emperor Leopold I's capital, Vienna, was very evident.", "The Grand Vizier, Kara Mustafa Pasha—encouraged by Imre Thököly's Magyar rebellion—had invaded Hungary with between 100,000 and 200,000 men; within two months approximately 90,000 were beneath Vienna's walls.", "With the 'Turks at the gates', the Emperor fled for the safe refuge of Passau up the Danube.", "It was at Leopold I's camp that Eugene arrived in mid-August.Although Eugene was not of Austrian extraction, he did have Habsburg antecedents.", "His grandfather, Thomas Francis, founder of the Carignano line of the House of Savoy, was the son of Catherine Michaela of Spain—a daughter of Philip II of Spain—and the great-grandson of the Emperor Charles V. But of more immediate consequence to Leopold I was the fact that Eugene was the second cousin of Victor Amadeus II, the Duke of Savoy, a connection that the Emperor hoped might prove useful in any future confrontation with France.", "These ties, together with his ascetic manner and appearance (a positive advantage to him at the sombre court of Leopold I), ensured the refugee from the hated French king a warm welcome at Passau, and a position in Imperial service.", "Though French was his favoured language, he communicated with Leopold in Italian, as the Emperor (though he knew it perfectly) disliked French.", "But Eugene also had a reasonable command of German, which he understood very easily, something that helped him much in the military.Battle of Vienna, 12 September 1683Eugene had no doubt as to where his new allegiance lay, and this loyalty was immediately put to the test.", "By September, the Imperial forces under the Duke of Lorraine, together with a powerful Polish army under King John III Sobieski, were poised to strike the Sultan's army.", "On the morning of 12 September, the Christian forces drew up in line of battle on the south-eastern slopes of the Vienna Woods, looking down on the massed enemy camp.", "The day-long Battle of Vienna resulted in the lifting of the 60-day siege, and the Sultan's forces were routed.", "Serving under Baden, as a twenty-year-old volunteer, Eugene distinguished himself in the battle, earning commendation from Lorraine and the Emperor; he later received the nomination for the colonelcy and was awarded the Kufstein regiment of dragoons by Leopold I.==== Holy League ====In March 1684, Leopold I formed the Holy League with Poland and Venice to counter the Ottoman threat.", "For the next two years, Eugene continued to perform with distinction on campaign and establish himself as a dedicated, professional soldier; by the end of 1685, still only 22 years old, he was made a Major-General.", "Little is known of Eugene's life during these early campaigns.", "Contemporary observers make only passing comments of his actions, and his own surviving correspondence, largely to his cousin Victor Amadeus, are typically reticent about his own feelings and experiences.", "Nevertheless, it is clear that Baden was impressed with Eugene's qualities—\"This young man will, with time, occupy the place of those whom the world regards as great leaders of armies.", "\"Recapture of Buda castle in 1686 (Prince Eugene of Savoy on the second white horse from the right) by Gyula Benczúr.In June 1686, the Duke of Lorraine besieged Buda (Budapest), the centre of Ottoman Hungary and the old royal capital.", "After resisting for 78 days, the city fell on 2 September, and Turkish resistance collapsed throughout the region as far away as Transylvania and Serbia.", "Further success followed in 1687, where, commanding a cavalry brigade, Eugene made an important contribution to the victory at the Battle of Mohács on 12 August.", "Such was the scale of their defeat that the Ottoman army mutinied—a revolt which spread to Constantinople.", "The Grand Vizier, Sarı Süleyman Pasha, was executed and Sultan Mehmed IV, deposed.", "Once again, Eugene's courage earned him recognition from his superiors, who granted him the honour of personally conveying the news of victory to the Emperor in Vienna.", "For his services, Eugene was promoted to Lieutenant-General in November 1687.He was also gaining wider recognition.", "King Charles II of Spain bestowed upon him the Order of the Golden Fleece, while his cousin, Victor Amadeus, provided him with money and two profitable abbeys in Piedmont.", "Eugene's military career suffered a temporary setback in 1688 when, on 6 September, the Prince suffered a severe wound to his knee by a musket ball during the Siege of Belgrade, and did not return to active service until January 1689.==== Interlude in the west: Nine Years' War ====Just as Belgrade was falling to Imperial forces under Max Emmanuel in the east, French troops in the west were crossing the Rhine into the Holy Roman Empire.", "Louis XIV had hoped that a show of force would lead to a quick resolution to his dynastic and territorial disputes with the princes of the Empire along his eastern border, but his intimidatory moves only strengthened German resolve, and in May 1689, Leopold I and the Dutch signed an offensive compact aimed at repelling French aggression.Max Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, Eugene's early mentor before becoming his opponent in the War of the Spanish Succession.", "by leftThe Nine Years' War was professionally and personally frustrating for the prince.", "Initially fighting on the Rhine with Max Emmanuel—receiving a slight head wound at the Siege of Mainz in 1689—Eugene subsequently transferred himself to Piedmont after Victor Amadeus joined the Alliance against France in 1690.Promoted to general of cavalry, he arrived in Turin with his friend the Prince of Commercy; but it proved an inauspicious start.", "Against Eugene's advice, Amadeus insisted on engaging the French at Staffarda and suffered a serious defeat—only Eugene's handling of the Savoyard cavalry in retreat saved his cousin from disaster.", "Eugene remained unimpressed with the men and their commanders throughout the war in Italy.", "\"The enemy would long ago have been beaten\", he wrote to Vienna, \"if everyone had done their duty.\"", "So contemptuous was he of the Imperial commander, Count Carafa, he threatened to leave Imperial service.In Vienna, Eugene's attitude was dismissed as the arrogance of a young upstart, but so impressed was the Emperor by his passion for the Imperial cause, he promoted him to Field-Marshal in 1693.When Carafa's replacement, Count Caprara, was himself transferred in 1694, it seemed that Eugene's chance for command and decisive action had finally arrived.", "But Amadeus, doubtful of victory and now more fearful of Habsburg influence in Italy than he was of French, had begun secret dealings with Louis XIV aimed at extricating himself from the war.", "By 1696, the deal was done, and Amadeus transferred his troops and his loyalty to the enemy.", "Eugene was never to fully trust his cousin again; although he continued to pay due reverence to the Duke as head of his family, their relationship would forever after remain strained.Military honours in Italy undoubtedly belonged to the French commander Marshal Catinat, but Eugene, the one Allied general determined on action and decisive results, did well to emerge from the Nine Years' War with an enhanced reputation.", "With the signing of the Treaty of Ryswick in September/October 1697, the desultory war in the west was finally brought to an inconclusive end, and Leopold I could once again devote all his martial energies into defeating the Ottoman Turks in the east.==== Battle of Zenta ====The distractions of the war against Louis XIV had enabled the Turks to recapture Belgrade in 1690.In August 1691, the Austrians, under Louis of Baden, regained the advantage by heavily defeating the Turks at the Battle of Slankamen on the Danube, securing Habsburg possession of Hungary and Transylvania.", "When Baden was transferred west to fight the French in 1692, his successors, first Caprara, then from 1696, Augustus the Strong, the Elector of Saxony, proved incapable of delivering the final blow.", "On the advice of the President of the Imperial War Council, Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg, thirty-four-year old Eugene was offered supreme command of Imperial forces in April 1697.This was Eugene's first truly independent command—no longer need he suffer under the excessively cautious generalship of Caprara and Carafa, or be thwarted by the deviations of Victor Amadeus.", "But on joining his army, he found it in a state of 'indescribable misery'.", "Confident and self-assured, the Prince of Savoy (ably assisted by Commercy and Guido Starhemberg) set about restoring order and discipline.", "''Portrait of Prince Eugene of Savoy (1663–1736)'' c. 1700.Flemish School.", "''Battle of Zenta'' by Jacques-Ignace Parrocel.Leopold I had warned Eugene that \"he should act with extreme caution, forgo all risks and avoid engaging the enemy unless he has overwhelming strength and is practically certain of being completely victorious\", but when the Imperial commander learnt of Sultan Mustafa II's march on Transylvania, Eugene abandoned all ideas of a defensive campaign and moved to intercept the Turks as they crossed the River Tisza at Zenta on 11 September 1697.It was late in the day before the Imperial army struck.", "The Ottoman cavalry had already crossed the river so Eugene decided to attack immediately, arranging his men in a half-moon formation.", "The vigour of the assault wrought terror and confusion amongst the Turks, and by nightfall, the battle was won.", "For the loss of some 2,000 dead and wounded, Eugene had inflicted an overwhelming defeat upon the enemy with approximately 25,000 Turks killed—including the Grand Vizier, Elmas Mehmed Pasha, the pashas of Adana, Anatolia, and Bosnia, plus more than thirty aghas of the Janissaries, sipahis, and silihdars, as well as seven horsetails (symbols of high authority), 100 pieces of heavy artillery, 423 banners, and the revered seal which the sultan always entrusted to the Grand Vizier on an important campaign, Eugene had annihilated the Ottoman army and brought to an end the War of the Holy League.", "Although the Ottomans lacked western organization and training, the Savoyard prince had revealed his tactical skill, his capacity for bold decision, and his ability to inspire his men to excel in battle against a dangerous foe.After a brief terror-raid into Ottoman Bosnia, culminating in the sack of Sarajevo, Eugene returned to Vienna in November to a triumphal reception.", "His victory at Zenta had turned him into a European hero, and with victory came reward.", "Land in Hungary, given him by the Emperor, yielded a good income, enabling the Prince to cultivate his newly acquired tastes in art and architecture (see below); but for all his new-found wealth and property, he was, nevertheless, without personal ties or family commitments.", "Of his four brothers, only one was still alive at this time.", "His fourth brother, Emmanuel, had died aged 14 in 1676; his third, Louis Julius (already mentioned) had died on active service in 1683, and his second brother, Philippe, died of smallpox in 1693.Eugene's remaining brother, Louis Thomas—ostracized for incurring the displeasure of Louis XIV—travelled Europe in search of a career, before arriving in Vienna in 1699.With Eugene's help, Louis found employment in the Imperial army, only to be killed in action against the French in 1702.Of Eugene's sisters, the youngest had died in childhood.", "The other two, Marie Jeanne-Baptiste and Louise Philiberte, led dissolute lives.", "Expelled from France, Marie joined her mother in Brussels, before eloping with a renegade priest to Geneva, living with him unhappily until her premature death in 1705.Of Louise, little is known after her early salacious life in Paris, but in due course, she lived for a time in a convent in Savoy before her death in 1726.The Battle of Zenta proved to be the decisive victory in the long war against the Turks.", "With Leopold I's interests now focused on Spain and the imminent death of Charles II, the Emperor terminated the conflict with the Sultan; he signed the Treaty of Karlowitz on 26 January 1699." ], [ "Middle life (1700–20)", "=== War of the Spanish Succession ===Europe at the beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession.", "Eugene fought primarily in northern Italy in the early years of the war, then later in the Low Countries.With the death of the infirm and childless Charles II of Spain on 1 November 1700, the succession of the Spanish throne and subsequent control over her empire once again embroiled Europe in war—the War of the Spanish Succession.", "On his deathbed Charles II had bequeathed the entire Spanish inheritance to Louis XIV's grandson, Philip, Duke of Anjou.", "This threatened to unite the Spanish and French kingdoms under the House of Bourbon—something unacceptable to England, the Dutch Republic, and Leopold I, who had himself a claim to the Spanish throne.", "From the beginning, the Emperor had refused to accept the will of Charles II, and he did not wait for England and the Dutch Republic to begin hostilities.", "Before a new Grand Alliance could be concluded Leopold I prepared to send an expedition to seize the Spanish lands in Italy.Prince Eugene crossing the Alps, 1701.Coloured copperplate engraving.Eugene crossed the Alps with some 30,000 men in May/June 1701.After a series of brilliant manoeuvres the Imperial commander defeated Catinat at the Battle of Carpi on 9 July.", "\"I have warned you that you are dealing with an enterprising young prince\", wrote Louis XIV to his commander, \"he does not tie himself down to the rules of war.\"", "On 1 September Eugene defeated Catinat's successor, Marshal Villeroi, at the Battle of Chiari, in a clash as destructive as any in the Italian theatre.", "But as so often throughout his career the Prince faced war on two fronts—the enemy in the field and the government in Vienna.Starved of supplies, money, and men, Eugene was forced into unconventional means against the vastly superior enemy.", "During a daring raid on Cremona on the night of 31 January/1 February 1702 Eugene captured the French commander-in-chief.", "Yet the coup was less successful than hoped: Cremona remained in French hands, and the Duke of Vendôme, whose talents far exceeded Villeroi's, became the theatre's new commander.", "Villeroi's capture caused a sensation in Europe and had a galvanizing effect on English public opinion.", "\"The surprise at Cremona\", wrote the diarist John Evelyn, \"... was the great discourse of this week\"; but appeals for succour from Vienna remained unheeded, forcing Eugene to seek battle and gain a 'lucky hit'.", "The resulting Battle of Luzzara on 15 August proved inconclusive.", "Although Eugene's forces inflicted double the number of casualties on the French the battle settled little except to deter Vendôme trying an all-out assault on Imperial forces that year, enabling Eugene to hold on south of the Alps.", "With his army rotting away, and personally grieving for his long-standing friend Prince Commercy who had died at Luzzara, Eugene returned to Vienna in January 1703.==== President of the Imperial War Council ====Eugene's European reputation was growing (Cremona and Luzzara had been celebrated as victories throughout the Allied capitals), yet because of the condition and morale of his troops the 1702 campaign had not been a success.", "Austria itself was now facing the direct threat of invasion from across the border in Bavaria where the state's Elector, Maximilian Emanuel, had declared for the Bourbons in August the previous year.", "Meanwhile, in Hungary a small-scale revolt had broken out in May and was fast gaining momentum.", "With the monarchy at the point of complete financial breakdown Leopold I was at last persuaded to change the government.", "At the end of June 1703 Gundaker Starhemberg replaced Gotthard Salaburg as President of the Treasury, and Prince Eugene succeeded Henry Mansfeld as the new President of the Imperial War Council (''Hofkriegsratspräsident'').As head of the war council Eugene was now part of the Emperor's inner circle, and the first president since Raimondo Montecuccoli to remain an active commander.", "Immediate steps were taken to improve efficiency within the army: encouragement and, where possible, money, was sent to the commanders in the field; promotion and honours were distributed according to service rather than influence; and discipline improved.", "But the Austrian monarchy faced severe peril on several fronts in 1703: by June the Duke of Villars had reinforced the Elector of Bavaria on the Danube thus posing a direct threat to Vienna, while Vendôme remained at the head of a large army in northern Italy opposing Guido Starhemberg's weak Imperial force.", "Of equal alarm was Francis II Rákóczi's revolt which, by the end of the year, had reached as far as Moravia and Lower Austria.==== Blenheim ====mounted ''after their victory at Blenheim'' by Robert Alexander Hillingford.Dissension between Villars and the Elector of Bavaria had prevented an assault on Vienna in 1703, but in the Courts of Versailles and Madrid, ministers confidently anticipated the city's fall.", "The Imperial ambassador in London, Count Wratislaw, had pressed for Anglo-Dutch assistance on the Danube as early as February 1703, but the crisis in southern Europe seemed remote from the Court of St. James's where colonial and commercial considerations were more to the fore of men's minds.", "Only a handful of statesmen in England or the Dutch Republic realized the true implications of Austria's peril; foremost amongst these was the English Captain-General, the Duke of Marlborough.By early 1704 Marlborough had resolved to march south and rescue the situation in southern Germany and on the Danube, personally requesting the presence of Eugene on campaign so as to have \"a supporter of his zeal and experience\".", "The Allied commanders met for the first time at the small village of Mundelsheim on 10 June, and immediately formed a close rapport—the two men becoming, in the words of Thomas Lediard, 'Twin constellations in glory'.", "This professional and personal bond ensured mutual support on the battlefield, enabling many successes during the Spanish Succession war.", "The first of these victories, and the most celebrated, came on 13 August 1704 at the Battle of Blenheim.", "Eugene commanded the right wing of the Allied army, holding the Elector of Bavaria's and Marshal Marsin's superior forces, while Marlborough broke through the Marshal Tallard's center, inflicting over 30,000 casualties.", "The battle proved decisive: Vienna was saved and Bavaria was knocked out of the war.", "Both Allied commanders were full of praise for each other's performance.", "Eugene's holding operation, and his pressure for action leading up to the battle, proved crucial for the Allied success.In Europe Blenheim is regarded as much a victory for Eugene as it is for Marlborough, a sentiment echoed by Sir Winston Churchill (Marlborough's descendant and biographer), who pays tribute to \"the glory of Prince Eugene, whose fire and spirit had exhorted the wonderful exertions of his troops.\"", "France now faced the real danger of invasion, but Leopold I in Vienna was still under severe strain: Rákóczi's revolt was a major threat; and Guido Starhemberg and Victor Amadeus (who had once again switched loyalties and rejoined the Grand Alliance in 1703) had been unable to halt the French under Vendôme in northern Italy.", "Only Amadeus' capital, Turin, held on.==== Turin and Toulon ====Eugene returned to Italy in April 1705, but his attempts to move west towards Turin were thwarted by Vendôme's skilful manoeuvres.", "Lacking boats and bridging materials, and with desertion and sickness rife within his army, the outnumbered Imperial commander was helpless.", "Leopold I's assurances of money and men had proved illusory, but desperate appeals from Amadeus and criticism from Vienna goaded the Prince into action, resulting in the Imperialists' bloody defeat at the Battle of Cassano on 16 August.", "Following Leopold I's death and the accession of Joseph I to the Imperial throne in May 1705, Eugene began to receive the personal backing he desired.", "Joseph I proved to be a strong supporter of Eugene's supremacy in military affairs; he was the most effective emperor the Prince served and the one he was happiest under.", "Promising support, Joseph I persuaded Eugene to return to Italy and restore Habsburg honour.Eugene's major engagements in the Italian theatre during the War of the Spanish Succession.The Imperial commander arrived in theatre in mid-April 1706, just in time to organize an orderly retreat of what was left of Count Reventlow's inferior army following his defeat by Vendôme at the Battle of Calcinato on 19 April.", "Vendôme now prepared to defend the lines along the River Adige, determined to keep Eugene cooped to the east while the Marquis of La Feuillade threatened Turin.", "Feigning attacks along the Adige, Eugene descended south across the river Po in mid-July, outmanoeuvring the French commander and gaining a favourable position from which he could at last move west towards Piedmont and relieve Savoy's capital.Prince Eugene by Jacob van Schuppen.Events elsewhere now had major consequences for the war in Italy.", "With Villeroi's crushing defeat by Marlborough at the Battle of Ramillies on 23 May, Louis XIV recalled Vendôme north to take command of French forces in Flanders.", "It was a transfer that Saint-Simon considered something of a deliverance for the French commander who was \"now beginning to feel the unlikelihood of success (in Italy) ... for Prince Eugene, with the reinforcements that had joined him after the Battle of Calcinato, had entirely changed the outlook in that theatre of the war.\"", "The Duke of Orléans, under the direction of Marsin, replaced Vendôme, but indecision and disorder in the French camp led to their undoing.", "After uniting his forces with Victor Amadeus at Villastellone in early September, Eugene attacked, overwhelmed, and decisively defeated the French forces besieging Turin on 7 September.", "Eugene's success broke the French hold on northern Italy, and the whole Po valley fell under Allied control.", "Eugene had gained a victory as signal as his colleague had at Ramillies—\"It is impossible for me to express the joy it has given me;\" wrote Marlborough, \"for I not only esteem but I really love the prince.", "This glorious action must bring France so low, that if our friends could but be persuaded to carry on the war with vigour one year longer, we cannot fail, with the blessing of God, to have such a peace as will give us quiet for all our days.", "\"The Imperial victory in Italy marked the beginning of Austrian rule in Lombardy, and earned Eugene the Governorship of Milan.", "But the following year was to prove a disappointment for the Prince and the Grand Alliance as a whole.", "The Emperor and Eugene (whose main goal after Turin was to take Naples and Sicily from Philip duc d'Anjou's supporters), reluctantly agreed to Marlborough's plan for an attack on Toulon—the seat of French naval power in the Mediterranean.", "Disunion between the Allied commanders—Victor Amadeus, Eugene, and the English Admiral Cloudesley Shovell—doomed the Toulon enterprise to failure.", "Although Eugene favoured some sort of attack on France's south-eastern border it was clear he felt the expedition impractical, and showed none of the \"alacrity which he had displayed on other occasions.\"", "Substantial French reinforcements finally brought an end to the venture, and on 22 August 1707, the Imperial army began its retirement.", "The subsequent capture of Susa could not compensate for the total collapse of the Toulon expedition and with it any hope of an Allied war-winning blow that year.==== Oudenarde and Malplaquet ====Jan van Huchtenburg, who was employed round 1709 to depict ten battle scenes.At the beginning of 1708 Eugene successfully evaded calls for him to take charge in Spain (in the end Guido Starhemberg was sent), thus enabling him to take command of the Imperial army on the Moselle and once again unite with Marlborough in the Spanish Netherlands.", "Eugene (without his army) arrived at the Allied camp at Assche, west of Brussels, in early July, providing a welcome boost to morale after the early defection of Bruges and Ghent to the French. \"", "... our affairs improved through God's support and Eugene's aid\", wrote the Prussian General Natzmer, \"whose timely arrival raised the spirits of the army again and consoled us.\"", "Heartened by the Prince's confidence the Allied commanders devised a bold plan to engage the French army under Vendôme and the Duke of Burgundy.", "On 10 July the Anglo-Dutch army made a forced march to surprise the French, reaching the River Scheldt just as the enemy was crossing to the north.", "The ensuing battle on 11 July—more a contact action rather than a set-piece engagement—ended in a resounding success for the Allies, aided by the dissension of the two French commanders.", "While Marlborough remained in overall command, Eugene had led the crucial right flank and centre.", "Once again the Allied commanders had co-operated remarkably well.", "\"Prince Eugene and I\", wrote the Duke, \"shall never differ about our share of the laurels.", "\"Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722) by Adriaen van der Werff.", "Eugene became Allied commander-in-chief following Marlborough's dismissal in 1711.Marlborough now favoured a bold advance along the coast to bypass the major French fortresses, followed by a march on Paris.", "But fearful of unprotected supply-lines, the Dutch and Eugene favoured a more cautious approach.", "Marlborough acquiesced and resolved upon the siege of Vauban's great fortress, Lille.", "While the Duke commanded the covering force, Eugene oversaw the siege of the town which surrendered on 22 October but Marshal Boufflers did not yield the citadel until 10 December.", "Yet for all the difficulties of the siege (Eugene was badly wounded above his left eye by a musket ball, and even survived an attempt to poison him), the campaign of 1708 had been a remarkable success.", "The French were driven out of almost all the Spanish Netherlands.", "\"He who has not seen this\", wrote Eugene, \"has seen nothing.", "\"The recent defeats, together with the severe winter of 1708–09, had caused extreme famine and privation in France.", "Louis XIV was close to accepting Allied terms, but the conditions demanded by the leading Allied negotiators, Anthonie Heinsius, Charles Townshend, Marlborough, and Eugene—principally that Louis XIV should use his own troops to force Philip V off the Spanish throne—proved unacceptable to the French.", "Neither Eugene nor Marlborough had objected to the Allied demands at the time, but neither wanted the war with France to continue, and would have preferred further talks to deal with the Spanish issue.", "But the French King offered no further proposals.", "Lamenting the collapse of the negotiations, and aware of the vagaries of war, Eugene wrote to the Emperor in mid-June 1709.", "\"There can be no doubt that the next battle will be the biggest and bloodiest that has yet been fought.", "\"After the fall of Tournai on 3 September (itself a major undertaking), the Allied generals turned their attention towards Mons.", "Marshal Villars, recently joined by Boufflers, moved his army south-west of the town and began to fortify his position.", "Marlborough and Eugene favoured an engagement before Villars could render his position impregnable; but they also agreed to wait for reinforcements from Tournai which did not arrive until the following night, thus giving the French further opportunity to prepare their defences.", "Notwithstanding the difficulties of the attack, the Allied generals did not shrink from their original determination.", "The subsequent Battle of Malplaquet, fought on 11 September 1709, was the bloodiest engagement of the war.", "On the left flank, the Prince of Orange led his Dutch infantry in desperate charges only to have it cut to pieces; on the other flank, Eugene attacked and suffered almost as severely.", "But sustained pressure on his extremities forced Villars to weaken his centre, thus enabling Marlborough to breakthrough and claim victory.", "Villars was unable to save Mons, which subsequently capitulated on 21 October, but his resolute defence at Malplaquet—inflicting up to 25% casualties on the Allies—may have saved France from destruction.==== Final campaigning: Eugene alone ====In August 1709 Eugene's chief political opponent and critic in Vienna, Prince Salm, retired as court chamberlain.", "Eugene and Wratislaw were now the undisputed leaders of the Austrian government: all major departments of state were in their hands or those of their political allies.", "Another attempt at a negotiated settlement at Geertruidenberg in April 1710 failed, largely because the English Whigs still felt strong enough to refuse concessions, while Louis XIV saw little reason to accept what he had refused the previous year.", "Eugene and Marlborough could not be accused of wrecking the negotiations, but neither showed regret at the breakdown of the talks.", "There was no alternative but to continue the war, and in June the Allied commanders captured Douai.", "This success was followed by a series of minor sieges, and by the close of 1710 the Allies had cleared much of France's protective ring of fortresses.", "Yet there had been no final, decisive breakthrough, and this was to be the last year that Eugene and Marlborough would work together.Portrait of Eugene from the school of Godfrey Kneller, 1712.Following the death of Joseph I on 17 April 1711 his brother, Charles, the pretender to the Spanish throne, became emperor.", "In England the new Tory government (the 'peace party' who had deposed the Whigs in October 1710) declared their unwillingness to see Charles VI become Emperor as well as King of Spain, and had already begun secret negotiations with the French.", "In January 1712 Eugene arrived in England hoping to divert the government away from its peace policy, but despite the social success the visit was a political failure: Queen Anne and her ministers remained determined to end the war regardless of the Allies.", "Eugene had also arrived too late to save Marlborough who, seen by the Tories as the main obstacle to peace, had already been dismissed on charges of embezzlement.", "Elsewhere the Austrians had made some progress—the Hungarian revolt had finally came to end.", "Although Eugene would have preferred to crush the rebels the Emperor had offered lenient conditions, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Szatmár on 30 April 1711.Following his victory in northern Italy, Eugene fought primarily in the Low Countries during the War of the Spanish Succession.Hoping to influence public opinion in England and force the French into making substantial concessions, Eugene prepared for a major campaign.", "But on 21 May 1712—when the Tories felt they had secured favourable terms with their unilateral talks with the French—the Duke of Ormonde (Marlborough's successor) received the so-called 'restraining orders', forbidding him to take part in any military action.", "Eugene took the fortress of Le Quesnoy in early July, before besieging Landrecies, but Villars, taking advantage of Allied disunity, outmanoeuvred Eugene and defeated the Earl of Albermarle's Dutch garrison at the Battle of Denain on 24 July.", "The French followed the victory by seizing the Allies' main supply magazine at Marchiennes, before reversing their earlier losses at Douai, Le Quesnoy and Bouchain.", "In one summer the whole forward Allied position laboriously built up over the years to act as the springboard into France had been precipitously abandoned.With the death in December of his friend and close political ally, Count Wratislaw, Eugene became undisputed 'first minister' in Vienna.", "His position was built on his military successes, but his actual power was expressed through his role as president of the war council, and as ''de facto'' president of the conference which dealt with foreign policy.", "In this position of influence Eugene took the lead in pressing Charles VI towards peace.", "The government had come to accept that further war in the Netherlands or Spain was impossible without the aid of the Maritime Powers; yet the Emperor, still hoping that somehow he could place himself on the throne in Spain, refused to make peace at the Utrecht conference along with the other Allies.", "Reluctantly, Eugene prepared for another campaign, but lacking troops, finance, and supplies his prospects in 1713 were poor.", "Villars, with superior numbers, was able to keep Eugene guessing as to his true intent.", "Through successful feints and stratagems Landau fell to the French commander in August, followed in November by Freiburg.", "Eugene was reluctant to carry on the war, and wrote to the Emperor in June that a bad peace would be better than being 'ruined equally by friend and foe'.", "With Austrian finances exhausted and the German states reluctant to continue the war, Charles VI was compelled to enter into negotiations.", "Eugene and Villars (who had been old friends since the Turkish campaigns of the 1680s) initiated talks on 26 November.", "Eugene proved an astute and determined negotiator, and gained favourable terms by the Treaty of Rastatt signed on 7 March 1714 and the Treaty of Baden signed on 7 September 1714.Despite the failed campaign in 1713 the Prince was able to declare that, \"in spite of the military superiority of our enemies and the defection of our Allies, the conditions of peace will be more advantageous and more glorious than those we would have obtained at Utrecht.", "\"=== Austro-Turkish War ===Eugene's main reason for desiring peace in the west was the growing danger posed by the Turks in the east.", "Turkish military ambitions had revived after 1711 when they had mauled Peter the Great's army on the River Pruth (Pruth River Campaign): in December 1714 Sultan Ahmed III's forces attacked the Venetians in the Kingdom of the Morea.", "To Vienna it was clear that the Turks intended to attack Hungary and undo the whole Karlowitz settlement of 1699.After the Sublime Porte rejected an offer of mediation in April 1716, Charles VI despatched Eugene to Hungary to lead his relatively small but professional army.", "Of all Eugene's wars this was the one in which he exercised most direct control; it was also a war which, for the most part, Austria fought and won on her own.Prince Eugene during the Austro-Turkish War.", "Artist: Jacob van Schuppen.Eugene left Vienna in early June 1716 with a field army of between 80,000 and 90,000 men.", "By early August 1716 the Ottoman Turks, some 200,000 men under the sultan's son-in-law, the Grand Vizier Damat Ali Pasha, were marching from Belgrade towards Eugene's position on the north bank of the Danube west of the fortress of Petrovaradin.", "The Grand Vizier had intended to seize the fortress; but Eugene gave him no chance to do so.", "After resisting calls for caution and forgoing a council of war, the Prince decided to attack immediately on the morning of 5 August with approximately 70,000 men.", "The Turkish janissaries had some initial success, but after an Imperial cavalry attack on their flank, Ali Pasha's forces fell into confusion.", "Although the Imperials lost almost 5,000 dead or wounded, the Turks, who retreated in disorder to Belgrade, seem to have lost double that amount, including the Grand Vizier himself who had entered the mêlée and subsequently died of his wounds.Eugene at the Battle of Belgrade 1717.Artist: Johann Gottfried Auerbach.", "The battle was Eugene's last great victory.Eugene proceeded to take the Banat fortress of Temeswar in mid-October 1716 (thus ending 164 years of Turkish rule), before turning his attention to the next campaign and to what he considered the main goal of the war, Belgrade.", "Situated at the confluence of the Rivers Danube and Sava, Belgrade held a garrison of 30,000 men under Serasker Mustapha Pasha.Imperial troops besieged the place in mid-June 1717, and by the end of July large parts of the city had been destroyed by artillery fire.", "By the first days of August, however, a huge Turkish field army (150,000–200,000 strong), under the new Grand Vizier Hacı Halil Pasha had arrived on the plateau east of the city to relieve the garrison.", "News spread through Europe of Eugene's imminent destruction; but he had no intention of lifting the siege.", "With his men suffering from dysentery, and continuous bombardment from the plateau, Eugene, aware that a decisive victory alone could extricate his army, decided to attack the relief force.", "On the morning of 16 August, 40,000 Imperial troops marched through the fog, caught the Turks unaware, and routed Halil Pasha's army; a week later Belgrade surrendered, effectively bringing an end to the war.", "The victory was the crowning point of Eugene's military career and had confirmed him as the leading European general.", "His ability to snatch victory at the moment of defeat had shown the prince at his best.The principal objectives of the war had been achieved: the task Eugene had begun at Zenta was complete, and the Karlowitz settlement secured.", "By the terms of the Treaty of Passarowitz, signed on 21 July 1718, the Turks surrendered the Banat of Temeswar, along with Belgrade and most of Serbia, although they regained the Morea from the Venetians.", "The war had dispelled the immediate Turkish threat to Hungary and was a triumph for Austria and for Eugene personally.=== Quadruple Alliance ===Charles VI (1685–1740), by Johann Gottfried Auerbach.", "Eugene served Emperor Charles VI for the last 25 years of his life.While Eugene fought the Turks in the east, unresolved issues following the Utrecht/Rastatt settlements led to hostilities between the Emperor and Philip V of Spain in the west.", "Charles VI had refused to recognise Philip V as King of Spain, a title which he himself claimed; in return, Philip V had refused to renounce his claims to Naples, Milan, and the Netherlands, all of which had transferred to the House of Austria following the Spanish Succession war.", "Philip V was roused by his influential wife, Elisabeth Farnese, daughter of the Hereditary Prince of Parma, who personally held dynastic claims in the name of her son, Charles, to the duchies of Tuscany, Parma and Piacenza.", "Representatives from a newly formed Anglo-French alliance—who were desirous of European peace for their own dynastic securities and trade opportunities—called on both parties to recognise each other's sovereignty.", "Yet Philip V remained intractable, and on 22 August 1717 his chief minister, Alberoni, effected the invasion of Austrian Sardinia in what seemed like the beginning of the reconquest of Spain's former Italian empire.Eugene returned to Vienna from his recent victory at Belgrade (before the conclusion of the Turkish war) determined to prevent an escalation of the conflict, complaining that, \"two wars cannot be waged with one army\"; only reluctantly did the Prince release some troops from the Balkans for the Italian campaign.", "Rejecting all diplomatic overtures Philip V unleashed another assault in June 1718, this time against Savoyard Sicily as a preliminary to attacking the Italian mainland.", "Realizing that only the British fleet could prevent further Spanish landings, and that pro-Spanish groups in France might push the regent, Duke of Orléans, into war against Austria, Charles VI had no option but to sign the Quadruple Alliance on 2 August 1718, and formally renounce his claim to Spain.", "Despite the Spanish fleet's destruction off Cape Passaro, Philip V and Elisabeth remained resolute, and rejected the treaty.Although Eugene could have gone south after the conclusion of the Turkish war, he chose instead to conduct operations from Vienna; but Austria's military effort in Sicily proved derisory, and Eugene's chosen commanders, Zum Jungen, and later Count Mercy, performed poorly.", "It was only from pressure exerted by the French army advancing into the Basque provinces of northern Spain in April 1719, and the British Navy's attacks on the Spanish fleet and shipping, that compelled Philip V and Elisabeth to dismiss Alberoni and join the Quadruple Alliance on 25 January 1720.Nevertheless, the Spanish attacks had strained Charles VI's government, causing tension between the Emperor and his Spanish Council on the one hand, and the conference, headed by Eugene, on the other.", "Despite Charles VI's own personal ambitions in the Mediterranean it was clear to the Emperor that Eugene had put the safeguarding of his conquests in Hungary before everything else, and that military failure in Sicily also had to rest on Eugene.", "Consequently, the Prince's influence over the Emperor declined considerably." ], [ "Later life (1721–36)", "=== Governor-General of the Austrian Netherlands ===Eugene had become governor of the Austrian Netherlands—in June 1716, but he was an absent ruler, directing policy from Vienna through his chosen representative the Marquis of Prié.", "Prié proved unpopular with the local population and the guilds who, following the Barrier Treaty of 1715, were obliged to meet the financial demands of the administration and the Dutch barrier garrisons; with Eugene's backing and encouragement, civil disturbances in Antwerp and Brussels were forcibly suppressed.", "After displeasing the Emperor over his initial opposition to the formation of the Ostend Company, Prié also lost the support of the native nobility from within his own council of state in Brussels, particularly from the Marquis de Mérode-Westerloo.", "One of Eugene's former favourites, General Bonneval, also joined the noblemen in opposition to Prié, further undermining the Prince.", "When Prié's position became untenable, Eugene felt compelled to resign his post as governor of the Austrian Netherlands on 16 November 1724.As compensation, Charles VI conferred on him the honorary position as vicar-general of Italy, worth 140,000 gulden a year, and an estate at Siebenbrunn in Lower Austria said to be worth double that amount.", "But his resignation distressed him, and to compound his concerns Eugene caught a severe bout of influenza that Christmas, marking the beginning of permanent bronchitis and acute infections every winter for the remaining twelve years of his life.=== 'Cold war' ===The 1720s saw rapidly changing alliances between the European powers and almost constant diplomatic confrontation, largely over unsolved issues regarding the Quadruple Alliance.", "The Emperor and the Spanish king continued to use each other's titles, and Charles VI still refused to remove the remaining legal obstacles to Don Charles' eventual succession to the duchies of Parma and Tuscany.", "Yet in a surprise move Spain and Austria moved closer with the signing of the Treaty of Vienna in April/May 1725.In response Britain, France, and Prussia joined together in the Alliance of Hanover to counter the danger to Europe of an Austro-Spanish hegemony.", "For the next three years there was the continual threat of war between the Hanover Treaty powers and the Austro-Spanish bloc.Prince Eugene by leftFrom 1726, Eugene gradually began to regain his political influence.", "With his many contacts throughout Europe Eugene, backed by Gundaker Starhemberg and Count Schönborn, the Imperial vice-chancellor, managed to secure powerful allies and strengthen the Emperor's position—his skill in managing the vast secret diplomatic network over the coming years was the main reason why Charles VI once again came to depend upon him.", "In August 1726 Russia acceded to the Austro-Spanish alliance, and in October Frederick William I of Prussia followed suit by defecting from the Allies with the signing of a mutual defensive treaty with the Emperor.Treaty of Vienna (30 April 1725) in blue and signatories of the Treaty of Hanover (3 September 1725) in red.", "Prussia, in brown, first joined the Hanoverian Alliance, but later changed sides after the Treaty of Berlin on 23 December 1728.Despite the conclusion of the brief Anglo-Spanish conflict, manoeuvring between the European powers persisted throughout 1727–28.In 1729 Elisabeth Farnese abandoned the Austro-Spanish alliance.", "Realizing that Charles VI could not be drawn into the marriage pact she wanted, Elisabeth concluded that the best way to secure her son's succession to Parma and Tuscany now lay with Britain and France.", "To Eugene it was 'an event that which is seldom to be found in history'.", "Following the Prince's determined lead to resist all pressure, Charles VI sent troops into Italy to prevent the entry of Spanish garrisons into the contested duchies.", "By the beginning of 1730 Eugene, who had remained bellicose throughout the whole period, was again in control of Austrian policy.In Britain there now emerged a new political re-alignment as the Anglo-French ''entente'' became increasingly defunct.", "Believing that a resurgent France now posed the greatest danger to their security British ministers, headed by Robert Walpole, moved to reform the Anglo-Austrian Alliance, leading to the signing of the Second Treaty of Vienna on 16 March 1731.Eugene had been the Austrian minister most responsible for the alliance, believing once again it would provide security against France and Spain.", "The treaty compelled Charles VI to sacrifice the Ostend Company and accept, unequivocally, the accession of Don Charles to Parma and Tuscany.", "In return King George II as King of Great Britain and Elector of Electorate of Hanover guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, the device to secure the rights of the Emperor's daughter, Maria Theresa, to the entire Habsburg inheritance.", "It was largely through Eugene's diplomacy that in January 1732 the Imperial diet also guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction which, together with the Treaties with Britain, Russia, and Prussia, marked the culmination of the Prince's diplomacy.", "But the Treaty of Vienna had infuriated the court of King Louis XV: the French had been ignored and the Pragmatic Sanction guaranteed, thus increasing Habsburg influence and confirming Austria's vast territorial size.", "The Emperor also intended Maria Theresa to marry Duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine which would present an unacceptable threat on France's border.", "By the beginning of 1733 the French army was ready for war: all that was needed was the excuse.=== War of the Polish Succession ===Portrait of Prince Eugene of Savoy in later years by Jan Kupecký.In 1733 the Polish King and Elector of Saxony, Augustus the Strong, died.", "There were two candidates for his successor: first, Stanisław Leszczyński, the father-in-law of Louis XV; second, the Elector of Saxony's son, Augustus, supported by Russia, Austria, and Prussia.", "The Polish succession had afforded Louis XV's chief minister, Fleury, the opportunity to attack Austria and take Lorraine from Francis Stephen.", "To gain Spanish support France backed the succession of Elisabeth Farnese's sons to further Italian lands.Eugene entered the War of the Polish Succession as President of the Imperial War Council and commander-in-chief of the army, but he was severely handicapped by the quality of his troops and the shortage of funds; now in his seventies, the Prince was also burdened by rapidly declining physical and mental powers.", "France declared war on Austria on 10 October 1733, but without the funds from the Maritime Powers — who, despite the Vienna treaty, remained neutral throughout the war — Austria could not hire the necessary troops to wage an offensive campaign.", "\"The danger to the monarchy\", wrote Eugene to the Emperor in October, \"cannot be exaggerated\".", "By the end of the year French forces had seized Lorraine and Milan; by early 1734 Spanish troops had taken Sicily.Eugene took command on the Rhine in April 1734, but vastly outnumbered he was forced onto the defensive.", "In June Eugene set out to relieve Philippsburg, yet his former drive and energy was now gone.", "Accompanying Eugene was a young prince Frederick of Prussia, sent by his father to learn the art of war.", "Frederick gained considerable knowledge from Eugene, recalling in later life his great debt to his Austrian mentor, but the Prussian prince was aghast at Eugene's condition, writing later, \"his body was still there but his soul had gone.\"", "Eugene conducted another cautious campaign in 1735, once again pursuing a sensible defensive strategy on limited resources; but his short-term memory was by now practically non-existent, and his political influence disappeared completely—Gundaker Starhemberg and Johann Christoph von Bartenstein now dominated the conference in his place.", "Fortunately for Charles VI, Fleury was determined to limit the scope of the war, and in October 1735 he granted generous peace preliminaries to the Emperor.Stadtpalais, Vienna, where the Prince conducted most of his business.=== Later years and death ===Eugene returned to Vienna from the War of the Polish Succession in October 1735, weak and feeble; when Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen married in February 1736 Eugene was too ill to attend.", "After playing cards at Countess Batthyány's on the evening of 20 April until nine in the evening, he returned home to the Stadtpalais, his attendant offered him to take his prescribed medicine which Eugene declined.When his servants arrived to wake him the next morning on 21 April 1736, they found Prince Eugene dead after passing away quietly during the night.", "It has been said that on the same morning he was discovered dead, the great lion in his menagerie was also found dead.Eugene's heart was buried with the ashes of his ancestors in Turin, in the Basilica of Superga.", "His remains were carried in a long procession to St. Stephen's Cathedral, where his embalmed body was buried in the ''Kreuzkapelle''.", "It is said that the emperor himself attended as a mourner without anybody's knowledge.The Prince's niece Maria Anna Victoria, whom he had never met, inherited Eugene's immense possessions.", "Within a few years she sold off the palaces, the country estates and the art collection of a man who had become one of the wealthiest in Europe, after arriving in Vienna as a refugee with empty pockets." ], [ "Personal life", "Being an Italian by descent, a Frenchman by birth, and a German by adoption, Prince Eugene signed himself appropriately using the trilingual form \"Eugenio von Savoye\" (Italian: Eugenio, German:von, French:Savoye).Eugene never married and was reported to have said that a woman was a hindrance in a war, and that a soldier should never marry; according to some of his contemporaries, Eugene's loss at the 1712 Battle of Denain was due to the presence of an Italian lady that he took with him on the campaign; this was confirmed by Voltaire who reported meeting the lady in question.", "According to Nicholas Henderson, Eugene was called \"Mars without Venus\" for being a lifelong bachelor.", "Winston Churchill in his biography of the 1st Duke of Marlborough described Eugene as \"a bachelor, almost a misogynist, disdainful of money, content with his bright sword and his lifelong animosity against Louis XIV\".Hungarian Countess Eleonore Batthyány-Strattmann, Viennese court lady and companion of Prince Eugene.", "During the last 20 years of his life Eugène had a relationship with one woman, Hungarian Countess Eleonore Batthyány-Strattmann, the widowed daughter of the former Theodor von Strattman.", "Much of their acquaintance remains speculative since Eugene left no personal papers: only letters of war, diplomacy, and politics.", "Eugène and Eleonore were constant companions, meeting for dinner, receptions and card games almost every day till his death; although they lived apart most foreign diplomats assumed that Eleonore was his long time mistress.", "It is not known precisely when their relationship began, but his acquisition of a property in Hungary after the Battle of Zenta, near Rechnitz Castle, made them neighbours.", "In the years immediately following the War of the Spanish Succession she began to be mentioned regularly in diplomatic correspondence as \"Eugen's Egeria\" and within a few years she was referred to as his constant companion and his mistress.", "When asked if she and the Prince would marry, Countess Batthyány replied: \"I love him too well for that, I would rather have a bad reputation than deprive him of his\".Rumours about Eugene's sexual orientation can be traced back to his teenage years.", "It has since been established that the source of these rumours was Elizabeth Charlotte, Duchess of Orléans, a renowned gossipmonger at Versailles, whose husband Philippe I, Duke of Orléans happened to be the brother of French King Louis XIV, Eugene's lifelong adversary.", "The Duchess documented what she claimed were youthful indiscretions involving Eugene, including alleged incidents with lackeys and pages.", "According to her, he was denied an ecclesiastical benefice due to his \"depravity\".", "Eugene's biographer, historian Helmut Oehler, acknowledged the Duchess's comments but attributed them to her personal animosity toward the Prince.", "In his memoirs, Eugene, aware of the malicious rumours, derisively addressed them, calling them \"the invented anecdotes from the gallery of Versailles”.", "Whether or not Eugene had homosexual relationships in his youth, the Duchess's remarks about him were made years later, and only after Eugene had severely humiliated the armies of her brother-in-law, the King of France.", "Following Eugene's departure from France at nineteen, and spanning until his death at seventy-two, there were no subsequent insinuations of homosexuality.Being among the wealthiest and most celebrated figures of his era inevitably led to animosity for Eugene, as envy and malice trailed him from the battlefields to Vienna.", "His former subordinate Guido Starhemberg emerged as a persistent and bitter critic of Eugene's renown.", "Starhemberg, according to Montesquieu, gained notoriety at the court of Vienna as Eugene's primary rival.", "In a letter to a friend, Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg, another bitter rival who had served under Eugene in the War of the Spanish Succession, expressed disdain for the prince.", "Schulenburg, whose ambitions to command the Austrian army had been thwarted by Eugene, wrote that the prince \"has no idea but to fight whenever the opportunity offers; he thinks that nothing equals the name of Imperialists, before whom all should bend the knee.", "He loves .", "German journalist Curt Martin Riess, reads it as \"a testament to sodomy,\" while Eugene's primary biographer, German historian Max Braubach, interpreted \"la p...\" as referring to Paillardize (fornication), Prostitution, or Puterie, i.e.", "Whoring.During his tenure as Governor-General of the Austrian Netherlands, Eugene developed a reputation for frequenting an exclusive brothel on Amsterdam's Prinsengracht.", "The keeper of the establishment, known as Madame Therese, was familiar with Eugene's patronage.", "Notably, Eugene once brought the English consul in Amsterdam with him.", "A drawing by Cornelis Troost, housed at the Rijksmuseum, the national museum of the Netherlands, illustrates a scene in which Prince Eugene had \"the 'available' women parade in review, just as he did his own troops,\" according to the museum.", "Troost based his drawing on an anecdote circulating at the time.Eugene's other friends such as the papal nuncio, Passionei, who delivered the funeral oration of Prince Eugene, made up for the family he lacked.", "For his only surviving nephew, Emmanuel, the son of his brother Louis Thomas, Eugene arranged marriage with one of the daughters of Prince Liechtenstein, but Emmanuel died of smallpox in 1729.With the death of Emmanuel's son in 1734, no close male relatives remained to succeed the Prince.", "His closest relative, therefore, was Louis Thomas's unmarried daughter, Princess Maria Anna Victoria of Savoy, daughter of his eldest brother, the count of Soissons, whom Eugene had never met and had made no effort to do so." ], [ "Patron of the arts", "Portrait of Prince Eugene by Jacob van Schuppen.Eugene's rewards for his victories, his share of booty, his revenues from his abbeys in Savoy, and a steady income from his Imperial offices and governorships, enabled him to contribute to the landscape of Baroque architecture Eugene spent most of his life in Vienna at his Winter Palace, the Stadtpalais, built by Fischer von Erlach.", "The palace acted as his official residence and home, but for reasons that remain speculative the Prince's association with Fischer ended before the building was complete, favouring instead Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt as his chief architect.", "Eugene first employed Hildebrandt to finish the Stadtpalais before commissioning him to prepare plans for a palace (Savoy Castle) on his Danubian island at Ráckeve.", "Begun in 1701 the single-story building took twenty years to complete; yet, probably because of the Rákóczi revolt, the Prince seems to have visited it only once—after the siege of Belgrade in 1717.Of more importance was the grandiose complex of the two Belvedere palaces in Vienna.", "The single-storey Lower Belvedere, with its exotic gardens and zoo, was completed in 1716.The Upper Belvedere, completed between 1720 and 1722, is a more substantial building; with sparkling white stucco walls and copper roof, it became a wonder of Europe.", "Eugene and Hildebrandt also converted an existing structure on his Marchfeld estate into a country seat, the Schloss Hof, situated between the Rivers Danube and Morava.", "The building, completed in 1729, was far less elaborate than his other projects but it was strong enough to serve as a fortress in case of need.", "Eugene spent much of his spare time there in his last years accommodating large hunting parties.centerIn the years following the Peace of Rastatt Eugene became acquainted with a large number of scholarly men.", "Given his position and responsiveness, they were keen to meet him: few could exist without patronage and this was probably the main reason for Gottfried Leibniz's association with him in 1714.Eugene also befriended the French writer Jean-Baptiste Rousseau who, by 1716, was receiving financial support from Eugene.", "Rousseau stayed on attached to the Prince's household, probably helping in the library, until he left for the Netherlands in 1722.Another acquaintance, Montesquieu, already famous for his ''Persian Letters'' when he arrived in Vienna in 1728, favourably recalled his time spent at the Prince's table.", "Nevertheless, Eugene had no literary pretensions of his own, and was not tempted like Maurice de Saxe or Marshal Villars to write his memoirs or books on the art of war.", "He did, however, become a collector on the grandest scale: his picture galleries were filled with 16th- and 17th-century Italian, Dutch and Flemish art; his library at the Stadtpalais crammed with over 15,000 books, 237 manuscripts as well as a huge collection of prints (of particular interest were books on natural history and geography).", "\"It is hardly believable\", wrote Rousseau, \"that a man who carries on his shoulders the burden of almost all the affairs of Europe ... should find as much time to read as though he had nothing else to do.", "\"At Eugene's death his possessions and estates, except those in Hungary which the crown reclaimed, went to his niece, Princess Maria Anna Victoria, who at once decided to sell everything.", "The artwork was bought by Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia.", "Eugene's library, prints and drawings were purchased by the Emperor in 1737 and have since passed into Austrian national collections." ], [ "Historical reputation and legacy", "Napoleon considered Eugene one of the seven greatest commanders of history.", "Although later military critics have disagreed with that assessment, Eugene was undoubtedly the greatest Austrian general.", "He was no military innovator, but he had the ability to make an inadequate system work.", "He was equally adept as an organiser, strategist, and tactician, believing in the primacy of battle and his ability to seize the opportune moment to launch a successful attack.", "\"The important thing\", wrote Maurice de Saxe in his ''Reveries'', \"is to see the opportunity and to know how to use it.", "Prince Eugene possessed this quality which is the greatest in the art of war and which is the test of the most elevated genius.\"", "This fluidity was key to his battlefield successes in Italy and in his wars against the Turks.", "Nevertheless, in the Low Countries, particularly after the battle of Oudenarde in 1708, Eugene, like his cousin Louis of Baden, tended to play safe and become bogged down in a conservative strategy of sieges and defending supply lines.", "After the attempt on Toulon in 1707, he also became very wary of combined land/sea operations.", "To historian Derek McKay the main criticism of him as a general is his legacy—he left no school of officers nor an army able to function without him.Eugene was a disciplinarian—when ordinary soldiers disobeyed orders he was prepared to shoot them himself—but he rejected blind brutality, writing \"you should only be harsh when, as often happens, kindness proves useless\".Eugene's monument in Heldenplatz, Vienna, by Anton Dominik Fernkorn.On the battlefield Eugene demanded courage in his subordinates, and expected his men to fight where and when he wanted; his criteria for promotion were based primarily on obedience to orders and courage on the battlefield rather than social position.", "On the whole, his men responded because he was willing to push himself as hard as them.", "His position as President of the Imperial War Council proved less successful.", "Following the long period of peace after the Austro-Turkish War, the idea of creating a separate field army or providing garrison troops with effective training for them to be turned into such an army quickly was never considered by Eugene.", "By the time of the War of the Polish Succession, therefore, the Austrians were outclassed by a better prepared French force.", "For this Eugene was largely to blame—in his view (unlike the drilling and manoeuvres carried out by the Prussians which to Eugene seemed irrelevant to real warfare) the time to create actual fighting men was when war came.Although Frederick II of Prussia had been struck by the muddle of the Austrian army and its poor organisation during the Polish Succession war, he later amended his initial harsh judgements.", "\"If I understand anything of my trade\", commented Frederick in 1758, \"especially in the more difficult aspects, I owe that advantage to Prince Eugene.", "From him I learnt to hold grand objectives constantly in view, and direct all my resources to those ends.\"", "To historian Christopher Duffy it was this awareness of the 'grand strategy' that was Eugene's legacy to Frederick.To his responsibilities, Eugene attached his own personal values — physical courage, loyalty to his sovereign, honesty, self-control in all things — and he expected these qualities from his commanders.", "Eugene's approach was dictatorial, but he was willing to co-operate with someone he regarded as his equal, such as Baden or Marlborough.", "Yet the contrast with his co-commander of the Spanish Succession war was stark.", "According to Churchill, \"Marlborough was the model husband and father, concerned with building up a home, founding a family, and gathering a fortune to sustain it\", whereas Eugene, the bachelor, was \"disdainful of money, content with his bright sword and his lifelong animosities against Louis XIV\".The result was an austere figure, inspiring respect and admiration rather than affection.Sicco van Goslinga, one of the Dutch field deputies who worked very close with Eugene during his campaigns with Marlborough, described him in his memoires as follows:=== Memorials ======= Places and monuments ====Eugene's statue, Buda Castle, Budapest, Hungary.", "* A huge equestrian statue in the centre of Vienna commemorates Eugene's achievements.", "It is inscribed on one side, 'To the wise counsellor of three Emperors', and on the other, 'To the glorious conqueror of Austria's enemies'.", "* A prominent equestrian statue of Eugene sculpted by József Róna overlooks the Danube Promenade from the royal gardens of Buda Castle in Budapest.", "Erected in 1900, it was originally meant as a placeholder for a planned equestrian statue of Franz Joseph I, which was ultimately never completed.", "* Prinz-Eugen-Kapelle, a chapel located at the northern corner of St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna* Prinz-Eugen-Straße a street in Vienna in use since 1890; Until 1911 a street in Döbling was also named Prinz-Eugen-Straße, since then the street connects Schwarzenbergplatz with the Wiedner Gürtel leading past the Belvedere Palace.==== Warships ====Several ships have been named in Eugene's honour:* , an Austro-Hungarian battleship of World War I launched in 1912* SMS Prinz Eugen, an Austro-Hungarian Ironclad warship built in the 1870's* SMS Prinz Eugen, an Austro-Hungarian Ironclad warship built in 1862* , a Royal Navy monitor;* , an Italian light cruiser* (later USS ''Prinz Eugen''), a World War II heavy cruiser.==== Other ====* 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen, a German mountain infantry division of the Waffen-SS.", "It was formed in 1941 from ''Volksdeutsche'' volunteers and conscripts from the Banat, Independent State of Croatia, Hungary and Romania.", "It was initially named (SS-Volunteer Division Prinz Eugen).", "* Panzer-Regiment 33, part of the 9th Panzer Division was in 1943 officially redesignated Panzer-Regiment Prinz Eugen.", "* Prinz Eugen von Savoyen Prize, a prize awarded by the University of Vienna during the Nazi era in Austria rewarding \"ethnic German culture\"." ], [ "Arms" ], [ "Ancestry", " GenealogyGenealogy of Prince Eugene, showing his close relationships with the French Royal family and the family of Cardinal Mazarin.", "Eugene never married and had no children." ], [ "See also", "* Prinz Eugen, der edle Ritter* 20 euro Baroque commemorative coin* 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen* Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden* Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * Lediard, Thomas (1736).", "''The Life of John, Duke of Marlborough.''", "3 Volumes.", "London * * Saxe, Maurice de (2007 1757).", "''Reveries on the Art of War.''", "Dover Publications Inc. * Chandler, David G (1990).", "''The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough.''", "Spellmount Limited.", "* * Childs, John (2003).", "''Warfare in the Seventeenth Century.''", "Cassell.", "* * * * * * Coxe, William (1864).", "''History of the House of Austria.''", "6 Volumes.", "Henry G. Bohn * Duffy, Christopher (1985).", "''Frederick the Great: A Military Life.''", "Routledge & Kegan Paul.", "* * Hatton, Ragnhild (2001).", "''George I.''", "Yale University Press.", "* * * MacMunn, George (1933).", "''Prince Eugene: Twin Marshal with Marlborough.''", "Sampson Low, Marston & CO., Ltd. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Websites ===" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emanuel Leutze" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze''' (May 24, 1816July 18, 1868) was a German-born American history painter best known for his 1851 painting ''Washington Crossing the Delaware''.", "He is associated with the Düsseldorf school of painting." ], [ "Biography", "Leutze was born in Schwäbisch Gmünd, Kingdom of Württemberg.", "Later he was brought to the United States as a child in 1825.His parents settled first in Fredericksburg, Virginia, and then at Philadelphia.", "The first development of his artistic talent occurred while he was attending the sickbed of his father, when he attempted drawing to occupy the long hours of waiting.", "His father died in 1831.At 14, he was painting portraits for $5 apiece.", "Through such work, he supported himself after the death of his father.", "In 1834, he received his first instruction in art at the classes of John Rubens Smith, a portrait painter in Philadelphia.", "He soon became skilled, and promoted a plan for publishing, in Washington, portraits of eminent American statesmen; however, he was met with slight encouragement.===Europe===In 1840, one of his paintings attracted attention and gave him several orders, which enabled him to attend the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf in his native Germany.", "Due to his anti-academic attitude, he studied only one year at the academy, in the class of Director Schadow.", "Leutze was mostly influenced by the painter Karl Friedrich Lessing.", "In 1842 he went to Munich, studying the works of Cornelius and Kaulbach, and, while there, finished his ''Columbus before the Queen''.", "The following year he visited Venice and Rome, making studies from Titian and Michelangelo.", "His first work, ''Columbus before the Council of Salamanca'' (1841) was purchased by the Düsseldorf Art Union.", "A companion picture, ''Columbus in Chains'', procured him the gold medal of the Brussels Art Exhibition, and was subsequently purchased by the Art Union in New York; it was the basis of the 1893 $2 Columbian Issue stamp.", "In 1845, after a tour in Italy, he returned to Düsseldorf, marrying Juliane Lottner and making his home there for 14 years.During his years in Düsseldorf, he was a resource for visiting Americans: he found them places to live and work, provided introductions, and gave them emotional and even financial support.", "For many years, he was the president of the Düsseldorf Artists' Association; in 1848, he was an early promoter of the \"Malkasten\" art association; and in 1857, he led the call for a gathering of artists which originated the founding of the Allgemeine deutsche Kunstgenossenschaft.A strong supporter of Europe's Revolutions of 1848, Leutze decided to paint an image that would encourage Europe's liberal reformers with the example of the American Revolution.", "Using American tourists and art students as models and assistants, Leutze finished a first version of ''Washington Crossing the Delaware'' in 1850.Just after it was completed, the first version was damaged by fire in his studio, subsequently restored, and acquired by the Kunsthalle Bremen.", "On September 5, 1942, during World War II, it was destroyed in a bombing raid by the Allied forces.", "The second painting, a replica of the first, only larger, was ordered in 1850 by the Parisian art trader Adolphe Goupil for his New York branch and placed on exhibition on Broadway in October 1851.It is now owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.", "In 1854, Leutze finished his depiction of the Battle of Monmouth, \"Washington rallying the troops at Monmouth,\" commissioned by an important patron, the banker David Leavitt of New York City and Great Barrington, Massachusetts.Emanuel Leutze by G. & A. Overbeck (firm), c. 1868Washington Crossing the Delaware'' (1851) ===New York City and Washington, D.C.===In 1859, Leutze returned to the United States and opened a studio in New York City.", "He divided his time between New York City and Washington, D.C.", "In 1859, he painted a portrait of Chief Justice Roger Brooke Taney, which hangs in the Harvard Law School.", "In a 1992 opinion, Justice Antonin Scalia described the portrait of Taney, made two years after Taney's infamous decision in ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'', as showing Taney \"in black, sitting in a shadowed red armchair, left hand resting upon a pad of paper in his lap, right hand hanging limply, almost lifelessly, beside the inner arm of the chair.", "He sits facing the viewer and staring straight out.", "There seems to be on his face, and in his deep-set eyes, an expression of profound sadness and disillusionment.", "\"Leutze also executed other portraits, including one of fellow painter William Morris Hunt.", "That portrait was owned by Hunt's brother Leavitt Hunt, a New York attorney and sometime Vermont resident, and was shown at an exhibition devoted to William Morris Hunt's work at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston in 1878.In 1860 Leutze was commissioned by the U.S. Congress to decorate a stairway in the Capitol Building in Washington, DC, for which he painted a large composition, ''Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way'', which is also commonly known as ''Westward Ho!", "''.Late in life, he became a member of the National Academy of Design.", "He was also a member of the Union League Club of New York, which has a number of his paintings.", "At age 52, he died in Washington, D.C. of heat stroke.", "He was interred at Glenwood Cemetery.", "At the time of his death, a painting, ''The Emancipation of the Slaves'', was in preparation.Glenwood Cemetery.Leutze's portraits are known for the artistic quality of their patriotic romanticism, and his epic ''Washington Crossing the Delaware'' ranks in the utmost echelon of American national iconography." ], [ "Gallery of works", "File:Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze - Columbus Before the Queen.JPG\|''Christopher Columbus before the Queen Isabela'' (1843)File:Emanuel Leutze - Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way - Capitol.jpg\|''Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way'' (1860)File:Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze - Mrs. Schuyler Burning Her Wheat Fields on the Approach of the British - Google Art ProjectFXD.jpg\|''Mrs.", "Schuyler Burning Her Wheat Fields on the Approach of the British'' (1852)File:BattleofMonmouth.jpg\|''Washington Rallying the Troops at Monmouth'' (c. 1851-1854)File:Alaska purchase.jpg\|''William H. Seward and Eduard de Stoeckl Negotiating the Alaska Purchase'' (1867)File:Leutze, Emanuel — Storming of the Teocalli by Cortez and His Troops — 1848.jpg\|''The Storming of Teocalli by Cortez and His Troops'' (1848)File:Worthington Whittredge in His Tenth Street Studio.jpeg\|''Worthington Whittredge in His Tenth Street Studio'' (1865)File:Emanuel Leutze William Morris Hunt.jpeg\|''Portrait of William Morris Hunt'' (ca.", "1845)File:General Ambrose Burnside at Antietam by Leutze.jpg\|General Ambrose Burnside at Antietam (1863)File:Nathaniel Hawthorne by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze.png\|''Nathaniel Hawthorne'' (1862)File:Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze, Political Cartoon of the American Civil War, c. 1860s, NGA 181018.jpg\|''Political Cartoon of the American Civil War'', c. 1860s, National Gallery of ArtFile:Christophe Colomb devant le conseil de Salamanque - Emanuel Leutze - MBA Lyon 2014FXD.jpg\|''Christopher Columbus Before the Council of Salamanca'' (1841)" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "Additional References:* Wierich, Jochen.", "''Grand Themes: Emanuel Leutze, \"Washington Crossing the Delaware,\" and American History Painting'' (Penn State University Press; 2012) 240 pages; Argues that the painting was a touchstone for debates over history painting at a time of intense sectionalism.", "** Irre, Heidrun.", "''Emanuel Gottlob Leutze: Von der Rems zum Delaware'', einhorn-Verlag+Druck GmbH, Schwäbisch Gmünd 2016, https://einhornverlag.de/shop/buecher/von-der-rems-zum-delaware/ * New International Encyclopedia" ], [ "External links", "* Leutze Gallery at MuseumSyndicate* Emanuel Leutze* Introduction to ''Washington's Crossing'' by David Hackett Fischer at the Oxford University Press blog, discusses Leutze's most famous painting.", "* * * Reynolda House Museum of American Art* ''Art and the empire city: New York, 1825-1861'', an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Leutze (see index)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Erasmus Alberus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Erasmus Alberus''' (c. 15005 May 1553) was a German humanist, Lutheran reformer, and poet." ], [ "Life", "He was born in the village of Bruchenbrücken (now part of Friedberg, Hesse) about the year 1500.Although his father Tilemann Alber was a schoolmaster, his early education was neglected.Ultimately in 1518, he found his way to the University of Wittenberg, where he studied theology.", "He had the good fortune to attract the attention of Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon, and subsequently became one of Luther's most active helpers in the Protestant Reformation.Not only did he fight for the Protestant cause as a preacher and theologian, but he was almost the only member of Luther's party who was able to confront the Roman Catholics with the weapon of literary satire.", "In 1542 he published a prose satire to which Luther wrote the preface, ''Der Barfusser Monche Eulenspiegel und Alkoran,'' a parodic adaptation of the ''Liber conformitatum'' of the Franciscan Bartolommeo Rinonico of Pisa, in which the Franciscan order is held up to ridicule.", "This drew reactions from Catholic scholars such as Henricus Sedulius, who published the ''Apologeticus aduersus Alcoranum Franciscanorum, pro Libro Conformitatum,'' which criticized Alberus' arguments in this satire.", "Of higher literary value is the didactic and satirical ''Buch von der Tugend und Weisheit'' (1550), a collection of forty-nine fables in which Alberus embodies his views on the relations of Church and State.", "His satire is incisive, but in a scholarly and humanistic way; it does not appeal to popular passions with the fierce directness which enabled the master of Catholic satire, Thomas Murner, to inflict such telling blows.Several of Alberus's hymns, all of which show the influence of his master Luther, have been retained in the German Protestant hymnal.After Luther's death, Alberus was for a time a deacon in Wittenberg; he became involved, however, in the political conflicts of the time, and was in Magdeburg in 1550–1551, while that town was besieged by Maurice, Elector of Saxony.", "In 1552 he was appointed General Superintendent at Neubrandenburg in Mecklenburg, where he died on 5 May 1553." ], [ "Translations", "''Alberus' Thanksgiving Hymn: To You, O God, Our Thanks We Give'', translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2014)." ], [ "References", "'''Attribution:'''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Earley parser" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer science, the '''Earley parser''' is an algorithm for parsing strings that belong to a given context-free language, though (depending on the variant) it may suffer problems with certain nullable grammars.", "The algorithm, named after its inventor, Jay Earley, is a chart parser that uses dynamic programming; it is mainly used for parsing in computational linguistics.", "It was first introduced in his dissertation in 1968 (and later appeared in an abbreviated, more legible, form in a journal).Earley parsers are appealing because they can parse all context-free languages, unlike LR parsers and LL parsers, which are more typically used in compilers but which can only handle restricted classes of languages.", "The Earley parser executes in cubic time in the general case , where ''n'' is the length of the parsed string, quadratic time for unambiguous grammars , and linear time for all deterministic context-free grammars.", "It performs particularly well when the rules are written left-recursively." ], [ "Earley recogniser", "The following algorithm describes the Earley recogniser.", "The recogniser can be modified to create a parse tree as it recognises, and in that way can be turned into a parser." ], [ "The algorithm", "In the following descriptions, α, β, and γ represent any string of terminals/nonterminals (including the empty string), X and Y represent single nonterminals, and ''a'' represents a terminal symbol.Earley's algorithm is a top-down dynamic programming algorithm.", "In the following, we use Earley's dot notation: given a production X → αβ, the notation X → α • β represents a condition in which α has already been parsed and β is expected.Input position 0 is the position prior to input.", "Input position ''n'' is the position after accepting the ''n''th token.", "(Informally, input positions can be thought of as locations at token boundaries.)", "For every input position, the parser generates a ''state set''.", "Each state is a tuple (X → α • β, ''i''), consisting of* the production currently being matched (X → α β)* the current position in that production (visually represented by the dot •)* the position ''i'' in the input at which the matching of this production began: the ''origin position''(Earley's original algorithm included a look-ahead in the state; later research showed this to have little practical effect on the parsing efficiency, and it has subsequently been dropped from most implementations.", ")A state is finished when its current position is the last position of the right side of the production, that is, when there is no symbol to the right of the dot • in the visual representation of the state.The state set at input position ''k'' is called S(''k'').", "The parser is seeded with S(0) consisting of only the top-level rule.", "The parser then repeatedly executes three operations: ''prediction'', ''scanning'', and ''completion''.", "* ''Prediction'': For every state in S(''k'') of the form (X → α • Y β, ''j'') (where ''j'' is the origin position as above), add (Y → • γ, ''k'') to S(''k'') for every production in the grammar with Y on the left-hand side (Y → γ).", "* ''Scanning'': If ''a'' is the next symbol in the input stream, for every state in S(''k'') of the form (X → α • ''a'' β, ''j''), add (X → α ''a'' • β, ''j'') to S(''k''+1).", "* ''Completion'': For every state in S(''k'') of the form (Y → γ •, ''j''), find all states in S(''j'') of the form (X → α • Y β, ''i'') and add (X → α Y • β, ''i'') to S(''k'').Duplicate states are not added to the state set, only new ones.", "These three operations are repeated until no new states can be added to the set.", "The set is generally implemented as a queue of states to process, with the operation to be performed depending on what kind of state it is.The algorithm accepts if (X → γ •, 0) ends up in S(''n''), where (X → γ) is the top level-rule and ''n'' the input length, otherwise it rejects." ], [ "Pseudocode", "Adapted from Speech and Language Processing by Daniel Jurafsky and James H. Martin, DECLARE ARRAY S;function INIT(words) S ← CREATE_ARRAY(LENGTH(words) + 1) for k ← from 0 to LENGTH(words) do Sk ← EMPTY_ORDERED_SETfunction EARLEY_PARSE(words, grammar) INIT(words) ADD_TO_SET((γ → •S, 0), S0) for k ← from 0 to LENGTH(words) do for each state in Sk do // Sk can expand during this loop if not FINISHED(state) then if NEXT_ELEMENT_OF(state) is a nonterminal then PREDICTOR(state, k, grammar) // non_terminal else do SCANNER(state, k, words) // terminal else do COMPLETER(state, k) end end return chartprocedure PREDICTOR((A → α•Bβ, j), k, grammar) for each (B → γ) in GRAMMAR_RULES_FOR(B, grammar) do ADD_TO_SET((B → •γ, k), Sk) endprocedure SCANNER((A → α•aβ, j), k, words) if j" ], [ "Example", "Consider the following simple grammar for arithmetic expressions: ::= # the start rule ::= \"+\" ::= \"\" ::= \"1\" \| \"2\" \| \"3\" \| \"4\"With the input: 2 + 3 4This is the sequence of state sets: (state no.)", "Production (Origin) Comment S(0): • 2 + 3 * 4 1 P → • S 0 start rule 2 S → • S + M 0 predict from (1) 3 S → • M 0 predict from (1) 4 M → • M * T 0 predict from (3) 5 M → • T 0 predict from (3) 6 T → • number 0 predict from (5) S(1): 2 • + 3 * 4 1 T → number • 0 scan from S(0)(6) 2 M → T • 0 complete from (1) and S(0)(5) 3 M → M • * T 0 complete from (2) and S(0)(4) 4 S → M • 0 complete from (2) and S(0)(3) 5 S → S • + M 0 complete from (4) and S(0)(2) 6 P → S • 0 complete from (4) and S(0)(1) S(2): 2 + • 3 * 4 1 S → S + • M 0 scan from S(1)(5) 2 M → • M * T 2 predict from (1) 3 M → • T 2 predict from (1) 4 T → • number 2 predict from (3) S(3): 2 + 3 • * 4 1 T → number • 2 scan from S(2)(4) 2 M → T • 2 complete from (1) and S(2)(3) 3 M → M • * T 2 complete from (2) and S(2)(2) 4 S → S + M • 0 complete from (2) and S(2)(1) 5 S → S • + M 0 complete from (4) and S(0)(2) 6 P → S • 0 complete from (4) and S(0)(1) S(4): 2 + 3 * • 4 1 M → M * • T 2 scan from S(3)(3) 2 T → • number 4 predict from (1) S(5): 2 + 3 * 4 • 1 T → number • 4 scan from S(4)(2) 2 M → M * T • 2 complete from (1) and S(4)(1) 3 M → M • * T 2 complete from (2) and S(2)(2) 4 S → S + M • 0 complete from (2) and S(2)(1) 5 S → S • + M 0 complete from (4) and S(0)(2) 6 P → S • 0 complete from (4) and S(0)(1) The state (P → S •, 0) represents a completed parse.", "This state also appears in S(3) and S(1), which are complete sentences." ], [ "Constructing the parse forest", "Earley's dissertation briefly describes an algorithm for constructing parse trees by adding a set of pointers from each non-terminal in an Earley item back to the items that caused it to be recognized.", "But Tomita noticed that this does not take into account the relations between symbols, so if we consider the grammar S → SS \| b and the string bbb, it only notes that each S can match one or two b's, and thus produces spurious derivations for bb and bbbb as well as the two correct derivations for bbb.Another method is to build the parse forest as you go, augmenting each Earley item with a pointer to a shared packed parse forest (SPPF) node labelled with a triple (s, i, j) where s is a symbol or an LR(0) item (production rule with dot), and i and j give the section of the input string derived by this node.", "A node's contents are either a pair of child pointers giving a single derivation, or a list of \"packed\" nodes each containing a pair of pointers and representing one derivation.", "SPPF nodes are unique (there is only one with a given label), but may contain more than one derivation for ambiguous parses.", "So even if an operation does not add an Earley item (because it already exists), it may still add a derivation to the item's parse forest.", "* Predicted items have a null SPPF pointer.", "* The scanner creates an SPPF node representing the non-terminal it is scanning.", "* Then when the scanner or completer advance an item, they add a derivation whose children are the node from the item whose dot was advanced, and the one for the new symbol that was advanced over (the non-terminal or completed item).SPPF nodes are never labeled with a completed LR(0) item: instead they are labelled with the symbol that is produced so that all derivations are combined under one node regardless of which alternative production they come from." ], [ "Optimizations", "Philippe McLean and R. Nigel Horspool in their paper \"A Faster Earley Parser\" combine Earley parsing with LR parsing and achieve an improvement in an order of magnitude." ], [ "See also", "* CYK algorithm* Context-free grammar* Parsing algorithms" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Other reference materials", "**" ], [ "Implementations", "=== C, C++ === 'Yet Another Earley Parser (YAEP)' – C/C++ libraries=== Haskell ===* 'Earley' – an Earley parser DSL in Haskell=== Java ===* – a Java implementation of the Earley algorithm* PEN – a Java library that implements the Earley algorithm* Pep – a Java library that implements the Earley algorithm and provides charts and parse trees as parsing artifacts* digitalheir/java-probabilistic-earley-parser - a Java library that implements the probabilistic Earley algorithm, which is useful to determine the most likely parse tree from an ambiguous sentence=== C# ===* coonsta/earley - An Earley parser in C#* patrickhuber/pliant - An Earley parser that integrates the improvements adopted by Marpa and demonstrates Elizabeth Scott's tree building algorithm.", "* ellisonch/CFGLib - Probabilistic Context Free Grammar (PCFG) Library for C# (Earley + SPPF, CYK)=== JavaScript ===* Nearley – an Earley parser that's starting to integrate the improvements that Marpa adopted* A Pint-sized Earley Parser – a toy parser (with annotated pseudocode) to demonstrate Elizabeth Scott's technique for building the shared packed parse forest* lagodiuk/earley-parser-js – a tiny JavaScript implementation of Earley parser (including generation of the parsing-forest)* digitalheir/probabilistic-earley-parser-javascript - JavaScript implementation of the probabilistic Earley parser=== OCaml ===* Simple Earley - An implementation of a simple Earley-like parsing algorithm, with documentation.=== Perl ===* Marpa::R2 – a Perl module.", "Marpa is an Earley's algorithm that includes the improvements made by Joop Leo, and by Aycock and Horspool.", "* Parse::Earley – a Perl module implementing Jay Earley's original algorithm=== Python ===* Lark – an object-oriented, procedural implementation of an Earley parser, that outputs a SPPF.", "* NLTK – a Python toolkit with an Earley parser* Spark – an object-oriented ''little language framework'' for Python implementing an Earley parser* spark_parser – updated and packaged version of the Spark parser above, which runs in both Python 3 and Python 2* earley3.py – a stand-alone implementation of the algorithm in less than 150 lines of code, including generation of the parsing-forest and samples* tjr_python_earley_parser - a minimal Earley parser in Python* Earley Parsing - A well explained and complete Earley parser tutorial in Python with epsilon handling and Leo optimization for right-recursion.=== Rust ===* Santiago – A lexing and parsing toolkit for Rust implementing an Earley parser.=== Common Lisp ===* CL-Earley-parser – a Common Lisp library implementing an Earley parser=== Scheme, Racket ===* Charty-Racket – a Scheme-Racket implementation of an Earley parser=== Wolfram ===* properEarleyParser - A basic minimal implementation of an Earley parser in Wolfram programming language with some essential test cases.=== Resources ===* The Accent compiler-compiler" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ethiopian cuisine" ], [ "Introduction", "Beyaynetu: This meal consisting of ''injera'' and several kinds of ''wat'' (stew) is typical of Ethiopian cuisine.Location of Ethiopia'''Ethiopian cuisine''' ( \"Ye-Ītyōṗṗyā məgəb\") characteristically consists of vegetable and often very spicy meat dishes.", "This is usually in the form of ''wat,'' a thick stew, served on top of ''injera'' (), a large sourdough flatbread, which is about in diameter and made out of fermented teff flour.", "Ethiopians usually eat with their right hands, using pieces of to pick up bites of entrées and side dishes.The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church prescribes a number of fasting periods known as ''tsom'' ( ''ṣōm''), including all Wednesdays and Fridays and the whole Lenten season (including fifteen days outside Lent proper).", "Per Oriental Orthodox tradition, the faithful may not consume any kind of animal products (including dairy products and eggs) during fasts; therefore, Ethiopian cuisine contains many dishes that are vegan." ], [ "Overview", "Ethiopian ''kita'' herb breadA typical dish consists of accompanied by a spicy stew, which frequently includes beef, lamb, vegetables and various types of legumes, such as lentils is traditionally consumed on the mesob.", "The cuisines of the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People's Region and the Sidama region also make use of the false banana plant (, Ge'ez: እንሰት ''ïnset''), a type of ensete.", "The plant is pulverized and fermented to make various foods, including a bread-like food called ''kocho'' (Ge'ez: ቆጮ ''ḳōč̣ō''), which is eaten with kitfo.", "The root of this plant may be powdered and prepared as a hot drink called ''bulla'' (Ge'ez: ቡላ ''būlā''), which is often given to those who are tired or ill. Another typical Gurage preparation is coffee with butter (''kebbeh'').", "''Kita'' herb bread is also baked.Due in part to the brief Italian occupation, pasta is popular and frequently available throughout Ethiopia, including rural areas.", "Coffee is also a large part of Ethiopian culture and cuisine.", "After every meal, a coffee ceremony is enacted and coffee is served." ], [ "Restrictions of certain meats", "Ethiopian Orthodox Christians, Ethiopian Jews and Ethiopian Muslims avoid eating pork or shellfish, for religious reasons.", "Pork is considered unclean in Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, Judaism and Islam.", "Most Ethiopian Protestants or P'ent'ay also abstain from eating food already prohibited from the Orthodox church.", "Many Ethiopians abstain from eating certain meats, eating mostly vegetarian foods, partially from the high cost of meat, eggs, dairy products." ], [ "Traditional ingredients", "Ajwain'' or ''radhuni'', ''korarima'', ''nigella'' and fenugreek (clockwise, from top) are used with chilis and salt to make ''berbere ()'', a basic ingredient in many Ethiopian dishes.", "''Berbere'', a combination of powdered chili pepper and other spices (cardamom, fenugreek, coriander, cloves, ginger, nutmeg, cumin and allspice) is an important ingredient used to add flavor to many varied dishes like chicken stews and baked fish dishes.", "Also essential is ''niter kibbeh'', a clarified butter infused with ginger, garlic, and several spices.", "''Mitmita'' (, ) is a powdered seasoning mix used in Ethiopian cuisine.", "It is orange-red in color and contains ground birdseye chili peppers (piri-piri), cardamom seed, cloves and salt.", "It occasionally has other spices including cinnamon, cumin and ginger.In their adherence to strict fasting, Ethiopian cooks have developed a rich array of cooking oil sources—besides sesame and safflower—for use as a substitute for animal fats which are forbidden during fasting periods.", "Ethiopian cuisine also uses ''nug'' (also spelled ''noog'', also known as \"niger seed\")." ], [ "Dishes", "===Wat===''Doro wat'', consisting of stewed chicken and boiled eggs, is one of the most popular dishes for breaking religious fasts in Ethiopia.wat''Ethiopian food merged with American barbeque influence''Wat'' begins with a large amount of chopped red onion, which is simmered or sauteed in a pot.", "Once the onions have softened, ''niter kebbeh'' (or, in the case of vegan dishes, vegetable oil) is added.", "Following this, ''berbere'' is added to make a spicy ''keiy wat'' or ''keyyih tsebhi''.", "Turmeric is used instead of ''berbere'' for a milder ''alicha wat'' or both spices are omitted when making vegetable stews, such as ''atkilt wat''.", "Meat such as beef (''ሥጋ'', ''səga''), chicken (''ዶሮ'', ''doro'' or ''derho''), fish (''ዓሣ'', ''asa''), goat or lamb (''በግ'', ''beg'' or ''beggi'') is also added.", "Legumes such as split peas (''ክክ'', ''kək'' or ''kikki'') and lentils (''ምስር'', ''məsər'' or ''birsin''); or vegetables such as potatoes (''ድንች'', ''Dənəch''), carrots and chard (ቆስጣ) are also used instead in vegan dishes.Each variation is named by appending the main ingredient to the type of ''wat'' (e.g.", ").", "However, the word ''keiy'' is usually not necessary, as the spicy variety is assumed when it is omitted (e.g.", "''doro wat'').", "The term is sometimes used to refer to all vegetable dishes, but a more specific name can also be used (as in , which translates to \"potatoes and carrots stew\"; but the word ''atkilt'' is usually omitted when using the more specific term).===Tibs===Meat along with vegetables are sautéed to make ''tibs'' (also ''tebs'', ''t'ibs'', ''tibbs'', etc., Ge'ez: ጥብስ ''ṭïbs'').", "''Tibs'' is served in a variety of manners, and can range from hot to mild or contain little to no vegetables.", "There are many variations of the delicacy, depending on type, size or shape of the cuts of meat used.", "Beef, mutton, and goat are the most common meats used in the preparation of ''tibs''.", "The mid-18th-century European visitor to Ethiopia describes ''tibs'' as a portion of grilled meat served \"to pay a particular compliment or show especial respect to someone.\"", "It may still be seen this way; today the dish is prepared to commemorate special events and holidays.===Kinche (qinch'e)===''Kinche'' (''qinch’e''), a porridge, is a very common Ethiopian breakfast or supper.", "It is simple, inexpensive, and nutritious.", "It is made from cracked wheat, Ethiopian oats, barley or a mixture of those.", "It can be boiled in either milk or water with a little salt.", "The flavor of ''kinche'' comes from the ''nit'ir qibe'', which is a spiced butter.=== Salads ===Azifa is an Ethiopian lentil salad made with mustard seed, jalapeños, and onions, and it is a dish often served cold.", "Buticha is an Ethiopian chickpea salad which is often served cold, and is sometimes compared to hummus." ], [ "Ethnic dishes", "===Oromo dishes===The Oromos' cuisine consists of various vegetable or meat side dishes and entrées.", "As part of a long-established custom, practice, or belief, people do not eat pork in Oromia.", "Foon Waaddii – minced roasted meat; specially seasonedAnchotte – a common dish in the western part of OromiaBaduu – liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained (cheese)Maarqaa – porridge like substance made from wheat, milk, chili and spicesChechebsaa – shredded biddena stir-fried with chili powder and cheeseQoocco – also known as ''kocho'', it is not the Gurage type of kocho but a different kind; a common dish in the western part of Oromia Itto – comprises all sorts of vegetables (tomato, potato, ginger, garlic), meat (lamb)Chukkoo – also known as ''Micira''; a sweet flavor of whole grain, seasoned with butter and spicesChororsaa – a common dish in the western part of OromiaHulbata- slow cooked thick stew, made up of organic fenugreek seed powder, potato, lamb rib or loin chops seasoned with chili, garlic and tomato spices served on top of Biddena; mostly cooked in East Hararghe Zone and West Hararghe Zone of OromiaDokkee – a common dish throughout Oromia stateQince – similar to Marqaa but made from shredded grains as opposed to flourQorso (Akayi) – as snacks Oromia stateDadhii – a drink made from honeyHanida/Haneed– slow-roasted lamb dish usually served with riceShitney/Shatta sauce– a mixture of herbs and peppers used as a side for hanidaFarsho – Beer like, made from barleyBuna – a lot of coffee===Gurage dishes=======Kitfo====''Kitfo'' served rareAnother distinctively Ethiopian dish is ''kitfo'' (frequently spelled ''ketfo'').", "It consists of raw (or rare) beef mince marinated in ''mitmita'' (Ge'ez: ሚጥሚጣ ''mīṭmīṭā'' a very spicy chili powder similar to ) and .", "''Gored gored'' is very similar to , but uses cubed rather than ground beef.====Ayibe==== (or ''Ayeb'') is a local cheese made from the curds of buttermilk that is mild and crumbly, close in texture to crumbled feta.", "Although not quite pressed, the whey has been drained and squeezed out.", "It is often served as a side dish to soften the effect of very spicy food.", "It has little to no distinct taste of its own.", "However, when served separately, is often mixed with a variety of mild or hot spices typical of Gurage cuisine.====Gomen kitfo====''Gomen kitfo'' is another typical Gurage dish.", "Collard greens (ጎመን ''gōmen'') are boiled, dried and then finely chopped and served with butter, chili and spices.", "It is a dish specially prepared for the occasion of Meskel, a very popular holiday marking the discovery of the True Cross.", "It is served along with or sometimes even ''kitfo'' in this tradition called .===Sidama dishes=======Wassa====The enset plant (called ''wesse'' in the Sidamo language) is central to Sidama cuisine and after grinding and fermenting the root to produce ''wassa'', it is used in the preparation of several foods.==== Borasaame ====''Borasaame'' is a cooked mixture of ''wassa'' and butter sometimes eaten with Ethiopian mustard greens and/or beans.", "It is traditionally eaten by hand using a false banana leaf and is served in a ', a vase-like ceramic vessel.", "A common variant of ''borasaame'' uses maize flour instead of ''wassa'' and is called ''badela borasaame''.", "''Borasaame'' is typically paired with a seasoned yogurt drink called ''wätät''.", "Both are common foods for funerals and the celebration of ''Fichee Chambalaalla'', the Sidama new year.==== Amulcho ==== is an enset flatbread used similarly to to eat wats made from beef, mushrooms, beans, gomen, or pumpkin.====Gomen ba siga====Gomen ba siga (ጎመን በስጋ, Amharic: \"cabbage with meat\") is a stewed mixture of beef and Ethiopian mustard served under a layer of bread.====Maize====A commonly grown crop in Sidama, maize (''badela'' in Sidaamu; also known as \"corn\" in North America) is often eaten as a snack with coffee.", "It can be ground into flour to make bread, roasted on the cob, or the kernels can be picked off to make ''bokolo'', which is served either boiled or roasted." ], [ "Breakfast", "''Fit-fit'', or ''chechebsa'', made with ''kitcha'' (unleavened bread), ''niter kibbeh'' (seasoned clarified butter) and ''berbere'' (spice), is a typical breakfast food.", "''Fit-fit'' or ''fir-fir'' is a common breakfast dish.", "It is made from shredded '''' or ''kitcha'' stir-fried with spices or ''wat''.", "Another popular breakfast food is , a large fried pancake made with flour, often with a layer of egg, eaten with honey.", "''Chechebsa'' (or ''kita firfir'') resembles a pancake covered with ''berbere'' and ''niter kibbeh'', or other spices, and may be eaten with a spoon.", "''Genfo'' is a kind of porridge, which is another common breakfast dish.", "It is usually served in a large bowl with a dug-out made in the middle of the genfo and filled with spiced ''niter kibbeh''.A variation of ''ful'', a fava bean stew with condiments, served with baked rolls instead of , is also common for breakfast." ], [ "Snacks", "Typical Ethiopian snacks are ''dabo kolo'' (small pieces of baked bread that are similar to pretzels), or ''kolo'' (roasted barley sometimes mixed with other local grains).", "''Kolo'' made from roasted and spiced barley, safflower kernels, chickpeas and/or peanuts are often sold by kiosks and street vendors, wrapped in a paper cone.", "Snacking on popcorn and traditional lentil samosa is also common." ], [ "Beverages", "=== Traditional alcoholic beverages ===There are many different traditional alcoholic drinks which are home made and of natural ingredients.====Tella====''Tella'' is a home-brewed beer served in ''tella bet'' (\"tella houses\") which specialize in serving only ''tella''.", "''Tella'' is the most common beverage made and served in households during holidays.It is an alcoholic drink which is prepared from ''bikil'' (barley) as main ingredient and ''gesho'' (''Rhamnus prinoides'') for fermentation purpose.In Oromiffaa the drink is called ''farso'' and in Tigrinya ''siwa''.====Tej (honey wine) ====''Tej'' is a potent honey wine.", "It is similar to mead, and is frequently served in bars, particularly in a ''tej bet'' or \"''tej'' house\".It is prepared from honey and gesho.", "It has a sweet taste and the alcoholic content is relatively higher than ''tella''.", "This drink can be stored for a long time; the longer it is stored, the higher the alcohol content, and the stronger the taste.====Areki (katikala)====''Areki'', also known as ''katikala'', is probably the strongest alcoholic drink of Ethiopia.", "It is a home distilled spirit that is often filtered through charcoal to remove off tastes or flavored by smoking or infusion with garlic.=== Non-alcoholic beverages ===Ethiopians have diverse traditional non-alcoholic drinks which include natural and healthy ingredients.====Kenetto (keribo)====''Kenetto'', also known as ''keribo'', is a non-alcoholic traditional drink.", "It is mostly used as substitute for ''tella'' for those who don't drink alcohol.====Borde====''Borde'' is a cereal-based traditional fermented beverage famous in southern Ethiopia.===Manufactured drinks===Just like the rest of the world, Ethiopians also enjoy several locally manufactured beers, wine and non-alcoholic products like Coca-Cola and other similar products.A Coca-Cola bottle in Ethiopia, with the distinct logo in the Ethiopic scriptAmbo Mineral Water or ''Ambo wuha'' is a bottled carbonated mineral water, sourced from the springs in Ambo Senkele near the town of Ambo.===Non-alcoholic brews (hot drinks)======= Atmet ====''Atmet'' is a barley- and oat-flour based drink that is cooked with water, sugar and ''kibe'' (Ethiopian clarified butter) until the ingredients have combined to create a consistency slightly thicker than eggnog.", "Though this drink is often given to women who are nursing, the sweetness and smooth texture make it a comfort drink for anyone who enjoys its flavor.====Coffee====An Ethiopian woman roasting coffee at a traditional coffee ceremonyAccording to some sources, drinking of coffee (''buna'') is likely to have originated in Ethiopia.", "A key national beverage, it is an important part of local commerce.The coffee ceremony is the traditional serving of coffee, usually after a big meal.", "It often involves the use of a ''jebena'' (ጀበና), a clay coffee pot in which the coffee is boiled.", "The preparer roasts the coffee beans in front of guests, then walks around wafting the smoke throughout the room so participants may sample the scent of coffee.", "Then the preparer grinds the coffee beans in a traditional tool called a .", "The coffee is put into the ''jebena'', boiled with water, and then served in small cups called ''si'ni''.", "Coffee is usually served with sugar, but is also served with salt in many parts of Ethiopia.", "In some parts of the country, ''niter kibbeh'' is added instead of sugar or salt.Snacks, such as popcorn or toasted barley (or ''kolo''), are often served with the coffee.", "In most homes, a dedicated coffee area is surrounded by fresh grass, with special furniture for the coffee maker.", "A complete ceremony has three rounds of coffee (''abol'', ''tona'' and ''bereka'') and is accompanied by the burning of frankincense.====Tea (shai)====Tea will most likely be served if coffee is declined.", "Tea is grown in Ethiopia at Gumaro and Wushwush.====Boiled coffee leaves====Across southern Ethiopia, many groups drink boiled coffee leaves, called ''kuti'' among the Harari in the east and ''kaari'' among the Majang in the west.", "This is often made with widely varying seasonings and spices, such as sugar, salt, rue, hot peppers, ginger.", "The Ethiopian Food Safety Authority has registered the safety of coffee leaf infusions with the European Union." ], [ "See also", "* List of African cuisines* Ethiopian Jewish cuisine* Eritrean cuisine" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Mesob Across America: Ethiopian Food in the U.S.A. A book about the history and culture of Ethiopian cuisine* Ethiopian Restaurant Guide A guide to Ethiopian restaurants in the USA.", "Includes video visits to some restaurants* All About Tej An extensive website about the Ethiopian honey wine* Raw Meat, a Manly Ethiopian Dish The Los Angeles Times, 14 July 2011* Ethiopian Spices by Fassica - Authentic Ethiopian Food and Spices" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Epistle of James" ], [ "Introduction", "Papyrus 20 (3rd century AD), with part of James 2 and 3The '''Epistle of James''' is a general epistle and one of the 21 epistles (didactic letters) in the New Testament.", "It was written originally in Koine Greek.", "James 1:1 identifies the author as \"James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ\" who is writing to \"the twelve tribes scattered abroad\".", "Traditionally, the epistle is attributed to James the brother of Jesus (James the Just), and the audience is considered generally to be Jewish Christians, who were dispersed outside Israel.Memorial to Lajos Fülep, quoting James 3:17, \"But the wisdom that comes from heaven is first of all pure; then peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere.", "\"Framing his letter within an overall theme of patient perseverance during trials and temptations, James writes in order to encourage his readers to live consistently with what they have learned in Christ.", "He condemns various sins, including pride, hypocrisy, favouritism, and slander.", "He encourages and implores believers to live humbly by godly, rather than worldly, wisdom; he encourages prayer in all situations.", "1886 drawing by Jemima Blackburn, quoting James 3:3–6For the most part, until the late 20th century, the epistle of James was relegated to benign disregard – though it was shunned by many early theologians and scholars due to its advocacy of Torah observance and good works.", "Famously, Luther at one time considered the epistle to be among the disputed books, and sidelined it to an appendix, although in his Large Catechism he treated it as the authoritative word of God.The epistle aims to reach a wide Jewish audience.", "During the last decades, the epistle of James has attracted increasing scholarly interest due to a surge in the quest for the historical James, his role within the Jesus movement, his beliefs, and his relationships and views.", "This James revival is also associated with an increasing level of awareness of the Jewish grounding of both the epistle and the early Jesus movement." ], [ "Authorship", "The author is identified as “James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (James 1:1).", "James (Jacob, , ) was an extremely common name in antiquity, and a number of early Christian figures are named James, including: James the son of Zebedee, James the son of Alphaeus, and James the brother of Jesus.", "Of these, James the brother of Jesus has the most prominent role in the early church, and is often understood as either the author of the epistle, or the implied author.The earliest recorded references to the Epistle of James highlight the contentious nature of the epistle’s authorship.", "Origen may be the first person to link the epistle to \"James the brother of Lord\" (''Comm.", "on Romans'' 4.8.2), though this is only preserved in Rufinus’s Latin translation of Origen.", "Eusebius writes that \"James, who is said to be the author of the first of the so-called catholic epistles.", "But it is to be observed that it is disputed\" (''Historia ecclesiae'' 2.23.25).", "Jerome reported that the Epistle of James \"is claimed by some to have been published by some one else under his name, and gradually, as time went on, to have gained authority\" (''De viris illustribus'' 2).=== Traditional authorship ===The link between James the brother of Jesus and the epistle continued to strengthen, and is now considered the traditional view on the authorship of the work.", "The traditional view can be divided into at least three further positions that relate also to the date of the epistle:# The historical James wrote the letter prior to the Galatians controversy (Gal 2:11–14), and prior to the Jerusalem council (Acts 15);# The historical James wrote the letter in response to Paulinism of some sort;# The historical James wrote his letter after the events recorded in Galatians and Acts, but is not in dialogue with Paul or Paulinism.Many who affirm traditional authorship think James had a sufficient proficiency in Greek education to write the letter himself.", "Some argue that James the brother of Jesus made use of an amanuensis, which explains the quality of Greek in the letter.", "Dan McCartney notes this position has garnered little support.", "Others have advocated for a two-stage composition theory, in which many of the sayings of epistle originate with James the brother of Jesus.", "They were collected by James’ disciples and redacted into the current form of the letter.John Calvin and others suggested that the author was the James, son of Alphaeus, who is referred to as James the Less.", "The Protestant reformer Martin Luther denied it was the work of an apostle and termed it an \"epistle of straw\".The Holy Tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that the Book of James was \"written not by either of the apostles, but by the 'brother of the Lord' who was the first bishop of the Church in Jerusalem.", "\"=== Pseudonymous authorship ===A prevalent view within scholarship considers the Epistle of James to be pseudonymous.", "The real author chose to write under the name James, intending that the audience perceive James the brother of Jesus as the author.", "Scholars who maintain pseudonymous authorship differ on whether this was a deceitful or pious practice.The following arguments are often cited in support of pseudepigraphy: # The Greek in the Epistle of James is rather accomplished, leading many scholars to believe that it could not have been written by Jesus’ brother.", "While it has been noted that James’s hometown of Galilee was sufficiently Hellenised by the first century CE to produce figures such the rhetorician Theodorus or the poet Meleager, there is no evidence (outside the Epistle of James) to suggest that James attained a Greek education.# The Epistle of James appears to borrow from 1 Peter, and if this is the case, James must be dated after 1 Peter (often dated between 70–100 CE).# If the Epistle envisages a conflict with later Paulinism, this would likewise presuppose a time after the death of James." ], [ "Dating and surviving manuscripts", "The original manuscript of this letter is lost.", "The earliest extant manuscripts of James date to the mid-to-late 3rd century.According to Josephus (''Jewish Antiquities'' 20.197–203), James the brother of Jesus was killed in 62 CE, during the high priesthood of Ananus.", "Those who hold to traditional authorship date the epistle to sometime before 62 CE, in the forties or fifties, making it one of the earliest writings of the New Testament.Those who maintain that the epistle is pseudonymous generally date the epistle later, from the late first to mid-second century.", "This is based on a number of considerations, including the epistle's potential dependence on 1 Peter, potential response to Paul's writings or Paul's later followers, late attestation in the historical record, and the 3rd and 4th century disputes concerning the epistle's authorship.The historiographic debate currently seems to be leaning to the side of those in favor of early dating, although not through irrefutable evidence but through indications and probabilities.Some of the oldest surviving manuscripts that contain some or all of this letter include:Papyrus 20 (early 3rd century)Papyrus 23 (~AD 250)Papyrus 100 (late 3rd century)Codex Vaticanus (325-350)Codex Sinaiticus (330-360)Codex Alexandrinus (400-440)Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (ca.", "450)Papyrus 54 (5th century)Papyrus 74 (7th century)An ancient manuscript containing this chapter in the Coptic language is: Papyrus 6 (~AD 350).And in Latin:León palimpsest (7th century)" ], [ "Genre", "The Epistle of James is a letter, and includes an epistolary prescript that identifies the sender (“James”) and the recipients (“to the twelve tribes in the diaspora”) and provides a greeting (Jas 1:1).", "The epistle resembles the form of a Diaspora letter, written to encourage Jewish-Christian communities living outside of Israel amid the hardships of diaspora life.", "James stands in the tradition of the Jewish genre of \"Letters to the Diaspora\", including the letters of the members of the family of Gamaliel, the one preserved in 2 Maccabees 1:1-9, or some copied by Josephus, all of which are characterised by a double opening and an abrupt ending.Many consider James to have affinities to Jewish wisdom literature: \"like Proverbs and Sirach, it consists largely of moral exhortations and precepts of a traditional and eclectic nature.\"", "The epistle also has affinities with many of the sayings of Jesus which are found in the gospels of Luke and Matthew (i.e., those attributed to the hypothetical Q source, in the two-source hypothesis).", "Some scholars have argued that the author of James is familiar with a version of Q rather than Luke or Matthew.", "Other scholars have noted the epistle's affinities with Greco-Roman philosophical literature.", "The author's use and transformation of Q materials resembles the Hellenistic practice of ''aemulatio'', in which the author must \"rival and vie ''aemulatio'' with the original in the expression of the same thoughts” (Quintilian, ''Inst''.", "10.5.5).", "Other studies have analysed sections of James in light of Greco-Roman rhetorical conventions." ], [ "Structure", "Some view the epistle as having no overarching outline: \"James may have simply grouped together small 'thematic essays' without having more linear, Greco-Roman structures in mind.\"", "That view is generally supported by those who believe that the epistle may not be a true piece of correspondence between specific parties but an example of wisdom literature, formulated as a letter for circulation.", "The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' says, \"the subjects treated of in the Epistle are many and various; moreover, St. James not infrequently, whilst elucidating a certain point, passes abruptly to another, and presently resumes once more his former argument.", "\"Others view the letter as having only broad topical or thematic structure.", "They generally organize James under three (in the views of Ralph Martin) to seven (in the views of Luke Johnson) general key themes or segments.A third group believes that James was more purposeful in structuring his letter, linking each paragraph theologically and thematically:The third view of the structuring of James is a historical approach that is supported by scholars who are not content with leaving the book as \"New Testament wisdom literature, like a small book of proverbs\" or \"like a loose collection of random pearls dropped in no particular order onto a piece of string.", "\"A fourth group uses modern discourse analysis or Greco-Roman rhetorical structures to describe the structure of James.The United Bible Societies' ''Greek New Testament'' divides the letter into the following sections: ''Salutation'' (1:1)* ''Faith and Wisdom'' (1:2–8)* ''Poverty and Riches'' (1:9-11)* ''Trial and Temptation'' (1:12–18)* ''Hearing and Doing the Word'' (1:19–27)* ''Warning against Partiality'' (2:1–13)* ''Faith and Works'' (2:14–26)* ''The Tongue'' (3:1–12)* ''The Wisdom from Above'' (3:13–18)* ''Friendship with the World'' (4:1–10)* ''Judging a Brother'' (4:11–12)* ''Warning against Boasting'' (4:13–17)* ''Warning to the Rich'' (5:1–6)* ''Patience and Prayer'' (5:7–20)" ], [ "Historical context", "The exact historical circumstances that occasioned the epistle are unknown.", "Those who understand James 2 as a polemic against Paul or Paul’s followers suggest an occasion for the letter aimed at opposing Pauline justification.", "Others have argued that James' discussion on faith and works does not have Pauline categories in view.Some scholars have suggested that the epistle was written to both Christian and non-Christian Jews, who continued to worship together before the parting of the ways between Christianity and Judaism.", "The warning against cursing people (Jas 3:9–10) has been read in light of this historical reconstruction, and Dale Allison has argued that “James reflects an environment in which some Jews, unhappy with Jewish Christians, were beginning to use the ''Birkat ha-minim'' or something very much like it” to curse Christians.Poverty and wealth are key concerns throughout the epistle, and these issues are likely to reflect the epistle's historical context.", "The author shows concern for vulnerable and marginalised groups, such as \"orphans and widows\" (Jas 1:27), believers who are \"poorly clothed and lacking in daily food\" (Jas 2:15), and the oppressed waged-worker (Jas 5:4).", "He writes strongly against the rich (Jas 1:10; 5:1–6) and those who show partiality towards them (Jas 2:1–7)." ], [ "Doctrine", "=== Justification ===The epistle contains the following famous passage concerning salvation and justification:This passage has been contrasted with the teachings of Paul the Apostle on justification.", "Some scholars even believe that the passage is a response to Paul.", "One issue in the debate is the meaning of the Greek word (, 'render righteous or such as he ought to be'), with some among the participants taking the view that James is responding to a misunderstanding of Paul.Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy have historically argued that the passage disproves the doctrine of justification by faith alone (''sola fide'').", "The early (and many modern) Protestants resolve the apparent conflict between James and Paul regarding faith and works in alternate ways from the Catholics and Orthodox:According to Ben Witherington III, differences exist between the Apostle Paul and James, but both used the law of Moses, the teachings of Jesus and other Jewish and non-Jewish sources, and \"Paul was not anti-law any more than James was a legalist\".", "A more recent article suggests that the current confusion regarding the Epistle of James about faith and works resulted from Augustine of Hippo's anti-Donatist polemic in the early fifth century.", "This approach reconciles the views of Paul and James on faith and works.=== Anointing of the sick ===The epistle is also the chief biblical text for the anointing of the sick.", "James wrote:G. A.", "Wells suggested that the passage was evidence of late authorship of the epistle, on the grounds that the healing of the sick being done through an official body of presbyters (elders) indicated a considerable development of ecclesiastical organisation \"whereas in Paul's day to heal and work miracles pertained to believers indiscriminately (I Corinthians, XII:9).", "\"=== Works, deeds and care for the poor ===James and the M Source material in Matthew are unique in the canon in their stand against the rejection of works and deeds.", "According to Sanders, traditional Christian theology wrongly divested the term \"works\" of its ethical grounding, part of the effort to characterize Judaism as legalistic.", "However, for James and for all Jews, faith is alive only through Torah observance.", "In other words, belief demonstrates itself through practice and manifestation.", "For James, claims about belief are empty, unless they are alive in action, works and deeds.The epistle emphasizes the importance of acts of charity or works to go along with having the Christian faith by means the following three verses in Chapter 2 of his Epistle:-2:14.What shall it profit, my brethren, if a man say he hath faith, but hath not works?", "Shall faith be able to save him?-2:18.But some man will say: Thou hast faith, and I have works.", "Shew me thy faith without works; and I will shew thee, by works, my faith.-2:20.But wilt thou know, O vain man, that faith without works is dead?=== Torah observance ===James is unique in the canon by its explicit and wholehearted support of Torah observance (the Law).", "According to Bibliowicz, not only is this text a unique view into the milieu of the Jewish founders – its inclusion in the canon signals that as canonization began (fourth century onward) Torah observance among believers in Jesus was still authoritative.", "According to modern scholarship James, Q, Matthew, the Didache, and the pseudo-Clementine literature reflect a similar ethos, ethical perspective, and stand on, or assume, Torah observance.", "James call to Torah observance (James 1:22-27) ensures salvation (James 2:12–13, 14–26).", "Hartin is supportive of the focus on Torah observance and concludes that these texts support faith through action and sees them as reflecting the milieu of the Jewish followers of Jesus.", "Hub van de Sandt sees Matthew's and James' Torah observance reflected in a similar use of the Jewish Two Ways theme which is detectable in the Didache too (Didache 3:1–6).", "McKnight thinks that Torah observance is at the heart of James's ethics.", "A strong message against those advocating the rejection of Torah observance characterizes, and emanates from, this tradition: \"Some have attempted while I am still alive, to transform my words by certain various interpretations, in order to teach the dissolution of the law; as though I myself were of such a mind, but did not freely proclaim it, which God forbid!", "For such a thing were to act in opposition to the law of God which was spoken by Moses, and was borne witness to by our Lord in respect of its eternal continuance; for thus he spoke: 'The heavens and the earth shall pass away, but one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass away from the law.James seem to propose a more radical and demanding interpretation of the law than mainstream Judaism.", "According to Painter, there is nothing in James to suggest any relaxation of the demands of the law.", "\"No doubt James takes for granted his readers' observance of the whole law, while focusing his attention on its moral demands.", "\"===Latter Day Saint history===This verse has particular importance in the Latter Day Saint tradition.", "Joseph Smith claims that the reading and contemplation of this verse inspired him to ask God for wisdom, leading to his First Vision, and thus what his followers consider to be the Restoration—the creation of the LDS church." ], [ "Canonicity", "The first explicit references to the Epistle of James are found in the writings of Origen of Alexandria (e.g.", "''Comm.", "on John.,'' 19.23) in the third century.", "Scholars have generally rejected the possible second-century allusions to James in the Apostolic Fathers and Irenaeus of Lyons ''Against Heresies''.", "Neither is James mentioned by Tertullian (c. 155–220 CE) or Cyprian (c. 210–258 CE), and its authenticity of the epistle doubted by Theodore of Mopsuestia (c. 350–428 CE).", "In ''Historia ecclesiae'' 2.23.25, Eusebius classes James among the Antilegomena or disputed works, stating ''it is to be observed that it is disputed; at least, not many of the ancients have mentioned it, as is the case likewise with the epistle that bears the name of Jude, which is also one of the seven so-called catholic epistles.", "Nevertheless we know that these also, with the rest, have been read publicly in very many churches.''", "Its late recognition in the Church, especially in the West, was a consequence primarily of its sparse attestation by earlier Christian authors and its disputed authorship.", "Jerome reported that the Epistle of James \"is claimed by some to have been published by some one else under his name, and gradually, as time went on, to have gained authority\" (''De viris illustribus'' 2).", "The Epistle of James is missing from the Muratorian fragment (poss.", "2nd to 4th century), the Cheltenham list (c. 360 CE), but was listed with the twenty-seven New Testament books by Athanasius of Alexandria in his ''Thirty-Ninth Festal Epistle'' (367 CE), and subsequently affirmed by the Councils of Laodicea (c. 363 CE), of Rome (382 CE) and of Carthage (397 and 419).During the Reformation era, Martin Luther took issue with the epistle on theological grounds, finding James' description of faith and works incompatible with his understanding of justification.", "Reportedly, he once went as far as to assert \"I almost feel like throwing Jimmy into the stove\", a metaphor for his being tempted to remove the Epistle of James from the Bible.", "Luther nonetheless chose to include James from his German translation of the Bible, though he moved it (along with Hebrews, Jude, and Revelation) to the end of the Bible." ], [ "See also", "* Abrogation of Old Covenant laws* Gospel of James* Jacob (name)* Pauline Christianity* Textual variants in the Epistle of James" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * " ], [ "External links", " Multiple bible versions at ''Bible Gateway'' (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.", ")* English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate * ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)* Various versions*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Epistle of Jude" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Epistle of Jude''' is the penultimate book of the New Testament as well as the Christian Bible.", "It is traditionally attributed to Jude, brother of James the Just, and thus possibly a brother of Jesus as well.Jude is a short epistle written in Koine Greek.", "It condemns in fierce terms certain people the author sees as a threat to the early Christian community, but describes these opponents only vaguely.", "According to Jude, these opponents are within the Christian community, but are not true Christians: they are scoffers, false teachers, malcontents, given to their lusts, and so on.", "The epistle reassures its readers that these people will soon be judged by God.", "It is possible that the group being referred to would have been obvious to the original recipients of the letter, but if a specific group was being referred to, knowledge of the details has since been lost.", "The one bit of their potential ideology discussed in the letter is that these opponents denigrate angels and their role.", "If this was indeed a part of the ideology of this group the author opposed, then the epistle is possibly a counterpoint to the Epistle to the Colossians.", "Colossians condemns those who give angels undue prominence and worship them; this implies the two letters might be part of an early Christian debate on Christian angelology." ], [ "Authorship", "The epistle introduces itself with a simple claim of authorship: \"Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and brother of James\" (NRSV).", "\"James\" is generally taken to mean James, brother of Jesus, a prominent leader in the early church.", "Introductions would typically refer to a father in the era, so the use of a brother suggests that this would only be done if the brother was famous within the community.", "Little is known about Jude himself.", "As the brother of James, it has traditionally meant Jude was also a brother of Jesus, since James is described as being the brother of Jesus.", "This is why Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–215 AD) wrote in his work \"Comments on the Epistle of Jude\" that Jude, the author, was a son of Joseph and a brother of Jesus.", "However, there is a dispute as to whether \"brother\" means someone who has the same father and mother, or a half-brother, cousin, or more distant familial relationship.", "This dispute over the true meaning of \"brother\" grew as the doctrine of the Virgin Birth evolved.", "For example, Saint Jerome believed that not only Mary but also Joseph were virgins their entire lives, and thus James and by extension Jude were cousins.Outside the book of Jude, a \"Jude\" is mentioned five times in the New Testament: three times as Jude the Apostle, and twice as Jude the brother of Jesus (aside from references to Judas Iscariot and Judah (son of Jacob)).", "Debate continues as to whether the author of the epistle is the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither.", "Scholars have argued that since the author of the letter has not identified himself as an apostle and also refers to the apostles as a third party, he cannot be identified with Jude the Apostle.", "Other scholars have drawn the opposite conclusion, which is that, as an apostle, he would not have made a claim of apostleship on his own behalf.Some scholars defend the traditional authorship of Jude, however, a reason to doubt that a relative of Jesus wrote the book is that they are unlikely to have been literate.", "Jesus's family were common laborers from Aramaic-speaking Galilee, and literary composition skills were overwhelmingly concentrated in the elite in antiquity.", "Few knew how to read, fewer how to write, and fewer still how to write complicated literary treatises.", "Jesus himself may have been able to read, presumably in Hebrew, but he was also exceptional and the star of the family.", "Even if somehow Jude had learned a little of how to read Hebrew, the epistle is written in excellent, complicated Koine Greek, with knowledge of common forms of rhetoric and argument of the era, as well as seeming knowledge of the scriptures in Hebrew.", "All this would be exceptional for a countryside Galilean.", "Scholars who support the authorship of Jude generally assume that he must have embarked upon extensive travel and missionary work among Hellenized Jews to master Greek as the author did.", "Ultimately, it is impossible to know more details of Jude's life for sure.", "One early Christian tradition states that Jude's grandchildren were brought before Emperor Domitian and interrogated; in the story, they defended themselves as not rebels and mere poor laborers eking out what they could from a single patch of land.", "While the story is clearly apocryphal – Roman emperors did not generally interrogate Galilean peasants – it does suggest that early Christians remembered Jude's family as lower-class laborers, not literate elites.If the Jude writing the letter was not Jude the Apostle mentioned in the gospels, then he was possibly an unknown Christian who happened to share the name and coincidentally also had a brother named James.", "A final possibility is that the epistle is pseudepigrapha – that the author intentionally hinted to readers that it was from the more famous Jude, but only as a false attribution to give the letter more authority.===Date===The date of composition is not known, but is loosely speculated to be between the years 50 and 110.Among those who favor the authorship of the Jude mentioned in the gospels, the letter is generally placed before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 AD.", "Among those who favor the authorship of an unknown Christian, it is assumed to be a work of the early second century.", "Scholars who consider the letter a pseudonymous work generally favor the later dates due to the letter's references to the apostles (as if they lived in the past) and to tradition and because of its competent Greek style.", "Bo Reicke suggests around 90 AD; Heikki Räisänen concurs and believes that it may have been written at the end of the first century.", "Bart Ehrman suggests an even later date, in the second half of the second century, due to use of certain terminology in ways similar to the pastoral epistles that was uncommon in the first century." ], [ "Content", "Jude urges his readers to \"contend for the faith\" against \"certain intruders who have stolen in among you.\"", "He warns about false teachers who twist the grace of Christ as a pretext for wantonness.", "Jude asks the reader to recall how even after the Lord saved his own people out of the land of Egypt, he did not hesitate to destroy those who fell into unbelief, much as he punished the angels who fell from their original exalted status and the inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah.", "He also paraphrases (verse 9) an incident apparently from the Assumption of Moses that has since been lost about Satan and Michael the Archangel quarreling over the body of Moses.Continuing the analogy from Israel's history, he says that the false teachers have followed in the way of Cain, have rushed after reward into the error of Balaam, and have perished in the rebellion of Korach.", "He describes in vivid terms the opponents he warns of, calling them \"clouds without rain\", \"trees without fruit\", \"foaming waves of the sea\", and \"wandering stars\".", "He exhorts believers to remember the words spoken by the Apostles, using language similar to the second epistle of Peter to answer concerns that the Lord seemed to tarry: \"In the last time there will be scoffers, indulging their own ungodly lusts,\" and to keep themselves in God's love, before delivering a doxology to God.Jude quotes directly from the Book of Enoch, a widely distributed work among the Old Testament pseudepigrapha, citing a section of 1 Enoch 1:8 that is based on Deuteronomy 33:2." ], [ "Style and audience", "Consisting of just 1 chapter with 25 verses, the Epistle of Jude is among the shortest books of the Bible.", "(The Epistle to Philemon also contains 25 verses, while the 21-verse Book of Obadiah, the 14-verse 3 John, and the 13-verse 2 John are shorter.", ")The wording and syntax of this epistle in its original Greek demonstrates that the author was capable and fluent.", "The epistle's style is combative, impassioned, and rushed.", "Many examples of evildoers and warnings about their fates are given in rapid succession.The epistle concludes with a doxology, which is considered by Peter H. Davids to be one of the highest in quality contained in the Bible.It may have been composed as an encyclical letter—that is, one not directed to the members of one church in particular, but intended rather to be circulated and read in all churches.", "While addressed to the Christian Church as a whole, the references to Old Testament figures such as Michael, Cain, and Korah's sons, the Book of Enoch, and the invocation of James as head of the church of Jerusalem suggests a Jewish Christian main audience that would be familiar with Enochian literature and revere James." ], [ "Canonical status", "The letter of Jude was one of the disputed books of the biblical canon of the New Testament.", "Despite some opposition, it seems to have been accepted by most churches around the end of the second century.", "Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and the Muratorian canon considered the letter canonical.", "The letter was eventually accepted as part of the canon by later Church Fathers such as Athanasius of Alexandria.", "The canon list at the Council of Carthage (c. 397) included the epistle of Jude.", "The first historical record of doubts as to authorship are found in the writings of Origen of Alexandria, who spoke of the doubts held by some in the early third century.", "Eusebius classified it with the \"disputed writings, the ''antilegomena''\" in the early fourth century.", "Eusebius doubted its authenticity partially because it was rarely quoted among ancient sources, although he acknowledges it was read in many churches.", "The links between the Epistle and 2 Peter and its use of the biblical apocrypha raised concern: Saint Jerome wrote in 392 AD that the book was \"rejected by many\" since it quotes the Book of Enoch." ], [ "Surviving early manuscripts", "Papyrus 78, containing the Epistle of Jude verses 4, 5, 7 and 8; it is dated to the 3rd or 4th centuryColophon of the Epistle of Jude in the Codex AlexandrinusEarly manuscripts containing the text of the epistle of Jude include:Papyrus 72 (3rd/4th century)Papyrus 78 (3rd/4th century; extant verses 4–5, 7–8)Codex Vaticanus ('''B''' or '''03'''; 325–350)Codex Sinaiticus ('''''' or '''01'''; 330–360)Codex Alexandrinus ('''A''' or '''02'''; 400–440)Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus ('''C''' or '''04'''; c. 450; extant verses 3–25)" ], [ "Identity of the opponents", "The epistle fiercely condemns the opponents it warns of and declares that God will judge and punish them, despite them being a part of the Christian community.", "However, the exact nature of these opponents has been a continuing interest for both theologians and historians, as the epistle does not describe them in any more detail than calling them corrupt and ungodly.", "Several theories have been proposed.", "The most specific verse describing the opponents is verse 8:Reject \"authority\" (κυριότητα, ''kyriotēta''; alternate translations include \"dominion\" or \"lordship\") could mean several things.", "The most direct would be rejection of civil or ecclesiastical authority: the opponents were ignoring guidance from leaders.", "Martin Luther and Jean Calvin agreed with this interpretation, and it is the most common one.", "Another possibility is that this specifically referred to rejecting the authority of Jesus or God, which would agree with verse 4 and be reinforcing the claim that these opponents are not true Christians.", "A third possibility is that this is the singular of ''kyriotētes'' (Dominions), a class of angels.", "This would fit with the final part of the sentence of \"heap abuse on celestial beings\", but it is unusual that the singular is used.", "Versions of Jude vary, and some manuscripts such as the Codex Sinaiticus indeed use the plural form.", "\"Heap abuse on celestial beings\" is also a relevant statement, as it stands in some tension with the works of Paul the Apostle as well as the Epistle to the Hebrews.", "Paul's undisputed works indicate that believers are already on the same level as angels, that all existing powers are subject to Christ, and believers are the future judges of angels.", "Later writings attributed to Paul such as Colossians and Ephesians go even further, with Colossians decrying the alleged worship of angels.", "A hypothesis is thus that the author may have been attacking forms of Pauline Christianity that were not suitably deferential to angels in their opinion.", "\"Rejecting authority\" may be a reference to Paul's preaching that gentiles did not need to comply with Jewish Law.", "As James was known to be a major figure among Jewish Christians, this might indicate tension between the more Jewish strands of early Christianity represented by James and Jude set against Paul's message to the gentiles.", "However, the line about \"heap abuse on celestial beings\" might have essentially been just another insult, in which case this entire line of thought is rendered moot.The inherent vagueness of the epistle means that the identities of these opponents may never be known." ], [ "Similarity to 2 Peter", "+ 2 Peter Jude 1:5 31:12 52:1 42:4 62:6 72:10–11 8–92:12 102:13–17 11–133:2-3 17-183:14 243:18 25Part of Jude is very similar to 2 Peter (mainly 2 Peter chapter 2); so much so that most scholars agree that either one letter used the other directly, or they both drew on a common source.", "Comparing the Greek text portions of 2 Peter 2:1–3:3 (426 words) to Jude 4–18 (311 words) results in 80 words in common and 7 words of substituted synonyms.Because this epistle is much shorter than 2 Peter, and due to various stylistic details, some scholars consider Jude the source for the similar passages of 2 Peter.", "However, other writers, arguing that Jude 18 quotes 2 Peter 3:3 as past tense, consider Jude to have come after 2 Peter.Some scholars who consider Jude to predate 2 Peter note that the latter appears to quote the former but omits the reference to the non-canonical book of Enoch." ], [ "References to other books", "Jude 9 on Codex Sinaiticus (c. 330–360)The Epistle of Jude references at least three other books, with two (Book of Zechariah & 2 Peter) being canonical in all churches and the other (Book of Enoch) non-canonical in most churches.Verse 9 refers to a dispute between Michael the Archangel and the devil about the body of Moses.", "Some interpreters understand this reference to be an allusion to the events described in Zechariah 3:1–2.The classical theologian Origen, as well as Clement of Alexandria, Didymus the Blind, and others, attributes this reference to the non-canonical Assumption of Moses.", "However, no extant copies of the Assumption of Moses contain this story, leading most scholars to conclude the section covering this dispute has been lost – perhaps a lost ending, since a story involving Moses's body would logically occur at the end.", "Some scholars disagree; James Charlesworth argues that the Assumption of Moses never contained any such content, and other ancient Church writers supported a different origin.Verses 14–15 contain a direct quotation of a prophecy from 1 Enoch 1:9.The title \"Enoch, the seventh from Adam\" is also sourced from 1 En.", "60:1.Most commentators assume that this indicates that Jude accepts the antediluvian patriarch Enoch as the author of the Book of Enoch which contains the same quotation.", "An alternative explanation is that Jude quotes the Book of Enoch aware that verses 14–15 are an expansion of the words of Moses from Deuteronomy 33:2.The Book of Enoch is not considered canonical by most churches, although it is by the Ethiopian Orthodox church.", "According to Western scholars, the older sections of the Book of Enoch (mainly in the ''Book of the Watchers'') date from about 300 BC and the latest part (''Book of Parables'') probably was composed at the end of the 1st century BC.", "1 Enoch 1:9, mentioned above, is part of the pseudepigrapha and is among the Dead Sea Scrolls 4Q Enoch (4Q2044QENAR) COL I 16–18.It is largely accepted by scholars that the author of the Epistle of Jude was familiar with the Book of Enoch and was influenced by it in thought and diction.The epistle also closely mirrors the Epistle of James, with many similar sentences and borrowed phrases." ], [ "See also", "* Textual variants in the Epistle of Jude" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * " ], [ "Further reading", " " ], [ "External links", "Online translations of the Epistle of Jude: ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org* Jude at Bible Gateway (various versions)* Early Christian writings: ''Epistle of Jude:'' comparable translations and interpretationsAudiobook Version:* Additional information:* Catholic Encyclopedia* Comprehensive study the Epistle of Jude* An Exegesis of Jude by Michael Quandt* BibleProject Animated Overview (evangelical perspective)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eusebius Amort" ], [ "Introduction", "Eusebius Amort'''Eusebius Amort''' (November 15, 1692February 5, 1775) was a German Roman Catholic theologian." ], [ "Life", "Amort was born at Bibermuhle, near Tolz, in Upper Bavaria.", "He studied at Munich, and at an early age joined the Canons Regular at Polling, where, shortly after his ordination in 1717, he taught theology and philosophy.The Parnassus Boicus learned society was based on a plan started in 1720 by three Augustinian fathers: Eusebius Amort, Gelasius Hieber (1671–1731), a famous preacher in the German language and Agnellus Kandler (1692–1745), a genealogist and librarian.", "The initial plans fell through, but in 1722 they issued the first volume of the ''Parnassus Boicus'' journal, communicating interesting information from the arts and sciences.An academy formed by him at Polling became in time the model on which was based the Academy of Sciences of Munich.In 1733 Amort went to Rome as theologian to Cardinal Niccolo Maria Lercari (died 1757).He returned to Polling in 1735 and devoted the rest of his life to the revival of learning in Bavaria.", "He died at Polling in 1775." ], [ "Works", "Amort, who had the reputation of being the most learned man of his age, was a voluminous writer on every conceivable subject, from poetry to astronomy, from dogmatic theology to mysticism.", "His best known works are:A manual of theology in 4 vols, ''Theologia eclectica, moralis et scholastica'' (Augsburg, 1752; revised by Pope Benedict XIV for the 1753 edition published at Bologna)A defence of Catholic doctrine, entitled ''Demonstratio critica religionis Catholicae'' (Augsburg, 1751)A work on indulgences, which has often been criticized by Protestant writers, ''De Origine, Progressu, Valore, et Fructu Indulgentiorum'' (Augsburg, 1735)The astronomical work ''Nova philosophiae planetarum et artis criticae systemata'' (Nuremberg, 1723).A treatise on mysticism, ''De Revelationibus et Visionibus, etc.''", "(2 vols, Augsburg 1744) was directed against the \"Mystic City of God,\" by the Spanish Franciscan nun, Maria de Agreda, and brought him into conflict with several of her Franciscan defenders.The list of his other works, including his three erudite contributions to the question of authorship of the ''Imitatio Christi'', will be found in C. Toussaint's scholarly article in Alfred Vacant's ''Dictionnaire de theologie'' (1900, cols 1115-1117)." ], [ "References", "'''Citations''''''Sources'''**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Episcopus vagans" ], [ "Introduction", "In Christianity, an '''''episcopus vagans''''' (plural '''''episcopi vagantes'''''; Latin for 'wandering bishops' or 'stray bishops') is a person consecrated, in a \"clandestine or irregular way\", as a bishop outside the structures and canon law of the established churches; a person regularly consecrated but later excommunicated, and not in communion with any generally recognized diocese; or a person who has in communion with them small groups that appear to exist solely for the bishop's sake.David V. Barrett, in the ''Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements'', specifies that now '''' are \"those independent bishops who collect several different lines of transmission of apostolic succession, and who will happily (and sometimes for a fee) consecrate anyone who requests it\".", "Those described as wandering bishops often see the term as pejorative.", "The general term for \"wandering\" clerics, as were common in the Middle Ages, is ''clerici vagantes''; the general term for those recognising no leader is ''acephali''.The ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' mentions as the main lines of succession deriving from ''episcopi vagantes'' in the 20th century those founded by Arnold Mathew, Joseph René Vilatte and Leon Chechemian.", "Others that could be added are those derived from, Carlos Duarte Costa, Paolo Miraglia-Gulotti, Emmanuel Milingo, Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục and Richard Williamson." ], [ "History", "According to Buchanan, \"the real rise of the problem\" happened in the 19th century, in the \"wake of the Anglo-Catholic movement\", \"through mischievous activities of a tiny number of independently acting bishops\".", "They exist worldwide, he writes, \"mostly without congregations\", and \"many in different stages of delusion and fantasy, not least in the Episcopal titles they confer on themselves\"; \"the distinguishing mark\" to \"specifically identify\" an ''episcopus vagans'' is \"the lack of a true see or the lack of a real church life to oversee\".Paul Halsall, on the Internet History Sourcebooks Project, did not list a single church edifice of independent bishops, in a 1996–1998 New York City building architecture survey of religious communities, which maintain bishops claiming apostolic succession and claim cathedral status but noted there \"are now literally hundreds of these '', of lesser or greater spiritual probity.", "They seem to have a tendency to call living room sanctuaries 'cathedrals';\" those buildings were not perceived as cultural symbols and did not meet the survey criteria.", "David V. Barrett wrote, in ''A Brief Guide to Secret Religions'', that \"one hallmark of such bishops is that they often collect as many lineages as they can to strengthen their Episcopal legitimacy—at least in their own eyes\" and their groups have more clergy than members.Barrett wrote that leaders \"of some esoteric movements, are also priests or bishops in small non-mainstream Christian Churches\"; he explains, this type of \"independent or autocephalous\" group has \"little in common with the Church it developed from, the Old Catholic Church, and even less in common with the Roman Catholic Church\" but still claims its authority from apostolic succession.Buchanan writes that based the criteria of having \"a true see\" or having \"a real church life to oversee\", the bishops of most forms of the Continuing Anglican movement are not necessarily classified as vagantes, but \"are always in danger of becoming such\"." ], [ "Theological issues", "A Roman or Eastern Catholic ordained to the episcopacy without a mandate from the Pope is automatically excommunicated and is thereby forbidden to celebrate the sacraments, according to canon law.", "Through the concept of \"valid but illicit\" ordinations however, and the dogma of sacramental character, though excommunicated and forbidden to celebrate sacraments within any church in communion with the Holy See, the person still holds a valid episcopacy though unrecognized at large.According to a theological view affirmed, for instance, by the International Bishops' Conference of the Old Catholic Church with regard to ordinations by Arnold Mathew, an episcopal ordination is for service within a specific Christian church, and an ordination ceremony that concerns only the individual himself does not make him truly a bishop.", "The Holy See has not commented on the validity of this theory, but has declared with regard to ordinations of this kind carried out, for example, by Emmanuel Milingo toward Peter Paul Brennan and others, that the Roman Church \"does not recognize and does not intend to recognize in the future those ordinations or any of the ordinations derived from them and therefore the canonical state of the alleged bishops remains that in which they were before the ordination conferred by Mr Milingo\", thereby recognizing their previous stance as \"illicit but valid\" clergy prior to Milingo.===Eastern Orthodox===Vlassios Pheidas, on an official Church of Greece site, uses the canonical language of the Eastern Orthodox tradition, to describe the conditions in ecclesial praxis when sacraments, including Holy Orders, are real, valid, and efficacious.", "He notes language is itself part of the ecclesiological problem.This applies to the validity and efficacy of the ordination of bishops and the other sacraments, not only of the Independent Catholic churches, but also of all other Christian churches, including the Roman Catholic Church, Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East.", "However, although strict adherence to law supersedes economy by their Cyprian understanding, some mainstream Eastern Orthodox bodies recognize Roman Catholic orders and don't conditionally ordain clergy as each autocephalous church determines the validity of another's ordination.", "The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople likewise teaches that through \"extreme oikonomia economy\", those who are baptized in the Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Old Catholic, Moravian, Anglican, Methodist, Reformed, Presbyterian, Church of the Brethren, Assemblies of God, or Baptist traditions can be received into the Eastern Orthodox Church through the sacrament of Chrismation and not through re-baptism.===Anglican===Anglican bishop Colin Buchanan, in the ''Historical Dictionary of Anglicanism'', says that the Anglican Communion has held an Augustinian view of orders, by which \"the validity of Episcopal ordinations (to whichever order) is based solely upon the historic succession in which the ordaining bishop stands, irrespective of their contemporary ecclesial context\".He describes the circumstances of Archbishop Matthew Parker's consecration as one of the reasons why this theory is \"generally held\".", "Parker was chosen by Queen Elizabeth I of England to be the first Church of England Archbishop of Canterbury after the death of the previous office holder, Cardinal Reginald Pole, the last Roman Catholic Archbishop of Canterbury.", "Buchanan notes the Roman Catholic Church also focuses on issues of intention and not just breaks in historical succession.", "He does not explain whether intention has an ecclesiological role, for Anglicans, in conferring or receiving sacraments." ], [ "Particular consecrations", "Arnold Mathew, according to Buchanan, \"lapsed into the vagaries of an ''''\".", "Stephen Edmonds, in the ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', wrote that in 1910 Mathew's wife separated from him; that same year, he declared himself and his church seceded from the Union of Utrecht.", "Within a few months, on 2 November 1911, he was excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church.", "He later sued ''The Times'' for libel based on the words \"pseudo-bishop\" used to describe him in the newspaper's translation from the Latin text \"''''\", and, lost his case in 1913.Henry R.T. Brandreth wrote, in ''Episcopi Vagantes and the Anglican Church'', \"one of the most regrettable features of Mathew's episcopate was the founding of the Order of Corporate Reunion (OCR) in 1908.This claimed to be a revival of Frederick George Lee's movement, but was in fact unconnected with it\".", "Brandreth thought it \"seems still to exist in a shadowy underground way\" in 1947, but disconnected.", "Colin Holden, in ''Ritualist on a Tricycle'', places Mathew and his into perspective, he wrote Mathew was an '''', lived in a cottage provided for him, and performed his conditional acts, sometimes called according to Holden \"bedroom ordinations\", in his cottage.", "Mathew questioned the validity of Anglican ordinations and became involved with the OCR, in 1911 according to Edmonds, and he openly advertised his offer to reordain Anglican clergy who requested it.", "This angered the Church of England.In 1912, D. J. Scannell O'Neill wrote in ''The Fortnightly Review'' that London \"seems to have more than her due share of bishops\" and enumerates what he refers to as \"these hireling shepherds\".", "He also announces that one of them, Mathew, revived the OCR and published ''The Torch'', a monthly review, advocating the reconstruction of Western Christianity and reunion with Eastern Christianity.", "''The Torch'' stated \"that the ordinations of the Church of England are not recognized by any church claiming to be Catholic\" so the promoters involved Mathew to conditionally ordain group members who are \"clergy of the Established Church\" and \"sign a profession of the Catholic Faith\".", "It stipulated Mathew's services were not a system of simony and given without simoniac expectations.", "The group sought to enroll \"earnest-minded Catholics who sincerely desire to help forward the work of corporate reunion with the Holy See\".", "Nigel Yates, in ''Anglican Ritualism in Victorian Britain, 1830-1910'', described it as \"an even more bizarre scheme to promote a Catholic Uniate Church in Britain\" than Lee and Ambrose Lisle March Phillipps de Lisle's Association for the Promotion of the Unity of Christendom.", "It was editorialized by O'Neill that the \"most charitable construction to be placed on this latest move of Mathew is that he is not mentally sound.", "Being an Irishman, it is strange that he has not sufficient humor to see the absurdity of falling away from the Catholic Church in order to assist others to unite with the Holy See\".", "Edmonds reports that \"anything between 4 and 265 was suggested\" as to how many took up his offer of reordination.When it declared devoid of canonical effect the consecration ceremony conducted by Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục for the Carmelite Order of the Holy Face group at midnight of 31 December 1975, the Holy See refrained from pronouncing on its validity.", "It also made the same statement with regard to later ordinations by those bishops, saying that, \"as for those who have already thus unlawfully received ordination or any who may yet accept ordination from these, whatever may be the validity of the orders (), the Church does not and will not recognise their ordination (), and will consider them, for all legal effects, as still in the state in which they were before, except that the ... penalties remain until they repent\".A similar declaration was issued with regard to Archbishop Emmanuel Milingo's conferring of episcopal ordination on four men - all of whom, by virtue of previous Independent Catholic consecrations, claimed already to be bishops - on 24 September 2006: the Holy See, as well as stating that, in accordance with Canon 1382 of the Code of Canon Law, all five men involved incurred automatic () excommunication through their actions, declared that \"the Church does not recognise and does not intend in the future to recognise these ordinations or any ordinations derived from them, and she holds that the canonical state of the four alleged bishops is the same as it was prior to the ordination\".", "Consecrations that the late Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre performed in 1988 for the service of the relatively numerous followers of the Traditionalist Catholic Society of St. Pius X that he had founded, and of the bishops who, under pressure from the Catholic Patriotic Association, \"have been ordained without the Pontifical mandate and who have not asked for, or have not yet obtained, the necessary legitimation\", and who consequently, Pope Benedict XVI declared, \"are to be considered illegitimate, but validly ordained\"." ], [ "Notes and references", "===Notes======References===" ], [ "Further reading", "* '' Episcopi Vagantes in Church History''.", "A.J.", "Macdonald.", "London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1945.Project Canterbury * '' Episcopi Vagantes and the Anglican Church'' (1947, 1961) Project Canterbury* ''Bishops at Large''.", "Peter Anson.", "New York City: October House Publishing, 1963.", "* ''Independent Bishops: An International Directory'', edited by Gary L. Ward, Bertil Persson, and Alan Bain.", "Apogee Books, 1990* ''The Priesthood Renewed: The Personal Journey of a Married Priest'', by Archbishop Emmanuel Milingo, HSA Publications, New York, 2005." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Elizabeth Garrett Anderson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elizabeth Garrett Anderson''' (9 June 1836 – 17 December 1917) was an English physician and suffragist.", "She is known for being the first woman to qualify in Britain as a physician and surgeon and as a co-founder and dean of the London School of Medicine for Women, which was the first medical school in Britain to train women as doctors.", "She was the first female dean of a British medical school, the first woman in Britain to be elected to a school board and, as mayor of Aldeburgh, the first female mayor in Britain." ], [ "Early life", "Her parents, Newson and Louisa Garrett in their old age; from ''What I Remember'' by Millicent Garrett Fawcett Elizabeth was born in Whitechapel, London, and was the second of eleven children of Newson Garrett (1812–1893), from Leiston, Suffolk, and his wife, Louisa (born Dunnell; 1813–1903), from London.Her paternal ancestors had been ironworkers in East Suffolk since the early seventeenth century.", "Newson was the youngest of three sons and not academically inclined, although he possessed the family's entrepreneurial spirit.", "When he finished school, Newson found few opportunities in Leiston, so he moved to London to make his fortune.", "There, he fell in love with his brother's sister-in-law, Louisa Dunnell, the daughter of an innkeeper of Suffolk origin.", "After their wedding, the couple went to live in a pawnbroker's shop at 1 Commercial Road, Whitechapel.", "The Garretts had their first three children in quick succession: Louie, Elizabeth, and a son, Dunnell, who died at the age of six months.", "When Garrett was three years old, the family moved to 142 Long Acre, where they lived for two years, while one more child was born and her father advanced in his career, becoming not only the manager of a larger pawnbroker's shop, but also a silversmith.", "Garrett's grandfather, owner of the family engineering works, Richard Garrett & Sons, had died in 1837, leaving the business to his eldest son, Garrett's uncle.", "Despite his lack of capital, Newson was determined to be successful and in 1841, at the age of 29, he moved his family to Suffolk, where he bought a barley and coal merchants business in Snape, constructing Snape Maltings from 1846.The Garretts lived in a square Georgian house opposite the church in Aldeburgh until 1852.Newson's malting business expanded and more children were born, Edmund (1840), Alice (1842), Agnes (1845), Millicent (1847), who was to become a leader in the constitutional campaign for women's suffrage, Sam (1850), Josephine (1853) and George (1854).", "By 1850, Newson was a prosperous businessman and was able to build Alde House, a mansion on a hill behind Aldeburgh.", "A \"by-product of the industrial revolution\", Garrett grew up in an atmosphere of \"triumphant economic pioneering\" and the Garrett children were to grow up to become achievers in the professional classes of late-Victorian England.", "Elizabeth was encouraged to take an interest in local politics and, contrary to practices at the time, was allowed the freedom to explore the town with its nearby salt-marshes, beach and the small port of Slaughden with its boatbuilders' yards and sailmakers' lofts." ], [ "Early education", "There was no school in Aldeburgh, so Garrett learned reading, writing, and arithmetic from her mother.", "When she was 10 years old, a governess, Miss Edgeworth, a poor gentlewoman, was employed to educate Garrett and her sister.", "Mornings were spent in the schoolroom; there were regimented afternoon walks; educating the young ladies continued at mealtimes when Edgeworth ate with the family; at night, the governess slept in a curtained off area in the girls' bedroom.", "Garrett reportedly despised her governess and sought to outwit the teacher in the classroom.", "When Garrett was 13 and her sister 15, they were sent to a private school, the Boarding School for Ladies in Blackheath, London, which was run by the step aunts of the poet Robert Browning.", "There, English literature, French, Italian and German as well as deportment, were taught.A portrait of Garrett in the 1860sLater in life, Garrett recalled the stupidity of her teachers there, though her schooling there did help establish a love of reading.", "Her main complaint about the school was the lack of science and mathematics instruction.", "Her reading there included works of Tennyson, Wordsworth, Milton, Coleridge, Trollope, Thackeray and George Eliot.", "Elizabeth and Louie were known as \"the bathing Garretts\", as their father had insisted they be allowed a hot bath once a week.", "However, they made what were to be lifelong friends there.", "When they finished in 1851, they were sent on a short tour abroad, ending with a memorable visit to the Great Exhibition in Hyde Park, London.After this formal education, Garrett spent the next nine years tending to domestic duties, but she continued to study Latin and arithmetic in the mornings and also read widely.", "Her sister Millicent recalled Garrett's weekly lectures, \"Talks on Things in General\", when her younger siblings would gather while she discussed politics and current affairs from Garibaldi to Macaulay's ''History of England''.", "In 1854, when she was eighteen, Garrett and her sister went on a long visit to their school friends, Jane and Anne Crow, in Gateshead where she met Emily Davies, the early feminist and future co-founder of Girton College, Cambridge.", "Davies was to be a lifelong friend and confidante, always ready to give sound advice during the important decisions of Garrett's career.", "It may have been in the ''English Woman's Journal'', first issued in 1858, that Garrett first read of Elizabeth Blackwell, who had become the first female doctor in the United States in 1849.When Blackwell visited London in 1859, Garrett travelled to the capital.", "By then, her sister Louie was married and living in London.", "Garrett joined the Society for Promoting the Employment of Women, which organised Blackwell's lectures on \"Medicine as a Profession for Ladies\" and set up a private meeting between Garrett and the doctor.", "It is said that during a visit to Alde House around 1860, one evening while sitting by the fireside, Garrett and Davies selected careers for advancing the frontiers of women's rights; Garrett was to open the medical profession to women, Davies the doors to a university education for women, while 13-year-old Millicent was allocated politics and votes for women.", "At first Newson was opposed to the radical idea of his daughter becoming a physician but came round and agreed to do all in his power, both financially and otherwise, to support Garrett." ], [ "Medical education", "After an initial unsuccessful visit to leading doctors in Harley Street, Garrett decided to first spend six months as a surgery nurse at Middlesex Hospital, London in August 1860.On proving to be a good nurse, she was allowed to attend an outpatients' clinic, then her first operation.", "She unsuccessfully attempted to enroll in the hospital's Medical School but was allowed to attend private tuition in Latin, Greek and pharmacology with the hospital's apothecary, while continuing her work as a nurse.", "She also employed a tutor to study anatomy and physiology three evenings a week.", "Eventually she was allowed into the dissecting room and the chemistry lectures.", "Gradually, Garrett became an unwelcome presence among the male students, who in 1861 presented a memorial to the school against her admittance as a fellow student, despite the support she enjoyed from the administration.", "She was obliged to leave the Middlesex Hospital but she did so with an honours certificate in chemistry and ''materia medica''.", "Garrett then applied to several medical schools, including Oxford, Cambridge, Glasgow, Edinburgh, St Andrews and the Royal College of Surgeons, all of which refused her admittance.A companion to Garrett in this effort was the lesser known Sophia Jex-Blake.", "While both are considered \"outstanding\" medical figures of the late 19th century, Garrett was able to obtain her credentials by way of a \"side door\" through a loophole in admissions at the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries.", "Having privately obtained a certificate in anatomy and physiology, she was admitted in 1862 by the Society of Apothecaries who, as a condition of their charter, could not legally exclude her on account of her sex.", "She was the only woman in the Apothecaries Hall who sat the exam that year.", "Among the 51 male candidates was William Heath Strange, who went on to found the Hampstead General Hospital, which was on the site now occupied by the Royal Free Hospital.", "She continued her battle to qualify by studying privately with various professors, including some at the University of St Andrews, the Edinburgh Royal Maternity and the London Hospital Medical School.In 1865, Garrett finally took her exam and obtained a licence (LSA) from the Society of Apothecaries to practise medicine, the first woman qualified in Britain to do so openly (previously there was Dr James Barry who was born and raised female but presented as male from the age of 20).", "On the day, three out of seven candidates passed the exam, Garrett with the highest marks.", "The Society of Apothecaries immediately amended its regulations to prevent other women obtaining a licence meaning that Jex-Blake could not follow this same path; the new rule disallowed privately educated women to be eligible for examination.", "It was not until 1876 that the new Medical Act (39 and 40 Vict, Ch.", "41) passed, which allowed British medical authorities to license all qualified applicants whatever their gender." ], [ "Career", "Elizabeth Garrett Anderson before the Faculty of Medicine, ParisThough she was now a licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries, as a woman, Garrett could not hold a medical post in any hospital.", "So in late 1865, Garrett opened her own practice at 20 Upper Berkeley Street, London.", "At first patients were scarce, but the practice gradually grew.", "After six months in practice, she wished to open an outpatients dispensary, to enable poor women to obtain medical help from a qualified practitioner of their own gender.", "In 1865, there was an outbreak of cholera in Britain, affecting both rich and poor, and in their panic, some people forgot any prejudices they had in relation to a female physician.", "The first death due to cholera occurred in 1866, but by then Garrett had already opened St Mary's Dispensary for Women and Children, at 69 Seymour Place.", "In the first year, she tended to 3,000 new patients, who made 9,300 outpatient visits to the dispensary.", "On hearing that the Dean of the faculty of medicine at the University of Sorbonne, Paris was in favour of admitting women as medical students, Garrett studied French so that she could apply for a medical degree, which she obtained in 1870 after some difficulty.Caricature of Garrett Anderson published in 1872The same year she was elected to the first London School Board, an office newly opened to women; Garrett's was the highest vote among all the candidates.", "Also in that year, she was made a visiting physician of the East London Hospital for Children (later the Queen Elizabeth Hospital for Children), becoming the first woman in Britain to be appointed to a medical post, but she found the duties of these two positions to be incompatible with her principal work in her private practice and the dispensary, as well as her role as a new mother, so she resigned from these posts by 1873.In 1872, the dispensary became the New Hospital for Women and Children, treating women from all over London for gynaecological conditions; the hospital moved to new premises in Marylebone Street in 1874.Around this time, Garrett also entered into discussion with male medical views regarding women.", "In 1874, Henry Maudsley's article on Sex and Mind in Education appeared, which argued that education for women caused over-exertion and thus reduced their reproductive capacity, sometimes causing \"nervous and even mental disorders\".", "Garrett's counter-argument was that the real danger for women was not education but boredom and that fresh air and exercise were preferable to sitting by the fire with a novel.", "In the same year, she co-founded London School of Medicine for Women with Sophia Jex-Blake and became a lecturer in what was then the only teaching hospital in Britain to offer courses for women.", "She continued to work there for the rest of her career and was dean of the school from 1883 to 1902.This school was later called the Royal Free Hospital of Medicine, which later became part of what is now the medical school of University College London.=== BMA membership ===Garrett Anderson circa 1889Garrett Anderson as mayor of Aldeburgh, November 1908In 1873, Garrett gained membership of the British Medical Association (BMA).", "In 1878, a motion was proposed to exclude women following the election of Garrett Anderson and Frances Hoggan.", "The motion was opposed by Dr Norman Kerr who maintained the equal rights of members.", "This was \"one of several instances where Garrett, uniquely, was able to enter a hitherto all male medical institution which subsequently moved formally to exclude any women who might seek to follow her.\"", "In 1892, women were again admitted to the British Medical Association.", "In 1897, Garrett Anderson was elected president of the East Anglian branch of the BMA.The Hospital for Women, now occupied by Unison, in 2018Garrett Anderson worked steadily at the development of the New Hospital for Women and Children and in 1874 co-founded and served as dean of the London School of Medicine for Women (LSMW).", "Both institutions were handsomely and suitably housed and equipped.", "The New Hospital for Women commissioned a building in the Euston Road; the architect was J. M. Brydon, who took into his employment Anderson's sister Agnes Garrett and her cousin Rhoda Garrett, who contributed to its design.", "For many years, the hospital was staffed entirely by medical women.", "The schools (in Hunter Street, WC1) had over 200 students, most of them preparing for the medical degree of London University (the present-day University College London), which was opened to women in 1877." ], [ "Women’s suffrage movement", "Garrett Anderson with Emmeline Pankhurst on Black Friday, 18 November 1910Garrett AndersonGarrett Anderson was also active in the women's suffrage movement.", "In 1866, Garrett Anderson and Davies presented petitions with more than 1,500 signatures asking that female heads of household be given the right to vote.", "That year, Garrett Anderson joined the first British Women's Suffrage Committee.", "She was not as active as her sister, Millicent Garrett Fawcett, though Garrett Anderson became a member of the Central Committee of the National Society for Women's Suffrage in 1889.After her husband's death in 1907, she became more active.", "As mayor of Aldeburgh, she gave speeches for suffrage, before the increasing militant activity in the movement led to her withdrawal in 1911.Her daughter Louisa, also a physician, was more active and more militant, spending time in prison in 1912 for her suffrage activities." ], [ "Personal life", "Elizabeth Garrett Anderson once remarked that \"a doctor leads two lives, the professional and the private, and the boundaries between the two are never traversed\".", "In 1871, she married James George Skelton Anderson (died 1907) of the Orient Steamship Company, but she did not give up her medical practice.", "She had three children, Louisa (1873–1943), Margaret (1874–1875), who died of meningitis, and Alan (1877–1952).", "Louisa also became a pioneering doctor of medicine and feminist activist.They retired to Aldeburgh in 1902, moving to Alde House in 1903, after the death of Elizabeth's mother.", "Skelton died of a stroke in 1907.She enjoyed a happy marriage and in later life, devoted time to Alde House, gardening, and travelling with younger members of the extended family.On 9 November 1908, she was elected mayor of Aldeburgh, the first female mayor in England.", "Her father had been mayor in 1889.She died in 1917 and is buried in the churchyard of St Peter and St Paul's Church, Aldeburgh." ], [ "Legacy", "The Garrett Anderson Centre, Ipswich HospitalThe New Hospital for Women was renamed the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital in 1918 and amalgamated with the Obstetric Hospital in 2001 to form the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital before relocating to become the University College Hospital Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Wing at UCH.The former Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital buildings are incorporated into the new National Headquarters for the public service trade union UNISON.", "The Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Gallery, a permanent installation set within the restored hospital building, uses a variety of media to set the story of Garrett Anderson, her hospital, and women's struggle to achieve equality in the field of medicine within the wider framework of 19th and 20th century social history.The critical care centre at Ipswich Hospital was named the Garrett Anderson Centre in her honour and in recognition of her connection to the county of Suffolk.The new medical school at the University of Worcester, due to accept its first students in 2023, is to be called the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Building.Elizabeth Garrett Anderson School, a secondary school for girls in Islington, London, is named after her.The archives of Elizabeth Garrett Anderson are held at the Women's Library at the London School of Economics.", "The archives of the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital (formerly the New Hospital for Women) are held at the London Metropolitan Archives.On 9 June 2016, Google Doodle commemorated her 180th birthday.The Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Programme of the NHS Leadership Academy is a master's degree in leadership and management." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*****" ], [ "External links", " Elizabeth Garrett Anderson* BBC page on Elizabeth Garrett Anderson.", "* Picture of The United Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital and Hospital for Women Soho, near Euston Station in London." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Erosion" ], [ "Introduction", "An actively eroding rill on an intensively-farmed field in eastern Germany'''Erosion''' is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust and then transports it to another location where it is deposited.", "Erosion is distinct from weathering which involves no movement.", "Removal of rock or soil as clastic sediment is referred to as ''physical'' or ''mechanical'' erosion; this contrasts with ''chemical'' erosion, where soil or rock material is removed from an area by dissolution.", "Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, or for thousands of kilometres.Agents of erosion include rainfall; bedrock wear in rivers; coastal erosion by the sea and waves; glacial plucking, abrasion, and scour; areal flooding; wind abrasion; groundwater processes; and mass movement processes in steep landscapes like landslides and debris flows.", "The rates at which such processes act control how fast a surface is eroded.", "Typically, physical erosion proceeds the fastest on steeply sloping surfaces, and rates may also be sensitive to some climatically controlled properties including amounts of water supplied (e.g., by rain), storminess, wind speed, wave fetch, or atmospheric temperature (especially for some ice-related processes).", "Feedbacks are also possible between rates of erosion and the amount of eroded material that is already carried by, for example, a river or glacier.", "The transport of eroded materials from their original location is followed by deposition, which is arrival and emplacement of material at a new location.While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10–40 times the rate at which soil erosion is occurring globally.", "At agriculture sites in the Appalachian Mountains, intensive farming practices have caused erosion at up to 100 times the natural rate of erosion in the region.", "Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both \"on-site\" and \"off-site\" problems.", "On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers.", "In some cases, this leads to desertification.", "Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads and houses.", "Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the most significant environmental problems worldwide.Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating erosion.", "However, there are many prevention and remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of vulnerable soils.A natural arch produced by the wind erosion of differentially weathered rock in Jebel Kharaz, Jordan A wave-like sea cliff produced by coastal erosion, in Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China" ], [ "Physical processes", "===Rainfall and surface runoff===Soil and water being splashed by the impact of a single raindropRainfall, and the surface runoff which may result from rainfall, produces four main types of soil erosion: ''splash erosion'', ''sheet erosion'', ''rill erosion'', and ''gully erosion''.", "Splash erosion is generally seen as the first and least severe stage in the soil erosion process, which is followed by sheet erosion, then rill erosion and finally gully erosion (the most severe of the four).In ''splash erosion'', the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil, ejecting soil particles.", "The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as vertically and horizontally on level ground.If the soil is saturated, or if the rainfall rate is greater than the rate at which water can infiltrate into the soil, surface runoff occurs.", "If the runoff has sufficient flow energy, it will transport loosened soil particles (sediment) down the slope.", "''Sheet erosion'' is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow.A spoil tip covered in rills and gullies due to erosion processes caused by rainfall: Rummu, Estonia''Rill erosion'' refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths which function as both sediment source and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hillslopes.", "Generally, where water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are active.", "Flow depths in rills are typically of the order of a few centimetres (about an inch) or less and along-channel slopes may be quite steep.", "This means that rills exhibit hydraulic physics very different from water flowing through the deeper, wider channels of streams and rivers.", "''Gully erosion'' occurs when runoff water accumulates and rapidly flows in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow, removing soil to a considerable depth.", "A gully is distinguished from a rill based on a critical cross-sectional area of at least one square foot, i.e.", "the size of a channel that can no longer be erased via normal tillage operations.Extreme gully erosion can progress to formation of badlands.", "These form under conditions of high relief on easily eroded bedrock in climates favorable to erosion.", "Conditions or disturbances that limit the growth of protective vegetation (rhexistasy) are a key element of badland formation.===Rivers and streams===Burn, Scotland, showing two different types of erosion affecting the same place.", "Valley erosion is occurring due to the flow of the stream, and the boulders and stones (and much of the soil) that are lying on the stream's banks are glacial till that was left behind as ice age glaciers flowed over the terrain.Layers of chalk exposed by a river eroding through them''Valley'' or ''stream erosion'' occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature.", "The erosion is both downward, deepening the valley, and headward, extending the valley into the hillside, creating head cuts and steep banks.", "In the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive activity is dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical V-shaped cross-section and the stream gradient is relatively steep.", "When some base level is reached, the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain.", "The stream gradient becomes nearly flat, and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream meanders across the valley floor.", "In all stages of stream erosion, by far the most erosion occurs during times of flood when more and faster-moving water is available to carry a larger sediment load.", "In such processes, it is not the water alone that erodes: suspended abrasive particles, pebbles, and boulders can also act erosively as they traverse a surface, in a process known as ''traction''.", "''Bank erosion'' is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river.", "This is distinguished from changes on the bed of the watercourse, which is referred to as ''scour''.", "Erosion and changes in the form of river banks may be measured by inserting metal rods into the bank and marking the position of the bank surface along the rods at different times.", "''Thermal erosion'' is the result of melting and weakening permafrost due to moving water.", "It can occur both along rivers and at the coast.", "Rapid river channel migration observed in the Lena River of Siberia is due to thermal erosion, as these portions of the banks are composed of permafrost-cemented non-cohesive materials.", "Much of this erosion occurs as the weakened banks fail in large slumps.", "Thermal erosion also affects the Arctic coast, where wave action and near-shore temperatures combine to undercut permafrost bluffs along the shoreline and cause them to fail.", "Annual erosion rates along a segment of the Beaufort Sea shoreline averaged per year from 1955 to 2002.Most river erosion happens nearer to the mouth of a river.", "On a river bend, the longest least sharp side has slower moving water.", "Here deposits build up.", "On the narrowest sharpest side of the bend, there is faster moving water so this side tends to erode away mostly.Rapid erosion by a large river can remove enough sediments to produce a river anticline, as isostatic rebound raises rock beds unburdened by erosion of overlying beds.===Coastal erosion===Wave cut platform caused by erosion of cliffs by the sea, at Southerndown in South WalesErosion of the boulder clay (of Pleistocene age) along cliffs of Filey Bay, Yorkshire, EnglandShoreline erosion, which occurs on both exposed and sheltered coasts, primarily occurs through the action of currents and waves but sea level (tidal) change can also play a role.Sea-dune erosion at Talacre beach, Wales''Hydraulic action'' takes place when the air in a joint is suddenly compressed by a wave closing the entrance of the joint.", "This then cracks it.", "''Wave pounding'' is when the sheer energy of the wave hitting the cliff or rock breaks pieces off.", "''Abrasion'' or ''corrasion'' is caused by waves launching sea load at the cliff.", "It is the most effective and rapid form of shoreline erosion (not to be confused with ''corrosion'').", "''Corrosion'' is the dissolving of rock by carbonic acid in sea water.", "Limestone cliffs are particularly vulnerable to this kind of erosion.", "''Attrition'' is where particles/sea load carried by the waves are worn down as they hit each other and the cliffs.", "This then makes the material easier to wash away.", "The material ends up as shingle and sand.", "Another significant source of erosion, particularly on carbonate coastlines, is boring, scraping and grinding of organisms, a process termed ''bioerosion''.Sediment is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (longshore drift).", "When the upcurrent supply of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs.", "When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result of deposition.", "These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline.", "Where there is a bend in the coastline, quite often a buildup of eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank (a spit).", "Armoured beaches and submerged offshore sandbanks may also protect parts of a coastline from erosion.", "Over the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack different parts of the shore.Erosion of a coastal surface, followed by a fall in sea level, can produce a distinctive landform called a raised beach.===Chemical erosion===Chemical erosion is the loss of matter in a landscape in the form of solutes.", "Chemical erosion is usually calculated from the solutes found in streams.", "Anders Rapp pioneered the study of chemical erosion in his work about Kärkevagge published in 1960.Formation of sinkholes and other features of karst topography is an example of extreme chemical erosion.===Glaciers===The Devil's Nest (''Pirunpesä''), the deepest ground erosion in Europe, located in Jalasjärvi, Kurikka, FinlandGlacial moraines above Lake Louise, in Alberta, CanadaGlaciers erode predominantly by three different processes: abrasion/scouring, plucking, and ice thrusting.", "In an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood.", "Scientists have shown that, in addition to the role of temperature played in valley-deepening, other glaciological processes, such as erosion also control cross-valley variations.", "In a homogeneous bedrock erosion pattern, curved channel cross-section beneath the ice is created.", "Though the glacier continues to incise vertically, the shape of the channel beneath the ice eventually remain constant, reaching a U-shaped parabolic steady-state shape as we now see in glaciated valleys.", "Scientists also provide a numerical estimate of the time required for the ultimate formation of a steady-shaped U-shaped valley—approximately 100,000 years.", "In a weak bedrock (containing material more erodible than the surrounding rocks) erosion pattern, on the contrary, the amount of over deepening is limited because ice velocities and erosion rates are reduced.Glaciers can also cause pieces of bedrock to crack off in the process of plucking.", "In ice thrusting, the glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen sediment at the base along with the glacier.", "This method produced some of the many thousands of lake basins that dot the edge of the Canadian Shield.", "Differences in the height of mountain ranges are not only being the result tectonic forces, such as rock uplift, but also local climate variations.", "Scientists use global analysis of topography to show that glacial erosion controls the maximum height of mountains, as the relief between mountain peaks and the snow line are generally confined to altitudes less than 1500 m. The erosion caused by glaciers worldwide erodes mountains so effectively that the term ''glacial buzzsaw'' has become widely used, which describes the limiting effect of glaciers on the height of mountain ranges.", "As mountains grow higher, they generally allow for more glacial activity (especially in the accumulation zone above the glacial equilibrium line altitude), which causes increased rates of erosion of the mountain, decreasing mass faster than isostatic rebound can add to the mountain.", "This provides a good example of a negative feedback loop.", "Ongoing research is showing that while glaciers tend to decrease mountain size, in some areas, glaciers can actually reduce the rate of erosion, acting as a ''glacial armor''.", "Ice can not only erode mountains but also protect them from erosion.", "Depending on glacier regime, even steep alpine lands can be preserved through time with the help of ice.", "Scientists have proved this theory by sampling eight summits of northwestern Svalbard using Be10 and Al26, showing that northwestern Svalbard transformed from a glacier-erosion state under relatively mild glacial maxima temperature, to a glacier-armor state occupied by cold-based, protective ice during much colder glacial maxima temperatures as the Quaternary ice age progressed.These processes, combined with erosion and transport by the water network beneath the glacier, leave behind glacial landforms such as moraines, drumlins, ground moraine (till), glaciokarst, kames, kame deltas, moulins, and glacial erratics in their wake, typically at the terminus or during glacier retreat.The best-developed glacial valley morphology appears to be restricted to landscapes with low rock uplift rates (less than or equal to 2mm per year) and high relief, leading to long-turnover times.", "Where rock uplift rates exceed 2mm per year, glacial valley morphology has generally been significantly modified in postglacial time.", "Interplay of glacial erosion and tectonic forcing governs the morphologic impact of glaciations on active orogens, by both influencing their height, and by altering the patterns of erosion during subsequent glacial periods via a link between rock uplift and valley cross-sectional shape.===Floods===The mouth of the River Seaton in Cornwall after heavy rainfall caused flooding in the area and cause a significant amount of the beach to erode; leaving behind a tall sand bank in its placeAt extremely high flows, kolks, or vortices are formed by large volumes of rapidly rushing water.", "Kolks cause extreme local erosion, plucking bedrock and creating pothole-type geographical features called rock-cut basins.", "Examples can be seen in the flood regions result from glacial Lake Missoula, which created the channeled scablands in the Columbia Basin region of eastern Washington.===Wind erosion===Árbol de Piedra, a rock formation in the Altiplano, Bolivia sculpted by wind erosionWind erosion is a major geomorphological force, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.", "It is also a major source of land degradation, evaporation, desertification, harmful airborne dust, and crop damage—especially after being increased far above natural rates by human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture.Wind erosion is of two primary varieties: ''deflation'', where the wind picks up and carries away loose particles; and ''abrasion'', where surfaces are worn down as they are struck by airborne particles carried by wind.", "Deflation is divided into three categories: (1) ''surface creep'', where larger, heavier particles slide or roll along the ground; (2) ''saltation'', where particles are lifted a short height into the air, and bounce and saltate across the surface of the soil; and (3) ''suspension'', where very small and light particles are lifted into the air by the wind, and are often carried for long distances.", "Saltation is responsible for the majority (50–70%) of wind erosion, followed by suspension (30–40%), and then surface creep (5–25%).Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought.", "For example, in the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years.===Mass wasting===A wadi in Makhtesh Ramon, Israel, showing gravity collapse erosion on its banks''Mass wasting'' or ''mass movement'' is the downward and outward movement of rock and sediments on a sloped surface, mainly due to the force of gravity.Mass wasting is an important part of the erosional process and is often the first stage in the breakdown and transport of weathered materials in mountainous areas.", "It moves material from higher elevations to lower elevations where other eroding agents such as streams and glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to even lower elevations.", "Mass-wasting processes are always occurring continuously on all slopes; some mass-wasting processes act very slowly; others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results.", "Any perceptible down-slope movement of rock or sediment is often referred to in general terms as a landslide.", "However, landslides can be classified in a much more detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement and the velocity at which the movement occurs.", "One of the visible topographical manifestations of a very slow form of such activity is a scree slope.", "''Slumping'' happens on steep hillsides, occurring along distinct fracture zones, often within materials like clay that, once released, may move quite rapidly downhill.", "They will often show a spoon-shaped isostatic depression, in which the material has begun to slide downhill.", "In some cases, the slump is caused by water beneath the slope weakening it.", "In many cases it is simply the result of poor engineering along highways where it is a regular occurrence.", "''Surface creep'' is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by gravity which is usually not perceptible except through extended observation.", "However, the term can also describe the rolling of dislodged soil particles in diameter by wind along the soil surface.===Submarine sediment gravity flows===Bathymetry of submarine canyons in the continental slope off the coast of New York and New JerseyOn the continental slope, erosion of the ocean floor to create channels and submarine canyons can result from the rapid downslope flow of sediment gravity flows, bodies of sediment-laden water that move rapidly downslope as turbidity currents.", "Where erosion by turbidity currents creates oversteepened slopes it can also trigger underwater landslides and debris flows.", "Turbidity currents can erode channels and canyons into substrates ranging from recently deposited unconsolidated sediments to hard crystalline bedrock.", "Almost all continental slopes and deep ocean basins display such channels and canyons resulting from sediment gravity flows and submarine canyons act as conduits for the transfer of sediment from the continents and shallow marine environments to the deep sea.", "Turbidites, which are the sedimentary deposits resulting from turbidity currents, comprise some of the thickest and largest sedimentary sequences on Earth, indicating that the associated erosional processes must also have played a prominent role in Earth's history." ], [ "Factors affecting erosion rates", "===Climate===The amount and intensity of precipitation is the main climatic factor governing soil erosion by water.", "The relationship is particularly strong if heavy rainfall occurs at times when, or in locations where, the soil's surface is not well protected by vegetation.", "This might be during periods when agricultural activities leave the soil bare, or in semi-arid regions where vegetation is naturally sparse.", "Wind erosion requires strong winds, particularly during times of drought when vegetation is sparse and soil is dry (and so is more erodible).", "Other climatic factors such as average temperature and temperature range may also affect erosion, via their effects on vegetation and soil properties.", "In general, given similar vegetation and ecosystems, areas with more precipitation (especially high-intensity rainfall), more wind, or more storms are expected to have more erosion.In some areas of the world (e.g.", "the mid-western US), rainfall intensity is the primary determinant of erosivity (for a definition of ''erosivity'' check,) with higher intensity rainfall generally resulting in more soil erosion by water.", "The size and velocity of rain drops is also an important factor.", "Larger and higher-velocity rain drops have greater kinetic energy, and thus their impact will displace soil particles by larger distances than smaller, slower-moving rain drops.In other regions of the world (e.g.", "western Europe), runoff and erosion result from relatively low intensities of stratiform rainfall falling onto the previously saturated soil.", "In such situations, rainfall amount rather than intensity is the main factor determining the severity of soil erosion by water.", "According to the climate change projections, erosivity will increase significantly in Europe and soil erosion may increase by 13–22.5% by 2050 In Taiwan, where typhoon frequency increased significantly in the 21st century, a strong link has been drawn between the increase in storm frequency with an increase in sediment load in rivers and reservoirs, highlighting the impacts climate change can have on erosion.===Vegetative cover===Vegetation acts as an interface between the atmosphere and the soil.", "It increases the permeability of the soil to rainwater, thus decreasing runoff.", "It shelters the soil from winds, which results in decreased wind erosion, as well as advantageous changes in microclimate.", "The roots of the plants bind the soil together, and interweave with other roots, forming a more solid mass that is less susceptible to both water and wind erosion.", "The removal of vegetation increases the rate of surface erosion.===Topography===The topography of the land determines the velocity at which surface runoff will flow, which in turn determines the erosivity of the runoff.", "Longer, steeper slopes (especially those without adequate vegetative cover) are more susceptible to very high rates of erosion during heavy rains than shorter, less steep slopes.", "Steeper terrain is also more prone to mudslides, landslides, and other forms of gravitational erosion processes.===Tectonics===Tectonic processes control rates and distributions of erosion at the Earth's surface.", "If the tectonic action causes part of the Earth's surface (e.g., a mountain range) to be raised or lowered relative to surrounding areas, this must necessarily change the gradient of the land surface.", "Because erosion rates are almost always sensitive to the local slope (see above), this will change the rates of erosion in the uplifted area.", "Active tectonics also brings fresh, unweathered rock towards the surface, where it is exposed to the action of erosion.However, erosion can also affect tectonic processes.", "The removal by erosion of large amounts of rock from a particular region, and its deposition elsewhere, can result in a lightening of the load on the lower crust and mantle.", "Because tectonic processes are driven by gradients in the stress field developed in the crust, this unloading can in turn cause tectonic or isostatic uplift in the region.", "In some cases, it has been hypothesised that these twin feedbacks can act to localize and enhance zones of very rapid exhumation of deep crustal rocks beneath places on the Earth's surface with extremely high erosion rates, for example, beneath the extremely steep terrain of Nanga Parbat in the western Himalayas.", "Such a place has been called a \"tectonic aneurysm\".=== Development ===Human land development, in forms including agricultural and urban development, is considered a significant factor in erosion and sediment transport, which aggravate food insecurity.", "In Taiwan, increases in sediment load in the northern, central, and southern regions of the island can be tracked with the timeline of development for each region throughout the 20th century.", "The intentional removal of soil and rock by humans is a form of erosion that has been named ''lisasion''." ], [ "Erosion at various scales", "===Mountain ranges===Mountain ranges are known to take many millions of years to erode to the degree they effectively cease to exist.", "Scholars Pitman and Golovchenko estimate that it takes probably more than 450 million years to erode a mountain mass similar to the Himalaya into an almost-flat peneplain if there are no major sea-level changes.", "Erosion of mountains massifs can create a pattern of equally high summits called summit accordance.", "It has been argued that extension during post-orogenic collapse is a more effective mechanism of lowering the height of orogenic mountains than erosion.Examples of heavily eroded mountain ranges include the Timanides of Northern Russia.", "Erosion of this orogen has produced sediments that are now found in the East European Platform, including the Cambrian Sablya Formation near Lake Ladoga.", "Studies of these sediments indicate that it is likely that the erosion of the orogen began in the Cambrian and then intensified in the Ordovician.===Soils===If the rate of erosion is higher than the rate of soil formation the soils are being destroyed by erosion.", "Where soil is not destroyed by erosion, erosion can in some cases prevent the formation of soil features that form slowly.", "Inceptisols are common soils that form in areas of fast erosion.While erosion of soils is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally.", "Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both \"on-site\" and \"off-site\" problems.", "On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers.", "In some cases, the eventual result is desertification.", "Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads and houses.", "Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the most significant environmental problems.In the United States, farmers cultivating highly erodible land must comply with a conservation plan to be eligible for certain forms of agricultural assistance." ], [ "Consequences of human-made soil erosion" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * " ], [ "External links", " The Soil Erosion Site* International Erosion Control Association* Soil Erosion Data in the European Soil Portal* USDA National Soil Erosion Laboratory* The Soil and Water Conservation Society" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euclidean space" ], [ "Introduction", "A point in three-dimensional Euclidean space can be located by three coordinates.", "'''Euclidean space''' is the fundamental space of geometry, intended to represent physical space.", "Originally, in Euclid's ''Elements'', it was the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, but in modern mathematics there are ''Euclidean spaces'' of any positive integer dimension ''n'', which are called '''Euclidean ''n''-spaces''' when one wants to specify their dimension.", "For ''n'' equal to one or two, they are commonly called respectively Euclidean lines and Euclidean planes.", "The qualifier \"Euclidean\" is used to distinguish Euclidean spaces from other spaces that were later considered in physics and modern mathematics.Ancient Greek geometers introduced Euclidean space for modeling the physical space.", "Their work was collected by the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid in his ''Elements'', with the great innovation of ''proving'' all properties of the space as theorems, by starting from a few fundamental properties, called ''postulates'', which either were considered as evident (for example, there is exactly one straight line passing through two points), or seemed impossible to prove (parallel postulate).After the introduction at the end of 19th century of non-Euclidean geometries, the old postulates were re-formalized to define Euclidean spaces through axiomatic theory.", "Another definition of Euclidean spaces by means of vector spaces and linear algebra has been shown to be equivalent to the axiomatic definition.", "It is this definition that is more commonly used in modern mathematics, and detailed in this article.", "In all definitions, Euclidean spaces consist of points, which are defined only by the properties that they must have for forming a Euclidean space.There is essentially only one Euclidean space of each dimension; that is, all Euclidean spaces of a given dimension are isomorphic.", "Therefore it is usually possible to work with a specific Euclidean space, denoted or , which can be represented using Cartesian coordinates as the real -space equipped with the standard dot product." ], [ "Definition", "===History of the definition===Euclidean space was introduced by ancient Greeks as an abstraction of our physical space.", "Their great innovation, appearing in Euclid's ''Elements'' was to build and ''prove'' all geometry by starting from a few very basic properties, which are abstracted from the physical world, and cannot be mathematically proved because of the lack of more basic tools.", "These properties are called postulates, or axioms in modern language.", "This way of defining Euclidean space is still in use under the name of synthetic geometry.In 1637, René Descartes introduced Cartesian coordinates, and showed that these allow reducing geometric problems to algebraic computations with numbers.", "This reduction of geometry to algebra was a major change in point of view, as, until then, the real numbers were defined in terms of lengths and distances.Euclidean geometry was not applied in spaces of dimension more than three until the 19th century.", "Ludwig Schläfli generalized Euclidean geometry to spaces of dimension , using both synthetic and algebraic methods, and discovered all of the regular polytopes (higher-dimensional analogues of the Platonic solids) that exist in Euclidean spaces of any dimension.Despite the wide use of Descartes' approach, which was called analytic geometry, the definition of Euclidean space remained unchanged until the end of 19th century.", "The introduction of abstract vector spaces allowed their use in defining Euclidean spaces with a purely algebraic definition.", "This new definition has been shown to be equivalent to the classical definition in terms of geometric axioms.", "It is this algebraic definition that is now most often used for introducing Euclidean spaces.===Motivation of the modern definition===One way to think of the Euclidean plane is as a set of points satisfying certain relationships, expressible in terms of distance and angles.", "For example, there are two fundamental operations (referred to as motions) on the plane.", "One is translation, which means a shifting of the plane so that every point is shifted in the same direction and by the same distance.", "The other is rotation around a fixed point in the plane, in which all points in the plane turn around that fixed point through the same angle.", "One of the basic tenets of Euclidean geometry is that two figures (usually considered as subsets) of the plane should be considered equivalent (congruent) if one can be transformed into the other by some sequence of translations, rotations and reflections (see below).In order to make all of this mathematically precise, the theory must clearly define what is a Euclidean space, and the related notions of distance, angle, translation, and rotation.", "Even when used in physical theories, Euclidean space is an abstraction detached from actual physical locations, specific reference frames, measurement instruments, and so on.", "A purely mathematical definition of Euclidean space also ignores questions of units of length and other physical dimensions: the distance in a \"mathematical\" space is a number, not something expressed in inches or metres.The standard way to mathematically define a Euclidean space, as carried out in the remainder of this article, is as a set of points on which a real vector space acts — the ''space of translations'' which is equipped with an inner product.", "The action of translations makes the space an affine space, and this allows defining lines, planes, subspaces, dimension, and parallelism.", "The inner product allows defining distance and angles.The set of -tuples of real numbers equipped with the dot product is a Euclidean space of dimension .", "Conversely, the choice of a point called the ''origin'' and an orthonormal basis of the space of translations is equivalent with defining an isomorphism between a Euclidean space of dimension and viewed as a Euclidean space.It follows that everything that can be said about a Euclidean space can also be said about Therefore, many authors, especially at elementary level, call the ''standard Euclidean space'' of dimension , or simply ''the'' Euclidean space of dimension .A reason for introducing such an abstract definition of Euclidean spaces, and for working with it instead of is that it is often preferable to work in a ''coordinate-free'' and ''origin-free'' manner (that is, without choosing a preferred basis and a preferred origin).", "Another reason is that there is no origin nor any basis in the physical world.===Technical definition===A '''''' is a finite-dimensional inner product space over the real numbers.A '''Euclidean space''' is an affine space over the reals such that the associated vector space is a Euclidean vector space.", "Euclidean spaces are sometimes called ''Euclidean affine spaces'' to distinguish them from Euclidean vector spaces.If is a Euclidean space, its associated vector space (Euclidean vector space) is often denoted The ''dimension'' of a Euclidean space is the dimension of its associated vector space.The elements of are called ''points'', and are commonly denoted by capital letters.", "The elements of are called ''Euclidean vectors'' or ''free vectors''.", "They are also called ''translations'', although, properly speaking, a translation is the geometric transformation resulting from the action of a Euclidean vector on the Euclidean space.The action of a translation on a point provides a point that is denoted .", "This action satisfies'''Note:''' The second in the left-hand side is a vector addition; each other denotes an action of a vector on a point.", "This notation is not ambiguous, as, to distinguish between the two meanings of , it suffices to look at the nature of its left argument.The fact that the action is free and transitive means that, for every pair of points , there is exactly one displacement vector such that .", "This vector is denoted or As previously explained, some of the basic properties of Euclidean spaces result from the structure of affine space.", "They are described in and its subsections.", "The properties resulting from the inner product are explained in and its subsections." ], [ "Prototypical examples", "For any vector space, the addition acts freely and transitively on the vector space itself.", "Thus a Euclidean vector space can be viewed as a Euclidean space that has itself as the associated vector space.A typical case of Euclidean vector space is viewed as a vector space equipped with the dot product as an inner product.", "The importance of this particular example of Euclidean space lies in the fact that every Euclidean space is isomorphic to it.", "More precisely, given a Euclidean space of dimension , the choice of a point, called an ''origin'' and an orthonormal basis of defines an isomorphism of Euclidean spaces from to As every Euclidean space of dimension is isomorphic to it, the Euclidean space is sometimes called the ''standard Euclidean space'' of dimension ." ], [ "Affine structure", "Some basic properties of Euclidean spaces depend only on the fact that a Euclidean space is an affine space.", "They are called affine properties and include the concepts of lines, subspaces, and parallelism, which are detailed in next subsections.===Subspaces===Let be a Euclidean space and its associated vector space.A ''flat'', ''Euclidean subspace'' or ''affine subspace'' of is a subset of such thatas the associated vector space of is a linear subspace (vector subspace) of A Euclidean subspace is a Euclidean space with as the associated vector space.", "This linear subspace is also called the ''direction'' of .If is a point of thenConversely, if is a point of and is a linear subspace of thenis a Euclidean subspace of direction .", "(The associated vector space of this subspace is .", ")A Euclidean vector space (that is, a Euclidean space that is equal to ) has two sorts of subspaces: its Euclidean subspaces and its linear subspaces.", "Linear subspaces are Euclidean subspaces and a Euclidean subspace is a linear subspace if and only if it contains the zero vector.===Lines and segments===In a Euclidean space, a ''line'' is a Euclidean subspace of dimension one.", "Since a vector space of dimension one is spanned by any nonzero vector, a line is a set of the formwhere and are two distinct points of the Euclidean space as a part of the line.It follows that ''there is exactly one line that passes through (contains) two distinct points.''", "This implies that two distinct lines intersect in at most one point.A more symmetric representation of the line passing through and iswhere is an arbitrary point (not necessary on the line).In a Euclidean vector space, the zero vector is usually chosen for ; this allows simplifying the preceding formula intoA standard convention allows using this formula in every Euclidean space, see .The ''line segment'', or simply ''segment'', joining the points and is the subset of points such that in the preceding formulas.", "It is denoted or ; that is===Parallelism===Two subspaces and of the same dimension in a Euclidean space are ''parallel'' if they have the same direction (i.e., the same associated vector space).", "Equivalently, they are parallel, if there is a translation vector that maps one to the other:Given a point and a subspace , there exists exactly one subspace that contains and is parallel to , which is In the case where is a line (subspace of dimension one), this property is Playfair's axiom.It follows that in a Euclidean plane, two lines either meet in one point or are parallel.The concept of parallel subspaces has been extended to subspaces of different dimensions: two subspaces are parallel if the direction of one of them is contained in the direction to the other." ], [ "Metric structure", "The vector space associated to a Euclidean space is an inner product space.", "This implies a symmetric bilinear formthat is positive definite (that is is always positive for ).The inner product of a Euclidean space is often called ''dot product'' and denoted .", "This is specially the case when a Cartesian coordinate system has been chosen, as, in this case, the inner product of two vectors is the dot product of their coordinate vectors.", "For this reason, and for historical reasons, the dot notation is more commonly used than the bracket notation for the inner product of Euclidean spaces.", "This article will follow this usage; that is will be denoted in the remainder of this article.The '''Euclidean norm''' of a vector isThe inner product and the norm allows expressing and proving metric and topological properties of Euclidean geometry.", "The next subsection describe the most fundamental ones.", "''In these subsections,'' ''denotes an arbitrary Euclidean space, and denotes its vector space of translations.", "''===Distance and length===The ''distance'' (more precisely the ''Euclidean distance'') between two points of a Euclidean space is the norm of the translation vector that maps one point to the other; that isThe ''length'' of a segment is the distance between its endpoints ''P'' and ''Q''.", "It is often denoted .The distance is a metric, as it is positive definite, symmetric, and satisfies the triangle inequalityMoreover, the equality is true if and only if a point belongs to the segment .", "This inequality means that the length of any edge of a triangle is smaller than the sum of the lengths of the other edges.", "This is the origin of the term ''triangle inequality''.With the Euclidean distance, every Euclidean space is a complete metric space.===Orthogonality===Two nonzero vectors and of (the associated vector space of a Euclidean space ) are ''perpendicular'' or ''orthogonal'' if their inner product is zero:Two linear subspaces of are orthogonal if every nonzero vector of the first one is perpendicular to every nonzero vector of the second one.", "This implies that the intersection of the linear subspaces is reduced to the zero vector.Two lines, and more generally two Euclidean subspaces (A line can be considered as one Euclidean subspace.)", "are orthogonal if their directions (the associated vector spaces of the Euclidean subspaces) are orthogonal.", "Two orthogonal lines that intersect are said ''perpendicular''.Two segments and that share a common endpoint are ''perpendicular'' or ''form a right angle'' if the vectors and are orthogonal.If and form a right angle, one hasThis is the Pythagorean theorem.", "Its proof is easy in this context, as, expressing this in terms of the inner product, one has, using bilinearity and symmetry of the inner product:Here, is used since these two vectors are orthogonal.=== Angle ===Positive and negative angles on the oriented planeThe (non-oriented) ''angle'' between two nonzero vectors and in iswhere is the principal value of the arccosine function.", "By Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, the argument of the arccosine is in the interval .", "Therefore is real, and (or if angles are measured in degrees).Angles are not useful in a Euclidean line, as they can be only 0 or .In an oriented Euclidean plane, one can define the ''oriented angle'' of two vectors.", "The oriented angle of two vectors and is then the opposite of the oriented angle of and .", "In this case, the angle of two vectors can have any value modulo an integer multiple of .", "In particular, a reflex angle equals the negative angle .The angle of two vectors does not change if they are multiplied by positive numbers.", "More precisely, if and are two vectors, and and are real numbers, thenIf , , and are three points in a Euclidean space, the angle of the segments and is the angle of the vectors and As the multiplication of vectors by positive numbers do not change the angle, the angle of two half-lines with initial point can be defined: it is the angle of the segments and , where and are arbitrary points, one on each half-line.", "Although this is less used, one can define similarly the angle of segments or half-lines that do not share an initial point.The angle of two lines is defined as follows.", "If is the angle of two segments, one on each line, the angle of any two other segments, one on each line, is either or .", "One of these angles is in the interval , and the other being in .", "The ''non-oriented angle'' of the two lines is the one in the interval .", "In an oriented Euclidean plane, the ''oriented angle'' of two lines belongs to the interval .===Cartesian coordinates===Every Euclidean vector space has an orthonormal basis (in fact, infinitely many in dimension higher than one, and two in dimension one), that is a basis of unit vectors () that are pairwise orthogonal ( for ).", "More precisely, given any basis the Gram–Schmidt process computes an orthonormal basis such that, for every , the linear spans of and are equal.Given a Euclidean space , a ''Cartesian frame'' is a set of data consisting of an orthonormal basis of and a point of , called the ''origin'' and often denoted .", "A Cartesian frame allows defining Cartesian coordinates for both and in the following way.The Cartesian coordinates of a vector of are the coefficients of on the orthonormal basis For example, the Cartesian coordinates of a vector on an orthonormal basis (that may be named as as a convention) in a 3-dimensional Euclidean space is if .", "As the basis is orthonormal, the -th coefficient is equal to the dot product The Cartesian coordinates of a point of are the Cartesian coordinates of the vector === Other coordinates ===3-dimensional skew coordinatesAs a Euclidean space is an affine space, one can consider an affine frame on it, which is the same as a Euclidean frame, except that the basis is not required to be orthonormal.", "This define affine coordinates, sometimes called ''skew coordinates'' for emphasizing that the basis vectors are not pairwise orthogonal.An affine basis of a Euclidean space of dimension is a set of points that are not contained in a hyperplane.", "An affine basis define barycentric coordinates for every point.Many other coordinates systems can be defined on a Euclidean space of dimension , in the following way.", "Let be a homeomorphism (or, more often, a diffeomorphism) from a dense open subset of to an open subset of The ''coordinates'' of a point of are the components of .", "The polar coordinate system (dimension 2) and the spherical and cylindrical coordinate systems (dimension 3) are defined this way.For points that are outside the domain of , coordinates may sometimes be defined as the limit of coordinates of neighbour points, but these coordinates may be not uniquely defined, and may be not continuous in the neighborhood of the point.", "For example, for the spherical coordinate system, the longitude is not defined at the pole, and on the antimeridian, the longitude passes discontinuously from –180° to +180°.This way of defining coordinates extends easily to other mathematical structures, and in particular to manifolds." ], [ "Isometries", "An isometry between two metric spaces is a bijection preserving the distance, that isIn the case of a Euclidean vector space, an isometry that maps the origin to the origin preserves the normsince the norm of a vector is its distance from the zero vector.", "It preserves also the inner productsinceAn isometry of Euclidean vector spaces is a linear isomorphism.An isometry of Euclidean spaces defines an isometry of the associated Euclidean vector spaces.", "This implies that two isometric Euclidean spaces have the same dimension.", "Conversely, if and are Euclidean spaces, , , and is an isometry, then the map defined byis an isometry of Euclidean spaces.It follows from the preceding results that an isometry of Euclidean spaces maps lines to lines, and, more generally Euclidean subspaces to Euclidean subspaces of the same dimension, and that the restriction of the isometry on these subspaces are isometries of these subspaces.===Isometry with prototypical examples===If is a Euclidean space, its associated vector space can be considered as a Euclidean space.", "Every point defines an isometry of Euclidean spaceswhich maps to the zero vector and has the identity as associated linear map.", "The inverse isometry is the mapA Euclidean frame allows defining the mapwhich is an isometry of Euclidean spaces.", "The inverse isometry is''This means that, up to an isomorphism, there is exactly one Euclidean space of a given dimension.", "''This justifies that many authors talk of as ''the'' Euclidean space of dimension .=== Euclidean group ===An isometry from a Euclidean space onto itself is called ''Euclidean isometry'', ''Euclidean transformation'' or ''rigid transformation''.", "The rigid transformations of a Euclidean space form a group (under composition), called the ''Euclidean group'' and often denoted of .The simplest Euclidean transformations are translationsThey are in bijective correspondence with vectors.", "This is a reason for calling ''space of translations'' the vector space associated to a Euclidean space.", "The translations form a normal subgroup of the Euclidean group.A Euclidean isometry of a Euclidean space defines a linear isometry of the associated vector space (by ''linear isometry'', it is meant an isometry that is also a linear map) in the following way: denoting by the vector if is an arbitrary point of , one hasIt is straightforward to prove that this is a linear map that does not depend from the choice of The map is a group homomorphism from the Euclidean group onto the group of linear isometries, called the orthogonal group.", "The kernel of this homomorphism is the translation group, showing that it is a normal subgroup of the Euclidean group.The isometries that fix a given point form the stabilizer subgroup of the Euclidean group with respect to .", "The restriction to this stabilizer of above group homomorphism is an isomorphism.", "So the isometries that fix a given point form a group isomorphic to the orthogonal group.Let be a point, an isometry, and the translation that maps to .", "The isometry fixes .", "So and ''the Euclidean group is the semidirect product of the translation group and the orthogonal group.", "''The special orthogonal group is the normal subgroup of the orthogonal group that preserves handedness.", "It is a subgroup of index two of the orthogonal group.", "Its inverse image by the group homomorphism is a normal subgroup of index two of the Euclidean group, which is called the ''special Euclidean group'' or the ''displacement group''.", "Its elements are called ''rigid motions'' or ''displacements''.Rigid motions include the identity, translations, rotations (the rigid motions that fix at least a point), and also screw motions.Typical examples of rigid transformations that are not rigid motions are reflections, which are rigid transformations that fix a hyperplane and are not the identity.", "They are also the transformations consisting in changing the sign of one coordinate over some Euclidean frame.As the special Euclidean group is a subgroup of index two of the Euclidean group, given a reflection , every rigid transformation that is not a rigid motion is the product of and a rigid motion.", "A glide reflection is an example of a rigid transformation that is not a rigid motion or a reflection.All groups that have been considered in this section are Lie groups and algebraic groups." ], [ "Topology", "The Euclidean distance makes a Euclidean space a metric space, and thus a topological space.", "This topology is called the Euclidean topology.", "In the case of this topology is also the product topology.The open sets are the subsets that contains an open ball around each of their points.", "In other words, open balls form a base of the topology.The topological dimension of a Euclidean space equals its dimension.", "This implies that Euclidean spaces of different dimensions are not homeomorphic.", "Moreover, the theorem of invariance of domain asserts that a subset of a Euclidean space is open (for the subspace topology) if and only if it is homeomorphic to an open subset of a Euclidean space of the same dimension.Euclidean spaces are complete and locally compact.", "That is, a closed subset of a Euclidean space is compact if it is bounded (that is, contained in a ball).", "In particular, closed balls are compact." ], [ "Axiomatic definitions", "The definition of Euclidean spaces that has been described in this article differs fundamentally of Euclid's one.", "In reality, Euclid did not define formally the space, because it was thought as a description of the physical world that exists independently of human mind.", "The need of a formal definition appeared only at the end of 19th century, with the introduction of non-Euclidean geometries.Two different approaches have been used.", "Felix Klein suggested to define geometries through their symmetries.", "The presentation of Euclidean spaces given in this article, is essentially issued from his Erlangen program, with the emphasis given on the groups of translations and isometries.On the other hand, David Hilbert proposed a set of axioms, inspired by Euclid's postulates.", "They belong to synthetic geometry, as they do not involve any definition of real numbers.", "Later G. D. Birkhoff and Alfred Tarski proposed simpler sets of axioms, which use real numbers (see Birkhoff's axioms and Tarski's axioms).In ''Geometric Algebra'', Emil Artin has proved that all these definitions of a Euclidean space are equivalent.", "It is rather easy to prove that all definitions of Euclidean spaces satisfy Hilbert's axioms, and that those involving real numbers (including the above given definition) are equivalent.", "The difficult part of Artin's proof is the following.", "In Hilbert's axioms, congruence is an equivalence relation on segments.", "One can thus define the ''length'' of a segment as its equivalence class.", "One must thus prove that this length satisfies properties that characterize nonnegative real numbers.", "Artin proved this with axioms equivalent to those of Hilbert." ], [ "Usage", "Since ancient Greeks, Euclidean space is used for modeling shapes in the physical world.", "It is thus used in many sciences such as physics, mechanics, and astronomy.", "It is also widely used in all technical areas that are concerned with shapes, figure, location and position, such as architecture, geodesy, topography, navigation, industrial design, or technical drawing.Space of dimensions higher than three occurs in several modern theories of physics; see Higher dimension.", "They occur also in configuration spaces of physical systems.Beside Euclidean geometry, Euclidean spaces are also widely used in other areas of mathematics.", "Tangent spaces of differentiable manifolds are Euclidean vector spaces.", "More generally, a manifold is a space that is locally approximated by Euclidean spaces.", "Most non-Euclidean geometries can be modeled by a manifold, and embedded in a Euclidean space of higher dimension.", "For example, an elliptic space can be modeled by an ellipsoid.", "It is common to represent in a Euclidean space mathematical objects that are ''a priori'' not of a geometrical nature.", "An example among many is the usual representation of graphs." ], [ "Other geometric spaces", "Since the introduction, at the end of 19th century, of non-Euclidean geometries, many sorts of spaces have been considered, about which one can do geometric reasoning in the same way as with Euclidean spaces.", "In general, they share some properties with Euclidean spaces, but may also have properties that could appear as rather strange.", "Some of these spaces use Euclidean geometry for their definition, or can be modeled as subspaces of a Euclidean space of higher dimension.", "When such a space is defined by geometrical axioms, embedding the space in a Euclidean space is a standard way for proving consistency of its definition, or, more precisely for proving that its theory is consistent, if Euclidean geometry is consistent (which cannot be proved).===Affine space===A Euclidean space is an affine space equipped with a metric.", "Affine spaces have many other uses in mathematics.", "In particular, as they are defined over any field, they allow doing geometry in other contexts.As soon as non-linear questions are considered, it is generally useful to consider affine spaces over the complex numbers as an extension of Euclidean spaces.", "For example, a circle and a line have always two intersection points (possibly not distinct) in the complex affine space.", "Therefore, most of algebraic geometry is built in complex affine spaces and affine spaces over algebraically closed fields.", "The shapes that are studied in algebraic geometry in these affine spaces are therefore called affine algebraic varieties.Affine spaces over the rational numbers and more generally over algebraic number fields provide a link between (algebraic) geometry and number theory.", "For example, the Fermat's Last Theorem can be stated \"a Fermat curve of degree higher than two has no point in the affine plane over the rationals.", "\"Geometry in affine spaces over a finite fields has also been widely studied.", "For example, elliptic curves over finite fields are widely used in cryptography.===Projective space===Originally, projective spaces have been introduced by adding \"points at infinity\" to Euclidean spaces, and, more generally to affine spaces, in order to make true the assertion \"two coplanar lines meet in exactly one point\".", "Projective space share with Euclidean and affine spaces the property of being isotropic, that is, there is no property of the space that allows distinguishing between two points or two lines.", "Therefore, a more isotropic definition is commonly used, which consists as defining a projective space as the set of the vector lines in a vector space of dimension one more.As for affine spaces, projective spaces are defined over any field, and are fundamental spaces of algebraic geometry.===Non-Euclidean geometries===''Non-Euclidean geometry'' refers usually to geometrical spaces where the parallel postulate is false.", "They include elliptic geometry, where the sum of the angles of a triangle is more than 180°, and hyperbolic geometry, where this sum is less than 180°.", "Their introduction in the second half of 19th century, and the proof that their theory is consistent (if Euclidean geometry is not contradictory) is one of the paradoxes that are at the origin of the foundational crisis in mathematics of the beginning of 20th century, and motivated the systematization of axiomatic theories in mathematics.=== Curved spaces ===A manifold is a space that in the neighborhood of each point resembles a Euclidean space.", "In technical terms, a manifold is a topological space, such that each point has a neighborhood that is homeomorphic to an open subset of a Euclidean space.", "Manifolds can be classified by increasing degree of this \"resemblance\" into topological manifolds, differentiable manifolds, smooth manifolds, and analytic manifolds.", "However, none of these types of \"resemblance\" respect distances and angles, even approximately.Distances and angles can be defined on a smooth manifold by providing a smoothly varying Euclidean metric on the tangent spaces at the points of the manifold (these tangent spaces are thus Euclidean vector spaces).", "This results in a Riemannian manifold.", "Generally, straight lines do not exist in a Riemannian manifold, but their role is played by geodesics, which are the \"shortest paths\" between two points.", "This allows defining distances, which are measured along geodesics, and angles between geodesics, which are the angle of their tangents in the tangent space at their intersection.", "So, Riemannian manifolds behave locally like a Euclidean space that has been bent.Euclidean spaces are trivially Riemannian manifolds.", "An example illustrating this well is the surface of a sphere.", "In this case, geodesics are arcs of great circle, which are called orthodromes in the context of navigation.", "More generally, the spaces of non-Euclidean geometries can be realized as Riemannian manifolds.=== Pseudo-Euclidean space ===An inner product of a real vector space is a positive definite bilinear form, and so characterized by a positive definite quadratic form.", "A pseudo-Euclidean space is an affine space with an associated real vector space equipped with a non-degenerate quadratic form (that may be indefinite).A fundamental example of such a space is the Minkowski space, which is the space-time of Einstein's special relativity.", "It is a four-dimensional space, where the metric is defined by the quadratic formwhere the last coordinate (''t'') is temporal, and the other three (''x'', ''y'', ''z'') are spatial.To take gravity into account, general relativity uses a pseudo-Riemannian manifold that has Minkowski spaces as tangent spaces.", "The curvature of this manifold at a point is a function of the value of the gravitational field at this point." ], [ "See also", "* Hilbert space, a generalization to infinite dimension, used in functional analysis* Position space, an application in physics" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Edwin Austin Abbey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edwin Austin Abbey''' (April 1, 1852August 1, 1911) was an American muralist, illustrator, and painter.", "He flourished at the beginning of what is now referred to as the \"golden age\" of illustration, and is best known for his drawings and paintings of Shakespearean and Victorian subjects, as well as for his painting of Edward VII's coronation.", "His most famous set of murals, ''The Quest and Achievement of the Holy Grail'', adorns the Boston Public Library." ], [ "Biography", "''Edwin Austin Abbey'' (1888), by John Singer Sargent, Yale University Art Gallery.Abbey was born in Philadelphia on April 1, 1852 to commercial broker William Maxwell Abbey and Margery Ann Kiple.", "He studied art at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts under Christian Schuessele.", "Abbey began as an illustrator, producing numerous illustrations and sketches for such magazines as Harper's Weekly (1871–1874) and Scribner's Magazine.", "His illustrations began appearing in Harper's Weekly before Abbey was twenty years old.", "He moved to New York City in 1871.His illustrations were strongly influenced by French and German black and white art.", "He also illustrated several best-selling books, including ''Christmas Stories'' by Charles Dickens (1875), ''Selections from the Poetry of Robert Herrick'' (1882), and ''She Stoops to Conquer'' by Oliver Goldsmith (1887).", "Abbey also illustrated a four-volume set of ''The Comedies of Shakespeare'' for Harper & Brothers in 1896.He moved to England in 1878, at the request of his employers, to gather material for illustrations of the poems of Robert Herrick, published in 1882, and he settled permanently there in 1883.In 1883, he was elected to the Royal Institute of Painters in Water-Colours.", "About this time, he was appraised critically by the American writer, S.G.W.", "Benjamin:He also created illustrations for Goldsmith's ''She Stoops to Conquer'' (1887), for a volume of ''Old Songs'' (1889), and for the comedies (and a few of the tragedies) of Shakespeare.", "Among his water-colours are \"The Evil Eye\" (1877), \"The Rose in October\" (1879), \"An Old Song\" (1886), \"The Visitors\" (1890), and \"The Jongleur\" (1892).", "Possibly his best known pastels are \"Beatrice\", \"Phyllis\", and \"Two Noble Kinsmen\".", "''King Lear, Act I, Scene I'' (1897-98), Metropolitan Museum of Art.In 1890 he made his first appearance with an oil painting, \"A May Day Morn\", at the Royal Academy in London.", "He exhibited \"Richard duke of Gloucester and the Lady Anne\" there in 1896, and in that year was elected A.R.A., becoming a full member in 1898.He received a gold medal at the Pan-American Exposition and was commissioned to paint the coronation of King Edward VII.", "in 1901; in the next year, he was chosen to paint the coronation.", "It was the official painting of the occasion and, hence, resides at Buckingham Palace.", "He did receive a knighthood, although some say he refused it in 1907.Friendly with other expatriate American artists, he summered at Broadway, Worcestershire, England, where he painted and vacationed alongside John Singer Sargent at the home of Francis Davis Millet.He completed murals for the Boston Public Library in the 1890s.", "The frieze for the Library was titled \"The Quest and Achievement of the Holy Grail\".", "It took Abbey eleven years to complete this series of murals in his England studio.", "In 1897 he received the honorary degree of A.M. from Yale university.In 1904 he painted a mural for the Royal Exchange, London ''Reconciliation of the Skinners & Merchant Taylors' Companies by Lord Mayor Billesden, 1484''.===Pennsylvania State Capitol===In 1908–09, Abbey began an ambitious program of murals and other artworks for the newly completed Pennsylvania State Capitol in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.", "These included allegorical medallion murals representing ''Science'', ''Art'', ''Justice'', and ''Religion'' for the dome of the Rotunda, four large lunette murals beneath the dome, and multiple works for the House and Senate Chambers.", "For the Senate chamber he finished only one painting, ''Von Steuben Training the American Soldiers at Valley Forge'', and he was working on the ''Reading of the Declaration of Independence'' mural in early 1911, when his health began to fail.", "He was diagnosed with cancer.", "Studio assistant William Simmonds continued work on the mural with little supervision from Abbey, and with small contributions by John Singer Sargent.Abbey died in August 1911.William Simmonds travelled from England to install the completed murals with Abbey's widow Gertrude.", "The remaining two rooms, which Abbey had been unable to finish, were given to Violet Oakley, who completed the commission using her own designs.Lunette and medallion murals (1908-11), Pennsylvania State Capitol Rotunda.", "Left to right: ''The Spirit of Vulcan'', ''Science'', ''The Spirit of Religious Liberty'', ''Art'', ''The Spirit of Light''." ], [ "Legacy", "Abbey was elected to the National Academy of Design, in 1902, and The American Academy of Arts and Letters.", "He was honorary member of the Royal Bavarian Society and the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, and was made a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour.", "He was a prolific illustrator, and attention to detail, including historical accuracy, influenced successive generations of illustrators.In 1890, Edwin married Gertrude Mead, the daughter of a wealthy New York merchant.", "Mrs Abbey encouraged her husband to secure more ambitious commissions, although with their marriage commencing when both were in their forties, the couple remained childless.", "After her husband's death, Gertrude was active in preserving her husband's legacy, writing about his work and giving her substantial collection and archive to Yale.", "In 1932, through the Edwin Austin Abbey Memorial Fund for Mural Painting, she endowed the Abbey Mural Prize to support the creation and restoration of public murals in the United States.", "It is awarded each year by a jury of National Academicians through the National Academy of Design.", "She was a sponsor of the Survey of London.", "Edwin had been a keen supporter of the newly founded British School at Rome (BSR), so, in his memory, she donated £6000 to assist in building the artists' studio block and, in 1926, founded the Incorporated Edwin Austin Abbey Memorial Scholarships.", "The scholarships were established to enable British and American painters to pursue their practice.", "Recipients of Abbey funding – Scholars and, more recently, Fellows – devote their scholarship to working in the studios at the BSR, where there has, ever since, been at least one Abbey-funded artist in residence.", "Previous award holders include Stephen Farthing, Chantal Joffe and Spartacus Chetwynd.", "The Abbey Fellowships (formerly 'Awards') were established in their present form in 1990, and the Abbey studios also host the BSR's other Fine Art residencies, such as the Derek Hill Foundation Scholarship and the Sainsbury Scholarship in Painting and Drawing.", "A bust of Edwin Abbey, by Sir Thomas Brock, stands in the courtyard of the BSR.", "Edwin also left bequests of his works to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and to the National Gallery in London.Abbey is buried in the churchyard of Old St Andrew's Church in Kingsbury, London.", "His grave is Grade II listed." ], [ "Works by Abbey", "File:Edwin Austin Abbey Vanity Fair 29 December 1898.jpg\|''Edwin Austin Abbey'' (1898), by Leslie Ward, ''Vanity Fair'', 29 December 1898.File:Edwin Austin Abbey - Bob Acres and His Servant.jpg\|''Bob Acres and His Servant'' (c. 1895), Yale University Art Gallery.File:Edwin Austin Abbey richard duke of gloucester and the lady anne 1896.jpg\|''Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and the Lady Anne'' (1896), Yale University Art Gallery.File:Edwin Austin Abbey (1852-1911)-y.jpg\|''Sir Galahad and the Holy Grail'' (1896-1901), Boston Public Library.File:The Play Scene in Hamlet.jpg\|''The Play Scene in Hamlet'' (1897), Yale University Art Gallery.File:Abbey - The Queen in Hamlet.jpg\|''The Queen in Hamlet'' (c. 1897), private collection.File:Abbey, Edwin Austin - Potpourri - 1899.jpg\|''Potpourri'' (1899), private collection.File:Pennsylvania State Capitol House Chamber.jpg\|''Apotheosis of Pennsylvania'' (1908–11), House Chamber, Pennsylvania State Capitol.File:Abbey, Edwin Austin - Fairies.jpg\|FairiesFile:Edwin Austin Abbey - Within the Tent of Brutus, Enter the Ghost of Caesar, Julius Caesar, Act IV, Scene III - 1937.1148 - Yale University Art Gallery.jpg\|link=\|''Within the Tent of Brutus: Enter the Ghost of Caesar, Julius Caesar, Act IV, Scene III''" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Dickens, C. - ''Christmas Stories'', Harper & Brothers, 1875* Longfellow, H. W. - T''he Poetical Works'', Houghton, 1880-1883* Herrick, R. - ''Selections from the Poetry of Robert Herrick'', Harper & Brothers, 1882* Black, W. - J''udith Shakespeare'', Harper & Brothers, 1884* Boughton, G. H. - ''Sketching Rambles in Holland'', Macmillan 1885* Sheridan, R. B.", "- ''Comedies'', Chatto & Windus, London, 1885* Goldsmith, O.", "- ''She Stoops to Conquer'', Harper & Brothers, 1887* Abbey, E. A.", "- ''Old Songs'', Harper & Brothers, 1888* ----- ''The Quiet Life'', Harper & Brothers, 1890* Shakespeare, W. - ''The Comedies'', Harper & Brothers, 1896* Goldsmith, O.", "- ''The Deserted Village'', Harper & Brothers, 1902* Stevens, L. O.", "- ''King Arthur Stories'', Houghton 1908" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* http://www.columbia.edu/cu/record/archives/vol19/vol19_iss24/record1924.33* Nancy Mendes.", "\"Edwin Austin Abbey: A Capital Artist.\"", "''Pennsylvania Heritage'' magazine 32, no.", "3 (Summer 2006): 6–15.", "* Elisa Tamarkin.", "\"The Chestnuts of Edwin Austin Abbey: History Painting and the Transference of Culture in Turn-of-the-Century America.\"", "''Prospects'' 24 (1999): 417–448.", "* Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C." ], [ "External links", "* Edwin Austin Abbey at American Art Gallery* Jim Vadeboncoeur's biography of Edwin Austin Abbey* Pennsylvania Capitol Preservation Committee's E.A.", "Abbey Bio* ''Drawings by Edwin A. Abbey: illustrating the comedies of Shakespeare''* ''Who Is Sylvia?", "What Is She, That All the Swains Commend Her?''", "(1896–99; reworked 1900), Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.** Edwin Austin Abbey letters, 1874–(ca.", "1887) from the Archives of American Art* Edwin Austin Abbey paintings*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Evolutionary psychology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Evolutionary psychology''' is a theoretical approach in psychology that examines cognition and behavior from a modern evolutionary perspective.", "It seeks to identify human psychological adaptations with regards to the ancestral problems they evolved to solve.", "In this framework, psychological traits and mechanisms are either functional products of natural and sexual selection or non-adaptive by-products of other adaptive traits.", "Adaptationist thinking about physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, and the liver, is common in evolutionary biology.", "Evolutionary psychologists apply the same thinking in psychology, arguing that just as the heart evolved to pump blood, and the liver evolved to detoxify poisons, there is modularity of mind in that different psychological mechanisms evolved to solve different adaptive problems.", "These evolutionary psychologists argue that much of human behavior is the output of psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments.Some evolutionary psychologists argue that evolutionary theory can provide a foundational, metatheoretical framework that integrates the entire field of psychology in the same way evolutionary biology has for biology.Evolutionary psychologists hold that behaviors or traits that occur universally in all cultures are good candidates for evolutionary adaptations, including the abilities to infer others' emotions, discern kin from non-kin, identify and prefer healthier mates, and cooperate with others.", "Findings have been made regarding human social behaviour related to infanticide, intelligence, marriage patterns, promiscuity, perception of beauty, bride price, and parental investment.", "The theories and findings of evolutionary psychology have applications in many fields, including economics, environment, health, law, management, psychiatry, politics, and literature.Criticism of evolutionary psychology involves questions of testability, cognitive and evolutionary assumptions (such as modular functioning of the brain, and large uncertainty about the ancestral environment), importance of non-genetic and non-adaptive explanations, as well as political and ethical issues due to interpretations of research results.", "Evolutionary psychologists frequently engage with and respond to such criticisms." ], [ "Scope", "===Principles===Evolutionary psychology is an approach that views human nature as the product of a universal set of evolved psychological adaptations to recurring problems in the ancestral environment.", "Proponents suggest that it seeks to integrate psychology into the other natural sciences, rooting it in the organizing theory of biology (evolutionary theory), and thus understanding psychology as a branch of biology.", "Anthropologist John Tooby and psychologist Leda Cosmides note:Just as human physiology and evolutionary physiology have worked to identify physical adaptations of the body that represent \"human physiological nature,\" the purpose of evolutionary psychology is to identify evolved emotional and cognitive adaptations that represent \"human psychological nature.\"", "According to Steven Pinker, it is \"not a single theory but a large set of hypotheses\" and a term that \"has also come to refer to a particular way of applying evolutionary theory to the mind, with an emphasis on adaptation, gene-level selection, and modularity.\"", "Evolutionary psychology adopts an understanding of the mind that is based on the computational theory of mind.", "It describes mental processes as computational operations, so that, for example, a fear response is described as arising from a neurological computation that inputs the perceptional data, e.g.", "a visual image of a spider, and outputs the appropriate reaction, e.g.", "fear of possibly dangerous animals.", "Under this view, any domain-general learning is impossible because of the combinatorial explosion.", "Evolutionary Psychology specifies the domain as the problems of survival and reproduction.While philosophers have generally considered the human mind to include broad faculties, such as reason and lust, evolutionary psychologists describe evolved psychological mechanisms as narrowly focused to deal with specific issues, such as catching cheaters or choosing mates.", "The discipline views the human brain as comprising many functional mechanisms called ''psychological adaptations'' or evolved cognitive mechanisms or ''cognitive modules'', designed by the process of natural selection.", "Examples include language-acquisition modules, incest-avoidance mechanisms, cheater-detection mechanisms, intelligence and sex-specific mating preferences, foraging mechanisms, alliance-tracking mechanisms, agent-detection mechanisms, and others.", "Some mechanisms, termed ''domain-specific'', deal with recurrent adaptive problems over the course of human evolutionary history.", "''Domain-general'' mechanisms, on the other hand, are proposed to deal with evolutionary novelty.Evolutionary psychology has roots in cognitive psychology and evolutionary biology but also draws on behavioral ecology, artificial intelligence, genetics, ethology, anthropology, archaeology, biology, and zoology.", "It is closely linked to sociobiology, but there are key differences between them including the emphasis on ''domain-specific'' rather than ''domain-general'' mechanisms, the relevance of measures of current fitness, the importance of mismatch theory, and psychology rather than behavior.Nikolaas Tinbergen's four categories of questions can help to clarify the distinctions between several different, but complementary, types of explanations.", "Evolutionary psychology focuses primarily on the \"why?\"", "questions, while traditional psychology focuses on the \"how?\"", "questions.", "''Sequential vs. Static Perspective'' '''Historical/Developmental'''''Explanation of current form in terms of a historical sequence'' '''Current Form'''''Explanation of the current form of species''''How vs. Why Questions'' '''Proximate''''''''How''''' an individual organism's structures function '''Ontogeny'''Developmental explanations for changes in '''''individuals''''', from DNA to their current form '''Mechanism'''Mechanistic explanations for how an organism's structures work '''Evolutionary''''''''Why''''' a species evolved the structures (adaptations) it has '''Phylogeny'''The history of the evolution of sequential changes in a '''''species''''' over many generations '''Adaptation'''A species trait that evolved to solve a reproductive or survival problem in the ancestral environment===Premises===Evolutionary psychology is founded on several core premises.# The brain is an information processing device, and it produces behavior in response to external and internal inputs.# The brain's adaptive mechanisms were shaped by natural and sexual selection.# Different neural mechanisms are specialized for solving problems in humanity's evolutionary past.# The brain has evolved specialized neural mechanisms that were designed for solving problems that recurred over deep evolutionary time, giving modern humans stone-age minds.# Most contents and processes of the brain are unconscious; and most mental problems that seem easy to solve are actually extremely difficult problems that are solved unconsciously by complicated neural mechanisms.# Human psychology consists of many specialized mechanisms, each sensitive to different classes of information or inputs.", "These mechanisms combine to manifest behavior." ], [ "History", "Nobel Laureates Nikolaas Tinbergen (left) and Konrad Lorenz (right) who were, with Karl von Frisch, acknowledged for work on animal behaviorEvolutionary psychology has its historical roots in Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection.", "In ''The Origin of Species'', Darwin predicted that psychology would develop an evolutionary basis:Two of his later books were devoted to the study of animal emotions and psychology; ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex'' in 1871 and ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'' in 1872.Darwin's work inspired William James's functionalist approach to psychology.", "Darwin's theories of evolution, adaptation, and natural selection have provided insight into why brains function the way they do.The content of evolutionary psychology has derived from, on the one hand, the biological sciences (especially evolutionary theory as it relates to ancient human environments, the study of paleoanthropology and animal behavior) and, on the other, the human sciences, especially psychology.Evolutionary biology as an academic discipline emerged with the modern synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s.", "In the 1930s the study of animal behavior (ethology) emerged with the work of the Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen and the Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch.W.D.", "Hamilton's (1964) papers on inclusive fitness and Robert Trivers's (1972) theories on reciprocity and parental investment helped to establish evolutionary thinking in psychology and the other social sciences.", "In 1975, Edward O. Wilson combined evolutionary theory with studies of animal and social behavior, building on the works of Lorenz and Tinbergen, in his book ''Sociobiology: The New Synthesis''.In the 1970s, two major branches developed from ethology.", "Firstly, the study of animal ''social'' behavior (including humans) generated sociobiology, defined by its pre-eminent proponent Edward O. Wilson in 1975 as \"the systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior\" and in 1978 as \"the extension of population biology and evolutionary theory to social organization.\"", "Secondly, there was behavioral ecology which placed less emphasis on ''social'' behavior; it focused on the ecological and evolutionary basis of animal and human behavior.In the 1970s and 1980s university departments began to include the term ''evolutionary biology'' in their titles.", "The modern era of evolutionary psychology was ushered in, in particular, by Donald Symons' 1979 book ''The Evolution of Human Sexuality'' and Leda Cosmides and John Tooby's 1992 book ''The Adapted Mind''.", "David Buller observed that the term \"evolutionary psychology\" is sometimes seen as denoting research based on the specific methodological and theoretical commitments of certain researchers from the Santa Barbara school (University of California), thus some evolutionary psychologists prefer to term their work \"human ecology\", \"human behavioural ecology\" or \"evolutionary anthropology\" instead.From psychology there are the primary streams of developmental, social and cognitive psychology.", "Establishing some measure of the relative influence of genetics and environment on behavior has been at the core of behavioral genetics and its variants, notably studies at the molecular level that examine the relationship between genes, neurotransmitters and behavior.", "Dual inheritance theory (DIT), developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s, has a slightly different perspective by trying to explain how human behavior is a product of two different and interacting evolutionary processes: genetic evolution and cultural evolution.", "DIT is seen by some as a \"middle-ground\" between views that emphasize human universals versus those that emphasize cultural variation." ], [ "Theoretical foundations", "The theories on which evolutionary psychology is based originated with Charles Darwin's work, including his speculations about the evolutionary origins of social instincts in humans.", "Modern evolutionary psychology, however, is possible only because of advances in evolutionary theory in the 20th century.Evolutionary psychologists say that natural selection has provided humans with many psychological adaptations, in much the same way that it generated humans' anatomical and physiological adaptations.", "As with adaptations in general, psychological adaptations are said to be specialized for the environment in which an organism evolved, the environment of evolutionary adaptedness.", "Sexual selection provides organisms with adaptations related to mating.", "For male mammals, which have a relatively high maximal potential reproduction rate, sexual selection leads to adaptations that help them compete for females.", "For female mammals, with a relatively low maximal potential reproduction rate, sexual selection leads to choosiness, which helps females select higher quality mates.", "Charles Darwin described both natural selection and sexual selection, and he relied on group selection to explain the evolution of altruistic (self-sacrificing) behavior.", "But group selection was considered a weak explanation, because in any group the less altruistic individuals will be more likely to survive, and the group will become less self-sacrificing as a whole.In 1964, the evolutionary biologist William D. Hamilton proposed inclusive fitness theory, emphasizing a gene-centered view of evolution.", "Hamilton noted that genes can increase the replication of copies of themselves into the next generation by influencing the organism's social traits in such a way that (statistically) results in helping the survival and reproduction of other copies of the same genes (most simply, identical copies in the organism's close relatives).", "According to Hamilton's rule, self-sacrificing behaviors (and the genes influencing them) can evolve if they typically help the organism's close relatives so much that it more than compensates for the individual animal's sacrifice.", "Inclusive fitness theory resolved the issue of how altruism can evolve.", "Other theories also help explain the evolution of altruistic behavior, including evolutionary game theory, tit-for-tat reciprocity, and generalized reciprocity.", "These theories help to explain the development of altruistic behavior, and account for hostility toward cheaters (individuals that take advantage of others' altruism).Several mid-level evolutionary theories inform evolutionary psychology.", "The r/K selection theory proposes that some species prosper by having many offspring, while others follow the strategy of having fewer offspring but investing much more in each one.", "Humans follow the second strategy.", "Parental investment theory explains how parents invest more or less in individual offspring based on how successful those offspring are likely to be, and thus how much they might improve the parents' inclusive fitness.", "According to the Trivers–Willard hypothesis, parents in good conditions tend to invest more in sons (who are best able to take advantage of good conditions), while parents in poor conditions tend to invest more in daughters (who are best able to have successful offspring even in poor conditions).", "According to life history theory, animals evolve life histories to match their environments, determining details such as age at first reproduction and number of offspring.", "Dual inheritance theory posits that genes and human culture have interacted, with genes affecting the development of culture, and culture, in turn, affecting human evolution on a genetic level, in a similar way to the Baldwin effect." ], [ "Evolved psychological mechanisms", "Evolutionary psychology is based on the hypothesis that, just like hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys, and immune systems, cognition has a functional structure that has a genetic basis, and therefore has evolved by natural selection.", "Like other organs and tissues, this functional structure should be universally shared amongst a species and should solve important problems of survival and reproduction.Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand psychological mechanisms by understanding the survival and reproductive functions they might have served over the course of evolutionary history.", "These might include abilities to infer others' emotions, discern kin from non-kin, identify and prefer healthier mates, cooperate with others and follow leaders.", "Consistent with the theory of natural selection, evolutionary psychology sees humans as often in conflict with others, including mates and relatives.", "For instance, a mother may wish to wean her offspring from breastfeeding earlier than does her infant, which frees up the mother to invest in additional offspring.", "Evolutionary psychology also recognizes the role of kin selection and reciprocity in evolving prosocial traits such as altruism.", "Like chimpanzees and bonobos, humans have subtle and flexible social instincts, allowing them to form extended families, lifelong friendships, and political alliances.", "In studies testing theoretical predictions, evolutionary psychologists have made modest findings on topics such as infanticide, intelligence, marriage patterns, promiscuity, perception of beauty, bride price and parental investment.Another example would be the evolved mechanism in depression.", "Clinical depression is maladaptive and should have evolutionary approaches so it can become adaptive.", "Over the centuries animals and humans have gone through hard times to stay alive, which made our fight or flight senses evolve tremendously.", "For instances, mammalians have separation anxiety from their guardians which causes distress and sends signals to their hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis, and emotional/behavioral changes.", "Going through these types of circumstances helps mammals cope with separation anxiety.===Historical topics===Proponents of evolutionary psychology in the 1990s made some explorations in historical events, but the response from historical experts was highly negative and there has been little effort to continue that line of research.", "Historian Lynn Hunt says that the historians complained that the researchers:Hunt states that \"the few attempts to build up a subfield of psychohistory collapsed under the weight of its presuppositions.\"", "She concludes that, as of 2014, the \"'iron curtain' between historians and psychology...remains standing.", "\"===Products of evolution: adaptations, exaptations, byproducts, and random variation===Not all traits of organisms are evolutionary adaptations.", "As noted in the table below, traits may also be exaptations, byproducts of adaptations (sometimes called \"spandrels\"), or random variation between individuals.Psychological adaptations are hypothesized to be innate or relatively easy to learn and to manifest in cultures worldwide.", "For example, the ability of toddlers to learn a language with virtually no training is likely to be a psychological adaptation.", "On the other hand, ancestral humans did not read or write, thus today, learning to read and write requires extensive training, and presumably involves the repurposing of cognitive capacities that evolved in response to selection pressures unrelated to written language.", "However, variations in manifest behavior can result from universal mechanisms interacting with different local environments.", "For example, Caucasians who move from a northern climate to the equator will have darker skin.", "The mechanisms regulating their pigmentation do not change; rather the input to those mechanisms change, resulting in different outputs.", "Adaptation Exaptation Byproduct Random variation Definition Organismic trait designed to solve an ancestral problem(s).", "Shows complexity, special \"design\", functionality Adaptation that has been \"re-purposed\" to solve a different adaptive problem.", "Byproduct of an adaptive mechanism with no current or ancestral function Random variations in an adaptation or byproduct Physiological example Bones / Umbilical cord Small bones of the inner ear White color of bones / Belly button Bumps on the skull, convex or concave belly button shape Psychological example Toddlers' ability to learn to talk with minimal instruction Voluntary attention Ability to learn to read and write Variations in verbal intelligenceOne of the tasks of evolutionary psychology is to identify which psychological traits are likely to be adaptations, byproducts or random variation.", "George C. Williams suggested that an \"adaptation is a special and onerous concept that should only be used where it is really necessary.\"", "As noted by Williams and others, adaptations can be identified by their improbable complexity, species universality, and adaptive functionality.===Obligate and facultative adaptations===A question that may be asked about an adaptation is whether it is generally obligate (relatively robust in the face of typical environmental variation) or facultative (sensitive to typical environmental variation).", "The sweet taste of sugar and the pain of hitting one's knee against concrete are the result of fairly obligate psychological adaptations; typical environmental variability during development does not much affect their operation.", "By contrast, facultative adaptations are somewhat like \"if-then\" statements.", "For example, The adaptation for skin to tan is conditional to exposure to sunlight; this is an example of another facultative adaptation.", "When a psychological adaptation is facultative, evolutionary psychologists concern themselves with how developmental and environmental inputs influence the expression of the adaptation.===Cultural universals===Evolutionary psychologists hold that behaviors or traits that occur universally in all cultures are good candidates for evolutionary adaptations.", "Cultural universals include behaviors related to language, cognition, social roles, gender roles, and technology.", "Evolved psychological adaptations (such as the ability to learn a language) interact with cultural inputs to produce specific behaviors (e.g., the specific language learned).Basic gender differences, such as greater eagerness for sex among men and greater coyness among women, are explained as sexually dimorphic psychological adaptations that reflect the different reproductive strategies of males and females.Evolutionary psychologists contrast their approach to what they term the \"standard social science model,\" according to which the mind is a general-purpose cognition device shaped almost entirely by culture." ], [ "Environment of evolutionary adaptedness", "Evolutionary psychology argues that to properly understand the functions of the brain, one must understand the properties of the environment in which the brain evolved.", "That environment is often referred to as the \"environment of evolutionary adaptedness\".The idea of an ''environment of evolutionary adaptedness'' was first explored as a part of attachment theory by John Bowlby.", "This is the environment to which a particular evolved mechanism is adapted.", "More specifically, the environment of evolutionary adaptedness is defined as the set of historically recurring selection pressures that formed a given adaptation, as well as those aspects of the environment that were necessary for the proper development and functioning of the adaptation.Humans, comprising the genus ''Homo'', appeared between 1.5 and 2.5 million years ago, a time that roughly coincides with the start of the Pleistocene 2.6 million years ago.", "Because the Pleistocene ended a mere 12,000 years ago, most human adaptations either newly evolved during the Pleistocene, or were maintained by stabilizing selection during the Pleistocene.", "Evolutionary psychology, therefore, proposes that the majority of human psychological mechanisms are adapted to reproductive problems frequently encountered in Pleistocene environments.", "In broad terms, these problems include those of growth, development, differentiation, maintenance, mating, parenting, and social relationships.The environment of evolutionary adaptedness is significantly different from modern society.", "The ancestors of modern humans lived in smaller groups, had more cohesive cultures, and had more stable and rich contexts for identity and meaning.", "Researchers look to existing hunter-gatherer societies for clues as to how hunter-gatherers lived in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness.", "Unfortunately, the few surviving hunter-gatherer societies are different from each other, and they have been pushed out of the best land and into harsh environments, so it is not clear how closely they reflect ancestral culture.", "However, all around the world small-band hunter-gatherers offer a similar developmental system for the young (\"hunter-gatherer childhood model,\" Konner, 2005; \"evolved developmental niche\" or \"evolved nest;\" Narvaez et al., 2013).", "The characteristics of the niche are largely the same as for social mammals, who evolved over 30 million years ago: soothing perinatal experience, several years of on-request breastfeeding, nearly constant affection or physical proximity, responsiveness to need (mitigating offspring distress), self-directed play, and for humans, multiple responsive caregivers.", "Initial studies show the importance of these components in early life for positive child outcomes.Evolutionary psychologists sometimes look to chimpanzees, bonobos, and other great apes for insight into human ancestral behavior.===Mismatches===Since an organism's adaptations were suited to its ancestral environment, a new and different environment can create a mismatch.", "Because humans are mostly adapted to Pleistocene environments, psychological mechanisms sometimes exhibit \"mismatches\" to the modern environment.", "One example is the fact that although about 10,000 people are killed with guns in the US annually, whereas spiders and snakes kill only a handful, people nonetheless learn to fear spiders and snakes about as easily as they do a pointed gun, and more easily than an unpointed gun, rabbits or flowers.", "A potential explanation is that spiders and snakes were a threat to human ancestors throughout the Pleistocene, whereas guns (and rabbits and flowers) were not.", "There is thus a mismatch between humans' evolved fear-learning psychology and the modern environment.This mismatch also shows up in the phenomena of the supernormal stimulus, a stimulus that elicits a response more strongly than the stimulus for which the response evolved.", "The term was coined by Niko Tinbergen to refer to non-human animal behavior, but psychologist Deirdre Barrett said that supernormal stimulation governs the behavior of humans as powerfully as that of other animals.", "She explained junk food as an exaggerated stimulus to cravings for salt, sugar, and fats, and she says that television is an exaggeration of social cues of laughter, smiling faces and attention-grabbing action.", "Magazine centerfolds and double cheeseburgers pull instincts intended for an environment of evolutionary adaptedness where breast development was a sign of health, youth and fertility in a prospective mate, and fat was a rare and vital nutrient.", "The psychologist Mark van Vugt recently argued that modern organizational leadership is a mismatch.", "His argument is that humans are not adapted to work in large, anonymous bureaucratic structures with formal hierarchies.", "The human mind still responds to personalized, charismatic leadership primarily in the context of informal, egalitarian settings.", "Hence the dissatisfaction and alienation that many employees experience.", "Salaries, bonuses and other privileges exploit instincts for relative status, which attract particularly males to senior executive positions." ], [ "Research methods", "Evolutionary theory is heuristic in that it may generate hypotheses that might not be developed from other theoretical approaches.", "One of the major goals of adaptationist research is to identify which organismic traits are likely to be adaptations, and which are byproducts or random variations.", "As noted earlier, adaptations are expected to show evidence of complexity, functionality, and species universality, while byproducts or random variation will not.", "In addition, adaptations are expected to manifest as proximate mechanisms that interact with the environment in either a generally obligate or facultative fashion (see above).", "Evolutionary psychologists are also interested in identifying these proximate mechanisms (sometimes termed \"mental mechanisms\" or \"psychological adaptations\") and what type of information they take as input, how they process that information, and their outputs.", "Evolutionary developmental psychology, or \"evo-devo,\" focuses on how adaptations may be activated at certain developmental times (e.g., losing baby teeth, adolescence, etc.)", "or how events during the development of an individual may alter life-history trajectories.Evolutionary psychologists use several strategies to develop and test hypotheses about whether a psychological trait is likely to be an evolved adaptation.", "Buss (2011) notes that these methods include:Evolutionary psychologists also use various sources of data for testing, including experiments, archaeological records, data from hunter-gatherer societies, observational studies, neuroscience data, self-reports and surveys, public records, and human products.Recently, additional methods and tools have been introduced based on fictional scenarios, mathematical models, and multi-agent computer simulations." ], [ "Main areas of research", "Foundational areas of research in evolutionary psychology can be divided into broad categories of adaptive problems that arise from evolutionary theory itself: survival, mating, parenting, family and kinship, interactions with non-kin, and cultural evolution.===Survival and individual-level psychological adaptations===Problems of survival are clear targets for the evolution of physical and psychological adaptations.", "Major problems the ancestors of present-day humans faced included food selection and acquisition; territory selection and physical shelter; and avoiding predators and other environmental threats.====Consciousness====Consciousness meets George Williams' criteria of species universality, complexity, and functionality, and it is a trait that apparently increases fitness.In his paper \"Evolution of consciousness,\" John Eccles argues that special anatomical and physical adaptations of the mammalian cerebral cortex gave rise to consciousness.", "In contrast, others have argued that the recursive circuitry underwriting consciousness is much more primitive, having evolved initially in pre-mammalian species because it improves the capacity for interaction with both social ''and'' natural environments by providing an energy-saving \"neutral\" gear in an otherwise energy-expensive motor output machine.", "Once in place, this recursive circuitry may well have provided a basis for the subsequent development of many of the functions that consciousness facilitates in higher organisms, as outlined by Bernard J. Baars.", "Richard Dawkins suggested that humans evolved consciousness in order to make themselves the subjects of thought.", "Daniel Povinelli suggests that large, tree-climbing apes evolved consciousness to take into account one's own mass when moving safely among tree branches.", "Consistent with this hypothesis, Gordon Gallup found that chimpanzees and orangutans, but not little monkeys or terrestrial gorillas, demonstrated self-awareness in mirror tests.The concept of consciousness can refer to voluntary action, awareness, or wakefulness.", "However, even voluntary behavior involves unconscious mechanisms.", "Many cognitive processes take place in the cognitive unconscious, unavailable to conscious awareness.", "Some behaviors are conscious when learned but then become unconscious, seemingly automatic.", "Learning, especially implicitly learning a skill, can take place seemingly outside of consciousness.", "For example, plenty of people know how to turn right when they ride a bike, but very few can accurately explain how they actually do so.Evolutionary psychology approaches self-deception as an adaptation that can improve one's results in social exchanges.Sleep may have evolved to conserve energy when activity would be less fruitful or more dangerous, such as at night, and especially during the winter season.====Sensation and perception====Many experts, such as Jerry Fodor, write that the purpose of perception is knowledge, but evolutionary psychologists hold that its primary purpose is to guide action.", "For example, they say, depth perception seems to have evolved not to help us know the distances to other objects but rather to help us move around in space.", "Evolutionary psychologists say that animals from fiddler crabs to humans use eyesight for collision avoidance, suggesting that vision is basically for directing action, not providing knowledge.Building and maintaining sense organs is metabolically expensive, so these organs evolve only when they improve an organism's fitness.", "More than half the brain is devoted to processing sensory information, and the brain itself consumes roughly one-fourth of one's metabolic resources, so the senses must provide exceptional benefits to fitness.", "Perception accurately mirrors the world; animals get useful, accurate information through their senses.Scientists who study perception and sensation have long understood the human senses as adaptations to their surrounding worlds.", "Depth perception consists of processing over half a dozen visual cues, each of which is based on a regularity of the physical world.", "Vision evolved to respond to the narrow range of electromagnetic energy that is plentiful and that does not pass through objects.", "Sound waves go around corners and interact with obstacles, creating a complex pattern that includes useful information about the sources of and distances to objects.", "Larger animals naturally make lower-pitched sounds as a consequence of their size.", "The range over which an animal hears, on the other hand, is determined by adaptation.", "Homing pigeons, for example, can hear the very low-pitched sound (infrasound) that carries great distances, even though most smaller animals detect higher-pitched sounds.", "Taste and smell respond to chemicals in the environment that are thought to have been significant for fitness in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness.", "For example, salt and sugar were apparently both valuable to the human or pre-human inhabitants of the environment of evolutionary adaptedness, so present-day humans have an intrinsic hunger for salty and sweet tastes.", "The sense of touch is actually many senses, including pressure, heat, cold, tickle, and pain.", "Pain, while unpleasant, is adaptive.", "An important adaptation for senses is range shifting, by which the organism becomes temporarily more or less sensitive to sensation.", "For example, one's eyes automatically adjust to dim or bright ambient light.", "Sensory abilities of different organisms often coevolve, as is the case with the hearing of echolocating bats and that of the moths that have evolved to respond to the sounds that the bats make.Evolutionary psychologists contend that perception demonstrates the principle of modularity, with specialized mechanisms handling particular perception tasks.", "For example, people with damage to a particular part of the brain have the specific defect of not being able to recognize faces (prosopagnosia).", "Evolutionary psychology suggests that this indicates a so-called face-reading module.====Learning and facultative adaptations====In evolutionary psychology, learning is said to be accomplished through evolved capacities, specifically facultative adaptations.", "Facultative adaptations express themselves differently depending on input from the environment.", "Sometimes the input comes during development and helps shape that development.", "For example, migrating birds learn to orient themselves by the stars during a critical period in their maturation.", "Evolutionary psychologists believe that humans also learn language along an evolved program, also with critical periods.", "The input can also come during daily tasks, helping the organism cope with changing environmental conditions.", "For example, animals evolved Pavlovian conditioning in order to solve problems about causal relationships.", "Animals accomplish learning tasks most easily when those tasks resemble problems that they faced in their evolutionary past, such as a rat learning where to find food or water.", "Learning capacities sometimes demonstrate differences between the sexes.", "In many animal species, for example, males can solve spatial problems faster and more accurately than females, due to the effects of male hormones during development.", "The same might be true of humans.====Emotion and motivation====Motivations direct and energize behavior, while emotions provide the affective component to motivation, positive or negative.", "In the early 1970s, Paul Ekman and colleagues began a line of research which suggests that many emotions are universal.", "He found evidence that humans share at least five basic emotions: fear, sadness, happiness, anger, and disgust.", "Social emotions evidently evolved to motivate social behaviors that were adaptive in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness.", "For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared.", "Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status.Motivation has a neurobiological basis in the reward system of the brain.", "Recently, it has been suggested that reward systems may evolve in such a way that there may be an inherent or unavoidable trade-off in the motivational system for activities of short versus long duration.====Cognition====Cognition refers to internal representations of the world and internal information processing.", "From an evolutionary psychology perspective, cognition is not \"general purpose\", but uses heuristics, or strategies, that generally increase the likelihood of solving problems that the ancestors of present-day humans routinely faced.", "For example, present-day humans are far more likely to solve logic problems that involve detecting cheating (a common problem given humans' social nature) than the same logic problem put in purely abstract terms.", "Since the ancestors of present-day humans did not encounter truly random events, present-day humans may be cognitively predisposed to incorrectly identify patterns in random sequences.", "\"Gamblers' Fallacy\" is one example of this.", "Gamblers may falsely believe that they have hit a \"lucky streak\" even when each outcome is actually random and independent of previous trials.", "Most people believe that if a fair coin has been flipped 9 times and Heads appears each time, that on the tenth flip, there is a greater than 50% chance of getting Tails.", "Humans find it far easier to make diagnoses or predictions using frequency data than when the same information is presented as probabilities or percentages, presumably because the ancestors of present-day humans lived in relatively small tribes (usually with fewer than 150 people) where frequency information was more readily available.====Personality====Evolutionary psychology is primarily interested in finding commonalities between people, or basic human psychological nature.", "From an evolutionary perspective, the fact that people have fundamental differences in personality traits initially presents something of a puzzle.", "(Note: The field of behavioral genetics is concerned with statistically partitioning differences between people into genetic and environmental sources of variance.", "However, understanding the concept of heritability can be tricky – heritability refers only to the differences between people, never the degree to which the traits of an individual are due to environmental or genetic factors, since traits are always a complex interweaving of both.", ")Personality traits are conceptualized by evolutionary psychologists as due to normal variation around an optimum, due to frequency-dependent selection (behavioral polymorphisms), or as facultative adaptations.", "Like variability in height, some personality traits may simply reflect inter-individual variability around a general optimum.", "Or, personality traits may represent different genetically predisposed \"behavioral morphs\" – alternate behavioral strategies that depend on the frequency of competing behavioral strategies in the population.", "For example, if most of the population is generally trusting and gullible, the behavioral morph of being a \"cheater\" (or, in the extreme case, a sociopath) may be advantageous.", "Finally, like many other psychological adaptations, personality traits may be facultative – sensitive to typical variations in the social environment, especially during early development.", "For example, later-born children are more likely than firstborns to be rebellious, less conscientious and more open to new experiences, which may be advantageous to them given their particular niche in family structure.", "It is important to note that shared environmental influences do play a role in personality and are not always of less importance than genetic factors.", "However, shared environmental influences often decrease to near zero after adolescence but do not completely disappear.====Language====According to Steven Pinker, who builds on the work by Noam Chomsky, the universal human ability to learn to talk between the ages of 1 – 4, basically without training, suggests that language acquisition is a distinctly human psychological adaptation (see, in particular, Pinker's ''The Language Instinct'').", "Pinker and Bloom (1990) argue that language as a mental faculty shares many likenesses with the complex organs of the body which suggests that, like these organs, language has evolved as an adaptation, since this is the only known mechanism by which such complex organs can develop.Pinker follows Chomsky in arguing that the fact that children can learn any human language with no explicit instruction suggests that language, including most of grammar, is basically innate and that it only needs to be activated by interaction.", "Chomsky himself does not believe language to have evolved as an adaptation, but suggests that it likely evolved as a byproduct of some other adaptation, a so-called spandrel.", "But Pinker and Bloom argue that the organic nature of language strongly suggests that it has an adaptational origin.Evolutionary psychologists hold that the FOXP2 gene may well be associated with the evolution of human language.", "In the 1980s, psycholinguist Myrna Gopnik identified a dominant gene that causes language impairment in the KE family of Britain.", "This gene turned out to be a mutation of the FOXP2 gene.", "Humans have a unique allele of this gene, which has otherwise been closely conserved through most of mammalian evolutionary history.", "This unique allele seems to have first appeared between 100 and 200 thousand years ago, and it is now all but universal in humans.", "However, the once-popular idea that FOXP2 is a 'grammar gene' or that it triggered the emergence of language in ''Homo sapiens'' is now widely discredited.Currently, several competing theories about the evolutionary origin of language coexist, none of them having achieved a general consensus.", "Researchers of language acquisition in primates and humans such as Michael Tomasello and Talmy Givón, argue that the innatist framework has understated the role of imitation in learning and that it is not at all necessary to posit the existence of an innate grammar module to explain human language acquisition.", "Tomasello argues that studies of how children and primates actually acquire communicative skills suggest that humans learn complex behavior through experience, so that instead of a module specifically dedicated to language acquisition, language is acquired by the same cognitive mechanisms that are used to acquire all other kinds of socially transmitted behavior.On the issue of whether language is best seen as having evolved as an adaptation or as a spandrel, evolutionary biologist W. Tecumseh Fitch, following Stephen J. Gould, argues that it is unwarranted to assume that every aspect of language is an adaptation, or that language as a whole is an adaptation.", "He criticizes some strands of evolutionary psychology for suggesting a pan-adaptionist view of evolution, and dismisses Pinker and Bloom's question of whether \"Language has evolved as an adaptation\" as being misleading.", "He argues instead that from a biological viewpoint the evolutionary origins of language is best conceptualized as being the probable result of a convergence of many separate adaptations into a complex system.", "A similar argument is made by Terrence Deacon who in ''The Symbolic Species'' argues that the different features of language have co-evolved with the evolution of the mind and that the ability to use symbolic communication is integrated in all other cognitive processes.If the theory that language could have evolved as a single adaptation is accepted, the question becomes which of its many functions has been the basis of adaptation.", "Several evolutionary hypotheses have been posited: that language evolved for the purpose of social grooming, that it evolved as a way to show mating potential or that it evolved to form social contracts.", "Evolutionary psychologists recognize that these theories are all speculative and that much more evidence is required to understand how language might have been selectively adapted.===Mating===Given that sexual reproduction is the means by which genes are propagated into future generations, sexual selection plays a large role in human evolution.", "Human mating, then, is of interest to evolutionary psychologists who aim to investigate evolved mechanisms to attract and secure mates.", "Several lines of research have stemmed from this interest, such as studies of mate selection mate poaching, mate retention, mating preferences and conflict between the sexes.In 1972 Robert Trivers published an influential paper on sex differences that is now referred to as parental investment theory.", "The size differences of gametes (anisogamy) is the fundamental, defining difference between males (small gametes – sperm) and females (large gametes – ova).", "Trivers noted that anisogamy typically results in different levels of parental investment between the sexes, with females initially investing more.", "Trivers proposed that this difference in parental investment leads to the sexual selection of different reproductive strategies between the sexes and to sexual conflict.", "For example, he suggested that the sex that invests less in offspring will generally compete for access to the higher-investing sex to increase their inclusive fitness.", "Trivers posited that differential parental investment led to the evolution of sexual dimorphisms in mate choice, intra- and inter- sexual reproductive competition, and courtship displays.", "In mammals, including humans, females make a much larger parental investment than males (i.e.", "gestation followed by childbirth and lactation).", "Parental investment theory is a branch of life history theory.Buss and Schmitt's (1993) ''Sexual Strategies Theory'' proposed that, due to differential parental investment, humans have evolved sexually dimorphic adaptations related to \"sexual accessibility, fertility assessment, commitment seeking and avoidance, immediate and enduring resource procurement, paternity certainty, assessment of mate value, and parental investment.\"", "Their ''Strategic Interference Theory'' suggested that conflict between the sexes occurs when the preferred reproductive strategies of one sex interfere with those of the other sex, resulting in the activation of emotional responses such as anger or jealousy.Women are generally more selective when choosing mates, especially under long-term mating conditions.", "However, under some circumstances, short term mating can provide benefits to women as well, such as fertility insurance, trading up to better genes, reducing the risk of inbreeding, and insurance protection of her offspring.Due to male paternity uncertainty, sex differences have been found in the domains of sexual jealousy.", "Females generally react more adversely to emotional infidelity and males will react more to sexual infidelity.", "This particular pattern is predicted because the costs involved in mating for each sex are distinct.", "Women, on average, should prefer a mate who can offer resources (e.g., financial, commitment), thus, a woman risks losing such resources with a mate who commits emotional infidelity.", "Men, on the other hand, are never certain of the genetic paternity of their children because they do not bear the offspring themselves.", "This suggests that for men sexual infidelity would generally be more aversive than emotional infidelity because investing resources in another man's offspring does not lead to the propagation of their own genes.Another interesting line of research is that which examines women's mate preferences across the ovulatory cycle.", "The theoretical underpinning of this research is that ancestral women would have evolved mechanisms to select mates with certain traits depending on their hormonal status.", "Known as the ovulatory shift hypothesis, the theory posits that, during the ovulatory phase of a woman's cycle (approximately days 10–15 of a woman's cycle), a woman who mated with a male with high genetic quality would have been more likely, on average, to produce and bear a healthy offspring than a woman who mated with a male with low genetic quality.", "These putative preferences are predicted to be especially apparent for short-term mating domains because a potential male mate would only be offering genes to a potential offspring.", "This hypothesis allows researchers to examine whether women select mates who have characteristics that indicate high genetic quality during the high fertility phase of their ovulatory cycles.", "Indeed, studies have shown that women's preferences vary across the ovulatory cycle.", "In particular, Haselton and Miller (2006) showed that highly fertile women prefer creative but poor men as short-term mates.", "Creativity may be a proxy for good genes.", "Research by Gangestad et al.", "(2004) indicates that highly fertile women prefer men who display social presence and intrasexual competition; these traits may act as cues that would help women predict which men may have, or would be able to acquire, resources.===Parenting===Reproduction is always costly for women, and can also be for men.", "Individuals are limited in the degree to which they can devote time and resources to producing and raising their young, and such expenditure may also be detrimental to their future condition, survival and further reproductive output.Parental investment is any parental expenditure (time, energy etc.)", "that benefits one offspring at a cost to parents' ability to invest in other components of fitness (Clutton-Brock 1991: 9; Trivers 1972).", "Components of fitness (Beatty 1992) include the well-being of existing offspring, parents' future reproduction, and inclusive fitness through aid to kin (Hamilton, 1964).", "Parental investment theory is a branch of life history theory.The benefits of parental investment to the offspring are large and are associated with the effects on condition, growth, survival, and ultimately, on the reproductive success of the offspring.", "However, these benefits can come at the cost of the parent's ability to reproduce in the future e.g.", "through the increased risk of injury when defending offspring against predators, the loss of mating opportunities whilst rearing offspring, and an increase in the time to the next reproduction.", "Overall, parents are selected to maximize the difference between the benefits and the costs, and parental care will likely evolve when the benefits exceed the costs.The Cinderella effect is an alleged high incidence of stepchildren being physically, emotionally or sexually abused, neglected, murdered, or otherwise mistreated at the hands of their stepparents at significantly higher rates than their genetic counterparts.", "It takes its name from the fairy tale character Cinderella, who in the story was cruelly mistreated by her stepmother and stepsisters.", "Daly and Wilson (1996) noted: \"Evolutionary thinking led to the discovery of the most important risk factor for child homicide – the presence of a stepparent.", "Parental efforts and investments are valuable resources, and selection favors those parental psyches that allocate effort effectively to promote fitness.", "The adaptive problems that challenge parental decision-making include both the accurate identification of one's offspring and the allocation of one's resources among them with sensitivity to their needs and abilities to convert parental investment into fitness increments….", "Stepchildren were seldom or never so valuable to one's expected fitness as one's own offspring would be, and those parental psyches that were easily parasitized by just any appealing youngster must always have incurred a selective disadvantage\"(Daly & Wilson, 1996, pp. 64–65).", "However, they note that not all stepparents will \"want\" to abuse their partner's children, or that genetic parenthood is any insurance against abuse.", "They see step parental care as primarily \"mating effort\" towards the genetic parent.===Family and kin===Inclusive fitness is the sum of an organism's classical fitness (how many of its own offspring it produces and supports) and the number of equivalents of its own offspring it can add to the population by supporting others.", "The first component is called classical fitness by Hamilton (1964).From the gene's point of view, evolutionary success ultimately depends on leaving behind the maximum number of copies of itself in the population.", "Until 1964, it was generally believed that genes only achieved this by causing the individual to leave the maximum number of viable offspring.", "However, in 1964 W. D. Hamilton proved mathematically that, because close relatives of an organism share some identical genes, a gene can also increase its evolutionary success by promoting the reproduction and survival of these related or otherwise similar individuals.", "Hamilton concluded that this leads natural selection to favor organisms that would behave in ways that maximize their inclusive fitness.", "It is also true that natural selection favors behavior that maximizes personal fitness.Hamilton's rule describes mathematically whether or not a gene for altruistic behavior will spread in a population::where* is the reproductive cost to the altruist,* is the reproductive benefit to the recipient of the altruistic behavior, and* is the probability, above the population average, of the individuals sharing an altruistic gene – commonly viewed as \"degree of relatedness\".The concept serves to explain how natural selection can perpetuate altruism.", "If there is an \"altruism gene\" (or complex of genes) that influences an organism's behavior to be helpful and protective of relatives and their offspring, this behavior also increases the proportion of the altruism gene in the population, because relatives are likely to share genes with the altruist due to common descent.", "Altruists may also have some way to recognize altruistic behavior in unrelated individuals and be inclined to support them.", "As Dawkins points out in ''The Selfish Gene'' (Chapter 6) and ''The Extended Phenotype'', this must be distinguished from the green-beard effect.Although it is generally true that humans tend to be more altruistic toward their kin than toward non-kin, the relevant proximate mechanisms that mediate this cooperation have been debated (see kin recognition), with some arguing that kin status is determined primarily via social and cultural factors (such as co-residence, maternal association of sibs, etc.", "), while others have argued that kin recognition can also be mediated by biological factors such as facial resemblance and immunogenetic similarity of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC).", "For a discussion of the interaction of these social and biological kin recognition factors see Lieberman, Tooby, and Cosmides (2007) ( PDF).Whatever the proximate mechanisms of kin recognition there is substantial evidence that humans act generally more altruistically to close genetic kin compared to genetic non-kin.===Interactions with non-kin / reciprocity===Although interactions with non-kin are generally less altruistic compared to those with kin, cooperation can be maintained with non-kin via mutually beneficial reciprocity as was proposed by Robert Trivers.", "If there are repeated encounters between the same two players in an evolutionary game in which each of them can choose either to \"cooperate\" or \"defect\", then a strategy of mutual cooperation may be favored even if it pays each player, in the short term, to defect when the other cooperates.", "Direct reciprocity can lead to the evolution of cooperation only if the probability, w, of another encounter between the same two individuals exceeds the cost-to-benefit ratio of the altruistic act:: w > c/bReciprocity can also be indirect if information about previous interactions is shared.", "Reputation allows evolution of cooperation by indirect reciprocity.", "Natural selection favors strategies that base the decision to help on the reputation of the recipient: studies show that people who are more helpful are more likely to receive help.", "The calculations of indirect reciprocity are complicated and only a tiny fraction of this universe has been uncovered, but again a simple rule has emerged.", "Indirect reciprocity can only promote cooperation if the probability, q, of knowing someone's reputation exceeds the cost-to-benefit ratio of the altruistic act:: q > c/bOne important problem with this explanation is that individuals may be able to evolve the capacity to obscure their reputation, reducing the probability, q, that it will be known.Trivers argues that friendship and various social emotions evolved in order to manage reciprocity.", "Liking and disliking, he says, evolved to help present-day humans' ancestors form coalitions with others who reciprocated and to exclude those who did not reciprocate.", "Moral indignation may have evolved to prevent one's altruism from being exploited by cheaters, and gratitude may have motivated present-day humans' ancestors to reciprocate appropriately after benefiting from others' altruism.", "Likewise, present-day humans feel guilty when they fail to reciprocate.", "These social motivations match what evolutionary psychologists expect to see in adaptations that evolved to maximize the benefits and minimize the drawbacks of reciprocity.Evolutionary psychologists say that humans have psychological adaptations that evolved specifically to help us identify nonreciprocators, commonly referred to as \"cheaters.\"", "In 1993, Robert Frank and his associates found that participants in a prisoner's dilemma scenario were often able to predict whether their partners would \"cheat\", based on a half-hour of unstructured social interaction.", "In a 1996 experiment, for example, Linda Mealey and her colleagues found that people were better at remembering the faces of people when those faces were associated with stories about those individuals cheating (such as embezzling money from a church).===Strong reciprocity (or \"tribal reciprocity\")===Humans may have an evolved set of psychological adaptations that predispose them to be more cooperative than otherwise would be expected with members of their tribal in-group, and, more nasty to members of tribal out groups.", "These adaptations may have been a consequence of tribal warfare.", "Humans may also have predispositions for \"altruistic punishment\" – to punish in-group members who violate in-group rules, even when this altruistic behavior cannot be justified in terms of helping those you are related to (kin selection), cooperating with those who you will interact with again (direct reciprocity), or cooperating to better your reputation with others (indirect reciprocity)." ], [ "Evolutionary psychology and culture", "Though evolutionary psychology has traditionally focused on individual-level behaviors, determined by species-typical psychological adaptations, considerable work has been done on how these adaptations shape and, ultimately govern, culture (Tooby and Cosmides, 1989).", "Tooby and Cosmides (1989) argued that the mind consists of many domain-specific psychological adaptations, some of which may constrain what cultural material is learned or taught.", "As opposed to a domain-general cultural acquisition program, where an individual passively receives culturally-transmitted material from the group, Tooby and Cosmides (1989), among others, argue that: \"the psyche evolved to generate adaptive rather than repetitive behavior, and hence critically analyzes the behavior of those surrounding it in highly structured and patterned ways, to be used as a rich (but by no means the only) source of information out of which to construct a 'private culture' or individually tailored adaptive system; in consequence, this system may or may not mirror the behavior of others in any given respect.\"", "(Tooby and Cosmides 1989).Biological explanations of human culture also brought criticism to evolutionary psychology: Evolutionary psychologists see the human psyche and physiology as a genetic product and assume that genes contain the information for the development and control of the organism and that this information is transmitted from one generation to the next via genes.", "Evolutionary psychologists thereby see physical and psychological characteristics of humans as genetically programmed.", "Even then, when evolutionary psychologists acknowledge the influence of the environment on human development, they understand the environment only as an activator or trigger for the programmed developmental instructions encoded in genes.", "Evolutionary psychologists, for example, believe that the human brain is made up of innate modules, each of which is specialised only for very specific tasks, e. g. an anxiety module.", "According to evolutionary psychologists, these modules are given before the organism actually develops and are then activated by some environmental event.", "Critics object that this view is reductionist and that cognitive specialisation only comes about through the interaction of humans with their real environment, rather than the environment of distant ancestors.", "Interdisciplinary approaches are increasingly striving to mediate between these opposing points of view and to highlight that biological and cultural causes need not be antithetical in explaining human behaviour and even complex cultural achievements." ], [ "In psychology sub-fields", "===Developmental psychology===According to Paul Baltes, the benefits granted by evolutionary selection decrease with age.", "Natural selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions and nonadaptive characteristics that appear among older adults, such as Alzheimer disease.", "If it were a disease that killed 20-year-olds instead of 70-year-olds this may have been a disease that natural selection could have eliminated ages ago.", "Thus, unaided by evolutionary pressures against nonadaptive conditions, modern humans suffer the aches, pains, and infirmities of aging and as the benefits of evolutionary selection decrease with age, the need for modern technological mediums against non-adaptive conditions increases.===Social psychology===As humans are a highly social species, there are many adaptive problems associated with navigating the social world (e.g., maintaining allies, managing status hierarchies, interacting with outgroup members, coordinating social activities, collective decision-making).", "Researchers in the emerging field of evolutionary social psychology have made many discoveries pertaining to topics traditionally studied by social psychologists, including person perception, social cognition, attitudes, altruism, emotions, group dynamics, leadership, motivation, prejudice, intergroup relations, and cross-cultural differences.When endeavouring to solve a problem humans at an early age show determination while chimpanzees have no comparable facial expression.", "Researchers suspect the human determined expression evolved because when a human is determinedly working on a problem other people will frequently help.===Abnormal psychology===Adaptationist hypotheses regarding the etiology of psychological disorders are often based on analogies between physiological and psychological dysfunctions, as noted in the table below.", "Prominent theorists and evolutionary psychiatrists include Michael T. McGuire, Anthony Stevens, and Randolph M. Nesse.", "They, and others, suggest that mental disorders are due to the interactive effects of both nature and nurture, and often have multiple contributing causes.+ Possible causes of psychological 'abnormalities' from an adaptationist perspective Summary based on information in these textbooks (all titled \"Evolutionary Psychology\"): Buss (2011), Gaulin & McBurney (2004), Workman & Reader (2008) as well as Cosmides & Tooby (1999) ''Toward an evolutionary taxonomy of treatable conditions'' Causal mechanism of failure or malfunction of adaptation Physiological Example Hypothesized Psychological Example '''Functioning adaptation (adaptive defense)''' Fever / Vomiting (functional responses to infection or ingestion of toxins) Mild depression or anxiety (functional responses to mild loss or stress/ reduction of social interactions to prevent infection by contagious pathogens)'''By-product of an adaptation(s)''' Intestinal gas (byproduct of digestion of fiber) Sexual fetishes (?", ")(possible byproduct of normal sexual arousal adaptations that have 'imprinted' on unusual objects or situations) '''Adaptations with multiple effects''' Sickle cell disease (Gene that imparts malaria resistance, in homozygous form, causes sickle cell anemia) Schizophrenia or bipolar disorder (May be side-effects of adaptations for high levels of creativity, perhaps dependent on alternate developmental trajectories) '''Malfunctioning adaptation''' Allergies (over-reactive immunological responses) Autism (possible malfunctioning of theory of mind module) '''Frequency-dependent morphs''' The two sexes / Different blood and immune system types Personality disorders (may represent alternative behavioral strategies possibly dependent on its prevalence in the population) '''Mismatch between ancestral & current environments''' Type 2 Diabetes (May be related to the abundance of sugary foods in the modern world) More frequent modern interaction with strangers (compared to family and close friends) may predispose greater incidence of depression & anxiety '''Tails of normal distribution (bell curve)''' Dwarfism or gigantism Extremities of the distribution of cognitive and personality traits(e.g., extremely introversion and extraversion, or intellectual giftedness and intellectual disability)Evolutionary psychologists have suggested that schizophrenia and bipolar disorder may reflect a side-effect of genes with fitness benefits, such as increased creativity.", "(Some individuals with bipolar disorder are especially creative during their manic phases and the close relatives of people with schizophrenia have been found to be more likely to have creative professions.)", "A 1994 report by the American Psychiatry Association found that people with schizophrenia at roughly the same rate in Western and non-Western cultures, and in industrialized and pastoral societies, suggesting that schizophrenia is not a disease of civilization nor an arbitrary social invention.", "Sociopathy may represent an evolutionarily stable strategy, by which a small number of people who cheat on social contracts benefit in a society consisting mostly of non-sociopaths.", "Mild depression may be an adaptive response to withdraw from, and re-evaluate, situations that have led to disadvantageous outcomes (the \"analytical rumination hypothesis\") (see Evolutionary approaches to depression).Some of these speculations have yet to be developed into fully testable hypotheses, and a great deal of research is required to confirm their validity.===Antisocial and criminal behavior===Evolutionary psychology has been applied to explain criminal or otherwise immoral behavior as being adaptive or related to adaptive behaviors.", "Males are generally more aggressive than females, who are more selective of their partners because of the far greater effort they have to contribute to pregnancy and child-rearing.", "Males being more aggressive is hypothesized to stem from the more intense reproductive competition faced by them.", "Males of low status may be especially vulnerable to being childless.", "It may have been evolutionary advantageous to engage in highly risky and violently aggressive behavior to increase their status and therefore reproductive success.", "This may explain why males are generally involved in more crimes, and why low status and being unmarried are associated with criminality.", "Furthermore, competition over females is argued to have been particularly intensive in late adolescence and young adulthood, which is theorized to explain why crime rates are particularly high during this period.", "Some sociologists have underlined differential exposure to androgens as the cause of these behaviors, notably Lee Ellis in his evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory.Many conflicts that result in harm and death involve status, reputation, and seemingly trivial insults.", "Steven Pinker in his book ''The Better Angels of Our Nature'' argues that in non-state societies without a police it was very important to have a credible deterrence against aggression.", "Therefore, it was important to be perceived as having a credible reputation for retaliation, resulting in humans developing instincts for revenge as well as for protecting reputation (\"honor\").", "Pinker argues that the development of the state and the police have dramatically reduced the level of violence compared to the ancestral environment.", "Whenever the state breaks down, which can be very locally such as in poor areas of a city, humans again organize in groups for protection and aggression and concepts such as violent revenge and protecting honor again become extremely important.Rape is theorized to be a reproductive strategy that facilitates the propagation of the rapist's progeny.", "Such a strategy may be adopted by men who otherwise are unlikely to be appealing to women and therefore cannot form legitimate relationships, or by high-status men on socially vulnerable women who are unlikely to retaliate to increase their reproductive success even further.", "The sociobiological theories of rape are highly controversial, as traditional theories typically do not consider rape to be a behavioral adaptation, and objections to this theory are made on ethical, religious, political, as well as scientific grounds.===Psychology of religion===Adaptationist perspectives on religious belief suggest that, like all behavior, religious behaviors are a product of the human brain.", "As with all other organ functions, cognition's functional structure has been argued to have a genetic foundation, and is therefore subject to the effects of natural selection and sexual selection.", "Like other organs and tissues, this functional structure should be universally shared amongst humans and should have solved important problems of survival and reproduction in ancestral environments.", "However, evolutionary psychologists remain divided on whether religious belief is more likely a consequence of evolved psychological adaptations, or a byproduct of other cognitive adaptations.===Coalitional psychology===Coalitional psychology is an approach to explain political behaviors between different coalitions and the conditionality of these behaviors in evolutionary psychological perspective.", "This approach assumes that since human beings appeared on the earth, they have evolved to live in groups instead of living as individuals to achieve benefits such as more mating opportunities and increased status.", "Human beings thus naturally think and act in a way that manages and negotiates group dynamics.Coalitional psychology offers falsifiable ex ante prediction by positing five hypotheses on how these psychological adaptations operate:* Humans represent groups as a special category of individual, unstable and with a short shadow of the future* Political entrepreneurs strategically manipulate the coalitional environment, often appealing to emotional devices such as \"outrage\" to inspire collective action.", "* Relative gains dominate relations with enemies, whereas absolute gains characterize relations with allies.", "* Coalitional size and male physical strength will positively predict individual support for aggressive foreign policies.", "* Individuals with children, particularly women, will vary in adopting aggressive foreign policies than those without progeny." ], [ "Reception and criticism", "Critics of evolutionary psychology accuse it of promoting genetic determinism, pan-adaptationism (the idea that all behaviors and anatomical features are adaptations), unfalsifiable hypotheses, distal or ultimate explanations of behavior when proximate explanations are superior, and malevolent political or moral ideas.===Ethical implications===Critics have argued that evolutionary psychology might be used to justify existing social hierarchies and reactionary policies.", "It has also been suggested by critics that evolutionary psychologists' theories and interpretations of empirical data rely heavily on ideological assumptions about race and gender.In response to such criticism, evolutionary psychologists often caution against committing the naturalistic fallacy – the assumption that \"what is natural\" is necessarily a moral good.", "However, their caution against committing the naturalistic fallacy has been criticized as means to stifle legitimate ethical discussions.===Contradictions in models===Some criticisms of evolutionary psychology point at contradictions between different aspects of adaptive scenarios posited by evolutionary psychology.", "One example is the evolutionary psychology model of extended social groups selecting for modern human brains, a contradiction being that the synaptic function of modern human brains require high amounts of many specific essential nutrients so that such a transition to higher requirements of the same essential nutrients being shared by all individuals in a population would decrease the possibility of forming large groups due to bottleneck foods with rare essential nutrients capping group sizes.", "It is mentioned that some insects have societies with different ranks for each individual and that monkeys remain socially functioning after the removal of most of the brain as additional arguments against big brains promoting social networking.", "The model of males as both providers and protectors is criticized for the impossibility of being in two places at once, the male cannot both protect his family at home and be out hunting at the same time.", "In the case of the claim that a provider male could buy protection service for his family from other males by bartering food that he had hunted, critics point at the fact that the most valuable food (the food that contained the rarest essential nutrients) would be different in different ecologies and as such vegetable in some geographical areas and animal in others, making it impossible for hunting styles relying on physical strength or risk-taking to be universally of similar value in bartered food and instead of making it inevitable that in some parts of Africa, food gathered with no need for major physical strength would be the most valuable to barter for protection.", "A contradiction between evolutionary psychology's claim of men needing to be more sexually visual than women for fast speed of assessing women's fertility than women needed to be able to assess the male's genes and its claim of male sexual jealousy guarding against infidelity is also pointed at, as it would be pointless for a male to be fast to assess female fertility if he needed to assess the risk of there being a jealous male mate and in that case his chances of defeating him before mating anyway (pointlessness of assessing one necessary condition faster than another necessary condition can possibly be assessed).===Standard social science model===Evolutionary psychology has been entangled in the larger philosophical and social science controversies related to the debate on nature versus nurture.", "Evolutionary psychologists typically contrast evolutionary psychology with what they call the standard social science model (SSSM).", "They characterize the SSSM as the \"blank slate\", \"relativist\", \"social constructionist\", and \"cultural determinist\" perspective that they say dominated the social sciences throughout the 20th century and assumed that the mind was shaped almost entirely by culture.Critics have argued that evolutionary psychologists created a false dichotomy between their own view and the caricature of the SSSM.", "Other critics regard the SSSM as a rhetorical device or a straw man and suggest that the scientists whom evolutionary psychologists associate with the SSSM did not believe that the mind was a blank state devoid of any natural predispositions.===Reductionism and determinism===Some critics view evolutionary psychology as a form of genetic reductionism and genetic determinism, a common critique being that evolutionary psychology does not address the complexity of individual development and experience and fails to explain the influence of genes on behavior in individual cases.", "Evolutionary psychologists respond that they are working within a nature-nurture interactionist framework that acknowledges that many psychological adaptations are facultative (sensitive to environmental variations during individual development).", "The discipline is generally not focused on proximate analyses of behavior, but rather its focus is on the study of distal/ultimate causality (the evolution of psychological adaptations).", "The field of behavioral genetics is focused on the study of the proximate influence of genes on behavior.===Testability of hypotheses===A frequent critique of the discipline is that the hypotheses of evolutionary psychology are frequently arbitrary and difficult or impossible to adequately test, thus questioning its status as an actual scientific discipline, for example because many current traits probably evolved to serve different functions than they do now.", "Thus because there are a potentially infinite number of alternative explanations for why a trait evolved, critics contend that it is impossible to determine the exact explanation.", "While evolutionary psychology hypotheses are difficult to test, evolutionary psychologists assert that it is not impossible.", "Part of the critique of the scientific base of evolutionary psychology includes a critique of the concept of the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation (EEA).", "Some critics have argued that researchers know so little about the environment in which ''Homo sapiens'' evolved that explaining specific traits as an adaption to that environment becomes highly speculative.", "Evolutionary psychologists respond that they do know many things about this environment, including the facts that present day humans' ancestors were hunter-gatherers, that they generally lived in small tribes, etc.", "Edward Hagen argues that the human past environments were not radically different in the same sense as the Carboniferous or Jurassic periods and that the animal and plant taxa of the era were similar to those of the modern world, as was the geology and ecology.", "Hagen argues that few would deny that other organs evolved in the EEA (for example, lungs evolving in an oxygen rich atmosphere) yet critics question whether or not the brain's EEA is truly knowable, which he argues constitutes selective scepticism.", "Hagen also argues that most evolutionary psychology research is based on the fact that females can get pregnant and males cannot, which Hagen observes was also true in the EEA.John Alcock describes this as the \"No Time Machine Argument\", as critics are arguing that since it is not possible to travel back in time to the EEA, then it cannot be determined what was going on there and thus what was adaptive.", "Alcock argues that present-day evidence allows researchers to be reasonably confident about the conditions of the EEA and that the fact that so many human behaviours are adaptive in the ''current'' environment is evidence that the ancestral environment of humans had much in common with the present one, as these behaviours would have evolved in the ancestral environment.", "Thus Alcock concludes that researchers can make predictions on the adaptive value of traits.", "Similarly, Dominic Murphy argues that alternative explanations cannot just be forwarded but instead need their own evidence and predictions - if one explanation makes predictions that the others cannot, it is reasonable to have confidence in that explanation.", "In addition, Murphy argues that other historical sciences also make predictions about modern phenomena to come up with explanations about past phenomena, for example, cosmologists look for evidence for what we would expect to see in the modern-day if the Big Bang was true, while geologists make predictions about modern phenomena to determine if an asteroid wiped out the dinosaurs.", "Murphy argues that if other historical disciplines can conduct tests without a time machine, then the onus is on the critics to show why evolutionary psychology is untestable if other historical disciplines are not, as \"methods should be judged across the board, not singled out for ridicule in one context.", "\"===Modularity of mind===Evolutionary psychologists generally presume that, like the body, the mind is made up of many evolved modular adaptations, although there is some disagreement within the discipline regarding the degree of general plasticity, or \"generality,\" of some modules.", "It has been suggested that modularity evolves because, compared to non-modular networks, it would have conferred an advantage in terms of fitness and because connection costs are lower.In contrast, some academics argue that it is unnecessary to posit the existence of highly domain specific modules, and, suggest that the neural anatomy of the brain supports a model based on more domain general faculties and processes.", "Moreover, empirical support for the domain-specific theory stems almost entirely from performance on variations of the Wason selection task which is extremely limited in scope as it only tests one subtype of deductive reasoning.===Cultural rather than genetic development of cognitive tools===Psychologist Cecilia Heyes has argued that the picture presented by some evolutionary psychology of the human mind as a collection of cognitive instinctsorgans of thought shaped by genetic evolution over very long time periodsdoes not fit research results.", "She posits instead that humans have cognitive gadgets\"special-purpose organs of thought\" built in the course of development through social interaction.", "Similar criticisms are articulated by Subrena E. Smith of the University of New Hampshire.===Response by evolutionary psychologists===Evolutionary psychologists have addressed many of their critics (e.g.", "in books by Segerstråle (2000), Barkow (2005), and Alcock (2001)).", "Among their rebuttals are that some criticisms are straw men, or are based on an incorrect nature versus nurture dichotomy or on basic misunderstandings of the discipline.", "Robert Kurzban suggested that \"...critics of the field, when they err, are not slightly missing the mark.", "Their confusion is deep and profound.", "It's not like they are marksmen who can't quite hit the center of the target; they're holding the gun backwards.\"", "Many have written specifically to correct basic misconceptions." ], [ "See also", "* Affective neuroscience* Behavioural genetics* Biocultural evolution* Biosocial criminology* Collective unconscious* Cognitive neuroscience* Cultural neuroscience* Darwinian Happiness* Darwinian literary studies* Deep social mind* Dunbar's number* Evolution of the brain* List of evolutionary psychologists* Evolutionary origin of religions* Evolutionary psychology and culture* Molecular evolution* Primate cognition* Hominid intelligence* Human ethology* Great ape language* Chimpanzee intelligence* Cooperative eye hypothesis* Id, ego, and superego* Intersubjectivity* Mirror neuron* Origin of language* Origin of speech* Ovulatory shift hypothesis* Primate empathy* Shadow (psychology)* Simulation theory of empathy* Theory of mind* Neuroethology* Paleolithic diet* Paleolithic lifestyle* r/K selection theory* Social neuroscience* Sociobiology* Universal Darwinism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * Buss, D. M. (1994).", "''The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating''.", "New York: Basic Books.", "* * * * * * * * Gaulin, Steven J. C. and Donald H. McBurney.", "''Evolutionary psychology''.", "Prentice Hall.", "2003.", "* * * *** Nesse, R.M.", "(2000).", "Tingergen's Four Questions Organized .", "* * * * * * * Schacter, Daniel L, Daniel Wegner and Daniel Gilbert.", "2007.''Psychology''.", "Worth Publishers.", ".", "* * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * Heylighen F. (2012). \"", "Evolutionary Psychology\", in: A. Michalos (ed.", "): Encyclopedia of Quality of Life Research (Springer, Berlin).", "* * * Gerhard Medicus (2015).", "Being Human – Bridging the Gap between the Sciences of Body and Mind.", "Berlin: VWB * Oikkonen, Venla: ''Gender, Sexuality and Reproduction in Evolutionary Narratives.''", "London: Routledge, 2013." ], [ "External links", "* PsychTable.org Collaborative effort to catalog human psychological adaptations* * What Is Evolutionary Psychology?", "by Clinical Evolutionary Psychologist Dale Glaebach.", "* Evolutionary Psychology – Approaches in Psychology* Gerhard Medicus (2017).", "Being Human – Bridging the Gap between the Sciences of Body and Mind, Berlin VWB===Academic societies===* Human Behavior and Evolution Society; international society dedicated to using evolutionary theory to study human nature* The International Society for Human Ethology; promotes ethological perspectives on the study of humans worldwide* European Human Behaviour and Evolution Association an interdisciplinary society that supports the activities of European researchers with an interest in evolutionary accounts of human cognition, behavior and society* The Association for Politics and the Life Sciences; an international and interdisciplinary association of scholars, scientists, and policymakers concerned with evolutionary, genetic, and ecological knowledge and its bearing on political behavior, public policy and ethics.", "* Society for Evolutionary Analysis in Law a scholarly association dedicated to fostering interdisciplinary exploration of issues at the intersection of law, biology, and evolutionary theory* The New England Institute for Cognitive Science and Evolutionary Psychology aims to foster research and education into the interdisciplinary nexus of cognitive science and evolutionary studies* The NorthEastern Evolutionary Psychology Society; regional society dedicated to encouraging scholarship and dialogue on the topic of evolutionary psychology* Feminist Evolutionary Psychology Society researchers that investigate the active role that females have had in human evolution===Journals===* ''Evolutionary Psychology'' – free access online scientific journal* ''Evolution and Human Behavior'' – journal of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society* ''Evolutionary Psychological Science'' - An international, interdisciplinary forum for original research papers that address evolved psychology.", "Spans social and life sciences, anthropology, philosophy, criminology, law and the humanities.", "* '' Politics and the Life Sciences'' – an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed journal published by the Association for Politics and the Life Sciences* '' Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective'' – advances the interdisciplinary investigation of the biological, social, and environmental factors that underlie human behavior.", "It focuses primarily on the functional unity in which these factors are continuously and mutually interactive.", "These include the evolutionary, biological, and sociological processes as they interact with human social behavior.", "* '' Biological Theory: Integrating Development, Evolution and Cognition'' – devoted to theoretical advances in the fields of biology and cognition, with an emphasis on the conceptual integration afforded by evolutionary and developmental approaches.", "* '' Evolutionary Anthropology''* '' Behavioral and Brain Sciences'' – interdisciplinary articles in psychology, neuroscience, behavioral biology, cognitive science, artificial intelligence, linguistics and philosophy.", "About 30% of the articles have focused on evolutionary analyses of behavior.", "* '' Evolution and Development'' – research relevant to interface of evolutionary and developmental biology* '' The Evolutionary Review – Art, Science, and Culture''===Videos===* Brief video clip from the \"Evolution\" PBS Series* TED talk by Steven Pinker about his book The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature* RSA talk by evolutionary psychologist Robert Kurzban on modularity of mind, based on his book ''Why Everyone (Else) is a Hypocrite''* Richard Dawkins' lecture on natural selection and evolutionary psychology* Evolutionary Psychology – Steven Pinker & Frans de Waal Audio recording* Stone Age Minds: A conversation with evolutionary psychologists Leda Cosmides and John Tooby* Margaret Mead and Samoa.", "Review of the nature versus nurture debate triggered by Mead's book \"Coming of Age in Samoa.", "\"* \"Evolutionary Psychology\", ''In Our Time'', BBC Radio 4 discussion with Janet Radcliffe Richards, Nicholas Humphrey and Steven Rose (November 2, 2000)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Languages of Europe" ], [ "Introduction", "A color-coded map of languages used throughout Europe.There are over 250 '''languages indigenous to Europe''', and most belong to the Indo-European language family.", "Out of a total European population of 744 million as of 2018, some 94% are native speakers of an Indo-European language.", "The three largest phyla of the Indo-European language family in Europe are Romance, Germanic, and Slavic; they have more than 200 million speakers each, and together account for close to 90% of Europeans.", "Smaller phyla of Indo-European found in Europe include Hellenic (Greek, 13 million), Baltic ( 7 million), Albanian ( 5 million), Celtic ( 4 million), and Armenian ( 4 million).", "Indo-Aryan, though a large subfamily of Indo-European, has a relatively small number of languages in Europe, and a small number of speakers (Romani, 1.5 million).", "However, a number of Indo-Aryan languages not native to Europe are spoken in Europe today.Of the approximately 45 million Europeans speaking non-Indo-European languages, most speak languages within either the Uralic or Turkic families.", "Still smaller groups — such as Basque (language isolate), Semitic languages (Maltese, 0.5 million), and various languages of the Caucasus — account for less than 1% of the European population among them.", "Immigration has added sizeable communities of speakers of African and Asian languages, amounting to about 4% of the population, with Arabic being the most widely spoken of them.Five languages have more than 50 million native speakers in Europe: Russian, English, French, Italian, and German.", "Russian is the most-spoken native language in Europe, and English has the largest number of speakers in total, including some 200 million speakers of English as a second or foreign language.", "(See English language in Europe.)" ], [ "Indo-European languages", "The Indo-European language family is descended from Proto-Indo-European, which is believed to have been spoken thousands of years ago.", "Early speakers of Indo-European daughter languages most likely expanded into Europe with the incipient Bronze Age, around 4,000 years ago (Bell-Beaker culture).=== Germanic ===The present-day distribution of the Germanic languages in Europe:North Germanic languagesWest Germanic LanguagesDots indicate areas where multilingualism is common.The Germanic languages make up the predominant language family in Western, Northern and Central Europe.", "It is estimated that over 500 million Europeans are speakers of Germanic languages, the largest groups being German ( 95 million), English ( 400 million), Dutch ( 24 million), Swedish ( 10 million), Danish ( 6 million), Norwegian ( 5 million) and Limburgish (c. 1.3 million).There are two extant major sub-divisions: ''West Germanic'' and ''North Germanic''.", "A third group, East Germanic, is now extinct; the only known surviving East Germanic texts are written in the Gothic language.", "West Germanic is divided into Anglo-Frisian (including English), Low German, Low Franconian (including Dutch) and High German (including Standard German).====Anglo-Frisian====The Anglo-Frisian language family is now mostly represented by English (Anglic), descended from the Old English language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons:* English, the main language of the United Kingdom and the most widespread language in the Republic of Ireland, also spoken as a second or third language by many Europeans.", "* Scots, spoken in Scotland and Ulster, recognized by some as a language and by others as a dialect of English.", "(Not to be confused with Scots-Gaelic of the Celtic language family.", ")The Frisian languages are spoken by about 400,000 () Frisians, who live on the southern coast of the North Sea in the Netherlands and Germany.", "These languages include West Frisian, East Frisian (of which the only surviving dialect is Saterlandic) and North Frisian.====Dutch====Dutch is spoken throughout the Netherlands, the northern half of Belgium, as well as the Nord-Pas de Calais region of France.", "The traditional dialects of the Lower Rhine region of Germany are linguistically more closely related to Dutch than to modern German.", "In Belgian and French contexts, Dutch is sometimes referred to as Flemish.", "Dutch dialects are numerous and varied.====German====German is spoken throughout Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, much of Switzerland (including the northeast areas bordering on Germany and Austria), northern Italy (South Tyrol), Luxembourg, the East Cantons of Belgium and the Alsace and Lorraine regions of France.There are several groups of German dialects:* High German includes several dialect families: Standard German Central German dialects, spoken in central Germany and including Luxembourgish High Franconian, a family of transitional dialects between Central and Upper High German Upper German, including Bavarian and Swiss German** Yiddish is a Jewish language developed in Germany and Eastern Europe.", "It shares many features of High German dialects and Hebrew.====Low German==== Low German is spoken in various regions throughout Northern Germany and the northern and eastern parts of the Netherlands.", "It is an official language in Germany.", "It may be separated into West Low German and East Low German.====North Germanic (Scandinavian)====The ''North Germanic languages'' are spoken in Nordic countries and include Swedish (Sweden and parts of Finland), Danish (Denmark), Norwegian (Norway), Icelandic (Iceland),Faroese (Faroe Islands), and Elfdalian (in a small part of central Sweden).English has a long history of contact with Scandinavian languages, given the immigration of Scandinavians early in the history of Britain, and shares various features with the Scandinavian languages.", "Even so, especially Dutch and Swedish, but also Danish and Norwegian, have strong vocabulary connections to the German language.====Limburgish====Limburgish (also called Limburgan, Limburgian, or Limburgic) Is a West Germanic language spoken in the province of Limburg in the Netherlands, Belgium and neighboring regions of Germany.", "It is distinct from German and Dutch, but originates from areas near where both are spoken.=== Romance ===The Distribution of the Romance languages, 20th century.Roughly 215 million Europeans (primarily in Southern and Western Europe) are native speakers of Romance languages, the largest groups including:French ( 72 million),Italian ( 65 million),Spanish ( 40 million), Romanian ( 24 million),Portuguese ( 10 million),Catalan ( 7 million),Sicilian ( 5 million, also subsumed under Italian), Venetian ( 4 million),Galician ( 2 million),Sardinian ( 1 million),Occitan ( 500,000), besides numerous smaller communities.The Romance languages evolved from varieties of Vulgar Latin spoken in the various parts of the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity.", "Latin was itself part of the (otherwise extinct) Italic branch of Indo-European.Romance languages are divided phylogenetically into ''Italo-Western'', ''Eastern Romance'' (including Romanian) and ''Sardinian''.", "The Romance-speaking area of Europe is occasionally referred to as ''Latin Europe''.Italo-Western can be further broken down into the ''Italo-Dalmatian languages'' (sometimes grouped with Eastern Romance), including the Tuscan-derived Italian and numerous local Romance languages in Italy as well as Dalmatian, and the ''Western Romance languages''.", "The Western Romance languages in turn separate into the Gallo-Romance languages, including Langues d'oïl such as French, the Francoprovencalic languages Arpitan and Faetar, the Rhaeto-Romance languages, and the Gallo-Italic languages; the Occitano-Romance languages, grouped with either Gallo-Romance or East Iberian, including Occitanic languages such as Occitan and Gardiol, and Catalan; Aragonese, grouped in with either Occitano-Romance or West Iberian, and finally the West Iberian languages, including the Astur-Leonese languages, the Galician-Portuguese languages, and the Castilian languages.=== Slavic ===Political map of Europe with countries where the national language is Slavic:Slavic languages are spoken in large areas of Southern, Central and Eastern Europe.", "An estimated 315 million people speak of Slavic languages, the largest groups being Russian ( 110 million in European Russia and adjacent parts of Eastern Europe, Russian forming the largest linguistic community in Europe),Polish ( 40.6 million),Ukrainian ( 33 million), Serbo-Croatian ( 21 million),Czech ( 12 million),Bulgarian ( 7.7 million), Slovak ( 5 million)Belarusian (c. 3.7 million) and Slovene ( 2.3 million)and Macedonian ( 2 million).Phylogenetically, Slavic is divided into three subgroups:* ''West Slavic'' includes Polish, Polabian, Czech, Knaanic, Slovak, Lower Sorbian, Upper Sorbian, Silesian and Kashubian.", "* ''East Slavic'' includes Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Ruthenian, and Rusyn.", "* ''South Slavic'' includes Slovene and Serbo-Croatian in the southwest and Bulgarian, Macedonian and Church Slavonic (a liturgical language) in the southeast, each with numerous distinctive dialects.", "South Slavic languages constitute a dialect continuum where standard Slovene, Macedonian and Bulgarian are each based on a distinct dialect, whereas pluricentric Serbo-Croatian boasts four mutually intelligible national standard varieties all based on a single dialect, Shtokavian.=== Others ===* Greek ( 13 million) is the official language of Greece and Cyprus, and there are Greek-speaking enclaves in Albania, Bulgaria, Italy, North Macedonia, Romania, Georgia, Ukraine, Lebanon, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Turkey, and in Greek communities around the world.", "Dialects of modern Greek that originate from Attic Greek (through Koine and then Medieval Greek) are Cappadocian, Pontic, Cretan, Cypriot, Katharevousa, and Yevanic.", " Italiot Greek is, debatably, a Doric dialect of Greek.", "It is spoken in southern Italy only, in the southern Calabria region (as Grecanic) and in the Salento region (as Griko).", "It was studied by the German linguist Gerhard Rohlfs during the 1930s and 1950s.", " Tsakonian is a Doric dialect of the Greek language spoken in the lower Arcadia region of the Peloponnese around the village of Leonidio Historic distribution of the Baltic languages in the Baltic (simplified).", "* The Baltic languages are spoken in Lithuania (Lithuanian ( 3 million), Samogitian) and Latvia (Latvian ( 2 million), Latgalian).", "Samogitian and Latgalian used to be considered dialects of Lithuanian and Latvian respectively.", "** There are also several extinct Baltic languages, including: Curonian, Galindian, Jatvingian, Old Prussian, Selonian, Semigallian, and Sudovian.", "* Albanian ( 5 million) has two major dialects, Tosk Albanian and Gheg Albanian.", "It is spoken in Albania and Kosovo, neighboring North Macedonia, Serbia, Italy, and Montenegro.", "It is also widely spoken in the Albanian diaspora.", "* Armenian ( 7 million) has two major forms, Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian.", "It is spoken in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (Samtskhe-Javakheti) and Abkhazia, also Russia, France, Italy, Turkey, Greece, and Cyprus.", "It is also widely spoken in the Armenian Diaspora.", "* There are six living Celtic languages, spoken in areas of northwestern Europe dubbed the \"Celtic nations\".", "All six are members of the Insular Celtic family, which in turn is divided into: Brittonic family: Welsh (Wales, 462,000), Cornish (Cornwall, 500) and Breton (Brittany, 206,000) Goidelic family: Irish (Ireland, 1.7 million), Scottish Gaelic (Scotland, 57,400), and Manx (Isle of Man, 1,660): Continental Celtic languages had previously been spoken across Europe from Iberia and Gaul to Asia Minor, but became extinct in the first millennium CE.", "* The Indo-Aryan languages have one major representative: Romani ( 1.5 million speakers), introduced in Europe during the late medieval period.", "Lacking a nation state, Romani is spoken as a minority language throughout Europe.", "* The Iranian languages in Europe are natively represented in the North Caucasus, notably with Ossetian ( 600,000)." ], [ "Non-Indo-European languages", "=== Turkic ===Distribution of Turkic languages in Eurasia* Oghuz languages in Europe include Turkish, spoken in East Thrace and by immigrant communities; Azerbaijani is spoken in Northeast Azerbaijan and parts of Southern Russia and Gagauz is spoken in Gagauzia.", "* Kipchak languages in Europe include Karaim, Crimean Tatar and Krymchak, which is spoken mainly in Crimea; Tatar, which is spoken in Tatarstan; Bashkir, which is spoken in Bashkortostan; Karachay-Balkar, which is spoken in the North Caucasus, and Kazakh, which is spoken in Northwest Kazakhstan.", "* Oghur languages were historically indigenous to much of Eastern Europe; however, most of them are extinct today, with the exception of Chuvash, which is spoken in Chuvashia.=== Uralic ===Distribution of Uralic languages in EurasiaUralic language family is native to northern Eurasia.Finnic languages include Finnish ( 5 million) and Estonian ( 1 million), as well as smaller languages such as Kven ( 8,000).", "Other languages of the Finno-Permic branch of the family include e.g.", "Mari (c. 400,000), and the Sami languages ( 30,000).The Ugric branch of the language family is represented in Europe by the Hungarian language ( 13 million), historically introduced with the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin of the 9th century.The Samoyedic Nenets language is spoken in Nenets Autonomous Okrug of Russia, located in the far northeastern corner of Europe (as delimited by the Ural Mountains).=== Others ===* The Basque language (or ''Euskara'', 750,000) is a language isolate and the ancestral language of the Basque people who inhabit the Basque Country, a region in the western Pyrenees mountains mostly in northeastern Spain and partly in southwestern France of about 3 million inhabitants, where it is spoken fluently by about 750,000 and understood by more than 1.5 million people.", "Basque is directly related to ancient Aquitanian, and it is likely that an early form of the Basque language was present in Western Europe before the arrival of the Indo-European languages in the area in the Bronze Age.", "* North Caucasian languages is a geographical blanket term for two unrelated language families spoken chiefly in the north Caucasus and Turkey—the Northwest Caucasian family (including Abkhaz and Circassian) and the Northeast Caucasian family, spoken mainly in the border area of the southern Russian Federation (including Dagestan, Chechnya, and Ingushetia).", "* Kalmyk is a Mongolic language, spoken in the Republic of Kalmykia, part of the Russian Federation.", "Its speakers entered the Volga region in the early 17th century.", "* Kartvelian languages (also known as Southwest Caucasian languages), the most common of which is Georgian ( 3.5 million), others being Mingrelian and Svan, spoken mainly in the Caucasus and Anatolia.", "* Maltese ( 500,000) is a Semitic language with Romance and Germanic influences, spoken in Malta.", "It is based on Sicilian Arabic, with influences from Sicilian, Italian, French and, more recently, English.", "It is the only Semitic language whose standard form is written in Latin script.", "It is also the second smallest official language of the EU in terms of speakers (after Irish), and the only official Semitic language within the EU.", "* Cypriot Maronite Arabic (also known as Cypriot Arabic) is a variety of Arabic spoken by Maronites in Cyprus.", "Most speakers live in Nicosia, but others are in the communities of Kormakiti and Lemesos.", "Brought to the island by Maronites fleeing Lebanon over 700 years ago, this variety of Arabic has been influenced by Greek in both phonology and vocabulary, while retaining certain unusually archaic features in other respects.", "* Dialects of Eastern Aramaic are spoken by Assyrian communities in the Caucasus and southern Russia who fled the Assyrian Genocide during World War I.===Sign languages===Several dozen manual languages exist across Europe, with the most widespread sign language family being the Francosign languages, with its languages found in countries from Iberia to the Balkans and the Baltics.", "Accurate historical information of sign and tactile languages is difficult to come by, with folk histories noting the existence signing communities across Europe hundreds of years ago.", "British Sign Language (BSL) and French Sign Language (LSF) are probably the oldest confirmed, continuously used sign languages.", "Alongside German Sign Language (DGS) according to Ethnologue, these three have the most numbers of signers, though very few institutions take appropriate statistics on contemporary signing populations, making legitimate data hard to find.Notably, few European sign languages have overt connections with the local majority/oral languages, aside from standard language contact and borrowing, meaning grammatically the sign languages and the oral languages of Europe are quite distinct from one another.", "Due to (visual/aural) modality differences, most sign languages are named for the larger ethnic nation in which they are spoken, plus the words \"sign language\", rendering what is spoken across much of France, Wallonia and Romandy as French Sign Language or LSF for: '''''l'''angue des '''s'''ignes '''f'''rançaise''.Recognition of non-oral languages varies widely from region to region.", "Some countries afford legal recognition, even to official on a state level, whereas others continue to be actively suppressed.Though \"there is a widespread belief—among both Deaf people and sign language linguists—that there ''are'' sign language families,\" the actual relationship between sign languages is difficult to ascertain.", "Concepts and methods used in historical linguistics to describe language families for written and spoken languages are not easily mapped onto signed languages.", "Some of the current understandings of sign language relationships, however, provide some reasonable estimates about potential sign language families:* Francosign languages, such as LSF, ASL, Dutch Sign Language, Flemish Sign Language, and Italian Sign Language.", "* BANZSL languages, including British Sign Language (BSL), New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL), Australian Sign Language (Auslan), and Swedish Sign Language.", "* Isolate languages, such as Albanian Sign Language, Armenian Sign Language, Caucasian Sign Language, Spanish Sign Language (LSE), Turkish Sign Language (TİD), and perhaps Ghardaia Sign Language.", "* Many other sign languages, such as Irish Sign Language (ISL), have unclear origins." ], [ "History of standardization", "=== Language and identity, standardization processes ===In the Middle Ages the two most important defining elements of Europe were ''Christianitas'' and ''Latinitas''.The earliest dictionaries were glossaries: more or less structured lists of lexical pairs (in alphabetical order or according to conceptual fields).", "The Latin-German (Latin-Bavarian) ''Abrogans'' was among the first.", "A new wave of lexicography can be seen from the late 15th century onwards (after the introduction of the printing press, with the growing interest in standardisation of languages).The concept of the nation state began to emerge in the early modern period.", "Nations adopted particular dialects as their national language.", "This, together with improved communications, led to official efforts to standardise the national language, and a number of language academies were established: 1582 ''Accademia della Crusca'' in Florence, 1617 ''Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft'' in Weimar, 1635 ''Académie française'' in Paris, 1713 ''Real Academia Española'' in Madrid.", "Language became increasingly linked to nation as opposed to culture, and was also used to promote religious and ethnic identity: e.g.", "different Bible translations in the same language for Catholics and Protestants.The first languages whose standardisation was promoted included Italian (''questione della lingua'': Modern Tuscan/Florentine vs. Old Tuscan/Florentine vs. Venetian → Modern Florentine + archaic Tuscan + Upper Italian), French (the standard is based on Parisian), English (the standard is based on the London dialect) and (High) German (based on the dialects of the chancellery of Meissen in Saxony, Middle German, and the chancellery of Prague in Bohemia (\"Common German\")).", "But several other nations also began to develop a standard variety in the 16th century.=== Lingua franca ===Europe has had a number of languages that were considered linguae francae over some ranges for some periods according to some historians.", "Typically in the rise of a national language the new language becomes a lingua franca to peoples in the range of the future nation until the consolidation and unification phases.", "If the nation becomes internationally influential, its language may become a lingua franca among nations that speak their own national languages.", "Europe has had no lingua franca ranging over its entire territory spoken by all or most of its populations during any historical period.", "Some linguae francae of past and present over some of its regions for some of its populations are:* Classical Greek and then Koine Greek in the Mediterranean Basin from the Athenian Empire to the Eastern Roman Empire, being replaced by Modern Greek.", "* Koine Greek and Modern Greek, in the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire and other parts of the Balkans south of the Jireček Line.", "* Vulgar Latin and Late Latin among the uneducated and educated populations respectively of the Roman Empire and the states that followed it in the same range no later than 900 AD; Medieval Latin and Renaissance Latin among the educated populations of western, northern, central and part of eastern Europe until the rise of the national languages in that range, beginning with the first language academy in Italy in 1582/83; Neo-Latin written only in scholarly and scientific contexts by a small minority of the educated population at scattered locations over all of Europe; ecclesiastical Latin, in spoken and written contexts of liturgy and church administration only, over the range of the Roman Catholic Church.", "* Lingua Franca or Sabir, the original of the name, an Italian-based pidgin language of mixed origins used by maritime commercial interests around the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages and early Modern Age.", "* Old French in continental western European countries and in the Crusader states.", "* Czech, mainly during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV (14th century) but also during other periods of Bohemian control over the Holy Roman Empire.", "* Middle Low German, around the 14th–16th century, during the heyday of the Hanseatic League, mainly in Northeastern Europe across the Baltic Sea.", "* Spanish as Castilian in Spain and New Spain from the times of the Catholic Monarchs and Columbus, c. 1492; that is, after the Reconquista, until established as a national language in the times of Louis XIV, c. 1648; subsequently multinational in all nations in or formerly in the Spanish Empire.", "* Polish, due to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (16th–18th centuries).", "* Italian due to the Renaissance, the opera, the Italian Empire, the fashion industry and the influence of the Roman Catholic church.", "* French from the golden age under Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV c. 1648; i.e., after the Thirty Years' War, in France and the French colonial empire, until established as the national language during the French Revolution of 1789 and subsequently multinational in all nations in or formerly in the various French Empires.", "* German in Northern, Central, and Eastern Europe.", "* English in Great Britain until its consolidation as a national language in the Renaissance and the rise of Modern English; subsequently internationally under the various states in or formerly in the British Empire; globally since the victories of the predominantly English speaking countries (United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and others) and their allies in the two world wars ending in 1918 (World War I) and 1945 (World War II) and the subsequent rise of the United States as a superpower and major cultural influence.", "* Russian in the former Soviet Union and Russian Empire including Northern and Central Asia.=== Linguistic minorities ===Historical attitudes towards linguistic diversity are illustrated by two French laws: the Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539), which said that every document in France should be written in French (neither in Latin nor in Occitan) and the Loi Toubon (1994), which aimed to eliminate anglicisms from official documents.", "States and populations within a state have often resorted to war to settle their differences.", "There have been attempts to prevent such hostilities: two such initiatives were promoted by the Council of Europe, founded in 1949, which affirms the right of minority language speakers to use their language fully and freely.", "The Council of Europe is committed to protecting linguistic diversity.", "Currently all European countries except France, Andorra and Turkey have signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, while Greece, Iceland and Luxembourg have signed it, but have not ratified it; this framework entered into force in 1998.Another European treaty, the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, was adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe: it entered into force in 1998, and while it is legally binding for 24 countries, France, Iceland, Italy, North Macedonia, Moldova and Russia have chosen to sign without ratifying the convention.=== Scripts ===Alphabets used in European national languages:The main scripts used in Europe today are the Latin and Cyrillic.The Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenician alphabet, and Latin was derived from the Greek via the Old Italic alphabet.", "In the Early Middle Ages, Ogham was used in Ireland and runes (derived from Old Italic script) in Scandinavia.", "Both were replaced in general use by the Latin alphabet by the Late Middle Ages.", "The Cyrillic script was derived from the Greek with the first texts appearing around 940 AD.Around 1900 there were mainly two typeface variants of the Latin alphabet used in Europe: Antiqua and Fraktur.", "Fraktur was used most for German, Estonian, Latvian, Norwegian and Danish whereas Antiqua was used for Italian, Spanish, French, Polish, Portuguese, English, Romanian, Swedish and Finnish.", "The Fraktur variant was banned by Hitler in 1941, having been described as \"Schwabacher Jewish letters\".The memorandum itself is typed in Antiqua, but the NSDAP letterhead is printed in Fraktur.", "\"For general attention, on behalf of the Führer, I make the following announcement:It is wrong to regard or to describe the so‑called Gothic script as a German script.", "In reality, the so‑called Gothic script consists of Schwabach Jew letters.", "Just as they later took control of the newspapers, upon the introduction of printing the Jews residing in Germany took control of the printing presses and thus in Germany the Schwabach Jew letters were forcefully introduced.Today the Führer, talking with Herr Reichsleiter Amann and Herr Book Publisher Adolf Müller, has decided that in the future the Antiqua script is to be described as normal script.", "All printed materials are to be gradually converted to this normal script.", "As soon as is feasible in terms of textbooks, only the normal script will be taught in village and state schools.The use of the Schwabach Jew letters by officials will in future cease; appointment certifications for functionaries, street signs, and so forth will in future be produced only in normal script.On behalf of the Führer, Herr Reichsleiter Amann will in future convert those newspapers and periodicals that already have foreign distribution, or whose foreign distribution is desired, to normal script\".", "Other scripts have historically been in use in Europe, including Phoenician, from which modern Latin letters descend, Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs on Egyptian artefacts traded during Antiquity, various runic systems used in Northern Europe preceding Christianisation, and Arabic during the era of the Ottoman Empire.Hungarian rovás was used by the Hungarian people in the early Middle Ages, but it was gradually replaced with the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet when Hungary became a kingdom, though it was revived in the 20th century and has certain marginal, but growing area of usage since then.=== European Union ===The European Union (as of 2021) had 27 member states accounting for a population of 447 million, or about 60% of the population of Europe.The European Union has designated by agreement with the member states 24 languages as \"official and working\": Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish.", "This designation provides member states with two \"entitlements\": the member state may communicate with the EU in any of the designated languages, and view \"EU regulations and other legislative documents\" in that language.The European Union and the Council of Europe have been collaborating in education of member populations in languages for \"the promotion of plurilingualism\" among EU member states.", "The joint document, \"Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR)\", is an educational standard defining \"the competencies necessary for communication\" and related knowledge for the benefit of educators in setting up educational programs.", "In a 2005 independent survey requested by the EU's Directorate-General for Education and Culture regarding the extent to which major European languages were spoken in member states.", "The results were published in a 2006 document, \"Europeans and Their Languages\", or \"Eurobarometer 243\".", "In this study, statistically relevant samples of the population in each country were asked to fill out a survey form concerning the languages that they spoke with sufficient competency \"to be able to have a conversation\"." ], [ "List of languages", "The following is a table of European languages.", "The number of speakers as a first or second language (L1 and L2 speakers) listed are speakers in Europe only; see list of languages by number of native speakers and list of languages by total number of speakers for global estimates on numbers of speakers.The list is intended to include any language variety with an ISO 639 code.", "However, it omits sign languages.", "Because the ISO-639-2 and ISO-639-3 codes have different definitions, this means that some communities of speakers may be listed more than once.", "For instance, speakers of Bavarian are listed both under \"Bavarian\" (ISO-639-3 code ''bar'') as well as under \"German\" (ISO-639-2 code ''de'').NameISO-639ClassificationSpeakers in EuropeOfficial statusNativeTotalNationalRegional Abaza abq Northwest Caucasian, Abazgi 49,800 Karachay-Cherkessia (Russia) Adyghe ady Northwest Caucasian, Circassian 117,500 Adygea (Russia) Aghul agx Northeast Caucasian, Lezgic 29,300 Dagestan (Russia) Akhvakh akv Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 210 Albanian (Shqip)ArbëreshArvanitika sq Indo-European Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia Italy, Arbëresh dialect: Sicily, Calabria, Apulia, Molise, Basilicata, Abruzzo, Campania Montenegro (Ulcinj, Tuzi) Andi ani Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 5,800 Aragonese an Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 25,000 55,000 Northern Aragon (Spain) Archi acq Northeast Caucasian, Lezgic 970 Aromanian rup Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 114,000 North Macedonia (Kruševo) Asturian (Astur-Leonese) ast Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 351,791 641,502 Asturias Avar av Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 760,000 Dagestan (Russia) Azerbaijani az Turkic, Oghuz 500,000 Azerbaijan Dagestan (Russia) Bagvalal kva Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 1,500 Bashkir ba Turkic, Kipchak 1,221,000 Bashkortostan (Russia) Basque eu Basque 750,000 Basque Country: Basque Autonomous Community, Navarre (Spain), French Basque Country (France) Bavarianbar Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Bavarian 14,000,000 Austria (as German) South Tyrol Belarusian be Indo-European, Slavic, East 3,300,000 Belarus Bezhta kap Northeast Caucasian, Tsezic 6,800 Bosnian bs Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian 2,500,000 Bosnia and Herzegovina ''Kosovo'', Montenegro Botlikh bph Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 210 Breton br Indo-European, Celtic, Brittonic 206,000 None, de facto status in Brittany (France) Bulgarian bg Indo-European, Slavic, South, Eastern 7,800,000 Bulgaria Mount Athos (Greece) Catalan ca Indo-European, Romance, Western, Occitano-Romance 4,000,000 10,000,000 Andorra Balearic Islands (Spain), Catalonia (Spain), Valencian Community (Spain), easternmost Aragon (Spain), Pyrénées-Orientales (France), Alghero (Italy) Chamalal cji Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 500 Chechen ce Northeast Caucasian, Nakh 1,400,000 Chechnya & Dagestan (Russia) Chuvash cv Turkic, Oghur 1,100,000 Chuvashia (Russia) Cimbriancim Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Bavarian 400 Cornish kw Indo-European, Celtic, Brittonic 563 Cornwall (United Kingdom) Corsican co Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 30,000 125,000 Corsica (France), Sardinia (Italy) Crimean Tatar crh Turkic, Kipchak 480,000 Crimea (Ukraine) Croatian hr Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian 5,600,000 Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia Burgenland (Austria), Vojvodina (Serbia) Czech cs Indo-European, Slavic, West, Czech–Slovak 10,600,000 Czech Republic Danish da Indo-European, Germanic, North 5,500,000 Denmark Faroe Islands (Denmark), Schleswig-Holstein (Germany) Dargwa darNortheast Caucasian, Dargin490,000 Dagestan (Russia) Dutch nl Indo-European, Germanic, West, Low Franconian 22,000,000 Belgium, Netherlands Elfdalian ovd Indo-European, Germanic, North 2000 Emilian egl Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic English en Indo-European, Germanic, West, Anglo-Frisian, Anglic 63,000,000 260,000,000 Ireland, Malta, United Kingdom Erzya myv Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Mordvinic 120,000 Mordovia (Russia) Estonian et Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 1,165,400 Estonia Extremaduran ext Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 200,000 Fala fax Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 11,000 Faroese fo Indo-European, Germanic, North 66,150 Faroe Islands (Denmark) Finnish fi Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 5,400,000 Finland Sweden, Norway, Republic of Karelia (Russia) Franco-Provençal (Arpitan) frp Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance 140,000 Aosta Valley (Italy) French fr Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 81,000,000 210,000,000 Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland, Jersey Aosta Valley (Italy Frisian fryfrr stq Indo-European, Germanic, West, Anglo-Frisian 470,000 Friesland (Netherlands), Schleswig-Holstein (Germany) Friulan fur Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic 600,000 Friuli (Italy) Gagauz gag Turkic, Oghuz 140,000 Gagauzia (Moldova) Galician gl Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 2,400,000 Galicia (Spain), Eo-Navia (Asturias), Bierzo (Province of León) and Western Sanabria (Province of Zamora) German de Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 97,000,000 170,000,000 Austria, Belgium, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Switzerland South Tyrol, Friuli-Venezia Giulia (Italy) Godoberi gin Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 130 Greek el Indo-European, Hellenic 13,500,000 Cyprus, Greece Albania (Himara, Finiq, Dervican and other southern townships) Hinuq gin Northeast Caucasian, Tsezic 350 Hungarian hu Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Ugric 13,000,000 Hungary Burgenland (Austria), Vojvodina (Serbia), Romania, Slovakia, Subcarpathia (Ukraine), Prekmurje, (Slovenia) Hunzib bph Northeast Caucasian, Tsezic 1,400 Icelandic is Indo-European, Germanic, North 330,000 Iceland Ingrian izh Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 120 Ingush inh Northeast Caucasian, Nakh 300,000 Ingushetia (Russia) Irish ga Indo-European, Celtic, Goidelic 240,000 2,000,000 Ireland Northern Ireland (United Kingdom) Istriot ist Indo-European, Romance 900 Istro-Romanian ruo Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 1,100 Italian it Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 65,000,000 82,000,000 Italy, San Marino, Switzerland, Vatican City Istria County (Croatia), Slovenian Istria (Slovenia) Italiot Greek mis Indo-European, Hellenic, Greek, Attic-Ionic20,000 native speakers in 1981 50,000 Calabria (Bovesia), Apulia (Salento), (Italy) Judeo-Italian itk Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 250 Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) lad Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 320,000 few Bosnia and Herzegovina, France Kabardian kbd Northwest Caucasian, Circassian 530,000 Kabardino-Balkaria & Karachay-Cherkessia (Russia) Kaitag xdq Northeast Caucasian, Dargin 30,000 Kalmyk xal Mongolic 80,500 Kalmykia (Russia) Karata kpt Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 260 Karelian krl Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 36,000 Republic of Karelia (Russia) Karachay-Balkar krc Turkic, Kipchak 300,000 Kabardino-Balkaria & Karachay-Cherkessia (Russia) Kashubian csb Indo-European, Slavic, West, Lechitic 50,000 Poland Kazakh kk Turkic, Kipchak 1,000,000 Kazakhstan Astrakhan Oblast (Russia) Khwarshi khv Northeast Caucasian, Tsezic 1,700 Komi kv Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Permic 220,000 Komi Republic (Russia) Kubachi ugh Northeast Caucasian, Dargin 7,000 Kumyk kum Turkic, Kipchak 450,000 Dagestan (Russia) Kven fkv Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 2000-8000 Norway Lak lbe Northeast Caucasian, Lak 152,050 Dagestan (Russia) Latin la Indo-European, Italic, Latino-Faliscan extinct few Vatican City Latvian lv Indo-European, Baltic 1,750,000 Latvia Lezgin lez Northeast Caucasian, Lezgic 397,000 Dagestan (Russia) Ligurian lij Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic 500,000 Monaco (Monégasque dialect is the \"national language\") Liguria (Italy), Carloforte and Calasetta (Sardinia, Italy)Limburgish lilim Indo-European, Germanic, West, Low Franconian 1,300,000 (2001) Limburg (Belgium), Limburg (Netherlands) Lithuanian lt Indo-European, Baltic 3,000,000 Lithuania Livonian liv Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 1 210 Latvia Lombard lmo Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic 3,600,000 Lombardy (Italy) Low German (Low Saxon) ndswep Indo-European, Germanic, West 1,000,000 2,600,000 Schleswig-Holstein (Germany) Ludic lud Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 300 Luxembourgish lb Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 336,000 386,000 Luxembourg Wallonia (Belgium) Macedonian mk Indo-European, Slavic, South, Eastern 1,400,000 North Macedonia Mainfränkischvmf Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper 4,900,000 Maltese mt Semitic, Arabic 520,000 Malta Manx gv Indo-European, Celtic, Goidelic 230 2,300 Isle of Man Mari chmmhrmrj Uralic, Finno-Ugric 500,000 Mari El (Russia) Megleno-Romanian ruq Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 3,000 Minderico drc Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 500 Mirandese mwl Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 15,000 Miranda do Douro (Portugal) Moksha mdf Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Mordvinic 2,000 Mordovia (Russia)Montenegrin cnr Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian 240,700 Montenegro Neapolitan nap Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 5,700,000 Campania (Italy) Nenets yrk Uralic, Samoyedic 4,000 Nenets Autonomous Okrug (Russia) Nogai nog Turkic, Kipchak 87,000 Dagestan (Russia) Norman nrf Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 50,000 Guernsey (United Kingdom), Jersey (United Kingdom) Norwegian no Indo-European, Germanic, North 5,200,000 Norway Occitan oc Indo-European, Romance, Western, Occitano-Romance 500,000 Catalonia (Spain) Ossetian os Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Eastern 450,000 North Ossetia-Alania (Russia), South Ossetia Palatinate Germanpfl Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 1,000,000 Picard pcd Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 200,000 Wallonia (Belgium) Piedmontese pms Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic 1,600,000 Piedmont (Italy) Polish pl Indo-European, Slavic, West, Lechitic 38,500,000 Poland Portuguese pt Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 10,000,000 Portugal Rhaeto-Romance furlldroh Indo-European, Romance, Western 370,000 Switzerland Veneto Belluno, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, South Tyrol, & Trentino (Italy) Ripuarian (Platt) ksh Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 900,000 Romagnol rgn Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic Romani rom Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western 1,500,000 Kosovo Romanian ro Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 24,000,000 28,000,000 Moldova, Romania Mount Athos (Greece), Vojvodina (Serbia) Russian ru Indo-European, Slavic, East 106,000,000 160,000,000 Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia Mount Athos (Greece), Gagauzia (Moldova), Left Bank of the Dniester (Moldova), Ukraine Rusyn rue Indo-European, Slavic, East 70,000 Rutul rut Northeast Caucasian, Lezgic 36,400 Dagestan (Russia) Sami se Uralic, Finno-Ugric 23,000 Norway Sweden, Finland Sardinian sc Indo-European, Romance 1,350,000 Sardinia (Italy) Scots sco Indo-European, Germanic, West, Anglo-Frisian, Anglic 110,000 Scotland (United Kingdom), County Donegal (Republic of Ireland), Northern Ireland (United Kingdom) Scottish Gaelic gd Indo-European, Celtic, Goidelic 57,000 Scotland (United Kingdom) Serbian sr Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian 9,000,000 Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Serbia Croatia, Mount Athos (Greece), North Macedonia, Montenegro Sicilian scn Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 4,700,000 Sicily (Italy) Silesian szl Indo-European, Slavic, West, Lechitic 522,000 Silesian Germansli Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 11,000 Slovak sk Indo-European, Slavic, West, Czech–Slovak 5,200,000 Slovakia Vojvodina (Serbia), Czech Republic Slovene sl Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western 2,100,000 Slovenia Friuli-Venezia Giulia (Italy) Sorbian (Wendish) wen Indo-European, Slavic, West20,000 Brandenburg & Sachsen (Germany) Spanish es Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 47,000,000 76,000,000 Spain Gibraltar (United Kingdom) Swabian Germanswg Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Alemannic 820,000 Swedish sv Indo-European, Germanic, North 11,100,000 13,280,000 Sweden, Finland, Åland and Estonia Swiss Germangsw Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Alemannic 5,000,000 Switzerland (as German) Tabasaran tab Northeast Caucasian, Lezgic 126,900 Dagestan (Russia) Tat ttt Indo-European, Iranian, Western 30,000 Dagestan (Russia) Tatar tt Turkic, Kipchak 4,300,000 Tatarstan (Russia) Tindi tin Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 2,200 Tsez ddo Northeast Caucasian, Tsezic 13,000 Turkish tr Turkic, Oghuz15,752,673 Turkey, Cyprus Northern Cyprus Udmurt udm Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Permic 340,000 Udmurtia (Russia) Ukrainian uk Indo-European, Slavic, East32,600,000 Ukraine Left Bank of the Dniester (Moldova) Upper Saxonsxu Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 2,000,000 Vepsian vep Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 1,640 Republic of Karelia (Russia) Venetian vec Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 3,800,000 Veneto (Italy) Võro vro Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 87,000 Võru County (Estonia) Votic vot Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 21 Walloon wa Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 600,000 Wallonia (Belgium) Walser Germanwae Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Alemannic 20,000 Welsh cy Indo-European, Celtic, Brittonic 562,000 750,000 Wales (United Kingdom) Wymysoryswym Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 70 Yenishyec Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 16,000 Switzerland Yiddish yi Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 600,000 Bosnia and Herzegovina, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Sweden, Ukraine Zeelandic zea Indo-European, Germanic, West, Low Franconian\t 220,000 === Languages spoken in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Georgia, and Turkey ===There are various definitions of Europe, which may or may not include all or parts of Turkey, Cyprus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia.", "For convenience, the languages and associated statistics for all five of these countries are grouped together on this page, as they are usually presented at a national, rather than subnational, level.NameISO-639Classification Speakers in expanded geopolitical Europe Official statusL1L1+L2NationalRegional Abkhaz ab Northwest Caucasian, Abazgi Abkhazia/Georgia: 191,000Turkey: 44,000 AbkhaziaAbkhazia Adyghe (West Circassian) ady Northwest Caucasian, Circassian Turkey: 316,000 Albanian sq Indo-European, Albanian Turkey: 66,000 (Tosk) Arabic ar Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, West Turkey: 2,437,000 Not counting post-2014 Syrian refugees Armenian hy Indo-European, Armenian Armenia: 3 millionAzerbaijan: 145,000 Georgia: around 0.2 million ethnic Armenians (Abkhazia: 44,870)Turkey: 61,000Cyprus: 668 ArmeniaAzerbaijan Cyprus Azerbaijani az Turkic, Oghuz Azerbaijan 9 millionTurkey: 540,000Georgia 0.2 million Azerbaijan Batsbi bbl Northeast Caucasian, Nakh Georgia: 500 Bulgarian bg Indo-European, Slavic, South Turkey: 351,000 Crimean Tatar crh Turkic, Kipchak Turkey: 100,000 Georgian ka Kartvelian, Karto-Zan Georgia: 3,224,696 Turkey: 151,000 Azerbaijan: 9,192 ethnic Georgians Georgia Greek el Indo-European, Hellenic Cyprus: 679,883 Turkey: 3,600 Cyprus Juhuri jdt Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Southwest Azerbaijan: 24,000 (1989) Kurdish kur Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Northwest Turkey: 15 millionAzerbaijan: 9,000 Kurmanji kmr Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Southwest Turkey: 8.13 million Armenia: 33,509Georgia: 14,000 Armenia Laz lzz Kartvelian, Karto-Zan, Zan Turkey: 20,000 Georgia: 2,000 Megleno-Romanian ruq Indo-European, Italic, Romance, East Turkey: 4–5,000 Mingrelian xmf Kartvelian, Karto-Zan, Zan Georgia (including Abkhazia): 344,000 Pontic Greek pnt Indo-European, Hellenic Turkey: greater than 5,000Armenia: 900 ethnic Caucasus GreeksGeorgia: 5,689 Caucasus Greeks Romani language and Domari language rom, dmt Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indic Turkey: 500,000 Russian ru Indo-European, Balto-Slavic, Slavic Armenia: 15,000Azerbaijan: 250,000Georgia: 130,000 Armenia: about 0.9 million Azerbaijan: about 2.6 million Georgia: about 1 millionCyprus: 20,984 AbkhaziaSouth Ossetia Armenia Azerbaijan Svan sva Kartvelian, Svan Georgia (incl.", "Abkhazia): 30,000 Tat ttt Indo-European, Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Southwest Azerbaijan: 10,000 Turkish tr Turkic, Oghuz Turkey: 66,850,000 Cyprus: 1,405 + 265,100 in the North Turkey Cyprus Northern Cyprus" ], [ "Immigrant communities", "Recent (post–1945) immigration to Europe introduced substantial communities of speakers of non-European languages.The largest such communities include Arabic speakers (see Arabs in Europe)and Turkish speakers (beyond European Turkey and the historical sphere of influence of the Ottoman Empire, see Turks in Europe).Armenians, Berbers, and Kurds have diaspora communities of 1–2,000,000 each.", "The various languages of Africa and languages of India form numerous smaller diaspora communities.", ";List of the largest immigrant languages Name ISO 639 Classification Native Ethnic diasporaArabic ar Afro-Asiatic, Semitic 5,000,000 12,000,000Turkish tr Turkic, Oghuz 3,000,000 7,000,000Armenian hy Indo-European 1,000,000 3,000,000Kurdish ku Indo-European, Iranian, Western 600,000 1,000,000Bengali–Assamese bn as syl Indo-European, Indo-Aryan 600,000 1,000,000Azerbaijani az Turkic, Oghuz 500,000 700,000Kabyle kab Afro-Asiatic, Berber 500,000 1,000,000Chinesezh Sino-Tibetan, Sinitic 300,000 2,000,000 UrduurIndo-European, Indo-Aryan 300,000 1,800,000Uzbek uz Turkic, Karluk 300,000 2,000,000Persian fa Indo-European, Iranian, Western 300,000 400,000Punjabi pa Indo-European, Indo-Aryan 300,000 700,000Gujarati gu Indo-European, Indo-Aryan 200,000 600,000Tamil ta Dravidian 200,000 500,000Somali so Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic 200,000 400,000" ], [ "See also", "* Ethnic groups in Europe* Eurolinguistics* European Day of Languages* ''Greek East'' and ''Latin West''* List of endangered languages in Europe* List of multilingual countries and regions of Europe* Standard Average European* Travellingua" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Map of Minorities & Regional and Minority Languages of Europe, Language Diversity (2017) *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eindhoven University of Technology" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Eindhoven University of Technology''' (), abbr.", "'''TU/e''', is a public technical university in the Netherlands, situated at Eindhoven.", "In 2020–21, around 14,000 students were enrolled in its BSc and MSc programs and around 1350 students were enrolled in its PhD and PDEng programs.", "In 2021, the TU/e employed around 3900 people.TU/e is the Dutch member of the EuroTech Universities Alliance, a strategic partnership of universities of science & technology in Europe: Technical University of Denmark (DTU), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), École Polytechnique (L’X), The Technion, Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), and Technical University of Munich (TUM)." ], [ "History", "TU by nightThe Eindhoven University of Technology was founded as the ''Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven'' (THE) on 23 June 1956 by the Dutch government.", "It was the second institute of its kind in the Netherlands, preceded only by Delft University of Technology.Undergraduate education was given in four- or five-year programs until 2002, styled along the lines of the German system of education; graduates of these programs were granted an engineering title and allowed to prefix their name with the title ''ir.''", "(an abbreviation of ingenieur; not to be confused with graduates of technical ''hogescholen'', who were engineers abbreviated ''ing.'').", "Starting in 2002, following the entry into force of the Bologna Accords, the university switched to the bachelor/master structure (students graduating in 2002 were given both an old-style engineering title and a new master's title).", "The undergraduate programs are now split into two parts, a three-year bachelor program and a two-year master program.===Strategic Vision 2020===The fully electric Formula Student car developed and built by 60 students of the Eindhoven University of TechnologyOn 3 January 2011, the university's strategic vision document for the period up to 2020, the \"Strategic Plan 2020\", was presented.", "This vision included establishing a University College to foster both depth, breadth, and societal relevance in engineering education; establishing a combined Graduate School to manage the graduate programs; an increase of the student body by 50 percent; a 50 percent increase in the number of annual PhDs awarded; an increase of knowledge \"valorisation\" (exploitation by industry and society) to a campus-wide score of 4.2; increasing the international position of the university to within the top-100 universities; and increasing the embedding of the university within the city and the Brainport region by transforming the campus into a high-grade science park with laboratories, housing facilities for 700 students and researchers and supporting facilities.", "The science park was one of the more costly elements of the plan." ], [ "Campus", "The Luna building is used for lectures, cultural events, and mostly as a residential building for students and staff.All departments and student facilities are centered along the full length of the Groene Loper.A number of existing buildings have been renovated and some new buildings erected.", "For existing buildings the aim is to retain as much of the present materials as possible, supplemented with redeveloped portions of the existing premises and new, sustainable materials.", "The approach adopted for new buildings is to pursue optimal energy neutrality.", "There are four large projects." ], [ "Organization", "The Eindhoven University of Technology is a public university of the Netherlands.", "As such its general structure and management is determined by the ''Wet op het Hoger Onderwijs en Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek'' (English: ''Law on Higher Education and Scientific Research'').", "Between that law and the statutes of the university itself, the management of the university is organized according to the following chart:Organization chart of the TU/e management===Executive board===The day-to-day running of the university is in the hands of the executive board (Dutch: ''College van Bestuur'').", "The executive board (EB) monitors the academic departments and service organizations, plus the local activities of the Stan Ackermans Institute.", "The EB consists of three people, plus a secretary:;The president: The president is the chair of the EB and acts as the main face of the university to the outside world.", "Over the last few years the post has been held by people from outside the university, chosen from high levels of industry.", "The current president is Robert-Jan Smits, the former Director-General of Research and Innovation at the European Commission.", ";The rector magnificus: The rector magnificus is the only member of the EB whose membership is mandated by law.", "The law allows the university to appoint a rector in any way, but the university statutes determine that the rector magnificus must be an active professor at the university (and must have been that before being appointed rector); in practice the rector is always a former department dean.", "The rector is the voice of the academic staff in the EB and guards the academic interests of the university in the EB.", "The current rector magnificus is Silvia Lenaerts.", ";The vice president: The third member is a \"tie-breaker\" member of the EB.", "The post is open to anybody (but generally not filled by an academic staff member).", "The current vice president is Nicole Ummelen.", ";The secretary: The secretary is not a member of the EB, but a university staff member that does secretarial work for the EB, keeping the minutes and records and taking care of communication between the EB and the university.", "The EB secretary is usually the secretary for the entire university.", "The current secretary is Susanne van Weelden.===Oversight of the executive board===There are two bodies that supervise the Executive Board:* The Supervisory Board is an external board of five people appointed by the Minister of Education (one member is appointed, based on a nomination by the University Council).", "This Board provides external oversight of the running of the university, including changing of the statutes, the budget, and other strategic decisions.", "* The University Council is a council of 18 people, half of whom are elected from the university staff (academic and otherwise) and half from the student body.", "The University Council is informed of the running of the university by the executive board at least twice a year and may advise the EB as it sees fit.", "It guards against discrimination within the university.", "And the council must agree to changes in the management structure.", "The Council membership is open to all students and personnel, except those persons who are in the supervisory board, the executive board or who are the University Secretary.===Departments and service organizations===Most of the work at the university is done in the departments and the service organizations.", "* The departments take care of most of the research and education at the university; each one is run by its professors, headed by the dean.", "The deans are all members of the executive deliberation meeting, which is a regular meeting of the deans and the rector.", "* The service organizations provide services to the inhabitants of the university campus.", "Examples of these organizations include the housing organization, the ICT organization and the Communication Expertise Center (which does external communications, including to the press).", "Each service organization is headed by an organization head.Both for the departments and the service organizations, the staff (and students) are involved with the running of the body.", "For that reason both types of bodies have advisory councils which have advisory and co-decision authorities.===TU/e Holding B.V.===Over the past two decades, the TU/e has increasingly developed commercial interests and off-campus ties.", "These include commercial agreements and contracts directly between the university and external companies, but also interests in spinoff companies.", "In order to manage these kinds of contractual obligations the university started the TU/e Holding B.V. in 1997.The Holding is a limited company, dedicated to the commercial exploitation of scientific knowledge.===Service organizations===There university is more than just the departments, research bodies and the students.", "There are several ancillary activities necessary to the running of the university, activities that cross the boundaries and interests of the different departments.", "These activities are carried out by the universities' service organizations.The university has the following service organizations:OrganizationFull namePurposeDAZGeneral Affairs Service (Dutch: ''Dienst Algemene Zaken'')Organizational and secretarial functions for varied activities, the alumni organization and the Student Sport CenterCECCommunications Expertise Center (Dutch: ''Communicatie Expertise Centrum'')Responsible for all university communications and announcements, including interacting with the press and communications regarding external billing and payments.", "CEC also handles the printing and distribution of university brochures and guards the uniform application of the university's house style.DPOHuman Resources Management (Dutch: ''Dienst Personeel en Organisatie'')All HR-related activities, from vacancies and pension plans to regulations about health and workplace safety, to the bicycle plan (a tax break for personnel to buy a bicycle).DFEZFinancial and Economic Services (Dutch: ''Dienst Financiële en Economische Zaken'')University finances.DHHousing service (Dutch: ''Dienst Huisvesting'')Management of all real estate belonging universityICTICT Service (Dutch: ''Dienst ICT'')Management of university computers and student laptops, networks, network security, shared storage facilities, university SharePoint sites, plus codes of conduct relating to those systemsIECInformation Expertise Center (Dutch: ''Informatie Expertise Centrum'')The university library (both physical and digital).DIZInternal Affairs Service (Dutch: ''Dienst Interne Zaken'')Internal services, such as the BedrijfsHulpVerlening (Emergency Assistance for catastrophes like fires, heart attacks and so on), Logistics, Purchasing and Contract Management.STUStudent Service Center (Dutch: ''Onderwijs en Studenten Service Centrum'')Student services (admission and registries, information for highschool students and other, future students, laptop service, et cetera).GTDCommon Technical Service (Dutch: ''Gemeenschappelijke Technische Dienst'')Provides technical services to departments (e.g.", "building of experiments, bespoke machinery, prototypes, specialized software)." ], [ "Academics", "===Rankings===Eindhoven is currently (2018) ranked between 51 and 141 in the world (the university itself provides a survey), and a top ten technical university in Europe.Year THE Ranking (Change) QS Ranking (Change)200570 – 200667 ( 3) – 2007130 ( 63) – 2008128 ( 2) – 2009120 ( 8) – 2010114 ( 6)1262010-11115 ( 1)146 ( 20)2012-13114 ( 1) 158 ( 12) 2013-14106 ( 8) 157 ( 1)2014-15144 ( 38) overall, Engineering and Technology 64 147 ( 10)2015-16176 ( 32) overall, Engineering and Technology 62 ( 2), Physical sciences 86 117 ( 30)2016-17177 ( 1) overall, Engineering and Technology 64 ( 2), Computer Science 75 121 ( 4)2017-18141 ( 36) overall, Engineering and Technology 51 ( 13), Computer Science 64 104 ( 17)2018-19167 ( 26) overall, Engineering and Technology 69 ( 18), Computer Science 7499 ( 5)In a 2003 European Commission report, TU/e was ranked as third among European research universities (after Cambridge and Oxford, at equality with TU Munich and thus making it the highest ranked Technical University in Europe), based on the impact of its scientific research.In 2011 Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) rankings, TU/e was placed at the 52-75 bucket internationally in Engineering/Technology and Computer Science ( ENG ) category and at 34th place internationally in the Computer Science subject field.===Education===The scientific departments (or faculties; Dutch: ''faculteiten'') are the primary vehicles for teaching and research in the university.", "They employ the majority of the academic staff, are responsible for teaching and sponsor the research schools and institutions.The departments also offer PhD programs (Dutch: ''promotiefase'') whereby a qualified master may earn a PhD Unlike in anglo-saxon countries these are not educational programs, however; rather, a person working towards obtaining the PhD is a research employee of the university.Sagrada Família replica built in ice composite by TU/e Master students of the Built Environment faculty in Juuka, 2015The TU/e has nine departments:* Biomedical Engineering* Built Environment* Electrical Engineering* Industrial Design* Chemical Engineering and Chemistry* Industrial Engineering & Innovation Sciences (formerly Technology Management)* Applied Physics* Mechanical Engineering* Mathematics and Computer Science====Honors programs====The university offers honors programs aimed at both bachelor and master students.", "At the bachelor level it consists of intensive study within eight possible areas or tracks.", "At the master level it consists of personal leadership and professional development components, over and above the normal masters study.====Postgraduate doctorate of engineering (PDEng) ====In 1986, the university started a number of programs for a postgraduate doctorate of engineering (PDEng) together with two other Dutch technological universities (TU Delft and University of Twente).", "These programs are managed by the Stan Ackermans Institute on behalf of the 4TU Federation.", "Each program is two years in length.", "Ten programs are available at the TU/e:* Automotive Systems Design* Clinical Informatics* Data Science* Healthcare Systems Design* Information and Communication Technology* Process and Product Design* Qualified Medical Engineer* Smart Buildings and Cities* Software Technology* User-System InteractionNationally, more than 3,500 students have earned the postgraduate PDEng degree through this program.", "On 13 February, Ravi Thakkar was awarded 3000th PDEng diploma at TU/e====Other educational programs====The university hosts a number of other educational programs that are in some way related to the main educational programs.", "These include the teacher's program and an MBA program.", "Eindhoven School of Education: Teacher's education for masters, to get their higher education teaching certificate.", "Also does research into educational sciences and innovation in education.", "TIAS School for Business and Society: A shared MBA program with the University of Tilburg, for university graduates.", "HBO minor program: Bachelor programs for students of HBO universities (four-year bachelor programs), to allow them access to university master programs.===Research===The TU/e participates in a large number of research institutes which balance in different ways between pure science and applied science research.", "Some of these institutes are bound strictly to the university, others combine research across different universities.====Top in research partnerships with industry====The TU/e is among the world's ten best-performing research universities in terms of research cooperation with industry in 2011 (Number 1 in 2009).", "Ten to 20 percent of the scientific publications of these ten universities in the period 2006–2008 were the result of partnerships with researchers in industry.", "As well as TU/e and Delft University of Technology, the top 10 also includes two universities in Japan (Tokyo Institute of Technology and Keio University in Tokyo), two in Sweden (CTH Chalmers University of Technology and KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm), and one each in Denmark (DTU Technical University of Denmark in Lyngby), Finland (University of Helsinki), Norway (Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim) and the USA (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York)." ], [ "Admissions and costs", "=== Admissions ===The admission process is similar to other universities in the Netherlands, especially other 4TU institutions.", "The university provides various infographics to explain the process in their website.==== Bachelors ====Some bachelors have a numerus fixus, while others do not.", "This may differ from year to year.==== Masters ====Due to an agreement, students that have graduated from another 4TU institution may qualify for direct admission.=== Costs ===Fees at the TU/e differ between students, according to the following table from the official website:+Tuition Fees at TU/eCategory of StudentTuition Fee 2021-2022ConditionsA€1.084Bachelor and master students who meet the nationality criteriaB€10.316Bachelor students who do not meet the nationality criteria (non-EEA)C€15.316Master students who do not meet the nationality criteria (non-EEA)D€1.084Bachelor and master external students (''extraneï'') who meet the nationality criteria (EEA)E€5.700Bachelor external students (extraneï) who do not meet the nationality criteria (non-EEA)F€8.200Master external students (extraneï) who do not meet the nationality criteria (non-EEA)G€18,07 per sp (=1/60 statutory rate (A))Pre-master students (EEA and non-EEA) for following units of study in the pre-master program or for following bachelor's/master's units of study with the permission of the examination boardH€500 (contractor rate per college series) Contractor I€10.000PhD scholarship studentJ€10.316JADS bachelor non-EEAK€15.316JADS master non-EEA'''European double degree programs'''L€1.084Bachelor and master students who meet the nationality criteriaM€15.316Master students who meet don't meet the nationality criteria (non-EEA) and are one year enrolled (entry and exit level students)=== Scholarships ===Students from countries of the European Economic Area (EEA) may be eligible for a grant or loan from the Dutch government.==== Graduate ====TU/e offers a small number of graduate scholarships.", "Some have requirements in terms of study focus, while others are available to all students.", "However, in order to qualify one must have already been accepted at the university." ], [ "Off-campus activities", "The TU/e plays a central role in the academic, economic and social life of Eindhoven and the surrounding region.", "In addition the university maintains relations with institutions far beyond that region as well and participates in national and international events (sometimes through the student body).===Economic and research motor===The TU/e is enormously important to the economy of the Eindhoven region, as well as the wider areas of BrabantStad and the Samenwerkingsverband Regio Eindhoven.", "It provides highly skilled labor for the local knowledge economy and is a knowledge and research partner for technology companies in the area.The historic basis for the university's role as an economy and research motor was the interaction with Philips.", "The university was founded primarily to address the need of Philips for local personnel with academic levels of education in electronics, physics, chemistry and later computer science.", "Later that interest spread to DAF and Royal Dutch Shell (which became the primary employer for graduates of the chemistry department).", "There was also a synergy with these companies in that senior personnel were hired from them to form the academic staff of the university (which led to the Eindhoven joke that the university trains the engineers and Philips trains the professors).Changing economic times and business strategies changed the relationship during the 1980s and 1990s.", "As Philips started moving away from the region, its importance to the region and the university decreased.", "A struggle for economic survival forced the university to seek closer ties with the city and region of Eindhoven in the 1989–1995 period, resulting in the creation of the Brainport initiative to draw high tech business and industry to the region.", "The university started expending more effort in knowledge valorisation, in incubating technology startups, in providing direct knowledge support for local technology companies.", "Also the academic interests of the research shifted with the times, with more effort going into energy efficiency research, green technologies, and other areas of interest driven by social relevance (the call for better technology in the medical field, for example, led to cooperation with the Catharina Hospital and the University of Maastricht medical department and finally the creation of the Biomedical Technology department).The TU/e is host (and in some cases also commissioner) of a number of highly successful research schools, including the ESI and the DPI.", "These research institutes are a source of high-tech knowledge for high-tech companies in the area, such as ASML, NXP and FEI.", "The university also plays a large role as knowledge and personnel supplier to other companies in the High Tech Campus Eindhoven and helps incubate startups through the Eindhoven Twinning Center and The Gate.", "It is also a knowledge supporter of the automotive industry in the Helmond region.", "The valorization strategy of TU/e has already led to various spin-offs, including Lusoco, NC Biomatrix, Taylor, SMART Photonics, EFFECT Photonics and MicroAlign.", "This appears especially the case around integrated photonics, as the last three examples are part of the photonic chip ecosystem PhotonDelta.In the extended region, the TU/e is part of the backbone of the Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen triangle.", "This economic cooperation agreement between three cities in three countries has created one of the most innovative regions in the European Union (measured in terms of money invested in technology and knowledge economy); the agreement is based on the cooperative triangle that connects the three technical universities in those cities.====Eindhoven Energy Institute====As of the summer of 2010, the TU/e is host to the Eindhoven Energy Institute (EEI).", "The EEI is a virtual research institute (meaning that it doesn't have any actual offices or facilities), which manages and coordinates the activities of a large number of groups and subinstitutes in the general area of sustainable and alternative energy technologies.The scientific director of the institute is prof.dr.ir.", "David Smeulders.", "He is pro forma head of the research department, which is split into four key areas: ''Built Environment'' (energy usage and patterns in building, headed by prof.dr.ir.", "Jan Hensen from the Department of the Built Environment), ''Future Fuels'' (headed by prof.dr.", "Philip de Goey of Mechanical Engineering), ''Energy Conversion'' (headed by prof.dr.ir.", "René Janssen from Chemical Engineering) and ''Fusion and Plasma'' (headed by prof.dr.", "Niek Lopes Cardozo from Physics).", "The EEI also incorporates the Graduate School on Sustainable Energy, which the TU/e had already established together with the TU Munich and DTU Lyngby.", "Secretarial services will be provided by the Center Technology for Sustainable Development (TDO) which also already existed at the TU/e (since 1994).Energy research at the TU/e is among the best in academic Europe (a February 2010 study by Reed Elsevier puts it second only to Imperial College London).", "This fact, as well as the unique attention to energy in the built-up environment, drew the attention of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology.", "The EEI is now a full co-location of EIT's KIC on Sustainable Energy (InnoEnergy).===International cooperation and appeal===The TU/e maintains active academic cooperation with sister institutions in many different countries, for example: National University of Singapore, Singapore* Zhejiang University, China* Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China* Fudan University, China* Northeastern University (China), China* Georgia Institute of Technology, US* Northwestern University, US* Carnegie Mellon University, US* RMIT University, Australia* Middle East Technical University, Turkey* Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, BelgiumThe TU/e also provides education to an increasing number of foreign students and graduates.", "According to the 2009 annual report in the academic year 2008–2009 there were 490 exchange students, 103 foreign nationals registered in a bachelor program, 430 in a master program, 158 in a professional doctorate program (79% of the total).", "In 2009 the university employed 37 foreign professors (15.9% of the total) and 16 foreign associate professors (12.8%).", "Overall, 29.5% of the university staff was non-Dutch.In 2011/2012, the TU/e has Erasmus bilateral agreements with many universities in 30 countries across Europe in a diverse range of subjects for student exchange.===Technological sports===In addition to the \"regular\" types of sports practiced among the student body and by the staff, the TU/e collaborates with the student body in a number of \"technology sporting efforts\".", "These usually take the form of cross-department projects, which makes them multidisciplinary efforts.", "Some examples include:;Robot football: In 2010 TechUnited, the university's robot football team, won the European Championship, came second for the third time in a row at the world championship in Singapore and finally won the world championship in 2012.The team is part of the Mid-Size league of RoboCup.", ";Auto racing:The TU/e hosts and sponsors a student race team, University Racing Eindhoven (URE).", "This team competes annually in the Formula Student and other races with self-built racers.", "Starting in 2010 the team switched from a petrol engine to an electric car; this car came third at Silverstone, second at Hockenheim and won the Formula Student in its first year.", ":The university also hosts and sponsors a student race team, ''Solar Team Eindhoven'' (STE), that enters cars named ''Stella'' into the biannual World Solar Challenge since 2013, winning the ''Cruiser class'' competition both in 2013 and 2015.Another student racing initiative is the Automotive Technology InMotion team, a collaboration between the TU/e and Fontys University of Applied Sciences.", "The team has the aim to compete in the 2020 24 Hours of Le Mans" ], [ "Student life", "=== Community ===TU Eindhoven has over 110 community bodies that members of TU may participate in.", "They are related to sports, culture, faith, staff, international students and hobbies, as well as university political parties, student teams, and study associations for each faculty.==== Student teams ====Currently TU/e has various accredited student teams which address challenges in the fields of sustainability, artificial intelligence, health and mobility." ], [ "Notable people", "=== Notable alumni ===Kees Schouhamer ImminkWil van der Aalst.", "* Wil van der Aalst, Dutch computer scientist* Stefan Bon, chemical engineer at the University of Warwick* Jo Coenen, Dutch architect and former Chief Architect of the Netherlands* Martijn van Dam, member of the House of Representatives (2006–10, 2010–12)* Marijn Dekkers, Chairman of Unilever* Jan Dietz, Dutch computer scientist* Teun van Dijck, member of the House of Representatives (2006–10, 2010–12)* Camiel Eurlings, Dutch Minister of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (2006–2010)* Gerard Kleisterlee, Chairman of Vodafone and a former president and chief executive officer of Royal Philips Electronics* Arno Kuijlaars, mathematician, professor at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven* G.M.", "Nijssen, Dutch computer scientist* Itay Noy, Israeli watchmaker* Ralf Mackenbach, Singer* Kees Schouhamer Immink, president Turing Machines Inc, digital pioneer, winner Emmy Award, recipient IEEE Medal of Honor* Sjoerd Soeters, architect* René van Zuuk, Dutch architect===Notable faculty===Edsger W. DijkstraHarry LintsenWietse Venema* Jacques Benders, mathematicianAndries Brouwer, mathematician and computer programmer Nicolaas Govert de Bruijn, mathematician* Henk Buck, professor of chemistry* Jo Coenen, Dutch architect and former Chief Architect of the Netherlands* Henk Dorgelo, physicist and first rector magnificus* Edsger W. Dijkstra, mathematician and computer scientist, Turing Award winner 1972* Hugo Christiaan Hamaker, physicist* Hubert-Jan Henket, architect* Alexandre Horowitz, mechanical engineer; inventor of the Philishave* Arie Andries Kruithof, physicist, discovered the Kruithofeffect and Kruithofcurve* Piet Lemstra, inventor of the Dyneema fibre* Jack van Lint, mathematician* Harry Lintsen, historian in technology history, former chairman Foundation for the History of Technology* Archer Martin, Fellow of the Royal Society, 1952 Nobel laureate in chemistry (professor TU/e 1964–1974)* Bert Meijer, chemical engineer, pioneer in polymer research* Sjoerd Romme, professor of Entrepreneurship & Innovation* Johan Schot, historian, professor of technology history* Bettina Speckmann, computer scientist* Piet Steenkamp, lawyer, co-founder of the CDA* Martinus Tels, chemical engineer, rector magnificus, pioneer of waste management processes in the Netherlands* Wietse Venema, programmer and physicist===Notable honors for research done at the university===* prof. dr. ir.René de Borst: Spinozapremie (1999)* prof. dr. Bert Meijer: KNCV Gold Medal (1993), Arthur K. Doolittle Award (1995), Spinozapremie (2001), Wheland Medal 2010/2011* prof.dr.ir.", "René Janssen: KIvI/NIRIA Speurwerkprijs 2010, Spinozapremie (2015)* prof. dr.ir.", "Jaap Schouten: Simon Stevin Master 2006* prof. dr. ir.", "Jan van Hest: Spinozapremie (2020)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website in English" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Electronegativity" ], [ "Introduction", "Electrostatic potential map of a water molecule, where the oxygen atom has a more negative charge (red) than the positive (blue) hydrogen atoms'''Electronegativity''', symbolized as ''χ'', is the tendency for an atom of a given chemical element to attract shared electrons (or electron density) when forming a chemical bond.", "An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance at which its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus.", "The higher the associated electronegativity, the more an atom or a substituent group attracts electrons.", "Electronegativity serves as a simple way to quantitatively estimate the bond energy, and the sign and magnitude of a bond's chemical polarity, which characterizes a bond along the continuous scale from covalent to ionic bonding.", "The loosely defined term '''electropositivity''' is the opposite of electronegativity: it characterizes an element's tendency to donate valence electrons.On the most basic level, electronegativity is determined by factors like the nuclear charge (the more protons an atom has, the more \"pull\" it will have on electrons) and the number and location of other electrons in the atomic shells (the more electrons an atom has, the farther from the nucleus the valence electrons will be, and as a result, the less positive charge they will experience—both because of their increased distance from the nucleus and because the other electrons in the lower energy core orbitals will act to shield the valence electrons from the positively charged nucleus).The term \"electronegativity\" was introduced by Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1811,though the concept was known before that and was studied by many chemists including Avogadro.In spite of its long history, an accurate scale of electronegativity was not developed until 1932, when Linus Pauling proposed an electronegativity scale which depends on bond energies, as a development of valence bond theory.", "It has been shown to correlate with a number of other chemical properties.", "Electronegativity cannot be directly measured and must be calculated from other atomic or molecular properties.", "Several methods of calculation have been proposed, and although there may be small differences in the numerical values of the electronegativity, all methods show the same periodic trends between elements.The most commonly used method of calculation is that originally proposed by Linus Pauling.", "This gives a dimensionless quantity, commonly referred to as the '''Pauling scale''' (''χ''r), on a relative scale running from 0.79 to 3.98 (hydrogen = 2.20).", "When other methods of calculation are used, it is conventional (although not obligatory) to quote the results on a scale that covers the same range of numerical values: this is known as an electronegativity in ''Pauling units''.As it is usually calculated, electronegativity is not a property of an atom alone, but rather a property of an atom in a molecule.", "Even so, the electronegativity of an atom is strongly correlated with the first ionization energy.", "The electronegativity is slightly negatively correlated (for smaller electronegativity values) and rather strongly positively correlated (for most and larger electronegativity values) with the electron affinity.", "It is to be expected that the electronegativity of an element will vary with its chemical environment, but it is usually considered to be a transferable property, that is to say that similar values will be valid in a variety of situations.Caesium is the least electronegative element (0.79); fluorine is the most (3.98)." ], [ "Methods of calculation", "===Pauling electronegativity===Pauling first proposed the concept of electronegativity in 1932 to explain why the covalent bond between two different atoms (A–B) is stronger than the average of the A–A and the B–B bonds.", "According to valence bond theory, of which Pauling was a notable proponent, this \"additional stabilization\" of the heteronuclear bond is due to the contribution of ionic canonical forms to the bonding.The difference in electronegativity between atoms A and B is given by:where the dissociation energies, ''E''d, of the A–B, A–A and B–B bonds are expressed in electronvolts, the factor (eV)− being included to ensure a dimensionless result.", "Hence, the difference in Pauling electronegativity between hydrogen and bromine is 0.73 (dissociation energies: H–Br, 3.79 eV; H–H, 4.52 eV; Br–Br 2.00 eV)As only differences in electronegativity are defined, it is necessary to choose an arbitrary reference point in order to construct a scale.", "Hydrogen was chosen as the reference, as it forms covalent bonds with a large variety of elements: its electronegativity was fixed first at 2.1, later revised to 2.20.It is also necessary to decide which of the two elements is the more electronegative (equivalent to choosing one of the two possible signs for the square root).", "This is usually done using \"chemical intuition\": in the above example, hydrogen bromide dissolves in water to form H+ and Br− ions, so it may be assumed that bromine is more electronegative than hydrogen.", "However, in principle, since the same electronegativities should be obtained for any two bonding compounds, the data are in fact overdetermined, and the signs are unique once a reference point has been fixed (usually, for H or F).To calculate Pauling electronegativity for an element, it is necessary to have data on the dissociation energies of at least two types of covalent bonds formed by that element.", "A. L. Allred updated Pauling's original values in 1961 to take account of the greater availability of thermodynamic data, and it is these \"revised Pauling\" values of the electronegativity that are most often used.The essential point of Pauling electronegativity is that there is an underlying, quite accurate, semi-empirical formula for dissociation energies, namely:or sometimes, a more accurate fitThese are approximate equations but they hold with good accuracy.", "Pauling obtained the first equation by noting that a bond can be approximately represented as a quantum mechanical superposition of a covalent bond and two ionic bond-states.", "The covalent energy of a bond is approximate, by quantum mechanical calculations, the geometric mean of the two energies of covalent bonds of the same molecules, and there is additional energy that comes from ionic factors, i.e.", "polar character of the bond.The geometric mean is approximately equal to the arithmetic mean—which is applied in the first formula above—when the energies are of a similar value, e.g., except for the highly electropositive elements, where there is a larger difference of two dissociation energies; the geometric mean is more accurate and almost always gives positive excess energy, due to ionic bonding.", "The square root of this excess energy, Pauling notes, is approximately additive, and hence one can introduce the electronegativity.", "Thus, it is these semi-empirical formulas for bond energy that underlie the concept of Pauling electronegativity.The formulas are approximate, but this rough approximation is in fact relatively good and gives the right intuition, with the notion of the polarity of the bond and some theoretical grounding in quantum mechanics.", "The electronegativities are then determined to best fit the data.In more complex compounds, there is an additional error since electronegativity depends on the molecular environment of an atom.", "Also, the energy estimate can be only used for single, not for multiple bonds.", "The enthalpy of formation of a molecule containing only single bonds can subsequently be estimated based on an electronegativity table, and it depends on the constituents and the sum of squares of differences of electronegativities of all pairs of bonded atoms.", "Such a formula for estimating energy typically has a relative error on the order of 10% but can be used to get a rough qualitative idea and understanding of a molecule.===Mulliken electronegativity===The correlation between Mulliken electronegativities (''x''-axis, in kJ/mol) and Pauling electronegativities (''y''-axis).Robert S. Mulliken proposed that the arithmetic mean of the first ionization energy (Ei) and the electron affinity (Eea) should be a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons:As this definition is not dependent on an arbitrary relative scale, it has also been termed '''absolute electronegativity''', with the units of kilojoules per mole or electronvolts.", "However, it is more usual to use a linear transformation to transform these absolute values into values that resemble the more familiar Pauling values.", "For ionization energies and electron affinities in electronvolts,and for energies in kilojoules per mole,The Mulliken electronegativity can only be calculated for an element whose electron affinity is known.", "Measured values are available for 72 elements, while approximate values have been estimated or calculated for the remaining elements.The Mulliken electronegativity of an atom is sometimes said to be the negative of the chemical potential.", "By inserting the energetic definitions of the ionization potential and electron affinity into the Mulliken electronegativity, it is possible to show that the Mulliken chemical potential is a finite difference approximation of the electronic energy with respect to the number of electrons., i.e.,===Allred–Rochow electronegativity===The correlation between Allred–Rochow electronegativities (''x''-axis, in Å−2) and Pauling electronegativities (''y''-axis).A.", "Louis Allred and Eugene G. Rochow considered that electronegativity should be related to the charge experienced by an electron on the \"surface\" of an atom: The higher the charge per unit area of atomic surface the greater the tendency of that atom to attract electrons.", "The effective nuclear charge, ''Z''eff, experienced by valence electrons can be estimated using Slater's rules, while the surface area of an atom in a molecule can be taken to be proportional to the square of the covalent radius, ''r''cov.", "When ''r''cov is expressed in picometres,===Sanderson electronegativity equalization===The correlation between Sanderson electronegativities (''x''-axis, arbitrary units) and Pauling electronegativities (''y''-axis).R.T.", "Sanderson has also noted the relationship between Mulliken electronegativity and atomic size, and has proposed a method of calculation based on the reciprocal of the atomic volume.", "With a knowledge of bond lengths, Sanderson's model allows the estimation of bond energies in a wide range of compounds.", "Sanderson's model has also been used to calculate molecular geometry, ''s''-electron energy, NMR spin-spin coupling constants and other parameters for organic compounds.", "This work underlies the concept of '''electronegativity equalization''', which suggests that electrons distribute themselves around a molecule to minimize or to equalize the Mulliken electronegativity.", "This behavior is analogous to the equalization of chemical potential in macroscopic thermodynamics.===Allen electronegativity===The correlation between Allen electronegativities (''x''-axis, in kJ/mol) and Pauling electronegativities (''y''-axis).Perhaps the simplest definition of electronegativity is that of Leland C. Allen, who has proposed that it is related to the average energy of the valence electrons in a free atom,where ''ε''s,p are the one-electron energies of s- and p-electrons in the free atom and ''n''s,p are the number of s- and p-electrons in the valence shell.", "It is usual to apply a scaling factor, 1.75×10−3 for energies expressed in kilojoules per mole or 0.169 for energies measured in electronvolts, to give values that are numerically similar to Pauling electronegativities.The one-electron energies can be determined directly from spectroscopic data, and so electronegativities calculated by this method are sometimes referred to as '''spectroscopic electronegativities'''.", "The necessary data are available for almost all elements, and this method allows the estimation of electronegativities for elements that cannot be treated by the other methods, e.g.", "francium, which has an Allen electronegativity of 0.67.However, it is not clear what should be considered to be valence electrons for the d- and f-block elements, which leads to an ambiguity for their electronegativities calculated by the Allen method.On this scale, neon has the highest electronegativity of all elements, followed by fluorine, helium, and oxygen." ], [ "Correlation of electronegativity with other properties", "Image:Sn-119 isomer shifts in hexahalostannates.png\|thumb\|upright=1.35\|The variation of the isomer shift (''y''-axis, in mm/s) of SnX62− anions, as measured by 119Sn Mössbauer spectroscopy, against the sum of the Pauling electronegativities of the halide substituents (''x''-axis).The wide variety of methods of calculation of electronegativities, which all give results that correlate well with one another, is one indication of the number of chemical properties that might be affected by electronegativity.", "The most obvious application of electronegativities is in the discussion of bond polarity, for which the concept was introduced by Pauling.", "In general, the greater the difference in electronegativity between two atoms the more polar the bond that will be formed between them, with the atom having the higher electronegativity being at the negative end of the dipole.", "Pauling proposed an equation to relate the \"ionic character\" of a bond to the difference in electronegativity of the two atoms, although this has fallen somewhat into disuse.Several correlations have been shown between infrared stretching frequencies of certain bonds and the electronegativities of the atoms involved: however, this is not surprising as such stretching frequencies depend in part on bond strength, which enters into the calculation of Pauling electronegativities.", "More convincing are the correlations between electronegativity and chemical shifts in NMR spectroscopy or isomer shifts in Mössbauer spectroscopy (see figure).", "Both these measurements depend on the s-electron density at the nucleus, and so are a good indication that the different measures of electronegativity really are describing \"the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself\"." ], [ "Trends in electronegativity", "===Periodic trends===The variation of Pauling electronegativity (''y''-axis) as one descends the main groups of the periodic table from the second period to the sixth periodIn general, electronegativity increases on passing from left to right along a period and decreases on descending a group.", "Hence, fluorine is the most electronegative of the elements (not counting noble gases), whereas caesium is the least electronegative, at least of those elements for which substantial data is available.", "This would lead one to believe that caesium fluoride is the compound whose bonding features the most ionic character.There are some exceptions to this general rule.", "Gallium and germanium have higher electronegativities than aluminium and silicon, respectively, because of the d-block contraction.", "Elements of the fourth period immediately after the first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because the 3d-electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge, and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity (see Allred-Rochow electronegativity and Sanderson electronegativity above).", "The anomalously high electronegativity of lead, in particular when compared to thallium and bismuth, is an artifact of electronegativity varying with oxidation state: its electronegativity conforms better to trends if it is quoted for the +2 state with a Pauling value of 1.87 instead of the +4 state.===Variation of electronegativity with oxidation number===In inorganic chemistry, it is common to consider a single value of electronegativity to be valid for most \"normal\" situations.", "While this approach has the advantage of simplicity, it is clear that the electronegativity of an element is ''not'' an invariable atomic property and, in particular, increases with the oxidation state of the element.Allred used the Pauling method to calculate separate electronegativities for different oxidation states of the handful of elements (including tin and lead) for which sufficient data were available.", "However, for most elements, there are not enough different covalent compounds for which bond dissociation energies are known to make this approach feasible.", "This is particularly true of the transition elements, where quoted electronegativity values are usually, of necessity, averages over several different oxidation states and where trends in electronegativity are harder to see as a result.", "Acid Formula Chlorineoxidationstate p''K''a Hypochlorous acid HClO +1 +7.5 Chlorous acid HClO2 +3 +2.0 Chloric acid HClO3 +5 −1.0 Perchloric acid HClO4 +7 −10The chemical effects of this increase in electronegativity can be seen both in the structures of oxides and halides and in the acidity of oxides and oxoacids.", "Hence CrO3 and Mn2O7 are acidic oxides with low melting points, while Cr2O3 is amphoteric and Mn2O3 is a completely basic oxide.The effect can also be clearly seen in the dissociation constants p''K''a of the oxoacids of chlorine.", "The effect is much larger than could be explained by the negative charge being shared among a larger number of oxygen atoms, which would lead to a difference in p''K''a of log10() = –0.6 between hypochlorous acid and perchloric acid.", "As the oxidation state of the central chlorine atom increases, more electron density is drawn from the oxygen atoms onto the chlorine, diminishing the partial negative charge of individual oxygen atoms.", "At the same time, the positive partial charge on the hydrogen increases with a higher oxidation state.", "This explains the observed increased acidity with an increasing oxidation state in the oxoacids of chlorine.=== Electronegativity and hybridization scheme ===The electronegativity of an atom changes depending on the hybridization of the orbital employed in bonding.", "Electrons in s orbitals are held more tightly than electrons in p orbitals.", "Hence, a bond to an atom that employs an sp''x'' hybrid orbital for bonding will be more heavily polarized to that atom when the hybrid orbital has more s character.", "That is, when electronegativities are compared for different hybridization schemes of a given element, the order holds (the trend should apply to non-integer hybridization indices as well).", "While this holds true in principle for any main-group element, values for the hybridization-specific electronegativity are most frequently cited for carbon.", "In organic chemistry, these electronegativities are frequently invoked to predict or rationalize bond polarities in organic compounds containing double and triple bonds to carbon.", "Hybridization (Pauling) C(sp3) 2.3 C(sp2) 2.6 C(sp) 3.1'generic' C 2.5" ], [ "Group electronegativity", "In organic chemistry, electronegativity is associated more with different functional groups than with individual atoms.", "The terms '''group electronegativity''' and '''substituent electronegativity''' are used synonymously.", "However, it is common to distinguish between the inductive effect and the resonance effect, which might be described as σ- and π-electronegativities, respectively.", "There are a number of linear free-energy relationships that have been used to quantify these effects, of which the Hammett equation is the best known.", "Kabachnik parameters are group electronegativities for use in organophosphorus chemistry." ], [ "Electropositivity", "'''Electropositivity''' is a measure of an element's ability to donate electrons, and therefore form positive ions; thus, it is antipode to electronegativity.Mainly, this is an attribute of metals, meaning that, in general, the greater the metallic character of an element the greater the electropositivity.", "Therefore, the alkali metals are the most electropositive of all.", "This is because they have a single electron in their outer shell and, as this is relatively far from the nucleus of the atom, it is easily lost; in other words, these metals have low ionization energies.While electronegativity increases along periods in the periodic table, and decreases down groups, electropositivity ''decreases'' along periods (from left to right) and ''increases'' down groups.", "This means that elements in the upper right of the periodic table of elements (oxygen, sulfur, chlorine, etc.)", "will have the greatest electronegativity, and those in the lower-left (rubidium, caesium, and francium) the greatest electropositivity." ], [ "See also", "* Chemical polarity* Electron affinity* Electronegativities of the elements (data page)* Ionization energy* Metallic bonding* Miedema's model* Orbital hybridization* Oxidation state* Periodic table" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* " ], [ "External links", " * WebElements, lists values of electronegativities by a number of different methods of calculation* Video explaining electronegativity* Electronegativity Chart, a summary listing of the electronegativity of each element along with an interactive periodic table" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' ('''ECRML''') is a European treaty (CETS 148) adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe.", "However, the charter does not provide any criterion or definition for an idiom to be a minority or a regional language, and the classification stays in the hands of the national state.The preparation for the charter was undertaken by the predecessor to the current Congress of Local and Regional Authorities, the Standing Conference of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe because involvement of local and regional government was essential.", "The actual charter was written in the Parliamentary Assembly based on the Congress' Recommendations.", "It only applies to languages traditionally used by the nationals of the State Parties (thus excluding languages used by recent immigrants from other states, see immigrant languages), which significantly differ from the majority or official language (thus excluding what the state party wishes to consider as mere local dialects of the official or majority language) and that either have a territorial basis (and are therefore traditionally spoken by populations of regions or areas within the State) or are used by linguistic minorities within the State as a whole (thereby including such languages as Yiddish, Romani and Lemko, which are used over a wide geographic area).Some states, such as Ukraine and Sweden, have tied the status of minority language to the recognized national minorities, which are defined by ethnic, cultural and/or religious criteria, thereby circumventing the Charter's notion of linguistic minority.Languages that are official within regions, provinces or federal units within a State (for example Catalan in Spain) are not classified as official languages of the State and may therefore benefit from the Charter.", "On the other hand, Ireland has not been able to sign the Charter on behalf of the Irish language (although a minority language) as it is defined as the first official language of the state.", "The United Kingdom has ratified the Charter in respect to (among other languages) Welsh in Wales, Scots and Gaelic in Scotland, and Irish in Northern Ireland.", "France, although a signatory, has been constitutionally blocked from ratifying the Charter in respect to the languages of France.The charter provides many actions state parties can take to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages.", "There are two levels of protection—all signatories must apply the lower level of protection to qualifying languages.", "Signatories may further declare that a qualifying language or languages will benefit from the higher level of protection, which lists a range of actions from which states must agree to undertake at least 35." ], [ "Protections", "Countries can ratify the charter in respect of its minority languages based on Part II or Part III of the charter, which contain varying principles.", "Countries can treat languages differently under the charter, for example, in the United Kingdom, the Welsh language is ratified under the general Part II principles as well as the more specific Part III commitments, while the Cornish language is ratified only under Part II.===Part II===Part II of the Charter details eight main principles and objectives upon which States must base their policies and legislation.", "They are seen as a framework for the preservation of the languages concerned.", "Recognition of regional or minority languages as an expression of cultural wealth.", "Respect for the geographical area of each regional or minority language.", "The need for resolute action to promote such languages.", "The facilitation and/or encouragement of the use of such languages, in speech and writing, in public and private life.", "The provision of appropriate forms and means for the teaching and study of such languages at all appropriate stages.", "The promotion of relevant transnational exchanges.", "The prohibition of all forms of unjustified distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference relating to the use of a regional or minority language and intended to discourage or endanger its maintenance or development.", "The promotion by states of mutual understanding between all the country's linguistic groups.===Part III===Part III details comprehensive rules, across a number of sectors, by which states agree to abide.", "Each language to which Part III of the Charter is applied must be named specifically by the government.", "States must select at least thirty-five of the undertakings in respect to each language.", "Many provisions contain several options, of varying degrees of stringency, one of which has to be chosen \"according to the situation of each language\".", "The areas from which these specific undertakings must be chosen are as follows:EducationJudicial authoritiesAdministrative authorities and public servicesMediaCultural activities and facilitiesEconomic and social lifeTransfrontier exchanges" ], [ "Languages protected under the Charter", "Countries that have ratified the Charter, and languages for which the ratification was maderatification: 25 January 2002AssyrianGermanGreekKurdishRussianUkrainianYezidiratification: 28 June 2001* Burgenland Croatian (in Burgenland)* Slovene (in Carinthia and Styria)* Hungarian (in Burgenland and Vienna)* Czech (in Vienna)* Slovak (in Vienna)* Romani (in Burgenland)ratification: 21 September 2010AlbanianCzechGermanHungarianItalianLadinoPolishRomaniRomanianRusynSlovakSlovenianTurkishUkrainianYiddishratification: 5 November 1997CzechGermanHungarianBoyash RomanianIstro-RomanianItalianRomaniRusynSerbianSlovakianSlovenianUkrainianratification: 26 August 2002 Armenian* Cypriot Maronite Arabicratification: 15 November 2006* Slovak (parts II and III, across the whole territory)* Polish (part II; and part III in Moravia-Silesia, in districts Frydek-Místek and Karviná)* German (part II only)* Romani (part II only)* Moravian Croatian (part II only)ratification: 8 September 2000* Faroese (in the Faroe Islands)* German (in Southern Jutland)* Greenlandic (in Greenland)* Romani (across Denmark, under part II)ratification: 9 November 1994Inari SamiKarelianNorth SamiRomaniSkolt SamiSwedishTatarYiddishratification: 16 September 1998* Danish (in Schleswig-Holstein)* Upper Sorbian (in the Free State of Saxony)* Lower Sorbian (in Brandenburg)* North Frisian (in Schleswig-Holstein)* Saterland Frisian (in Lower Saxony)* Romani (across Germany)* Low German (part III in Bremen, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein); (part II in Brandenburg, Northrhine-Westphalia and Saxony-Anhalt)ratification: 26 April 1995* ArmenianBoyash Romanian Bulgarian* Croatian* German* Greek* Polish* Romani* RomanianRusyn Serbian* Slovak* Slovene* Ukrainianratification: 18 November 1997* No regional or minority languagesratification: 22 June 2005* No regional or minority languagesratification: 15 February 2006* AlbanianBosnianCroatian* Romaniratification: 2 May 1996* Frisian (in Friesland, under part III)* Limburgish (in Limburg, under part II)* Low Saxon (across the Netherlands, under part II)* Papiamento (on Bonaire under part III)* Romani (across the Netherlands, under part II)* Yiddish (across the Netherlands, under part II)ratification: 10 November 1993* Kven/Finnish (part II only)Lule Sami North SamiRomaniRomanesSouth Samiratification: 12 February 2009ArmenianBelarusianCzechGermanKaraimKashubLemkoLithuanianRomaniRussianSlovakianTatarUkrainianYiddishratification 29 January 2008 Albanian (Part II only)* Armenian (Part II only)* Greek (Part II only)* Italian (Part II only)* Macedonian (Part II only)* Polish (Part II only)* Romani (Part II only)Rusyn (Part II only) Tatar (Part II only)* Yiddish (Part II only)* Bulgarian (Part III only)* Croatian (Part III only)* Czech (Part III only)* German (Part III only)* Hungarian (Part III only)* Russian (Part III only)* Serbian (Part III only)* Slovak (Part III only)* Turkish (Part III only)* Ukrainian (Part III only)ratification: 15 February 2006AlbanianBosnianBulgarianBunjevacCroatianCzechGermanHungarianMacedonianRomaniRomanianRusynSlovakianUkrainian\"Vlach\"ratification: 5 September 2001 Russian* Serbian* Bulgarian* Croatian* Czech* German* Hungarian* Polish* RomaniRusyn UkrainianYiddishratification: 4 October 2000CroatianGermanHungarianItalianRomaniSerbianratification: 9 April 2001Amazigh in MelillaAragonese, ''luenga propia'' in AragonAraneseAsturian language, present in Asturias; and in part of Leon, Zamora, Salamanca, Cantabria and Extremadura (recognized in Asturias, Castile and León)Basque (official in the Basque Country and part of Navarre)Catalan, official in the Balearic Islands and Catalonia; ''llengua pròpia'' in Aragon.", "Valencian (A dialect of Catalan, official in Valencia)Galician, present in Galicia; and in part of Asturias, Leon and Zamora provinces (official in Galicia)Leoneseratification: 9 February 2000* Finnish* MeänkieliLule SamiNorth SamiSouth Sami Romani* Yiddishratification: 23 December 1997Franco-ProvençalFrenchGerman ItalianRomanshYenishratification: 19 September 2005ArmenianBelarusianBulgarianCrimean TatarGagauzGermanGreekHungarianKaraimKrimchakMoldovanPolishRomaniRomanianRussianRusynSlovakianYiddishUkraine does not specify languages by name, but rather ratifies on behalf of \"the languages of the following ethnic minorities of Ukraineratification : 27 March 2001.", "Cornish (Article 2, Part II only (Article 7))Irish(Articles 2 and 3, Part II (Article 7) and Part III (Articles 8-14, with reservations))Scots (Articles 2 and 3, Part II only (Article 7))Ulster-Scots (Articles 2 and 3, Part II only (Article 7))Scottish Gaelic(Articles 2 and 3, Part II (Article 7) and Part III (Articles 8-14, with reservations)) (British Nationality Act 1981, Schedule 1, Article 1(1)(c), and the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 )Welsh(Articles 2 and 3, Part II (Article 7) and Part III (Articles 8-14, with reservations))(Welsh Language Act 1967 (repealed 21.12.1993) and the Welsh Language Act 1993 )* (extension : 23 April 2003 (declaration dated 22 April 2003) The Government of the United Kingdom declares on 23 April 2003 that the Charter should extend to the ''Isle of Man'', being a territory for whose international relations the Government of the United Kingdom is responsible.", "27/03/2001)*Manx Gaelic (Article 2, Part II only (Article 7))" ], [ "See also", " European languages* Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities* Languages of the European Union* Linguistic rights* List of Linguistic Rights in Constitutions (Europe)* Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "* European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages text* More information on the treaty* Charter website* Eurolang (News agency about minority languages in Europe)* Explanatory Report on the Charter* lexpress.fr * Application of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Doc.", "12881" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "English Civil War" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''English Civil War''' refers to a series of civil wars and political machinations between Royalists and Parliamentarians in the Kingdom of England from 1642 to 1651.Part of the wider 1639 to 1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, the struggle consisted of the First English Civil War and the Second English Civil War.", "The Anglo-Scottish War of 1650 to 1652 is sometimes referred to as ''the Third English Civil War.", "''While the conflicts in the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland had similarities, each had their own specific issues and objectives.", "The First English Civil War was fought primarily over the correct balance of power between Parliament and Charles I.", "It ended in June 1646 with Royalist defeat and the king in custody.However, victory exposed Parliamentarian divisions over the nature of the political settlement.", "The vast majority went to war in 1642 to assert Parliament's right to participate in government, not abolish the monarchy, which meant Charles' refusal to make concessions led to a stalemate.", "Concern over the political influence of radicals within the New Model Army like Oliver Cromwell led to an alliance between moderate Parliamentarians and Royalists, supported by the Covenanters.", "Royalist defeat in the 1648 Second English Civil War resulted in the execution of Charles I in January 1649, and establishment of the Commonwealth of England.In 1650, Charles II was crowned king of Scotland, in return for agreeing to create a Presbyterian church in both England and Scotland.", "The subsequent Anglo-Scottish War ended with Parliamentarian victory at Worcester on 3 September 1651.Both Ireland and Scotland were incorporated into the Commonwealth, and Britain became a unitary state until the Stuart Restoration in 1660." ], [ "Terminology", "The term \"English Civil War\" appears most often in the singular, but historians often divide the conflict into two or three separate wars.", "They were not restricted to England alone, as Wales (having been annexed into the Kingdom of England) was affected by the same political instabilities.", "The conflicts also involved wars with Scotland and Ireland and civil wars within them.", "Some historians have favoured the term \"the British Civil Wars\".", "From the Restoration to the 19th century, the common phrase for the civil wars was \"the rebellion\" or \"the great rebellion\".The wars spanning all four countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.", "In the early 19th century, Sir Walter Scott referred to it as \"the Great Civil War\".", "The 1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' called the series of conflicts the \"Great Rebellion\".", "Some historians, notably Marxists such as Christopher Hill (1912–2003), favoured the term \"English Revolution\"." ], [ "Geography", "Each side had a geographical stronghold, such that minority elements were silenced or fled.", "The Royalist areas included the countryside, the shires, the cathedral city of Oxford, and the less economically developed areas of northern and western England.", "Parliament's strengths spanned the industrial centres, ports, and economically advanced regions of southern and eastern England, including the remaining cathedral cities (except York, Chester, Worcester).", "Lacey Baldwin Smith says, \"the words ''populous, rich, and rebellious'' seemed to go hand in hand\"." ], [ "Strategy and tactics", "Many officers and veteran soldiers had fought in European wars, notably the Eighty Years' War between the Spanish and the Dutch, which began in 1568, as well as earlier phases of the Thirty Years' War which began in 1618 and concluded in 1648.The war was of unprecedented scale for the English.", "During the campaign seasons, 120,000 to 150,000 soldiers would be in the field, a higher proportion of the population than were fighting in Germany in the Thirty Years' War.The main battle tactic came to be known as pike and shot infantry.", "The two sides would line up opposite one another, with infantry brigades of musketeers in the centre.", "These carried matchlock muskets, an inaccurate weapon which nevertheless could be lethal at a range of up to 300 yards.", "Musketeers would assemble three rows deep, the first kneeling, second crouching, and third standing.", "At times, troops divided into two groups, allowing one to reload while the other fired.", "Among the musketeers were pike men, carrying pikes of to long, whose main purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges.", "Positioned on each side of the infantry were cavalry, with a right wing led by the lieutenant-general and left by the commissary general.", "Its main aim was to rout the opponents' cavalry, then turn and overpower their infantry.The Royalist cavaliers' skill and speed on horseback led to many early victories.", "Prince Rupert, commanding the king's cavalry, used a tactic learned while fighting in the Dutch army, where cavalry would charge at full speed into the opponent's infantry, firing their pistols just before impact.However, with Oliver Cromwell and the introduction of the more disciplined New Model Army, a group of disciplined pike men would stand its ground, which could have a devastating effect.", "The Royalist cavalry had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge, leaving their forces scattered and tired, whereas Cromwell's cavalry was slower but better disciplined.", "Trained to operate as a single unit, it went on to win many decisive victories." ], [ "Background", "===The King's rule===The English Civil War broke out in 1642, less than 40 years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I. Elizabeth had been succeeded by her first cousin twice-removed, King James VI of Scotland, as James I of England, creating the first personal union of the Scottish and English kingdoms.", "As King of Scots, James had become accustomed to Scotland's weak parliamentary tradition since assuming control of the Scottish government in 1583, so that upon assuming power south of the border, the new King of England was affronted by the constraints the English Parliament attempted to place on him in exchange for money.", "Consequently, James's personal extravagance, which resulted in his being perennially short of money, meant that he had to resort to extra-parliamentary sources of income.", "Moreover, increasing inflation during this period meant that even though Parliament was granting the King the same nominal value of subsidy, the income was actually worth less.This extravagance was tempered by James's peaceful disposition, so that by the succession of his son Charles I in 1625 the two kingdoms had both experienced relative peace, internally and in their relations with each other.", "Charles followed his father's dream in hoping to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a single kingdom.", "Many English Parliamentarians were suspicious of such a move, fearing that such a new kingdom might destroy old English traditions that had bound the English monarchy.", "Because James had described kings as \"little gods on Earth\", chosen by God to rule in accordance with the doctrine of the \"Divine Right of Kings\", and Charles shared his father's position, the suspicions of the Parliamentarians had some justification.Charles I, painted by Van Dyck===Parliament in an English constitutional framework===At the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government.", "Instead, it functioned as a temporary advisory committee and was summoned only if and when the monarch saw fit.", "Once summoned, a Parliament's continued existence was at the King's pleasure since it was subject to dissolution by him at any time.Yet in spite of this limited role, Parliament had acquired over the centuries ''de facto'' powers of enough significance that monarchs could not simply ignore them indefinitely.", "For a monarch, Parliament's most indispensable power was its ability to raise tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crown's disposal.", "By the 17th century, Parliament's tax-raising powers had come to be derived from the fact that the gentry was the only stratum of society with the ability and authority to collect and remit the most meaningful forms of taxation then available at the local level.", "So, if the king wanted to ensure smooth revenue collection, he needed the gentry's cooperation.", "For all of the Crown's legal authority, its resources were limited by any modern standard to the extent that if the gentry refused to collect the king's taxes on a national scale, the Crown lacked a practical means of compelling them.From the thirteenth century, monarchs ordered the election of representatives to sit in the House of Commons, with most voters being the owners of property, although in some potwalloper boroughs every male householder could vote.", "When assembled along with the House of Lords, these elected representatives formed a Parliament.", "So the concept of Parliaments allowed representatives of the property-owning class to meet, primarily, at least from the point of view of the monarch, to sanction whatever taxes the monarch wished to collect.", "In the process, the representatives could debate and enact statutes, or acts.", "However, Parliament lacked the power to force its will upon the monarch; its only leverage was the threat of withholding the financial means required to implement his plans.===Parliamentary concerns and the Petition of Right===Henrietta Maria, painted by Peter Lely, 1660Many concerns were raised over Charles's marriage in 1625 to a Roman Catholic French princess, Henrietta Maria.", "Parliament refused to assign him the traditional right to collect customs duties for his entire reign, deciding instead to grant it only on a provisional basis and negotiate with him.Charles, meanwhile, decided to send an expeditionary force to relieve the French Huguenots, whom French royal troops held besieged in La Rochelle.", "Such military support for Protestants on the Continent potentially alleviated concerns about the King's marriage to a Catholic.", "However, Charles's insistence on giving command of the English force to his unpopular royal favourite George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham, undermined that support.", "Unfortunately for Charles and Buckingham, the relief expedition proved a fiasco (1627), and Parliament, already hostile to Buckingham for his monopoly on royal patronage, opened impeachment proceedings against him.", "Charles responded by dissolving Parliament.", "This saved Buckingham but confirmed the impression that Charles wanted to avoid Parliamentary scrutiny of his ministers.Having dissolved Parliament and unable to raise money without it, the king assembled a new one in 1628.", "(The elected members included Oliver Cromwell, John Hampden, and Edward Coke.)", "The new Parliament drew up a Petition of Right, which Charles accepted as a concession to obtain his subsidy.", "The Petition made reference to Magna Carta, but did not grant him the right of tonnage and poundage, which Charles had been collecting without Parliamentary authorisation since 1625.Several more active members of the opposition were imprisoned, which caused outrage; one, John Eliot, subsequently died in prison and came to be seen as a martyr for the rights of Parliament.===Personal rule===Charles avoided calling a Parliament for the next decade, a period known as the \"personal rule of Charles I\", or by its critics as the \"Eleven Years' Tyranny\".", "During this period, Charles's policies were determined by his lack of money.", "First and foremost, to avoid Parliament, the King needed to avoid war.", "Charles made peace with France and Spain, effectively ending England's involvement in the Thirty Years' War.", "However, that in itself was far from enough to balance the Crown's finances.Unable to raise revenue without Parliament and unwilling to convene it, Charles resorted to other means.", "One was to revive conventions, often outdated.", "For example, a failure to attend and receive knighthood at Charles's coronation became a finable offence with the fine paid to the Crown.", "The King also tried to raise revenue through ship money, demanding in 1634–1636 that the inland English counties pay a tax for the Royal Navy to counter the threat of privateers and pirates in the English Channel.", "Established law supported the policy of coastal counties and inland ports such as London paying ship money in times of need, but it had not been applied to inland counties before.Authorities had ignored it for centuries, and many saw it as yet another extra-Parliamentary, illegal tax, which prompted some prominent men to refuse to pay it.", "Charles issued a writ against John Hampden for his failure to pay, and although five judges including Sir George Croke supported Hampden, seven judges found in favour of the King in 1638.The fines imposed on people who refused to pay ship money and standing out against its illegality aroused widespread indignation.During his \"Personal Rule\", Charles aroused most antagonism through his religious measures.", "He believed in High Anglicanism, a sacramental version of the Church of England, theologically based upon Arminianism, a creed shared with his main political adviser, Archbishop William Laud.", "In 1633, Charles appointed Laud Archbishop of Canterbury and started making the Church more ceremonial, replacing the wooden communion tables with stone altars.", "Puritans accused Laud of reintroducing Catholicism, and when they complained he had them arrested.", "In 1637, John Bastwick, Henry Burton, and William Prynne had their ears cut off for writing pamphlets attacking Laud's views – a rare penalty for gentlemen, and one that aroused anger.", "Moreover, the Church authorities revived statutes from the time of Elizabeth I about church attendance and fined Puritans for not attending Anglican services.===Rebellion in Scotland===The end of Charles's independent governance came when he attempted to apply the same religious policies in Scotland.", "The Church of Scotland, reluctantly episcopal in structure, had independent traditions.", "Charles wanted one uniform Church throughout Britain and introduced a new, High Anglican version of the English Book of Common Prayer to Scotland in the middle of 1637.This was violently resisted.", "A riot broke out in Edinburgh, which may have been started in St Giles' Cathedral, according to legend, by Jenny Geddes.", "In February 1638, the Scots formulated their objections to royal policy in the National Covenant.", "This document took the form of a \"loyal protest\", rejecting all innovations not first tested by free Parliaments and General Assemblies of the Church.In the spring of 1639, King Charles I accompanied his forces to the Scottish border to end the rebellion known as the Bishops' War, but after an inconclusive campaign, he accepted the offered Scottish truce: the Pacification of Berwick.", "This truce proved temporary, and a second war followed in mid-1640.A Scots army defeated Charles's forces in the north, then captured Newcastle.", "Charles eventually agreed not to interfere in Scotland's religion.===Recall of the English Parliament===Charles needed to suppress the rebellion in Scotland but had insufficient funds to do so.", "He needed to seek money from a newly elected English Parliament in 1640.Its majority faction, led by John Pym, used this appeal for money as a chance to discuss grievances against the Crown and oppose the idea of an English invasion of Scotland.", "Charles took exception to this ''lèse-majesté'' (offense against the ruler) and, after negotiations went nowhere, dissolved the Parliament after only a few weeks; hence its name, \"the Short Parliament\".Without Parliament's support, Charles attacked Scotland again, breaking the truce at Berwick, and suffered comprehensive defeat.", "The Scots went on to invade England, occupying Northumberland and Durham.", "Meanwhile, another of Charles's chief advisers, Thomas Wentworth, 1st Viscount Wentworth, had risen to the role of Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1632, and brought in much-needed revenue for Charles by persuading the Irish Catholic gentry to pay new taxes in return for promised religious concessions.In 1639, Charles had recalled Wentworth to England and in 1640 made him Earl of Strafford, attempting to have him achieve similar results in Scotland.", "This time he proved less successful and the English forces fled the field at their second encounter with the Scots in 1640.Almost the whole of Northern England was occupied and Charles forced to pay £850 per day to keep the Scots from advancing.", "Had he not done so they would have pillaged and burnt the cities and towns of Northern England.All this put Charles in a desperate financial state.", "As King of Scots, he had to find money to pay the Scottish army in England; as King of England, he had to find money to pay and equip an English army to defend England.", "His means of raising English revenue without an English Parliament fell critically short of achieving this.", "Against this backdrop, and according to advice from the Magnum Concilium (the House of Lords, but without the Commons, so not a Parliament), Charles finally bowed to pressure and summoned another English Parliament in November 1640.===The Long Parliament===A sitting of the Long Parliament, 1640The king's attempt to arrest the five members, depicted in a 19th century painting.The new Parliament proved even more hostile to Charles than its predecessor.", "It immediately began to discuss grievances against him and his government, with Pym and Hampden (of ship money fame) in the lead.", "They took the opportunity presented by the King's troubles to force various reforming measures – including many with strong \"anti-Papist\" themes – upon him.", "The members passed a law stating that a new Parliament would convene at least once every three years – without the King's summons if need be.", "Other laws passed making it illegal for the king to impose taxes without Parliamentary consent and later gave Parliament control over the King's ministers.Finally, the Parliament passed a law forbidding the King to dissolve it without its consent, even if the three years were up.", "These laws equated to a tremendous increase in Parliamentary power.", "Ever since, this Parliament has been known as the Long Parliament.", "However, Parliament did attempt to avert conflict by requiring all adults to sign The Protestation, an oath of allegiance to Charles.Early in the Long Parliament, the house overwhelmingly accused Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, of high treason and other crimes and misdemeanors.", "Henry Vane the Younger supplied evidence of Strafford's claimed improper use of the army in Ireland, alleging that he had encouraged the King to use his Ireland-raised forces to threaten England into compliance.", "This evidence was obtained from Vane's father, Henry Vane the Elder, a member of the King's Privy Council, who refused to confirm it in Parliament out of loyalty to Charles.", "On 10 April 1641, Pym's case collapsed, but Pym made a direct appeal to the Younger Vane to produce a copy of the notes from the King's Privy Council, discovered by the Younger Vane and secretly turned over to Pym, to the great anguish of the Elder Vane.", "These notes contained evidence that Strafford had told the King, \"Sir, you have done your duty, and your subjects have failed in theirs; and therefore you are absolved from the rules of government, and may supply yourself by extraordinary ways; you have an army in Ireland, with which you may reduce the kingdom.", "\"Pym immediately launched a Bill of Attainder stating Strafford's guilt and demanding that he be put to death.", "Unlike a guilty verdict in a court case, attainder did not require a legal burden of proof to be met, but it did require the king's approval.", "Charles, however, guaranteed Strafford that he would not sign the attainder, without which the bill could not be passed.", "Furthermore, the Lords opposed the severity of a death sentence on Strafford.", "Yet increased tensions and a plot in the army to support Strafford began to sway the issue.On 21 April, the Commons passed the Bill (204 in favour, 59 opposed, and 250 abstained), and the Lords acquiesced.", "Charles, still incensed over the Commons' handling of Buckingham, refused his assent.", "Strafford himself, hoping to head off the war he saw looming, wrote to the king and asked him to reconsider.", "Charles, fearing for the safety of his family, signed on 10 May.", "Strafford was beheaded two days later.", "In the meantime, both Parliament and the King agreed to an independent investigation into the king's involvement in Strafford's plot.The Long Parliament then passed the Triennial Act 1640, also known as the Dissolution Act, in May 1641, to which royal assent was readily granted.", "The Triennial Act required Parliament to be summoned at least once in three years.", "When the king failed to issue a proper summons, the members could assemble on their own.", "This act also forbade ship money without Parliament's consent, fines in distraint of knighthood, and forced loans.", "Monopolies were cut back sharply, the courts of the Star Chamber and High Commission abolished by the Habeas Corpus Act 1640, and the Triennial Act respectively.All remaining forms of taxation were legalised and regulated by the Tonnage and Poundage Act 1640.On 3 May, Parliament decreed The Protestation, attacking the 'wicked counsels' of Charles's government, whereby those who signed the petition undertook to defend 'the true reformed religion', Parliament, and the king's person, honour and estate.", "Throughout May, the House of Commons launched several bills attacking bishops and Episcopalianism in general, each time defeated in the Lords.Charles and his Parliament hoped that the execution of Strafford and the Protestation would end the drift towards war, but in fact, they encouraged it.", "Charles and his supporters continued to resent Parliament's demands, and Parliamentarians continued to suspect Charles of wanting to impose episcopalianism and unfettered royal rule by military force.", "Within months, the Irish Catholics, fearing a resurgence of Protestant power, struck first, and all Ireland soon descended into chaos.", "Rumours circulated that the King supported the Irish, and Puritan members of the Commons soon started murmuring that this exemplified the fate that Charles had in store for them all.On 4 January 1642, Charles, followed by 400 soldiers, entered the House of Commons and attempted to arrest five members on a charge of treason.", "The members had learned that he was coming and escaped.", "Charles not only failed to arrest them but turned more people against him.===Local grievances===In the summer of 1642, these national troubles helped to polarise opinion, ending indecision about which side to support or what action to take.", "Opposition to Charles also arose from many local grievances.", "For example, imposed drainage schemes in The Fens disrupted the livelihood of thousands after the King awarded a number of drainage contracts.", "Many saw the King as indifferent to public welfare, and this played a role in bringing much of eastern England into the Parliamentarian camp.", "This sentiment brought with it such people as the Earl of Manchester and Oliver Cromwell, each a notable wartime adversary of the King.", "Conversely, one of the leading drainage contractors, the Earl of Lindsey, was to die fighting for the King at the Battle of Edgehill." ], [ "First English Civil War (1642–1646)", "Maps of territory held by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (yellow-green), 1642–1645In early January 1642, a few days after failing to capture five members of the House of Commons, Charles feared for the safety of his family and retinue and left the London area for the north country.Further frequent negotiations by letter between the King and the Long Parliament, through to early summer, proved fruitless.", "On 1 June 1642 the English Lords and Commons approved a list of proposals known as the Nineteen Propositions.", "In these demands, the Parliament sought a larger share of power in the governance of the kingdom.", "Before the end of the month the King rejected the Propositions.", "'Cavalier Troops Mustering outside the Guildhall, Exeter' by John Joseph Barker, 1886.This oil on canvas depicts Cavalier troops in what is quite a dark image outside the Exeter Guildhall.", "From the Royal Albert Memorial Museum's collection (93/1978x)As the summer progressed, cities and towns declared their sympathies for one faction or the other: for example, the garrison of Portsmouth commanded by Sir George Goring declared for the King, but when Charles tried to acquire arms from Kingston upon Hull, the weaponry depository used in the previous Scottish campaigns, Sir John Hotham, the military governor appointed by Parliament in January, refused to let Charles enter the town, and when Charles returned with more men later, Hotham drove them off.", "Charles issued a warrant for Hotham's arrest as a traitor but was powerless to enforce it.", "Throughout the summer, tensions rose and there was brawling in several places, the first death from the conflict taking place in Manchester.Oliver CromwellAt the outset of the conflict, much of the country remained neutral, though the Royal Navy and most English cities favoured Parliament, while the King found marked support in rural communities.", "The war quickly spread and eventually involved every level of society.", "Many areas attempted to remain neutral.", "Some formed bands of Clubmen to protect their localities from the worst excesses of the armies of both sides, but most found it impossible to withstand both King and Parliament.On one side, the King and his supporters fought for traditional government in church and state.", "On the other, most Parliamentarians initially took up arms to defend what they saw as a traditional balance of government in church and state, which the bad advice the King received from his advisers had undermined before and during the \"Eleven Years' Tyranny\".", "The views of the members of Parliament ranged from unquestioning support of the King – at one point during the First Civil War, more members of the Commons and Lords gathered in the King's Oxford Parliament than at Westminster — through to radicals who sought major reforms in religious independence and redistribution of power at a national level.After the debacle at Hull, Charles moved on to Nottingham, raising the royal standard there on 22 August 1642.At the time, Charles had with him about 2,000 cavalry and a small number of Yorkshire infantrymen, and using the archaic system of a Commission of Array, his supporters started to build a larger army around the standard.", "Charles moved in a westerly direction, first to Stafford, then on to Shrewsbury, as support for his cause seemed particularly strong in the Severn valley area and in North Wales.", "While passing through Wellington, he declared in what became known as the \"Wellington Declaration\" that he would uphold the \"Protestant religion, the laws of England, and the liberty of Parliament\".The Parliamentarians who opposed the King did not remain passive in this pre-war period.", "As in Hull, they took measures to secure strategic towns and cities by appointing to office men sympathetic to their cause.", "On 9 June they voted to raise an army of 10,000 volunteers and appointed Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex its commander three days later.", "He received orders \"to rescue His Majesty's person, and the persons of the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York James II out of the hands of those desperate persons who were about them.\"", "The Lords Lieutenant whom Parliament appointed used the Militia Ordinance to order the militia to join Essex's army.Prince Rupert of the RhineTwo weeks after the King had raised his standard at Nottingham, Essex led his army north towards Northampton, picking up support along the way (including a detachment of Huntingdonshire cavalry raised and commanded by Oliver Cromwell).", "By mid-September Essex's forces had grown to 21,000 infantry and 4,200 cavalry and dragoons.", "On 14 September he moved his army to Coventry and then to the north of the Cotswolds, a strategy that placed it between the Royalists and London.", "With the size of both armies now in the tens of thousands and only Worcestershire between them, it was inevitable that cavalry reconnaissance units would meet sooner or later.", "This happened in the first major skirmish of the Civil War, when a troop of about 1,000 Royalist cavalry under Prince Rupert, a German nephew of the King and one of the outstanding cavalry commanders of the war, defeated a Parliamentary cavalry detachment under Colonel John Brown at the Battle of Powick Bridge, which crossed the River Teme close to Worcester.Rupert withdrew to Shrewsbury, where a council-of-war discussed two courses of action: whether to advance towards Essex's new position near Worcester, or march down the now open road towards London.", "The Council decided on the London route, but not to avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals wanted to fight Essex before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it impossible to postpone the decision.", "In the Earl of Clarendon's words, \"it was considered more counsellable to march towards London, it being morally sure that the earl of Essex would put himself in their way.\"", "Hence, the army left Shrewsbury on 12 October, gaining two days' start on the enemy, and moved south-east.", "This had the desired effect of forcing Essex to move to intercept them.The first pitched battle of the war, at Edgehill on 23 October 1642, proved inconclusive, both Royalists and Parliamentarians claiming victory.", "The second field action, the stand-off at Turnham Green, saw Charles forced to withdraw to Oxford, which would serve as his base for the rest of the war.In 1643, Royalist forces won at Adwalton Moor, gaining control of most of Yorkshire.", "In the Midlands, a Parliamentary force under Sir John Gell besieged and captured the cathedral city of Lichfield, after the death of the original commander, Lord Brooke.", "This group then joined forces with Sir William Brereton at the inconclusive Battle of Hopton Heath (19 March 1643), where the Royalist commander, the Earl of Northampton, was killed.", "John Hampden died after being wounded in the Battle of Chalgrove Field (18 June 1643).", "Subsequent battles in the west of England at Lansdowne and Roundway Down also went to the Royalists.", "Prince Rupert could then take Bristol.", "In the same year, however, Cromwell formed his troop of \"Ironsides\", a disciplined unit that demonstrated his military leadership ability.", "With their assistance he won a victory at the Battle of Gainsborough in July.Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven, Lord General of the Covenanter Army and one of the victors of Marston MoorAt this stage, from 7 to 9 August 1643, there were some popular demonstrations in London – both for and against war.", "They were protesting at Westminster.", "A peace demonstration by London women, which turned violent, was suppressed; the women were beaten and fired upon with live ammunition, leaving several dead.", "Many were arrested and incarcerated in Bridewell and other prisons.", "After these August events, the Venetian ambassador in England reported to the doge that the London government took considerable measures to stifle dissent.In general, the early part of the war went well for the Royalists.", "The turning point came in the late summer and early autumn of 1643, when the Earl of Essex's army forced the king to raise the Siege of Gloucester and then brushed the Royalists aside at the First Battle of Newbury (20 September 1643), to return triumphantly to London.", "Parliamentarian forces led by the Earl of Manchester besieged the port of King's Lynn, Norfolk, which under Sir Hamon L'Estrange held out until September.", "Other forces won the Battle of Winceby, giving them control of Lincoln.", "Political manoeuvring to gain an advantage in numbers led Charles to negotiate a ceasefire in Ireland, freeing up English troops to fight on the Royalist side in England, while Parliament offered concessions to the Scots in return for aid and assistance.Helped by the Scots, Parliament won at Marston Moor (2 July 1644), gaining York and the north of England.", "Cromwell's conduct in the battle proved decisive, and showed his potential as a political and as an important military leader.", "The defeat at the Battle of Lostwithiel in Cornwall, however, marked a serious reverse for Parliament in the south-west of England.", "Subsequent fighting around Newbury (27 October 1644), though tactically indecisive, strategically gave another check to Parliament.The Battle of Marston Moor, 1644In 1645, Parliament reaffirmed its determination to fight the war to a finish.", "It passed the Self-denying Ordinance, by which all members of either House of Parliament laid down their commands and re-organised its main forces into the New Model Army, under the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax, with Cromwell as his second-in-command and Lieutenant-General of Horse.", "In two decisive engagements – the Battle of Naseby on 14 June and the Battle of Langport on 10 July – the Parliamentarians effectively destroyed Charles's armies.In the remains of his English realm, Charles tried to recover a stable base of support by consolidating the Midlands.", "He began to form an axis between Oxford and Newark-on-Trent in Nottinghamshire.", "These towns had become fortresses and showed more reliable loyalty to him than others.", "He took Leicester, which lies between them, but found his resources exhausted.", "Having little opportunity to replenish them, in May 1646 he sought shelter with a Presbyterian Scottish army at Southwell in Nottinghamshire.", "Charles was eventually handed over to the English Parliament by the Scots and imprisoned.", "This marked the end of the First English Civil War." ], [ "Interbellum", "The end of the First Civil War, in 1646, left a partial power vacuum in which any combination of the three English factions, Royalists, Independents of the New Model Army (\"the Army\"), and Presbyterians of the English Parliament, as well as the Scottish Parliament allied with the Scottish Presbyterians (the \"Kirk\"), could prove strong enough to dominate the rest.", "Armed political Royalism was at an end, but despite being a prisoner, Charles I was considered by himself and his opponents (almost to the last) as necessary to ensure the success of whichever group could come to terms with him.", "Thus, he passed successively into the hands of the Scots, the Parliament and the Army.The King attempted to reverse the verdict of arms by \"coquetting\" with each in turn.", "On 3 June 1647, Cornet George Joyce of Sir Thomas Fairfax's horse seized the King for the Army, after which the English Presbyterians and the Scots began to prepare for a fresh civil war, less than two years after the conclusion of the first, this time against \"Independency\", as embodied in the Army.", "After making use of the Army's sword, its opponents attempted to disband it, to send it on foreign service and to cut off its arrears of pay.The result was that the Army leadership was exasperated beyond control, and, remembering not merely its grievances but also the principle for which the Army had fought, it soon became the most powerful political force in the realm.", "From 1646 to 1648 the breach between Army and Parliament widened day by day, until finally the Presbyterian party, combined with the Scots and the remaining Royalists, felt itself strong enough to begin a Second Civil War." ], [ "Second English Civil War (1648–1649)", "\"And when did you last see your father?\"", "by William Frederick Yeames.", "The oil-on-canvas picture, painted in 1878, depicts a scene in an imaginary Royalist household during the English Civil War.", "The Parliamentarians have taken over the house and question the son about his Royalist father.", "The man lounging on a chair in the centre of the scene is identifiable as a Roundhead officer by his military attire and his orange sash.Charles I took advantage of the deflection of attention away from himself to negotiate on 28 December 1647 a secret treaty with the Scots, again promising church reform.", "Under the agreement, called the \"Engagement\", the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles's behalf and restore him to the throne.A series of Royalist uprisings throughout England and a Scottish invasion occurred in the summer of 1648.Forces loyal to Parliament put down most of those in England after little more than a skirmish, but uprisings in Kent, Essex and Cumberland, the rebellion in Wales, and the Scottish invasion involved pitched battles and prolonged sieges.In the spring of 1649, unpaid Parliamentarian troops in Wales changed sides.", "Colonel Thomas Horton defeated the Royalist rebels at the Battle of St Fagans (8 May) and the rebel leaders surrendered to Cromwell on 11 July after a protracted two-month siege of Pembroke.", "Sir Thomas Fairfax defeated a Royalist uprising in Kent at the Battle of Maidstone on 1 June.", "Fairfax, after his success at Maidstone and the pacification of Kent, turned north to reduce Essex, where, under an ardent, experienced and popular leader, Sir Charles Lucas, the Royalists had taken up arms in great numbers.", "Fairfax soon drove the enemy into Colchester, but his first attack on the town met with a repulse and he had to settle down to a long siege.In the North of England, Major-General John Lambert fought a successful campaign against several Royalist uprisings, the largest being that of Sir Marmaduke Langdale in Cumberland.", "Thanks to Lambert's successes, the Scottish commander, the Duke of Hamilton, had to take a western route through Carlisle in his pro-Royalist Scottish invasion of England.", "The Parliamentarians under Cromwell engaged the Scots at the Battle of Preston (17–19 August).", "The battle took place largely at Walton-le-Dale near Preston, Lancashire, and resulted in a victory for Cromwell's troops over the Royalists and Scots commanded by Hamilton.", "This victory marked the end of the Second English Civil War.Nearly all the Royalists who had fought in the First Civil War had given their word not to bear arms against Parliament, and many, like Lord Astley, were therefore bound by oath not to take any part in the second conflict.", "So, the victors in the Second Civil War showed little mercy to those who had brought war into the land again.", "On the evening of the surrender of Colchester, Parliamentarians had Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle shot.", "Parliamentary authorities sentenced the leaders of the Welsh rebels, Major-General Rowland Laugharne, Colonel John Poyer and Colonel Rice Powel to death, but executed only Poyer (25 April 1649), having selected him by lot.", "Of five prominent Royalist peers who had fallen into Parliamentary hands, three – the Duke of Hamilton, the Earl of Holland, and Lord Capel, one of the Colchester prisoners and a man of high character – were beheaded at Westminster on 9 March." ], [ "Trial of Charles I for treason", "Charles's secret pacts and encouragement of supporters to break their parole caused Parliament to debate whether to return the King to power at all.", "Those who still supported Charles's place on the throne, such as the army leader and moderate Fairfax, tried again to negotiate with him.", "The Army, furious that Parliament continued to countenance Charles as a ruler, then marched on Parliament and conducted \"Pride's Purge\", named after the commanding officer of the operation, Thomas Pride, in December 1648.Troops arrested 45 members and kept 146 out of the chamber.", "They allowed only 75 members in, and then only at the Army's bidding.", "This Rump Parliament received orders to set up, in the name of the people of England, a High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I for treason.", "Fairfax, a constitutional monarchist, declined to have anything to do with the trial.", "He resigned as head of the army, so clearing Cromwell's road to power.At the end of the trial the 59 Commissioners (judges) found Charles I guilty of high treason as a \"tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy\".", "His beheading took place on a scaffold in front of the Banqueting House of the Palace of Whitehall on 30 January 1649.After the Restoration in 1660, nine of the surviving regicides not living in exile were executed and most others sentenced to life imprisonment.After the regicide, Charles, Prince of Wales as the eldest son was publicly proclaimed King Charles II in the Royal Square of St. Helier, Jersey, on 17 February 1649 (after a first such proclamation in Edinburgh on 5 February 1649).", "It took longer for the news to reach the trans-Atlantic colonies, with the Somers Isles (also known as Bermuda) becoming the first to proclaim Charles II King on 5 July 1649." ], [ "Third English Civil War (1649–1651)", "===Ireland===A 19th-century representation of the Massacre at Drogheda, 1649Ireland had undergone continual war since the rebellion of 1641, with most of the island controlled by the Irish Confederates.", "Increasingly threatened by the armies of the English Parliament after Charles I's arrest in 1648, the Confederates signed a treaty of alliance with the English Royalists.", "The joint Royalist and Confederate forces under the Duke of Ormonde tried to eliminate the Parliamentary army holding Dublin by laying siege, but their opponents routed them at the Battle of Rathmines (2 August 1649).", "As the former Member of Parliament Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Prince Rupert's fleet in Kinsale, Cromwell could land at Dublin on 15 August 1649 with an army to quell the Royalist alliance.Cromwell's suppression of the Royalists in Ireland in 1649 is still remembered by many Irish people.", "After the Siege of Drogheda, the massacre of nearly 3,500 people – around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and 700 others, including civilians, prisoners and Catholic priests (Cromwell claimed all had carried arms) – became one of the historical memories that has driven Irish-English and Catholic-Protestant strife during the last three centuries.", "The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland ground on for another four years until 1653, when the last Irish Confederate and Royalist troops surrendered.", "In the wake of the conquest, the victors confiscated almost all Irish Catholic-owned land and distributed it to Parliament's creditors, to Parliamentary soldiers who served in Ireland, and to English who had settled there before the war.===Scotland===The execution of Charles I altered the dynamics of the Civil War in Scotland, which had raged between Royalists and Covenanters since 1644.By 1649, the struggle had left the Royalists there in disarray and their erstwhile leader, the Marquess of Montrose, had gone into exile.", "At first, Charles II encouraged Montrose to raise a Highland army to fight on the Royalist side.", "When the Scottish Covenanters, who did not agree with the execution of Charles I and who feared for the future of Presbyterianism under the new Commonwealth, offered him the crown of Scotland, Charles abandoned Montrose to his enemies.Montrose, who had raised a mercenary force in Norway, had already landed and could not abandon the fight.", "He did not succeed in raising many Highland clans and the Covenanters defeated his army at the Battle of Carbisdale in Ross-shire on 27 April 1650.The victors captured Montrose shortly afterwards and took him to Edinburgh.", "On 20 May the Scottish Parliament sentenced him to death and had him hanged the next day.", "\"Cromwell at Dunbar\", by Andrew Carrick GowCharles II landed in Scotland at Garmouth in Morayshire on 23 June 1650 and signed the 1638 National Covenant and the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant shortly after coming ashore.", "With his original Scottish Royalist followers and his new Covenanter allies, Charles II became the greatest threat facing the new English republic.", "In response to the threat, Cromwell left some of his lieutenants in Ireland to continue the suppression of the Irish Royalists and returned to England.He arrived in Scotland on 22 July 1650 and proceeded to lay siege to Edinburgh.", "By the end of August, disease and a shortage of supplies had reduced his army, and he had to order a retreat towards his base at Dunbar.", "A Scottish army under the command of David Leslie tried to block the retreat, but Cromwell defeated them at the Battle of Dunbar on 3 September.", "Cromwell's army then took Edinburgh, and by the end of the year his army had occupied much of southern Scotland.In July 1651, Cromwell's forces crossed the Firth of Forth into Fife and defeated the Scots at the Battle of Inverkeithing (20 July 1651).", "The New Model Army advanced towards Perth, which allowed Charles, at the head of the Scottish army, to move south into England.", "Cromwell followed Charles into England, leaving George Monck to finish the campaign in Scotland.", "Monck took Stirling on 14 August and Dundee on 1 September.", "The next year, 1652, saw a mopping up of the remnants of Royalist resistance, and under the terms of the \"Tender of Union\", the Scots received 30 seats in a united Parliament in London, with General Monck as the military governor of Scotland.===England===Although Cromwell's New Model Army had defeated a Scottish army at Dunbar, Cromwell could not prevent Charles II from marching from Scotland deep into England at the head of another Royalist army.", "They marched to the west of England where English Royalist sympathies were strongest, but although some English Royalists joined the army, they were far fewer in number than Charles and his Scottish supporters had hoped.", "Cromwell finally engaged and defeated the new Scottish king at Worcester on 3 September 1651.=== Wales ===For several reasons most of Wales was not as engaged in the English Civil Wars to the same degree as other parts of the British Isles.", "Wales was isolated from England, both physically and linguistically, so the Welsh were not as much engaged as England in the issues between the king and Parliament.", "The English considered Wales a remote land, with Welsh, not English, as the primary language.", "Since England had formally assimilated Wales into the kingdom, starting in 1536 formal agreements had been put in place under Henry VIII and continued under Charles I that allowed for Welsh local administrative authority and economic control, which allowed the Welsh to function to some degree independently.", "Another factor was the Puritan religion, which played a major role in the English Civil Wars but was not widely practised throughout Wales.", "Welsh Puritan religious dominance was found in northeast Wales near Wrexham, Denbighshire, and an indirect Puritan influence found along the southwestern coast near Haverfordwest, Pembroke, and Tenby due to a combination of a strong influence by the third earl of Essex and their strong trade relations with Bristol, England, a fervent Puritan stronghold.", "In addition, Wales comparatively more rural in character than England at this time, and thereby lacking the large number of urban settlements home to mercantile, trade, and manufacturing interests who were a bulwark of support for both Puritanism and eventually the Parliamentarian cause.Many of the key Welsh Civil Wars leaders were from the gentry class holding Royalist sympathies, or from the Church.", "Those Welsh who did participate in the Civil Wars battles were underequipped, underfed, and not properly trained for warfare.", "The majority of Welsh followed the Protestant faith with a religious perspective that differed from the English puritan zeal.", "They were also leery of the Irish Catholics invading Wales.", "The Welsh also did not want to lose what they had, for the gentry were aware of the destruction the Thirty Years' War caused in Europe.Most of those English Civil War battles where Wales was impacted occurred near the border with England and in south Wales.", "Some of the more significant engagements were:* In Gloucester, England (not far from Wales) Lord Herbert of Raglan (Wales) had Welsh troops assisting the royalists trying to take Gloucester in March, August, and September of 1643, but without success;* In November 1643 Sir Thomas Myddelton had secured the north Wales Royalist stronghold of Flintshire and the area east of Denbighshire, depriving Royalists based in Chester, England of their supplies.", "In response to this attack Archbishop John Williams, on behalf of the Royalists, responded to this attack by taking Wrexham from the Parliamentarians; * Initially in the summer of 1643, Royalist forces under Richard Vaughan of Golden Grove, 2nd Earl of Carbery, who had been appointed lieutenant-general by the King, was successful in securing three of the southwestern Welsh counties; but in early 1644 Parliamentarians conducted a successful sea and land assault campaign on Pembroke, Haverfordwest, Milford Pil; and continuing on to Swansea and Cardiff.", "As a result of these Royalist failures the King replaced Carbery with Colonel Charles Gerard, 1st Earl of Macclesfield who was able to regain many of these lost territories in Cardiganshire and Carmarthenshire;* On 18 September 1644 the first pitched battle on Welsh soil at Montgomery was a successful win for Myddelton;* On 1 August 1645 the Royalist forces were once again defeated at Colby Moor;* During the Second Civil War the Royalists were decisively defeated at the battle of St. Fagans near Cardiff, which was one of the last more significant battles.In addition to the Civil Wars' impact on the monarchy and the changes in national leadership, unexpected outcomes of the English Civil Wars to Wales included a significant degradation of the country's road system, a deterioration of government administrative functions to the general population, destruction of castles with only the remnants of them remaining, and the desecration of churches.===Immediate aftermath===After the Royalist defeat at Worcester, Charles II escaped via safe houses and an oak tree to France.", "Parliament was left in ''de facto'' control of England.", "Resistance continued for a time in Ireland and Scotland, but with the pacification of England, resistance elsewhere did not threaten the military supremacy of the New Model Army and its Parliamentary paymasters." ], [ "Political control", "During the Wars, the Parliamentarians established a number of successive committees to oversee the war effort.", "The first, the Committee of Safety set up in July 1642, comprised 15 members of Parliament.", "After the Anglo-Scottish alliance against the Royalists, the Committee of Both Kingdoms replaced the Committee of Safety between 1644 and 1648.Parliament dissolved the Committee of Both Kingdoms when the alliance ended, but its English members continued to meet as the Derby House Committee.", "A second Committee of Safety then replaced it.===Episcopacy===William Laud, Charles I's Archbishop of Canterbury.During the English Civil War, the role of bishops as wielders of political power and upholders of the established church became a matter of heated political controversy.", "John Calvin of Geneva had formulated a doctrine of Presbyterianism, which held that the offices of ''presbyter'' and ''episkopos'' in the New Testament were identical; he rejected the doctrine of apostolic succession.", "Calvin's follower John Knox brought Presbyterianism to Scotland when the Scottish church was reformed in 1560.In practice, Presbyterianism meant that committees of lay elders had a substantial voice in church government, as opposed to merely being subjects to a ruling hierarchy.This vision of at least partial democracy in ecclesiology paralleled the struggles between Parliament and the King.", "A body within the Puritan movement in the Church of England sought to abolish the office of bishop and remake the Church of England along Presbyterian lines.", "The Martin Marprelate tracts (1588–1589), applying the pejorative name of ''prelacy'' to the church hierarchy, attacked the office of bishop with satire that deeply offended Elizabeth I and her Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift.", "The vestments controversy also related to this movement, seeking further reductions in church ceremony, and labelling the use of elaborate vestments as \"unedifying\" and even idolatrous.King James I, reacting against the perceived contumacy of his Presbyterian Scottish subjects, adopted \"No Bishop, no King\" as a slogan.", "He tied the hierarchical authority of the bishop to the absolute authority he sought as King and viewed attacks on the authority of the bishops as attacks on his authority.", "Matters came to a head when Charles I appointed William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury.", "Laud aggressively attacked the Presbyterian movement and sought to impose the full Book of Common Prayer.", "The controversy eventually led to Laud's impeachment for treason by a bill of attainder in 1645 and subsequent execution.", "Charles also attempted to impose episcopacy on Scotland.", "The Scots' violent rejection of bishops and liturgical worship sparked the Bishops' Wars in 1639–1640.During the height of Puritan power under the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, episcopacy was formally abolished in the Church of England on 9 October 1646.The Church of England remained Presbyterian until the Restoration of the monarchy." ], [ "English overseas possessions", "During the English Civil War, the English overseas possessions became highly involved.", "In the Channel Islands, the island of Jersey and Castle Cornet in Guernsey supported the King until a surrender with honour in December 1651.Although the newer, Puritan settlements in North America, notably Massachusetts, were dominated by Parliamentarians, the older colonies sided with the Crown.", "Friction between Royalists and Puritans in Maryland came to a head in the Battle of the Severn.", "The Virginia Company's settlements, Bermuda and Virginia, as well as Antigua and Barbados, were conspicuous in their loyalty to the Crown.", "Bermuda's Independent Puritans were expelled, settling the Bahamas under William Sayle as the Eleutheran Adventurers.", "Parliament passed An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego in October 1650, which stated that:The Act also authorised Parliamentary privateers to act against English vessels trading with the rebellious colonies:Far to the North, Bermuda's regiment of Militia and its coastal batteries prepared to resist an invasion that never came.", "Built-up inside the natural defence of a nearly impassable barrier reef, to fend off the might of Spain, these defences would have been a formidable obstacle for the Parliamentary fleet sent in 1651 under the command of Admiral Sir George Ayscue to subdue the trans-Atlantic colonies, but after the fall of Barbados, the Bermudians made a separate peace that respected the internal status quo.", "The Parliament of Bermuda avoided the Parliament of England's fate during The Protectorate, becoming one of the oldest continuous legislatures in the world.Virginia's population swelled with Cavaliers during and after the English Civil War.", "Even so, Virginia Puritan Richard Bennett was made Governor answering to Cromwell in 1652, followed by two more nominal \"Commonwealth Governors\".", "The loyalty of Virginia's Cavaliers to the Crown was rewarded after the 1660 Restoration of the Monarchy when Charles II dubbed it the ''Old Dominion''." ], [ "Casualties", "Figures for casualties during this period are unreliable, but some attempt has been made to provide rough estimates.In England, a conservative estimate is that roughly 100,000 people died from war-related disease during the three civil wars.", "Historical records count 84,830 combat dead from the wars themselves.", "Counting in accidents and the two Bishops' wars, an estimate of 190,000 dead is achieved, out of a total population of about five million.", "It is estimated that from 1638 to 1651, 15%–20% of all adult males in England and Wales served in the military.", "Around 4% of the total population died from war-related causes, compared to 2.23% in the First World War.As was typical for the era, most combat deaths occurred in minor skirmishes rather than large, pitched battles.", "There were a total of 645 engagements throughout the wars: 588 of these involved fewer than 250 casualties in total, with these 588 accounting for 39,838 fatalities (average count of less than 68) or nearly half of the conflict's combat deaths.", "There were only 9 major pitched battles (at least 1,000 fatalities) which in total accounted for 15% of casualties.An anecdotal example of how high casualties in England may have been perceived is to be found in the posthumously published writing (generally titled ''The History of Myddle''), by a Shropshire man, Richard Gough (lived 1635–1723) of Myddle near Shrewsbury, who, writing in about 1701, commented of men from his rural home parish who joined the Royalist forces: \"And out of these three townes ''sic'' - ie townships, Myddle, Marton and Newton, there went noe less than twenty men, of which number thirteen were kill'd in the warrs\".", "After listing those he recalled did not return home, four of whose exact fates were unknown, he concluded: \"And if soe many dyed out of these 3 townes townships wee may reasonably guess that many thousands dyed in England in that warre.", "\"Figures for Scotland are less reliable and should be treated with caution.", "Casualties include the deaths of prisoners-of-war in conditions that accelerated their deaths, with estimates of 10,000 prisoners not surviving or not returning home (8,000 captured during and immediately after the Battle of Worcester were deported to New England, Bermuda and the West Indies to work for landowners as indentured labourers).", "There are no figures to calculate how many died from war-related diseases, but if the same ratio of disease to battle deaths from English figures is applied to the Scottish figures, a not unreasonable estimate of 60,000 people is achieved, from a population of about one million.Figures for Ireland are described as \"miracles of conjecture\".", "Certainly, the devastation inflicted on Ireland was massive, with the best estimate provided by Sir William Petty, the father of English demography.", "Petty estimated that 112,000 Protestants and 504,000 Catholics were killed through plague, war and famine, giving an estimated total of 616,000 dead, out of a pre-war population of about one and a half million.", "Although Petty's figures are the best available, they are still acknowledged as tentative; they do not include an estimated 40,000 driven into exile, some of whom served as soldiers in European continental armies, while others were sold as indentured servants to New England and the West Indies.", "Many of those sold to landowners in New England eventually prospered, but many sold to landowners in the West Indies were worked to death.These estimates indicate that England suffered a 4 per cent loss of population, Scotland a loss of 6 per cent, while Ireland suffered a loss of 41 per cent of its population.", "Putting these numbers into the context of other catastrophes helps to understand the devastation of Ireland in particular.", "The Great Famine of 1845–1852 resulted in a loss of 16 per cent of the population, while during the Soviet famine and Holodomor of 1932–33 the population of the Soviet Ukraine fell by 14 per cent." ], [ "Popular gains", "Ordinary people took advantage of the dislocation of civil society in the 1640s to gain personal advantages.", "The contemporary guild democracy movement won its greatest successes among London's transport workers.", "Rural communities seized timber and other resources on the sequestrated estates of Royalists and Catholics, and on the estates of the royal family and church hierarchy.", "Some communities improved their conditions of tenure on such estates.The old ''status quo'' began a retrenchment after the end of the First Civil War in 1646, and more especially after the Restoration in 1660, but some gains were long-term.", "The democratic element introduced into the watermen's company in 1642, for example, survived with vicissitudes until 1827." ], [ "Aftermath", "The wars left England, Scotland, and Ireland among the few countries in Europe without a monarch.", "In the wake of victory, many of the ideals (and many idealists) became sidelined.", "The republican government of the Commonwealth of England ruled England (and later all of Scotland and Ireland) from 1649 to 1653 and from 1659 to 1660.Between the two periods, and due to in-fighting among various factions in Parliament, Oliver Cromwell ruled over the Protectorate as Lord Protector (effectively a military dictator) until his death in 1658.On Oliver Cromwell's death, his son Richard became Lord Protector, but the Army had little confidence in him.", "After seven months the Army removed Richard.", "In May 1659 it re-installed the Rump.", "Military force shortly afterward dissolved this as well.", "After the second dissolution of the Rump, in October 1659, the prospect of a total descent into anarchy loomed, as the Army's pretense of unity dissolved into factions.A civil war re-enactmentInto this atmosphere General George Monck, Governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, marched south with his army from Scotland.", "On 4 April 1660, in the Declaration of Breda, Charles II made known the conditions of his acceptance of the Crown of England.", "Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April 1660.On 8 May 1660, it declared that Charles II had reigned as the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I in January 1649.Charles returned from exile on 23 May 1660.On 29 May 1660, the populace in London acclaimed him as king.", "His coronation took place at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661.These events became known as the ''Restoration''.Although the monarchy was restored, it was still with the consent of Parliament.", "So the civil wars effectively set England and Scotland on course towards a parliamentary monarchy form of government.", "The outcome of this system was that the future Kingdom of Great Britain, formed in 1707 under the Acts of Union, managed to forestall the kind of revolution typical of European republican movements which generally resulted in total abolition of their monarchies.", "Thus, the United Kingdom was spared the wave of revolutions that occurred in Europe in the 1840s.", "Specifically, future monarchs became wary of pushing Parliament too hard, and Parliament effectively chose the line of royal succession in 1688 with the Glorious Revolution." ], [ "Historical interpretations", "=== Hobbes' ''Behemoth'' ===Thomas Hobbes gave an early historical account of the English Civil War in his ''Behemoth'', written in 1668 and published in 1681.He assessed the causes of the war to be the conflicting political doctrines of the time.", "''Behemoth'' offered a uniquely historical and philosophical approach to naming the catalysts for the war.", "It also attempted to explain why Charles I could not hold his throne and maintain peace in his kingdom.Hobbes analysed the following aspects of English thought during the war: the opinions of divinity and politics that spurred rebellion; rhetoric and doctrine used by the rebels against the king; and how opinions about \"taxation, the conscription of soldiers, and military strategy\" affected the outcomes of battles and shifts of sovereignty.Hobbes attributed the war to the novel theories of intellectuals and divines spread for their own pride of reputation.", "He held that clerical pretensions had contributed significantly to the troubles — \"whether those of puritan fundamentalists, papal supremacists or divine right Episcopalians\".", "Hobbes wanted to abolish the independence of the clergy and bring it under the control of the civil state.Some scholars suggest that Hobbes's ''Behemoth'' has not received its due as an academic work, being comparatively overlooked and under-rated in the shadow of the same author's ''Leviathan''.", "Its scholarly reputation may have suffered because it takes the form of a dialogue, which, while common in philosophy, is rarely adopted by historians.", "Other factors that hindered its success include Charles II's refusing its publication and Hobbes' lack of empathy with views different from his own.=== Whig and Marxist views ===In the early decades of the 20th century, the Whig school was the dominant theoretical view.", "It explained the Civil War as resulting from centuries of struggle between Parliament (notably the House of Commons) and the Monarchy, with Parliament defending the traditional rights of Englishmen, while the Stuart monarchy continually attempted to expand its right to dictate law arbitrarily.", "The major Whig historian, S. R. Gardiner, popularised the idea that the English Civil War was a \"Puritan Revolution\" that challenged the repressive Stuart Church and prepared the way for religious toleration.", "Thus, Puritanism was seen as the natural ally of a people preserving their traditional rights against arbitrary monarchical power.The Whig view was challenged and largely superseded by the Marxist school, which became popular in the 1940s, and saw the English Civil War as a bourgeois revolution.", "According to Marxist historian Christopher Hill:=== Later views ===In the 1970s, revisionist historians challenged both the Whig and the Marxist theories, notably in the 1973 anthology ''The Origins of the English Civil War'' (Conrad Russell ed.).", "These historians focused on the minutiae of the years immediately before the civil war, returning to the contingency-based historiography of Clarendon's ''History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England''.", "This, it was claimed, demonstrated that patterns of war allegiance did not fit either Whig or Marxist theories.", "Parliament was not inherently progressive, nor the events of 1640 a precursor for the Glorious Revolution.", "Many members of the bourgeoisie fought for the King, while many landed aristocrats supported Parliament.From the 1990s, a number of historians replaced the historical title \"English Civil War\" with \"Wars of the Three Kingdoms\" and \"British Civil Wars\", positing that the civil war in England cannot be understood apart from events in other parts of Britain and Ireland.", "King Charles I remains crucial, not just as King of England, but through his relationship with the peoples of his other realms.", "For example, the wars began when Charles forced an Anglican Prayer Book upon Scotland, and when this was met with resistance from the Covenanters, he needed an army to impose his will.", "However, this need of military funds forced Charles I to call an English Parliament, which was not willing to grant the needed revenue unless he addressed their grievances.By the early 1640s, Charles was left in a state of near-permanent crisis management, confounded by the demands of the various factions.", "For example, Charles finally made terms with the Covenanters in August 1641, but although this might have weakened the position of the English Parliament, the Irish Rebellion of 1641 broke out in October 1641, largely negating the political advantage he had obtained by relieving himself of the cost of the Scottish invasion.A number of revisionist historians such as William M. Lamont regarded the conflict as a religious war, with John Morrill (1993) stating: 'The English Civil War was not the first European revolution: it was the last of the Wars of Religion.'", "This view has been criticised by various pre-, post- and anti-revisionist historians.", "Glen Burgess (1998) examined political propaganda written by the Parliamentarian politicians and clerics at the time, noting that many were or may have been motivated by their Puritan religious beliefs to support the war against the 'Catholic' king Charles I, but tried to express and legitimise their opposition and rebellion in terms of a legal revolt against a monarch who had violated crucial constitutional principles and thus had to be overthrown.", "They even warned their Parliamentarian allies to not make overt use of religious arguments in making their case for war against the king.However, in some cases it may be argued that they hid their pro-Anglican and anti-Catholic motives behind legal parliance, for example by emphasising that the Church of England was the ''legally established'' religion: 'Seen in this light, the defences of Parliament's war, with their apparent legal-constitutional thrust, are not at all ways of saying that the struggle was not religious.", "On the contrary, they are ways of saying that it was.'", "Burgess concluded: 'The Civil War left behind it just the sort of evidence that we could reasonably expect a war of religion to leave.'" ], [ "Re-enactments", "A civil war re-enactmentTwo large historical societies exist, The Sealed Knot and The English Civil War Society, which regularly re-enact events and battles of the Civil War in full period costume." ], [ "See also", "* Chronology of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms* Cromwell's Soldiers' Pocket Bible, booklet Cromwell issued to his army in 1643.", "* Diggers* English Dissenters* English Revolution* First English Civil War, 1642* First English Civil War, 1643* First English Civil War, 1644* First English Civil War, 1645* First English Civil War, 1646* Gunpowder Plot* The Levellers, a movement for political reform.", "* Thirty Years' War, a defining event in European history during the reign of Charles I* Timeline of the English Civil War, showing events leading up to, culminating in, and resulting from the English Civil Wars.", "* William Hiseland, the last Royalist veteran of the Civil War" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Attribution:'''" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * – excerpts from primary and secondary sources.", "* * * : Volume I, Part 1, Volume I, Part 2, Volume II, Part 1, Volume II, Part 2, Volume III, Part 1, Volume III, Part 2** : Volume I, Volume II, Volume III* – emphasis on historiography.", "* : Volume I (1642–1644); Volume II (1644–1647); Volume III (1645–1647); Volume IV (1647–1649), The basic narrative history used by all other scholars.", "* * – 20 essays by Morrill.", "* – 14 scholars discuss the argument of John Morrill that the English Civil War was the last war of religion, rather than the first modern revolution.", "excerpt; historiography pp. 1–25.", "* * ** * * " ], [ "External links", " Englishcivilwar.org News, comment and discussion about the English Civil War* Official website of the English Civil War Society* The Revolution Over the Revolution* by Brandon W Duke* This page has links to some transcriptions of contemporary documents concerning eastern England* A national Civil War chronology* Civil War chronology for Lincolnshire and its environs* Connected Histories" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Elementary algebra" ], [ "Introduction", "Two-dimensional plot (red curve) of the algebraic equation .", "'''Elementary algebra''', also known as '''college algebra''', encompasses the basic concepts of algebra.", "It is often contrasted with arithmetic: arithmetic deals with specified numbers, whilst algebra introduces variables (quantities without fixed values).This use of variables entails use of algebraic notation and an understanding of the general rules of the operations introduced in arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.", "Unlike abstract algebra, elementary algebra is not concerned with algebraic structures outside the realm of real and complex numbers.It is typically taught to secondary school students and at introductory college level in the United States, and builds on their understanding of arithmetic.", "The use of variables to denote quantities allows general relationships between quantities to be formally and concisely expressed, and thus enables solving a broader scope of problems.", "Many quantitative relationships in science and mathematics are expressed as algebraic equations." ], [ "Algebraic operations" ], [ "Algebraic notation", "Algebraic notation describes the rules and conventions for writing mathematical expressions, as well as the terminology used for talking about parts of expressions.", "For example, the expression has the following components:A ''coefficient'' is a numerical value, or letter representing a numerical constant, that multiplies a variable (the operator is omitted).", "A ''term'' is an addend or a summand, a group of coefficients, variables, constants and exponents that may be separated from the other terms by the plus and minus operators.", "Letters represent variables and constants.", "By convention, letters at the beginning of the alphabet (e.g. )", "are typically used to represent constants, and those toward the end of the alphabet (e.g.", "and ) are used to represent variables.", "They are usually printed in italics.Algebraic operations work in the same way as arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and exponentiation.", "and are applied to algebraic variables and terms.", "Multiplication symbols are usually omitted, and implied when there is no space between two variables or terms, or when a coefficient is used.", "For example, is written as , and may be written .Usually terms with the highest power (exponent), are written on the left, for example, is written to the left of .", "When a coefficient is one, it is usually omitted (e.g.", "is written ).", "Likewise when the exponent (power) is one, (e.g.", "is written ).", "When the exponent is zero, the result is always 1 (e.g.", "is always rewritten to ).", "However , being undefined, should not appear in an expression, and care should be taken in simplifying expressions in which variables may appear in exponents.===Alternative notation===Other types of notation are used in algebraic expressions when the required formatting is not available, or can not be implied, such as where only letters and symbols are available.", "As an illustration of this, while exponents are usually formatted using superscripts, e.g., , in plain text, and in the TeX mark-up language, the caret symbol represents exponentiation, so is written as \"x^2\".", "This also applies to some programming languages such as Lua.", "In programming languages such as Ada, Fortran, Perl, Python and Ruby, a double asterisk is used, so is written as \"x*2\".", "Many programming languages and calculators use a single asterisk to represent the multiplication symbol, and it must be explicitly used, for example, is written \"3x\"." ], [ "Concepts", "===Variables===Example of variables showing the relationship between a circle's diameter and its circumference.", "For any circle, its circumference , divided by its diameter , is equal to the constant pi, (approximately 3.14).Elementary algebra builds on and extends arithmetic by introducing letters called variables to represent general (non-specified) numbers.", "This is useful for several reasons.#'''Variables may represent numbers whose values are not yet known'''.", "For example, if the temperature of the current day, C, is 20 degrees higher than the temperature of the previous day, P, then the problem can be described algebraically as .#'''Variables allow one to describe ''general'' problems, without specifying the values of the quantities that are involved.'''", "For example, it can be stated specifically that 5 minutes is equivalent to seconds.", "A more general (algebraic) description may state that the number of seconds, , where m is the number of minutes.#'''Variables allow one to describe mathematical relationships between quantities that may vary.'''", "For example, the relationship between the circumference, ''c'', and diameter, ''d'', of a circle is described by .#'''Variables allow one to describe some mathematical properties.'''", "For example, a basic property of addition is commutativity which states that the order of numbers being added together does not matter.", "Commutativity is stated algebraically as .=== Simplifying expressions ===Algebraic expressions may be evaluated and simplified, based on the basic properties of arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and exponentiation).", "For example,Added terms are simplified using coefficients.", "For example, can be simplified as (where 3 is a numerical coefficient).", "Multiplied terms are simplified using exponents.", "For example, is represented as Like terms are added together, for example, is written as , because the terms containing are added together, and, the terms containing are added together.", "Brackets can be \"multiplied out\", using the distributive property.", "For example, can be written as which can be written as Expressions can be factored.", "For example, , by dividing both terms by can be written as === Equations ===Pythagoras' rule for a right-angle triangle, which shows the algebraic relationship between the triangle's hypotenuse, and the other two sides.An equation states that two expressions are equal using the symbol for equality, (the equals sign).", "One of the best-known equations describes Pythagoras' law relating the length of the sides of a right angle triangle::This equation states that , representing the square of the length of the side that is the hypotenuse, the side opposite the right angle, is equal to the sum (addition) of the squares of the other two sides whose lengths are represented by and .An equation is the claim that two expressions have the same value and are equal.", "Some equations are true for all values of the involved variables (such as ); such equations are called identities.", "Conditional equations are true for only some values of the involved variables, e.g.", "is true only for and .", "The values of the variables which make the equation true are the solutions of the equation and can be found through equation solving.Another type of equation is inequality.", "Inequalities are used to show that one side of the equation is greater, or less, than the other.", "The symbols used for this are: where represents 'greater than', and where represents 'less than'.", "Just like standard equality equations, numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided.", "The only exception is that when multiplying or dividing by a negative number, the inequality symbol must be flipped.==== Properties of equality ====By definition, equality is an equivalence relation, meaning it is reflexive (i.e.", "), symmetric (i.e.", "if then ), and transitive (i.e.", "if and then ).", "It also satisfies the important property that if two symbols are used for equal things, then one symbol can be substituted for the other in any true statement about the first and the statement will remain true.", "This implies the following properties: if and then and ;* if then and ;* more generally, for any function , if then .==== Properties of inequality ====The relations ''less than'' and greater than have the property of transitivity:* If and then ;* If and then ;* If and then ;* If and then .By reversing the inequation, and can be swapped, for example:* is equivalent to === Substitution ===Substitution is replacing the terms in an expression to create a new expression.", "Substituting 3 for in the expression makes a new expression with meaning .", "Substituting the terms of a statement makes a new statement.", "When the original statement is true independently of the values of the terms, the statement created by substitutions is also true.", "Hence, definitions can be made in symbolic terms and interpreted through substitution: if is meant as the definition of as the product of with itself, substituting for informs the reader of this statement that means .", "Often it's not known whether the statement is true independently of the values of the terms.", "And, substitution allows one to derive restrictions on the possible values, or show what conditions the statement holds under.", "For example, taking the statement , if is substituted with , this implies , which is false, which implies that if then cannot be .If and are integers, rationals, or real numbers, then implies or .", "Consider .", "Then, substituting for and for , we learn or .", "Then we can substitute again, letting and , to show that if then or .", "Therefore, if , then or ( or ), so implies or or .If the original fact were stated as \" implies or \", then when saying \"consider ,\" we would have a conflict of terms when substituting.", "Yet the above logic is still valid to show that if then or or if, instead of letting and , one substitutes for and for (and with , substituting for and for ).", "This shows that substituting for the terms in a statement isn't always the same as letting the terms from the statement equal the substituted terms.", "In this situation it's clear that if we substitute an expression into the term of the original equation, the substituted does not refer to the in the statement \" implies or .\"" ], [ "Solving algebraic equations", "A typical algebra problem.The following sections lay out examples of some of the types of algebraic equations that may be encountered.=== Linear equations with one variable ===Linear equations are so-called, because when they are plotted, they describe a straight line.", "The simplest equations to solve are linear equations that have only one variable.", "They contain only constant numbers and a single variable without an exponent.", "As an example, consider:: Problem in words: If you double the age of a child and add 4, the resulting answer is 12.How old is the child?", ":Equivalent equation: where represent the child's ageTo solve this kind of equation, the technique is add, subtract, multiply, or divide both sides of the equation by the same number in order to isolate the variable on one side of the equation.", "Once the variable is isolated, the other side of the equation is the value of the variable.", "This problem and its solution are as follows:Solving for x 1.Equation to solve: 2.Subtract 4 from both sides: 3.This simplifies to: 4.Divide both sides by 2: 5.This simplifies to the solution: In words: the child is 4 years old.The general form of a linear equation with one variable, can be written as: Following the same procedure (i.e.", "subtract from both sides, and then divide by ), the general solution is given by === Linear equations with two variables ===Solving two linear equations with a unique solution at the point that they intersect.A linear equation with two variables has many (i.e.", "an infinite number of) solutions.", "For example::Problem in words: A father is 22 years older than his son.", "How old are they?", ":Equivalent equation: where is the father's age, is the son's age.That cannot be worked out by itself.", "If the son's age was made known, then there would no longer be two unknowns (variables).", "The problem then becomes a linear equation with just one variable, that can be solved as described above.To solve a linear equation with two variables (unknowns), requires two related equations.", "For example, if it was also revealed that:; Problem in words: In 10 years, the father will be twice as old as his son.", ";Equivalent equation: Now there are two related linear equations, each with two unknowns, which enables the production of a linear equation with just one variable, by subtracting one from the other (called the elimination method):::In other words, the son is aged 12, and since the father 22 years older, he must be 34.In 10 years, the son will be 22, and the father will be twice his age, 44.This problem is illustrated on the associated plot of the equations.For other ways to solve this kind of equations, see below, '''System of linear equations'''.=== Quadratic equations ===Quadratic equation plot of showing its roots at and , and that the quadratic can be rewritten as A quadratic equation is one which includes a term with an exponent of 2, for example, , and no term with higher exponent.", "The name derives from the Latin ''quadrus'', meaning square.", "In general, a quadratic equation can be expressed in the form , where is not zero (if it were zero, then the equation would not be quadratic but linear).", "Because of this a quadratic equation must contain the term , which is known as the quadratic term.", "Hence , and so we may divide by and rearrange the equation into the standard form: where and .", "Solving this, by a process known as completing the square, leads to the quadratic formula:where the symbol \"±\" indicates that both: are solutions of the quadratic equation.Quadratic equations can also be solved using factorization (the reverse process of which is expansion, but for two linear terms is sometimes denoted foiling).", "As an example of factoring:: which is the same thing as: It follows from the zero-product property that either or are the solutions, since precisely one of the factors must be equal to zero.", "All quadratic equations will have two solutions in the complex number system, but need not have any in the real number system.", "For example,: has no real number solution since no real number squared equals −1.Sometimes a quadratic equation has a root of multiplicity 2, such as:: For this equation, −1 is a root of multiplicity 2.This means −1 appears twice, since the equation can be rewritten in factored form as:====Complex numbers====All quadratic equations have exactly two solutions in complex numbers (but they may be equal to each other), a category that includes real numbers, imaginary numbers, and sums of real and imaginary numbers.", "Complex numbers first arise in the teaching of quadratic equations and the quadratic formula.", "For example, the quadratic equation:has solutions:Since is not any real number, both of these solutions for ''x'' are complex numbers.=== Exponential and logarithmic equations ===graph of the logarithm to base 2 crosses the ''x'' axis (horizontal axis) at 1 and passes through the points with coordinates , , and .", "For example, , because The graph gets arbitrarily close to the ''y'' axis, but does not meet or intersect it.An exponential equation is one which has the form for , which has solution: when .", "Elementary algebraic techniques are used to rewrite a given equation in the above way before arriving at the solution.", "For example, if: then, by subtracting 1 from both sides of the equation, and then dividing both sides by 3 we obtain: whence: or: A logarithmic equation is an equation of the form for , which has solution: For example, if: then, by adding 2 to both sides of the equation, followed by dividing both sides by 4, we get: whence: from which we obtain: === Radical equations ===A radical equation is one that includes a radical sign, which includes square roots, cube roots, , and ''n''th roots, .", "Recall that an ''n''th root can be rewritten in exponential format, so that is equivalent to .", "Combined with regular exponents (powers), then (the square root of cubed), can be rewritten as .", "So a common form of a radical equation is (equivalent to ) where and are integers.", "It has real solution(s): is odd is evenand '''and''' are '''even''''''and''' '''is even,''' '''is odd''', '''and''' equivalently:equivalently:no real solutionFor example, if::then: and thus :=== System of linear equations ===There are different methods to solve a system of linear equations with two variables.==== Elimination method ====The solution set for the equations and is the single point (2, 3).An example of solving a system of linear equations is by using the elimination method:: Multiplying the terms in the second equation by 2:: : Adding the two equations together to get:: which simplifies to: Since the fact that is known, it is then possible to deduce that by either of the original two equations (by using ''2'' instead of ) The full solution to this problem is then: This is not the only way to solve this specific system; could have been resolved before .==== Substitution method ====Another way of solving the same system of linear equations is by substitution.", ": An equivalent for can be deduced by using one of the two equations.", "Using the second equation:: Subtracting from each side of the equation:: and multiplying by −1:: Using this value in the first equation in the original system:: Adding ''2'' on each side of the equation:: which simplifies to: Using this value in one of the equations, the same solution as in the previous method is obtained.", ": This is not the only way to solve this specific system; in this case as well, could have been solved before .=== Other types of systems of linear equations ======= Inconsistent systems ====The equations and are parallel and cannot intersect, and is unsolvable.Plot of a quadratic equation (red) and a linear equation (blue) that do not intersect, and consequently for which there is no common solution.In the above example, a solution exists.", "However, there are also systems of equations which do not have any solution.", "Such a system is called inconsistent.", "An obvious example is: As 0≠2, the second equation in the system has no solution.", "Therefore, the system has no solution.However, not all inconsistent systems are recognized at first sight.", "As an example, consider the system : Multiplying by 2 both sides of the second equation, and adding it to the first one results in: which clearly has no solution.==== Undetermined systems ====There are also systems which have infinitely many solutions, in contrast to a system with a unique solution (meaning, a unique pair of values for and ) For example:: Isolating in the second equation:: And using this value in the first equation in the system:: The equality is true, but it does not provide a value for .", "Indeed, one can easily verify (by just filling in some values of ) that for any there is a solution as long as .", "There is an infinite number of solutions for this system.==== Over- and underdetermined systems ====Systems with more variables than the number of linear equations are called underdetermined.", "Such a system, if it has any solutions, does not have a unique one but rather an infinitude of them.", "An example of such a system is: When trying to solve it, one is led to express some variables as functions of the other ones if any solutions exist, but cannot express ''all'' solutions numerically because there are an infinite number of them if there are any.A system with a higher number of equations than variables is called overdetermined.", "If an overdetermined system has any solutions, necessarily some equations are linear combinations of the others." ], [ "See also", "* History of algebra* Binary operation* Gaussian elimination* Mathematics education* Number line* Polynomial* Cancelling out* Tarski's high school algebra problem" ], [ "References", "Leonhard Euler, '' Elements of Algebra'', 1770.English translation Tarquin Press, 2007, , also online digitized editions 2006, 1822.", "Charles Smith, '' A Treatise on Algebra'', in Cornell University Library Historical Math Monographs.", "Redden, John.", "''Elementary Algebra'' .", "Flat World Knowledge, 2011" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "ERP" ], [ "Introduction", "'''ERP''' or '''Erp''' may refer to:" ], [ "Economics", "* Effective rate of protection, of tariffs* Equity risk premium, excess return on risky investments* European Recovery Program or Marshall Plan" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Effective radiated power, of directional radio transmission* Electronic Road Pricing, in Singapore* Enterprise resource planning, a business process system===Medicine===* Effective refractory period, in a cardiac cycle* Estrogen receptor positive, a cancer pathology test result* Event-related potential, a measured brain response* Exposure and response prevention, a treatment method in behavioral therapy* OspE/F-like related protein, in Lyme disease microbiology" ], [ "Places", "* Erp, Ariège, a village in France* Erp (Germany), a village* Erp, Netherlands, a town===Other uses===* Erp (Pict), father of Drest I of the Picts* ''Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo'' (disambiguation), (Spanish for People's Revolutionary Army), several Latin American communist or socialist organizations* Energy-related products, that use or affect energy consumption" ], [ "See also", "* Van Erp, a Dutch surname* D'Erp Castle, Baarlo, Limburg, Netherlands* Ethernet Ring Protection Switching (ERPS), used in Ethernet networks* Earp (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ernest Thayer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ernest Lawrence Thayer''' (; August 14, 1863 – August 21, 1940) was an American writer and poet who wrote the poem \"Casey\" (or \"Casey at the Bat\"), which is \"the single most famous baseball poem ever written\" according to the Baseball Almanac, and \"the nation’s best-known piece of comic verse—a ballad that began a native legend as colorful and permanent as that of Johnny Appleseed or Paul Bunyan.\"" ], [ "Biography", "c. 1910Thayer was born in Lawrence, Massachusetts, and raised in nearby Worcester.", "He graduated ''magna cum laude'' in philosophy from Harvard University in 1885, where he had been editor of the ''Harvard Lampoon'' and a member of the theatrical society Hasty Pudding.", "William Randolph Hearst, a friend from both activities, hired Thayer as humor columnist for ''The San Francisco Examiner'' 1886–88.Thayer's last piece for the ''Examiner'', dated June 3, 1888, was a ballad entitled \"Casey\" (\"Casey at the Bat\") which made him \"a prize specimen of the one-poem poet\" according to ''American Heritage''.It was not until several months after the publication of the poem that Thayer became famous for it, since he was hardly the boastful type and had signed the June 24 poem with the nickname \"Phin\" which he had used since his time as a writer for the ''Harvard Lampoon''.", "Two mysteries remain about the poem: whether Casey and Mudville were based on a real person or place, and, if so, their actual identities.", "On March 31, 2007, Katie Zezima of ''The New York Times'' wrote an article called \"In 'Casey' Rhubarb, 2 Cities Cry 'Foul!'\"", "on the competing claims of two towns to such renown: Stockton, California, and Holliston, Massachusetts.On the possible model for Casey, Thayer dismissed the notion that any single living baseball player was an influence.", "However, late 1880s Boston star Mike \"King\" Kelly is likely as a model for Casey's baseball situations.", "Besides being a native of a town close to Boston, Thayer, as a ''San Francisco Examiner'' baseball reporter in the off-season of 1887–88, covered exhibition games featuring Kelly.", "During November 1887, some of his reportage about a Kelly at-bat has the same ring as Casey's famous at-bat in the poem.", "A 2004 book by Howard W. Rosenberg, ''Cap Anson 2: The Theatrical and Kingly Mike Kelly: U.S.", "Team Sport's First Media Sensation and Baseball's Original Casey at the Bat,'' reprints a 1905 Thayer letter to a Baltimore scribe who was asking about the poem's roots.", "In the letter, Thayer named Kelly (d. 1894), as having shown \"impudence\" in claiming to have inspired it.", "Rosenberg argues that if Thayer still felt offended, Thayer may have later denied Kelly as an influence.", "Kelly had also performed as a vaudeville actor, and recited the poem dozens of times.Illustration of \"Casey at Bat\"The first public performance of the poem was on August 14, 1888, by actor De Wolf Hopper, on Thayer's 25th birthday.", "Thayer recited of the poem at a Harvard class reunion in 1895.During the mid-1890s, Thayer contributed several other comic poems for Hearst's newspaper ''New York Journal'' and then began overseeing his family's mills in Worcester full-time.", "Thayer relocated to Santa Barbara in 1912, where he married Rosalind Buel Hammett and retired.", "He died in 1940, seven days after his 77th birthday.", "''The New York Times''' obituary of Thayer on August 22, 1940, p. 19 quotes comedian DeWolf Hopper, who helped make the poem famous:" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Ernest Lawrence Thayer: Profile and Poem at Poets.org" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of English-language poets" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a '''list of English-language poets''', who have written much of their poetry in English.", "Main country of residence as a poet (not place of birth): A = Australia, Ag = Antigua, B = Barbados, Bo = Bosnia, C = Canada, Ch = Chile, Cu = Cuba, D = Dominica, De = Denmark, E = England, F = France, G = Germany, Ga = Gambia, Gd = Grenada, Gh = Ghana/Gold Coast, Gr = Greece, Gu = Guyana/British Guiana, Gy = Guernsey, HK = Hong Kong, In = India, IoM = Isle of Man, Is = Israel, Ir = Ireland, It = Italy, J = Jamaica, Je = Jersey, Jp = Japan, K = Kenya, L = Lebanon, M = Malta, Me = Mexico, Mo = Montserrat, Ne = Nepal, Nf = Newfoundland (colony), Ni = Nigeria, NI = Northern Ireland, Nt = Netherlands, NZ = New Zealand, P = Pakistan, Pa = Palestine, Ph = Philippines, PI = Pitcairn Islands, RE = Russian Empire, S = Scotland, SA = South Africa, Se = Serbia, SL = Saint Lucia, SLe = Sierra Leone, SLk = Sri Lanka, So = Somalia, Sw = Sweden, T = Trinidad and Tobago, US = United States/preceding colonies, W = Wales, Z = Zimbabwe/Rhodesia==A=====Aa–Al===Jonathan Aaron (born 1941, US)Chris Abani (born 1966, Ni/US)Henry Abbey (1842–1911, US)Eleanor Hallowell Abbott (1872–1958, US)J. H. M. Abbott (1874–1953, A)Lascelles Abercrombie (1881–1938, E)Arthur Talmage Abernethy (1872–1956, US)Mark Abley (born 1955, C)James Aboud (born 1956, T)Lionel Abrahams (1928–2004, SA)Sam Abrams (born 1935, US)Seth Abramson (born 1976, US)Dannie Abse (1923–2014, W)Chinua Achebe (1930–2013, Ni/US)Catherine Obianuju Acholonu (1951–2014, Ni)Kathy Acker (1947–1997, US)Diane Ackerman (born 1948, US)Duane Ackerson (born 1942, US)Milton Acorn (1923–1986, C)Harold Acton (1904–1994, E/It)Gilbert Adair (1944–2011, S/F)Virginia Hamilton Adair (1919–2004, US)Helen Adam (1909–1993, S/US)Jean Adam (1704–1765, S)Arthur Henry Adams (1872–1936, NZ/A)Douglas Adams (1952–2001, E)John Adams (1704–1740, US)Léonie Adams (1899–1988, US)Ryan Adams (born 1974, US)Gil Adamson (born 1961, C)Robert Adamson (1943–2022, A)Fleur Adcock (born 1934, NZ/E)Joseph Addison (1672–1719, E)Kim Addonizio (born 1954, US)Bayo Adebowale (born 1944, Ni)Toyin Adewale-Gabriel (born 1969, Ni)Opal Palmer Adisa (born 1954, J)Tatamkhulu Afrika (1920–2002, SA)John Agard (born 1949, Gu)Patience Agbabi (born 1965, W/E)Deborah Ager born 1978, US)Kelli Russell Agodon (living, US)Allan Ahlberg (1938–1994, E)Ai (born 1947, US)Ama Ata Aidoo (1940–2023, Gh)Conrad Aiken (1889–1973, US)Douglas Ainslie (1865–1948, S)Thomas Aird (1802–1876, S)Adam Aitken (born 1960, A)Neil Aitken (born 1974, C)Funso Aiyejina (born 1949, Ni)Tolu Ajayi (born 1946, Ni)Mark Akenside (1721–1770, E)Salman Akhtar (born 1946, In/US)Tolu Akinyemi (living, Ni)Alasdair MacMhaighstir Alasdair (c. 1695–1770, S)Jordie Albiston (1961–2022, A)Ammiel Alcalay (born 1956, US)Amos Bronson Alcott (1799–1888, US)Louisa May Alcott (1832–1888, US)Kaye Aldenhoven (living, A)Richard Aldington (1892–1962, E)Elizabeth Alexander (born 1962, US)Sidney A. Alexander (1866–1948, E)William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling (c. 1567–1640, S)Sherman Alexie (born 1966, US)Felipe Alfau (1902–1999, US)Edna Alford (born 1947, C)Mike Alfred (living, SA)Agha Shahid Ali (1949–2001, In/US)James Alexander Allan (1889–1956, A)Rob Allan (born 1945, NZ)Sandra Alland (living, C/S)Donna Allard (living, C)William Allegrezza (born 1974, US)Dick Allen (1939–2017, US)Donald Allen (1912–2004, US)Elizabeth Allen (living, A)Elizabeth Akers Allen (1832–1911, US)Leslie Holdsworth Allen (1879–1964, A)Lillian Allen (born 1951, C)Richard James Allen (born 1960, A)Ron Allen (1947–2010, US)Ellen Palmer Allerton (1835–1893, US)William Allingham (1824/28–1889, Ir/E)Washington Allston (1779–1843, US)Anne-Marie Alonzo (1951–2005, C)Alta (Alta Gerrey, born 1942, US)Al Alvarez (1929–2019, E)Ivy Alvarez (living, A)Julia Alvarez (born 1950, D/US)Moniza Alvi (born 1954, E)===Am–Az===George Amabile (born 1936, C)Abdulkareem Baba Aminu (born 1977, Ni)Kingsley Amis (1922–1995, E)A. R. Ammons (1926–2001, US)Madhur Anand (born 1971, C)Ingrid Andersen (born 1965, SA)Ethel Anderson (1883–1958, A)Freddie Anderson (1922–2001, Ir/S)J. Redwood Anderson (1883–1964, E)Patrick Anderson (1915–1979, E/C)Rod Anderson (born 1935, C)Victor Henry Anderson (1917–2001, US)Michael Andre (born 1946, C/US)Bruce Andrews (born 1948, US)Kevin Andrews (1924–1989, E/Gr)Ron Androla (born 1954, US)Ralph Angel (born 1951, US)Maya Angelou (1928–2014, US)James Stout Angus (1830–1923, S)Marion Angus (1865–1946, S)J. K. Annand (1908–1993, S)David Antin (1932–2016, US)Antler (born 1946, US)Susanne Antonetta (born 1956, US)Brother Antoninus (1912–1994, US)Philip Appleman (1926–2020, US)Richard Appleton (1932–2005, A)Alexander Arbuthnot (1538–1583, S)Walter Conrad Arensberg (1878–1954, US)Rae Armantrout (born 1947, US)Simon Armitage (born 1963, E)Annie Armitt (1850–1933, E)Richard Armour (1906–1989, US)Jeannette Armstrong (born 1948, C)Peter Armstrong (born 1957, E)Tammy Armstrong (born 1974, C)David Arnason (born 1940, C)Craig Arnold (1967–2009, US)Matthew Arnold (1822–1888, E)Joanne Arnott (born 1960, C)K. O. Arvidson (1938–2011, NZ)M. K. Asante (born 1982, US)John Ashbery (1927–2017, US)Cliff Ashby (1919–2012, E)Joseph Ashby-Sterry (1836 or 1838–1917, E)Thomas Ashe (1836–1889, E)Renée Ashley (living, US)Anne Askew (1521–1546, E)Timoshenko Aslanides (born 1943, A)Herbert Asquith (1881–1947, E)Thea Astley (1925–2004, A)Tilly Aston (1873–1947, A)Edwin Atherstone (1788–1872, E)Cassandra Atherton (living, A)Rupert Atkinson (1881–1961, A)Tiffany Atkinson (born 1972, W)Margaret Atwood (born 1939, C)Dorothy Auchterlonie (1915–1991, A)John Audelay (died c. 1426, E)W. H. Auden (1907–1973, E/US)William Auld (1924–2006, S)Joseph Auslander (1897–1965, US)Paul Auster (born 1947, US)Alfred Austin (1835–1913, E)Oana Avasilichioaei (living, C)James Avery (born 1948, US)Tusiata Avia (born 1966, NZ)Margaret Avison (1918–2007, C)Kofi Awoonor (1935–2013, Gh)Ayo Ayoola-Amale (born 1970, Ni)Pam Ayres (born 1947, E)Sir Robert Aytoun (1570–1638, S/E)William Edmondstoune Aytoun (1813–1865, S)Nnorom Azuonye (born 1967, Ni)Jody Azzouni (born 1954, US)==B=====Ba===Ken Babstock (born 1970, C)Peter Babyon (fl.", "1317 – 1366, E)Jimmy Santiago Baca (born 1952, US)Bellamy Bach (group pseudonym, 1980s, US)Joseph M. Bachelor (Joseph Morris, 1889–1947, US)Elizabeth Bachinsky (born 1976, C)Gabeba Baderoon (born 1969, SA)Grace Shattuck Bail (1898–1996, US)Alfred Bailey (1905–1997, C)Jacob Bailey (1731–1808, US/C)Kevin Bailey (born 1953, E)Philip James Bailey (1816–1902, E)Joanna Baillie (1762–1861, S/E)David Baker (born 1954, US)Henry Baker (1698–1774, E)Marie Annharte Baker (born 1942, C)Peter Bakowski (born 1954, A)John Balaban (born 1943, US)Jesse Ball (born 1978, US)Addie L. Ballou (1838–1916, US)Samuel Bamford (1788–1872, E)John Banim (1798–1842, Ir/E)Chris Banks (born 1970, C)Russell Banks (born 1940, US)Kaushalya Bannerji (living, C)Anne Bannerman (1765–1829, S)Frances Bannerman (1855–1944, C)Lex Banning (1921–1965, A)Ivy Bannister (born 1951, US/Ir)Shabbir Banoobhai (born 1949, SA)Amiri Baraka (1934–2014, US)Anna Laetitia Barbauld (1743–1825, E)Mary Barber (c. 1685 – c. 1755, Ir)Ros Barber (born 1964, E)Anna Laetitia Barbauld (1743–1825, E)John Barbour (c. 1320–1395, S)Alexander Barclay (1476–1552, S)Leland Bardwell (1922–2016, Ir)Serie Barford (living, NZ)Richard Barham (Thomas Ingoldsby, 1788–1845, E)George Barker (1913–1991, E)Les Barker (born 1947, E)Coleman Barks (born 1937, US)Clement Barksdale (1609–1687, E)Joel Barlow (1754–1812, US/F)Lady Anne Barnard (1750–1825, S/SA)Mary Barnard (1909–2002, US)Djuna Barnes (1892–1982, US)Stuart Barnes (born 1977, A)William Barnes (1801–1886, E)Annie Wall Barnett (1859–1942, US)Catherine Barnett (born 1960, US)Richard Barnfield (1574–1627, E)Willis Barnstone (born 1927, US)John Barr (1809–1889, S/NZ)Miriam Barr (born 1982, NZ)Laird Barron (born 1970, US)Bernard Barton (1784–1849, E)John Barton (born 1957, C)Bertha Hirsch Baruch (later 19th – early 20th century, US)Gary Barwin (born 1964, C)Todd Bash (born 1965, US)Michael Basinski (born 1950, US)Shaunt Basmajian (1950–1990, C)Ellen Bass (born 1947, US)Arlo Bates (1850–1918, US)David Bates (1809–1870, US)H. E. Bates (1905–1974, E)Katharine Lee Bates (1859–1929, US)Joseph Bathanti (born 1953, US)Dawn-Michelle Baude (born 1959, US)Bill Bauer (1932–2010, US/C)Edward Baugh (born 1936, J)Charles Baxter (born 1947, US)James K. Baxter (1926–1972, NZ)Arthur Bayldon (1865–1958, A)William Baylebridge (1883–1942, A)===Be–Bo===Eric Beach (born 1947, A)Thomas Beach (died 1737, W)John Beaglehole (1901–1971, NZ)Anne Beale (1816–1900, E/W)Doug Beardsley (born 1941, C)James Beattie (1735–1803, S)Jan Beatty (born 1952, US)Derek Beaulieu (born 1973, C)Francis Beaumont (1586–1616, E)Bruce Beaver (1928–2004, A)Samuel Beckett (1906–1989, Ir)Joshua Beckman (living, US)Thomas Lovell Beddoes (1803–1849, E/G)Ruth Bedford (1882–1963, A)Jack Bedson (born 1950, A)Patricia Beer (1919–1999, E)Ven Begamudré (born 1956, C)Brendan Behan (1923–1964, Ir)Aphra Behn (1640–1689, E)Sinclair Beiles (1930–2000, SA)Gerard Beirne (born 1962, Ir/C)Henry Beissel (born 1929, G/C)Billy-Ray Belcourt (living, C)Ken Belford (born 1946, C)Erin Belieu (born 1965, US)J. J.", "Bell (1871–1934, S)Julian Bell (1908–1937, E)Marvin Bell (1937–2020, US)Lisa Bellear (1961–2006, A)Lesley Belleau (living, C)Hilaire Belloc (1870–1953, E)John Bemrose (living, C)Gwen Benaway (born 1987, C)Hester A. Benedict (1838–1921, US)Stephen Vincent Benét (1898–1943, US)William Rose Benét (1886–1950, US)Elizabeth Benger (1775–1827, E)Gwendolyn B. Bennett (1902–1981, US)Jim Bennett (born 1951, E)Louise Bennett-Coverley (1919–2006, J)Robbie Benoit (died 2007, C)A. C. Benson (1862–1925, E)Richard Berengarten (born 1943, E)Bill Berkson (1939–2016, US)Charles Bernstein (born 1950, US)Robert Berold (born 1948, SA)Anselm Berrigan (born 1972, US)Daniel Berrigan (1921–2016, US)Ted Berrigan (1934–1983, US)James Berry (1924–2017, J/E)Wendell Berry (born 1934, US)John Berryman (1914–1972, US)Charles Best (1570–1627, E)Mary Matilda Betham (1776–1852, E)Matilda Betham-Edwards (1836–1919, E)Ursula Bethell (1874–1945, NZ)John Betjeman (1906–1984, E)Craven Langstroth Betts (1853–1941, C)Elizabeth Beverley (fl.", "1815–1830, E)Judith Beveridge (born 1956, A)Helen Bevington (1906–2001, US)L. S. Bevington (1845–1895, E)Thomas Bibby (1799–1863, Ir)Ruth Bidgood (1922–2022, W)Lettie S. Bigelow (1849–1906, US)Vonani Bila (born 1972, SA)Robert Billings (1949–1986, C)William Billington (1825–1884, E)Margaret Bingham (1740–1814, E)Laurence Binyon (1869–1943, E)Hera Lindsay Bird (born 1987, NZ)Earle Birney (1904–1995, C)Dora Birtles (1903–1992, A)Elizabeth Bishop (1911–1979, US)Morris Bishop (1893–1973, US)Samuel Bishop (1731–1795, E)Bill Bissett (born 1939, C)Sherwin Bitsui (born 1974, US)David MacLeod Black (born 1941, S)Sophie Cabot Black (born 1958, US)Paul Blackburn (1926–1971, US)Thomas Blacklock (1721–1791, S)Leigh Blackmore (born 1959, A)R. P. Blackmur (1904–1965, US)Peter Bladen (1922–2001, A)Isa Blagden (1816 or 1817–1873, It)Max Blagg (born 1948, E/US)Mark Blagrave (born 1956, C)Robert Blair (1699–1746, S)Lewis Blake (born 1946, E)William Blake (1757–1827, E)Susanna Blamire (1747–1794, E)Paddy Blanchfield (1911–1980, NZ)Richard Blanco (born 1968, US)Don Blanding (1894–1957, US)Robin Blaser (1925–2009, C)Ann Eliza Bleecker (1752–1783, US)Adrian Blevins (born 1964, US)John Blight (1913–1995, A)Mathilde Blind (1841–1896, E)Laurie Block (1949–2018, C)E. D. Blodgett (1935–2018, C)Benjamin Paul Blood (1832–1919, US)Valerie Bloom (born 1956, J/E)Robert Bloomfield (1766–1823, E)Elizabeth Blower (c. 1757/63 – post-1816, E)Edmund Blunden (1896–1974, E)Roy Blumenthal (born 1968, SA)Wilfrid Scawen Blunt (1840–1922, E)Robert Bly (1926–2021, US)Ali Blythe (living, C)Barcroft Boake (1866–1892, A)Robert Boates (born 1954, C)Merlinda Bobis (born 1959, A)Louise Bogan (1897–1970, US)Michelle Boisseau (1955–2017, US)Christian Bök (born 1966, C)Osbern Bokenam (c. 1393 – c. 1464, E)George Henry Boker (1823–1890, US)Eavan Boland (1944–2020, Ir)Alan Bold (1943–1998, S)Dermot Bolger (born 1959, Ir)Stephanie Bolster (born 1969, C)Edmund Bolton (c. 1575 – c. 1633)Ken Bolton (born 1949, A)Roger Bonair-Agard (living, J/US)Horatius Bonar (1808–1889, S)Elizabeth Bonhôte (1744–1818, E)Sean Bonney (1969–2019, E)Arna Wendell Bontemps (1902–1973, US)Shane Book (living, C)Luke Booker (1762–1835, E)Kurt Boone (born 1959, US)Henry Ernest Boote (1865–1949, A)Ivan Bootham (1939–2016, NZ)Pat Boran (born 1963, Ir)Jenny Bornholdt (born 1960, NZ)Roo Borson (born 1952, C)Keith Bosley (1937–2018, E)Anne Lynch Botta (1815–1891, US)Gordon Bottomley (1874–1948, E)David Bottoms (born 1949, US)Jenny Boult (MML Bliss, 1951–2005, A)Francis William Bourdillon (1852–1921, E)Arthur Bourinot (1893–1969, C)John Philip Bourke (1860–1914, A)Jane Bowdler (1743–1784, E)George Bowering (born 1936, C)Marilyn Bowering (born 1949, C)Cathy Smith Bowers (born 1949, US)Edgar Bowers (1924–2000, US)Tim Bowling (born 1964, C)Alex Boyd (born 1969, C)Louise Esther Vickroy Boyd (1827–1909, US)Mark Alexander Boyd (1563–1601, S)Kay Boyle (1902–1992, US)Peter Boyle (born 1951, A)Samuel Boyse (1702/1703–1749, Ir/E)Virginia Frazer Boyle (1863–1938, US)===Br–By===Francis Brabazon (1907–1984, A)Thomas Bracken (1843–1898, NZ)Alison Brackenbury (born 1953, E)Anna Braden (1858–1939, US)James Bradley (born 1967, A)Anne Bradstreet (c. 1612–1672, US)Robert Bradstreet (1766–1836, E)E. J. Brady (1869–1952, A)Kate Braid (born 1947, C)Lawrence Ytzhak Braithwaite (1963–2008, C)Shannon Bramer (born 1973, C)Bertha Southey Brammall (1878–1957, A)James Bramston (c. 1694–1743, E)Dionne Brand (born 1953, C)Di Brandt (born 1952, C)Charles Brasch (1909–1973, NZ)Giannina Braschi (born 1953, US)Kamau Brathwaite (1930–2020, B)Richard Brautigan (1935–1984, US)John Jefferson Bray (1912–1995, A)Diana Brebner (1956–2001, C)Jean \"Binta\" Breeze (1956–2021, J)Christopher Brennan (1870–1932, A)Breyten Breytenbach (born 1939, SA/F)Joseph Payne Brennan (1918–1990, US)Michael Brennan (born 1973, A)Jane Brereton (1685–1740, W)John Le Gay Brereton (1871–1933, A)Nicholas Breton (1542–1626, E)Brian Brett (born 1950, C)Lily Brett (born 1946, A)Ken Brewer (1941–2006, US)Elizabeth Brewster (1922–2012, C)Martha Wadsworth Brewster (1710 – c. 1757, US)Breyten Breytenbach (born 1939, SA)Diana Bridge (born 1942, NZ)Robert Bridges (1844–1930, E)Kim Bridgford (1959–2000, US)Robert Bringhurst (born 1946, C)Geoffrey Brock (born 1964, US)Eve Brodlique (1867–1949, UK/C/US)Alexander Brome (1620–1666, E)David Bromige (1933–2009, C/US)William Bronk (1918–1999, US)Anne Brontë (1820–1849, E)Branwell Brontë (1817–1848, E)Charlotte Brontë (1816–1855, E)Emily Brontë (1818–1848, E)Rupert Brooke (1887–1915, E)David Brooks (born 1953, A)Gwendolyn Brooks (1917–2000, US)Alice Williams Brotherton (1848–1930, US)Audrey Alexandra Brown (1904–1998, C)George Mackay Brown (1921–1996, S)James Brown (J.", "B. Selkirk, 1832–1904, S)Jericho Brown (born 1976, US)Pam Brown (born 1948, A)Sterling Allen Brown (1901–1989, US)Stewart Brown (born 1951, E)Thomas Edward Brown (1830–1897, IoM)Wayne Brown (1944–2009, T)Frances Browne (1816–1879, Ir)Isaac Hawkins Browne (1705–1760, E)Moses Browne (1704–1787, E)Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682, E)William Browne (1588–1643, E)Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806–1861, E/It)Robert Browning (1812–1889, E/It)Charles Tory Bruce (1906–1971, C)Mary Grant Bruce (1878–1958, A)Julie Bruck (living, C)Dennis Brutus (1924–2009, SA)William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878, US)Colette Bryce (born 1970, NI/E)Bryher (Annie Winifred Ellerman, 1894–1983, E)Dugald Buchanan (1716–1768, S)George Buchanan (1506–1582, S)Robert Williams Buchanan (1841–1901, S)Vincent Buckley (1925–1988, A)Charles Buckmaster (1950–1972, A)David Budbill (1940–2016, US)Andrea Hollander Budy (born 1947, US)Suzanne Buffam (living, C)Charles Bukowski (1920–1994, US)April Bulmer (born 1963, C)Rhoda Bulter (1929–1994, S)Basil Bunting (1900–1985, E)Anthony Burgess (1917–1993, E)Haldane Burgess (1862–1927, S)Andrew Burke (1944–2023, A)Murdoch Burnett (1953–2015, C)Joanne Burns (born 1945, A)Robert Burns (1759–1796, S)Stanley Burnshaw (1906–2005, US)John Burnside (born 1955, S)Sophia Burrell (1753–1802, E)William S. Burroughs (1914–1997, US)Mick Burrs (1940–2021, C)Duncan Bush (1946–2017, W/E)Olivia Ward Bush-Banks (1869–1944, US)Aaron Bushkowsky (born 1957, C)Guy Butler (1918–2001, SA)Samuel Butler (1612–1680, E)Ray Buttigieg (born 1955, M)Anthony Butts (born 1969, US)A. S. Byatt (1936–2023, E)Kathryn Stripling Byer (1944–2017, US)Witter Bynner (Emanuel Morgan, 1881–1968, US)Lord Byron (1788–1824, E/It)==C=====Ca–Ci===Richard Caddel (1949–2003, E)Caroline Caddy (born 1944, A)Charmaine Cadeau (living, C)Adrian Caesar (born 1955, A)Stephen Cain (born 1970, C)Scott Cairns (born 1954, US)Alison Calder (living, C)Angus Calder (1942–2008, S)Alex Caldiero (born 1949, US)Frank Oliver Call (1878–1956, C)Barry Callaghan (born 1937, C)Michael Feeney Callan (living, Ir)Charles Stuart Calverley (1831–1884, E)Robert Calvert (1945–1988, E)Anne Cameron (Cam Hubert, born 1938, C)Norman Cameron (1905–1953, S)Jason Camlot (born 1967, C)A. Y. Campbell (1885–1958, S)Alistair Campbell (1925–2009, NZ)Angus Peter Campbell (living, S)David Campbell (1915–1979, A)Elizabeth Campbell (born 1980, A)Joseph Campbell (1879–1944, Ir)Meg Campbell (1937–2007, NZ)Paul-Henri Campbell (born 1982, US)Roy Campbell (1901–1957, SA)Thomas Campbell (1774–1844, S/E)William Wilfred Campbell (1860–1918, C)Thomas Campion (1567–1620, E)Melville Henry Cane (1879–1980, US)Mary Wedderburn Cannan (1893–1973, E)Moya Cannon (living, Ir)Edward Capern (1819–1894, E)Vahni Capildeo (born 1973, T/S)Natalee Caple (born 1970, C)Thomas Carew (1595–1639, E)Henry Carey (1693–1743, E)Robert Carliell (died c. 1622, E)Bliss Carman (1861–1929, C/US)Clyde Carr (1886–1962, NZ)Fern G. Z. Carr (born 1956, C)Jim Carroll (1949–2009, US)Lewis Carroll (1832–1898, E)Hayden Carruth (1921–2008, US)A.J.", "Carruthers (living, A)Ann Elizabeth Carson (born 1929, C)Anne Carson (born 1950, C)Ciaran Carson (1948–2019, NI)Elizabeth Carter (1717–1806, E)Jared Carter (born 1939, US)William Cartwright (1611–1643, E)Raymond Carver (1938–1988, US)Alice Cary (1820–1871, US)Phoebe Cary (1824–1871, US)Marietta Stanley Case (1845–1900, US)James Casey (1824–1909, Ir)Juanita Casey (1925–2012, E)Neal Cassady (1926–1968, US)Cyrus Cassells (born 1957, US)Ana Castillo (born 1953, US)Lee Cataldi (born 1942, A)Nancy Cato (1917–2000, A)Charles Causley (1917–2003, E)Nick Cave (born 1957, A)George Cavendish (1494 – c. 1562, E)Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (1623–1673, E)Kate Cayley (living, C)Susanna Centlivre (c. 1667/1670 – 1723, E)Thomas Centolella (living, US)Joseph Ceravolo (1934–1988, US)John Chalkhill (fl.", "1600, E)Gordon Challis (1932–2018, NZ)Weyman Chan (born 1963, C)Catherine Chandler (born 1950, C)Elizabeth Margaret Chandler (1807–1834, US)Diana Chang (1924–2009, US)William Ellery Channing (1818–1901, US)Arthur Chapman (1873–1935, US)George Chapman (1560–1634, E)Patrick Chapman (born 1968, Ir)Fred Chappell (born 1936, US)Craig Charles (born 1964, E)James Charlton (born 1947, A)Thomas Chatterton (1752–1770, E)Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400, E)Angelico Chavez (1910–1996, US)Syl Cheney-Coker (born 1945, SLe)Maxine Chernoff (born 1952, US)Kelly Cherry (born 1940, US)G. K. Chesterton (1874–1936, E)Thomas Chestre (late 14th c., E)James Wm.", "Chichetto (born 1941, US)Lydia Maria Child (1802–1880, US)Harriet L. Childe-Pemberton (1852–1922, E)Billy Childish (born 1959, E)Marilyn Chin (born 1955, US)Staceyann Chin (born 1972, J)Eileen Chong (born 1980, A)Robert Choquette (1905–1991, C)Lesley Choyce (born 1951, C)Margaret Christakos (born 1962, C)Evie Christie (living, C)Ralph Chubb (1892–1960, E)Mary Chudleigh (1656–1710, E)Hubert Newman Wigmore Church (1857–1932, A)Richard Church (1893–1972, E)Charles Churchill (1731–1764, E)John Ciardi (1916–1986, US)Colley Cibber (1671–1757, E)Charl Cilliers (born 1941, SA)Sandra Cisneros (born 1954, US)Carson Cistulli (born 1979, US)===Cl===Amy Clampitt (1920–1994, USKate Clanchy (born 1965, S)John Clanvowe (c. 1341–1391, W/E)John Clare (1793–1864, E)Dave Clark (living, C)Douglas Clark (1942–2010, E)Elizabeth Clark (1918–1978, S)Emily Clark (fl.", "1798–1833, E)Ross Clark (born 1953, A)Tom Clark (1941–2018, US)Thomas Clark (born 1980, S)Amy Key Clarke (1892–1980, E)Austin Clarke (1886–1974, Ir)George Elliott Clarke (born 1960, C)Gillian Clarke (born 1937, W)Jack Clarke (1933–1992, US)Marcus Clarke (1846–1881, A)Brian P. Cleary (born 1959, US)Brendan Cleary (born 1958, NI)William Cleland (1661–1689, S)Justin Clemens (born 1969, A)Benjamin Clementine (born 1988, E/F)Jack Clemo (1916–1994, E)John Cleveland (1613–1658, E)Michelle Cliff (1946–2016, J/US)Wayne Clifford (born 1944, C)Lucille Clifton (1936–2010, US)Caroline Clive (1801–1873, E)Arthur Hugh Clough (1819–1861, E)===Co–Cu===Grace Stone Coates (1881–1976, US)Florence Earle Coates (1850–1927, US)Bob Cobbing (1920–2002, E)Robbie Coburn (born 1994, A)Alison Cockburn (awa Alison Rutherford, 1712–1794, S)Alice Rollit Coe (1858–1940, US)Judith Ortiz Cofer (1952–2016, US)Brian Coffey (1905–1995, Ir/F)Fred Cogswell (1917–2004, C)Leonard Cohen (1934–2016, C)Matt Cohen (1942–1999, C)Allison Hedge Coke (born 1958, US)Norma Cole (born 1945, C/US)Hal Gibson Pateshall Colebatch (1945–2019, A)Aidan Coleman (born 1976, A)Victor Coleman (born 1944, C)Wanda Coleman (1946–2013, US)Hartley Coleridge (1796–1849, E)Mary Elizabeth Coleridge (1861–1907, E)Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834, E)Don Coles (1927–2017, C)Katharine Coles (born 1959, US)Edward Coletti (living, US)Mary Collier (c. 1688–1762, E)Billy Collins (born 1941, US)John Collins (1742–1808, E)William Collins (1721–1759, E)Laurence Collinson (1925–1986, A)Stephen Collis (living, C)John Robert Colombo (born 1936, C)Glenn Colquhoun (born 1964, NZ)Padraic Colum (1881–1972, Ir/US)Anna Olcott Commelin (1841–1924, US)Anne Compton (born 1947, C)Wayde Compton (born 1972, C)Helen Gray Cone (1859–1934, US)William Congreve (1670–1729, E)Jan Conn (born 1952, C/US)Stewart Conn (born 1936, S)Paul Conneally (born 1959, E)Karen Connelly (born 1969, C)Kevin Connolly (born 1962, C)Susan Connolly (born 1956, Ir)Robert Conquest (1917–2015, E)Tony Conran (1931–2013, W)Henry Constable (1562–1613, E/F)David Constantine (born 1944, E)Eliza Cook (1818–1889, E)Elizabeth Cook-Lynn (born 1930, US)Sophie Cooke (born 1976, S)Ina Coolbrith (1841–1928, US)Dennis Cooley (born 1944, C)Clark Coolidge (born 1939, US)Afua Cooper (born 1957, J/C)Thomas Cooper (1805–1892, E)Jack Cope (1913–1991, SA)Wendy Cope (born 1945, E)Judith Copithorne (born 1939, C)Robert Copland (fl.", "1508–1547, E)A. E. Coppard (1878–1957, E)Julia Copus (born 1969, E)Richard Corbet (1582–1635, E)Cid Corman (1924–2004, US)Alfred Corn (born 1943, US)Adam Cornford (born 1950, E)Frances Cornford (1886–1960, E)Francis M. Cornford (1874–1943, E)John Cornford (1915–1936, E)Joe Corrie (1894–1968, S)Gregory Corso (1930–2001, US)Jayne Cortez (1936–2012, US)William Johnson Cory (1823–1892, E)Louisa Stuart Costello (1799–1877, Ir/F)Charles Cotton (1630–1687, E)Anna Couani (born 1948, A)Anne Ross Cousin (1824–1906, E/S)Dani Couture (born 1978, C)Thomas Cowherd (1817–1907, C)Abraham Cowley (1618–1667, E)Hannah Cowley (1743–1809, E)Malcolm Cowley (1898–1989, US)Dorothy Cowlin (1911–2010, E)William Cowper (1731–1800, E)George Crabbe (1754–1832, E)Christine Craig (born 1943, J)Helen Craik (c. 1751–1825, S/E)Hart Crane (1899–1932, US)Stephen Crane (1871–1900, US)Richard Crashaw (1613–1649, E)Isabella Valancy Crawford (1846–1887, C)Robert Crawford (1868–1930, A)Robert Crawford (born 1959, S)Richard Crawley (1840–1893, W/E)Morri Creech (born 1970, US)Robert Creeley (1926–2006, US)Caroline de Crespigny (1797–1861, E/G)Walter D'Arcy Cresswell (1896–1960, NZ)Louise Crisp (born 1957, A)Ann Batten Cristall (1769–1848, E)Andy Croft (born 1956, E)Julian Croft (born 1941, A)Alison Croggon (born 1962, A)Jeremy Cronin (born 1949, SA)M. T. C. Cronin (born 1963, A)Lynn Crosbie (born 1963, C)Camilla Dufour Crosland (1812–1895, E)Zora Cross (1890–1964, A)Aleister Crowley (1875–1947, E)Andrew Crozier (1943–2008, E)Lorna Crozier (Lorna Uher, born 1948, C)Helen Cruickshank (1886–1975, S)Michael Crummey (born 1965, C)Julie Crysler (living, C)Anne Virginia Culbertson (1857–1918, US)Catherine Ann Cullen (living, Ir)Countee Cullen (1903–1946, US)Nancy Jo Cullen (living, C)Patrick Cullinan (1932–2011, SA)E. E. Cummings (1894–1962, US)Gary Cummiskey (born 1963, SA)Allan Cunningham (1784–1842, S/E)J. V. Cunningham (1911–1985, US)John Cunningham (1729–1773, Ir/E)Allen Curnow (1911–2001, NZ)Margaret Curran (1887–1962, A)Jen Currin (living, US/C)Tony Curtis (born 1946, W)Tony Curtis (born 1955, Ir)James Cuthbertson (1851–1910, A)Ivor Cutler (1923–2006, S)Lidija Cvetkovic (born 1967, A)Kayla Czaga (born 1989, C)==D=====Da–Do===H.D.", "(Hilda Doolittle, 1886–1961, US)Cyril Dabydeen (living, Gu/C)David Dabydeen (born 1955, Gu)Kalli Dakos (living, C)Victor Daley (1858–1905, A)Mary Dalton (born 1950, C)Pádraig J. Daly (born 1943, Ir)Raymond Garfield Dandridge (1882/1883–1930, US)Joseph A. Dandurand (living, C)Achmat Dangor (born 1948, SA)Samuel Daniel (1562–1619, E)David Daniels (1933–2008, US)Jeffrey Daniels (living, US)George Darley (1795–1846, Ir)Tina Darragh (born 1950, US)Keki N. Daruwalla (born 1937, In)Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802, E)Elizabeth Daryush (1887–1977, E)Robert von Dassanowsky (Robert Dassanowsky) (born 1965, US)Beverley Daurio (born 1953, C)William Davenant (1606–1668, E)Guy Davenport (1927–2005, US)Frank Davey (born 1940, C)Donald Davidson (1893–1968, US)John Davidson (1857–1909, S/E)Lucretia Maria Davidson (1808–1825, US)Michael Davidson (born 1944, US)Donald Davie (1922–1995, E)Alan Davies (born 1951, US)Deborah Kay Davies (living, W)Hugh Sykes Davies (1909–1984, E)Idris Davies (1905–1953, W)John Davies (1569–1626, E)W. H. Davies (1871–1940, W)Nicholas Flood Davin (1840–1901, C)Olive Dehn (1914–2007, E)Beatrice Deloitte Davis (1909–1992, A)Jon Davis (living, US)Norma Davis (1905–1945, A)Tanya Davis (living, C)Thomas Osborne Davis (1814–1845, Ir)Edward Davison (1898–1970, S/US)Peter Davison (1928–2004, US)Bruce Dawe (1930–2020, A)Kwame Dawes (born 1962, US)Tom Dawe (born 1940, C)Jeffery Day (1896–1918, E)Sarah Day (born 1958, A)Cecil Day-Lewis (1904–1972, E)Adriana de Barros (born 1976, C)Somerset de Chair (1911–1995, E)Jean Louis De Esque (1879–1956, US)Madeline DeFrees (1919–2015, US)Celia de Fréine (born 1948, Ir)Ingrid de Kok (born 1951, SA)Walter de la Mare (1873–1956, E)Christine De Luca (born 1947, S)Sadiqa de Meijer (born 1977, C)Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford (1550–1604, E)Phillippa Yaa de Villiers (born 1966, SA)James Deahl (born 1945, C)Dulcie Deamer (1890–1972, A)John F. Deane (born 1943, Ir)Joel Deane (born 1969, A)Patrick Deeley (born 1953, Ir)Madeline DeFrees (1919–2015, US)Thomas Dekker (1575–1641, E)Greg Delanty (born 1958, Ir/US)Kris Demeanor (living, C)Barry Dempster (born 1952, C)Joe Denham (living, C)John Denham (1615–1669, E)C. J. Dennis (1876–1938, A)John Dennison (born 1978, NZ)Tory Dent (1958–2005, US)Enid Derham (1882–1941, A)Thomas Dermody (1775–1802, Ir)Toi Derricotte (born 1941, US)Heather Derr-Smith (born 1971, US)Michelle Desbarats (living, C)Babette Deutsch (1895–1982, US)James Devaney (1890–1976, A)Mary Deverell (1731–1805, E)Denis Devlin (1908–1959, Ir)George E. Dewar (1895–1969, NZ)Christopher Dewdney (born 1951, CImtiaz Dharker (born 1954, P/W)Pier Giorgio Di Cicco (1949–2019, C)Mary di Michele (born 1949, C)Diane di Prima (1934–2020, US)Ann Diamond (living, C)Natalie Diaz (born 1978, US)Anne Dick (died 1741, S)Jennifer K Dick (born 1970, US)James Dickey (1923–1997, US)Adam Dickinson (living, C)Emily Dickinson (1830–1886, US)Matthew Dickman (born 1975, US)Michael Dickman (born 1975, US)Robert Dickson (1944–2007, C)Peter Didsbury (born 1946, E)Modikwe Dikobe (1913–?, SA)Des Dillon (living, S)John Dillon (1851–1927, Ir)B. R. Dionysius (born 1969, A)Ray DiPalma (1943–2016, US)Thomas M. Disch (born 1940, US)Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni (born 1956, In/US)Isobel Dixon (born 1969, SA/E)Sarah Dixon (1671–1765, E)William Hepworth Dixon (1821–1879, E)Angifi Dladla (born 1950, SA)Tim Dlugos (1950–1990, US)Kildare Dobbs (1923–2013, C)Henry Austin Dobson (1840–1921, E)Rosemary Dobson (1920–2012, A)Stephen Dobyns (born 1941, US)Jeramy Dodds (born 1974, C)Robert Dodsley (1703–1764, E)Pete Doherty (born 1979, E)Digby Mackworth Dolben (1848–1867, E)Joe Dolce (born 1947, US/A)Don Domanski (born 1950, C)Magie Dominic (born 1944, C)Jeffery Donaldson (living, C)John Donaldson (Jon Inglis, 1921–1989, E)John Donne (1572–1631, E)David Donnell (born 1939, C)Timothy Donnelly (born 1969, US)Gerard Donovan (born 1959, Ir/E)Theo Dorgan (born 1953, Ir)Ed Dorn (1929–1999, US)Catherine Ann Dorset (1752–1834, E)Candas Jane Dorsey (born 1952, C)Mark Doty (born 1953, US)Clive Doucet (born 1946, C)Sarah Doudney (1841–1926, E)Lucy Dougan (born 1966, A)Charles Montagu Doughty (1843–1926, E)Lord Alfred Douglas (1870–1945, E)Alice May Douglas (1865–1943, US)Gavin Douglas (c. 1474–1522, S)George Brisbane Scott Douglas (1856–1935, S)Keith Douglas (1920–1944, E)Orville Lloyd Douglas (born 1976, C)Rita Dove (born 1952, US)Basil Dowling (1910–2000, NZ)Finuala Dowling (born 1962, SA)Gordon Downie (1964–2017, C)Ellen Mary Patrick Downing (1828–1869, Ir)Ernest Dowson (1867–1900, E)Francis Hastings Doyle (1810–1888, E)Kirby Doyle (1932–2003, US)===Dr–Dy===Michael Dransfield (1948–1973, A)Jane Draycott (born 1954, E)Michael Drayton (1563–1631, E)John Swanwick Drennan (1809–1893, Ir)William Drennan (1754–1820, Ir)Adam Drinan (also Joseph Macleod, 1903–1984, E)John Drinkwater (1882–1937, E)William Drummond of Hawthornden (1585–1649, S)William Henry Drummond (1854–1907, C)John Dryden (1631–1700, E)W. E. B.", "Du Bois (1868–1963, US)I. D. du Plessis (1900–1981, SA)Klara du Plessis (living, SA/C)Norman Dubie (born 1945, US)Stephen Duck (c. 1705–1756, E)Louis Dudek (1918–2001, S)Carol Ann Duffy (born 1955, S)Charles Gavan Duffy (1816–1903, Ir/A)Maureen Duffy (born 1933, E)Alan Dugan (1923–2003, J/US)Michael Dugan (1947–2006, A)Sasha Dugdale (born 1974, E)Eileen Duggan (1894–1972, NZ)Laurie Duggan (born 1949, A)Jas H. Duke (1939–1992, A)Richard Duke (1658–1711, E)Tug Dumbly (Geoff Forrester, living, A)Marilyn Dumont (born 1955, C)Paul Laurence Dunbar (1872–1906, US)Robert Nugent Dunbar (1798–1866, Ag)William Dunbar (1459/1460 – c. 1530, S)Andrew Duncan (born 1956, E)Robert Duncan (1919–1988, US)Camille Dungy (born 1972, US)Helen Dunmore (1952–2017, E)Douglas Dunn (born 1942, S)Max Dunn (died 1963, A)Stephen Dunn (1939–2021, US)Joe Dunthorne (born 1982, W)Paul Durcan (born 1944, Ir)Lawrence Durrell (1912–1990, E)Anne Dutton (1692–1765, E)Geoffrey Dutton (1922–1998, A)Stuart Dybek (born 1942, US)Edward Dyer (1543–1607, E)John Dyer (1699–1758, W)Bob Dylan (born 1941, US)Edward Dyson (1865–1931, A)==E==Joan Adeney Easdale (1913–1998, E)Evelyn Eaton (1902–1983, C)Richard Eberhart (1904–2005, US)Emily Eden (1797–1869, E)Helen Parry Eden (1885–1960, E)Stephen Edgar (born 1951, A)Lauris Edmond (1924–2000, NZ)Russell Edson (1928–2014, US)Richard Edwardes (c. 1523–1566, E)Dic Edwards (born 1953, W)Jonathan Edwards (born 1979, W)Rhian Edwards (living, W/E)Helen Merrill Egerton (1866–1951, C)Terry Ehret (born 1955, US)Vic Elias (1948–2006, US/C)Anne Elder (1918–1976, A)George Eliot (Mary Anne Evans, 1819–1880, E)T. S. Eliot (1888–1965, US/E)Elizabeth F. Ellet (1818–1877, US)Charlotte Elliot (1839–1880, S)David Elliott (1923–1999, C)Julia Anne Elliott (1809–1841, E)Jean Elliot (1727–1805, S)Ebenezer Elliott (1781–1849, E)George Ellis (1753–1815, E)Royston Ellis (born 1941, E)Chris Else (born 1942, NZ)Rebecca Elson (1960–1999, C)Crispin Elsted (living, C)Edmund Elviden (fl.", "1570, E)Claudia Emerson (1957–2014, US)Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882, US)Chris Emery (born 1963, E)William Empson (1906–1984, E)Paul Engle (1908–1991, US)John Ennis (born 1944, Ir)Karen Enns (living, C)D. J. Enright (1920–2002, E)Riemke Ensing (born 1939, NZ)Theodore Enslin (1925–2011, US)Louise Erdrich (born 1954, US)Ralph Erskine (1685–1752, S)Clayton Eshleman (1935–2021, US)Martín Espada (born 1957, US)Ramabai Espinet (born 1948, T)Jill Alexander Essbaum (born 1971, US)Maggie Estep (1963–2014, US)George Etherege (1635–1691, E)Michael Estok (1939–1989, C)Jerry Estrin (1947–1993, US)Anne Evans (1820–1870, E)Christine Evans (born 1943, E/W)George Essex Evans (1863–1909, A)Margiad Evans (Peggy Whistler, 1909–1958, E)Mari Evans (1919–2017, US)Sebastian Evans (1830–1909, E)William Everson (Brother Antoninus, 1912–1994, US)Gavin Ewart (1916–1995, E)John K. Ewers (1904–1978, A)Elisabeth Eybers (1915–2007, SA/Nt)==F==Frederick William Faber (1814–1863, E)Diane Fahey (born 1945, A)Ruth Fainlight (born 1931, US/E)Kingsley Fairbridge (1885–1924, SA)A. R. D. Fairburn (1904–1957, NZ)Maria and Harriet Falconar (born c. 1771–1774, E or S)William Falconer (1732–1769, S)Padraic Fallon (1905–1974, Ir)Catherine Maria Fanshawe (1765–1834, E)U.", "A. Fanthorpe (1929–1909, E)Patricia Fargnoli (born 1937, US)Eleanor Farjeon (1881–1965, E)Fiona Farrell (born 1947, NZ)John Farrell (1851–1904, A)John Farrell (1968–2010, US)Michael Farrell (born 1965, A)Katie Farris (born 1983, US)Margaretta Faugères (1771–1801, US)Jessie Redmon Fauset (1882–1961, US)Brian Fawcett (1944–2022, C)Elaine Feeney (living, Ir)Elaine Feinstein (1930–2019, E)Alison Fell (born 1944, S)Charles Fenerty (c. 1821–1892, C)Elijah Fenton (1683–1730, E)James Fenton (1931–2021, NI)James Fenton (born 1949, E)Richard Fenton (1747–1821, W)Gus Ferguson (1940–2020, SA)Samuel Ferguson (1810–1886, Ir)Robert Fergusson (1750–1774, S)Lawrence Ferlinghetti (1919–2021, US)Ferron (Deborah Foisy, born 1952, C)George Fetherling (born 1949, C)Michael Field (Katherine Bradley, 1846–1914, and Edith Cooper, 1862–1913, E)Henry Fielding (1707–1754, E)Connie Fife (1961–2017, C)Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea (1661–1720, E)Annie Finch (born 1956, US)Peter Finch (living, W)Robert Finch (1900–1995, C)Ian Hamilton Finlay (1925–2006, S)Joan Finnigan (1925–2007, C)Jon Paul Fiorentino (living, C)Catherine Fisher (born 1957, W)Roy Fisher (1930–2017, E)Edward FitzGerald (1809–1883, E)Judith Fitzgerald (1952–2015, C)R. D. Fitzgerald (1902–1987, A)Robert Fitzgerald (1910–1985, US)Richard FitzPatrick (1748–1813, Ir/E)Roderick Flanagan (1828–1862, A)James Elroy Flecker (1884–1915, E)Marjorie Fleming (1803–1811, S)Giles Fletcher (c. 1586–1623, E)Giles Fletcher, the Elder (c. 1548–1611, E)John Fletcher (1579–1625, E)John Gould Fletcher (1886–1950, US)Lisa Anne Fletcher (1844–1905, US)Phineas Fletcher (1582–1650, E)Robert Fletcher (fl.", "1586, E)Maria De Fleury (c. 1754 – c. 1794, E)F. S. Flint (1885–1960, E)Alice Flowerdew (1759–1830, E)Lionel Fogarty (born 1958, A)Jack Foley (born 1940, US)Mary Hannay Foott (1846–1918, A)John Forbes (1950–1998, A)Carolyn Forché (born 1950, US)Ford Madox Ford (1873–1939, E)John Ford (1586–1639, E)John M. Ford (1957–2006, US)Robert Ford (1915–1998, C)Mabel Forrest (1872–1935, A)William Forrest (fl.", "1581, E)Veronica Forrest-Thomson (1947–1975, S)Gary Jeshel Forrester (born 1946, NZ)William Forster (1818–1882, A)John Foulcher (born 1952, A)Ellen Thorneycroft Fowler (1860–1920, E)William Fowler (c. 1560–1612, S)Kate Fox (born 1975, E)Len Fox (1905–2004, A)Janet Frame (1924–2004, NZ)Ruth France (1913–1968, NZ)Matthew Francis (born 1956, E/W)Robert Francis (1901–1987, US)George Sutherland Fraser (1915–1980, S)Gregory Fraser (living, US)Raymond Fraser (1941–2018, C)Benjamin Frater (1979–2007, A)Brentley Frazer (born 1972, A)Grace Beacham Freeman (1916–2002, US)John Freeman (1880–1929, E)Nicholas Freeston (1907–1978, E)Patrick Friesen (born 1946, C)Anthony Freston (1757–1819, E) Robert Frost (1874–1963, US)Gwen Frostic (1906–2001, US)Gene Frumkin (1928–2007, US)Mark Frutkin (born 1948, US/C)Sheila Meiring Fugard (born 1932, SA)Ethel Romig Fuller (1883–1965, US)John Fuller (born 1937, E)Roy Fuller (1912–1991, E)Mary Eliza Fullerton (1868–1946, A)Alice Fulton (born 1952, US)Robin Fulton (born 1937, S)Ulpian Fulwell (1545/1546 – before 1586, E)Richard Furness (1791–1857, E)==G=====Ga–Go===Frances Dana Barker Gage (1808–1884, US)Georgie Starbuck Galbraith (1909–1980, US)Dunstan Gale (fl.", "1596, E)Kate Gale (living, US)James Galvin (born 1951, US)Patrick Galvin (1927–2011, Ir)Forrest Gander (born 1956, US)Robert Garioch (1909–1981, S)Hamlin Garland (1860–1940, US)Raymond Garlick (1926–2011, W)Richard Garnett (1835–1906, E)Jean Garrigue (1912–1972, US)Samuel Garth (1661–1719, E)George Gascoigne (1525–1577, E)David Gascoyne (1916–2001, E/F)Bill Gaston (born 1953, C)John Gay (1685–1732, E)Ross Gay (born 1974, US)William Gay (1865–1897, S/A)Alexander Geddes (1737–1802, S)Leon Gellert (1892–1977, A)W. R. P. George (1912–2006, W)Dan Gerber (born 1940, US)Amy Gerstler (born 1956, US)Marty Gervais (living, C)Charles Ghigna (born 1946, US)Monk Gibbon (1896–1987, Ir)Reginald Gibbons (born 1947, US)Stella Gibbons (1902–1989, E)Ivy Gibbs (c. 1886–1966, NZ)Kahlil Gibran (1883–1931, L/US)G. H. Gibson (Ironbark, 1846–1921, A)Wilfrid Wilson Gibson (1878–1962, E)Elsa Gidlow (1898–1986, C)Angus Morrison Gidney (1803–1882, C)Gerry Gilbert (1936–2009, C)Jack Gilbert (1925–2012, US)Kevin Gilbert (1933–1993, A)W. S. Gilbert (1836–1911, E)Ellen Gilchrist (born 1935, US)George Gilfillan (1813–1878, S)Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860–1935, US)Mary Gilmore (1865–1962, A)Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997, US)Dana Gioia (born 1950, US)Nikki Giovanni (born 1943, US)Jesse Glass (born 1954, US/Jp)John Glassco (1909–1981, C)Madeline Gleason (1903–1979, US)Duncan Glen (1933–2008, S)William Glen (1789–1826, S)Lorri Neilsen Glenn (living, C)Denis Glover (1912–1980, NZ)Louise Glück (born 1943, US)Rumer Godden (1907–1998, In/E)Patricia Goedicke (1931–2006, US)Oliver St. John Gogarty (1878–1957, Ir)Albert Goldbarth (born 1948, US)Kenneth Goldsmith (born 1961, US)Oliver Goldsmith (1728–1774, Ir/E)Oliver Goldsmith (1794–1861, C)Peter Goldsworthy (born 1951, A)Leona Gom (born 1946, C)W. T. Goodge (1862–1909, A)Lorna Goodison (born 1947, J)Paul Goodman (1911–1972, US)Barnabe Googe (1540–1594, E)Adam Lindsay Gordon (1833–1870, A)Katherine L. Gordon (living, C)Robert Gordon of Straloch (1580–1661, S)Hedwig Gorski (born 1949, US)Edmund Gosse (1849–1928, E)Phyllis Gotlieb (1926–2009, C)Keith Gottschalk (born 1946, SA)Alan Gould (born 1949, A)Nora Gould (living, C)John Gower (c. 1330–1408, E)Susan Goyette (born 1964, C)===Gr–Gy===James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose (1612–1650, S)Jorie Graham (born 1950, US)Neile Graham (born 1958, C)Robert Cunninghame Graham of Gartmore (1735–1797, S)W. S. Graham (1918–1986, S)James Grahame (1765–1811, S)Mark Granier (born 1957, E/Ir)Paul Grano (1894–1975, A)Alex Grant (living, US)Richard Graves (1715–1804, E)Richard Harry Graves (1897–1971, A)Robert Graves (1895–1985, E)Alexander Gray (1882–1968, S)Catherine Gray, Lady Manners (1766–1852, Ir)Kathryn Gray (born 1973, W)Maxwell Gray (Mary Gleed Tuttiett, 1846–1923, E)Robert Gray (born 1945, A)Stephen Gray (born 1941, SA)Thomas Gray (1716–1771, E)Dorothy Auchterlonie Green (1915–1991, A)H. M. Green (1881–1962, A)Paula Green (born 1955, NZ)Richard Greene (born 1961, C)Robert Greene (1558–1592, E)Lavinia Greenlaw (born 1962, E)Gavin Greenlees (1930–1983, A)Leslie Greentree (living, C)Dora Greenwell (1821–1882, E)Jane Greer (born 1953, US)Linda Gregg (1942–2019, US)Horace Gregory (1898–1982, US)Andrew Greig (born 1951, S)Eamon Grennan (born 1941, Ir)H. W. Gretton (1914–1983, NZ)Fulke Greville, 1st Baron Brooke (1554–1628, E)Gerald Griffin (1803–1840, Ir)Sarah Maria Griffin (living, Ir)Susan Griffin (born 1943, US)Bill Griffiths (1948–2007, E)Bryn Griffiths (living, W/E)Jane Griffiths (born 1970, E)Geoffrey Grigson (1905–1985, E)Nicholas Grimald (1519–1562, E)Angelina Weld Grimké (1880–1958, US)Charlotte Forten Grimké (1837–1914, US)Eliza Griswold (born 1973, US)Rufus Wilmot Griswold (1815–1857, US)Philip Gross (born 1952, E)Paul Groves (born 1947, E/W)Bertha Jane Grundy (Mrs. Leith Adams, 1837–1912, E)Jeff Guess (born 1948, A)Barbara Guest (1920–2006, US)Edgar Guest (1881–1959, US)Paul Guest (living, US)Malcolm Guite (born 1957, E)Arthur Guiterman (1871–1943, US)Genni Gunn (born 1949, C)Thom Gunn (1929–2004, E/US)Kristjana Gunnars (born 1948, C)Lee Gurga (born 1949, US)Ivor Gurney (1890–1937, E)Ralph Gustafson (1909–1995, C)Mafika Gwala (1946–2014, SA)Cyril Gwynn (1897–1988, W/A)Stephen Gwynn (1864–1950, Ir)Beth Gylys (born 1964, US)Brion Gysin (1916–1986, C/E)==H=====Ha–He===William Habington (1605–1654, E)Marilyn Hacker (born 1942, US)John Haines (1924–2011, US)Paul Haines (1933–2003, US/C)Helen Hajnoczky (born 1985, C)Thomas Gordon Hake (1809–1895, E)Sarah Josepha Hale (1788–1879, US)Bernadette Hall (born 1945, NZ)Donald Hall (1928–2018, US)Megan Hall (born 1972, SA)Phil Hall (born 1953, C)Radclyffe Hall (1880–1943, E)Rodney Hall (born 1935, A)Arthur Hallam (1811–1833, E)Alan Halsey (born 1949, W/E)Michael Hamburger (1924–2007, E)Ian Hamilton (1938–2001, E)Jane Eaton Hamilton (born 1954, C)Janet Hamilton (1795–1873, S)Philip Hammial (born 1937, A)Robert Gavin Hampson (born 1948, E)Susan Hampton (born 1949, A)Sophie Hannah (born 1971, E)Bilal Haq (born 1948, P)Caroline Hardaker (born 1986, E)Kerry Hardie (born 1951, NI)Thomas Hardy (1840–1928, E)Lesbia Harford (1891–1927, A)Joy Harjo (born 1951, US)William Harmon (born 1938, US)Frances Harper (1825–1911, US)Michael S. Harper (1938–2016 US)Charles Harpur (1813–1868, A)Alice Harriman (1861–1925, US)Edward Harrington (1895–1966, A)Claire Harris (1937–2018, C)Joseph Harris (1773–1825, W)Max Harris (1921–1995, A)Michael Harris (born 1944, C)Robert Harris (1951–1993, A)Wilson Harris (1921–2018, Gu/E)Jennifer Harrison (born 1955, A)Jim Harrison (1937–2016, US)Martin Harrison (1949–2014, A)Richard Harrison (poet) (living, C)Tony Harrison (born 1937, E)Les Harrop (born 1948, E/A)Molly Harrower (1906–1999, S)J. S. Harry (1939–2015, A)Carla Harryman (born 1952, US)David Harsent (born 1942, E)Kevin Hart (born 1954, A)Paul Hartal (born 1936, Is/C)Anne Le Marquand Hartigan (living, Ir)Jill Hartman (born 1974, C)Sadakichi Hartmann (1867–1944, US)Michael Hartnett (1941–1999, Ir)Diana Hartog (born 1942, C)William Hart-Smith (1911–1990, NZ)F. W. Harvey (1888–1957, E)Elisabeth Harvor (living, C)Gwen Harwood (1920–1995, A)Lee Harwood (1939–2015, E)Alamgir Hashmi (born 1951, E)J. H. Haslam (1874–1969, NZ)Nicholas Hasluck (born 1942, A)Robert Hass (born 1941, US)Katherine Hastings (living, US)Ann Hatton (1764–1838, W)Stephen Hawes (died 1523, E)Robert Stephen Hawker (1803–1875, E)Kathleen Hawkins (1883–1981, NZ)George Campbell Hay (1915–1984, S)Gilbert Hay (born c. 1403, S)Myfanwy Haycock (1913–1963, W/E)Robert Hayden (1913–1980, US)William Hayley (1745–1820, E)Robert Hayman (1575–1629, Nf)Tony Haynes (born 1960, US)Joel Hayward (born 1964, NZ)Eliza Haywood (c. 1693–1756, E)H.D.", "(Hilda Doolittle, 1886–1961, E)Randolph Healy (born 1956, Ir)Seamus Heaney (1939–2013, Ir)Josephine D. Heard (1861 – c. 1921, US)John Heath-Stubbs (1918–2006, E)Charles Heavysege (1816–1876, C)James Hebblethwaite (1857–1921, A)Anthony Hecht (1923–2004, US)Jennifer Michael Hecht (born 1965, US)John Hegley (born 1953, E)Wilfrid Heighington (1897–1945, C)Steven Heighton (1961–2022, C)Anita Heiss (born 1968, A)Lyn Hejinian (born 1941, US)Jill Hellyer (1925–2012, A)David Helwig (1938–2018, C)Maggie Helwig (born 1961, C)Felicia Hemans (1793–1835, E)Kris Hemensley (born 1946, A)Essex Hemphill (1957–1995, US)Brian Henderson (born 1948, C)Hamish Henderson (1919–2002, S)Philip Henderson (1906–1977, E)Thomas William Heney (1862–1928, A)John Henley (1692–1756, E)William Ernest Henley (1849–1903, E)Adrian Henri (1932–2000, E)Paul Henry (born 1959, W)Robert Henryson (fl.", "1460–1500, S)Thomas Nicoll Hepburn (wrote as Gabriel Setoun, 1861–1930, S)Dorothea Herbert (c. 1767–1829, Ir)Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury (1582–1648, E/W)George Herbert (1593–1632, W)Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke (Mary Sidney, 1561–1621, E)W. N. Herbert (born 1961, S)Jason Heroux (born 1971, C)Robert Herrick (1591–1674, E)Steven Herrick (born 1958, A)Benjamin Hertwig (living, C)Thomas Kibble Hervey (1799–1959, E)Phoebe Hesketh (1909–2005, E)Paul Hetherington (born 1958, A)William Maxwell Hetherington (1803–1865, S)Dorothy Hewett (1923–2002, A)John Hewitt (1907–1987, NI)Maurice Hewlett (1861–1923, E)William Heyen (born 1940, US)Thomas Heywood (c. 1570s – 1650, E)===Hi–Hu===Bob Hicok (born 1960, US)Dick Higgins (1938–1998, US)F. R. Higgins (1896–1941, Ir)Kevin Higgins (born 1967, Ir)Rita Ann Higgins (born 1955, Ir)Colleen Higgs (born 1962, SA)Charles Higham (1931–2012, A)Scott Hightower (born 1952, US)Conrad Hilberry (1928–2017, US)Fiona Hile (living, A)Barry Hill (born 1943, A)Edward Hill (1843–1923, US)Geoffrey Hill (1932–2016, E/US)Robert Hilles (born 1951, C)Richard Hillman (born 1964, A)Ellen Hinsey (born 1960, US)Jane Hirshfield (born 1953, US)George Hitchcock (1914–2010, US)H. L. Hix (born 1960, US)Thomas Hoccleve (c. 1368–1426, E)Philip Hodgins (1959–1995, A)Ralph Hodgson (1871–1962, E/US)W. N. Hodgson (1893–1916, E)Barbara Hofland (1770–1844, E)Michael Hofmann (born 1957, G/US)James Hogg (1770–1835, S)David Holbrook (1923–2011, E)Susan Holbrook (living, C)Thomas Holcroft (1745–1809, E)Clive Holden (living, C)Margaret Holford (1778–1852, E)Abraham Holland (died 1626, E)Barbara Holland (1933–2010, US)Hugh Holland (1569–1633, W)Jane Holland (born 1966, E)John Holland (1794–1872, E)Norah M. Holland (1876–1925, C)Sarah Holland-Batt (born 1982, A)John Hollander (1929–2013, US)Matthew Hollis (born 1971, E)Anselm Hollo (1934–2013, US)Nancy Holmes (born 1959, C)Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. (1809–1894, US)Thomas Hood (1798–1845, E)Cornelia Hoogland (living, C)Ellen Sturgis Hooper (1812–1848, US)Hilda Mary Hooke (1898–1978, C)Harry Hooton (1908–1961, A)A. D. Hope (1907–2000, A)Christopher Hope (born 1944, SA)Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844–1889, E)Leah Horlick (living, C)Sean Horlor (born 1981, C)Frances Horovitz (1938–1983, E)Michael Horovitz (1935–2021, E)Peter Horn (1934–2019, SA)George Moses Horton (1797–1884, US)Allan Kolski Horwitz (born 1952, SA)Sylvester Houédard (1924–1992, Gy)Karen Houle (living, C)Joan Houlihan (living, US)A. E. Housman (1859–1936, E)Edward Howard (1793–1841, E) Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517–1547, E)Liz Howard (living, C)Richard Howard (1929–2022, US)Robert Guy Howarth (1906–1974, A)Fanny Howe (born 1940, US)George Howe (1769–1821, A)Julia Ward Howe (1819–1910, US)Susan Howe (born 1937, US)Ada Verdun Howell (1902–1981, A)Anthony Howell (born 1945, E)Harry Howith (1934–2014, C)Mary Howitt (1799–1888, E)Richard Howitt (1799–1869, E)William Howitt (1792–1879, E)Francis Hubert (died 1629, E)Thomas Hudson (d. c. 1605, S)Frieda Hughes (born 1960, A)Langston Hughes (1902–1967, US)Richard Hughes (1900–1976, E/W)Ted Hughes (1930–1998, E)Richard Hugo (1923–1982, US)Coral Hull (born 1965, A)Lynda Hull (1954–1994, US)T. E. Hulme (1883–1917, E)Alexander Hume (c. 1560–1609, S)Anna Hume (fl.", "1644, S)David Hume of Godscroft (1558–1629, S)Barry Humphries (1934–2023, A/E)Emyr Humphreys (1919–2020, W)Helen Humphreys (born 1961, C)Leigh Hunt (1784–1859, E)Sam Hunt (born 1946, NZ)Aislinn Hunter (living, C)Al Hunter (living, C)Bruce Hunter (born 1952, C)Catherine Hunter (born 1957, C)Rex Hunter (1889–1960, NZ)Constance Hunting (1925–2006, US)Cynthia Huntington (born 1952, US)Chris Hutchinson (born 1972, C)Pearse Hutchinson (1927–2012, Ir)William Hutton (1723–1815, E)Aldous Huxley (1894–1963, E)Douglas Smith Huyghue (1816–1891, C/A)Douglas Hyde (1860–1949, Ir)Robin Hyde (pen name of Iris Wilkinson; 1906–1939, NZ)Helen von Kolnitz Hyer (1896–1983, US)Maureen Hynes (living, C)==I==John Imlah (1799–1846, S)Rex Ingamells (1913–1955, A)Jean Ingelow (1820–1897, E)P. Inman (born 1947, US)Susan Ioannou (born 1944, C)Valentin Iremonger (1918–1991, Ir)Eric Irvin (1908–1993, A)Frances Itani (born 1942, C)Helen Ivory (born 1969, E)==J==Alan Jackson (born 1938, S)Violet Jacob (1863–1946, S)Josephine Jacobsen (1908–2003, US)Ethel Jacobson (1899–1991, US)Richard Jago (1715–1781, E)James I of Scotland (1394–1437, S)James VI and I (1566–1625, S/E)Alan James (living, SA)Clive James (1939–2019, A)John James (1939–2018, W/E)Maria James (1793–1868, W/US)Kathleen Jamie (born 1962, S)Robert Alan Jamieson (born 1958, S)Patricia Janus (1932–2006, US)Mark Jarman (born 1952, US)Lisa Jarnot (born 1967, US)Randall Jarrell (1914–1965, US)Alan Jefferies (born 1957, A)Robinson Jeffers (1887–1962, US)Isadore G. Jeffery (1840–1919, US)Rod Jellema (1927–1918, US)Jemeni (Joanne Gairy, born 1976, Gd/C)Graham Jenkin (born 1938, A)John Jenkins (born 1949, A)Joseph Jenkins (1818–1898, W/A)Mike Jenkins (born 1953, W)Nigel Jenkins (1949–2014, W)Elizabeth Jennings (1926–2001, E)Kate Jennings (1948–2021, A)Wopko Jensma (1939–1993 or after, SA)Sydney Jephcott (1864–1951, A)Paulette Jiles (born 1943, US/C)Liesl Jobson (living, SA)Rita Joe (1932–2007, C)Edmund John (1883–1917, E)Godfrey John (living, W)E. Pauline Johnson (1861–1913, C)Fenton Johnson (born 1953, US)Georgia Douglas Johnson (1880–1966, US)Helene Johnson (1906–1995, US)James Weldon Johnson (1871–1938, US)Linton Kwesi Johnson (born 1952, J)Lionel Johnson (1867–1902, E)Samuel Johnson (1709–1784, E)Sarah Johnson (born 1980, SA)George Benson Johnston (1913–2004, C)Martin Johnston (1947–1990, A)Amanda Jones (1835–1914, US)D. G. Jones (1929–2016, C)David Jones (1895–1974, E)Ebenezer Jones (1820–1860, E)El Jones (living, C)Emma Jones (born 1977, A)Evan Jones (1931–2022, A)Glyn Jones (1905–1995, W)Jack Jones (born 1992, W)Jill Jones (born 1951, A)John Joseph Jones (1930–2000, A)Patrick Jones (born 1965, W)Rae Desmond Jones (1941–2017, A)Richard Jones (living, US)Terry Jones (1942–2020, W/E)Erica Jong (born 1942, US)Ben Jonson (1573–1637, E)Julie Joosten (born 1980, US/C)John Jordan (1930–1988, Ir)June Jordan (1936–2002, J/US)Anthony Joseph (born 1966, T/E)Eve Joseph (born 1953, C)Jenny Joseph (1932–2018, E)Danilo Jovanovitch (1919–2015, A)James Joyce (1882–1941, Ir/I)Trevor Joyce (born 1947, Ir)Frank Judge (living, US)A. M. Juster (born 1956, US)Donald Justice (1925–2004, US)==K==Jim Kacian (born 1953, US)Aryan Kaganof (born 1964, SA)Chester Kallman (1921–1975, US)Surjeet Kalsey (living, C)Smaro Kamboureli (living, C)Ilya Kaminsky (born 1977, US)Julie Kane (born 1952, US)Adeena Karasick (born 1965, C/US)Mary Karr (born 1955, US)Julia Kasdorf (born 1962, US)Laura Kasischke (born 1961, US)Bob Kaufman (1925–1986, US)Shirley Kaufman (1923–2016, US)Rupi Kaur (born 1992, C)Patrick Kavanagh (1904–1967, Ir)Jackie Kay (born 1961, S)Jayne Fenton Keane (living, A)Lionel Kearns (born 1937, C)Annie Keary (1825–1879, E)Diane Keating (living, C)John Keats (1795–1821, E)John Keble (1792–1866, E)Janice Kulyk Keefer (born 1952, C)Weldon Kees (1914–1955, US)Nancy Keesing (1923–1993, A)Antigone Kefala (1935–2022, A)Christopher Kelen (born 1958, A)S. K. Kelen (born 1956, A)Anne Kellas (born 1951, SA/A)Isabella Kelly (1759–1857, S/E)M. T. Kelly (born 1946, C)Arthur Kelton (died c. 1550, E/W)Penn Kemp (born 1944, C)Henry Kendall (1839–1882, A)Francis Kenna (1865–1932, A)Cate Kennedy (born 1963, A)Geoffrey Studdert Kennedy (\"Woodbine Willy\", 1883–1929, E)Leo Kennedy (1907–2000, C)Miranda Kennedy (born 1975, US)Walter Kennedy (c. 1455 – c. 1508, S)X. J. Kennedy (born 1929, US)Jean Kent (born 1951, A)Jane Kenyon (1947–1995, US)Robert Kirkland Kernighan (1854–1926, C)Jack Kerouac (1922–1969, US)Sidney Keyes (1922–1943, E)Keorapetse Kgositsile (1938–2018, SA/US)Mimi Khalvati (born 1944, E)Charles Kickham (1828–1882, Ir)Anne Killigrew (1660–1685, E)Joyce Kilmer (1886–1918, US)Arthur Henry King (1910–2000, E/US)Henry King (1592–1669, E)William King (1663–1712, E)Charles Kingsley (1819–1875, E)Barbara Kingsolver (born 1955, US)Galway Kinnell (1927–2014, US)John Kinsella (born 1963, A)Thomas Kinsella (1928–2021, Ir)Rudyard Kipling (1865–1936, E)Olga Kirsch (1924–1997, SA/Is)Roy Kiyooka (1926–1994, C)Carolyn Kizer (1925–1914, US)Barbara Klar (born 1966, C)Sarah Klassen (born 1932, C)A. M. Klein (1909–1972, C)August Kleinzahler (born 1949, US)Etheridge Knight (1931–1991, US)Stephen Knight (born 1960, W/E)Raymond Knister (1899–1932, C)Kenneth Koch (1925–2002, US)Ruth Ellen Kocher (born 1965, US)Joy Kogawa (born 1935, C)komninos (born 1950, A)Yusef Komunyakaa (born 1947, US)Ted Kooser (born 1939, US)Shane Koyczan (born 1976, C)Rustum Kozain (born 1966, SA)Rudi Krausmann (1933–2019, A)Ruth Krauss (1901–1993, US)Carolyn Kreiter-Foronda (born 1946, US)Uys Krige (1910–1987, SA)Robert Kroetsch (1927–2011, C)Antjie Krog (born 1952, SA)Anton Robert Krueger (born 1971, SA)Marilyn Krysl (born 1942, US)Anatoly Kudryavitsky (born 1954, Ir)Abhay Kumar (born 1980, In)Mazisi Kunene (1930–2006, SA)Tuli Kupferberg (1923–2010, US)Maxine Kumin (1925–2014, US)Stanley Kunitz (1905–2006, US)Frank Kuppner (born 1951, S)Stephen Kuusisto (born 1955, US)Morris Kyffin (c. 1555–1598, W/E)Joanne Kyger (1934–2017, US)Francis Kynaston (1587–1642, E)==L=====La–Ln===John La Rose (1927–2006, J/E)Sonnet L'Abbé (born 1973, C)Edward A. Lacey (1938–1995, C)Mike Ladd (born 1959, A)Ben Ladouceur (born 1987, C)Nick Laird (born 1975, NI)David Lake (1929–2016, A)Philip Lamantia (1927–2005, US)Kendrick Lamar (born 1987, US)Charles Lamb (1775–1834, E)Archibald Lampman (1861–1899, C)Tim Lander (born 1938, C)Letitia Elizabeth Landon (1802–1838, E)Walter Savage Landor (1775–1864, E)M. Travis Lane (born 1934, US/C)Patrick Lane (1939–2019, C)Andrew Lang (1844–1912, S)D. L. Lang (born 1983, US)William Langland (c. 1332 – c. 1386, E)Eve Langley (1904–1974, A)Emilia Lanier (1569–1645, E)Sidney Lanier (1842–1881, US)Lucy Larcom (1824–1893, US)Rebecca Hammond Lard (1772–1855, US)Bruce Larkin (born 1957, US)Philip Larkin (1922–1985, E)Richard Latewar (1560–1601, E) Evelyn Lau (born 1971, C)James Laughlin (1914–1997, US)Ann Lauterbach (born 1942, US)Dorianne Laux (born 1952, US)Emily Lawless (1845–1913, Ir)Anthony Lawrence (born 1957, A)D. H. Lawrence (1885–1930, E)Henry Lawson (1867–1922, A)Louisa Lawson (1848–1920, A)Robert Lax (1915–2000, US)Layamon (late 12th – early 13th c., E)Irving Layton (1912–2006, C)Emma Lazarus (1849–1887, US)Augustus Asplet Le Gros (1840–1877, Je)Bronwyn Lea (living, A)Mary Leapor (1722–1746, E)Edward Lear (1812–1888, E)Lesley Lebkowicz (born 1946, A)Francis Ledwidge (1887–1917, Ir)David Lee (born 1944, US)Dennis Lee (born 1939, C)John B. Lee (born 1951, C)Muna Lee (1895–1965, US)Lily Alice Lefevre (1854–1938, C)Anne Brydges Lefroy (1747/8–1804, E)Joy Leftow (born 1949, US)Sylvia Legris (born 1960, C)Ursula K. Le Guin (1929–2018, US)David Lehman (born 1948, US)Geoffrey Lehmann (born 1940, A)Brad Leithauser (born 1953, US)Mark Lemon (1809–1870, E)Sue Lenier (born 1957, E)Charlotte Lennox (c. 1730–1804, S/E)John Lent (living, C)John Leonard (born 1965, A)Tom Leonard (1944–2018, S)William Ellery Leonard (1876–1944, US)Douglas LePan (1914–1998, C)Ben Lerner (born 1979, US)Alex Leslie (living, C)Rika Lesser (born 1953, US)Lilian Leveridge (1879–1953, C)Denise Levertov (1923–1997, E/US)Dana Levin (born 1965, US)Philip Levine (1928–2015, US)Larry Levis (1946–1996, US)D. A.", "Levy (1942–1968, US)William Levy (1939–2019, US/Nt)Emma Lew (born 1962, A)Oswald LeWinter (1931–2013, US)Alun Lewis (1915–1944, W)C. S. Lewis (1898–1963, Ir/E)Gwyneth Lewis (born 1959, W)J. Patrick Lewis (born 1942, US)Wyndham Lewis (1882–1957, E)Anne Ley (c. 1599–1641, E)Tim Liardet (born 1959, E)Isabella Lickbarrow (1784–1847, E)James Liddy (1934–2008, Ir)Tim Lilburn (born 1950, C)Charles Lillard (1944–1997, C)Kate Lilley (born 1960, A)Tao Lin (born 1983, US)Ada Limón (born 1976, US)Jack Lindeman (living, US)Eddie Linden (born 1935, S/E)Anne Morrow Lindbergh (1906–2001, US)Jack Lindsay (1900–1990, A/E)Maurice Lindsay (1918–2009, S)Sarah Lindsay (born 1958, US)Vachel Lindsay (1879–1931, US)Jessie Litchfield (1883–1956, A)Dorothy Livesay (1909–1996, C)Billie Livingston (living, C)Douglas Livingstone (1932–1996, SA)===Lo–Ly===Douglas Lochhead (1922–2011, C)Liz Lochhead (born 1947, S)Terry Locke (born 1946, NZ)Thomas Lodge (1556–1625, E)John Logan (1748–1788, S/E)Christopher Logue (1926–2011, E)James Longenbach (living, US)Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882, US)Michael Longley (born 1939, NI)John Longmuir (1803–1883, S)Audre Lorde (1934–1992, US)LindaAnn Loschiavo (living, US)Marguerite St. Leon Loud (1812–1889, US)Jennifer LoveGrove (living, C)Richard Lovelace (1618–1658, E)Henry Lovelich (fl.", "mid-15th c., E)Samuel Lover (1797–1868, Ir/E)Amy Lowell (1874–1925, US)James Russell Lowell (1819–1891, US)Maria White Lowell (1821–1853, US)Robert Lowell (1917–1977, US)Pat Lowther (1935–1975, C)Mina Loy (1882–1966, E/US)Edward Lucie-Smith (born 1933, E)Fitz Hugh Ludlow (1836–1870, US)Tatjana Lukić (1959–2008, A)Suzanne Lummis (living, US)Laura Lush (born 1959, C)Richard Lush (born 1934, C)Thomas Lux (1946–2017, US)John Lydgate (1370–1450, E)John Lyly (1553–1606, E)Michael Lynch (1944–1991, US/C)David Lyndsay (c. 1490 – c. 1555, S)P. H. B. Lyon (1893–1986, E)Henry Francis Lyte (1793–1847, S)George Lyttelton Lord Lyttelton (1709–1773, E)==M=====Ma–Mi===Rozena Maart (born 1962, SA/C)Lindiwe Mabuza (1938–2021, US/SA)Frederick Macartney (1887–1980, A)Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800–1859, E)George MacBeth (1932–1992, S)Norman MacCaig (1910–1996, S)Denis Florence MacCarthy (1817–1882, Ir)Karen Mac Cormack (born 1956, C/US)Hugh MacDiarmid (1892–1978, S)Donagh MacDonagh (1912–1968, Ir)Thomas MacDonagh (1878–1916, Ir)Allan MacDonald (1859–1905, S)Elizabeth Roberts MacDonald (1864–1922, C)George Macdonald (1824–1905, S)Hugh MacDonald (born 1945, C)Wilson MacDonald (1880–1967, C)Patrick MacDonogh (1902–1961, Ir)Gwendolyn MacEwen (1941–1987, C)Seán Mac Falls (born 1957, Ir)Walter Scott MacFarlane (1896–1979, C)Patrick MacGill (1889–1963, Ir)Alasdair Alpin MacGregor (1899–1970, S)Ronald Campbell Macfie (1867–1931, S)James Pittendrigh Macgillivray (1856–1938, S)Thomas MacGreevy (1893–1967, Ir)Arthur Machen (1863–1947, W/E)Tom MacInnes (1867–1951, C)Louise Mack (1870–1935, A)John William Mackail (1859–1945, S)John Macken (c. 1784–1823, Ir)Lachlan Mackinnon (born 1956, S)Compton Mackenzie (1883–1972, S)Kenneth Mackenzie (Seaforth Mackenzie, 1913–1955, A)Archibald MacLeish (1892–1982, US)Dorothea Mackellar (1885–1968, A)Don Maclennan (1929–2009, SA)Joseph Macleod (1903–1984, E)Nathaniel Mackey (born 1947, US)Don Maclennan (1929–2009, SA)Jackson Mac Low (1922–2004, US)Louis MacNeice (1907–1963, Ir/E)Kevin MacNeil (living, S)Hector Macneill (1746–1818, S)Lachlan Mackinnon (born 1956, S)Alasdair Maclean (1926–1994, S)Archibald MacLeish (1892–1982, US)Andrea MacPherson (living, C)James Macpherson (1736–1796, S)Jay Macpherson (1931–2012, C)Barry MacSweeney (1948–2000, E)Haki R. Madhubuti (born 1942, US)John Gillespie Magee Jr. (1922–1941, C)Wes Magee (born 1939, S)Jayanta Mahapatra (born 1928, In)Sitakant Mahapatra (born 1937, In)Mzi Mahola (born 1949, SA)Derek Mahon (born 1941, NI)Jennifer Maiden (born 1949, A)Keith Maillard (born 1942, US/C)Charles Mair (1838–1827, C)Alice Major (born 1949, C)Clarence Major (born 1936, US)Robert Majzels (born 1950, C)Taylor Mali (born 1965, US)David Mallet (c. 1705–1765, S)Thomas Malory (c. 1415–1471, E)David Malouf (born 1934, A)Kim Maltman (born 1951, C)Eli Mandel (1922–1992, C)Tom Mandel (born 1942, US)Ahdri Zhina Mandiela (born 1953, J/C)James Clarence Mangan (1803–1849, Ir)Bill Manhire (born 1946, NZ)David Manicom (born 1960, C)John Manifold (1915–1985, A)Leonard Mann (1895–1981, A)Emily Manning (1845–1890, A)Frederic Manning (1882–1935, A)Maurice Manning (born 1966, US)Ruth Manning-Sanders (1886–1988, W)Robert Mannyng (1269–1340, E)Chris Mansell (born 1953, A)Peter Manson (born 1969, S)Lee Maracle (1950–2021, C)Blaine Marchand (born 1949, C)Morton Marcus (1936–2009, US)Paul Mariani (born 1940, US)E. A. Markham (1939–2008, Mo/E)Edwin Markham (1852–1940, US)Nicole Markotic (born 1962, C)Daphne Marlatt (born 1942, C)Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593, E)Don Marquis (1878–1937, US)Edward Garrard Marsh (1783–1862, E)Tom Marshall (1938–1993, C)John Marston (1576–1634, E)Garth Martens (living, C)Camille Martin (born 1956, C)David Martin (1915–1997, E/A)Philip Martin (1931–2005, A)Theodore Martin (1816–1909, S)Sid Marty (born 1944, C)Andrew Marvell (1621–1678, E)John Masefield (1878–1967, E)Lebogang Mashile (born 1979, SA)R. A. K. Mason (1905–1971, NZ)Edgar Lee Masters (1868–1950, US)John Mateer (born 1971, A)Ray Mathew (1929–2002, A)Robin Mathews (born 1931, C)Roland Mathias (1915–2007, W)Cleopatra Mathis (born 1947, US)Don Mattera (born 1935, SA)James Matthews (born 1929, SA)Glyn Maxwell (born 1962, E)Bernadette Mayer (born 1945, US)Micheline Maylor (born 1970, C)Seymour Mayne (born 1944, C)Chandra Mayor (born 1973, C)Ben Mazer (born 1964, US)Mzwakhe Mbuli (born 1959, SA)James McAuley (1917–1976, A)Robert McBride (c. 1811/1812–1895, C)Neil McBride (1861–1942, Ir)Ian McBryde (born 1953, A)Brian McCabe (born 1951, S)Steven McCabe (living, C)Steve McCaffery (born 1947, C)Julia McCarthy (living, C)Susan McCaslin (born 1947, C)J. D. McClatchy (1945–2018, US)Kim McClenaghan (born 1974, SA/E)Michael McClure (born 1932, US)Kathleen McConnell (Kathy Mac, living, C)David McCooey (born 1967, A)George Gordon McCrae (1833–1927, A)John McCrae (1872–1918, C)Shane McCrae (born 1975, US)Kathleen McCracken (born 1960, C)John McCrae (1872–1918, C)Ronald McCuaig (1908–1993, A)Matthew McDiarmid (1914–1996, S)Nan McDonald (1921–1974, A)Roger McDonald (born 1941, A)Roy McDonald (1937–2018, C)Walt McDonald (born 1934, US)David McFadden (1940–2018, C)Hugh McFadden (living, Ir)David McGimpsey (living, C)Phyllis McGinley (1905–1978, US)Elvis McGonagall (living, S)William McGonagall (1825–1902, S)Roger McGough (born 1937, E)Michelle McGrane (born 1974, Z/SA)Campbell McGrath (born 1962, US)Thomas McGrath (1916–1990, US)Wendy McGrath (living, C)Medbh McGuckian (born 1950, NI)Heather McHugh (born 1948, US)William McIlvanney (1936–2015, S)Nadine McInnis (born 1957, C)James McIntyre (1828–1906, S/C)Claude McKay (1889–1948, J/US)Don McKay (born 1942, C)Barry McKinnon (born 1944, C)Rod McKuen (1933–2015, US)Greg McLaren (born 1967, A)Isaac McLellan (1806–1899, US)John McLellan (early 19th century, E)Brendan McLeod (born 1979, C)Nigel McLoughlin (born 1968, NI)Emily Julian McManus (1865–1918, C)Rhyll McMaster (born 1947, A)Susan McMaster (born 1950, C)James L. McMichael (born 1939, US)Ian McMillan (born 1956, E)Eugene McNamara (1930–2016, US/C)Anthony McNeill (1941–1996, J)Andrew McNeillie (born 1946, W/E)Hollie McNish (born 1984, E)Bernard McNulty (1842–1892, US)Steve McOrmond (living, C)Dionyse McTair (born 1950, T)Máighréad Medbh (born 1959, IrThomas Medwin (1788–1869, E)Paula Meehan (born 1955, Ir)Peter Meinke (born 1932, US)Mary Melfi (born 1951, C)Elizabeth Melville (c. 1578 – c. 1640, S)Herman Melville (1819–1891, US)Christopher Meredith (born 1955, W)George Meredith (1828–1909, E)Louisa Anne Meredith (1812–1895, E/A)James Merrill (1926–1995, US)Stuart Merrill (1863–1915, US)Iman Mersal (born 1966, C)Thomas Merton (1915–1968, US)W. S. Merwin (1927–2019, US)Sarah Messer (born 1966, US)Joan Metelerkamp (born 1956, SA)Charlotte Mew (1869–1928, E)Bruce Meyer (born 1957, C)Alice Meynell (1847–1922, E)Viola Meynell (1885–1956, E)James Lionel Michael (1824–1868, E/A)Anne Michaels (born 1958, C)William Julius Mickle (1734–1788, S)Marianne Micros (living, C)Christopher Middleton (c. 1560–1628, E)Christopher Middleton (1926–2015, E)Richard Barham Middleton (1882–1911, E)Thomas Middleton (1580–1627, E)Roy Miki (born 1942, C)Dorothy Miles (1931–1993, W/US)Josephine Miles (1911–1985, US)Jennifer Militello (living, US)Edna St. Vincent Millay (1892–1950, US)Alice Duer Miller (1874–1942, US)Jane Miller (born 1949, US)Joaquin Miller (1837–1913, US)Leslie Adrienne Miller (born 1956, US)Ruth Miller (1919–1969, SA)Thomas Miller (1807–1874, E)Vassar Miller (1924–1998, US)John Millett (1921–2019, A)Robert Millhouse (1788–1839, E)Alice Milligan (1865–1953, Ir/NI)Spike Milligan (1918–2002, E/Ir)Kenneth G. Mills (1923–2004, C)Roswell George Mills (1896–1966, C)John Milton (1608–1674, E)Robert Minhinnick (born 1952, W)Matthew Minicucci (born 1981, US)Gary Miranda (born 1939, US)Sudesh Mishra (living, A)Adrian Mitchell (1932–2008, E)Paul Mitchell (born 1968, A)Silas Weir Mitchell (1829–1914, US)Stephen Mitchell (born 1943, US)Waddie Mitchell (born 1950, US)Naomi Mitchison (1897–1999, S)Amitabh Mitra (living, SA)Ange Mlinko (born 1960, US)===Mo–Mu===David Macbeth Moir (1798–1851, S)Anis Mojgani (born 1977, US)John Mole (born 1941, E)Natalia Molebatsi (living, SA)Dorothy Molloy (1942–2004, Ir)Geraldine Monk (born 1952, E)Harold Monro (1879–1932, E)Harriet Monroe (1860–1936, US)Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax (1661–1715, E)John Montague (1929–2016, Ir)Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689–1762, E)Alexander Montgomerie (c. 1550–1598, S)James Montgomery (1771–1854, E)Lucy Maud Montgomery (L. M. Montgomery, 1874–1942, C)Marion E. Moodie (1867–1958, C)Susanna Moodie (1803–1885, E/C)Kobus Moolman (living, SA)Jacob McArthur Mooney (born 1983, C)Alan Moore (born 1960, Ir)Marianne Moore (1887–1972, US)Merrill Moore (1903–1957, US)Ruth Moore (1903–1989, US)T. Inglis Moore (1901–1978, A)Thomas Moore (1779–1852, Ir/E)Thomas Sturge Moore (1870–1944, E)Dom Moraes (1938–2004, In)Barbara Moraff (born 1939, US)Cherríe Moraga (born 1952, US)Edythe Morahan de Lauzon (fl.", "early 20th c., C)Pamela Mordecai (born 1942, J/C)Hannah More (1745–1833, E)Dwayne Morgan (born 1974, C)Edwin Morgan (1920–2010, S)J. O. Morgan (born 1978, S)Jeffrey Morgan (living, C)Mal Morgan (1936–1999, A)Robin Morgan (born 1941, US)Lorin Morgan-Richards (born 1975, US)A. F. Moritz (born 1947, US/C)Eliza F. Morris (1821–1874, E)Mervyn Morris (born 1937, J)Sharon Morris (living, W/E)William Morris (1834–1896, E)David R. Morrison (1941–2012, S)Jim Morrison (1943–1971, US)Morrissey (born 1959, E)Kim Morrissey (Janice Dales, living, C)Garry Thomas Morse (living, C)Viggo Mortensen (born 1958, US/De)Colin Morton (born 1948, C)Frank Morton (1869–1923, A)Twm Morys (born 1961, W)Daniel David Moses (born 1952, C)Howard Moss (1922–1987, US)Thylias Moss (born 1954, US)Isabella Motadinyane (1963–2003, SA)William Motherwell (1797–1835, S)Andrew Motion (born 1952, E)Seitlhamo Motsapi (born 1966, SA)Casey Motsisi (1932–1977, SA)Eric Mottram (1924–1995, E)Erín Moure (born 1955, C)Oswald Mbuyiseni Mtshali (born 1940, SA)Ian Mudie (1911–1976, A)Mudrooroo (Colin Thomas Johnson, 1938–2019, A)Lisel Mueller (1924–2020, US)Micere Githae Mugo (1942–2023, K/Z)Edwin Muir (1887–1959, S/E)Paul Muldoon (born 1951, Ir/US)Wendy Mulford (born 1941, W/E)Harryette Mullen (born 1953, US)Laura Mullen (born 1958, US)Anthony Munday (c. 1560–1633, E)Jane Munro (born 1943, C)Sachiko Murakami (born 1980, C)William Murdoch (1823–1887, S/C)Edwin Greenslade Murphy (Dryblower, 1866–1939, A)Hayden Murphy (born 1945, Ir)Richard Murphy (1927–2018, Ir/SLk)Sheila Murphy (born 1951, US)Charles Murray (1864–1941, S)George Murray (born 1971, C)Joan Murray (born 1945, US)Les Murray (1938–2019, A)David Musgrave (born 1965, A)Susan Musgrave (born 1951, C)Togara Muzanenhamo (born 1975, Z)==N==Vladimir Nabokov (1899–1977, RE/US)Constance Naden (1858–1889, E)Sarojini Naidu (1879–1949, In)Carolina Nairne (1766–1845, S)Sydney Elliott Napier (1870–1940, A)Akhtar Naraghi (living, C)Ogden Nash (1902–1971, US)Roger Nash (born 1942, E/C)Thomas Nashe (1567–1601, E)John Neal (1793–1876, US)Charles Neaves (1800–1876, S)Henry Neele (1798–1828, E)Lyle Neff (born 1969, C)John Neihardt (1881–1973, US)William Neill (1922–2010, S)Philip Neilsen (living, A)Shaw Neilson (1872–1942, A)Alice Dunbar Nelson (1875–1935, US)Holly Nelson (living, US/C)Marilyn Nelson (born 1946, US)Howard Nemerov (1920–1991, US)Kenn Nesbitt (born 1962, US)W. H. New (born 1938, C)Henry Newbolt (1862–1938, E)John Newlove (1938–2003, C)John Henry Newman (1801–1890, E)Kate Newmann (born 1965, NI/Ir)William Newton (1750–1830, E)Aimee Nezhukumatathil (born 1974, US)Nuala Ní Chonchúir (born 1970, Ir)Eiléan Ní Chuilleanáin (born 1942, Ir)Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill (born 1952, Ir)Ailbhe Ní Ghearbhuigh (born 1984, Ir)Doireann Ní Ghríofa (born 1981, Ir)Nicholas of Guildford (12th or 13th c., E)Barrie Phillip Nichol (bpNichol, 1944–1988, C)Grace Nichols (born 1950, Gu/E)Robert Nichols (1893–1944, E)Cecily Nicholson (living, C)Norman Nicholson (1914–1987, E)Lorine Niedecker (1903–1970, US)Emilia Nielsen (living, C)Hume Nisbet (1849–1923, A/S)Christopher Nolan (1965–2009, Ir)Oodgeroo Noonuccal (1920–1993, A)Leslie Norris (1921–2006, W/US)Harry Northup (born 1940, US)Arthur Nortje (1942–1970, SA)Caroline Norton (1808–1877, E)Alice Notley (born 1945, US)Alden Nowlan (1933–1983, C)Alfred Noyes (1880–1958, E)Jeff Nuttall (1933–2004, E)Naomi Shihab Nye (born 1952, US)Robert Nye (1939–2016, E)==O==Joyce Carol Oates (born 1938, US)John O'Brien (Patrick Joseph Hartigan, 1878–1952, A)Sean O'Brien (born 1952, E)Patrick O'Connell (1944–2005, C)Mark O'Connor (born 1945, A)Philip O'Connor (1916–1998, E)Mary O'Donnell (born 1954, Ir)Bernard O'Donoghue (born 1945, Ir)Gregory O'Donoghue (1951–2005, Ir)Bernard O'Dowd (1866–1953, A)Dennis O'Driscoll (born 1954, Ir)Ernest O'Ferrall (1881–1925, A)Ron Offen (1930–2010, US)William Henry Ogilvie (1869–1963, S)Frank O'Hara (1926–1966, US)John Bernard O'Hara (1862–1927, A)Theodore O'Hara (1820–1867, US)Pixie O'Harris (1903–1991, A)Sharon Olds (born 1942, US)Alexandra Oliver (living, C)Mary Oliver (1935–2019, US)Redell Olsen (born 1971, E)Charles Olson (1910–1970, US)Sheree-Lee Olson (born 1954, C)Nessa O'Mahony (living, Ir)Michael Ondaatje (born 1943, SLk/C)Heather O'Neill (born 1973, C)Henrietta O'Neill (1758–1793, Ir)Mary Devenport O'Neill (1879–1976, Ir)George Oppen (1908–1984, US)Mary Oppen (1908–1990, US)Antoine Ó Raifteiri (1784–1835, Ir)Edward Otho Cresap Ord, II (1858–1923, US)Dowell O'Reilly (1865–1923, A)Peter Orlovsky (1933–2010, US)John Ormond (1923–1990, W)Frank Ormsby (born 1947, NI)Gregory Orr (born 1947, US)Arthur O'Shaughnessy (1844–1881, E)Micheal O'Siadhail (born 1947, Ir)Alicia Ostriker (born 1937, US)Maggie O'Sullivan (born 1951, E)Seumas O'Sullivan (1879–1958, Ir)Niyi Osundare (born 1947, Ni/US)Alice Oswald (born 1966, E)John Oswald (died 1793, S)Eoghan Ó Tuairisc (1919–1982, Ir)Richard Outram (1930–2005, C)Ouyang Yu (歐陽昱; born 1955, A)Catherine Owen (living, C)Jan Owen (born 1940, A)Wilfred Owen (1893–1918, E)==P==Susan Paddon (living, C)Ruth Padel (born 1947, E)Ron Padgett (born 1942, US)Isabel Pagan (c. 1740–1821, S)Geoff Page (born 1940, A)P. K. Page (1916–2010, C)Janet Paisley (1948–2018, S)Grace Paley (1922–2007, E)Francis Turner Palgrave (1824–1897, E)Michael Palmer (born 1943, US)Nettie Palmer (1885–1964, A)Vance Palmer (1885–1959, A)Sylvia Pankhurst (1882–1960, E)William Williams Pantycelyn (W)Aristides Paradissis (1923–2006, A)Arleen Paré (born 1946, C)Dorothy Parker (1893–1967, US)Amy Parkinson (1855–1938, C)Thomas Parnell (1670–1718, Ir/E)Robert Parry (1540–1612, W)Lisa Pasold (living, C)John Pass (born 1947, C)Linda Pastan (born 1932, US)Kenneth Patchen (1911–1972, US)Banjo Paterson (1864–1941, A)Don Paterson (born 1963, S)Coventry Patmore (1823–1896, E)Brian Patten (born 1946, E)Ian Patterson (born 1948, E)Philip Kevin Paul (living, C)Tom Paulin (born 1949, NI/E)Ricardo Pau-Llosa (born 1954, Cu)James Payn (1830–1898, E/S)Molly Peacock (born 1947, US/C)Thomas Love Peacock (1785–1866, E)Patrick Pearse (1879–1916, Ir)Soraya Peerbaye (living, C)Pearl Poet (14th c., E)Patrick Pearse (1879–1916, Ir)James Larkin Pearson (1879–1981, US)Neil Peart (1952–2020, C)Kathleen Peirce (born 1956, US)J. D. C. Pellow (1890–1960, E)Nathan Penlington (living, W/E)Anne Penny (1729–1784, W/E)Margaret Pennyman (bap.", "1685, d. 1733), EHilary Douglas Clark Pepler (1878–1951, E)Sam Pereira (born 1949, US)Lucia Perillo (1958–2016, US)Grace Perry (1927–1987, A)Alice E. Heckler Peters (1845–1921, US)Lenrie Peters (1932–2009, Ga)Robert Peters (1924–2014, US)Pascale Petit (born 1953, W)Mario Petrucci (born 1958, E)W. T. Pfefferle (born 1962, C)Anna Augusta Von Helmholtz-Phelan (1890–1964, US)M. NourbeSe Philip (born 1947, T/C)Ambrose Philips (1674–1749, E)Katherine Philips (1631/1632–1664, E/W)Ben Phillips (born 1947, C)Eden Phillpotts (1862–1960, E)Alison Pick (born 1975, C)Tom Pickard (born 1946, E)Leah Lakshmi Piepzna-Samarasinha (born 1975, US/C)Marge Piercy (born 1936, US)Laetitia Pilkington (c. 1709–1750, Ir/E)Mary Pilkington (1761–1839, E)Sarah Pinder (living, C)Percy Edward Pinkerton (1855–1946, E)Robert Pinsky (born 1940, US)George Pirie (1799–1870, C)Christopher Pitt (1699–1748, E)Marie Pitt (1869–1948, A)Ruth Pitter (1897–1992, E)Al Pittman (1940–2001, C)Marjorie Pizer (1920–2016, A)Sylvia Plath (1932–1963, US/E)William Plomer (1903–1973, SA/E)Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany (1878–1957, Ir/E)Joseph Plunkett (1887–1916, Ir)Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849, US)Emily Pohl-Weary (born 1973, C)Craig Poile (living, C)Suman Pokhrel (born 1967, Ne)Marcella Polain (born 1958, A)Margaret Steuart Pollard (1904–1996, E)Edward Pollock (1823–1858, US)Robert Pollok (c. 1798–1827, S)John Pomfret (1667–1702, E)Marie Ponsot (1921–2019, US)John Pook (born 1942, W/F)Sandy Pool (living, C)Marie Ponsot (1921–2019, US)Alexander Pope (1688–1744, E)Judith Pordon (born 1954, US)Anna Maria Porter (1780–1832, E)Dorothy Porter (1954–2008, A)Hal Porter (1911–1984, A)Peter Porter (1929–2010, A)Rochelle Potkar (born 1979, In)Robert Potter (1721–1804, E)Charles Potts (born 1943, US)Ezra Pound (1885–1972, US)B. W. Powe (born 1955, C)Craig Powell (born 1940, A)Winthrop Mackworth Praed (1802–1839, E)Claire Pratt (1921–1995, C)E. J. Pratt (1882–1964, C)Jack Prelutsky (born 1940, US)Karen Press (born 1956, SA)Thomas Preston (1537–1598, E)Ron Pretty (1940–2023, A)Frank Prewett (1893–1962, C)Nancy Price (1880–1970, E)Richard Price (born 1966, S/E)Robert Priest (born 1951, C)F. T. Prince (1912–2003, E)Thomas Pringle (1789–1834, S/SA)Matthew Prior (1664–1721, E)Pauline Prior-Pitt (living, S)Adelaide Anne Procter (1825–1864, E)Bryan Procter (1787–1874, E)Kevin Prufer (born 1969, US)J. H. Prynne (born 1936, E)Sheenagh Pugh (born 1950, W/E)Al Purdy (1918–2000, C)==Q==Andy Quan (born 1969, C/A)Francis Quarles (1592–1644, E)Peter Quennell (1905–1993, E)Sina Queyras (living, C)Roderic Quinn (1867–1949, A)==R=====Ra–Ri===William Radice (born 1951, E)Kenneth Radu (born 1945, C)Sam Ragan (1915–1996, US)Jennifer Rahim (born 1963, T)Craig Raine (born 1944, E)Kathleen Raine (1908–2003, US)Carl Rakosi (1903–2004, US)Walter Raleigh (1552 or 1554–1618, E)James Ralph (1705–1762, US/E)Raymond Ramcharitar (living, T)Lesego Rampolokeng (born 1965, S)Allan Ramsay (1686–1758, S)Theodore Harding Rand (1835–1900, C)Dudley Randall (1914–2000, US)Julia Randall (1924–2005, US)Thomas Randolph (1605–1635, E)Jennifer Rankin (1941–1979, A)Claudia Rankine (born 1963, J)John Crowe Ransom (1888–1974, US)Lennox Raphael (born 1939, J)Stephen Ratcliffe (born 1948, US)Angela Rawlings (born 1978, C)Tom Raworth (1938–2017, E)Herbert Read (1893–1968, E)Angela Readman (born 1973, E)James Reaney (1926–2008, C)George Reavey (1907–1976, Ir)Peter Redgrove (1932–2003, E)Michael Redhill (born 1966, C)Beatrice Redpath (1886–1937, C)Henry Reed (1914–1986, E)Ishmael Reed (born 1938, US)Jeremy Reed (born 1951, Je)Kerry Reed-Gilbert (1956–2019, A)Ennis Rees (1925–2009, US)Lizette Woodworth Reese (1856–1935, US)Deryn Rees-Jones (living, E/W)James Reeves (1909–1978, E)Nell Regan (born 1969, Ir)Alastair Reid (1926–2014, S)Christopher Reid (born 1949, E)D. C. Reid (born 1952, C)Jamie Reid (1941–2015, C)Azila Talit Reisenberger (living, SA)James Reiss (1941–2016, US)Joseph Relph (1712–1743, E)Robert Rendall (1898–1967, S)Kenneth Rexroth (1905–1982, US)Oliver Reynolds (born 1957, W)Charles Reznikoff (1894–1976, US)Shane Rhodes (living, C)Ernest Rhys (1859–1946, W/E)Henry Rice (1585 or 1586–1651, W/E)Stan Rice (1942–2002, US)Adrienne Rich (1929–2012, US)Dorothy Richardson (1873–1957, E)John Richardson (1817–1886, E)Robert Richardson (1850–1901, A)Edgell Rickword (1898–1982, E)Elizabeth Riddell (1910–1998, A)Lola Ridge (1873–1941, US)Laura Riding (1901–1991, US)Elijah Ridings (1802–1872)Anne Ridler (1912–2001, E)Denise Riley (born 1948, E)James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916, US)John Riley (1937–1978, E)Peter Riley (born 1940, E)Mary Roberts Rinehart (1876–1958, US)Maurice Riordan (born 1953, Ir)Alberto Ríos (born 1952, US)===Ro–Ru===E. M. Roach (Merton Maloney, 1915–1974, T)Charles G. D. Roberts (1860–1943, C)Emma Roberts (1794–1840, E)Michael Roberts (1902–1948, E)Edith Anne Robertson (1883–1973, S)James Robertson (born 1958, S)Lisa Robertson (born 1961, C)Robin Robertson (born 1955, S)Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869–1935, US)Lennox Robinson (1886–1958, Ir)Mary Robinson (1758–1800, E)Matt Robinson (born 1974, C)Roland Robinson (1912–1992, A)Ajmer Rode (living, C)Gordon Rodgers (born 1952, C)W. R. Rodgers (1909–1969, NI)Carmen Rodríguez (born 1948 Ch/C)Judith Rodriguez (1936–2018, A)Theodore Roethke (1908–1963, US)Janet Rogers (born 1963, C)Linda Rogers (born 1944, C)Samuel Rogers (1763–1855, E)Isabella Whiteford Rogerson (Isabella Whiteford, 1835–1905, Ir/C)Matthew Rohrer (born 1972, US)Mary Rolls (1775–1835, E)Ethel Rolt Wheeler (1869–1958, E)David Romtvedt (living, US)Dilys Rose (born 1954, S)Peter Rose (born 1955, A)Raymond Roseliep (1917–1983, US)Franklin Rosemont (1943–2009, US)Penelope Rosemont (born 1942, US)Isaac Rosenberg (1890–1918, E)Joe Rosenblatt (1933–2019, C)Gabriel Rosenstock (born 1949, Ir)Laisha Rosnau (born 1972, C)Alan Ross (1922–2001, E)Bruce Ross (living, C)Stuart Ross (living, C)W. W. E. Ross (1894–1966, C)Christina Rossetti (1830–1894, E)Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828–1882, E)Jerome Rothenberg (born 1931, US)Nancy-Gay Rotstein (living, C)Anne Rouse (born 1954, US/E)David Rowbotham (1924–2010, A)Elizabeth Singer Rowe (1674–1737, E)Nicholas Rowe (1674–1718, E)Noel Rowe (1951–2007, A)Stephen Rowe (born 1980, C)Graham Rowlands (born 1947, A)Richard Rowlands (1565–1630, E/Nt)Samuel Rowlands (c. 1573–1630, E)Rosemarie Rowley (born 1942, Ir)Susanna Rowson (1762–1824, E/US)Susanna Roxman (1946–2015, Sw)Adam Rudden (born 1983, Ir)Ellen Sergeant Rude (1838–1916, US)Muriel Rukeyser (1913–1980, US)Charlotte Runcie (born 1989, S)Jenny Terrill Ruprecht (1839–1916, US)George William Russell (1867–1935, Ir/E)Nipsey Russell (1918–2005, US)Brendan Ryan (born 1963, A)Gig Ryan (born 1956, A)Kay Ryan (born 1945, US)Michael Ryan (born 1946, US)Tracy Ryan (born 1964, A)Thomas Rymer (c. 1643–1713, E)==S=====Sa–Si===Charles Sackville (1643–1706, E)Thomas Sackville (1536–1608, E)Vita Sackville-West (1892–1962, E)Benjamin Alire Sáenz (born 1954, US)Maria Grace Saffery (1773–1858, E)Lake Sagaris (born 1956, C/Ch)Nandini Sahu (born 1973, In)Arja Salafranca (born 1971, SA)Trish Salah (living, C)Nina Salaman (1877–1925, E)Blanaid Salkeld (1880–1959, Ir)Philip Salom (born 1950, A)John Salusbury (1567–1612, W/E)Thomas Salusbury (1612–1643, W/E)Fiona Sampson (born 1963, E)Sonia Sanchez (born 1934, US)Carl Sandburg (1878–1967, US)Peter Sanger (born 1943, C)Charles Sangster (1822–1893, C)Ann Sansom (living, E)Clive Sansom (1910–1981, E/A)Andrew Sant (born 1950, A)Robyn Sarah (born 1949, C)Jaydeep Sarangi (born 1973, India)Dipti Saravanamuttu (born 1960, A)May Sarton (1912–1995, US)Siegfried Sassoon (1886–1967, E)K. Satchidanandan (born 1948, In)Esther Saunders (1793–1862, US)Jen Saunders (born 1962, A)Richard Savage (c. 1697–1743, E)Jaya Savige (born 1978, A)Leslie Scalapino (1944–2010, US)Herman George Scheffauer (1876–1927, US)Jacob Scheier (born 1980, C)Libby Scheier (1946–2000, US/C)Bel Schenk (born 1975, A)Dennis Schmitz (1937–2019, US)Pat Schneider (1934–2020, US)Jane Johnston Schoolcraft (1800–1842, US)Andreas Schroeder (born 1946, C)Philip Schultz (born 1945, US)James Schuyler (1923–1991, US)Delmore Schwartz (1913–1966, US)Stephen Scobie (born 1943, C)Gregory Scofield (born 1966, C)Alexander Scott (c. 1520 – c. 1583, S)Alexander Scott (1920–1989, S)Dennis Scott (1939–1991, J)Duncan Campbell Scott (1862–1947, C)F. R. Scott (1899–1985, C)Frederick George Scott (1861–1944, C)Geoffrey Scott (1884–1929, E)John A. Scott (born 1948, A)Margaret Scott (1934–2005, A)Peter Dale Scott (born 1929, C)Tom Scott (1918–1995, S)Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832, S)William Bell Scott (1811–1890, S)Gil Scott-Heron (1949–2011, US)Ann Scott-Moncrieff (1914–1943, S)E. J. Scovell (1907–1999, E)Maurice Scully (born 1952, Ir)George Bazeley Scurfield (1920–1991, E)Peter Seaton (1942–2010, US)Charles Sedley (1639–1701, E)Frederick Seidel (born 1936, US)Hugh Seidman (born 1940, US)Rebecca Seiferle (living, US)Lasana M. Sekou (born 1959, SM)Francis Sempill (c. 1616–1682, S)Robert Sempill (c. 1595 – c. 1663, S)Olive Senior (born 1941, J/C)Sipho Sepamla (1932–2007, SA)Mongane Wally Serote (born 1944, SA)Nina Serrano (born 1934, US)Robert W. Service (1874–1958, S/C)Vikram Seth (born 1952, SM)Elkanah Settle (1648–1724, E)Anna Seward (1742–1809, E)Anne Sexton (1928–1974, US)John W. Sexton (born 1958, Ir)Thomas Shadwell (1642–1692, E)Kathy Shaidle (born 1964, C)William Shakespeare (1564–1616, E)Tupac Shakur (1971–1996, US)Otep Shamaya (born 1979, US)Eileen Shanahan (1901–1979, Ir)Ntozake Shange (1948–2018, US)Edward Shanks (1892–1953, E)Jo Shapcott (born 1953, E)Thomas Shapcott (born 1935, A)Karl Shapiro (1913–2000, US)Michael Sharkey (born 1946, A)William Sharp (awa Fiona MacLeod, 1855–1905, S)Brenda Shaughnessy (born 1970, US)Luci Shaw (born 1928, E/US)Owen Sheers (born 1974, W/E)Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822, E)William Shenstone (1714–1763, E)Nan Shepherd (1893–1981, S)Francis Joseph Sherman (1871–1926, C)Joseph Sherman (1945–2006, C)Kate Brownlee Sherwood (1841–1914, US)Carol Shields (1935–2003, US/C)Trish Shields (living, C)Thomas Shipman (1632–1680, E)James Shirley (1596–1666, E)Dora Adele Shoemaker (1873–1962, US)Fredegond Shove (1889–1949, E)Sandy Shreve (living, C)Penelope Shuttle (born 1947, E)Beau Sia (born 1976, US)Mary Sidney (1561–1621, E)Philip Sidney (1554–1586, E)Melanie Siebert (living, C)Eli Siegel (1902–1978, US)Robert Siegel (1939–2012, US)Jon Silkin (1930–1997, E)Hilda Siller (1861–1945, US)Ron Silliman (born 1946, US)Shel Silverstein (1930–1999, US)Charles Simic (1938–2023, US)Goran Simić (born 1952, Bo/C)Bren Simmers (born 1976, C)James Simmons (1933–2001, NI)Anne Simpson (living, C)Louis Simpson (1923–2012, J/US)Matt Simpson (1936–2009, E)R. A. Simpson (1929–2002, A)Bennie Lee Sinclair (1939–2000, US)Iain Sinclair (born 1943, W/E)May Sinclair (1863–1946, E)Sue Sinclair (living, C)Tim Sinclair (born 1972, A)Burns Singer (1928–1964, S)Marilyn Singer (born 1948, US)Sarah Singleton (born 1966, E)George Sipos (living, C)Peter Sirr (born 1960, Ir)Lemn Sissay (born 1967, E)C. H. Sisson (1914–2003, E)Ari Sitas (born 1952, SA)Edith Sitwell (1887–1964, E)Osbert Sitwell (1892–1969, E)Sacheverell Sitwell (1897–1988, E)===Sk–Sq===Sonja Skarstedt (1960–2009, C)John Skelton (1460–1529, E)Robin Skelton (1925–1997, E/C)Douglas Reid Skinner (born 1949, SA)Myra Sklarew (born 1934, US)Ed Skoog (born 1971, US)Zoë Skoulding (born 1967, W)Peter Skrzynecki (born 1945, A)Kenneth Slessor (1901–1971, A)Daniel Sloate (1931–2009, C)Edward Slow (1841–1925, E)Adam Small (1936–2016, SA)Carolyn Smart (born 1952, C)Christopher Smart (1722–1771, E)Elizabeth Smart (1913–1986, C)A. J. M. Smith (1902–1980, C)Alexander Smith (1830–1867, S)Bruce Smith (born 1946, US)Charlotte Turner Smith (1749–1806, E)Clara Kathleen Smith (1911–2004, C)Clark Ashton Smith (1893–1961, US)Douglas Burnet Smith (born 1949, C)Iain Crichton Smith (1928–1998, S)John Smith (1927–2018, C)Malachi Smith (living, J)Marc Smith (born 1949, US)Margaret Smith (born 1958, US)Michael Smith (1942–2014, Ir)Michael V. Smith (living, C)Patti Smith (born 1946, US)Rod Smith (born 1962, US)Ron Smith (born 1943, C)Steven Ross Smith (born 1945, C)Stevie Smith (1902–1971, E)Sydney Goodsir Smith (1915–1975, S)Tracy K. Smith (born 1972, US)Vivian Smith (born 1933, A)William Jay Smith (1918–2015, US)Tobias Smollett (1721–1771, S)W. D. Snodgrass (1925–2009, US)Gary Snyder (born 1930, US)Karen Solie (born 1966, C)David Solway (born 1941, C)William Somervile (1675–1742, E)Cathy Song (born 1955, US)Madeline Sonik (born 1960, C)Edward Sorenson (1869–1939, A)Charles Sorley (1895–1915, S)Gary Soto (born 1952, US)Carolyn Marie Souaid (born 1959, C)Raymond Souster (1921–2012, C)William Soutar (1898–1946, S)Caroline Anne Southey (1786–1854, E)Robert Southey (1774–1843, E)Robert Southwell (1561–1595, E)Wole Soyinka (born 1934, Ni)Esta Spalding (living, US/C)Heather Spears (born 1934, C/De)Alan Spence (living, S)Lewis Spence (1874–1955, S)Anne Spencer (1882–1975, US)Bernard Spencer (1909–1963, E)Thomas Edward Spencer (1845–1911, A)Stephen Spender (1909–1995, E)Edmund Spenser (1552–1599, E)Leonora Speyer (1872–1956, US)Harriet Elizabeth Prescott Spofford (1835–1921, US)Eintou Pearl Springer (born 1944, T)Birk Sproxton (1943–2007, C)J. C. Squire (1884–1958, E)Geoffrey Squires (born 1942, NI)===St–Sy===William Stafford (1914–1993, US)A. E. Stallings (born 1968, US)Jon Stallworthy (1935–2014, E)Harold Standish (1919–1972, C)Ann Stanford (1916–1987, US)Frank Stanford (1948–1978, US)George Stanley (born 1937, US/C)George Starbuck (1931–1996, US)Carmine Starnino (born 1970, C)Nicolette Stasko (born 1950, A)C. K. Stead (born 1932, NZ)Peter Steele (1939–2012, A)Richard Steere (1643–1721, US)John Steffler (born 1947, C)Gertrude Stein (1874–1946, US)Mattie Stepanek (1990–2004, US)Ian Stephens (1955–1996, C)James Stephens (1880–1950, Ir)James Brunton Stephens (1835–1902, S)George Stepney (1663–1707, E)John Sterling (1806–1844, S)Gerald Stern (1925–2022, US)Ricardo Sternberg (born 1948, C/US)C. J. Stevens (1927–2021, US)Wallace Stevens (1880–1955, US)Richard Stevenson (born 1952, C)Robert Louis Stevenson (1850–1894, S)Margo Taft Stever (living, US)Amanda Stewart (born 1959, A)Douglas Stewart (1913–1985, A)Harold Stewart (1916–1995, A)Shannon Stewart (living, C)W. Gregory Stewart (living, C/US)Trumbull Stickney (1874–1904, US)John Stiles (living, C/E)James Still (1906–2001, US)Anne Stone (living, C)Donna J.", "Stone (1933–1994, US)Ruth Stone (1915–2011, US)Lisa Gluskin Stonestreet (born 1968, US)Edward Storer (1880–1944, E)Randolph Stow (1935–2010, A)Mark Strand (1934–2014, US)Jennifer Strauss (born 1933, A)Sean Street (born 1946, E)Agnes Strickland (1796–1874, E)Adelle Stripe (born 1976, E)Trumbull Stickney (1874–1904, US)Donna J.", "Stone (1933–1994, US)Billy Marshall Stoneking (1947–2016, A)Lisa Gluskin Stonestreet (born 1968, US)Edward Storer (1880–1944, E)Eithne Strong (1923–1999, Ir)Joseph Stroud (born 1943, US)Betsy Struthers (born 1951, C)John Struthers (1776–1853, S)Jesse Stuart (1906–1984, US)Abhi Subedi (born 1945)John Suckling (1609–1642, E)Julie Suk (born 1924, US)Andrew Suknaski (1942–2012, C)Alan Sullivan (1868–1947, C)Aloysius Michael Sullivan (1896–1980, US)Rosemary Sullivan (born 1947, C)Maud Sulter (1960–2008, S)Moez Surani (born 1979, C)Kamala Surayya (1934–2009, In)Efua Sutherland (1924–1996, Gh)John Sutherland (1919–1956, C)Robert Swanson (1905–1994, C)Robert Sward (1933–2022, US/C)George Swede (born 1940, C)Matthew Sweeney (1951–2018, Ir)Cole Swensen (born 1955, US)Karen Swenson (born 1936, US)May Swenson (1913–1989, US)Jonathan Swift (1667–1745, Ir/E)Todd Swift (born 1966, C/E)Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837–1909, E)Randall Swingler (1909–1967, E)Ieuan ap Hywel Swrdwal (c. 1430 – c. 1480, W)Bobbi Sykes (1943–2010, A)Joshua Sylvester (1563–1618, E)Arthur Symons (1865–1945, E)John Millington Synge (1871–1909, Ir)Arthur Sze (born 1950, US)George Szirtes (born 1948, E)Anne Szumigalski (1922–1999, E/C)==T==Eileen Tabios (born 1960, US)Proma Tagore (living, C)Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941, In)Maria Takolander (born 1973, A)Francis W. Tancred (1874–1925, E)Robert Tannahill (1774–1810, S)Dorothea Tanning (1910–2012, US)Allen Tate (1899–1979, US)James Tate (1943–2015, US)Emma Tatham (1829–1855, E)Andrew Taylor (born 1940, A)Ann Taylor (1782–1866, E)Bruce Taylor (born 1960, C)Edward Taylor (1645–1729, E/US)Emily Taylor (1795–1872, E)Heather Taylor (living, C)Henry Taylor (1800–1886, E)Henry S. Taylor (born 1942, US)Jane Taylor (1783–1824, E)Rachel Annand Taylor (1876–1960, S)Ruth Taylor (1961–2006, C)Sara Teasdale (1883–1933, US)Barry Tebb (born 1942, E)Fiona Templeton (born 1951, S/E)William Tennant (1784–1848, S)Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892, E)Frederick Tennyson (1807–1898, E)John Terpstra (living, C)Elaine Terranova (born 1939, US)A. S. J. Tessimond (1902–1962, E)Lucy Terry (c. 1730–1821, US)Souvankham Thammavongsa (born 1978, C)Celia Thaxter (1824–1894, US)Ernest Thayer (1863–1940, US)John Thelwall (1764–1834, E)Sharon Thesen (born 1946, C)Colin Thiele (1920–2006, A)Kai Cheng Thom (living, C)William Thom (1799–1848, S)Thomas the Rhymer (Thomas Learmonth, c. 1220 – c. 1298, S)Thomas of Hales (13th c., E)D. M. Thomas (1935–2023, E)Dylan Thomas (1914–1953, W/E)Edward Thomas (1878–1917, E)Elizabeth Thomas (1675–1731, E)Lorenzo Thomas (1944–2005, US)R. S. Thomas (1913–2000, W)William Thomas (1832–1878, W)Francis Thompson (1859–1907, E)John Thompson (1938–1976, E/C)John Reuben Thompson (1823–1873, US)Edward William Thomson (1849–1924, C)James Thomson (1700–1748, S)James Thomson (awa Bysshe Vanolis, 1834–1882, S)Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862, US)Tim Thorne (1944–2021, A)Russell Thornton (living, C)Joseph Thurston (1704–1732, E)Anthony Thwaite (1930–2021, E)Michael Thwaites (1915–2005, A)Chidiock Tichborne (1558–1586, E)Thomas Tickell (1685–1740, E)Matthew Tierney (born 1970, C)Mary Tighe (1772–1810, Ir)Lydia H. Tilton (1839–1915, US)Richard Tipping (born 1949, A)José Tlatelpas (born 1953, Me/C)Nick Toczek (born 1950, E)Barbara Euphan Todd (1890–1976, E)Ruthven Todd (1914–1978, S)Mohamud Siad Togane (born 1947, So/C)J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973, E)Francis Tolson (died 1745, E)Melvin B. Tolson (1898–1966, US)Charles Tomlinson (1927–2015, E)Jean Toomer (1894–1967, US)Charles Tompson (1807–1883, A)Angela Topping (born 1954, E)Lola Lemire Tostevin (born 1937, C)Cyril Tourneur (died 1626, E)Ann Townsend (born 1962, US)Thomas Traherne (1636/1637–1674, E)John Tranter (1943–2023, A)Elizabeth Treadwell (born 1967, US)Mark Tredinnick (born 1962, A)Rhea Tregebov (born 1953, C)Raymond D. Tremblay (living, C)Roland Michel Tremblay (born 1972, C/E)Natasha Trethewey (born 1966, US)Calvin Trillin (born 1935, US)John Tripp (1927–1986, W/E)Quincy Troupe (born 1939, US)Peter Trower (1930–2017, C)Mark Truscott (born 1970, US/C)Dimitris Tsaloumas (1921–2016, A)Charlotte Maria Tucker (A.L.O.E, 1821–1893, E)Eliza Dorothea Cobbe, Lady Tuite (c. 1764–1850, Ir)George Turberville (c. 1540 – before 1597, E)Richard Marggraf Turley (born 1970, E)Gael Turnbull (1928–2004, S)Charles Tennyson Turner (1808–1879, E)Julian Turner (born 1955, E)Walter J. Turner (1889–1946, A/E)Thomas Tusser (1524–1580, E)Emma Rood Tuttle (1839–1916, US)Hone Tuwhare (1922–2008, NZ)Violet Tweedale (1862–1936, S/E)Chase Twichell (born 1950, US)Katharine Tynan (1859–1932, Ir/E)John Tyndall (born 1951, C)Daniel Scott Tysdal (born 1978, C)==U==Laura Ulewicz (1930–2007, US)Jeff Unaegbu (born 1979, Ni)Unorthodox Australian Poet (Garry W. Gosney, born 1955, A)Jean Starr Untermeyer (1886–1970, US)Louis Untermeyer (1885–1977, US)John Updike (1932–2009, US)Priscila Uppal (1974–2018, C)Allen Upward (1863–1926, E)Joan Ure (Elizabeth Thoms Clark, 1918–1978, S)David UU (David W. Harris, 1948–1994, C)Amy Uyematsu (1947–2023, US)==V==Jean Valentine (1934–2020, US)Valentine Vallis (1916–2009, A)Cor van den Heuvel (born 1931, US)Mona Van Duyn (1921–2004, US)Lin Van Hek (born 1944, A)Peter van Toorn (born 1944, C)Christopher van Wyk (1957–2014, SA)Henry Vaughan (1621–1695, W)R. M. Vaughan (born 1965, C)Thomas Vaux, 2nd Baron Vaux of Harrowden (1509–1556, E)Reetika Vazirani (1962–2003, US)Janine Pommy Vega (1942–2010, US)Edward Vere, Earl of Oxford (1550–1604, E)Helen Vendler (born 1933, US)Jumoke Verissimo (born 1976, Ni)Paul Vermeersch (born 1973, C)Katherena Vermette (born 1977, C)Jones Very (1813–1880, US)Vicki Viidikas (1948–1998, A)Peter Viereck (1916–2006, US)José García Villa (1908–1997, Ph)Pamelia Sarah Vining (1826–1897, C)Vivian Virtue (1911–1998, J/E)Garth Von Buchholz (living, C)Brian Vrepont (1882–1955, A)Prvoslav Vujcic (Prvoslav Vujčić, born 1960, Se/C)==W=====Wa–We===Miriam Waddington (1917–2004, C)Michael Wade (1944–2004, C)Sidney Wade (born 1951, US)Fred Wah (born 1939, C)John Wain (1925–1994, E)A. E. Waite (1857–1942, E)Nayyirah Waheed (living, US)Diane Wakoski (born 1937, US)Derek Walcott (1930–2017, SL)Anne Waldman (born 1945, US)George Waldron (1690 – c. 1730, E/IoM)Keith Waldrop (born 1932, US)Rosmarie Waldrop (born 1935, US)Arthur Waley (1889–1966, E)Alice Walker (born 1944, US)Margaret Walker (1915–1998, US)Rob Walker (born 1953, A)Bronwen Wallace (1945–1989, C)Chris Wallace-Crabbe (born 1934, A)Edmund Waller (1606–1687, E)Tom Walmsley (born 1948, C)Agnes Walsh (born 1950, C)Catherine Walsh (born 1964, Ir)Minnie Gow Walsworth (1859–1947, US)David Waltner-Toews (born 1948, C)Ania Walwicz (1951–2020, A)Connie Wanek (born 1952, US)John Powell Ward (born 1937, E/W)Ned Ward (1667–1731, E)Sarah Wardle (born 1969, E)Anna Laetitia Waring (1823–1910, W/E)Emily Warn (living, US)Sylvia Townsend Warner (1893–1978, E)Crystal Warren (living, SA)John Warren, 3rd Baron de Tabley (1835–1895, E)Meralda Warren (born 1959, PI)Robert Penn Warren (1905–1989, US)Thomas Warton (1728–1790, E)Terry Watada (living, C)Vernon Watkins (1906–1967, W)George Watsky (born 1986, US)Rosamund Marriott Watson (Graham R. 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Wendt (1907–1986, US)Marjory Heath Wentworth (born 1958, US)William Wentworth (1790–1872, A)Darren Wershler (Darren Wershler-Henry, born 1966, C)Charles Wesley (1707–1788, E)Gilbert West (1703–1756, E)Jane West (1758–1852, E)David Wevill (born 1935, C/US)===Wh–Wy===Philip Whalen (1923–2002, US)Dawud Wharnsby (born 1972, C)Anne Wharton (1659–1685, E)Gordon Wharton (1929–2011, E)Herb Wharton (born 1936, A)Mary Whateley (1738–1835, E)Anne Wheathill (fl.", "1584, E)David Wheatley (born 1970, Ir/S)Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784, US)Billy Edd Wheeler (born 1932, US)E. B.", "White (1899–1985, US)Henry Kirke White (1785–1806, E)James L. White (1936–1981, US)Kenneth White (born 1936, S)Laura Rosamond White (1844–1922, US)Joshua Whitehead (living, C)Bruce Whiteman (born 1952, C)Walt Whitman (1819–1892, US)Isabella Whitney (c. 1546/1548 – after 1624, E)Zoe Whittall (born 1976, C)Reed Whittemore (1919–2012, US)John Greenleaf Whittier (1807–1892, US)Brian Whittingham (born 1950, S)Christopher Whyte (born 1952, S)George Whyte-Melville (1821–1878, S/E)Anna Wickham (1883–1947, E/A)Les Wicks (born 1955, A)John Wieners (1934–2002, US)Nissanka Wijeyeratne (1924–2007, SLa)Richard Wilbur (1921–2017, US)Dora Wilcox (1873–1953, A)Ella Wheeler Wilcox (1850–1919, US)Robert Will (1615–1679, E)Jane Wilde (1821–1896, Ir/E)Oscar Wilde (1854–1900, Ir/E)Amos Wilder (1895–1993, US)Charlotte Wilder (1898–1980, US)Anne Wilkinson (1910–1961, C)John Wilkinson (born 1953, E)William of Nassyngton (died 1354, E)William of Shoreham (fl.", "14th century, E)Aeneas Francon Williams (1886–1971, E)Alfred Williams (1877–1930, E)Anna Williams (1706–1783, W/E)Athol Williams (born 1970, SA)C. K. Williams (1936–2015, US)David Gwyn Williams (1904–1990, W/E)Donna Williams (1963–2017, A)Emmett Williams (1925–2007, US)Heathcote Williams (1941–2017, E)Helen Maria Williams (1759/1762–1827, E/F)Hugo Williams (born 1942, E)Isaac Williams (1802–1865, E)Jane Williams (1806–1885, W/E)Jonathan Williams (1929–2008, US)Miller Williams (1930–2015, US)Oscar Williams (1900–1964, US)Richard D'Alton Williams (1822–1862, Ir)Rowan Williams (born 1950, W/E)Saul Williams (born 1972, US)Sherley Anne Williams (1944–1999, US)William Carlos Williams (1883–1963, US)Frank S. Williamson (1865–1936, A)Elizabeth Willis (born 1961, US)James Wills (1790–1868, Ir)Ruth Wills (1826–1908, E)Clive Wilmer (born 1945, E)Frank Wilmot (Furnley Maurice, 1881–1942, A)John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester (1647–1680, E)Eleanor Wilner (born 1937, US)Alan R. Wilson (living, C)Anne Elizabeth Wilson (1901–1946, US/C)Arthur Wilson (1595–1652, E)Dede Wilson (born 1937, US)Edwin Wilson (born 1942, A)Florence Mary Wilson (c. 1870–1946, Ir/NI)Peter Lamborn Wilson (also Hakim Bey, born 1945, US)Sheri-D Wilson (living, C)Christian Wiman (born 1966, US)Liz Winfield (born 1964, A)Rob Winger (born 1974, C)Sheila Wingfield (1906–1992, E/Ir)Yvor Winters (1900–1968, US)Jane Wiseman (Mrs. Holt, 1673 – after 1717, E)George Wither (1588–1667, E)Charles Wolfe (1791–1823, Ir)Humbert Wolfe (1885–1940, E)Thomas Wolfe (1900–1938, US)Theresa Wolfwood (living, C)Jennifer Wong (living, HK)Nellie Wong (born 1934, US)Gwyneth Barber Wood (died 2006, J)George Woodcock (1912–1995, C)Gregory Woods (born 1953, E)Joseph Woods (born 1966, Ir/Z)Macdara Woods (1942–2018, Ir)Lance Woolaver (born 1948, C)Dorothy Wordsworth (1771–1855, E)William Wordsworth (1770–1850, E)Philip Stanhope Worsley (1835–1866, E)Sir Henry Wotton (1568–1639, E)Carolyn D. Wright (born 1949, US)Carolyne Wright (born 1949, US)Charles Wright (born 1935, US)David Wright (1920–1994, E)David McKee Wright (1869–1928, NZ/A)Franz Wright (1953–2015, US)James Wright (1927–1980, US)Jay Wright (born 1935, US)Judith Wright (1915–2000, A)Kirby Wright (living, US)Luke Wright (born 1982, E)Robert Wrigley (born 1951, US)Lady Mary Wroth (1587–1651 or 1653)Thomas Wyatt (1503–1542, E)Elinor Wylie (1885–1928, US)Edward Alexander Wyon (1842–1872, E)" ], [ "X–Y", "Makhosazana Xaba (born 1957, SA)Mitsuye Yamada (born 1923, US)Leo Yankevich (1961–2018, US)Morgan Yasbincek (born 1964, A)J. Michael Yates (1938–2021, US/C)W. B. Yeats (1865–1939, Ir)Jean Yoon (born 1962, C)Marly Youmans (born 1953, US)Monica Youn (born 1971, US)Andrew Young (1885–1971, S)Augustus Young (born 1943, Ir)d'bi Young (born 1977, J/C)Douglas Young (1913–1973, S)Edward Young (1683–1765, E)Ellen Young (c. 1810–1872, A)Ian Young (born 1945, C)Kevin Young (born 1970, US)Marguerite Young (1908–1995, US)==Z==Matthew Zapruder (born 1967, US)Marya Zaturenska (1902–1982, US)Robert Zend (1929–1985, C)Benjamin Zephaniah (born 1958, E)Komninos Zervos (born 1950, A)David Zieroth (born 1946, C)Rachel Zolf (born 1968, C)Daniel Zomparelli (living, C)Carolyn Zonailo (born 1947, C)Louis Zukofsky (1904–1978, US)Fay Zwicky (1933–2017, A)Jan Zwicky (born 1955, C)" ], [ "Lists of English language poets by nationality", "List of Australian poetsList of Canadian poetsList of Irish poetsList of English poets from IndiaList of Nigerian poetsList of South African poetsList of poets from the United States" ], [ "See also", "English poetryList of poetsList of women poets" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Excalibur" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Excalibur''' is the mythical sword of King Arthur that may possess magical powers or be associated with the rightful sovereignty of Britain.", "Traditionally, the sword in the stone that is the proof of Arthur's lineage and the sword given him by a Lady of the Lake are not the same weapon, even as in some versions of the legend both of them share the name of Excalibur.", "Several similar swords and other weapons also appear within Arthurian texts, as well as in other legends." ], [ "Forms and etymology", "The name ''Excalibur'' ultimately derives from the Welsh (Breton , Middle Cornish ), which is a compound of , , and , .", "Caledfwlch appears in several early Welsh works, including the prose tale ''Culhwch and Olwen'' ().", "The name was later used in Welsh adaptations of foreign material such as the s (chronicles), which were based on Geoffrey of Monmouth.", "It is often considered to be related to the phonetically similar , a sword borne by several figures from Irish mythology, although a borrowing of from the Irish has been considered unlikely by Rachel Bromwich and D. Simon Evans.", "They suggest instead that both names \"may have similarly arisen at a very early date as generic names for a sword\".", "In the late 15th to early 16th-century Middle Cornish play , Arthur's sword is called , which is etymologically an exact Middle Cornish cognate of the Welsh .", "It is unclear if the name was borrowed from the Welsh (if so, it must have been an early loan, for phonological reasons), or represents an early, pan-Brittonic traditional name for Arthur's sword.Welsh author Geoffrey of Monmouth, in his Latin chronicle (''The History of the Kings of Britain'', ), Latinised the name of Arthur's sword as (possibly influenced by the Medieval Latin spelling of Classical Latin , from the Greek (), ).", "Most Celticists consider Geoffrey's to be derivative of a lost Old Welsh text in which (Old Welsh ) had not yet been lenited to (Middle Welsh or ).", "Geoffrey Gaimar, in his Old French chronicle (1134–1140), mentions Arthur and his sword: \"this Constantine was the nephew of Arthur, who had the sword '''Caliburc'''\" (\"\").", "In Wace's (), composed in Old French, the sword is called (, , ), , , , , and (with additional variant spellings such as , , , , , found in various continental manuscripts).", "Various other spellings in the later medieval Arthurian literature have included ''Calibourch'', ''Calibourn'', ''Calibourne'', ''Caliburc'', ''Escaliber'', ''Escalibur'', ''Excalibor'', and finally the familiar ''Excalibur''." ], [ "Legend", "=== The Sword in the Stone and the Sword in the Lake ===Romance tradition elaborates on how Arthur came into possession of Excalibur.", "In Robert de Boron's c. 1200 French poem ''Merlin'', the first known tale to mention the \"sword in the stone\" motif, Arthur obtained the British throne by pulling a sword from an anvil sitting atop a stone that appeared in a churchyard on Christmas Eve.", "In this account, as foretold by Merlin, the act could not be performed except by \"the true king\", meaning the divinely appointed king or true heir of Uther Pendragon.", "(As Thomas Malory related in his English-language Arthurian compilation, the 15th-century ''Le Morte d'Arthur'', \"whoso pulleth out this sword of this stone and anvil, is rightwise king born of all England.\")", "The scene is set by different authors at either London (historical Londinium) or generally in the land of Logres, and might have been inspired by a miracle attributed to the 11th-century Bishop Wulfstan of Worcester.", "After many of the gathered nobles try and fail to complete Merlin's challenge, the teenage Arthur, who up to this point had believed himself to be biological son of Ector and went there as a squire to his foster brother Kay, succeeds effortlessly.", "Arthur first achieves this feat by accident while unaware of the contest and unseen.", "He then returns the sword to its place in the anvil on a stone, and later repeats the act publicly as Merlin comes to announce his true parentage.Dozmary Pool, a lake in Cornwall associated with the legend of Excalibur due to its proximity to Slaughterbridge, a potential location of the Battle of CamlannThe identity of this sword as Excalibur is made explicit in the Prose ''Merlin'', a part of the 13th-century ''Lancelot-Grail'' cycle of French romances also known as the Vulgate Cycle.", "Eventually, in the cycle's finale Vulgate ''Mort Artu'', when Arthur is at the brink of death, he enigmatically orders his surviving knight Griflet to cast Excalibur into a nearby lake.", "After two failed attempts to deceive Arthur, since Griflet felt that such a great sword should not be thrown away, he finally does comply with the wounded king's request.", "A woman's hand emerges from the lake to catch Excalibur, after which Morgan appears to take Arthur to Avalon.", "This motif then became attached to Bedivere (or Yvain in the chronicle ''Scalacronica''), instead of Griflet, in the English Arthurian tradition.", "However, in the subsequent Post-Vulgate Cycle variants of the ''Merlin'' and the ''Merlin Continuation'', written soon afterwards, Arthur's sword drawn from the stone is unnamed.", "Furthermore, the young Arthur promptly breaks it in his duel against King Pellinore very early in his reign.", "On Merlin's advice, Arthur then goes with him to be given the actual Excalibur by a Lady of the Lake in exchange for a later boon for her (some time later, she arrives at Arthur's court to demand the head of Balin).", "In the Post-Vulgate ''Mort Artu'', it is this sword that is eventually hurled into the pool at Camlann (or actually Salisbury Plain where both cycles locate the battle, as do the English romances) by Griflet in the same circumstances as told in the story's Vulgate version.", "Malory included both of these stories in his now-iconic ''Le Morte d'Arthur'' while naming each of the swords as Excalibur: both the first one (from the stone) soon shattered in combat in the story taken from the Post-Vulgate ''Merlin Continuation'', and its replacement (from the lake) thrown away by Bedivere in the end.=== Other roles and attributes ===In the Welsh tales, Arthur's sword is known as ''Caledfwlch''.", "In ''Culhwch and Olwen'', it is one of Arthur's most valuable possessions and is used by Arthur's warrior Llenlleawg the Irishman to kill the Irish king Diwrnach while stealing his magical cauldron.", "Though not named as Caledfwlch, Arthur's sword is described vividly in ''The Dream of Rhonabwy'', one of the tales associated with the ''Mabinogion'' (as translated by Jeffrey Gantz): \"Then they heard Cadwr Earl of Cornwall being summoned, and saw him rise with Arthur's sword in his hand, with a design of two chimeras on the golden hilt; when the sword was unsheathed what was seen from the mouths of the two chimeras was like two flames of fire, so dreadful that it was not easy for anyone to look.", "\"Geoffrey's ''Historia'' is the first non-Welsh text to speak of the sword.", "Geoffrey says the sword was forged in Avalon and Latinises the name Caledfwlch as ''Caliburnus''.", "When his influential pseudo-history made it to continental Europe, writers altered the name further until it finally took on the popular form ''Excalibur''.", "Its role was expanded upon in the Vulgate Cycle and in the Post-Vulgate Cycle which emerged in its wake.", "Both of these prose cycles incorporated the Prose ''Merlin'', however the Post-Vulgate authors left out the original ''Merlin'' continuation from the earlier cycle, choosing to add an original account of Arthur's early days including a new origin for Excalibur.", "In some versions, Excalibur's blade was engraved with phrases on opposite sides: \"Take me up\" and \"Cast me away\" (or similar).", "In addition, it said that when Excalibur was first drawn in combat, in the first battle testing Arthur's sovereignty, its blade shone so bright it blinded his enemies.In Chrétien de Troyes' late 12th-century Old French ''Perceval'', Arthur's nephew and best knight Gawain carries Excalibur, \"for at his belt hung Escalibor, the finest sword that there was, which sliced through iron as through wood\" (\"\").", "This statement was probably picked up by the author of the ''Estoire Merlin'', or Vulgate ''Merlin'', where the author asserts that Escalibor \"is a Hebrew name which means in French 'cuts iron, steel, and wood (\"\"; the word for 'steel' here, ''achier'', also means 'blade' or 'sword') and comes from medieval Latin , a derivative of 'sharp', so there is no direct connection with Latin ).", "It is from this fanciful etymological musing that Thomas Malory got the notion that Excalibur meant 'cut steel' (''the name of it,' said the lady, 'is Excalibur, that is as moche to say, as cut stele'').", "\"Queen Morgana Loses Excalibur His Sheath.\"", "Howard Pyle's illustration for ''The Story of King Arthur and His Knights'' (1903)In the Post-Vulgate version, used in Malory's ''Le Morte d'Arthur'' for the second Excalibur, the sword's scabbard is also said to have powers of its own, as any wounds received while wearing it would not bleed at all, thus preventing the wearer from ever bleeding to death in battle.", "For this reason, Merlin chides Arthur for preferring Excalibur over its sheath, saying that the latter is the greater treasure.", "The scabbard is, however, soon stolen from Arthur by his half-sister Morgan le Fay in revenge for the death of her beloved Accolon, he having been slain by Arthur with Excalibur in a duel involving a false Excalibur (Morgan also secretly makes at least one duplicate of Excalibur during the time when the sword is entrusted to her by Arthur earlier in the different French, Iberian and English variants of that story).", "During Morgan's flight from the pursuit by Arthur, the sheath is then thrown by her into a deep lake and lost.", "This act later enables the death of Arthur, deprived of its magical protection, many years later in his final battle.", "In Malory's telling, the scabbard is never found again.", "In the Post-Vulgate, however, it is recovered and claimed by another fay, Marsique, who then briefly gives it to Gawain to help him fight Naborn the Enchanter (a Mabon figure).As mentioned above, Excalibur is wielded also by Gawain in some French romances, including the Vulgate ''Lancelot''.", "The Prose ''Merlin'' also uniquely tells of Gawain killing the Roman leader Lucius with Excalibur.", "This is, however, in contrast to most versions, where Excalibur belongs solely to Arthur.", "A few texts, such as the English Alliterative ''Morte Arthure'' and one copy of the Welsh ''Ymddiddan Arthur a'r Eryr'', tell of Arthur using Excalibur to kill his son Mordred (in the first of these, he also uses it to kill Lucius).", "In the Iberian post-Arthurian romance ''Florambel de Lucea'', Morgan later gifts Excalibur (''Esclariber'') to the eponymous hero.", "Another late Iberian romance, ''Tirant lo Blanch'', features Arthur who was brought back to life by Morgan and then wandered the world for a long time while mad and able to talk only when having Excalibur in his hands.", "Finally, Morgan finds her brother imprisoned in the contemporary (15th-century) Constantinople, where she restores him to his mind by making him gaze upon his reflection in Excalibur's blade." ], [ "Connections and analogues", "=== Similar weapons ===\"How Galahad drew out the sword from the floating stone at Camelot.\"", "Arthur Rackham's illustration for Alfred W. Pollard's ''The Romance of King Arthur'' (1917)The challenge of drawing a sword from a stone (placed on the river just outside Camelot) also appears in the later Arthurian story of Galahad, whose achievement of the task indicates that he is destined to find the Holy Grail, as also foretold in Merlin's prophecies.", "This powerful yet cursed weapon, known as the Adventurous Sword among other names, has also come from Avalon; it is first stolen and wielded by Balin until his death while killing his own brother, then is briefly taken up by Galahad, and eventually is used by Lancelot to give his former friend Gawain a mortal wound in their long final duel.", "In the Old French ''Perlesvaus'', Lancelot pulls other weapons from stone on two occasions.", "In the Post-Vulgate ''Merlin'', Morgan creates the copies of Excalibur itself as well as of its scabbard.In Welsh mythology, the Dyrnwyn (\"White-Hilt\"), one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain, is said to be a powerful sword belonging to Rhydderch Hael, one of the Three Generous Men of Britain mentioned in the Welsh Triads.", "When drawn by a worthy or well-born man, the entire blade would blaze with fire.", "Rhydderch was never reluctant to hand the weapon to anyone, hence his nickname Hael \"the Generous\", but the recipients, as soon as they had learned of its peculiar properties, always rejected the sword.", "There are other similar weapons described in other mythologies as well.", "Irish mythology features Caladbolg, the sword of Fergus mac Róich, which was also known for its incredible power and was carried by some of Ireland's greatest heroes.", "The name, which can also mean \"hard cleft\" in Irish, appears in the plural, ''caladbuilc'', as a generic term for \"great swords\" in ''Togail Troi'' (\"The Destruction of Troy\"), a 10th-century Irish translation of the classical tale.", "A sword named Claíomh Solais, which is an Irish term meaning \"sword of light\", or \"shining sword\", appears in a number of orally transmitted Irish folk-tales.", "The Sword in the Stone has an analogue in some versions of the story of Sigurd, whose father, Sigmund, draws the sword Gram out of the tree Barnstokkr where it is embedded by the Norse god Odin.", "Apart from legendary swords, the only real ancient Sword in the Stone which still exists nowadays, is kept since the medieval ages in the Chapel of Saint Galgano at Montesiepi, in Siena Province, Tuscany, Italy and is associated with the 12th-century Italian legend of that Saint, in the tale of \"Tuscany's Excalibur\".=== Arthur's other weapons ===A number of different swords and other weapons have been also associated with Arthur.", "In the Alliterative ''Morte Arthure'', Clarent is the royal sword of peace meant for knighting and ceremonies as opposed to battle, which Mordred stole and then used to kill Arthur at Camlann.", "The Prose ''Lancelot'' of the Vulgate Cycle mentions a sword called Sequence (also ''Secace'' or ''Seure'') as borrowed from Arthur by Lancelot.", "In the Vulgate ''Merlin'', Arthur captures Marmiadoise (Marmydoyse), the marvelous sword of Hercules, from the latter's descendant King Rions.", "Marmiadoise's powers (such as causing wounds that would never heal) are in fact so superior compared to those of Excalibur that Arthur gives his old sword to Gawain.Early-Arthurian Welsh tradition knew of a dagger named Carnwennan and a spear named Rhongomyniad that belonged to him.", "Carnwennan (\"little white-hilt\") first appears in ''Culhwch and Olwen'', where Arthur uses it to slice the witch Orddu in half.", "Rhongomyniad (\"spear\" + \"striker, slayer\") is also mentioned in ''Culhwch'', although only in passing; it appears as simply Ron (\"spear\") in Geoffrey's ''Historia''.", "Geoffrey also names Arthur's shield as Pridwen; in ''Culhwch'', however, Prydwen (\"fair face\") is the name of Arthur's ship while his shield is named Wynebgwrthucher (\"face of evening\")." ], [ "Excalibur as a relic", "Historically, a sword identified as Excalibur (Caliburn) was supposedly discovered during the exhumation of Arthur's purported grave at Glastonbury Abbey in 1191.On 6 March 1191, after the Treaty of Messina, either this or another claimed Excalibur was given as a gift of goodwill by the English king Richard I of England (Richard the Lionheart) to his ally Tancred, King of Sicily.", "It was one of a series of symbolic Arthurian acts by the Anglo-Norman monarchs, such as their association of the crown of King Arthur with the crown they won from the slain Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd." ], [ "See also", "List of magical weapons" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations====== Sources ===''The Works of Sir Thomas Malory,'' Ed.", "Vinaver, Eugène, 3rd ed.", "Field, Rev.", "P. J. C. (1990).", "3 vol.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", ", , .", "* * * * * * * * * === Further reading ===Lacy, N. J (ed).", "''The New Arthurian Encyclopedia.''", "(London: Garland.", "1996).", "." ], [ "External links", " The Camelot Project at the University of Rochester: Excalibur and the Sword in the Stone" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eight-bar blues" ], [ "Introduction", "boogie woogie bassline for 8-bar blues progression in C, chord roots in red.", "In music, an '''eight-bar blues''' is a common blues chord progression.", "Music writers have described it as \"the second most common blues form\" being \"common to folk, rock, and jazz forms of the blues\".", "It is often notated in or time with eight bars to the verse." ], [ "Overview", "Early examples of eight-bar blues standards include:\"Ain't Nobody's Business If I Do\" (Sara Martin, 1922)\"Trouble in Mind\" (Chippie Hill, 1926)\"How Long Blues\" (Leroy Carr, 1928) \"Nobody Knows You When You're Down and Out\" (Bessie Smith, 1929)\"It Hurts Me Too\" (Tampa Red, 1940)\"Key to the Highway\" (Big Bill Broonzy, 1941)\"Worried Life Blues\" (Big Maceo, 1941) One variant using this progression is to couple one eight-bar blues melody with a different eight-bar blues bridge to create a blues variant of the standard 32-bar song: \"I Want a Little Girl\" (T-Bone Walker) and \"Great Balls of Fire\" (Jerry Lee Lewis)(Eight-bar blues progressions have more variations than the more rigidly defined twelve bar format.", "The move to the IV chord usually happens at bar 3 (as opposed to 5 in twelve bar); however, \"the I chord moving to the V chord right away, in the second measure, is a characteristic of the eight-bar blues.", "\"In the following examples each box represents a 'bar' of music (the specific time signature is not relevant).", "The chord in the box is played for the full bar.", "If two chords are in the box they are each played for half a bar, etc.", "The chords are represented as scale degrees in Roman numeral analysis.", "Roman numerals are used so the musician may understand the progression of the chords regardless of the key it is played in.", "\"Eight-bar blues chord progression\":: IV7IV7IV7 I V7 IV7 I V7\"Worried Life Blues\" (probably the most common eight-bar blues progression):: IIIVIV I V I IVI V\"Heartbreak Hotel\" (variation with the I on the first half):: I'''I'''II IV IV V IJ.", "B. Lenoir's \"Slow Down\" and \"Key to the Highway\" (variation with the V at bar 2):: I7'''V'''7IV7IV7I7 V7 I7 V7\"Get a Haircut\" by George Thorogood (simple progression):: IIII IV IV V VJimmy Rogers' \"Walkin' By Myself\" (somewhat unorthodox example of the form):: I7I7I7I7IV7 V7 I7 V7Howlin Wolf's version of \"Sitting on Top of the World\" is actually a 9 bar blues that adds an extra \"V\" chord at the end of the progression.", "The song uses movement between major and dominant 7th and major and minor fourth:: II7IVivI7 V I7 IV I7 VThe first four bar progression used by Wolf is also used in Nina Simone's 1965 version of \"Trouble in Mind\", but with a more uptempo beat than \"Sitting on Top of the World\":: II7IVivI VI7ii VI IVI VThe progression may be created by dropping the first four bars from the twelve-bar blues, as in the solo section of Bonnie Raitt's \"Love Me Like a Man\" and Buddy Guy's \"Mary Had a Little Lamb\":: IV7IV7I7I7V7 IV7 I7 V7There are at least a few very successful songs using somewhat unusual chord progressions as well.", "For example, the song \"Ain't Nobody's Business\" as performed by Freddie King at least, uses a I–III–IV–iv progression in each of the first four bars.", "The same four bar progression is used by the band Radiohead to make up the bulk of the song \"Creep\".", ": IIIIIVivI vi ii V7The same chord progression can also be called a sixteen-bar blues, if each symbol above is taken to be a half note in or time.", "Examples are \"Nine Pound Hammer\" and Ray Charles's original instrumental \"Sweet Sixteen Bars\"." ], [ "See also", "Twelve-bar bluesSixteen-bar bluesThirty-two-bar form" ], [ "Sources" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Echidna (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Echidnas''' are Australian egg-laying mammals also known as spiny anteaters.", "'''Echidna''' may also refer to:Echidna (mythology), monster in Greek mythology and namesake of the mammal(42355) Typhon I Echidna, the natural satellite of the asteroid 42355 TyphonECHIDNA, high-resolution neutron powder diffractometer at Australia's research reactor OPALEchidna (''Re:Zero''), a character in the light novel series ''Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World'' Echidna, character in the video game ''The Bouncer''" ], [ "Taxonomic genera", "''Echidna'' (fish) , a genus of moray eels''Echidna'' , a junior homonym referring to the mammals commonly known as echidnas''Echidna'' , junior homonym for a genus of African snakes now treated as ''Bitis''" ], [ "See also", "Knuckles the Echidna, character from the ''Sonic the Hedgehog'' video game seriesEchidna Parass, fictional character from the ''Black Cat'' series" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Edward Waring" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Waring''' (15 August 1798) was a British mathematician.", "He entered Magdalene College, Cambridge as a sizar and became Senior wrangler in 1757.He was elected a Fellow of Magdalene and in 1760 Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, holding the chair until his death.", "He made the assertion known as Waring's problem without proof in his writings ''Meditationes Algebraicae''.", "Waring was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1763 and awarded the Copley Medal in 1784." ], [ "Early years", "Waring was the eldest son of John and Elizabeth Waring, a prosperous farming couple.", "He received his early education in Shrewsbury School under a Mr Hotchkin and was admitted as a sizar at Magdalene College, Cambridge, on 24 March 1753, being also Millington exhibitioner.", "His extraordinary talent for mathematics was recognised from his early years in Cambridge.", "In 1757 he graduated BA as senior wrangler and on 24 April 1758 was elected to a fellowship at Magdalene.", "He belonged to the Hyson Club, whose members included William Paley." ], [ "Career", "At the end of 1759 Waring published the first chapter of ''Miscellanea Analytica''.", "On 28 January the next year he was appointed Lucasian professor of mathematics, one of the highest positions in Cambridge.", "William Samuel Powell, then tutor in St John's College, Cambridge opposed Waring's election and instead supported the candidacy of William Ludlam.", "In the polemic with Powell, Waring was backed by John Wilson.", "In fact Waring was very young and did not hold the MA, necessary for qualifying for the Lucasian chair, but this was granted him in 1760 by royal mandate.", "In 1762 he published the full ''Miscellanea Analytica'', mainly devoted to the theory of numbers and algebraic equations.", "In 1763 he was elected to the Royal Society.", "He was awarded its Copley Medal in 1784 but withdrew from the society in 1795, after he had reached sixty, 'on account of his age'.", "Waring was also a member of the academies of sciences of Göttingen and Bologna.", "In 1767 he took an MD degree, but his activity in medicine was quite limited.", "He carried out dissections with Richard Watson, professor of chemistry and later bishop of Llandaff.", "From about 1770 he was physician at Addenbrooke's Hospital at Cambridge, and he also practised at St Ives, Huntingdonshire, where he lived for some years after 1767.His career as a physician was not very successful since he was seriously short-sighted and a very shy man." ], [ "Personal life", "Waring had a younger brother, Humphrey, who obtained a fellowship at Magdalene in 1775.In 1776 Waring married Mary Oswell, sister of a draper in Shrewsbury; they moved to Shrewsbury and then retired to Plealey, 8 miles out of the town, where Waring owned an estate of 215 acres in 1797" ], [ "Work", "''Miscellanea analytica'', 1762Waring wrote a number of papers in the ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'', dealing with the resolution of algebraic equations, number theory, series, approximation of roots, interpolation, the geometry of conic sections, and dynamics.", "The ''Meditationes Algebraicae'' (1770), where many of the results published in ''Miscellanea Analytica'' were reworked and expanded, was described by Joseph-Louis Lagrange as 'a work full of excellent researches'.", "In this work Waring published many theorems concerning the solution of algebraic equations which attracted the attention of continental mathematicians, but his best results are in number theory.", "Included in this work was the so-called Goldbach conjecture (every even integer is the sum of two primes), and also the following conjecture: every odd integer is a prime or the sum of three primes.", "Lagrange had proved that every positive integer is the sum of not more than four squares; Waring suggested that every positive integer is either a cube or the sum of not more than nine cubes.", "He also advanced the hypothesis that every positive integer is either a biquadrate (fourth power) or the sum of not more than nineteen biquadrates.", "These hypotheses form what is known as Waring's problem.", "He also published a theorem, due to his friend John Wilson, concerning prime numbers; it was later proven rigorously by Lagrange.In ''Proprietates Algebraicarum Curvarum'' (1772) Waring reissued in a much revised form the first four chapters of the second part of ''Miscellanea Analytica''.", "He devoted himself to the classification of higher plane curves, improving results obtained by Isaac Newton, James Stirling, Leonhard Euler, and Gabriel Cramer.", "In 1794 he published a few copies of a philosophical work entitled ''An Essay on the Principles of Human Knowledge'', which were circulated among his friends.Waring's mathematical style is highly analytical.", "In fact he criticised those British mathematicians who adhered too strictly to geometry.", "It is indicative that he was one of the subscribers of John Landen's ''Residual Analysis'' (1764), one of the works in which the tradition of the Newtonian fluxional calculus was more severely criticised.", "In the preface of ''Meditationes Analyticae'' Waring showed a good knowledge of continental mathematicians such as Alexis Clairaut, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and Euler.", "He lamented the fact that in Great Britain mathematics was cultivated with less interest than on the continent, and clearly desired to be considered as highly as the great names in continental mathematics—there is no doubt that he was reading their work at a level never reached by any other eighteenth-century British mathematician.", "Most notably, at the end of chapter three of ''Meditationes Analyticae'' Waring presents some partial fluxional equations (partial differential equations in Leibnizian terminology); such equations are a mathematical instrument of great importance in the study of continuous bodies which was almost completely neglected in Britain before Waring's researches.", "One of the most interesting results in ''Meditationes Analyticae'' is a test for the convergence of series generally attributed to d'Alembert (the 'ratio test').", "The theory of convergence of series (the object of which is to establish when the summation of an infinite number of terms can be said to have a finite 'sum') was not much advanced in the eighteenth century.Waring's work was known both in Britain and on the continent, but it is difficult to evaluate his impact on the development of mathematics.", "His work on algebraic equations contained in ''Miscellanea Analytica'' was translated into Italian by Vincenzo Riccati in 1770.Waring's style is not systematic and his exposition is often obscure.", "It seems that he never lectured and did not habitually correspond with other mathematicians.", "After Jérôme Lalande in 1796 observed, in ''Notice sur la vie de Condorcet'', that in 1764 there was not a single first-rate analyst in England, Waring's reply, published after his death as 'Original letter of Dr Waring' in the ''Monthly Magazine'', stated that he had given 'somewhere between three and four hundred new propositions of one kind or another'." ], [ "Death", "During his last years he sank into a deep religious melancholy, and a violent cold caused his death, in Plealey, on 15 August 1798.He was buried in the churchyard at Fitz, Shropshire." ], [ "See also", "Lagrange polynomial" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eden Phillpotts" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eden Phillpotts''' (4 November 1862 – 29 December 1960) was an English author, poet and dramatist.", "He was born in Mount Abu, India, was educated in Plymouth, Devon, and worked as an insurance officer for ten years before studying for the stage and eventually becoming a writer." ], [ "Life", "Eden Phillpotts was a great-nephew of Henry Phillpotts, Bishop of Exeter.", "His father Henry Phillpotts was a son of the bishop's younger brother Thomas Phillpotts.", "James Surtees Phillpotts the reforming headmaster of Bedford School was his second cousin.Eden Phillpotts was born on 4 November 1862 at Mount Abu in Rajasthan.", "His father Henry was an officer in the Indian Army, while his mother Adelaide was the daughter of an Indian Civil Service officer posted in Madras, George Jenkins Waters.Henry Phillpotts died in 1865, leaving Adelaide a widow at the age of 21.With her three small sons, of whom Eden was the eldest, she returned to England and settled in Plymouth.Phillpotts was educated at Mannamead School in Plymouth.", "At school he showed no signs of a literary bent.", "In 1879, aged 17, he left home and went to London to earn his living.", "He found a job as a clerk with the Sun Fire Office.Phillpotts' ambition was to be an actor and he attended evening classes at a drama school for two years.", "He came to the conclusion that he would never make a name as an actor but might have success as a writer.", "In his spare time out of office hours he proceeded to create a stream of small works which he was able to sell.", "In due course he left the insurance company to concentrate on his writing, while also working part-time as assistant editor for the weekly ''Black and White'' magazine.Eden Phillpotts maintained a steady output of three or four books a year for the next half century.", "He produced poetry, short stories, novels, plays and mystery tales.", "Many of his novels were about rural Devon life and some of his plays were distinguished by their effective use of regional dialect.Eden Phillpotts died at his home in Broadclyst near Exeter, Devon, on 29 December 1960." ], [ "Personal life", "Phillpotts was for many years the President of the Dartmoor Preservation Association and cared passionately about the conservation of Dartmoor.", "He was an agnostic and a supporter of the Rationalist Press Association.Phillpotts was a friend of Agatha Christie, who was an admirer of his work and a regular visitor to his home.", "She dedicated her 1932 novel ''Peril at End House'' to Phillpotts, and in her autobiography, she expressed gratitude for his early advice on fiction writing and quoted some of it.", "Jorge Luis Borges was another Phillpotts admirer.", "Borges mentioned him numerous times, wrote at least two reviews of his novels, and included him in his \"Personal Library\", a collection of works selected to reflect his personal literary preferences.Philpotts allegedly sexually abused his daughter Adelaide.", "In a 1976 interview for a book about her father, Adelaide described an incestuous \"relationship\" with him that she says lasted from the age of five or six until her early thirties, when he remarried.", "When she herself finally married at the age of 55 her father never forgave her, and never communicated with her again." ], [ "Writings", "Phillpotts wrote a great many books with a Dartmoor setting.", "One of his novels, ''Widecombe Fair'' (1913), inspired by an annual fair at the village of Widecombe-in-the-Moor, provided the scenario for his comic play ''The Farmer's Wife'' (1916).", "It went on to become a 1928 silent film of the same name, directed by Alfred Hitchcock.", "It was followed by a 1941 remake, directed by Norman Lee and Leslie Arliss.", "It became a BBC TV drama in 1955, directed by Owen Reed.", "Jan Stewer played Churdles Ash.", "The BBC had broadcast the play in 1934.He co-wrote several plays with his daughter Adelaide Phillpotts, ''The Farmer's Wife'' and ''Yellow Sands'' (1926); she later claimed their relationship was incestuous.", "Eden is best known as the author of many novels, plays and poems about Dartmoor.", "His Dartmoor cycle of 18 novels and two volumes of short stories still has many avid readers despite the fact that many titles are out of print.Philpotts also wrote a series of novels, each set against the background of a different trade or industry.", "Titles include: ''Brunel's Tower'' (a pottery) and ''Storm in a Teacup'' (hand-papermaking).", "Among his other works is ''The Grey Room'', the plot of which is centred on a haunted room in an English manor house.", "He also wrote a number of other mystery novels, both under his own name and the pseudonym '''Harrington Hext'''.", "These include: ''The Thing at Their Heels'', ''The Red Redmaynes'', ''The Monster'', ''The Clue from the Stars'', and ''The Captain's Curio''.", "''The Human Boy'' was a collection of schoolboy stories in the same genre as Rudyard Kipling's ''Stalky & Co.'', though different in mood and style.", "Late in his long writing career he wrote a few books of interest to science fiction and fantasy readers, the most noteworthy being ''Saurus'', which involves an alien reptilian observing human life.Eric Partridge praised the immediacy and impact of his dialect writing." ], [ "Photographs", "Postbridge Clapper Bridge 2005-07-21.jpg\|The clapper bridge at Postbridge, which is the central location of Phillpotts' novel ''The Thief of Virtue''." ], [ "Works", "'''Novels'''''The End of a Life'' (1891)''Folly and Fresh Air'' (1891)''A Tiger's Club'' (1892) ''A Deal with the Devil'' (1895)* ''Some Every-day Folks'' (1895)* ''My Laughing Philosopher'' (1896)* ''Down Dartmoor Way'' (1896)* ''Lying Prophets: A Novel'' (1897)''Children of the Mist'' (1898)''Sons of the Morning'' (1900)* ''The Good Red Earth'' (1901)''The River'' (1902) ''Old Delabole'' (1903)* ''The Golden Fetich'' (1903)''The American Prisoner'' (1904) ''The Farm of the Dagger'' (1904)''The Secret Woman'' (1905)''The Poacher's Wife'' (1906) AKA ''Daniel Sweetland'' (1906)''The Sinews of War: A Romance of London and the Sea'' (1906) with Arnold Bennett''Doubloons'' (1906) with Arnold Bennett''The Portreeve'' (1906)''The Whirlwind'' (1907)* ''The Human Boy Again'' (1908)* ''The Mother'' (1908)* ''The Virgin in Judgment'' (1908) AKA ''A Fight to Finish'' (1911)* ''The Statue: A Story of International Intrigue and Mystery'' (1908) with Arnold Bennett* ''The Three Brothers'' (1909)* ''The Fun of the Fair'' (1909)''The Haven'' (1909) ''The Flint Heart: A Fairy Story'' (1910)''The Thief of Virtue'' (1910)''The Beacon'' (1911)* ''Demeter's Daughter'' (1911)''The Three Knaves'' (1912)''The Forest on the Hill'' (1912)* ''The Lovers: A Romance'' (1912)''Widecombe Fair'' (1913) ''The Joy of Youth'' (1913)* ''The Old Time Before Them'' (1913)* ''Faith Tresilion'' (1914)''The Master of Merripit'' (1914)''Brunel's Tower'' (1915)* ''The Green Alleys: A Comedy'' (1916)* ''The Human Boy and the War'' (1916)''The Banks of Colne: (the Nursery)'' (1917)''The Girl and the Faun'' (1917)* ''The Spinners'' (1918)* ''From the Angle of Seventeen'' (1912)''Evander'' (1919) ''Storm in a Teacup'' (1919)''Miser's Money'' (1920) ''Eudocia'' (1921)* ''The Grey Room'' (1921)''The Bronze Venus'' (1921)''Orphan Dinah'' (1920)* ''The Red Redmaynes'' (1922)''Pan and the Twins'' (1922) ''Number 87'' (1922)* ''The Thing at Their Heels'' (1923)''Children of Men'' (1923)''Cheat-the-boys; a Story of the Devonshire Orchards'' (1924)''Redcliff'' (1924)''The Treasures of Typhon'' (1924)''The Lavender Dragon'' (1924)''Who Killed Diana?''", "(1924)''Circé's Island'' (1924)''A Voice from the Dark'' (1925)''The Monster'' (1925)''George Westover'' (1926)''The Marylebone Miser'' (1926) AKA ''Jig-Saw'' (1926) ''Cornish Droll: A Novel'' (1926)''The Miniature'' (1926)''The Jury'' (1927)''Arachne'' (1928)''The Ring Fence'' (1928)''Tryphena'' (1929)''The Apes'' (1929)''The Three Maidens'' (1930)''Alcyone (a Fairy Story)'' (1930)''\"Found Drowned\"'' (1931)''A Clue from the Stars'' (1932)''The Broom Squires'' (1932)''Stormbury, A Story of Devon'' (1932)''The Captain's Curio'' (1933)''Bred in the Bone'' (1933)''Witch's Cauldron'' (1933)''Nancy Owlett'' (1933)''Minions of the Moon'' (1934)''Ned of the Caribbees'' (1934)''Portrait of a Gentleman'' (1934)''Mr.", "Digweed and Mr. Lumb: A Mystery Novel'' (1934)''The Oldest Inhabitant: A Comedy'' (1934)''A Close Call'' (1936)''The Owl of Athene'' (1936)''The White Camel: A Story of Arabia'' (1936)''The Anniversary Murder'' (1936)''The Wife of Elias: A Mystery Novel'' (1937)''Wood-nymph'' (1937)''Farce in Three Acts'' (1937)''Portrait of a Scoundrel'' (1938) ''Saurus'' (1938)* ''Lycanthrope, the Mystery of Sir William Wolf'' (1938)''Dark Horses'' (1938)''Golden Island'' (1938)''Thorn in Her Flesh'' (1939)''Tabletop'' (1939) with Arnold Bennett''Monkshood'' (1939)''Chorus of Clowns'' (1940)''Goldcross'' (1940)''Awake Deborah!''", "(1941)''Ghostwater'' (1941)''The Deed Without a Name'' (1942)''Pilgrims of the Night'' (1942)''A Museum Piece'' (1943)''Flower of the Gods'' (1943)''The Changeling'' (1944)''The Drums of Dombali'' (1945)''They Were Seven: (A Mystery)'' (1945)''Quartet'' (1946)''The Fall of the House of Heron'' (1948)''Address Unknown'' (1949)''The Waters of Walla'' (1950)''Through a Glass Darkly'' (1951)''George and Georgina: A Mystery Story'' (1952)''His Brother's Keeper'' (1953)''The Widow Garland'' (1955)''Connie Woodland'' (1956)''Giglet Market'' (1957)''There Was an Old Man'' (1959)'''Short Fiction Books''' ''My Adventure in the Flying Scotsman; a Romance of London and North-Western Railway Shares'' (1888)* ''The Human Boy'' (1899)''Loup-garou!''", "(1899)''Summer Clouds and Other Stories'' (1893)* ''Fancy Free'' (1901)* ''The Striking Hours'' (1901)* ''The Transit of the Red Dragon: And Other Tales'' (1903)* ''Knock at a Venture'' (1905)''The Unlucky Number'' (1906) ''The Folk Afield'' (1907)* ''Tales of the Tenements'' (1910)''The Judge's Chair'' (1914) ''The Human Boy and the War'' (1916)''Chronicles of St. Tid'' (1918) ''Black, White, and Brindled'' (1923)''Up Hill, Down Dale: A Volume of Short Stories'' (1925)''Peacock House and Other Mysteries'' (1926)''It happened Like That, a New Volume of Short Stories'' (1928)''Brother Man'' (1928)* ''The Torch and Other Tales'' (1929)''Cherry Gambol and Other Stories'' (1930)''They Could Do No Other: A Volume of Stories'' (1932)''Once upon a Time'' (1936)''The Hidden Hand'' (1952)'''Poetry'''* ''Up-Along and Down-Along'' (1905)* ''Wild Fruit'' (1911)* ''The Iscariot'' (1912)* ''Delight and Other Poems'' (1916)* ''Plain Song'' (1917)* ''A Shadow Passes'' Observations and Poems (1918)* ''As the Wind Blows'' (1920)* ''A Dish of Apples'' (1921)* ''Pixies' Plot'' (1922)''Thoughts in Prose and Verse'' (1924)''Cherry-Stones'' (1924)''A Harvesting'' (1924)''Brother Beast'' (1928)''Goodwill'' (1928)''For Remembrance'' (1929)''A Hundred Sonnets'' (1929)''A Hundred Lyrics'' (1930)''Becoming'' (1932) ''Song of a Sailor Man: A Narrative Poem'' (1933)''Sonnets from Nature'' (1935)''A Dartmoor Village'' (1937)''Miniatures'' (1942)''The Enchanted Wood'' (1948)''One Thing and Another'' Essays and poems.", "(1954)'''Plays''' ''The Prude's Progress: A Comedy'' with Jerome K. Jerome (1895)* ''A Golden Wedding: An Original Comedy in One Act'' (1899)''A Breezy Morning'' (1904) ''A Pair of Knickerbockers'' (1900)* ''Curtain Raisers'' (1912)* ''The Shadow; A Play in Three Acts'' (1913)* ''The Mother: A Play in Four Acts'' (1914)* ''The Secret Woman; A Play in Five Acts'' (1914)* ''The Angel in the House: A Comedy in Three Acts'' (1915)'' The Farmer's Wife'' (1916)''Arachne; A Play'' (1920) By Adelaide Eden Phillpotts* ''St.", "George and the Dragons: A Comedy in Three Acts'' (1919) AKA ''The bishop's night out'' (1929)''The Market-Money.", "A Play in One Act'' (1923)''Bed Rock: A Comedy in Three Acts'' (1924)''Devonshire Cream: A Comedy in Three Acts'' (1925)''A Comedy Royal'' (1925) Dramatization of ''Eudocia (1921)''''Yellow Sands'' (1926)''Blue Comet'' (1927)''The Runaways: A Comedy in Three Acts'' (1928)''Three Short Plays: The Market-money; Something to Talk about; The Purple Bedroom'' (1928)''Buy a Broom: A Comedy in Three Acts'' (1929)''Jane's Legacy: A Folk Play in Three Acts'' (1931)''The Good Old Days: A Comedy in Three Acts'' (1932) with his daughter''Bert: A Play in One Act'' (1932)''A Cup of Happiness: A Comedy'' (1933)''At the 'bus-stop: A Duologue for Two Women'' (1943)''The Orange Orchard'' (1951) Based on ''The Waters of Walla'''''Nonfiction'''''In Sugar-Cane Land'' (1890) ''My Garden'' (1906)''Dance of the Months.''", "Sketches of Dartmoor and poems.", "(1911) ''My Shrubs'' (1915)* ''My Devon Year'' (1916)''One Hundred Pictures from Eden Phillpotts / Selected by L.H.", "Brewitt'' (1919)''A West Country Pilgrimage'' (1920) Essays and verse.", "''A West Country Sketch Book'' (1928) Essays from ''Dance of the Months'' and ''A West Country Pilgrimage'' with one new essay.", "''Essays in Little'' (1931)''Handmade Paper: Its Method of Manufacture as Described in the Novel \"Storm in a Teacup\"'' (1932)''A Year with Bisshe-Bantam'' (1934)''A Mixed Grill'' (1940) Essays.", "''From the Angle of 88'' (1951)''Selected Letters'' (1984)===Omnibus=== ''Three plays: The shadows; The mother; The secret woman'' (1913)''Circe's Island and The Girl & The Faun'' (1925)''The Complete Human Boy.", "Comprising \"The Human Boy,\" \"The Human Boy Again,\" \"The Human Boy and the War,\" \"The Human Boy's Diary,\" \"From the Angle of Seventeen,\" Etc.''", "(1930)''West Country Plays'' (1933) ''Buy a Broom'' and ''A Cup of Happiness''.", "''The Book of Avis: A Trilogy Comprising Bred in the Bone, Witch's Cauldron, A Shadow Passes'' 1936" ], [ "References", "===Further reading===** The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature, George Watson, Ian R. Willison CUP Archive, 1987" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * Eden Phillpotts papers, MSS 1458 in the L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University* Eden Phillpotts Collection at the Harry Ransom Center" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ecuador–United States relations" ], [ "Introduction", "Ecuador and the United States maintained close ties based on mutual interests in maintaining democratic institutions; combating cannabis and cocaine; building trade, investment, and financial ties; cooperating in fostering Ecuador's economic development; and participating in inter-American organizations.", "Ties are further strengthened by the presence of an estimated 150,000-200,000 Ecuadorians living in the United States and by 24,000 U.S. citizens visiting Ecuador annually, and by approximately 15,000 U.S. citizens living in Ecuador.Relations between the two nations have been strained following Julian Assange's bid to seek political asylum in the Ecuadorian embassy in London following repeated claims that the US government was pursuing his extradition due to his work with Wikileaks.", "Ecuador first offered political asylum to Julian Assange in November 2010.Which he then invoked by entering their London Embassy in June 2012.This was then revoked in 2019, following negotiations between the Moreno administration and the British Government.", "Relations have since improved following the ouster of Rafael Correa from office as President of Ecuador." ], [ "History", "Both nations were early signatories of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (the ''Rio Treaty'') of 1947, the Western Hemisphere's regional mutual security treaty.", "However, under the Correa administration, Ecuador denounced the treaty in February 2014, a legal prerequisite by which Ecuador would leave the treaty in 2016.Ecuador shares U.S. concern over increasing narcotrafficking and international terrorism and has energetically condemned terrorist actions, whether directed against government officials or private citizens.", "The government has maintained Ecuador virtually free of coca production since the mid-1980s and is working to combat money laundering and the transhipment of drugs and chemicals essential to the processing of cocaine.According to CIA critic and former CIA agent who was stationed in Ecuador Philip Agee, the CIA carried out extensive operations and political manipulation in Ecuador in the early 1960s.Ecuador and the U.S. agreed in 1999 to a 10-year arrangement whereby U.S. military surveillance aircraft could use the airbase at Manta, Ecuador, as a ''Forward Operating Location'' to detect drug trafficking flights through the region.", "The arrangement expired in 2009; former president Rafael Correa vowed not to renew it, and since then the Ecuador has not had any foreign military facilities in the country.In fisheries issues, the United States claims jurisdiction for the management of coastal fisheries up to 200 mile (370 km) from its coast, but excludes highly migratory species; Ecuador, on the other hand, claims a 200-mile (370-km) territorial sea, and imposes license fees and fines on foreign fishing vessels in the area, making no exceptions for catches of migratory species.", "In the early 1970s, Ecuador seized about 100 foreign-flag vessels (many of them U.S.) and collected fees and fines of more than $6 million.", "After a drop-off in such seizures for some years, several U.S. tuna boats were again detained and seized in 1980 and 1981.The U.S. Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act then triggered an automatic prohibition of U.S. imports of tuna products from Ecuador.", "The prohibition was lifted in 1983, and although fundamental differences between U.S. and Ecuadorian legislation still exist, there is no current conflict.", "During the period that has elapsed since seizures which triggered the tuna import ban, successive Ecuadorian governments have declared their willingness to explore possible solutions to this problem with mutual respect for longstanding positions and principles of both sides.", "The election of Rafael Correa in October 2006, has strained relations between the two countries and relations have since been fraught with tension.", "Rafael Correa was heavily critical of U.S. foreign policy whilst in office.Ecuadorian President Lenín Moreno with U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, 20 July 2019In April 2011, relations between Ecuador and the United States soured particularly after Ecuador expelled the U.S. ambassador after a leaked diplomatic cable was shown accusing president Correa of knowingly ignoring police corruption.", "In reciprocation, the Ecuadorian ambassador Luis Gallegos was expelled from the United States.In 2013, when Ecuador unilaterally pulled out of a preferential trade pact with the United States over claiming the U.S. used it as blackmail in regards to the asylum request of Edward Snowden, relations between Ecuador and the United States reached an all-time low.", "The pact offered Ecuador US$23 million, which it offered to the U.S. for human rights training.", "Tariff free imports had been offered to Ecuador in exchange for drug elimination efforts.Julian Assange applied for Ecuadorian citizenship on 16 September 2017, which Ecuador granted on 12 December 2017.However, this development was not announced until 25 January 2018.In April 2019, Assange was arrested by the Metropolitan Police.", "President of Ecuador, Lenin Moreno, stated that he had 'violated the terms of his asylum'.", "British Foreign Secretary, Jeremy Hunt stated that the British and Ecuadorian governments had been co-operating since Moreno's inauguration and aimed to resolve the situation.", "Assange extradition to the United States was denied, due to a combination of his ill health and the nature of the US carceral system.The relations with the United States improved significantly during the presidency of Lenin Moreno since 2017.In February 2020, his visit to Washington was the first meeting between an Ecuadorian and U.S. president in 17 years.", "In June 2019, Ecuador had agreed to allow US military planes to operate from an airport on the Galapagos Islands." ], [ "Education", "American schools in Ecuador:Colegio Americano de QuitoInter-American Academy of GuayaquilAcademia Cotopaxi - American International schoolAlliance Academy International" ], [ "See also", "* Latin America–United States relations" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Mumford, Jeremy.", "\"Ecuadorian Americans.\"", "''Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America,'' edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol.", "2, Gale, 2014), pp.", "47–60.online* Pineo, Ronn F. ''Ecuador and the United States: Useful Strangers'' (University of Georgia Press, 2007).", "* Pribilsky, Jason.", "''La Chulla Vida: Gender, Migration and the Family in Andean Ecuador and New York City'' (Syracuse University Press, 2007)." ], [ "External links", "* History of Ecuador - United States relations* - U.S. State Department Fact Sheet on U.S. Ecuador relations* ''Ecuador News'' newspaper" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eight-ball" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eight-ball''' (also spelled '''8-ball''' or '''eightball''', and sometimes called '''solids and stripes''', '''spots and stripes''', '''big ones and little ones''', or rarely '''highs and lows''') is a discipline of pool played on a billiard table with six pockets, cue sticks, and sixteen billiard balls (a and fifteen s).", "The object balls include seven solid-colored balls numbered 1 through 7, seven striped balls numbered 9 through 15, and the black 8 ball.", "After the balls are scattered with a shot, a player is assigned either the group of solid or striped balls once they have legally pocketed a ball from that group.", "The object of the game is to legally pocket the 8-ball in a \"called\" pocket, which can only be done after all of the balls from a player's assigned group have been cleared from the table.The game is the most frequently played discipline of pool, and is often thought of as synonymous with \"pool\".", "The game has numerous variations, mostly regional.", "It is the second most played professional pool game, after nine-ball, and for the last several decades ahead of straight pool." ], [ "History", "The game of eight-ball arose around 1900 in the United States as a development of pyramid pool, which allows any eight of the fifteen object balls to be pocketed to win.", "The game arose from two changes made, namely that the 8 ball must be pocketed last to win, and that each player may only pocket half of the other object balls.", "By 1925, the game was popular enough for the Brunswick-Balke-Collender Company to introduce purpose-made ball sets with seven , seven , one , and the cue ball, which allowed spectators to more easily see which suit each ball belonged to.", "(Such colors became standard in the later British-originating variant, blackball.)", "The rules, as officially codified in the Billiard Congress of America's rule book, were periodically revised in the years following." ], [ "Standardized rules of play", "American-style eight-ball rules are played around the world by professionals and in many amateur leagues.", "Nevertheless, the rules for eight-ball may be the most inconsistent of any billiard game, as there are several competing sets of \"official\" rules.The World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA), the governing body of pool which has continental and national affiliates around the world, promulgates standardized rules as ''Pool Billiards – The Rules of Play''.", "These are used for amateur and professional play.Meanwhile, many amateur leagues – such as the American Poolplayers Association (APA) and its affiliate the Canadian Poolplayers Association (CPA), the Valley National Eight-ball Association (VNEA) and the BCA Pool League (BCAPL) – use their own rulesets which have slight differences from WPA rules and from each other.", "Millions of individuals play casually, using informal \"house rules\" which vary not only from area to area but even from venue to venue.===Equipment===Plan view of an American style pool tableThe regulation size of the table's playing surface is , though exact dimensions may vary slightly by manufacturer.", "Some leagues and tournaments using the World Standardized Rules may allow smaller sizes, down to .", "Early 20th-century models are occasionally also still used.", "WPA professional competition generally employs regulation tables, while the amateur league championships of various leagues, including BCAPL, VNEA, and APA, use the seven-foot tables in order to fit more of them into the hosting venue.There are seven numbered 1 through 7, seven numbered 9 through 15, an , and a .", "The balls are usually colored as follows::1 solid yellow 9 yellow stripe2 solid blue 10 blue stripe3 solid red 11 red stripe4 solid purple 12 purple stripe5 solid orange 13 orange stripe6 solid green 14 green stripe7 solid maroon 15 maroon stripe8 solid black • , whiteSpecial sets designed to be more easily discernible on television substitute pink for the dark purple of the 4 and 12 and light tan for the darker maroon of the 7 and 15 balls, and these alternative-color sets are now also available to consumers.===Setup===To start the game, the s are placed in a triangular rack.", "The base of the rack is parallel to the (the short end of the pool table) and positioned so the apex ball of the rack is located on the .", "The balls in the rack are ideally placed so that they are all in contact with one another; this is accomplished by pressing the balls together toward the apex ball.", "The order of the balls should be random, with the exceptions of the 8-ball, which must be placed in the center of the rack (i.e., the middle of the third row), and the two back corner balls, one of which must be a stripe and the other a solid.", "The cue ball is placed anywhere the breaker desires behind the .===Break===One person is chosen by some predetermined method (e.g., coin toss, , or win or loss of previous game or match) to shoot first, using the cue ball to the object-ball rack apart.", "In most leagues it is the breaker's opponent who racks the balls, but in some, players break their own racks.", "If the breaker fails to make a successful break—usually defined as at least four balls hitting cushions or an object ball being pocketed—then the opponent can opt either to play from the current position or to call for a and either re-break or have the original breaker repeat the break.Long-exposure photograph of a break in eight-ballIf the 8 ball is pocketed on the break, then the breaker can choose either to the 8 ball and play from the current position or to re-rack and re-break; but if the cue ball is also pocketed on the break then the opponent is the one who has the choice: either to re-spot the 8 ball and shoot with behind the , accepting the current position, or to re-break or have the breaker re-break.===Turn-taking===A player (or team) continues to shoot until committing a or failing to legally pocket an object ball (whether or not); thereupon it is the turn of the opposing players.", "Play alternates in this manner for the remainder of the game.", "Following a foul, the incoming player has anywhere on the table, unless the foul occurred on the break shot, as noted previously.===Selection of the target group===The table is \"open\" at the start of the game, meaning that either player may shoot at any ball.", "It remains open until one player legally pockets any called ball other than the 8 after the break.", "That player is assigned the ''group'', or ''suit'', of the pocketed and the other suit is assigned to the opponent.", "Balls pocketed on the break, or as the result of a foul while the table is still open, are not used to assign the suits.", "Once the suits are assigned, they remain fixed throughout the game.", "If any balls from a player's suit are on the table, the player must hit one of them first on every shot; otherwise a foul is called and the turn ends.", "After all balls from the suit have been pocketed, the player's target becomes the 8 for the remainder of the game.===Pocketing the 8 ball===Once all of a player's (or team's) group of object balls are pocketed, the player attempts to sink the 8 ball.", "In order to win the game, the player first designates which pocket the 8 ball will be pocketed into and then successfully pockets the 8 ball into that pocket.", "If the player knocks the 8 ball off the table, the player loses the game.", "If the player pockets the 8 ball and commits a foul or pockets it into another pocket than the one designated, the player loses the game.", "Otherwise (i.e., if the 8 ball is neither pocketed nor knocked off the table), the shooter's turn is simply over, even if a foul occurs.", "In short, a world-standardized rules game of eight-ball, like a game of nine-ball, is not over until the \"\" is no longer on the table.", "The rule has been increasingly adopted by amateur leagues.===Winning===A player wins the game if that player legally pockets the 8 ball into a designated pocket after all of their object balls have been pocketed.", "Because of this, it is possible for a game to end with only one of the players having shot, which is known as \"running the table\" or a \"denial\"; conversely, it's also possible to win a game ''without'' taking a shot; such a scenario may occur if the opposing player illegally pockets the 8 ball on any shot other than the break (such as sinking the 8 ball in an uncalled pocket, knocking the 8 ball off the table, sinking the 8 ball when a player is not yet on the black ball, or sinking both the 8 ball and the cue ball off a single shot).", "The rules on what happens when the 8 ball is pocketed off the break vary by the rules in question .===Fouls===The general rules of pool apply to eight-ball, such as the requirements that the cue ball not be pocketed and that a cushion be hit by any of the balls after the cue ball has struck an object ball.", "Fouls specific to eight-ball are:The shooter fails to strike one of their own object balls (or the 8 ball when it is the legal ball) with the cue ball, before other balls are contacted by the cue ball.", "This excludes \"\" shots, where the cue ball strikes one of the shooter's and one of the opponent's object balls simultaneously.", "If an attempt is made to pocket a ball, and the ball hits the pocket, bounces out and lands on the ground, the ball is placed in the pocket and the game continues.", "The shooter shoots the black 8 ball without designating the pocket to opposite team members or the match referee in advance.", "The shooter deliberately pockets the opponent's balls while shooting the 8 ball.", "On the break shot, no balls are pocketed and fewer than four balls reach the cushions, in which case the incoming player can demand a re-rack and take the break or force the original breaker to re-break, or may take ball-in-hand behind the and shoot the balls as they lie." ], [ "Variants", "===United Kingdom===The British version of eight-ball, known internationally as either blackball or simply eight-ball, has evolved into a separate game, retaining significant elements of earlier pub versions of the game, with additional influences from English billiards and snooker.", "It is popular in amateur and professional competition in the UK, Ireland, Australia and some other countries.The game uses unnumbered, solid-colored object balls, typically red and yellow, with one black 8 ball.", "They are usually or in diameter, the latter being the same size as the balls used in snooker and English billiards.", "Tables are usually long, and feature pockets with rounded cushion openings, like snooker tables.", "Smaller tables are sometimes used in places where a larger table would be too large.The rules of blackball differ from standard eight-ball in numerous ways, including the handling of fouls, which may give the opponent two shots, racking (the 8 ball, not the apex ball, goes on the spot), selection of which group of balls will be shot by which player, handling of balls and s, and many other details.Internationally, the World Pool-Billiard Association and the World Eightball Pool Federation both publish rules and promote events.", "The two rule sets differ in some details regarding the penalties for fouls.===Chinese eight-ball===The version of eight-ball played in China uses rules that are essentially the same as standard WPA rules; and the game is played with standard solids-and-stripes balls.", "However, the tables are constructed similarly to snooker tables, with rounded pocket openings, napped cloth and flat-faced rail cushions.", "This results in some differences in gameplay approach.", "The variant arose in the mid-1980s and 1990s as eight-ball gained popularity in China, where snooker was the most popular cue sport at the time.", "With standard American-style pool tables rare, Chinese players made do with playing eight-ball on small snooker tables.", "It has since become the most popular cue sport in China, and the major tournaments have some of the largest prize money in pool.===Eight-ball rotation===The hybrid game eight-ball rotation is a combination of eight-ball and rotation, in which the players must pocket their balls (other than the 8, which remains last) in numerical order.", "Specifically, the solids player starts by pocketing the 1 ball and ascends to the 7 ball, and the stripes player starts by pocketing the 15 ball and descends to the 9 ball.===Backwards eight-ball===Backwards eight-ball, also called reverse eight-ball, is a variant in which, instead of shooting the cue ball at an object ball to force the object ball into a pocket, the player strikes the object ball with their cue so it s off the cue ball and into a pocket, in a fashion similar to Russian pyramid." ], [ "See also", "List of World Eight-ball Champions" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", " World Pool-Billiard Association" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Earned value management" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Earned value management''' ('''EVM'''), '''earned value project management''', or '''earned value performance management''' ('''EVPM''') is a project management technique for measuring project performance and progress in an objective manner." ], [ "Overview", "Earned value management is a project management technique for measuring project performance and progress.", "It has the ability to combine measurements of the project management triangle: scope, time, and costs.In a single integrated system, EVM is able to provide accurate forecasts of project performance problems, which is an important aspect of project management.Early EVM research showed that the areas of planning and control are significantly impacted by its use; and similarly, using the methodology improves both scope definition as well as the analysis of overall project performance.", "More recent research studies have shown that the principles of EVM are positive predictors of project success.", "The popularity of EVM has grown in recent years beyond government contracting, a sector in which its importance continues to rise (e.g.", "recent new DFARS rules), in part because EVM can also surface in and help substantiate contract disputes.=== EVM features ===Essential features of any EVM implementation include:* A project schedule that identifies work to be accomplished.", "Sometimes incorrectly called a Project Plan.", "* A valuation of planned work, called planned value (PV) or budgeted cost of work scheduled (BCWS)* Pre-defined \"earning rules\" (also called metrics) to quantify the accomplishment of work, called earned value (EV) or budgeted cost of work performed (BCWP)* Actual Cost which is also known as Actual Cost of Work Performed (ACWP)* A plot of project cumulative costs vs time especially to show both early date and late date curvesEVM implementations for large or complex projects include many more features, such as indicators and forecasts of cost performance (over budget or under budget) and schedule performance (behind schedule or ahead of schedule).", "Large projects usually need to use quantitative forecasts associated with earned value management.", "Although deliverables in these large projects can use adaptive development methods, the forecasting metrics found in earned value management are mostly used in projects using the predictive approach.", "However, the most basic requirement of an EVM system is that it quantifies progress using PV and EV.=== Application example ===Project A has been approved for a duration of one year and with a budget.", "It was also planned that the project spends 50% of the approved budget and expects 50% of the work to be complete in the first six months.", "If now, six months after the start of the project, a project manager reports that he has spent 50% of the budget, one may presume that the project is perfectly on plan.", "However, in reality the provided information is not sufficient to come to such a conclusion.", "The project can spend 50% of the budget, whilst finishing only 25% of the work, which would mean the project is not doing well; or the project can spend 50% of the budget, whilst completing 75% of the work, which would mean that project is doing better than planned.", "EVM is meant to address such and similar issues." ], [ "History", "EVM emerged as a financial analysis specialty in United States government programs in the 1960s, with the government requiring contractors to implement an EVM system (EVMS).", "It has since become a significant branch of project management and cost engineering.", "Project management research investigating the contribution of EVM to project success suggests a moderately strong positive relationship.", "Implementations of EVM can be scaled to fit projects of all sizes and complexities.The genesis of EVM occurred in industrial manufacturing at the turn of the 20th century, based largely on the principle of \"earned time\" popularized by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth.In 1979, EVM was introduced to the architecture and engineering industry in a ''Public Works Magazine'' article by David Burstein, a project manager with a national engineering firm.", "In the late 1980s and early 1990s, EVM emerged more widely as a project management methodology to be understood and used by managers and executives, not just EVM specialists.", "Many industrialized nations also began to utilize EVM in their own procurement programs.An overview of EVM was included in the Project Management Institute (PMI)'s first Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) Guide in 1987 and was expanded in subsequent editions.", "In the most recent edition of the PMBOK guide, EVM is listed among the general tools and techniques for processes to control project costs.The construction industry was an early commercial adopter of EVM.", "Closer integration of EVM with the practice of project management accelerated in the 1990s.", "In 1999, the Performance Management Association merged with the PMI to become its first college, the College of Performance Management (CPM).", "The United States Office of Management and Budget began to mandate the use of EVM across all government agencies, and, for the first time, for certain internally managed projects (not just for contractors).", "EVM also received greater attention by publicly traded companies in response to the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002.In Australia, EVM has been codified as the standards AS 4817-2003 and AS 4817–2006.=== US defense industry ===The EVM concept took root in the United States Department of Defense in the 1960s.", "The original concept was called the Program Evaluation and Review Technique, but it was considered overly burdensome and not very adaptable by contractors whom were mandated to use it, and many variations of it began to proliferate among various procurement programs.", "In 1967, the DoD established a criterion-based approach, using a set of 35 criteria, called the Cost/Schedule Control Systems Criteria (C/SCSC).", "In the 1970s and early 1980s, a subculture of C/SCSC analysis grew, but the technique was often ignored or even actively resisted by project managers in both government and industry.", "C/SCSC was often considered a financial control tool that could be delegated to analytical specialists.In 1989, EVM leadership was elevated to the Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition, thus making EVM an element of program management and procurement.", "In 1991, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney canceled the Navy A-12 Avenger II Program because of performance problems detected by EVM.", "This demonstrated that EVM mattered to secretary-level leadership.", "In the 1990s, many U.S. Government regulations were eliminated or streamlined.", "However, EVM not only survived the acquisition reform movement, but became strongly associated with the acquisition reform movement itself.", "Most notably, from 1995 to 1998, ownership of EVM criteria (reduced to 32) was transferred to industry by adoption of ANSI EIA 748-A standard.The use of EVM has expanded beyond the U.S. Department of Defense.", "It was adopted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the United States Department of Energy and other technology-related agencies." ], [ "Project tracking", "Figure 1: Tracking AC against a \"spend plan\" is inconclusive (without EV).Figure 2: Measuring schedule performance without knowledge of actual costFigure 3: Measuring cost performance without a PV baselineFigure 4: The most common form of EVM graphicIt is helpful to see an example of project tracking that does not include earned value performance management.", "Consider a project that has been planned in detail, including a time-phased spend plan for all elements of work.", "'''Figure 1''' shows the cumulative budget (cost) for this project as a function of time (the blue line, labeled PV).", "It also shows the cumulative actual cost of the project (red line, labeled AC) through week 8.To those unfamiliar with EVM, it might appear that this project was over budget through week 4 and then under budget from week 6 through week 8.However, what is missing from this chart is any understanding of how much work has been accomplished during the project.", "If the project was actually completed at week 8, then the project would actually be well under budget and well ahead of schedule.", "If, on the other hand, the project is only 10% complete at week 8, the project is significantly over budget and behind schedule.", "A method is needed to measure technical performance objectively and quantitatively, and that is what EVM accomplishes.=== Progress measurement sheet ===Progress can be measured using a measurement sheet and employing various techniques including milestones, weighted steps, value of work done, physical percent complete, earned value, Level of Effort, earn as planned, and more.", "Progress can be tracked based on any measure – cost, hours, quantities, schedule, directly input percent complete, and more.Progress can be assessed using fundamental earned value calculations and variance analysis (Planned Cost, Actual Cost, and Earned Value); these calculations can determine where project performance currently is using the estimated project baseline's cost and schedule information.=== With EVM ===Consider the same project, except this time the project plan includes pre-defined methods of quantifying the accomplishment of work.", "At the end of each week, the project manager identifies every detailed element of work that has been completed, and sums the EV for each of these completed elements.", "Earned value may be accumulated monthly, weekly, or as progress is made.", "The Value of Work Done (VOWD) is mainly used in Oil & Gas and is similar to the Actual Cost in EVM." ], [ "Earned value (EV)", "EV is calculated by multiplying %complete of each task (completed or in progress) by its planned value'''Figure 2''' shows the EV curve (in green) along with the PV curve from Figure 1.The chart indicates that technical performance (i.e.", "progress) started more rapidly than planned, but slowed significantly and fell behind schedule at week 7 and 8.This chart illustrates the schedule performance aspect of EVM.", "It is complementary to critical path or critical chain schedule management.", "'''Figure 3''' shows the same EV curve (green) with the actual cost data from Figure 1 (in red).", "It can be seen that the project was actually under budget, relative to the amount of work accomplished, since the start of the project.", "This is a much better conclusion than might be derived from Figure 1.", "'''Figure 4''' shows all three curves together – which is a typical EVM line chart.", "The best way to read these three-line charts is to identify the EV curve first, then compare it to PV (for schedule performance) and AC (for cost performance).", "It can be seen from this illustration that a true understanding of cost performance and schedule performance ''relies first on measuring technical performance objectively.''", "This is the ''foundational principle'' of EVM." ], [ "Scaling EVM from simple to advanced implementations", "The ''foundational principle'' of EVM, mentioned above, does not depend on the size or complexity of the project.", "However, the ''implementations'' of EVM can vary significantly depending on the circumstances.", "In many cases, organizations establish an all-or-nothing threshold; projects above the threshold require a full-featured (complex) EVM system and projects below the threshold are exempted.", "Another approach that is gaining favor is to scale EVM implementation according to the project at hand and skill level of the project team." ], [ "Simple implementations (emphasizing only technical performance)", "There are many more small and simple projects than there are large and complex ones, yet historically only the largest and most complex have enjoyed the benefits of EVM.", "Still, lightweight implementations of EVM are achievable by any person who has basic spreadsheet skills.", "In fact, spreadsheet implementations are an excellent way to learn basic EVM skills.The ''first step'' is to define the work.", "This is typically done in a hierarchical arrangement called a work breakdown structure (WBS), although the simplest projects may use a simple list of tasks.", "In either case, it is important that the WBS or list be comprehensive.", "It is also important that the elements be mutually exclusive, so that work is easily categorized into one and only one element of work.", "The most detailed elements of a WBS hierarchy (or the items in a list) are called work packages.", "Work packages are then often devolved further in the project schedule into tasks or activities.The ''second step'' is to assign a value, called planned value (PV), to each work package.", "For large projects, PV is almost always an allocation of the total project budget, and may be in units of currency (e.g.", "dollar, euro or naira) or in labor hours, or both.", "However, in very simple projects, each activity may be assigned a weighted \"point value\" which might not be a budget number.", "Assigning weighted values and achieving consensus on all PV quantities yields an important benefit of EVM, because it exposes misunderstandings and miscommunications about the scope of the project, and resolving these differences should always occur as early as possible.", "Some terminal elements can not be known (planned) in great detail in advance, and that is expected, because they can be further refined at a later time.The ''third step'' is to define \"earning rules\" for each work package.", "The simplest method is to apply just one earning rule, such as the 0/100 rule, to all activities.", "Using the 0/100 rule, no credit is earned for an element of work until it is finished.", "A related rule is called the 50/50 rule, which means 50% credit is earned when an element of work is started, and the remaining 50% is earned upon completion.", "Other fixed earning rules such as a 25/75 rule or 20/80 rule are gaining favor, because they assign more weight to finishing work than for starting it, but they also motivate the project team to identify when an element of work is started, which can improve awareness of work-in-progress.", "These simple earning rules work well for small or simple projects because generally, each activity tends to be fairly short in duration.These initial three steps define the minimal amount of planning for simplified EVM.", "The ''final step'' is to execute the project according to the plan and measure progress.", "When activities are started or finished, EV is accumulated according to the earning rule.", "This is typically done at regular intervals (e.g.", "weekly or monthly), but there is no reason why EV cannot be accumulated in near real-time, when work elements are started/completed.", "In fact, waiting to update EV only once per month (simply because that is when cost data are available) only detracts from a primary benefit of using EVM, which is to create a technical performance scoreboard for the project team.Figure 5: A comparison of three EV curves without PV and ACIn a lightweight implementation such as described here, the project manager has not accumulated cost nor defined a detailed project schedule network (i.e.", "using a critical path or critical chain methodology).", "While such omissions are inappropriate for managing large projects, they are a common and reasonable occurrence in many very small or simple projects.", "Any project can benefit from using EV alone as a real-time score of progress.", "One useful result of this very simple approach (without schedule models and actual cost accumulation) is to compare EV curves of similar projects, as illustrated in '''Figure 5'''.", "In this example, the progress of three residential construction projects are compared by aligning the starting dates.", "If these three home construction projects were measured with the same PV valuations, the ''relative'' schedule performance of the projects can be easily compared." ], [ "Making earned value schedule metrics concordant with the CPM schedule", "The actual critical path is ultimately the determining factor of every project's duration.", "Because earned value schedule metrics take no account of critical path data, big budget activities that are not on the critical path have the potential to dwarf the impact of performing small budget critical path activities.", "This can lead to gaming the SV and Schedule Performance Index (SPI) metrics by ignoring critical path activities in favor of big-budget activities that may have more float.", "This can sometimes even lead to performing activities out-of-sequence just to improve the schedule tracking metrics, which can cause major problems with quality.A simple two-step process has been suggested to fix this:# Create a second earned-value baseline strictly for schedule, with the weighted activities and milestones on the as-late-as-possible dates of the backward pass of the critical path algorithm, where there is no float.# Allow earned-value credit for schedule metrics to be taken no earlier than the reporting period during which the activity is scheduled unless it is on the project's current critical path.In this way, the distorting aspect of float would be eliminated.", "There would be no benefit to performing a non-critical activity with many floats until it is due in proper sequence.", "Also, an activity would not generate a negative schedule variance until it had used up its float.", "Under this method, one way of gaming the schedule metrics would be eliminated.", "The only way of generating a positive schedule variance (or SPI over 1.0) would be by completing work on the current critical path ahead of schedule, which is in fact the only way for a project to get ahead of schedule." ], [ "Advanced implementations", "In addition to managing technical and schedule performance, large and complex projects require cost performance to be monitored and reviewed at regular intervals.", "To measure cost performance, planned value (BCWS) and earned value (BCWP) must be in the same currency units as actual costs.In large implementations, the planned value curve is commonly called a Performance Measurement Baseline (PMB) and may be arranged in control accounts, summary-level planning packages, planning packages and work packages.In large projects, establishing control accounts is the primary method of delegating responsibility and authority to various parts of the performing organization.", "Control accounts are cells of a responsibility assignment (RACI) matrix, which is the intersection of the project WBS and the organizational breakdown structure (OBS).", "Control accounts are assigned to Control Account Managers (CAMs).Large projects require more elaborate processes for controlling baseline revisions, more thorough integration with subcontractor EVM systems, and more elaborate management of procured materials.In the United States, the primary standard for full-featured EVM systems is the ANSI/EIA-748A standard, published in May 1998 and reaffirmed in August 2002.The standard defines 32 criteria for full-featured EVM system compliance.", "As of the year 2007, a draft of ANSI/EIA-748B, a revision to the original is available from ANSI.", "Other countries have established similar standards.In addition to using BCWS and BCWP, implementations often use the term actual cost of work performed (ACWP) instead of AC.", "Additional acronyms and formulas include:=== Budget at completion (BAC) ===According to the PMBOK (7th edition) by the Project Management Institute (PMI), '''Budget at Completion''' (BAC) is the \"sum of all budgets established for the work to be performed.", "\"It is the total planned value (PV or BCWS) at the end of the project.", "If a project has a management reserve (MR), it is typically ''not'' included in the BAC, and respectively, in the performance measurement baseline.=== Cost variance (CV) ===According to the PMBOK (7th edition) by the Project Management Institute (PMI), '''Cost variance''' (CV) is a \"The amount of budget deficit or surplus at a given point in time, expressed as the difference between the earned value and the actual cost.\"", "Cost variance compares the estimated cost of a deliverable with the actual cost.CV greater than 0 is good (under budget).=== Cost performance index (CPI) ===According to the PMBOK (7th edition) by the Project Management Institute (PMI), '''Cost performance index''' is a \"measure of the cost efficiency of budgeted resources expressed at the ratio of earned value to actual cost.", "\"CPI greater than 1 is favorable (under budget).CPI that is less than 1 means that the cost of completing the work is higher than planned (bad).When CPI is equal to 1, it means that the cost of completing the work is right on plan (good).CPI greater than 1 means that the cost of completing the work is less than planned (good or sometimes bad).Having a CPI that is very high (in some cases, very high is only 1.2) may mean that the plan was too conservative, and thus a very high number may in fact not be good, as the CPI is being measured against a poor baseline.", "Management or the customer may be upset with the planners as an overly conservative baseline ties up available funds for other purposes, and the baseline is also used for manpower planning.=== Estimate at completion (EAC) ===According to the PMBOK (7th edition) by the Project Management Institute (PMI), '''Estimate at completion''' (EAC) is the \"expected total cost of completing all work expressed as the sum of the actual cost to date and the estimate to complete.", "\"EAC is the manager's projection of total cost of the project at completion.This formula is based on the assumption, that the performance of the project (or rather a deviation of the actual performance from a baseline) to date gives a good indication of what a performance (or rather deviation of a performance from a baseline) will be in the future.", "In other words, this formula is using statistics of the project to date to predict future results.", "Therefore, it has to be used carefully, when the nature of the project in the future is likely to be different from the one to date (e.g.", "performance of the project compare to baseline at the design phase may not be a good indication of what it will be during a construction phase).=== Estimate to complete (ETC) ===According to the PMBOK (7th edition) by the Project Management Institute (PMI), '''Estimate to complete''' (ETC) is the \"expected cost to finish all the remaining project work.", "\"ETC is the estimate to complete the remaining work of the project.", "ETC must be based on objective measures of the outstanding work remaining, typically based on the measures or estimates used to create the original planned value (PV) profile, including any adjustments to predict performance based on historical performance, actions being taken to improve performance, or acknowledgement of degraded performance.While algebraically, ETC = EAC-AC is correct, ETC should ''never'' be computed using either EAC or AC.In the following equation:ETC is the independent variable, EAC is the dependent variable, and AC is fixed based on expenditures to date.", "ETC should always be reported truthfully to reflect the project team estimate to complete the outstanding work.", "If ETC pushes EAC to exceed BAC, then project management skills are employed to either recommend performance improvements or scope change, but never force ETC to give the \"correct\" answer so that EAC=BAC.", "Managing project activities to keep the project within budget is a human factors activity, not a mathematical function.=== To-complete performance index (TCPI) ===To-complete performance index (TCPI) is an earned value management measure that estimates the cost performance needed to achieve a particular management objective.The TCPI provides a projection of the anticipated performance required to achieve either the BAC or the EAC.", "TCPI indicates the future required cost efficiency needed to achieve a target BAC (Budget At Complete) or EAC (Estimate At Complete).", "Any significant difference between CPI, the cost performance to date, and the TCPI, the cost performance needed to meet the BAC or the EAC, should be accounted for by management in their forecast of the final cost.For the TCPI based on BAC (describing the performance required to meet the original BAC budgeted total):or for the TCPI based on EAC (describing the performance required to meet a new, revised budget total EAC):This implies, that if revised budget (EAC) is calculated using Earned Value methodology formula (BAC/CPI), then at the moment, when TCPI based on EAC is first time calculated, it will always be equal to CPI of a project at that moment.", "This happens because when EAC is calculated using formula BAC/CPI it is assumed, that cost performance of the remaining part of the project will be the same as the cost performance of the project to date.=== Independent estimate at completion (IEAC) ===The IEAC is a metric to project total cost using the performance to date to project overall performance.", "This can be compared to the EAC, which is the manager's projection." ], [ "Limitations", "Proponents of EVM note a number of issues with implementing it, and further limitations may be inherent to the concept itself.Because EVM requires quantification of a project plan, it is often perceived to be inapplicable to discovery-driven or Agile software development projects.", "For example, it may be impossible to plan certain research projects far in advance, because research itself uncovers some opportunities (research paths) and actively eliminates others.", "However, another school of thought holds that all work can be planned, even if in weekly timeboxes or other short increments.Traditional EVM is not intended for non-discrete (continuous) effort.", "In traditional EVM standards, non-discrete effort is called \"level of effort\" (LOE).", "If a project plan contains a significant portion of LOE, and the LOE is intermixed with discrete effort, EVM results will be contaminated.", "This is another area of EVM research.Traditional definitions of EVM typically assume that project accounting and project network schedule management are prerequisites to achieving any benefit from EVM.", "Many small projects don't satisfy either of these prerequisites, but they too can benefit from EVM, as described for simple implementations, above.", "Other projects can be planned with a project network, but do not have access to true and timely actual cost data.", "In practice, the collection of true and timely actual cost data can be the most difficult aspect of EVM.", "Such projects can benefit from EVM, as described for intermediate implementations, above, and earned schedule.As a means of overcoming objections to EVM's lack of connection to qualitative performance issues, the Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) PEO(A) organization initiated a project in the late 1990s to integrate true technical achievement into EVM projections by utilizing risk profiles.", "These risk profiles anticipate opportunities that may be revealed and possibly be exploited as development and testing proceeds.", "The published research resulted in a Technical Performance Management (TPM) methodology and software application that is still used by many DoD agencies in informing EVM estimates with technical achievement.The research was peer-reviewed and was the recipient of the Defense Acquisition University Acquisition Research Symposium 1997 Acker Award for excellence in the exchange of information in the field of acquisition research.There is the difficulty inherent for any periodic monitoring of synchronizing data timing: actual deliveries, actual invoicing, and the date the EVM analysis is done are all independent, so that some items have arrived but their invoicing has not and by the time analysis is delivered the data will likely be weeks behind events.", "This may limit EVM to a less tactical or less definitive role where use is combined with other forms to explain why or add recent news and manage future expectations.There is a measurement limitation for how precisely EVM can be used, stemming from classic conflict between accuracy and precision, as the mathematics can calculate deceptively far beyond the precision of the measurements of data and the approximation that is the plan estimation.", "The limitation on estimation is commonly understood (such as the ninety–ninety rule in software) but is not visible in any margin of error.", "The limitations on measurement are largely a form of digitization error as EVM measurements ultimately can be no finer than by item, which may be the work breakdown structure terminal element size, to the scale of reporting period, typically end summary of a month, and by the means of delivery measure.", "(The delivery measure may be actual deliveries, may include estimates of partial work done at the end of month subject to estimation limits, and typically does not include QC check or risk offsets.", ")As traditionally implemented, EVM deals with, and is based in, budget and cost.", "It has no relationship to the investment value or benefit for which the project has been funded and undertaken.", "Yet due to the use of the word \"value\" in the name, this fact is often misunderstood.", "However, earned value metrics can be used to compute the cost and schedule inputs to Devaux's Index of Project Performance (the DIPP), which integrates schedule and cost performance with the planned investment value of the project's scope across the project management triangle.Darling & Whitty (2019) conducted an ethnographic study to see how EVM is implemented, applying Goffman's Dramaturgy (sociology), they found there is a sham act occurring through impressionable acts presenting statistical data as fact even when the data may be worthless.", "Findings include sham progress reporting can emerge in an environment where senior management’s ignorance of project work creates unworkable binds for project staff.", "Moreover, the sham behaviour succeeds at its objective because senior management are vulnerable to false impressions.", "This situation raises ethical issues for those involved, and creates an overhead in dealing with the reality of project work.", "Further the Darling & Whitty study is pertinent as it provides sociological insight to how a scientific management technique has been implemented.ER = Earned Regression = 953SPI(R) = ER / AT = 953 / 866 = 1.10MD(R) = 100 / 0.0408 = 2449IEAC(R) = MD(R) / SPI(R) = 2449 / 1.10 = 2223" ], [ "See also", "* Critical chain project management* Earned schedule* List of project management topics" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "" ], [ "Further reading", " Humphreys, Gary (2001).", "''Project Management Using Earned Value''.", "Humphreys and Associates.", "* Philipson, Erik and Sven Antvik (2009).", "''Earned Value Management – an introduction''.", "Philipson Biz.", "* Project Management Institute (2005).", "''Practice Standard for Earned Value Management''.", "Project Management Institute.", "* Solomon, Paul and Ralph Young (2006).", "''Performance-Based Earned Value''.", "Wiley-IEEE Computer Society.", "* Stratton, Ray (2006).", "''The Earned Value Maturity Model''.", "Management Concepts.", "* U.S. Air Force Materiel Command (1994).", "\"Guide to Analysis of Contractor Cost Data\".", "AFMCPAM 65-501* Defense Contract Management Agency (2006) \"Earned Value Implementation Guide\" DAU link * GAO (2009) \"GAO Cost Estimating and Assessment Guide\" GAO-09-SSP* * * * Bembers, Ivan, Ed Knox, Michelle Jones and Jeff Traczyk (Jan 2017).", "\"EVM System's High Cost, Fact or Fiction?\"", "Defense AT&L Magazine.", "https://www.dau.mil/library/defense-atl/_layouts/15/WopiFrame.aspx?sourcedoc=/library/defense-atl/DATLFiles/Jan-Feb2017/Bembers_Knox_Jones_Traczyk.pdf * Wagner, Bernhard (2020-11-01) \"Earned Value Management (EVM) to control software development\"" ], [ "External links", "* \"Measurable News\" - College of Performance Management (CPM)* College of Performance Management (CPM)* EVM at NASA * * U.S. Office of the Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics Earned Value Management website* Measuring Integrated Progress on Agile Software Development Projects* Monitoring Scrum Projects with Agile EVM and Earned Business Value (EBV) Metrics* UK MoD on-line training using Flash player* U.S. DoD DAU Acquisition Community Earned Value Management website* U.S. Defense Contract Management Agency Guidebook* EVM earned value management general definitions* EVMS Surveillance Instruction, U.S. Defense Contract Management Agency" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Electron microscope" ], [ "Introduction", "A transmission electron microscope from the 2000sAn image of an ant in a scanning electron microscopeAn '''electron microscope''' is a microscope that uses a beam of electrons as a source of illumination.", "They use electron optics that are analogous to the glass lenses of an optical light microscope to control the electron beam, for instance focusing them to produce magnified images or electron diffraction patterns.", "As the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times smaller than that of visible light, electron microscopes have a much higher resolution of about 0.1 nm, which compares to about 200 nm for light microscopes.", "''Electron microscope'' may refer to:Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) where swift electrons go through a thin sampleScanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) which is similar to TEM with a scanned electron probeScanning electron microscope (SEM) which is similar to STEM, but with thick samplesElectron microprobe similar to a SEM, but more for chemical analysisUltrafast scanning electron microscopy, version of a SEM that can operate very fastLow-energy electron microscopy (LEEM), used to image surfacesPhotoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) which is similar to LEEM using electrons emitted from surfaces by photonsAdditional details can be found in the above links.", "This article contains some general information mainly about transmission electron microscopes." ], [ "History", "Reproduction of an early electron microscope constructed by Ernst Ruska in the 1930sMany developments laid the groundwork of the electron optics used in microscopes.", "One significant step was the work of Hertz in 1883 who made a cathode-ray tube with electrostatic and magnetic deflection, demonstrating manipulation of the direction of an electron beam.", "Others were focusing of the electrons by an axial magnetic field by Emil Wiechert in 1899, improved oxide-coated cathodes which produced more electrons by Arthur Wehnelt in 1905 and the development of the electromagnetic lens in 1926 by Hans Busch.", "According to Dennis Gabor, the physicist Leó Szilárd tried in 1928 to convince him to build an electron microscope, for which Szilárd had filed a patent.", "To this day the issue of who invented the transmission electron microscope is controversial.", "In 1928, at the Technical University of Berlin, Adolf Matthias (Professor of High Voltage Technology and Electrical Installations) appointed Max Knoll to lead a team of researchers to advance research on electron beams and cathode-ray oscilloscopes.", "The team consisted of several PhD students including Ernst Ruska.", "In 1931, Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska successfully generated magnified images of mesh grids placed over an anode aperture.", "The device, a replicate of which is shown in the figure, used two magnetic lenses to achieve higher magnifications, the first electron microscope.", "(Max Knoll died in 1969, so did not receive a share of the 1986 Nobel prize for the invention of electron microscopes.", ")Apparently independent of this effort was work at Siemens-Schuckert by Reinhold Rüdenberg.", "According to patent law (U.S. Patent No.", "2058914 and 2070318, both filed in 1932), he is the inventor of the electron microscope, but it is not clear when he had a working instrument.", "He stated in a very brief article in 1932 that Siemens had been working on this for some years before the patents were filed in 1932, claiming that his effort was parallel to the university development.", "He died in 1961, so similar to Max Knoll, was not eligible for a share of the 1986 Nobel prize.In the following year, 1933, Ruska and Knoll built the first electron microscope that exceeded the resolution of an optical (light) microscope.", "Four years later, in 1937, Siemens financed the work of Ernst Ruska and Bodo von Borries, and employed Helmut Ruska, Ernst's brother, to develop applications for the microscope, especially with biological specimens.", "Also in 1937, Manfred von Ardenne pioneered the scanning electron microscope.", "Siemens produced the first commercial electron microscope in 1938.The first North American electron microscopes were constructed in the 1930s, at the Washington State University by Anderson and Fitzsimmons and at the University of Toronto by Eli Franklin Burton and students Cecil Hall, James Hillier, and Albert Prebus.", "Siemens produced a transmission electron microscope (TEM) in 1939.Although current transmission electron microscopes are capable of two million times magnification, as scientific instruments they remain similar but with improved optics." ], [ "Wavelength", "Operating principle of a transmission electron microscope In a typical electron gun, individual electrons, which have an elementary charge (about coulombs) and a mass (about kg), with a potential of volts, have an energy amount of joules.", "The wavelength is:,where is the speed of light in vacuum (about m/s).", "See electron diffraction for a full explanation." ], [ "Types", "=== Transmission electron microscope (TEM) ===Diagram of a transmission electron microscopeThe original form of the electron microscope, the transmission electron microscope (TEM), uses a high voltage electron beam to illuminate the specimen and create an image.", "An electron beam is produced by an electron gun, with the electrons typically at 40 to 400 keV, focused by electromagnetic lenses, and transmitted through the specimen.", "When it emerges from the specimen, the electron beam carries information about the structure of the specimen that is magnified by lenses of the microscope.", "The spatial variation in this information (the \"image\") may be viewed by projecting the magnified electron image onto a detector.", "For example, the image may be viewed directly by an operator using a fluorescent viewing screen coated with a phosphor or scintillator material such as zinc sulfide.", "A high-resolution phosphor may also be coupled by means of a lens optical system or a fibre optic light-guide to the sensor of a digital camera.", "Direct electron detectors have no scintillator and are directly exposed to the electron beam, which addresses some of the limitations of scintillator-coupled cameras.The resolution of TEMs is limited primarily by spherical aberration, but a new generation of hardware correctors can reduce spherical aberration to increase the resolution in high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) to below 0.5 angstrom (50 picometres), enabling magnifications above 50 million times.", "The ability of HRTEM to determine the positions of atoms within materials is useful for nano-technologies research and development.Transmission electron microscopes are often used in electron diffraction mode.", "The advantages of electron diffraction over X-ray crystallography are that the specimen need not be a single crystal or even a polycrystalline powder.==== Scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) ====The STEM rasters a focused incident probe across a specimen.", "The high resolution of the TEM is thus possible in STEM.", "The focusing action (and aberrations) occur before the electrons hit the specimen in the STEM, but afterward in the TEM.", "The STEMs use of SEM-like beam rastering simplifies annular dark-field imaging, and other analytical techniques, but also means that image data is acquired in serial rather than in parallel fashion.=== Scanning electron microscope (SEM) ===Operating principle of a scanning electron microscopeImage of ''Bacillus subtilis'' taken with a 1960s electron microscopeThe SEM produces images by probing the specimen with a focused electron beam that is scanned across the specimen (raster scanning).", "When the electron beam interacts with the specimen, it loses energy by a variety of mechanisms.", "The lost energy is converted into alternative forms such as heat, emission of low-energy secondary electrons and high-energy backscattered electrons, light emission (cathodoluminescence) or X-ray emission, all of which provide signals carrying information about the properties of the specimen surface, such as its topography and composition.", "The image displayed by an SEM maps the varying intensity of any of these signals into the image in a position corresponding to the position of the beam on the specimen when the signal was generated.", "In the SEM image of an ant shown, the image was constructed from signals produced by a secondary electron detector, the normal or conventional imaging mode in most SEMs.Generally, the image resolution of an SEM is lower than that of a TEM.", "However, because the SEM images the surface of a sample rather than its interior, the electrons do not have to travel through the sample.", "This reduces the need for extensive sample preparation to thin the specimen to electron transparency.", "The SEM also has a great depth of field, and so can produce images that are good representations of the three-dimensional surface shape of the sample.", "In their most common configurations, electron microscopes produce images with a single brightness value per pixel, with the results usually rendered in greyscale.", "However, often these images are then colourized through the use of feature-detection software, or simply by hand-editing using a graphics editor.", "This may be done to clarify structure or for aesthetic effect and generally does not add new information about the specimen." ], [ "Sample preparation for TEM", "coated in gold for viewing with a scanning electron microscopeMaterials to be viewed in a transmission electron microscope may require processing to produce a suitable sample.", "The technique required varies depending on the specimen and the analysis required: ''Chemical fixation'' – for biological specimens this aims to stabilize the specimen's mobile macromolecular structure by chemical crosslinking of proteins with aldehydes such as formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde, and lipids with osmium tetroxide.", "* ''Cryofixation'' – freezing a specimen so that the water forms vitreous (non-crystalline) ice.", "This preserves the specimen in a snapshot of its native state.", "Methods to achieve this vitrification include plunge freezing rapidly in liquid ethane, and high pressure freezing.", "An entire field called cryo-electron microscopy has branched from this technique.", "With the development of cryo-electron microscopy of vitreous sections (CEMOVIS) and cryo-focused ion beam milling of lamellae, it is now possible to observe samples from virtually any biological specimen close to its native state.", "* ''Dehydration'' – replacement of water with organic solvents such as ethanol or acetone, followed by critical point drying or infiltration with embedding resins.", "See also freeze drying.", "* ''Embedding, biological specimens'' – after dehydration, tissue for observation in the transmission electron microscope is embedded so it can be sectioned ready for viewing.", "To do this the tissue is passed through a 'transition solvent' such as propylene oxide (epoxypropane) or acetone and then infiltrated with an epoxy resin such as Araldite, Epon, or Durcupan; tissues may also be embedded directly in water-miscible acrylic resin.", "After the resin has been polymerized (hardened) the sample is sectioned by ultramicrotomy and stained.", "* ''Embedding, materials'' – after embedding in resin, the specimen is usually ground and polished to a mirror-like finish using ultra-fine abrasives.", "* ''Freeze-fracture or freeze-etch'' – a preparation method particularly useful for examining lipid membranes and their incorporated proteins in \"face on\" view.Freeze-fracturing helps to peel open membranes to allow visualization of what is inside External face of bakers yeast membrane showing the small holes where proteins are fractured out, sometimes as small ring patterns.The fresh tissue or cell suspension is frozen rapidly (cryofixation), then fractured by breaking (or by using a microtome) while maintained at liquid nitrogen temperature.", "The cold fractured surface (sometimes \"etched\" by increasing the temperature to about −100 °C for several minutes to let some ice sublime) is then shadowed with evaporated platinum or gold at an average angle of 45° in a high vacuum evaporator.", "The second coat of carbon, evaporated perpendicular to the average surface plane is often performed to improve the stability of the replica coating.", "The specimen is returned to room temperature and pressure, then the extremely fragile \"pre-shadowed\" metal replica of the fracture surface is released from the underlying biological material by careful chemical digestion with acids, hypochlorite solution or SDS detergent.", "The still-floating replica is thoroughly washed free from residual chemicals, carefully fished up on fine grids, dried then viewed in the TEM.", "* ''Freeze-fracture replica immunogold labeling (FRIL)'' – the freeze-fracture method has been modified to allow the identification of the components of the fracture face by immunogold labeling.", "Instead of removing all the underlying tissue of the thawed replica as the final step before viewing in the microscope the tissue thickness is minimized during or after the fracture process.", "The thin layer of tissue remains bound to the metal replica so it can be immunogold labeled with antibodies to the structures of choice.", "The thin layer of the original specimen on the replica with gold attached allows the identification of structures in the fracture plane.", "There are also related methods which label the surface of etched cells and other replica labeling variations.", "* ''Ion beam milling'' – thins samples until they are transparent to electrons by firing ions (typically argon) at the surface from an angle and sputtering material from the surface.", "A subclass of this is focused ion beam milling, where gallium ions are used to produce an electron transparent membrane or 'lamella' in a specific region of the sample, for example through a device within a microprocessor or a focused ion beam SEM.", "Ion beam milling may also be used for cross-section polishing prior to analysis of materials that are difficult to prepare using mechanical polishing.", "* ''Negative stain'' – suspensions containing nanoparticles or fine biological material (such as viruses and bacteria) are briefly mixed with a dilute solution of an electron-opaque solution such as ammonium molybdate, uranyl acetate (or formate), or phosphotungstic acid.", "This mixture is applied to an EM grid, pre-coated with a plastic film such as formvar, blotted, then allowed to dry.", "Viewing of this preparation in the TEM should be carried out without delay for best results.", "The method is important in microbiology for fast but crude morphological identification, but can also be used as the basis for high-resolution 3D reconstruction using EM tomography methodology when carbon films are used for support.", "Negative staining is also used for observation of nanoparticles.", "* ''Sectioning'' – produces thin slices of the specimen, semitransparent to electrons.", "These can be cut using ultramicrotomy on an ultramicrotome with a glass or diamond knife to produce ultra-thin sections about 60–90 nm thick.", "Disposable glass knives are also used because they can be made in the lab and are much cheaper.", "Sections can also be created in situ by milling in a focused ion beam SEM, where the section is known as a lamella.", "* ''Staining'' – uses heavy metals such as lead, uranium or tungsten to scatter imaging electrons and thus give contrast between different structures, since many (especially biological) materials are nearly \"transparent\" to electrons (weak phase objects).", "In biology, specimens can be stained \"en bloc\" before embedding and also later after sectioning.", "Typically thin sections are stained for several minutes with an aqueous or alcoholic solution of uranyl acetate followed by aqueous lead citrate." ], [ "EM workflows", "Early electron microscopy of biological specimens was often descriptive, making use of the newly available higher resolution.", "This is still the case for various applications, such as diagnostic electron microscopy.However, electron microscopes are now frequently used in more complex workflows, with each workflow typically using multiple technologies to enable more complex and/or more quantitative analyses of a sample.", "A few examples are outlined below, but this should not be considered an exhaustive list.", "The choice of workflow will be highly dependent on the application and the requirements of the corresponding scientific questions, such as resolution, volume, nature of the target molecule, etc.For example, images from light and electron microscopy of the same region of a sample can be overlaid to correlate the data from the two modalities.", "This is commonly used to provide higher resolution contextual EM information about a fluorescently labelled structure.", "This correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM) is one of a range of correlative workflows now available.", "Another example is high resolution mass spectrometry (ion microscopy), which has been used to provide correlative information about subcellular antibiotic localisation, data that would be difficult to obtain by other means.The initial role of electron microscopes in imaging two-dimensional slices (TEM) or a specimen surface (SEM with secondary electrons) has also increasingly expanded into the depth of samples.", "An early example of these ‘volume EM’ workflows was simply to stack TEM images of serial sections cut through a sample.", "The next development was virtual reconstruction of a thick section (200-500 nm) volume by backprojection of a set of images taken at different tilt angles - TEM tomography.=== Serial imaging for volume EM ===To acquire volume EM datasets of larger depths than TEM tomography (micrometers or millimeters in the z axis), a series of images taken through the sample depth can be used.", "For example, ribbons of serial sections can be imaged in a TEM as described above, and when thicker sections are used, serial TEM tomography can be used to increase the z-resolution.", "More recently, back scattered electron (BSE) images can be acquired of a larger series of sections collected on silicon wafers, known as SEM array tomography.", "An alternative approach is to use BSE SEM to image the block surface instead of the section, after each section has been removed.", "By this method, an ultramicrotome installed in an SEM chamber can increase automation of the workflow; the specimen block is loaded in the chamber and the system programmed to continuously cut and image through the sample.", "This is known as serial block face SEM.", "A related method uses focused ion beam milling instead of an ultramicrotome to remove sections.", "In these serial imaging methods, the output is essentially a sequence of images through a specimen block that can be digitally aligned in sequence and thus reconstructed into a volume EM dataset.", "The increased volume available in these methods has expanded the capability of electron microscopy to address new questions, such as mapping neural connectivity in the brain, and membrane contact sites between organelles." ], [ "Disadvantages", "JEOL transmission and scanning electron microscope made in the mid-1970sElectron microscopes are expensive to build and maintain.", "Microscopes designed to achieve high resolutions must be housed in stable buildings (sometimes underground) with special services such as magnetic field canceling systems.The samples largely have to be viewed in vacuum, as the molecules that make up air would scatter the electrons.", "An exception is liquid-phase electron microscopy using either a closed liquid cell or an environmental chamber, for example, in the environmental scanning electron microscope, which allows hydrated samples to be viewed in a low-pressure (up to ) wet environment.", "Various techniques for in situ electron microscopy of gaseous samples have been developed.Scanning electron microscopes operating in conventional high-vacuum mode usually image conductive specimens; therefore non-conductive materials require conductive coating (gold/palladium alloy, carbon, osmium, etc.).", "The low-voltage mode of modern microscopes makes possible the observation of non-conductive specimens without coating.", "Non-conductive materials can be imaged also by a variable pressure (or environmental) scanning electron microscope.Small, stable specimens such as carbon nanotubes, diatom frustules and small mineral crystals (asbestos fibres, for example) require no special treatment before being examined in the electron microscope.", "Samples of hydrated materials, including almost all biological specimens, have to be prepared in various ways to stabilize them, reduce their thickness (ultrathin sectioning) and increase their electron optical contrast (staining).", "These processes may result in ''artifacts'', but these can usually be identified by comparing the results obtained by using radically different specimen preparation methods.", "Since the 1980s, analysis of cryofixed, vitrified specimens has also become increasingly used by scientists, further confirming the validity of this technique." ], [ "See also", "* List of materials analysis methods* Electron diffraction* Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)* Electron microscope images* Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy (EFTEM)* Environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM)* Immune electron microscopy* In situ electron microscopy* Low-energy electron microscopy* Microscope image processing* Microscopy* Nanotechnology* Scanning confocal electron microscopy* Scanning electron microscope (SEM)* Thin section* Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope" ], [ "References", "* An Introduction to Microscopy : resources for teachers and students* Cell Centered Database – Electron microscopy data* Science Aid: Electron Microscopy:By Kaden park" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of extinct bird species since 1500" ], [ "Introduction", "About 129 species of birds have become extinct since 1500, and the rate of extinction seems to be increasing.", "The situation is exemplified by Hawaii, where 30% of all known recently extinct bird taxa originally lived.", "Other areas, such as Guam, have also been hit hard; Guam has lost over 60% of its native bird taxa in the last 30 years, many of them due to the introduced brown tree snake (''Boiga irregularis'').Currently there are approximately 10,000 living species of birds, with over 1,480 at risk of extinction and 223 critically endangered.Island species in general, and flightless island species in particular, are most at risk.", "The disproportionate number of rails in this list reflects the tendency of that family to lose the ability to fly when geographically isolated.", "Even more rails became extinct before they could be described by scientists; these taxa are listed in List of Late Quaternary prehistoric bird species.The extinction dates given below are usually approximations of the actual date of extinction.", "In some cases, more exact dates are given as it is sometimes possible to pinpoint the date of extinction to a specific year or even day (the San Benedicto rock wren is possibly the most extreme exampleits extinction could be timed with an accuracy of maybe half an hour).", "Extinction dates in the literature are usually the dates of the last verified record (credible observation or specimen taken); for many Pacific birds that became extinct shortly after European contact, however, this leaves an uncertainty period of over 100 years, because the islands on which they lived were only rarely visited by scientists.The famous \"Edwards' Dodo\", painted by Roelant Savery in 1626" ], [ "Extinct bird species", "===Paleognathes=======Dinornithiformes====* Upland moa, ''Megalapteryx didinus'' (South Island, New Zealand, late 15th century?", ")* South Island giant moa, ''Dinornis robustus'' (South Island, New Zealand, late 15th century?", ")* Broad-billed moa, ''Euryapteryx curtus'' (North and South Island, New Zealand, late 15th century?", ")====Apterygiformes====* West Coast spotted kiwi, ''Apteryx occidentalis'' (South Island, New Zealand, c. 1900):A doubtfully distinct species known from a single specimen; may be a subspecies of the little spotted kiwi (''Apteryx owenii'') or a hybrid between that species and the Okarito kiwi (''Apteryx rowi'').=====Aepyornithiformes===== Giant elephant bird, ''Aepyornis maximus'' (Madagascar, 17th century?", ")* Hildebrandt's elephant bird, ''Aepyornis hildebrandti'' (Madagascar, 17th century?", ")* Lesser elephant bird, ''Mullerornis modestus'' (Madagascar, 17th century?)" ], [ "[[Anseriformes]]", "Labrador duckDucks, geese and swans* '''Anatidae'''ducks, geese and swans '''Anatinae'''ducks* '''Tadornini'''** Crested shelduck, ''Tadorna cristata'' (Northeast Asia, late 20th century?", "):A relict species from Northeast Asia.", "Officially critically endangered due to unconfirmed reports made between 1985 and 1991.", "* Réunion sheldgoose, ''Alopochen kervazoi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, c. 1690s) Mauritius sheldgoose, ''Alopochen mauritianus'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, c. 1695)* '''Mergini'''sea ducks** Labrador duck, ''Camptorhynchus labradorius'' (northeastern North America, c. 1878) New Zealand merganser, ''Mergus australis'' (New Zealand and the Auckland Islands, Southwest Pacific, c. 1902)* '''Aythyini'''diving ducks** Finsch's duck, ''Chenonetta finschi'' (New Zealand, 15th17th century) :Possibly survived to 1870.", " Pink-headed duck, ''Rhodonessa caryophyllacea'' (East India, Bangladesh, North Myannar, 1945?", ")a reclassification into the genus ''Netta'' is recommended, but not generally accepted by all authorities.", ":Officially classified as critically endangered; recent surveys have failed to rediscover it, though sightings continue to be recorded.", " Réunion pochard, ''Aythya'' cf.", "''innotata'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, c. 1690s):A bone of a pochard found on Réunion seems to resolve the reports of ''canards'' other than the Mascarene teal having occurred on the island.", "The taxonomic status of this extinct form cannot be resolved until more material is found, however.", "* '''Anatini'''dabbling ducks** Amsterdam wigeon, ''Mareca marecula'' (Amsterdam Island, South Indian Ocean, c. 1800) Saint Paul Island duck, ''Anas'' sp.", "(St. Paul Island, South Indian Ocean, c. 1800): Only known by a painting from 1793.May be synonymous with the Amsterdam wigeon or a distinct species or subspecies.", " Mascarene teal, ''Anas theodori'' (Mauritius and Réunion, Mascarenes, late 1690s)** Mariana mallard, ''Anas oustaleti'' (Marianas, West Pacific, 1981)" ], [ "[[Galliformes]]", "New Zealand quailQuails and relativesSee also Bokaak \"bustard\" under Gruiformes below'''Megapodiidae'''megapodes* Pile-builder megapode, ''Megapodius molistructor'' (New Caledonia) :May have survived to the late 18th century, as evidenced by descriptions of the bird named ''\"Tetrao australis\"'' and later ''\"Megapodius andersoni\"''.", " Viti Levu scrubfowl, ''Megapodius amissus'' (Viti Levu and possibly Kadavu, Fiji) :May have survived to the early 19th or even the 20th century, as suggested by circumstantial evidence.", " Raoul Island scrubfowl, ''Megapodius'' sp.", "(Raoul, Kermadec Islands, 1876):A megapode is said to have inhabited Raoul Island until the population was wiped out in a volcanic eruption.", "It is not clear whether the birds represent a distinct taxon or derive from a prehistoric introduction by Polynesian seafarers.", "'''Phasianidae'''pheasants and allies New Zealand quail, ''Coturnix novaezelandiae'' (New Zealand, 1875)* Himalayan quail, ''Ophrysia superciliosa'' (North India, late 19th century?", "):Officially critically endangered.", "Not recorded with certainty since 1876, but thorough surveys are still required, and there was a recent set of possible (though unlikely) sightings around Naini Tal in 2003.A little-known native name from western Nepal probably refers to this bird, but for various reasons, no survey for ''Ophrysia'' has ever been conducted in that country, nor is it generally assumed to occur there (due to the native name being overlooked)." ], [ "[[Charadriiformes]]", "Great auk (''Pinguinus impennis''), the Natural History Museum, London, EnglandShorebirds, gulls and auks=== Charadrii ==='''Haematopodidae'''oystercatchers Canary Islands oystercatcher, ''Haematopus meadewaldoi'' (eastern Canary Islands, East Atlantic, c. 1940?", "):Later sightings of black oystercatchers off of Senegal were not likely to be of this sedentary species, but two records from Tenerifethe last one in 1981may be.", "'''Charadriidae'''plovers and lapwings* Javan lapwing, ''Vanellus macropterus'' (Java, Indonesia, mid-20th century)*:Officially classified as critically endangered, but as this conspicuous bird has not been recorded since 1940, it is almost certainly extinct.=== Scolopaci ==='''Scolopacidae'''sandpipers and allies Eskimo curlew, ''Numenius borealis'' (northern North America, late 20th century?", "):May still exist; officially classified as critically endangered, possibly extinct.", "* Slender-billed curlew, ''Numenius tenuirostris'' (Western Siberia, early in the first decade of the 21st century?", ")*:May still exist; officially classified as critically endangered.", "A few birds were recorded in 2004 following several decades of increasing rarity.", "There was also an unconfirmed sighting in Albania in 2007.A survey to find out whether this bird still exists is currently being undertaken by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (BirdLife in the UK).", "Christmas sandpiper, ''Prosobonia cancellata'' (Kiritimati Island, Kiribati, Central Pacific, 1850s)* Tahiti sandpiper, ''Prosobonia leucoptera'' (Tahiti, Society Islands, South Pacific, 19th century)* Moorea sandpiper, ''Prosobonia ellisi'' (Moorea, Society Islands, South Pacific, 19th century):Doubtfully distinct from ''P.", "leucoptera''.", " North Island snipe, ''Coenocorypha barrierensis'' (North Island, New Zealand, 1870s)* South Island snipe, ''Coenocorypha iredalei'' (South and Stewart Islands, New Zealand, 1964)=== Lari ==='''Alcidae'''auks* Great auk, ''Pinguinus impennis'' (North Atlantic region, 1852)" ], [ "[[Gruiformes]]", "Rails and allies - probably paraphyletic* Antillean cave rail, ''Nesotrochis debooyi'':Known by pre-Columbian bones from Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands.", "Stories of an easy-to-catch bird named the ''carrao'' heard by Alexander Wetmore in 1912 on Puerto Rico may refer to this bird.", " Hawkins's rail, ''Diaphorapteryx hawkinsi'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific, late 19th century)* Red rail, ''Aphanapteryx bonasia'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, c. 1700)* Réunion rail or Dubois' wood rail, ''Dryolimnnas augusti'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, late 17th century)* Rodrigues rail, ''Erythromachus leguati'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, mid-18th century)* Bar-winged rail, ''Hypotaenidia poecilopterus'' (Fiji, Polynesia, c. 1990)* Dieffenbach's rail, ''Hypotaenidia dieffenbachii'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific, mid-19th century)* Tahiti railTahiti rail, ''Hypotaenidia pacificus'' (Tahiti, Society Islands, South Pacific, late 18th19th century)* Wake Island rail, ''Hypotaenidia wakensis'' (Wake Island, Micronesia, 1945)* Vavau rail, ''Hypotaenidia vavauensis'' (Vavau, Tonga, Southwest Pacific, early 19th century?", "):This bird was previously known only from a drawing from the 1793 Malaspina expedition, apparently depicting a species of ''Gallirallus''.", "Subfossil remains belonging to this species were found in 2020.", " Eua rail, ''Gallirallus vekamatolu'':Known from prehistoric bones found on Eua.", "It was probably a close relative of the Vava'u rail.", " Tongatapu rail, ''Gallirallus hypoleucus'' (Tongatapu, Tonga, Southwest Pacific, late 18th or 19th century)* Hiva Oa rail, ''Gallirallus'' sp.", "* Norfolk Island rail, ''Gallirallus'' sp.", "(Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, early 17th century?", "):May be the bird shown on a bad watercolor illustration made about 1800.", " Chatham rail, ''Cabalus modestus'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific, c. 1900)* New Caledonian rail, ''Cabalus lafresnanayanus'' (New Caledonia, Melanesia, c. 1900?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered, the last records were in 1984 and it seems as if all of the available habitat has now been overrun by feral pigs and feral dogs, which preyed on this bird.", " Ascension crake, ''Mundia elpenor'' (Ascension Island, South Atlantic, late 17th century)formerly ''Atlantisia''* Saint Helena crake, ''Zapornia astrictocarpus'' (St. Helena, South Atlantic, early 16th century)* Laysan railLaysan rail, ''Zapornia palmeri'' (Laysan, Hawaiian Islands, 1944)* Hawaiian railHawaiian rail, ''Zapornia sandwichensis'' (Big Island, Hawaiian Islands, c. 1890)* Kosrae crake, ''Zapornia monasa'' (Kosrae, Carolines, c. mid-to-late 19th century)* Tahiti crake, ''Zapornia nigra'' (Tahiti, Society Islands, South Pacific, c. 1800):Known only from paintings and descriptions; its taxonomic status is uncertain, as the material is often believed to refer to the extant spotless crake (''Zapornia tabuensis'').", " Saint Helena rail, ''Aphanocrex podarces'' (St. Helena, South Atlantic, 16th century)formerly ''Atlantisia''* White swamphen, ''Porphyrio albus'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, early 19th century)White swamphen* Réunion swamphen or ''oiseau bleu'', ''Porphyrio coerulescens'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, 18th century):Known only from descriptions.", "The former existence of a ''Porphyrio'' on Réunion is fairly certain, but it has not been proven to date.", " Marquesas swamphen, ''Porphyrio paepae'' (Hiva Oa and Tahuata, Marquesas):May have survived to c. 1900.In the lower right hand corner of Paul Gauguin's 1902 painting ''Le Sorcier d'Hiva Oa ou le Marquisien à la cape rouge'', there is a bird which resembles native descriptions of ''P.", "paepae''.", " North Island takahē, ''Porphyrio mantelli'' (North Island, New Zealand, late 19th century) :Known from subfossil bones found in New Zealand's North Island; may have survived to 1894 or later.", " New Caledonian gallinule, ''Porphyrio kukwiedei'' (New Caledonia, Melanesia):May have survived into historic times.", "The native name ''n'dino'' is thought to refer to this bird.", " Samoan woodhen, ''Gallinula pacifica'' (Savaii, Samoa, 1907?", "):Probably better placed in the genus ''Pareudiastes''.", "Unconfirmed reports from the late 20th century suggest it still exists in small numbers and therefore it is officially classified as critically endangered.", " Makira woodhen, ''Gallinula silvestris'' (Makira, Solomon Islands, mid-20th century?", "):Only known from a single specimen, this rail is probably better placed in its own genus, ''Edithornis''.", "Unconfirmed recent records suggest it still exists and therefore it is officially classified as critically endangered.", " Tristan moorhen, ''Gallinula nesiotis'' (Tristan da Cunha, South Atlantic, late 19th century)* Mascarene coot, ''Fulica newtonii'' (Mauritius and Réunion, Mascarenes, c. 1700)* Fernando de Noronha rail, ''Rallidae gen. et sp.", "indet''.", "(Fernando de Noronha, West Atlantic, 16th century?", "):A distinct species of rail inhabited Fernando de Noronha Island, but it has not been formally described yet.", "It probably still existed at the time of the first Western contact.", " Tahitian \"goose\", Rallidae gen. et sp.", "indet.", "(Tahiti, Society Islands, South Pacific, late 18th century?", "):Early travelers to Tahiti reported a \"goose\" that was found in the mountains.", "Altogether, a species of rail in the genus ''Porphyrio'' seems to be the most likely possibility.", " Bokaak \"bustard\", Rallidae?", "gen. et sp.", "indet.", "'Bokaak':An unidentified terrestrial bird is mentioned in an early report from Bokaak in the Marshall Islands.", "It was described as a \"bustard\" and may have actually been a rail or a megapode.", "In the former case, it may have been a vagrant of a still-existing species; in any case, no bird that could be described as \"bustard-like\" is found on Bokaak today.", " Rallidae gen. et sp.", "indet.", "'Amsterdam Island':Unknown rail from Amsterdam Island; one specimen was found, but it was not recovered.", "Extinct by 1800, it may have been a vagrant of a still-existing species.===Podicipediformes===Grebes Colombian grebe, ''Podiceps andinus'' (Bogotá area, Colombia, 1977)* Alaotra grebe, ''Tachybaptus rufolavatus'' (Lake Alaotra, Madagascar, 1985):Officially declared extinct in 2010, 25 years after the last official sighting.", "Its extinction was due to habitat destruction and hybridisation with the little grebe (''Tachybaptus ruficollis'').", "Disappeared from its only known location in 1985.", " Atitlán grebe, ''Podilymbus gigas'' (Lake Atitlán, Guatemala, 1989)" ], [ "[[Procellariiformes]]", "Petrels, storm petrels, shearwaters and albatrosses* Olson's petrel, ''Bulweria bifax'' (St. Helena, South Atlantic, early 16th century)* Saint Helena petrel, ''Pseudobulweria rupinarum'' (St. Helena, South Atlantic, early 16th century)* Imber's petrel, ''Pterodroma imberi'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific, early 19th century?", "):Described from subfossil bones.", " Jamaican petrel, ''Pterodroma caribbaea'' (Jamaica, West Indies, late 19th century?", "):Possibly a subspecies of the black-capped petrel (''Pterodroma hasitata''); unconfirmed reports suggest it may still exist.", "Officially classified as critically endangered, possibly extinct.", " ''Pterodroma'' cf.", "''leucoptera'' (Mangareva, Gambier Islands, South Pacific, 20th century?", "):A wing of a petrel carcass that was similar in appearance to Gould's petrel (''Pterodroma leucoptera'') was recovered on Mangareva in 1922, where it possibly bred.", "No such birds are known to exist there today.", " Guadalupe storm petrel, ''Hydrobates macrodactylus'' (Guadalupe Island, East Pacific, 1910s):Officially classified as critically endangered, possibly extinct, but a thorough survey in 2000 concluded this species was certainly extinct." ], [ "[[Sphenisciformes]]", "PenguinsChatham penguin, ''Eudyptes warhami'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific, between 1867 and 1872?)", ":Only known from subfossil bones, but a bird kept in captivity sometime between 1867 and 1872 may refer to this species." ], [ "[[Suliformes]]", "Boobies and related birds'''Sulidae'''gannets and boobiesMascarene booby, ''Papasula'' sp.", "(Mauritius and Rodrigues, Mascarenes, mid-19th century)An undescribed booby species that was formerly considered a population of Abbott's booby (''Papasula abbotti'').", "Known physically only from subfossil bones, but is likely the bird referred to as a ''boeuf'' by early settlers; the ''boeuf'' was last recorded on Rodrigues in 1832 and likely went extinct following the deforestation of the island.", "'''Phalacrocoracidae'''cormorants and shags*Spectacled cormorant, ''Urile perspicillatus'' (Commander Islands, North Pacific, c. 1850)" ], [ "[[Pelecaniformes]]", "Pelicans and related birds'''Threskiornithidae'''ibises and spoonbillsRéunion ibis, ''Threskiornis solitarius'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, early 18th century):This species was the basis for the \"Réunion solitaire\" or \"white dodo\" (\"''Raphus solitarius''\"), a supposed relative of the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire.", "Given the fact that ibis (but no dodo-like) bones were found on Réunion and that old descriptions match a flightless sacred ibis quite well, the \"Réunion solitaire\" hypothesis has been refuted.", "'''Ardeidae'''herons, egrets, and bitterns'''Botaurinae'''bitternsNew Zealand bittern, ''Ixobrychus novaezelandiae'' (New Zealand, late 19th century):Long considered to be vagrant individuals of the Australian little bittern (''Ixobrychus dubius''); bones recovered from Holocene deposits indicate that this was indeed a distinct taxon, but it may not be a distinct species.", "'''Ardeinae'''herons and egrets Bermuda night heron, ''Nyctanassa carcinocatactes'' (Bermuda, West Atlantic, 17th century):Sometimes assigned to the genus ''Nycticorax''.", "Réunion night heron, ''Nycticorax duboisi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, late 17th century)Mauritius night heron, ''Nycticorax mauritianus'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, c. 1700)Rodrigues night heron, ''Nycticorax megacephalus'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, mid-18th century)Ascension night heron, ''Nycticorax olsoni'' (Ascension Island, South Atlantic, late 16th century?", ")*:Known only from subfossil bones, but the description of a flightless Ascension Island bird by André Thévet cannot be identified with anything other than this species." ], [ "[[Columbiformes]]", "Male passenger pigeonPigeons, doves and dodosFor the \"Réunion solitaire\", see Réunion ibis.", " Saint Helena dove, ''Dysmoropelia dekarchiskos'' (St. Helena, South Atlantic, 16th century?)", ":Known only from Late Pleistocene bones, but may have persisted until the 16th century.", " Passenger pigeon, ''Ectopistes migratorius'' (eastern North America, 1914):The passenger pigeon was once among the most abundant wild bird species in the world, with a single flock numbering up to 2.2 billion birds.", "It was hunted close to extinction for food and sport in the late 19th century.", "The last individual, a mateless female named Martha after Martha Washington, died in the Cincinnati Zoo in 1914.", " Bonin wood pigeon, '' Columba versicolor'' (Nakodo-jima and Chichi-jima, Ogasawara Islands, c. 1890)* Ryukyu wood pigeon, ''Columba jouyi'' (Okinawa and Daito Islands, Northwest Pacific, late 1930s)* Rodrigues pigeon, ''Nesoenas rodericanus'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, before 1690?", "):Formerly in ''Streptopelia''.", "Possibly a subspecies of the Malagasy turtle dove (''Nesoenas picturatus''), this seems to be the bird observed by Leguat.", "Introduced rats may have caused it to become extinct in the late 17th century.", " Spotted green pigeon, ''Caloenas maculata'' (South Pacific or Indian Ocean islands, 1820s):Also known as the Liverpool pigeon, the only known specimen has been in Liverpool's World Museum since 1851, and was probably collected on a Pacific island for Edward Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby.", "It has been suggested that this bird came from Tahiti based on native lore about a somewhat similar extinct bird called the ''titi'', but this has not yet been verified.", " Sulu bleeding-heart, ''Gallicolumba menagei'' (Tawitawi, Philippines, late 1990s?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered.", "Only known from two specimens taken in 1891.There have been a number of unconfirmed reports from all over the Sulu Archipelago in 1995; however, these reports stated that the bird had suddenly undergone a massive decline and, by now, habitat destruction is almost complete.", "If it is not extinct, this species is certainly very rare, but the ongoing civil war prevents comprehensive surveys.", " Norfolk ground dove, ''Pampusana norfolciensis'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, c. 1800)* Tanna ground dove, ''Pampusana ferruginea'' (Tanna, Vanuatu, late 18th or 19th century):Only known from descriptions of two now-lost specimens.", " Thick-billed ground dove, ''Pampusana salamonis'' (Makira and Ramos, Solomon Islands, mid-20th century?", "):Last recorded in 1927, only two specimens exist.", "Declared extinct in 2005.", " Choiseul crested pigeonChoiseul pigeon, ''Microgoura meeki'' (Choiseul, Solomon Islands, early 20th century)* Red-moustached fruit dove, ''Ptilinopus mercierii'' (Nuku Hiva and Hiva Oa, Marquesas, 1922):Two subspecies, the little-known nominate subspecies ''P.", "m. mercierii'' of Nuku Hiva (extinct mid- to late 19th century) and ''P.", "m. tristrami'' of Hiva Oa (1922).", " Negros fruit dove, ''Ptilinopus arcanus'' (Negros, Philippines, late 20th century?", "):Known only from one specimen taken at the only documented sighting in 1953; the validity of this species has been questioned, but no good alternative to distinct species status has been proposed.", "Officially classified as critically endangered, it may still exist on Panay, but no survey has located it.", "One possible record in 2002 does not seem to have been repeated since then.", " Mauritius blue pigeonMauritius blue pigeon, ''Alectroenas nitidissima'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, c. 1830s)* Réunion blue pigeon, ''Alectroenas'' sp.", "(Réunion, Mascarenes, 1619)* Providence blue pigeon, ''Alectroenas'' sp.", "(Farquhar Group, Seychelles, 19th century):Only known from early reports; possibly a subspecies of either the Comoros blue pigeon (''Alectroenas sganzini'') or the Seychelles blue pigeon (''Alectroenas pulcherrimus'').", " Dodo, ''Raphus cucullatus'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, late 17th century):Called ''Didus ineptus'' by Linnaeus.", "A metre-high flightless bird found on Mauritius.", "Its forest habitat was destroyed when Dutch settlers moved to the island and the dodo's nests and eggs were destroyed by the pigs, cats and monkeys that the Dutch brought with them.", "The last specimen was killed in 1681, only 80 years after the arrival of the new predators.", " Rodrigues solitaire, ''Pezophaps solitaria'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, c. 1730)" ], [ "[[Cuculiformes]]", "Cuckoos* Delalande's coua, ''Coua delalandei'' (Madagascar, late 19th century?", ")* Saint Helena cuckoo, ''Nannococcyx psix'' (St. Helena, South Atlantic, 18th century)" ], [ "[[Cathartiformes]]", "* \"Painted vulture\", ''Sarcoramphus sacra'' (Florida, North America, late 18th century?", ")** A bird supposedly similar in appearance to the king vulture (''Sarcoramphus papa'') identified by William Bartram on his travels in the 1770s.", "Skeptics have stated that it is likely based on a misidentification of the crested caracara (''Caracara plancus''), although evidence has increasingly shifted towards it being a valid taxon that once existed, either as a distinct species in its own right or as a subspecies of the king vulture, based on an independent illustration of a nearly identical bird made several decades earlier by Eleazar Albin.", "See the King vulture article for discussion." ], [ "[[Strigiformes]]", "Laughing owlTrue owls and barn-owls'''Strigidae''' - true owls* Pernambuco pygmy owl, ''Glaucidium mooreorum'' (Pernambuco, Brazil, 2001?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered, but it may still exist.", "A 2018 BirdLife study citing extinction patterns recommended reclassifying this species as possibly extinct.", " Réunion scops owl, ''Otus grucheti'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, late 17th century?", ")* Mauritius scops owl, ''Otus sauzieri'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, c. 1850)* Rodrigues scops owl, ''Otus murivorus'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, mid-18th century):The preceding three species were variously placed in the genera ''Bubo'', ''Athene'', ''\"Scops\"'' (=''Otus''), ''Strix'' and ''Tyto'' and even in their own genus, ''Mascarenotus'', before their true affinity was realized.", " Siau scops owl, ''Otus siaoensis'' (Siau Island, Indonesia, 20th century?", "):Only known from the holotype collected in 1866.It may still exist, as there are ongoing rumors of scops owls at Siau.", " New Caledonian boobook, ''Ninox'' cf.", "''novaeseelandiae'' (New Caledonia, Melanesia):Known only from prehistoric bones, but it may still exist.", " Laughing owl, ''Ninox albifacies'' (New Zealand, 1914?", "):Two subspecies: the nominate subspecies ''N.", "a. albifacies'' (South Island and Stewart Island, extinct 1914?)", "and ''N.", "a. rufifacies'' (North Island, extinct c. 1870s?", "); circumstantial evidence suggests that small remnants survived until the early or mid-20th century.", "'''Tytonidae''' - barn owls Puerto Rican barn owl, ''Tyto cavatica'' (Puerto Rico, West Indies, early 20th century?", "):Known from prehistoric bones found in caves on Puerto Rico; it may have still existed up to 1912, given reports of the presence of cave-roosting owls.", "Likely a subspecies of, or synonymous with, the still-existing ashy-faced owl (''Tyto glaucops'')." ], [ "[[Caprimulgiformes]]", "'''Caprimulgidae''' - nightjars and nighthawks Jamaican poorwill, ''Siphonorhis americana'' (Jamaica, West Indies, late 19th century?", "):Reports of unidentifiable nightjars from the 1980s in habitat appropriate for this cryptic species suggest that it may still exist.", "Research into this possibility is currently underway; pending further information, it is officially classified as critically endangered, possibly extinct.", " Cuban pauraque, ''Siphonorhis daiquiri'' (Cuba, West Indies, prehistoric?", "):Described from subfossil bones in 1985.There are persistent rumors that this bird, which was never seen alive by scientists, may still exist.", "Compare the Puerto Rican nightjar (''Antrostomus noctitherus'') and the preceding species.", " Vaurie's nightjar, ''Caprimulgus centralasicus'' (China, early 20th century?", "):Only known from a single specimen from Xinjiang, China taken in 1929.It has never been seen or found again, but the validity of this supposed species is seriously disputed.", "It was, however, never refuted to be an immature desert-dwelling female European nightjar (''Caprimulgus europaeus'').", " New Caledonian nightjar, ''Eurostopodus exsul'' (New Caledonia, Melanesia, mid-20th century):This species was found only once in 1939; due to its cryptic habits, it may still exist, but this is now considered to be unlikely." ], [ "[[Apodiformes]]", "Swifts and hummingbirds Letitia's thorntail, ''Discosura letitiae'' (Bolivia?", "):Known only from three trade specimens of unknown origin.", "It may still exist.", " Brace's emerald, ''Riccordia bracei'' (New Providence, Bahamas, West Indies, late 19th century)* Gould's emerald, ''Riccordia elegans'' (Jamaica or northern Bahamas, West Indies, late 19th century)* Turquoise-throated puffleg, ''Eriocnemis godini'' (Ecuador, 20th century?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered, possibly extinct.", "Known only from six pre-1900 specimens, the habitat at the only known site where it occurred has been destroyed.", "However, the bird's distribution remains unresolved." ], [ "[[Coraciiformes]]", "Kingfishers and related birds Saint Helena hoopoe, ''Upupa antaois'' (St. Helena, South Atlantic, early 16th century)* Guam kingfisher, ''Todirhmphus cinnamominus'' (Guam, West Pacific, 1986):This species became extinct in the wild in 1986 when 29 birds were taken for a captive breeding programme, which is still ongoing.", "Its decline was caused by predation by introduced brown tree snakes." ], [ "[[Piciformes]]", "Woodpeckers and related birds Bermuda flicker, ''Colaptes oceanicus'' (Bermuda, West Atlantic, 17th century?", "):Known only from fossil bones found in Bermuda and dated to the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene; however, a 17th-century report written by explorer Captain John Smith may refer to this species.", " Imperial woodpecker, ''Campephilus imperialis'' (Mexico, late 20th century):This 60-centimetre-long woodpecker is officially classified as critically endangered, possibly extinct.", "Occasional unconfirmed reports come up; the most recent was in late 2005.", " Ivory-billed woodpecker, ''Campephilus principalis'' (southeastern United States and Cuba, late 20th century):The nominate subspecies, the American ivory-billed woodpecker (''C.", "p. principalis''), is officially classified as critically endangered and considered possibly extinct by some authorities.", ":The Cuban ivory-billed woodpecker (''C.", "p. bairdii'') is generally considered to be extinct, but a few patches of unsurveyed potential habitat remain." ], [ "[[Falconiformes]]", "Birds of prey* Guadalupe caracara, ''Caracara lutosa'' (Guadalupe, East Pacific, 1900 or 1903)* Réunion kestrel, ''Falco duboisi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, c. 1700)" ], [ "[[Psittaciformes]]", "ParrotsA mounted specimen of a Carolina parakeet, the Museum Wiesbaden, Germany* Sinú parakeet, ''Pyrrhura subandina'' (Colombia, mid-20th century?", "):This bird has a very restricted distribution and was last reliably recorded in 1949.It was not found during searches in 2004 and 2006 and seems to be extinct; efforts to find it again continue, but are hampered by the threat of armed conflict.", " Norfolk kākāNorfolk kākā, '' Nestor productus'' (Norfolk and Philip Islands, Southwest Pacific, 1851?", ")* Society parakeet, ''Cyanoramphus ulietanus'' (Raiatea, Society Islands, South Pacific, late 18th century)* Black-fronted parakeet, ''Cyanoramphus zealandicus'' (Tahiti, Society Islands, South Pacific, c. 1850)* Lord Howe parakeet, ''Cyanorhamphus subflavescens'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, c. 1870)* Macquarie parakeet, ''Cyanorhamphus erythrotis'' (Macquarie Islands, Southwest Pacific, 1890s):Last recorded in 1890 and not found by surveys in 1894.", " Paradise parrot, ''Psephotellus pulcherrimus'' (Rockhampton area, Australia, late 1920s)* Oceanic eclectus, ''Eclectus infectus'', known from subfossil bones found on Tonga, Vanuatu, and possibly Fiji, may have survived until the 18th century or even longer: a bird which seems to be a male ''Eclectus'' parrot was drawn in a report on the Tongan island of Vavau by the Malaspina expedition.", "Also, a 19th-century Tongan name ''āā'' (\"parrot\") for \"a beautiful bird found only at Eua\" is attested (see here under \"kākā\").", "This seems to refer to either ''E.", "infectus'', which in Tonga is only known from Vavau and Eua, or the extirpated population of the collared lory (''Vini solitaria''), which also occurred there.", "It is possible, but unlikely, that this species survived on Eua until the 19th century.", "* New Caledonian lorikeet, ''Vini diadema'' (New Caledonia, Melanesia, mid-20th century?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered, there have been no reports of this species since the mid-20th century.", "It is, however, small and inconspicuous and is likely to have been overlooked.", " Seychelles parakeetSeychelles parakeet, ''Psittacula wardi'' (Seychelles, West Indian Ocean, 1883)* Newton's parakeet, ''Psittacula exsul'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, c. 1875)* Mascarene grey parakeet, ''Psittacula bensoni'' (Mauritius, possibly Réunion as ''Psittacula'' cf.", "''bensoni'', 1760s).", ":Formerly known as the Mauritius grey parrot (''Lophopsittacus bensoni'').", "Known from a 1602 sketch by Captain Willem van Westzanen and by subfossil bones described by David Thomas Holyoak in 1973.It may have survived into the mid-18th century.", " Mascarene parrot, ''Mascarinus mascarinus'' (Réunion and possibly Mauritius, Mascarenes, 1834?", "):The last known individual was a captive bird which was alive before 1834.", " Broad-billed parrot, ''Lophopsittacus mauritianus'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, 1680?", "):It may have survived into the late 18th century.", " Rodrigues parrot, ''Necropsittacus rodericanus'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, late 18th century):The species ''N.", "francicus'' is fictional, ''N.", "borbonicus'' is most likely so.", " Glaucous macaw, ''Anodorhynchus glaucus'' (northern Argentina, early 20th century):Officially classified as critically endangered due to persistent rumors of wild birds, but probably extinct.", " Cuban macaw, ''Ara tricolor'' (Cuba, late 19th century):A number of related macaw species have been described from the West Indies, but are not based on good evidence.", "Several prehistoric forms are now known to have existed in the region, however.", " Carolina parakeet, ''Conuropsis carolinensis'' (southeastern North America, c. 1930?", "):Although the date of the last captive bird's death in the Cincinnati Zoo, 1918, is generally given as this species' date of extinction, there are convincing reports of some wild populations persisting until later.", "Two subspecies, ''C.", "c. carolinensis'' (Carolina parakeet, east and south of the Appalachian Mountainsextinct either 1918 or c. 1930) and ''C.", "c. ludovicianus'' (Louisiana parakeet, west of the Appalachian Mountainsextinct c. 1912).", " Guadeloupe parakeet, ''Psittacara labati'' (Guadeloupe, West Indies, late 18th century):Only known from descriptions; the former existence of this bird is likely both for biogeographic reasons and because details about it as described cannot be referred to any known species.", " Martinique amazon, ''Amazona martinica'' (Martinique, West Indies, mid-18th century)* Guadeloupe amazon, ''Amazona violacea'' (Guadeloupe, West Indies, mid-18th century):These two extinct amazons were originally described from travelers' descriptions.", "Their existence is still controversial." ], [ "[[Passeriformes]]", "Perching birds'''Tyrannidae'''tyrant flycatchers San Cristóbal flycatcher, ''Pyrocephalus dubius'' (San Cristóbal Island, Galápagos Islands, late 20th century):Described as extremely rare by David W. Steadman in the 1980s and not found despite a six-month survey in 1998.", "'''Furnariidae'''ovenbirds Cryptic treehunter, ''Cichlocolaptes mazarbarnetti'' (eastern Brazil, 2007)* Alagoas foliage-gleaner, ''Philydor novaesi'' (eastern Brazil, 2011)Lyall's wren, a victim of feral cats'''Acanthisittidae'''New Zealand \"wrens\"* Lyall's wren, ''Traversia lyalli'' (New Zealand, 1895?", "):A flightless species that was famously (but erroneously) claimed to have become extinct due to predation by a single lighthouse keeper's cat named \"Tibbles\".", " Bushwren, ''Xenicus longipes'' (New Zealand, 1972):Three subspecies, ''X.", "l. stokesi'' (North Island, extinct 1955); the nominate subspecies ''X.", "l. longipes'' (South Island, extinct 1968) and ''X.", "l. variabilis'' (Stewart Island, extinct 1972).", "'''Mohoidae'''Hawaiian honeyeaters.", "Family established in 2008, previously in Meliphagidae.", " Kioea, ''Chaetoptila angustipluma'' (Big Island, Hawaiian Islands, 1860s)* Hawaii ōōHawaii ōō, ''Moho nobilis'' (Big Island, Hawaiian Islands, 1930s)* Oahu ōō, ''Moho apicalis'' (Oahu, Hawaiian Islands, mid-19th century)* Bishop's ōō, ''Moho bishopi'' (Molokai and probably Maui, Hawaiian Islands, c. 1910 or 1980s)* Kauai ōō, ''Moho braccatus'' (Kauai, Hawaiian Islands, 1987)'''Meliphagidae'''honeyeaters and Australian chats* Chatham bellbird, ''Anthornis melanocephala'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific, c. 1910):Sometimes regarded as a subspecies of the New Zealand bellbird (''Anthornis melanera'').", "Unconfirmed records exist from the early to mid-1950s.", " The identity of ''\"Strigiceps leucopogon\"'' (an invalid name) described by Lesson in 1840 is unclear.", "Apart from the holotype supposedly from \"New Holland\", a second specimen from the \"Himalaya\" either may have existed or may still exist.", "Lesson tentatively allied it to the Meliphagidae, and Rothschild felt reminded of the kioea.", "'''Acanthizidae'''scrubwrens, thornbills, and gerygones* Lord Howe gerygone, ''Gerygone insularis'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, c. 1930)'''Pachycephalidae'''whistlers, shrike-thrushes, pitohuis and allies* Mangarevan whistler, ?", "''Pachycephala gambierana'' (Mangareva, Gambier Islands, South Pacific, late 19th century?", "):Tentatively placed here.", "A mysterious bird of which no specimens exist today.", "It was initially described as a shrike, then classified as an ''Eopsalteria'' \"robin\" and may actually be an ''Acrocephalus'' warbler.", "'''Dicruridae'''monarch flycatchers and allies Maupiti monarch, ''Pomarea pomarea'' (Maupiti, Society Islands, South Pacific, mid-19th century)* Eiao monarch, ''Pomarea fluxa'' (Eiao, Marquesas, late 1970s):Previously considered a subspecies of the Iphis monarch (''Pomarea iphis''), this is an early offspring of the Marquesan stock.", " Nuku Hiva monarch, ''Pomarea nukuhivae'' (Nuku Hiva, Marquesas, mid- to late 20th century):Previously considered a subspecies of the Marquesas monarch (''Pomarea mendozae''), this is another early offspring of the Marquesan stock.", " Ua Pou monarch, ''Pomarea mira'' (Ua Pou, Marquesas, c. 1986):Also previously considered a subspecies of the Marquesas monarch, this was a distinct species most closely related to that bird and the Fatuhiva monarch (''Pomarea whitneyi'').", " Guam flycatcher, ''Myiagra freycineti'' (Guam and Marianas, West Pacific, 1983):Possibly a subspecies of the oceanic flycatcher (''Myiagra oceanica'').", "'''Oriolidae'''Old World orioles and allies North Island piopio, ''Turnagra tanagra'' (North Island, New Zealand, c. 1970?", "):Not reliably recorded since about 1900.", " South Island piopio, ''Turnagra capensis'' (South Island, New Zealand, 1960s?", "):Two subspecies, ''T.", "c. minor'' from Stephens Island (extinct c. 1897) and the nominate subspecies ''T.", "c. capensis'' from the South Island mainland (last specimen taken in 1902, last unconfirmed record in 1963)'''Corvidae'''crows, ravens, jays and magpies Hawaiian crow, ''Corvus hawaiiensis'' (Big Island, Hawaiian Islands, 2002):This species is extinct in the wild, not fully extinct.", "'''Callaeidae'''New Zealand wattlebirdsHuia, male (front) and female (back) Huia, ''Heteralocha acutirostris'' (North Island, New Zealand, early 20th century)* South Island kokako, ''Callaeas cinereus'' (South Island, New Zealand, 1960s?", "):This species is usually considered to be extinct, as it has not been reliably recorded since 1967.However, recent reports from Fiordland suggest that it may still exist.", "'''Hirundinidae'''swallows and martins White-eyed river martin, ''Pseudochelidon sirintarae'' (Thailand, late 1980s?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered, this enigmatic species is only known from migrating birds and it was last seen in 1986 at its former roost site.", "Recent unconfirmed reports suggest that it may still exist in Cambodia.", " Red Sea cliff swallow, ''Petrochelidon perdita'' (Red Sea area, late 20th century?", "):Known from a single specimen found in 1984; this enigmatic swallow may still exist, but the lack of recent records is puzzling.", "It is also alternatively placed in the genus ''Hirundo''.", "'''Acrocephalidae'''acrocephalid warblers or marsh warblers, tree warblers and reed warblers Nightingale reed warbler, ''Acrocephalus luscinius'' (Guam, West Pacific, c. 1970s)* Pagan reed warbler, ''Acrocephalus yamashinae'' (Pagan, Marianas, West Pacific, 1970s):Previously considered a subspecies of the nightingale reed warbler.", " Aguiguan reed warbler, ''Acrocephalus nijoi'' (Aguiguan, Marianas, West Pacific, c. 1997):Also previously considered a subspecies of the nightingale reed warbler.", " Mangareva reed warbler, ''Acrocephalus astrolabii'' (Marianas?, West Pacific, mid-19th century?", "):Known only from two specimens found on Mangareva Island.", " Garrett's reed warbler, ''Acrocephalus musae'' (Raiatea and Huahine, Society Islands, South Pacific, 19th century?", "):Two subspecies, ''A.", "m. garretti'' from Huahine and ''A.", "m. musae'' from Raiatea.", "Previously considered a subspecies of the Tahiti reed warbler (''Acrocephalus caffer'').", " Moorea reed warbler,'' Acrocephalus longirostris'' (Moorea, Society Islands, South Pacific, 1980s?", "):The last reliable sighting of this bird was in 1981.A survey in 1986 / 1987 was unsuccessful in finding it.", "A photograph of a warbler from Moorea in 1998 or 1999 taken by Philippe Bacchet remains uncertain, as do reports from 2003 and 2010.Also previously considered a subspecies of the Tahiti reed warbler.", "'''Muscicapidae'''Old World flycatchers and chats Rück's blue flycatcher, ''Cyornis ruckii'' (Malaysia or Indochina, 20th century?", "):An enigmatic species known only from two or four possibly migrant specimens, last recorded in 1918.It may still exist in northeastern Indochina.", "Possibly a subspecies of the Hainan blue flycatcher (''Cyornis hainanus'').", "'''Megaluridae'''megalurid warblers or grass warblers Chatham fernbird, ''Poodytes rufescens'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific, c. 1900):Often placed in the genus ''Megalurus'', but this is based on an incomplete review of the evidence.", "'''Cisticolidae'''cisticolas and allies Tana River cisticola, ''Cisticola restrictus'' (Kenya, Africa, 1970s?", "):A mysterious species found in the Tana River Basin in small numbers at various dates but not seen since 1972.It is probably invalid; if so, it may be based on aberrant or hybrid specimens.", "An unconfirmed sighting was apparently reported in 2007 at the Tana River Delta.'''Zosteropidae'''white-eyes.", "Probably belong in Timaliidae.", " Marianne white-eye, ''Zosterops semiflavus'' (Marianne Island, Seychelles, late 19th century)* Robust white-eye, ''Zosterops strenuus'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, c. 1918)* White-chested white-eye, ''Zosterops albogularis'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, between 2006 and 2010)'''Pycnonotidae'''bulbuls* Rodrigues bulbul, ''Hypsipetes cowlesi'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, extinction date unknown, 17th century or 18th century might be possible):Known only from subfossil bones.", "'''Sylvioidea ''incertae sedis''''' Aldabra brush warbler, ''Nesillas aldabrana'' (Aldabra, Indian Ocean, c. 1984)* Rodrigues \"babbler\" (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, 17th century?", "):Known only from subfossil bones.", "Provisionally assigned to Timaliidae, but its placement in this family is highly doubtful.", "'''Sturnidae'''starlingsHoopoe starling Kosrae starling, ''Aplonis corvina'' (Kosrae, Caroline Islands, West Pacific, mid-19th century)* Mauke starling, ''Aplonis mavornata'' (Mauke, Cook Islands, mid-19th century)* Tasman starling, ''Aplonis fusca'' (Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, c. 1923):Two subspecies, the nominate subspecies ''A.", "f. fusca''Norfolk starling (extinct c. 1923) and ''A.", "fusca hulliana''Lord Howe starling (extinct c. 1919).", " Pohnpei starling, ''Aplonis pelzelni'' (Pohnpei, Micronesia, c. 2000):Only one reliable record since 1956, in 1995, leaves the species' survival seriously in doubt.", " Raiatea starling, ''Aplonis''?", "''ulietensis'' (Raiatea, Society Islands, South Pacific, between 1774 and 1850):Formerly called the bay thrush (''Turdus ulietensis''); a mysterious bird from Raiatea now only known from a painting and some descriptions of a (now lost) specimen.", "Its taxonomic position is thus unresolvable at present although, for biogeographic reasons and because of the surviving description, it has been suggested to have been a honeyeater.", "However, with the discovery of fossils of the prehistorically extinct Huahine starling (''Aplonis diluvialis'') on neighboring Huahine, it seems likely that this bird also belonged to this genus.", " Hoopoe starling, ''Fregilupus varius'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, 1850s):Tentatively assigned to Sturnidae.", " Rodrigues starling, ''Necropsar rodericanus'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, mid-18th century?", "):Tentatively assigned to Sturnidae.", "The bird that was variously described as ''Necropsar leguati'' or ''Orphanopsar leguati'' and was considered to be identical with ''N.", "rodericanus'' (which itself is known only from subfossil bones) was found to be based on a misidentified albino specimen of the grey trembler (''Cinclocerthia gutturalis'').", "'''Turdidae'''thrushes and allies Grand Cayman thrush, ''Turdus ravidus'' (Grand Cayman, West Indies, late 1940s)* Bonin thrush, ''Zoothera terrestris'' (Chichi-jima, Ogasawara Islands, c. 1830s)* KāmaoKāmao, ''Myadestes myadestinus'' (Kauai, Hawaiian Islands, 1990s)* Olomao, ''Myadestes lanaiensis'' (Hawaiian Islands, 1980s?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered because a possible location on Molokai remains unsurveyed.", "Three subspecies are known from Oahu (''M.", "l. woahensis'', extinct 1850s), Lanai (the nominate subspecies ''M.", "l. lanaiensis'', extinct early 1930s) and Molokai (''M.", "l. rutha'', extinct 1980s?)", "and there may be a possible fourth subspecies from Maui (extinct before the late 19th century).", "'''Mimidae'''mockingbirds and thrashers Cozumel thrasher, ''Toxostoma guttatum'' (Cozumel, West Indies, early in the first decade of the 21st century?", "):It is still unknown whether the tiny population rediscovered in 2004 survived Hurricanes Emily and Wilma in 2005.There have also been unconfirmed records in April 2006 and October and December 2007.", "'''Estrildidae'''estrildid finches (waxbills, munias, etc.", ") Black-lored waxbill, ''Estrilda nigriloris'' (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Africa, late 20th century?", "):An enigmatic species not seen since 1950; because part of its habitat is in Upemba National Park, it may still exist.", "'''Icteridae'''New World blackbirds and allies Slender-billed grackle, ''Quiscalus palustris'' (Mexico, 1910)'''Parulidae'''New World warblers* Bachman's warblerBachman's warbler, ''Vermivora bachmanii'' (southern United States, c. 1990?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered.", " Semper's warbler, ''Leucopeza semperi'' (St. Lucia, West Indies, 1970s?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered.", "Suitable habitat remains and there have been unconfirmed records within the last 10 years.", "'''Ploceidae'''weavers Réunion fody, ''Foudia delloni'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, c. 1672):Formerly ''Foudia bruante''; the latter scientific name may actually be a color morph of the red fody (''Foudia madagascariensis'').", "'''Fringillidae'''true finches and Hawaiian honeycreepers Bonin grosbeak, ''Carpodacus ferreorostris'' (Chichi-jima, Ogasawara Islands, 1830s)* Ōū, ''Psittirostra psittacea'' (Hawaiian Islands, c. 2000?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered, this was once the most widespread species of all of the Hawaiian honeycreepers.", "It has not been reliably recorded since either 1987 or 1989.", " Kona grosbeak, ''Chloridops kona'' (Big Island, Hawaiian Islands, 1894)* Lanai hookbill, ''Dysmorodrepanis munroi'' (Lanai, Hawaiian Islands, 1918)* Kauai palila, ''Loxioides kikuichi'' (Kauai, Hawaiian Islands, early 18th century?)", "* Lesser koa finch, ''Rhodacanthus flaviceps'' (Big Island, Hawaiian Islands, 1891)* Greater koa finch, ''Rhodacanthus palmeri'' (Big Island, Hawaiian Islands, 1896)* Greater amakihi, ''Viradonia sagittirostris'' (Big Island, Hawaiian Islands, 1901)* Maui nukupuu, ''Hemignathus affinis'' (Maui, Hawaiian Islands, 1990s)* Kauai nukupuu, ''Hemignathus hanapepe'' (Kauai, Hawaiian Islands, late 1990s)* Oahu nukupuu, ''Hemignathus lucidus'' (Oahu, Hawaiian Islands, late 19th century)* Hawaii akialoa or lesser akialoa, ''Akialoa obscurus'' (Big Island, Hawaiian Islands, 1940)* Maui Nui akialoa, ''Akialoa lanaiensis'' (Lanai and, prehistorically, probably Maui and Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, 1892)* Oahu akialoa, ''Akialoa ellisiana'' (Oahu, Hawaiian Islands, early 20th century)* Kauai akialoa, ''Akialoa stejnegeri'' (Kauai, Hawaiian Islands, 1969)* KākāwahieKākāwahie, ''Paroreomyza flammea'' (Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, 1963)* Oahu alauahio, ''Paroreomyza maculata'' (Oahu, Hawaiian Islands, early 1990s?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered.", "The last reliable record of this bird was in 1985, with an unconfirmed sighting in 1990.", " Maui akepa, ''Loxops ochraceus'' (Maui, Hawaiian Islands, 1988)* Oahu akepa, ''Loxops wolstenholmei'' (Oahu, Hawaiian Islands, 1900s)* Ula-ai-hawane, ''Ciridops anna'' (Big Island, Hawaiian Islands, either 1892 or 1937)* Black mamo, ''Drepanis funerea'' (Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, 1907)* Hawaii mamoHawaii mamo, ''Drepanis pacifica'' (Big Island, Hawaiian Islands, 1898)* Laysan honeycreeper, ''Himatione fraithii'' (Laysan, Hawaiian Islands, 1923)* Poouli, ''Melamprosops phaeosoma'' (Maui, Hawaiian Islands, 2004)'''Emberizidae'''buntings and New World sparrows* Hooded seedeater, ''Sporophila melanops'' (Brazil, 20th century?", "):Officially classified as critically endangered.", "It is known only from a single male collected in 1823 and has variously been considered either an aberrant specimen of the yellow-bellied seedeater (''Sporophila nigricollis'') or a hybrid.", " Bermuda towhee, ''Pipilo naufragus'' (Bermuda, West Atlantic, 17th century?)", ":Known from subfossil bones and possibly from a travel report by William Strachey in 1610." ], [ "Possibly extinct bird subspecies or status unknown", "The extinction of subspecies is a subject very dependent on guesswork.", "National and international conservation projects and research publications such as red lists usually focus on species as a whole.", "Reliable information on the status of vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered subspecies usually has to be assembled piecemeal from published observations, such as regional checklists.", "Therefore, the following listing contains a high proportion of bird taxa that may still exist, but are listed here due to any one of, or any combination of, these three factors: absence of recent records, a known threat such as habitat destruction, or an observed decline.===Struthioniformes===Ratites and related birds Arabian ostrich, ''Struthio camelus syriacus'' (Arabia, 1966):The last record of this subspecies of the common ostrich was a bird found dead in Jordan in 1966.===Apterygiformes=== North Island little spotted kiwi, ''Apteryx owenii iredalei'' (North Island, New Zealand, late 19th century):A doubtfully distinct subspecies of the little spotted kiwi.===Casuariiformes===Kangaroo Island emu'''Dromaius'''emuKing Island emu, ''Dromaius novaehollandiae minor'' (King Island, Australia, 1822):An island dwarf subspecies of the emu; extinct in the wild c. 1805, the last captive specimen died in 1822 in the Jardin des Plantes.", "Kangaroo Island emu, ''Dromaius novaehollandiae baudinianus'' (Kangaroo Island, Australia, 1827):Another island dwarf subspecies of the emu; extinct since c. 1827.", "Tasmanian emu, ''Dromaius novaehollandiae diemenensis'' (Tasmania, Australia, mid-19th century):Yet another island dwarf subspecies of the emu; the last wild bird was collected in 1845, but it may have survived in captivity until 1884.It may be invalid.===Tinamiformes===Tinamous* Magdalena tinamou, ''Crypturellus'' (''erythropus'') ''saltuarius'' (Colombia, not extinct):Variously considered either a subspecies of the red-legged tinamou or a distinct species, this bird was rediscovered in August 2023.===Anseriformes===Ducks, geese and swans Bering cackling goose, ''Branta hutchinsii asiatica'' (Commander and Kuril Islands, N Pacific, c. 1914 or 1929):A formerly recognised subspecies of the cackling goose (formerly called the Bering Canada goose (''Branta canadensis asiatica'')) which was not distinct from the similar-looking and still-existing Aleutian cackling goose (''B.", "h. leucopareia'') and is now considered to be invalid.", " Rennell Island teal, ''Anas gibberifrons remissa'' (Rennell Island, Solomon Islands, c. 1959):A doubtfully distinct subspecies of the Sunda teal which disappeared due to predation on ducklings by introduced Mozambique tilapia (''Oreochromis mossambicus'').", " Niceforo's yellow-billed pintail, ''Anas georgica niceforoi'' (Colombia, 1950s):A subspecies of the yellow-billed pintail that has not been recorded since the 1950s.", " Borrero's cinnamon teal, ''Anas cyanoptera borreroi'' (Colombia, mid-20th century?", "):A subspecies of the cinnamon teal known only from a restricted area in the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia, with a couple of records from Ecuador.", "It was discovered in 1946 and thought to have become extinct by 1956.", " Coues's gadwall, ''Mareca strepera couesi'' (Teraina, Kiribati, c. 1900):This island subspecies of the gadwall was discovered and named in 1874 after two birds were shot and has not been recorded since, with none found by a 1924 expedition from Honolulu's Bishop Museum.===Galliformes===Quails and relatives Lake Amik black francolin, ''Francolinus francolinus billypayni'' (southern Turkey, possibly Lebanon, 1960s):A doubtfully distinct subspecies of the black francolin.", " Sicilian black francolin, ''Francolinus francolinus'' ssp.", "(Sicily, Mediterranean, c. 1869):Another doubtfully distinct subspecies of the black francolin.", " Heath hen, ''Tympanuchus cupido cupido'', (New England, North America, 1932):A subspecies of the greater prairie-chicken or possibly a distinct species.", " New Mexico sharp-tailed grouse, ''Tympanuchus phasianellus hueyi'' (New Mexico, North America, 1950s):A subspecies of the sharp-tailed grouse last recorded in Colfax County in 1952.", " Moroccan helmeted guineafowl, ''Numida meleagris sabyi'' (Morocco, mid- to late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the helmeted guineafowl.", "Reportedly still kept in captivity in Morocco in the late 1990s.", "Possibly extinct in the wild by 1950; three records from the 1970s may refer to feral-domestic hybrids.===Charadriiformes===Shorebirds, gulls and auks Kiritimati sandpiper, ''Prosobonia cancellata cancellata'' (Kiritimati, Kirabati, 19th century?", "):The doubtfully distinct nominate subspecies of the Tuamotu sandpiper; sometimes considered a distinct species, but known only from a painting.====Lari===='''Turnicidae'''buttonquails Tawitawi buttonquail, ''Turnix sylvaticus suluensis'' (Tawitawi, Philippines, mid-20th century?", "):Another subspecies of the common buttonquail; it has not been recorded since the 1950s, but there have been few surveys and it may still exist.", " New Caledonia painted buttonquail, ''Turnix varius novaecaledoniae'' (New Caledonia, Melanesia, early 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the painted buttonquail that has been variously considered anything from a hybrid between introduced species to a distinct species.", "Plentiful subfossil bones indicate that it was indeed a good endemic form.", "The last specimen was taken in 1912 and surveys since then have failed to record it.===Gruiformes===Rails and alliesprobably paraphyletic Goldman's yellow rail, ''Coturnicops noveboracensis goldmani'' (Mexico, late 20th century?)", ":A subspecies of the yellow rail that has not been recorded since 1964 and has lost much of its wetland habitat since then.", " Macquarie rail, ''Hypotaenidia philippensis macquariensis'' (Macquarie Islands, Southwest Pacific, 1880s):A subspecies of the buff-banded rail.", " Raoul Island banded rail, ''Hypotaenidia philippensis'' ssp.", "(Raoul, Kermadec Islands, Southwest Pacific, late 19th century?", "):Reports of the former occurrence of the species on Raoul seem to be plausible enough, but they may refer to vagrant individuals of another subspecies of the buff-banded rail.", " Peruvian rail, ''Rallus semiplumbeus peruvianus'' (Peru, 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the Bogota rail which is known from a single specimen collected in the 1880s.", "It may still exist.", " Western Lewin's rail, ''Lewinia pectoralis clelandi'' (southwestern Australia, late 1930s?", "):A subspecies of Lewin's rail not recorded since 1932 despite multiple surveys in the late 20th century.", " Assumption white-throated rail, ''Dryolimnas cuvieri abbotti'' (Assumption, Astove and Cosmoledo, Aldabra, early 20th century):A subspecies of the white-throated rail.", " Jamaican wood rail, ''Amaurolimnas concolor concolor'' (Jamaica, West Indies, late 19th century):The nominate subspecies of the uniform crake declined rapidly and became extinct following the introduction of the small Indian mongoose (''Urva auropunctata'') to Jamaica in 1872.", " Intact rail, ''Gymnocrex plumbeiventris intactus'' (Melanesia, 20th century?", "):A doubtfully distinct subspecies of the bare-eyed rail known from a single specimen, c. mid-19th century, either from the Solomon Islands or New Ireland.", "The taxon may still exist.", " Bornean Baillon's crake, ''Zapornia pusilla mira'' (Borneo, 20th century?", "):A subspecies of Baillon's crake known from a single 1912 specimen and not found since; it may be extinct, but the species is hard to find.", " Moroccan bustard, ''Ardeotis arabs lynesi'' (Morocco, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the Arabian bustard.", "Last observed in 1993 at Lac Merzouga / Lac Tamezguidat.", " Luzon sarus crane, ''Antigone antigone luzonica'' (Luzon, Philippines, late 1960s):A subspecies of the sarus crane which is not always accepted as valid by all authorities, possibly because the existing specimens have not been thoroughly studied since it was first described.===Pelecaniformes===Herons and related birdspossibly paraphyletic'''Ardeidae'''herons, egrets, and bitterns Bonin nankeen night heron, ''Nycticorax caledonicus crassirostris'' (Nakoudo-jima and Chichi-jima, Ogasawara Islands, c. 1890):A subspecies of the nankeen night heron.===Pterocliformes===Sandgrouse===Columbiformes===Pigeons, doves and dodos* Madeiran wood pigeon, ''Columba palumbus maderensis'' (Madeira, East Atlantic, early 20th century):A subspecies of the common wood pigeon.", " Lord Howe pigeon, ''Columba vitiensis godmanae'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, 1853):This subspecies of the metallic pigeon was last recorded in 1853 and almost certainly became extinct by 1869.", " Tongan metallic pigeon, ''Columba vitiensis'' ssp.", "(Vavau, Tonga, late 18th century?", "):This subspecies of the metallic pigeon is only known from a footnote in John Latham's ''General History of Birds'' and seems to have become extinct some time before 1800; possibly, however, the location is erroneous and the footnote really refers to the still-existing population on Fiji.", " Réunion pink pigeon, ''Nesoenas mayeri duboisi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, c. 1700):A subspecies of the pink pigeon, formerly in ''Streptopelia''.", "There seems to have been at least another species of pigeon on Réunion (probably a blue pigeon species), but bones have not yet been found.", "It became extinct at the same time as this subspecies did.", "Amirante turtle dove, ''Nesoenas picturatus aldabrana'' (Amirante Islands, Seychelles, late 20th century):This subspecies of the Malagasy turtle dove survived until at least 1974, after which it was hybridised out of existence through crossbreeding with the introduced nominate subspecies (''N.", "p.", "picturatus'').", " Catanduanes bleeding-heart, ''Gallicolumba luzonica rubiventris'' (Catanduanes, Philippines, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the Luzon bleeding-heart known from a single specimen collected in 1971.There have been recent reports of this bird and, as much of its forest habitat still remains, it is likely that it may still exist.", " Basilan bleeding-heart, ''Gallicolumba crinigera bartletti'' (Basilan, Philippines, mid-20th century?", "):A subspecies of the Mindanao bleeding-heart last reported in 1925 and, given the massive habitat destruction, is likely extinct.", " Vella Lavella ground dove, ''Pampusana jobiensis chalconota'' (Vella Lavella, Makira and Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the white-breasted ground dove or possibly a distinct species.", "Known from only four specimens; there are no recent records and the natives report that it has disappeared.", " White-headed Polynesian ground dove, ''Pampusana erythroptera albicollis'' (Central Tuamotu Islands, 20th century?", "):This subspecies of the Polynesian ground dove, often referred to as ''P.", "e. pectoralis'', became extinct at an undetermined date, but it may still exist on some unsurveyed atolls.", "The identity of the northern Tuamotu population, which may also possibly still exist, is undetermined to date.", " Ebon crimson-crowned fruit dove, ''Ptilinopus porphyraceus marshallianus'' (Ebon?, Marshall Islands, late 19th century?", "):A subspecies of the crimson-crowned fruit dove of doubtful validity known from a single specimen collected in 1859; it is not certain whether or not this bird actually did occur on Ebon.", "All that can be said is that this subspecies is no longer found anywhere.", " Mauke fruit dove, ''Ptilinopus rarotongensis \"byronensis\"'' (Mauke, Cook Islands, mid- or late 19th century):A subspecies of the lilac-crowned fruit dove known only from the description of a now-lost specimen.", "The prehistorically extinct population on Mangaia likely belongs to another distinct subspecies also.", " Negros spotted imperial pigeon, ''Ducula carola nigrorum'' (Negros and probably Siquijor, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the spotted imperial pigeon not recorded since the 1950s.", " Norfolk pigeon, ''Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae spadicea'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, early 20th century):A subspecies of the kererū or New Zealand pigeon not recorded since 1900.Similar birds were reported from Lord Howe Island; these seem to represent another extinct subspecies, but are undescribed to date.", " Raoul Island kererū, ''Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae'' ssp.", "nov. (Raoul, Kermadec Islands, 19th century):Another undescribed subspecies of the kererū or New Zealand pigeon or possibly a distinct species; known from bones and a brief report.===Cuculiformes===Cuckoos Greater crested coua, ''Coua cristata maxima'' (southeastern Madagascar, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the crested coua, known only from a single specimen taken in 1950.It may be a hybrid but if it is not, it is probably extinct.", " Assumption Island coucal, ''Centropus toulou assumptionis'' (Assumption Island, Seychelles, early 20th century):A subspecies of the Malagasy coucal last recorded in 1906.It is sometimes considered synonymous with the Aldabra subspecies (''C.", "t. insularis'') which has since recolonized Assumption Island.", " Cabo San Lucas groove-billed ani, ''Crotophaga sulcirostris pallidula'' (Mexico, c. 1940):A weakly differentiated and probably invalid subspecies of the groove-billed ani.", " Bahia rufous-vented ground cuckoo, ''Neomorphus geoffroyi maximiliani'' (eastern Brazil, mid-20th century?", "):A subspecies of the rufous-vented ground cuckoo.===Strigiformes===True owls and barn owls'''Strigidae'''true owls Sulu reddish scops owl, ''Otus rufescens burbidgei'' (Sulu, Philippines, mid-20th century):A subspecies of the reddish scops owl only known from a single questionable specimen.", "It may be invalid.", " Virgin Islands owl, ''Gymnasio nudipes newtoni'' (Virgin Islands, West Indies, 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the Puerto Rican owl of somewhat doubtful validity, which occurred on several of the Virgin Islands.", "The last reliable records were in 1860; there were a number of unconfirmed reports during the 20th century, but it was not found in thorough surveys in 1995.", " Socorro elf owl, ''Micrathene whitneyi graysoni'' (Socorro, Revillagigedo Islands, mid-20th century?", "):A subspecies of the elf owl officially classified as critically endangered.", "The last specimen was taken in 1932, but there was apparently still a large population in 1958; it was not found in subsequent searches and it appears to have become extinct.", " Antiguan burrowing owl, ''Athene cunicularia amaura'' (Antigua, St. Kitts and Nevis, West Indies, c. 1900):A subspecies of the burrowing owl, last collected in 1890 and extinct by 1903.", " Guadeloupe burrowing owl, ''Athene cunicularia guadeloupensis'' (Guadeloupe and Marie-Galante, West Indies, c. 1890):Another subspecies of the burrowing owl, extinct by 1890.", " Lord Howe boobook, ''Ninox novaeseelandiae albaria'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, 1950s):A subspecies of the Australian boobook last recorded in the 1950s.", " Norfolk boobook, ''Ninox novaeseelandiae undulata'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, 1990s):Individuals of the nominate subspecies of the Australian boobook were introduced in a last-ditch effort to save the local owl population.", "There now exists a hybrid population of a few dozen birds; the last certainly distinct individual of ''N.", "n. undulata'', a female named Miamiti, died in 1996, though individuals descended from her remain.", "'''Tytonidae'''barn owls Cave-nesting masked owl, ''Tyto novaehollandiae troughtoni'' (Nullarbor Plain, Australia, 1960s):Doubtfully distinct from the nominate subspecies of the Australian masked owl, but differed behaviorally.", " Buru masked owl, ''Tyto sororcula cayelii'' (Buru, Indonesia, mid-20th century?", "):A subspecies of the Moluccan masked owl last recorded in 1921; the identity of a similar bird found on Seram remains to be determined.", "It may still exist, as an owl matching this bird's description was encountered in August 2006.", " Peleng masked owl, ''Tyto rosenbergii pelengensis'' (Peleng, Banggai Islands, mid-20th century):A subspecies of the Sulawesi masked owl or a distinct species.", "It may possibly still exist, but the only known specimen was taken in 1938 and there have been no further records since then.", " Samar bay owl, ''Phodilus badius riverae'' (Samar, Philippines, mid-20th century):A subspecies of the Oriental bay owl or a possibly distinct species.", "Its taxonomy is doubtful, but the only known specimen was lost in a 1945 bombing raid, so its validity cannot be verified; no population exists on Samar today.===Apodiformes===Swifts and hummingbirds Miravalles indigo-capped hummingbird, ''Saucerottia cyanifrons alfaroana'' (Costa Rica, Central America, 20th century?", "):This subspecies of the indigo-capped hummingbird is only known from a specimen collected in Costa Rica in 1895.It is likely to have become extinct since then.", " Alejandro Selkirk firecrown, ''Sephanoides fernandensis leyboldi'' (Alejandro Selkirk Island, Juan Fernández Islands, Southeast Pacific, 1908):A subspecies of the Juan Fernández firecrown last recorded in 1908.", " Luzon Whitehead's swiftlet, ''Aerodramus whiteheadi whiteheadi'' (Luzon, Philippines, 20th century?", "):The nominate subspecies of Whitehead's swiftlet is only known from four specimens collected at Mount Data in 1895.Because of the lack of further records and massive habitat destruction, it is usually considered extinct.", "Given the size of the island, though, it may still exist.===Coraciiformes===Kingfishers and related birds Sangihe dwarf kingfisher, ''Ceyx fallax sangirensis'' (Sangihe, Indonesia, 1998?", "):This subspecies of the Sulawesi dwarf kingfisher was last seen in 1997 but not during a thorough survey one year later; it is either close to extinction or already extinct.", "Sometimes it is said to occur on the Talaud Islands also, but this is erroneous.", " Guadalcanal little kingfisher, ''Ceyx pusillus aolae'' (Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands, ?", "):A subspecies of the little kingfisher.", " Rarotonga kingfisher, ''Todiramphus'' cf.", "''tutus'' (Rarotonga, Cook Islands, mid-1980s?", "):There exist reports of locals that kingfishersprobably a subspecies of the chattering kingfisher (''Todiramphus tutus'') which is found on neighboring islands, but possibly vagrants from therewere found until around 1979 and there is a last record from 1984.Presently, no kingfishers are known to exist on Rarotonga.", " \"Ryukyu kingfisher\", \"''Todiramphus cinnamominus miyakoensis''\" (Miyako-jima, Ryukyu Islands, late 19th century):Previously considered as a distinct species, then reclassified as a subspecies of the Guam kingfisher.", "Only seen once by scientists in 1887; the specimen taken is somewhat damaged, making identification by anything other than molecular analysis difficult.", "It is now thought likely that the specimen came from Guam, where the aforementioned species was distributed, rather than Miyako, which would make this subspecies invalid (it was declared invalid by the International Ornithological Congress in 2022).", " Sakarha pygmy kingfisher, ''Corythornis madagascariensis dilutus'' (southwestern Madagascar, late 20th century?", "):This subspecies of the Madagascar pygmy kingfisher is only known from one specimen taken in 1974 in an area where most of its habitat had already been destroyed.", "However, there have been records of the species (or an uncertain subspecies) from near the type locality, suggesting it is likely that it may still exist.", " Ticao hornbill, ''Penelopides panini ticaensis'' (Ticao, Philippines, 1970s):A subspecies of the Visayan hornbill of somewhat uncertain taxonomic status (it was possibly a distinct species or possibly a color morph); the last confirmed report was in 1971 and it became extinct shortly thereafter.===Piciformes===Woodpeckers and related birds Grand Bahama West Indian woodpecker, ''Melanerpes superciliaris bahamensis'' (Grand Bahama, Bahamas, 1950s):A subspecies of the West Indian woodpecker of somewhat uncertain validity.", " Javan buff-rumped woodpecker, ''Meiglyptes tristis tristis'' (Java, Indonesia, c. 1920?", "):The nominate subspecies of the buff-rumped woodpecker became rare during the 19th century due to habitat destruction.", "The last confirmed record was in 1880, and it is now considered to be at least very rare.", " Guadalupe red-shafted flicker, ''Colaptes auratus rufipileus'' (Guadalupe Island, East Pacific, c. 1906):A subspecies of the northern flicker (formerly considered to be a subspecies of the red-shafted flicker, as ''C.", "cafer rufipileus''), it was last recorded in 1906 and not found again in both 1911 and 1922.It may be invalid.", "Recently, vagrant birds of a mainland red-shafted northern flicker subspecies (which one is unknown) have begun recolonizing the island as the habitat improved after the extirpation of feral goats.", " Northern white-mantled barbet, ''Capito hypoleucus hypoleucus'' (Colombia, extant):The nominate subspecies of the white-mantled barbet has been considered extinct, but has been recorded recently.", " Botero white-mantled barbet, ''Capito hypoleucus carrikeri'' (Colombia, extant):Another subspecies of the white-mantled barbet, also considered extinct by some sources, but confirmed extant by researchers in Colombia.", " Todd's jacamar, ''Brachygalba lugubris phaeonota'' (Brazil, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the brown jacamar, or possibly a hybrid, a color morph or a distinct species.", "It may still exist, as it is only known from a remote and seldom-visited area.", " Cebu white-bellied woodpecker, ''Dryocopus javensis cebuensis'' (Cebu, Philippines, 20th century):A subspecies of the white-bellied woodpecker only known by three specimens collected before 1900.===Falconiformes===Birds of prey Cape Verde kite, ''Milvus'' (''milvus'') ''fasciicauda'' (Cape Verde Islands, East Atlantic, 2000):Considered either a subspecies of the red kite, a distinct species, or a hybrid between the red and black kite (''Milvus migrans''), the validity of this taxon has recently been questioned on the basis of molecular analysis; however, hybridization and a confusing molecular phylogeny of red kite populations, coupled with the distinct phenotype of the Cape Verde birds, suggest that the taxonomic status of this form is far from resolved.", " Car Nicobar sparrowhawk, ''Accipiter butleri butleri'' (Car Nicobar, Nicobar Islands, 20th century?", "): The nominate subspecies of the Nicobar sparrowhawka species which is itself currently classified as vulnerableis possibly extinct.", "It was last reliably recorded in 1901 and, despite searches, has not been sighted after an unconfirmed record in 1977; however, the species is known for being very shy and a population may persist unrecorded.", " Volcano Islands peregrine falcon, ''Falco peregrinus furuitii'' (Ogasawara Islands, 1940s):A subspecies of the peregrine falcon from the Ogasawara Islands.", "No sightings have been reported since 1945.A survey in 1982 failed to record it.", "Only known from Iwo Jima and Torishima.===Psittaciformes===Parrots Sangir red-and-blue lory, ''Eos histrio histrio'' (Sangir Archipelago, Indonesia, 1990s?", "):The nominate subspecies of the red-and-blue lory was hybridised out of existence through crossbreeding with escaped captive individuals of its other still-existing subspecies, Challenger's red-and-blue lory (''E.", "h. challengeri''), with the last certainly distinct individuals disappearing in the 1990s or even much earlier than that.", " Réunion parakeet, ''Psittacula eques eques'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, mid-18th century):Known only from a painting and descriptions; the nominate subspecies of the echo parakeet, with the other one being the still-existing Mauritius parakeet (''P.", "e.", "echo'').", " Siquijor hanging parrot, ''Loriculus philippensis siquijorensis'' (Siquijor, Philippines, 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the Philippine hanging parrot or colasisi; it is either very rare or already extinct.", " Puerto Rican parakeet, ''Psittacara chloroptera maugei'' (Mona Island and possibly Puerto Rico, West Indies, 1890s):A weakly differentiated subspecies of the Hispaniolan parakeet.", " Sinú brown-throated parakeet, ''Eupsittula pertinax griseipecta'' (Colombia, mid- or late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the brown-throated parakeet known from only two specimens collected in 1949 which are of unclear taxonomic and conservation status.", " Culebra amazon, ''Amazona vittata gracilipes'' (Culebra, West Indies, early 20th century):A weakly differentiated subspecies of the Puerto Rican amazon, which is itself highly endangered.===Passeriformes===Perching birds'''Pittidae'''pittas Bougainville black-faced pitta, ''Pitta anerythra pallida'' (Bougainville, Solomon Islands, mid-20th century?", "):A subspecies of the black-faced pitta.", "Once common on Bougainville; not recorded since 1938, but it is likely to have been overlooked.", " Choiseul black-faced pitta, ''Pitta anerythra nigrifrons'' (Choiseul, Solomon Islands, late 20th century?", "):Another subspecies of the black-faced pitta.", "Not found during recent searches; doubtful records from nearby islands, but it is also likely to have been overlooked.", "'''Tyrannidae'''tyrant flycatchers Bogotá bearded tachuri, ''Polystictus pectoralis bogotensis'' (central Colombia, 20th century):A subspecies of the bearded tachuri or possibly a distinct species that has not been recorded for some time and is now extinct.", " Grenadan Euler's flycatcher, ''Lathrotriccus euleri flaviventris'' (Grenada, West Indies, 1950s?", "):A subspecies of Euler's flycatcher formerly known as ''Empidonax euleri johnstoni''.", "It has not been recorded since the 1950s.", "'''Furnariidae'''ovenbirds Peruvian scale-throated earthcreeper, ''Upucerthia dumetaria peruana'' (Peru, 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the scale-throated earthcreeper; it is known only from two specimens taken in the early 1950s at Puno, Peru and has not been seen or found since.", "It may still exist, as there is no obvious reason why it should have become extinct.", " Northern stripe-crowned spinetail, ''Cranioleuca pyrrhophia rufipennis'' (northern Bolivia, 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the stripe-crowned spinetail known only from a few specimens and not recorded since the 1950s; it may be endangered or possibly extinct.", "'''Formicariidae'''antpittas and antthrushes Northern giant antpitta, ''Grallaria gigantea lehmanni'' (Colombia, 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the giant antpitta (or possibly of the great antpitta, in which case it would be ''G.", "excelsa lehmanni'') apparently not recorded since the 1940s.", "It may still exist in Puracé National Natural Park, where there is plentiful habitat remaining.", " Antioquia brown-banded antpitta, ''Grallaria milleri gilesi'' (Antioquia, Colombia, 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the brown-banded antpitta recently described from a specimen collected in 1878.It has not been recorded since, despite surveys at a number of likely locations.", "'''Maluridae'''Australasian \"wrens\" MacDonnell Ranges thick-billed grasswren, ''Amytornis modestus modestus'' (Northern Territory, Australia, 1936):The nominate subspecies of the thick-billed grasswren.", "The last record was a clutch of eggs taken in 1936.", " Namoi thick-billed grasswren, ''Amytornis modestus inexpectatus'' (New South Wales, Australia, 1886):Another subspecies of the thick-billed grasswren last recorded in 1886.", " Large-tailed grasswren, ''Amytornis textilis macrourus'' (Western Australia, 1910):A subspecies of the western grasswren last collected in 1910 and extinct since then.", "'''Pardalotidae'''pardalotes, scrubwrens, thornbills and gerygones Western rufous bristlebird, ''Dasyornis broadbenti littoralis'' (Australia, mid-20th century):A subspecies of the rufous bristlebird not recorded since 1940 despite a number of surveys since then, beginning in the 1970s.", " King Island brown thornbill, ''Acanthiza pusilla archibaldi'' (King Island, Australia, likely extant):A subspecies of the brown thornbill which has only been recorded about 10 times since its discovery and is considered extinct by some authorities.", "The latest record comes from 2002, suggesting a population is likely to still exist, but it is very rare.", "'''Petroicidae'''Australasian \"robins\" Tiwi Island hooded robin, ''Melanodryas cucullata melvillensis'' (Tiwi Islands, Australia, 1992):A subspecies of the hooded robin last observed in 1992 and not found in exhaustive searches later in the 1990s.", "'''Cinclosomatidae'''whipbirds and allies Mount Lofty spotted quail-thrush, ''Cinclosoma punctatum anachoreta'' (Australia, mid-1980s?", "):A subspecies of the spotted quail-thrush last recorded in 1983 and not found in a survey the following year.", "'''Artamidae'''woodswallows, currawongs and allies Western pied currawong, ''Strepera graculina ashbyi'' (Victoria, Australia, 1927):This subspecies of the pied currawong has been hybridised out of existence by crossbreeding with other subspecies, which probably came into contact with it following habitat destruction in the 1830s.", "The last certainly distinct individuals were recorded in 1927.", "'''Monarchidae'''monarch flycatchers Negros celestial monarch, ''Hypothymis coelestis rabori'' (Negros and possibly Sibuyan, Philippines, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the celestial monarch; not uncommon on Negros in 1959, but not recorded since then.", "A single Sibuyan specimen from an unspecified locality taken in the 19th century is the only record for this island.", " Hiva Oa monarch, ''Pomarea mendozae mendozae'' (Hiva Oa and Tahuata, Marquesas, late 20th century):The nominate subspecies of the Marquesas monarch which was very rare by 1974 and not found during multiple surveys in the 1990s.", "'''Rhipiduridae'''fantails Lord Howe fantail, ''Rhipidura fuliginosa cervina'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, c. 1924):A subspecies of the New Zealand fantail that was considered virtually extinct in 1924 and not found by surveys four years later.", " Guam rufous fantail, ''Rhipidura rufifrons uraniae'' (Guam and Marianas, West Pacific, 1984):A subspecies of the rufous fantail; a conspicuous bird which has not been recorded since 1984.", "'''Campephagidae'''cuckooshrikes and trillers Cebu bar-bellied cuckooshrike, ''Coracina striata cebuensis'' (Cebu, Philippines, early 20th century):A subspecies of the bar-bellied cuckooshrike not recorded since its collection in 1906.", " Maros cicadabird, ''Edolisoma tenuirostre edithae'' (Sulawesi, mid-20th century):A subspecies of the common cicadabird known from a single specimen collected in 1931; quite possibly just a vagrant individual.", " Cebu blackish cuckooshrike, ''Edolisoma coerulescens altera'' (Cebu, Philippines, 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the blackish cuckooshrike; it may still exist, as this bird is rather unmistakable, and a 1999 record is therefore likely to be valid, though surveys since then have failed to record it.", " Marinduque blackish cuckooshrike, ''Edolisoma coerulescens deschauenseei'' (Marinduque, Philippines, late 20th century?", "):Another subspecies of the blackish cuckooshrike; described from specimens collected in 1971, but apparently not seen since then.", "As few ornithologists have visited Marinduque and forest remains on the island, it is likely that it may still exist.", " Norfolk long-tailed triller, ''Lalage leucopyga leucopyga'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, 1942):The nominate subspecies of the long-tailed triller or possibly a distinct species.", "'''Oriolidae'''Old World orioles and allies Cebu dark-throated oriole, ''Oriolus xanthonotus assimilis'' (Cebu, Philippines, 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the dark-throated oriole not confirmed since 1906, though there were unconfirmed reports c. 2001, suggesting a possibility that it may still exist.", "'''Corvidae'''crows, ravens, jays and magpies Pied raven, ''Corvus corax varius'' morpha ''leucophaeus'' (Faroe Islands, North Atlantic, 1902):A distinct local white-with-black-markings and light brown-billed color morph of the North Atlantic raven, a subspecies of the common raven, found only on the Faroe Islands and not seen since 1902.Birds currently living on the Faroe Islands and on Iceland (the only other area in this subspecies' range) are all-black and black-billed; this still-existing color morph is named ''Corvus corax varius'' morpha ''typicus''.", "'''Regulidae'''kinglets Guadalupe ruby-crowned kinglet, ''Corthylio calendula obscurus'' (Guadalupe Island, East Pacific, 20th century):A subspecies of the ruby-crowned kinglet that has not been recorded since 1953.", "'''Hirundinidae'''swallows and martins Jamaican golden swallow, ''Tachycineta euchrysea euchrysea'' (Jamaica, West Indies, c. 1990?", "):The nominate subspecies of the golden swallow; endemic to Jamaica.", "The last major roost site was destroyed in 1987 and the last confirmed sighting was in 1989.It may still exist in the Cockpit Country.", "'''Phylloscopidae'''phylloscopid warblers or leaf warblers Eastern Canary Islands chiffchaff, ''Phylloscopus canariensis exsul'' (Lanzarote and possibly Fuerteventura, Canary Islands, 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the Canary Islands chiffchaff; it was probably extinct by 1986.", "'''Cettiidae'''cettiid warblers or typical bush warblers Babar stubtail, ''Urosphena subulata advena'' (Babar, Indonesia, extant):A subspecies of the Timor stubtail that has been considered extinct, but was recorded as common on Babar in 2009 and 2011.", " Western Turner's eremomela, ''Eremomela turneri kalindei'' (Congo Basin, Africa, late 20th century?", "):The West African subspecies of Turner's eremomela has not been recorded since the end of the 1970s, but there is unsurveyed habitat in its range where it is likely that it may still exist.", "Its placement in Cettiidae requires confirmation.", "'''Acrocephalidae'''acrocephalid warblers or marsh warblers, tree warblers and reed warblers Marshall Islands reed warbler, ''Acrocephalus rehsei'' ssp.?", "(Marshall Islands, Micronesia, c. 1880?", "):Oral tradition and some early reports mention a bird called the ''annañ'' which inhabited some of the Marshall Islands.", "The best match is the Nauru reed warbler; the ''annañ'' might have been an undescribed subspecies of that species or a distinct but related species of reed warbler.", " Laysan millerbird, ''Acrocephalus familiaris familiaris'' (Laysan, Hawaiian Islands, late 1910s):The nominate subspecies of the millerbird.", "'''Pycnonotidae'''bulbuls Sumatran blue-wattled bulbul, ''Pycnonotus nieuwenhuisii inexspectatus'' (Sumatra, Indonesia, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the blue-wattled bulbul known only from a single specimen taken in 1937; however, this entire \"species\" may be a hybrid.", "'''Cisticolidae'''cisticolas and allies Northern white-winged apalis, ''Apalis chariessa chariessa'' (Kenya, Africa, late 20th century?", "):The nominate subspecies of the white-winged apalis remains known only from the Tana River, a centre of endemism.", "It was last recorded in 1961.", "'''Sylviidae'''sylviid (\"true\") warblers and parrotbills Vanua Levu long-legged thicketbird, ''Cincloramphus rufus clunei'' (Vanua Levu, Fiji, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the long-legged thicketbird; it was found only once, but there was an unconfirmed sighting in 1990, suggesting that it may still exist.", "Its placement in Sylviidae is doubtful.", " Fayyum warbler, ''Curruca melanocephala'' / ''momus norissae'' (Egypt, Africa, 1939):A doubtfully distinct subspecies of the Sardinian warbler.", "It has not been recorded since 1939.'''Zosteropidae'''white-eyes.", "Probably belong in Timaliidae.", " Guam bridled white-eye, ''Zosterops conspicillatus conspicillatus'' (Guam and Marianas, West Pacific, 1983):The nominate subspecies of the bridled white-eye or possibly a monotypic species.", "It was last recorded in 1983.", " Mukojima white-eye, ''Apalopteron familiare familiare'' (Mukojima Group, Ogasawara Islands, 20th century?", "):The nominate subspecies of the Bonin white-eye (formerly known as the \"Bonin honeyeater\") not recorded since its last specimen was collected in 1930.", "'''Timaliidae'''Old World babblers Vanderbilt's babbler, ''Malacocincla sepiarium vanderbilti'' (Sumatra, Indonesia, late 20th century?", "):An enigmatic subspecies of Horsfield's babbler known from a single specimen.", "It has not been seen since the 1940s at the latest.", " Burmese Jerdon's babbler, ''Chrysomma altirostre altirostre'' (Myanmar, 20th century?", "):The nominate subspecies of Jerdon's babbler was last confirmed in 1941, but as there has been little fieldwork in its range and a possible sighting occurred in 1994, it is considered likely that it may still exist.", "'''\"African warblers\"''' Chapin's white-browed crombec, ''Sylvietta leucophrys chapini'' (Congo Basin, Africa, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the white-browed crombec or possibly a distinct species.", "Restricted to the Lendu Plateau, it is probably rare, though unsurveyed forest remains where it is likely that it may still exist.", "'''Sylvioidea ''incertae sedis''''' Lake Amik bearded reedling, ''Panurus biarmicus kosswigi'' (southern Turkey, extant):A subspecies of the bearded reedling which was once considered to be extinct due to the drainage of Lake Amik, but still exists in the area.", "'''Troglodytidae'''wrens San Benedicto rock wren, ''Salpinctes obsoletus exsul'' (San Benedicto, Revillagigedo Islands, 1952):A subspecies of the rock wren which became extinct c. 9:00 AM, August 1, 1952, when its island habitat was destroyed by a massive volcanic eruption.", " Guadalupe Bewick's wren, ''Thryomanes bewickii brevicauda'' (Guadalupe Island, East Pacific, late 1890s?", "):A subspecies of Bewick's wren.", "An extinction date of \"1903\" seems to be in error; the last unquestionable record dates from 1897 and a thorough search in 1901 failed to record it.", " San Clemente Bewick's wren, ''Thryomanes bewickii leucophrys'' (San Clemente Island, East Pacific, 1941):Another subspecies of Bewick's wren last recorded in 1941.", " Daito wren, ''Troglodytes troglodytes orii'' (Daito Islands, Northwest Pacific, c. 1940):A disputed subspecies of the Eurasian wren; it is known from a single specimen that may have been a vagrant individual and, therefore, it is possibly invalid.", " Guadeloupe house wren, ''Troglodytes aedon guadeloupensis'' (Guadeloupe, West Indies, late 20th century?", "):Found in 1914, 1969 and the 1970s; now very rare or already extinct.", "Its taxonomy is unresolved.", "A part of the house wren complex; other scientific names for it include ''T.", "musculus guadeloupensis'' and ''T.", "guadeloupensis''.", " Martinique house wren, ''Troglodytes aedon martinicensis'' (Martinique, West Indies, c. 1890):Last found in 1886.Its taxonomy is also unresolved.", "Another part of the house wren complex; other scientific names for it include ''T.", "musculus martinicensis'' and ''T.", "martinicensis''.", "'''Paridae'''tits, chickadees and titmice Daito varied tit, ''Sittiparus varius orii'' (Daito Islands, Northwest Pacific, 1938):A subspecies of the varied tit last recorded in 1938 and not found in subsequent surveys in 1984 and 1986.", " Zagros coal tit, ''Periparus ater phaeonotus'' (Zagros Mountains, southwestern Iran, 1870):A subspecies of the coal tit only known by the type specimen from 1870.", "'''Cinclidae'''dippers Cyprus white-throated dipper, ''Cinclus cinclus olympicus'' (Cyprus, northeastern Mediterranean, 1945):A formerly recognised subspecies of the white-throated dipper that is now considered invalid.", "It became extinct in 1945.", "'''Muscicapidae'''Old World flycatchers and chats Tonkean jungle flycatcher, ''Cyornis colonus subsolanus'' (Sulawesi, Indonesia, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the Sula jungle flycatcher that is known from a single specimen.", "It may be invalid.", " Chinijo stonechat, ''Saxicola dacotiae murielae'' (Chinijo Archipelago, Canary Islands, early 20th century):A subspecies of the Canary Islands stonechat.", "'''Turdidae'''thrushes and allies Norfolk thrush, ''Turdus poliocephalus poliocephalus'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, c. 1975):The nominate subspecies of the island thrush last seen in 1975.", " Maré thrush, ''Turdus poliocephalus mareensis'' (Maré, Melanesia, early 20th century):Another subspecies of the island thrush last collected in 1911 or 1912 and not found anymore in 1939.", " Lord Howe thrush, ''Turdus poliocephalus vinitinctus'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, early 20th century):Yet another subspecies of the island thrush last recorded in 1913 and extinct by 1928.", " Lifou thrush, ''Turdus poliocephalus pritzbueri'' (Lifou, Melanesia, extant):Yet another subspecies of the island thrush.", "Birds surviving on Tanna, New Hebrides, are presently considered to be the same subspecies; however, given the fact that this species readily differentiates into subspecies and that the distance between Tanna and Lifou is considerable, the Tanna birds may belong to a different subspecies, in which case the Lifou thrush would be considered extinct.", " Saint Lucia forest thrush, ''Turdus lherminieri sanctaeluciae'' (St. Lucia, West Indies, extant):A subspecies of the forest thrush.", "It has been thought to be extinct, but it was recorded at Des Chassin in 2007.", " Peleng red-and-black thrush, ''Geohichia mendeni mendeni'' (Peleng, Indonesia, mid-20th century?", "):The nominate subspecies of the red-and-black thrush; little is known about it.", " Kibale black-eared ground thrush, ''Geohichia camaronensis kibalensis'' (southwestern Uganda, Africa, late 20th century?", "):A subspecies of the black-eared ground thrush or possibly a distinct species; known only from two specimens, both from 1966.It is likely that it still exists in suitable habitat, but it could already be extinct.", " Choiseul russet-tailed thrush, ''Zoothera heinei choiseuli'' (Choiseul, Solomon Islands, mid-20th century?", "):A subspecies of the russet-tailed thrush known from a single specimen found in 1924.It could have been wiped out by introduced feral cats, but the island is poorly known and so it should not be presumed extinct yet.", "Isle of Pines solitaire, ''Myadestes elisabeth retrusus'' (Isla de la Juventud, West Indies, 20th century):A subspecies of the Cuban solitaire.", "The last confirmed records were in the 1930s, with unconfirmed reports in the early 1970s.", "'''Mimidae'''mockingbirds and thrashers Barbados scaly-breasted thrasher, ''Allenia fusca atlantica'' (Barbados, West Indies, 1987?", "):A subspecies of the scaly-breasted thrasher last recorded in 1987.Most of its range has been searched since then, with no records known.", "'''Estrildidae'''estrildid finches (waxbills, munias, etc.", ") Southern star finch, ''Bathilda ruficauda ruficauda'' (Australia, 1995):The nominate subspecies of the star finch last recorded in 1995 and not found during later searches in the 1990s.", "It is not known to survive in captivity.", "'''Fringillidae'''true finches and Hawaiian honeycreepers San Benito house finch, ''Haemorhous mexicanus mcgregori'' (San Benito, East Pacific, c. 1940s):A subspecies of the house finch.", " Lanai alauahio, ''Paroreomyza montana montana'' (Lanai, Hawaiian Islands, 1937):The nominate subspecies of the Maui alauahio (or, more properly, the Maui Nui alauahio), it was last recorded in 1937 and was certainly extinct by 1960.", "'''Icteridae'''New World blackbirds and allies Grand Cayman oriole, ''Icterus leucopteryx bairdi'' (Grand Cayman, West Indies, late 20th century):A subspecies of the Jamaican oriole last recorded in 1967.", "'''Parulidae'''New World warblers New Providence yellowthroat, ''Geothlypis rostrata rostrata'' (New Providence, Bahamas, West Indies, 1990?", "):The nominate subspecies of the Bahama yellowthroat; it is either extinct or almost extinct.", "'''Thraupidae'''tanagers Gonâve western chat-tanager, ''Calyptophilus tertius abbotti'' (Gonâve, West Indies, c. 1980?", "):A subspecies of the western chat-tanager last recorded in 1977 and probably extinct.", " Samaná eastern chat-tanager, ''Calyptophilus frugivorus frugivorus'' (eastern Hispaniola, West Indies, late 20th century):The nominate subspecies of the eastern chat-tanager; the last (unconfirmed?)", "record was in 1982 and concerted efforts to record it ever since have failed.", " Darwin's large ground finch, ''Geospiza magnirostris magnirostris'' (Floreana Island?, Galápagos Islands, 1957?", "):The (possibly invalid) nominate subspecies of the large ground finch collected by Charles Darwin in 1835; he gave no precise location for it.", "A similar bird was found in 1957, but no others have been seen since then.", " Saint Kitts bullfinch, ''Melopyrrha portoricensis grandis'' (St. Kitts and (prehistorically) Barbuda, West Indies, 1930):A subspecies of the Puerto Rican bullfinch.Dusky seaside sparrow'''Emberizoidea'''buntings and New World sparrows Todos Santos rufous-crowned sparrow, ''Aimophila ruficeps sanctorum'' (Islas Todos Santos, East Pacific, 1970s?", "):A subspecies of the rufous-crowned sparrow once common but not recorded during surveys in the 1970s or since then.", " Santa Barbara song sparrow, ''Melospiza melodia graminea'' (Santa Barbara Island, North America, late 1960s) :A subspecies of the song sparrow last seen in 1967; it became extinct due to a severe wildfire in 1959 and subsequent predation by feral cats.", "Officially declared extinct by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service in 1983.", " Dusky seaside sparrow, ''Ammospiza maritima nigrescens'' (Florida, North America, late 1980s):A subspecies of the seaside sparrow last recorded in the wild in 1987.", " Guadalupe spotted towhee, ''Pipilo maculatus consobrinus'' (Guadalupe Island, East Pacific, c. 1900):A subspecies of the spotted towhee." ], [ "See also", " Bird extinction* Dinosaur* Flightless bird* Holocene extinction* Lazarus taxon* List of bird extinctions by year* List of fossil bird genera* List of Late Quaternary prehistoric bird species* Lists of extinct species* Origin of birds" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* BirdLife International (BLI) (2008): Globally Threatened Forums Sharpe's Rail (''Gallirallus sharpei''): no longer recognised taxonomically.", "Version of November 24, 2008.Retrieved December 16, 2008.", "* Fuller, Errol (2000): ''Extinct Birds'' (2nd ed.).", "Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York.", "* Gutiérrez Expósito, Carlos; Copete, José Luis; Crochet, Pierre-André; Qninba, Abdeljebbar and Garrido, Héctor (2011): \"History, status and distribution of Andalusian Buttonquail in the WP\".", "''Dutch Birding'' '''33''' (#2): 75–93.", "* Spennemann, Dirk H.R.", "(2006): \"Extinctions and extirpations in Marshall Islands avifauna since European contacta review of historic evidence\".", "''Micronesica'' '''38''' (2): 253–266.", "* Szabo, Judit K.; Khwaja, Nyil; Garnett, Stephen T. and Butchart, Stuart H.M. (2012): \"Global patterns and drivers of avian extinctions at the species and subspecies level\".", "''PLoS One'' '''7''' (#10): e47080." ], [ "External links", "* The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species* The BirdLife Extinct Birds species list * The BirdLife Data Zone containing factsheets for all Birds species * Extinct Birds Stock Photography * Extinct Birds from John James Audubon's Birds of America* New Zealand Extinct Birds List* The Extinction Website* NaturalisExtinct Birds : 3D images of extinct bird species in the collection of the National Museum of Natural History (Leiden, Netherlands).", "* 13 newly-discovered birds declared extinct, August 2014" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eli Whitney" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eli Whitney Jr.''' (December 8, 1765January 8, 1825) was an American inventor, widely known for inventing the cotton gin in 1793, one of the key inventions of the Industrial Revolution that shaped the economy of the Antebellum South.Whitney's invention made upland short cotton into a profitable crop, which strengthened the economic foundation of slavery in the United States and prolonged the institution.", "Despite the social and economic impact of his invention, Whitney lost much of his profits in legal battles over patent infringement for the cotton gin.", "Thereafter, he turned his attention to securing contracts with the government in the manufacture of muskets for the newly formed United States Army.", "He continued making arms and inventing until his death in 1825." ], [ "Early life and education", "Coat of Arms of Eli WhitneyWhitney was born in Westborough, Massachusetts, on December 8, 1765, the eldest child of Eli Whitney Sr., a prosperous farmer, and his wife Elizabeth Fay, also of Westborough.The younger Eli was famous during his lifetime and after his death by the name \"Eli Whitney\", though he was technically Eli Whitney Jr. His son, born in 1820, also named Eli, was known during his lifetime and afterward by the name \"Eli Whitney Jr.\"Whitney's mother, Elizabeth Fay, died in 1777, when he was 11.At age 14 he operated a profitable nail manufacturing operation in his father's workshop during the Revolutionary War.Because his stepmother opposed his wish to attend college, Whitney worked as a farm laborer and school teacher to save money.", "He prepared for Yale at Leicester Academy (now Becker College) and under the tutelage of Rev.", "Elizur Goodrich of Durham, Connecticut, he entered in the fall of 1789 and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1792.Whitney expected to study law but, finding himself short of funds, accepted an offer to go to South Carolina as a private tutor.Petition by Whitney to the selectmen of Westborough, Massachusetts, to run a public school, with sample of his penmanshipInstead of reaching his destination, he was convinced to visit Georgia.", "In the closing years of the 18th century, Georgia was a magnet for New Englanders seeking their fortunes (its Revolutionary-era governor had been Lyman Hall, a migrant from Connecticut).", "When he initially sailed for South Carolina, among his shipmates were the widow (Catherine Littlefield Greene) and family of the Revolutionary hero Gen. Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island.", "Mrs. Greene invited Whitney to visit her Georgia plantation, Mulberry Grove.", "Her plantation manager and husband-to-be was Phineas Miller, another Connecticut migrant and Yale graduate (class of 1785), who would become Whitney's business partner." ], [ "Career", "Whitney is most famous for two innovations which came to have significant impacts on the United States in the mid-19th century: the cotton gin (1793) and his advocacy of interchangeable parts.", "In the South, the cotton gin revolutionized the way cotton was harvested and reinvigorated slavery.", "Conversely, in the North the adoption of interchangeable parts revolutionized the manufacturing industry, contributing greatly to the U.S. victory in the Civil War.===Cotton gin===\"First cotton gin\" from Harpers Weekly.", "1869 illustration depicting event of some 70 years earlier.Cotton Gin Patent.", "It shows sawtooth gin blades, which were not part of Whitney's original patent.A cotton gin on display at the Eli Whitney Museum.The cotton gin is a mechanical device that removes the seeds from cotton, a process that had previously been extremely labor-intensive.", "The word ''gin'' is short for ''engine.''", "While staying at Mulberry Grove, Whitney constructed several ingenious household devices which led Mrs Greene to introduce him to some businessmen who were discussing the desirability of a machine toseparate the short staple upland cotton from its seeds, work that was then done by hand at the rate of a pound of lint a day.", "In a few weeks Whitney produced a model.", "The cotton gin was a wooden drum stuck with hooks that pulled the cotton fibers through a mesh.", "The cotton seeds would not fit through the mesh and fell outside.", "Whitney occasionally told a story wherein he was pondering an improved method of seeding the cotton when he was inspired by observing a cat attempting to pull a chicken through a fence, and able to only pull through some of the feathers.A single cotton gin could generate up to of cleaned cotton daily.", "This contributed to the economic development of the Southern United States, a prime cotton growing area; some historians believe that this invention allowed for the African slavery system in the Southern United States to become more sustainable at a critical point in its development.Whitney applied for the patent for his cotton gin on October 28, 1793, and received the patent (later numbered as X72) on March 14, 1794, but it was not validated until 1807.Whitney and his partner, Miller, did not intend to sell the gins.", "Rather, like the proprietors of grist and sawmills, they expected to charge farmers for cleaning their cotton – two-fifths of the value, paid in cotton.", "Resentment at this scheme, the mechanical simplicity of the device and the primitive state of patent law, made infringement inevitable.", "Whitney and Miller could not build enough gins to meet demand, so gins from other makers found ready sale.", "Ultimately, patent infringement lawsuits consumed the profits (one patent, later annulled, was granted in 1796 to Hogden Holmes for a gin which substituted circular saws for the spikes) and their cotton gin company went out of business in 1797.One oft-overlooked point is that there were drawbacks to Whitney's first design.", "There is significant evidence that the design flaws were solved by his sponsor, Mrs. Greene, but Whitney gave her no public credit or recognition.After validation of the patent, the legislature of South Carolina voted $50,000 for the rights for that state, while North Carolina levied a license tax for five years, from which about $30,000 was realized.", "There is a claim that Tennessee paid, perhaps, $10,000.While the cotton gin did not earn Whitney the fortune he had hoped for, it did give him fame.", "It has been argued by some historians that Whitney's cotton gin was an important if unintended cause of the American Civil War.", "After Whitney's invention, the plantation slavery industry was rejuvenated, eventually culminating in the Civil War.The cotton gin transformed Southern agriculture and the national economy.", "Southern cotton found ready markets in Europe and in the burgeoning textile mills of New England.", "Cotton exports from the U.S. boomed after the cotton gin's appearance – from less than in 1793 to by 1810.Cotton was a staple that could be stored for long periods and shipped long distances, unlike most agricultural products.", "It became the U.S.'s chief export, representing over half the value of U.S. exports from 1820 to 1860.Whitney believed that his cotton gin would reduce the demand for enslaved labor and would help hasten the end of southern slavery.", "Paradoxically, the cotton gin, a labor-saving device, helped preserve and prolong slavery in the United States for another 70 years.", "Before the 1790s, slave labor was primarily employed in growing rice, tobacco, and indigo, none of which were especially profitable anymore.", "Neither was cotton, due to the difficulty of seed removal.", "But with the invention of the gin, growing cotton with slave labor became highly profitable – the chief source of wealth in the American South, and the basis of frontier settlement from Georgia to Texas.", "\"King Cotton\" became a dominant economic force, and slavery was sustained as a key institution of Southern society.===Interchangeable parts===First contract of Eli Whitney as a firearms manufacturer, 1798.Signed by Oliver Wolcott Jr., Secretary of the Treasury.Eli Whitney has often been incorrectly credited with inventing the idea of interchangeable parts, which he championed for years as a maker of muskets; however, the idea predated Whitney, and Whitney's role in it was one of promotion and popularizing, not invention.", "Successful implementation of the idea eluded Whitney until near the end of his life, occurring first in others' armories.Attempts at interchangeability of parts can be traced back as far as the Punic Wars through both archaeological remains of boats now in Museo Archeologico Baglio Anselmi and contemporary written accounts.", "In modern times the idea developed over decades among many people.", "An early leader was Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, an 18th-century French artillerist who created a fair amount of standardization of artillery pieces, although not true interchangeability of parts.", "He inspired others, including Honoré Blanc and Louis de Tousard, to work further on the idea, and on shoulder weapons as well as artillery.", "In the 19th century these efforts produced the \"armory system,\" or American system of manufacturing.", "Certain other New Englanders, including Captain John H. Hall and Simeon North, arrived at successful interchangeability before Whitney's armory did.", "The Whitney armory finally succeeded not long after his death in 1825.The motives behind Whitney's acceptance of a contract to manufacture muskets in 1798 were mostly monetary.", "By the late 1790s, Whitney was on the verge of bankruptcy and the cotton gin litigation had left him deeply in debt.", "His New Haven cotton gin factory had burned to the ground, and litigation sapped his remaining resources.", "The French Revolution had ignited new conflicts between Great Britain, France, and the United States.", "The new American government, realizing the need to prepare for war, began to rearm.", "The War Department issued contracts for the manufacture of 10,000 muskets.", "Whitney, who had never made a gun in his life, obtained a contract in January 1798 to deliver 10,000 to 15,000 muskets in 1800.He had not mentioned interchangeable parts at that time.", "Ten months later, the Treasury Secretary, Oliver Wolcott Jr., sent him a \"foreign pamphlet on arms manufacturing techniques,\" possibly one of Honoré Blanc's reports, after which Whitney first began to talk about interchangeability.Whitney's gun factory in 1827In May 1798, Congress voted for legislation that would use 800,000 dollars in order to pay for small arms and cannons in case war with France erupted.", "It offered a 5,000 dollar incentive with an additional 5,000 dollars once that money was exhausted for the person that was able to accurately produce arms for the government.", "Because the cotton gin had not brought Whitney the rewards he believed it promised, he accepted the offer.", "Although the contract was for one year, Whitney did not deliver the arms until 1809, using multiple excuses for the delay.", "Recently, historians have found that during 1801–1806, Whitney took the money and headed into South Carolina in order to profit from the cotton gin.Although Whitney's demonstration of 1801 appeared to show the feasibility of creating interchangeable parts, Merritt Roe Smith concludes that it was \"staged\" and \"duped government authorities\" into believing that he had been successful.", "The charade gained him time and resources toward achieving that goal.When the government complained that Whitney's price per musket compared unfavorably with those produced in government armories, he was able to calculate an actual price per musket by including fixed costs such as insurance and machinery, which the government had not accounted for.", "He thus made early contributions to both the concepts of cost accounting, and economic efficiency in manufacturing.===Milling machine===Machine tool historian Joseph W. Roe credited Whitney with inventing the first milling machine circa 1818.Subsequent work by other historians (Woodbury; Smith; Muir; Battison cited by Baida) suggests that Whitney was among a group of contemporaries all developing milling machines at about the same time (1814 to 1818), and that the others were more important to the innovation than Whitney was.", "(The machine that excited Roe may not have been built until 1825, after Whitney's death.)", "Therefore, no one person can properly be described as the inventor of the milling machine." ], [ "Later life and legacy", "Issue of 1940, 1cSouth side of Eli Whitney monument in the Grove Street Cemetery, New Haven, ConnecticutDespite his humble origins, Whitney was keenly aware of the value of social and political connections.", "In building his arms business, he took full advantage of the access that his status as a Yale alumnus gave him to other well-placed graduates, such as Oliver Wolcott Jr., Secretary of the Treasury (class of 1778), and James Hillhouse, a New Haven developer and political leader.His 1817 marriage to Henrietta Edwards, granddaughter of the famed evangelist Jonathan Edwards, daughter of Pierpont Edwards, head of the Democratic Party in Connecticut, and first cousin of Yale's president, Timothy Dwight, the state's leading Federalist, further tied him to Connecticut's ruling elite.", "In a business dependent on government contracts, such connections were essential to success.Whitney died of prostate cancer on January 8, 1825, in New Haven, Connecticut, just a month after his 59th birthday.", "He left a widow and his four children behind.", "One of his offspring, Eli Whitney III (known as Eli Whitney Jr.), was instrumental in building New Haven, Connecticut's waterworks.", "During the course of his illness, he reportedly invented and constructed several devices to mechanically ease his pain.The Eli Whitney Students Program, Yale University's admissions program for non-traditional students, is named in honor of Whitney, who not only began his studies there when he was 23, but also went on to graduate Phi Beta Kappa in just three years." ], [ "See also", "Whitney familyConnecticut Academy of Arts and SciencesEli Whitney Museum" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Battison, Edwin.", "(1960).", "\"Eli Whitney and the Milling Machine.\"", "Smithsonian Journal of History I.", "Cooper, Carolyn, & Lindsay, Merrill K. (1980).", "Eli Whitney and the Whitney Armory.", "Whitneyville, CT: Eli Whitney Museum.", "Dexter, Franklin B.", "(1911).", "\"Eli Whitney.\"", "Yale Biographies and Annals, 1792–1805.New York, NY: Henry Holt & Company.", "Hall, Karyl Lee Kibler, & Cooper, Carolyn.", "(1984).", "Windows on the Works: Industry on the Eli Whitney Site, 1798–1979.", "Hamden, CT: Eli Whitney MuseumLakwete, Angela.", "(2004).", "Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America.", "Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.", "Smith, Merritt Roe.", "1973.", "\"John H. Hall, Simeon North, and the Milling Machine: The Nature of Innovation among Antebellum Arms Makers.\"", "Technology & Culture 14.", "Woodbury, Robert S. (1960).", "\"The Legend of Eli Whitney and Interchangeable Parts.\"", "Technology & Culture 1.McL.", "Green, Constance – Edited by Oscar Handlin.", "(1956).", "Eli Whitney & The Birth of American Technology.", "Library of American Biography series.", "" ], [ "External links", "* The Eli Whitney Museum* Eli Whitney Biography on at Whitney Research Group* Inventor of the Week: Eli Whitney (MIT)* Entry in New Georgia Encyclopedia * Photograph of house in which the Cotton Gin was invented, Wilkes County, Georgia, ca.", "1910** Letter from Eli Whitney to his Father regarding his invention of the cotton gin, September 11, 1793* Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Eli Whitney Jr. regarding his cotton gin patent, November 16, 1793* Obituary for Eli Whitney, in Niles Weekly Register, January 25, 1825*Eli Whitney papers (MS 554).", "Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "The American Prisoner" ], [ "Introduction", "Macmillan)'''''The American Prisoner''''' is a British novel written by Eden Phillpotts and published in 1904 and adapted into a film by the same name in 1929.The story concerns an English woman who lives at Fox Tor farm, and an American captured during the American War of Independence and held at the prison at Princetown on Dartmoor.In the novel ''Malherb'' is a miscreant who destroys Childe's tomb and beats his servant.", "He is depicted as a victim of his own bad temper rather than a sadist.Malherb is introduced as the younger son of a noble family and he builds the Fox Tor house to be the impressive gentleman's residence suggested by William Crossing rather than the humble cottage which it actually is." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Electromagnetic field" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''electromagnetic field''' (also '''EM field''' or '''EMF''') is a mathematical representation of the influences on and due to electric charges.", "The field at any point in space and time can be regarded as a combination of an electric field and a magnetic field.", "The way in which charges and currents (i.e.", "streams of charges) interact with the electromagnetic field is described by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law.", "Maxwell's equations detail how the electric field converges towards or diverges away from electric charges, how the magnetic field curls around electrical currents, and how changes in the electric and magnetic fields influence each other.", "The Lorentz force law states that a charge subject to an electric field feels a force along the direction of the field, and a charge moving through a magnetic field feels a force that is perpendicular both to the magnetic field and to its direction of motion.", "Because of the interrelationship between the fields, a disturbance in the electric field can create a disturbance in the magnetic field which in turn affects the electric field, leading to an oscillation that propagates through space, known as an electromagnetic wave.The electromagnetic field is described by classical electrodynamics, an example of a classical field theory.", "This theory describes many macroscopic physical phenomena accurately.", "However, it was unable to explain the photoelectric effect and atomic absorption spectroscopy, experiments at the atomic scale.", "That required the use of quantum mechanics, specifically the quantization of the electromagnetic field and the development of quantum electrodynamics.This article gives an overview of the classical electromagnetic field and introduces many related articles with more details." ], [ "History", "Results of Michael Faraday's iron filings experiment.", "Wellcome M0000164The empirical investigation of electromagnetism is at least as old as the ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician and scientist Thales of Miletus, who around 600 BCE described his experiments rubbing fur of animals on various materials such as amber creating static electricity.", "By the 18th century, it was understood that objects can carry positive or negative electric charge, that two objects carrying charge of the same sign repel each other, that two objects carrying charges of opposite sign attract one another, and that the strength of this force falls off as the square of the distance between them.", "Michael Faraday visualized this in terms of the charges interacting via the electric field.", "An electric field is produced when the charge is stationary with respect to an observer measuring the properties of the charge, and a magnetic field as well as an electric field are produced when the charge moves, creating an electric current with respect to this observer.", "Over time, it was realized that the electric and magnetic fields are better thought of as two parts of a greater whole—the electromagnetic field.", "In 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted showed that an electric current can deflect a nearby compass needle, establishing that electricity and magnetism are closely related phenomena.", "Faraday then made the seminal observation that time-varying magnetic fields could induce electric currents in 1831.In 1861, James Clerk Maxwell synthesized all the work to date on electrical and magnetic phenomena into a single mathematical theory, from which he then deduced that light is an electromagnetic wave.", "Maxwell's continuous field theory was very successful until evidence supporting the atomic model of matter emerged.", "Beginning in 1877, Hendrik Lorentz developed an atomic model of electromagnetism and in 1897 J. J. Thomson completed experiments that defined the electron.", "The Lorentz theory works for free charges in electromagnetic fields, but fails to predict the energy spectrum for bound charges in atoms and molecules.", "For that problem, quantum mechanics is needed, ultimately leading to the theory of quantum electrodynamics.Practical applications of the new understanding of electromagnetic fields emerged in the late 1800s.", "The electrical generator and motor were invented using only the empirical findings like Faraday's and Ampere's laws combined with practical experience." ], [ "Mathematical description", "There are different mathematical ways of representing the electromagnetic field.", "The first one views the electric and magnetic fields as three-dimensional vector fields.", "These vector fields each have a value defined at every point of space and time and are thus often regarded as functions of the space and time coordinates.", "As such, they are often written as (electric field) and (magnetic field).If only the electric field () is non-zero, and is constant in time, the field is said to be an electrostatic field.", "Similarly, if only the magnetic field () is non-zero and is constant in time, the field is said to be a magnetostatic field.", "However, if either the electric or magnetic field has a time-dependence, then both fields must be considered together as a coupled electromagnetic field using Maxwell's equations.With the advent of special relativity, physical laws became amenable to the formalism of tensors.", "Maxwell's equations can be written in tensor form, generally viewed by physicists as a more elegant means of expressing physical laws.The behavior of electric and magnetic fields, whether in cases of electrostatics, magnetostatics, or electrodynamics (electromagnetic fields), is governed by Maxwell's equations.", "In the vector field formalism, these are:; Gauss's law : ; Gauss's law for magnetism : ; Faraday's law : ; Ampère–Maxwell law : where is the charge density, which is a function of time and position, is the vacuum permittivity, is the vacuum permeability, and is the current density vector, also a function of time and position.", "Inside a linear material, Maxwell's equations change by switching the permeability and permittivity of free space with the permeability and permittivity of the linear material in question.", "Inside other materials which possess more complex responses to electromagnetic fields, these terms are often represented by complex numbers, or tensors.The Lorentz force law governs the interaction of the electromagnetic field with charged matter.When a field travels across to different media, the behavior of the field changes according to the properties of the media." ], [ "Properties of the field", "=== Electrostatics and magnetostatics ===Electric field of a positive point electric charge suspended over an infinite sheet of conducting material.", "The field is depicted by electric field lines, lines which follow the direction of the electric field in space.The Maxwell equations simplify when the charge density at each point in space does not change over time and all electric currents likewise remain constant.", "All of the time derivatives vanish from the equations, leaving two expressions that involve the electric field,andalong with two formulae that involve the magnetic field:andThese expressions are the basic equations of electrostatics, which focuses on situations where electrical charges do not move, and magnetostatics, the corresponding area of magnetic phenomena.=== Transformations of electromagnetic fields ===Whether a physical effect is attributable to an electric field or to a magnetic field is dependent upon the observer, in a way that special relativity makes mathematically precise.", "For example, suppose that a laboratory contains a long straight wire that carries an electrical current.", "In the frame of reference where the laboratory is at rest, the wire is motionless and electrically neutral: the current, composed of negatively charged electrons, moves against a background of positively charged ions, and the densities of positive and negative charges cancel each other out.", "A test charge near the wire would feel no electrical force from the wire.", "However, if the test charge is in motion parallel to the current, the situation changes.", "In the rest frame of the test charge, the positive and negative charges in the wire are moving at different speeds, and so the positive and negative charge distributions are Lorentz-contracted by different amounts.", "Consequently, the wire has a nonzero net charge density, and the test charge must experience a nonzero electric field and thus a nonzero force.", "In the rest frame of the laboratory, there is no electric field to explain the test charge being pulled towards or pushed away from the wire.", "So, an observer in the laboratory rest frame concludes that a field must be present.In general, a situation that one observer describes using only an electric field will be described by an observer in a different inertial frame using a combination of electric and magnetic fields.", "Analogously, a phenomenon that one observer describes using only a magnetic field will be, in a relatively moving reference frame, described by a combination of fields.", "The rules for relating the fields required in different reference frames are the Lorentz transformations of the fields.Thus, electrostatics and magnetostatics are now seen as studies of the static EM field when a particular frame has been selected to suppress the other type of field, and since an EM field with both electric and magnetic will appear in any other frame, these \"simpler\" effects are merely a consequence of different frames of measurement.", "The fact that the two field variations can be reproduced just by changing the motion of the observer is further evidence that there is only a single actual field involved which is simply being observed differently.=== Reciprocal behavior of electric and magnetic fields ===The two Maxwell equations, Faraday's Law and the Ampère–Maxwell Law, illustrate a very practical feature of the electromagnetic field.", "Faraday's Law may be stated roughly as \"a changing magnetic field inside a loop creates an electric voltage around the loop\".", "This is the principle behind the electric generator.Ampere's Law roughly states that \"an electrical current around a loop creates a magnetic field through the loop\".", "Thus, this law can be applied to generate a magnetic field and run an electric motor.=== Behavior of the fields in the absence of charges or currents ===linearly polarized electromagnetic plane wave propagating parallel to the z-axis is a possible solution for the electromagnetic wave equations in free space.", "The electric field, , and the magnetic field, , are perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation.\|400x200pxMaxwell's equations can be combined to derive wave equations.", "The solutions of these equations take the form of an electromagnetic wave.", "In a volume of space not containing charges or currents (free space) – that is, where and are zero, the electric and magnetic fields satisfy these electromagnetic wave equations:: : James Clerk Maxwell was the first to obtain this relationship by his completion of Maxwell's equations with the addition of a displacement current term to Ampere's circuital law.", "This unified the physical understanding of electricity, magnetism, and light: visible light is but one portion of the full range of electromagnetic waves, the electromagnetic spectrum.=== Time-varying EM fields in Maxwell's equations ===An electromagnetic field very far from currents and charges (sources) is called electromagnetic radiation (EMR) since it radiates from the charges and currents in the source.", "Such radiation can occur across a wide range of frequencies called the electromagnetic spectrum, including radio waves, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays.", "The many commercial applications of these radiations are discussed in the named and linked articles.A notable application of visible light is that this type of energy from the Sun powers all life on Earth that either makes or uses oxygen.A changing electromagnetic field which is physically close to currents and charges (see near and far field for a definition of \"close\") will have a dipole characteristic that is dominated by either a changing electric dipole, or a changing magnetic dipole.", "This type of dipole field near sources is called an electromagnetic ''near-field''.Changing dipole fields, as such, are used commercially as near-fields mainly as a source of dielectric heating.", "Otherwise, they appear parasitically around conductors which absorb EMR, and around antennas which have the purpose of generating EMR at greater distances.Changing dipole fields (i.e., magnetic near-fields) are used commercially for many types of magnetic induction devices.", "These include motors and electrical transformers at low frequencies, and devices such as RFID tags, metal detectors, and MRI scanner coils at higher frequencies." ], [ "Health and safety", "The potential effects of electromagnetic fields on human health vary widely depending on the frequency, intensity of the fields, and the length of the exposure.", "Low frequency, low intensity, and short duration exposure to electromagnetic radiation is generally considered safe.", "On the other hand, radiation from other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as ultraviolet light and gamma rays, are known to cause significant harm in some circumstances." ], [ "See also", "* Classification of electromagnetic fields* Electric field* Electromagnetism* Electromagnetic propagation* Electromagnetic radiation* Electromagnetic spectrum* Electromagnetic field measurements* Magnetic field* Maxwell's equations* Photoelectric effect* Photon* Quantization of the electromagnetic field* Quantum electrodynamics" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * (This article accompanied a December 8, 1864 presentation by Maxwell to the Royal Society.", ")" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Empire State Building" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Empire State Building''' is a 102-story Art Deco skyscraper in Midtown Manhattan, New York City.", "The building was designed by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon and built from 1930 to 1931.Its name is derived from \"Empire State\", the nickname of the state of New York.", "The building has a roof height of and stands a total of tall, including its antenna.", "The Empire State Building was the world's tallest building until the first tower of the World Trade Center was topped out in 1970; following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building was New York City's tallest building until it was surpassed in 2012 by One World Trade Center.", ", the building is the seventh-tallest building in New York City, the ninth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States, and the 54th-tallest in the world.The site of the Empire State Building, in Midtown South on the west side of Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets, was developed in 1893 as the Waldorf–Astoria Hotel.", "In 1929, Empire State Inc. acquired the site and devised plans for a skyscraper there.", "The design for the Empire State Building was changed fifteen times until it was ensured to be the world's tallest building.", "Construction started on March 17, 1930, and the building opened months afterward on May 1, 1931.Despite favorable publicity related to the building's construction, because of the Great Depression and World War II, its owners did not make a profit until the early 1950s.The building's Art Deco architecture, height, and observation decks have made it a popular attraction.", "Around four million tourists from around the world annually visit the building's 86th- and 102nd-floor observatories; an additional indoor observatory on the 80th floor opened in 2019.The Empire State Building is an international cultural icon: it has been featured in more than 250 television series and films since the film ''King Kong'' was released in 1933.The building's size has become the global standard of reference to describe the height and length of other structures.", "A symbol of New York City, the building has been named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers.", "It was ranked first on the American Institute of Architects' List of America's Favorite Architecture in 2007.Additionally, the Empire State Building and its ground-floor interior were designated city landmarks by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1980, and were added to the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark in 1986." ], [ "Site", "The Empire State Building is located on the west side of Fifth Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, between 33rd Street to the south and 34th Street to the north.", "Tenants enter the building through the Art Deco lobby located at 350 Fifth Avenue.", "Visitors to the observatories use an entrance at 20 West 34th Street; prior to August 2018, visitors entered through the Fifth Avenue lobby.", "Although physically located in South Midtown, a mixed residential and commercial area, the building is so large that it was assigned its own ZIP Code, 10118; , it is one of 43 buildings in New York City that have their own ZIP codes.The areas surrounding the Empire State Building are home to other major points of interest, including Macy's at Herald Square on Sixth Avenue and 34th Street, and Koreatown on 32nd Street between Madison and Sixth avenues.", "To the east of the Empire State Building is Murray Hill, a neighborhood with a mix of residential, commercial, and entertainment activity.", "The block directly to the northeast contains the B. Altman and Company Building, which houses the City University of New York's Graduate Center, while the Demarest Building is directly across Fifth Avenue to the east.", "The nearest New York City Subway stations are 34th Street–Herald Square, one block west, and 33rd Street at Park Avenue, two blocks east; there is also a PATH station at 33rd Street and Sixth Avenue." ], [ "Architecture", "The Empire State Building was designed by Shreve, Lamb and Harmon in the Art Deco style.", "The Empire State Building is tall to its 102nd floor, or including its pinnacle.", "It was the first building in the world to be more than 100 stories tall, though only the lowest 86 stories are usable.", "The first through 85th floors contain of commercial and office space, while the 86th floor contains an observatory.", "The remaining 16 stories are part of the spire, which is capped by an observatory on the 102nd floor; the spire does not contain any intermediate levels and is used mostly for mechanical purposes.", "Atop the 102nd story is the pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, and surmounted with a lightning rod.===Form===The five-story base as seen from Fifth Avenue, with the main entrance at center.", "The Empire State Building sets back significantly above the base.The Empire State Building has a symmetrical massing because of its large lot and relatively short base.", "Its articulation consists of three horizontal sections similar to the components of a column, namely a base, shaft, and capital.", "The five-story base occupies the entire lot, while the 81-story shaft above it is set back sharply from the base.", "The setback above the 5th story is deep on all sides.", "There are smaller setbacks on the upper stories, allowing sunlight to illuminate the interiors of the top floors while also positioning these floors away from the noisy streets below.", "The setbacks are located at the 21st, 25th, 30th, 72nd, 81st, and 85th stories.", "The setbacks correspond to the tops of elevator shafts, allowing interior spaces to be at most deep (see ).The setbacks were mandated by the 1916 Zoning Resolution, which was intended to allow sunlight to reach the streets as well.", "Normally, a building of the Empire State's dimensions would be permitted to build up to 12 stories on the Fifth Avenue side, and up to 17 stories on the 33rd Street and 34th Street sides, before it would have to utilize setbacks.", "However, with the largest setback being located above the base, the tower stories could contain a uniform shape.", "According to architectural writer Robert A. M. Stern, the building's form contrasted with the nearly contemporary, similarly designed 500 Fifth Avenue eight blocks north, which had an asymmetrical massing on a smaller lot.===Facade===The Empire State Building's Art Deco design is typical of pre–World War II architecture in New York City.", "The facade is clad in Indiana limestone panels made by the Indiana Limestone Company and sourced from a quarry in south-central Indiana; the panels give the building its signature blonde color.", "According to official fact sheets, the facade uses of limestone and granite, ten million bricks, and of aluminum and stainless steel.", "The building also contains 6,514 windows.", "The decorative features on the facade are largely geometric, in contrast with earlier buildings, whose decorations often were intended to represent a specific narrative.leftThe main entrance, composed of three sets of metal doors, is at the center of the facade's Fifth Avenue elevation, flanked by molded piers that are topped with eagles.", "Above the main entrance is a transom, a triple-height transom window with geometric patterns, and the golden letters \"Empire State\" above the fifth-floor windows.", "There are two entrances each on 33rd and 34th streets, with modernistic, stainless steel canopies projecting from the entrances on 33rd and 34th streets there.", "Above the secondary entrances are triple windows, less elaborate in design than those on Fifth Avenue.The storefronts on the first floor contain aluminum-framed doors and windows within a black granite cladding.", "The second through fourth stories consist of windows alternating with wide stone piers and narrower stone mullions.", "The fifth story contains windows alternating with wide and narrow mullions, and is topped by a horizontal stone sill.The facade of the tower stories is split into several vertical bays on each side, with windows projecting slightly from the limestone cladding.", "The bays are arranged into sets of one, two, or three windows on each floor.", "The bays are separated by alternating narrow and wide piers, the inclusion of which may have been influenced by the design of the contemporary Daily News Building.", "The windows in each bay are separated by vertical nickel-chrome steel mullions and connected by horizontal aluminum spandrels between each floor.", "The windows are placed within stainless-steel frames, which saved money by eliminating the need to apply a stone finish around the windows.", "In addition, the use of aluminum spandrels obviated the need for cross-bonding, which would have been required if stone had been used instead.===Lights===Democratic and Republican parties as results are tabulated in the 2012 presidential electionThe building was originally equipped with white searchlights at the top.", "They were first used in November 1932 when they lit up to signal Roosevelt's victory over Hoover in the presidential election of that year.", "These were later swapped for four \"Freedom Lights\" in 1956.In February 1964, flood lights were added on the 72nd floor to illuminate the top of the building at night so that the building could be seen from the World Fair later that year.", "The lights were shut off from November 1973 to July 1974 because of the energy crisis at the time.", "In 1976, the businessman Douglas Leigh suggested that Wien and Helmsley install 204 metal-halide lights, which were four times as bright as the 1,000 incandescent lights they were to replace.", "New red, white, and blue metal-halide lights were installed in time for the country's bicentennial that July.", "After the bicentennial, Helmsley retained the new lights due to the reduced maintenance cost, about $116 a year.Since October 12, 1977, the spire has been lit in colors chosen to match seasonal events and holidays.", "Organizations are allowed to make requests through the building's website.", "The building is also lit in the colors of New York-based sports teams on nights when they host games: for example, orange, blue, and white for the New York Knicks; red, white, and blue for the New York Rangers.", "The spire can also be lit to commemorate events including disasters, anniversaries, or deaths, as well as for celebrations such as Pride and Halloween.", "In 1998, the building was lit in blue after the death of singer Frank Sinatra, who was nicknamed \"Ol' Blue Eyes\".rainbow-colored lighting during the Pride Month of June, evoking the international LGBT icon, as seen in this 2015 image.\|alt=The Empire State Building illuminated by rainbow-colored lighting at nightThe structure was lit in red, white, and blue for several months after the collapse of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.On January 13, 2012, the building was lit in red, orange, and yellow to honor the 60th anniversary of the NBC program ''The Today Show''.", "After retired basketball player Kobe Bryant's January 2020 death, the building was lit in purple and gold, signifying the colors of his former team, the Los Angeles Lakers.In addition to lightings, the Empire State Building is able to do immersive visual projections on the building's exterior.", "Most recently partnering with Netflix in May 2022 to celebrate the return of Stranger Things fourth season by projecting the Upside Down onto the Empire State Building.In 2012, the building's four hundred metal halide lamps and floodlights were replaced with 1,200 LED fixtures, increasing the available colors from nine to over 16 million.", "The computer-controlled system allows the building to be illuminated in ways that were unable to be done previously with plastic gels.", "For instance, CNN used the top of the Empire State Building as a scoreboard during the 2012 United States presidential election, using red and blue lights to represent Republican and Democratic electoral votes respectively.", "Also, on November 26, 2012, the building had its first synchronized light show, using music from recording artist Alicia Keys.", "Artists such as Eminem and OneRepublic have been featured in later shows, including the building's annual Holiday Music-to-Lights Show.", "The building's owners adhere to strict standards in using the lights; for instance, they do not use the lights to play advertisements.===Interior===One of several elevator lobbiesAccording to official fact sheets, the Empire State Building weighs and has an internal volume of .", "The interior required of elevator cable and of electrical wires.", "It has a total floor area of , and each of the floors in the base cover .", "This gives the building capacity for 20,000 tenants and 15,000 visitors.The riveted steel frame of the building was originally designed to handle all of the building's gravitational stresses and wind loads.", "The amount of material used in the building's construction resulted in a very stiff structure when compared to other skyscrapers, with a structural stiffness of versus the Willis Tower's and the John Hancock Center's .", "A December 1930 feature in ''Popular Mechanics'' estimated that a building with the Empire State's dimensions would still stand even if hit with an impact of .Utilities are grouped in a central shaft.", "On the 6th through 86th stories, the central shaft is surrounded by a main corridor on all four sides.", "Per the final specifications of the building, the corridor is surrounded in turn by office space deep, maximizing office space at a time before air conditioning became commonplace.", "Each of the floors has 210 structural columns that pass through it, which provide structural stability but limits the amount of open space on these floors.", "The relative dearth of stone in the Empire State Building allows for more space overall, with a 1:200 stone-to-building ratio compared to a 1:50 ratio in similar buildings.====Lobby====Fifth Avenue lobbyThe original main lobby is accessed from Fifth Avenue, on the building's east side, and is the only place in the building where the design contains narrative motifs.", "It contains an entrance with one set of double doors between a pair of revolving doors.", "At the top of each doorway is a bronze motif depicting one of three \"crafts or industries\" used in the building's construction—Electricity, Masonry, and Heating.", "The three-story-high space runs parallel to 33rd and 34th Streets.", "The lobby contains two tiers of marble: a wainscoting of darker marble, topped by lighter marble.", "There is a pattern of zigzagging terrazzo tiles on the lobby floor, which leads from east to west.", "To the north and south are storefronts, which are flanked by tubes of dark rounded marble and topped by a vertical band of grooves set into the marble.", "Until the 1960s, there was a Longchamps restaurant next to the lobby, with six oval murals designed by Winold Reiss; these murals were placed in storage when the Longchamps closed.The western ends of the north and south walls include escalators to a mezzanine level.", "At the west end of the lobby, behind the security desk, is an aluminum relief of the skyscraper as it was originally built (without the antenna).", "The relief, which was intended to provide a welcoming effect, contains an embossed outline of the building, with rays radiating from the spire and the sun behind it.", "In the background is a state map of New York with the building's location marked by a \"medallion\" in the very southeast portion of the outline.", "A compass is depicted in the bottom right and a plaque to the building's major developers is on the bottom left.", "A scale model of the building was also placed south of the security desk.Aluminum relief of the buildingThe plaque at the western end of the lobby is on the eastern interior wall of a one-story-tall rectangular-shaped corridor that surrounds the banks of escalators, with a similar design to the lobby.", "The rectangular-shaped corridor actually consists of two long hallways on the northern and southern sides of the rectangle, as well as a shorter hallway on the eastern side and another long hallway on the western side.", "At both ends of the northern and southern corridors, there is a bank of four low-rise elevators in between the corridors.", "The western side of the rectangular elevator-bank corridor extends north to the 34th Street entrance and south to the 33rd Street entrance.", "It borders three large storefronts and leads to escalators (originally stairs), which go both to the second floor and to the basement.", "Going from west to east, there are secondary entrances to 34th and 33rd Streets from the northern and southern corridors, respectively.", "The side entrances from 33rd and 34th Street lead to two-story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel-and-glass-enclosed bridges at the mezzanine floor.Until the 1960s, an Art Deco mural, inspired by both the sky and the Machine Age, was installed in the lobby ceilings.", "Subsequent damage to these murals, designed by artist Leif Neandross, resulted in reproductions being installed.", "Renovations to the lobby in 2009, such as replacing the clock over the information desk in the Fifth Avenue lobby with an anemometer and installing two chandeliers intended to be part of the building when it originally opened, revived much of its original grandeur.", "The north corridor contained eight illuminated panels created in 1963 by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov, in time for the 1964 World's Fair, depicting the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World alongside the traditional seven.", "The building's owners installed a series of paintings by the New York artist Kysa Johnson in the concourse level.", "Johnson later filed a federal lawsuit, in January 2014, under the Visual Artists Rights Act alleging the negligent destruction of the paintings and damage to her reputation as an artist.", "As part of the building's 2010 renovation, Denise Amses commissioned a work consisting of 15,000 stars and 5,000 circles, superimposed on a etched-glass installation, in the lobby.==== Elevators ====The Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators.", "Its original 64 elevators, built by the Otis Elevator Company, in a central core and are of varying heights, with the longest of these elevators reaching from the lobby to the 80th floor.", "As originally built, there were four \"express\" elevators that connected the lobby, 80th floor, and several landings in between; the other 60 \"local\" elevators connected the landings with the floors above these intermediate landings.", "Of the 64 total elevators, 58 were for passenger use (comprising the four express elevators and 54 local elevators), and eight were for freight deliveries.", "The elevators were designed to move at .", "At the time of the skyscraper's construction, their practical speed was limited to per city law, but this limit was removed shortly after the building opened.Additional elevators connect the 80th floor to the six floors above it, as the six extra floors were built after the original 80 stories were approved.", "The elevators were mechanically operated until 2011, when they were replaced with automatic elevators during the $550 million renovation of the building.", "An additional elevator connects the 86th and 102nd floor observatories, which allows visitors access the 102nd floor observatory after having their tickets scanned.", "It also allows employees to access the mechanical floors located between the 87th and 101st floors.====Observation decks====80th floor observation deckThe 80th, 86th, and 102nd floors contain observatories.", "The latter two observatories saw a combined average of four million visitors per year in 2010.Since opening, the observatories have been more popular than similar observatories at 30 Rockefeller Plaza, the Chrysler Building, the first One World Trade Center, or the Woolworth Building, despite being more expensive.", "There are variable charges to enter the observatories; one ticket allows visitors to go as high as the 86th floor, and there is an additional charge to visit the 102nd floor.", "Other ticket options for visitors include scheduled access to view the sunrise from the observatory, a \"premium\" guided tour with VIP access, and the \"AM/PM\" package which allows for two visits in the same day.The 86th floor observatory contains both an enclosed viewing gallery and an open-air outdoor viewing area, allowing for it to remain open 365 days a year regardless of the weather.", "The 102nd floor observatory is completely enclosed and much smaller in size.", "The 102nd floor observatory was closed to the public from the late 1990s to 2005 due to limited viewing capacity and long lines.", "The observation decks were redesigned in mid-1979.The 102nd floor was again redesigned in a project that was completed in 2019, allowing the windows to be extended from floor to ceiling and widening the space in the observatory overall.", "An observatory on the 80th floor, opened in 2019, includes various exhibits as well as a mural of the skyline drawn by British artist Stephen Wiltshire.", "An interactive multimedia museum, with multiple hands-on exhibitions about the building's history, was added during this project.", "The design of the Observatory Experience was inspired by the plans and designs of the original Empire State Building.According to a 2010 report by Concierge.com, the five lines to enter the observation decks are \"as legendary as the building itself\".", "Concierge.com stated that there were five lines: the sidewalk line, the lobby elevator line, the ticket purchase line, the second elevator line, and the line to get off the elevator and onto the observation deck.", "In 2016, New York City's official tourism website made note of only three lines: the security check line, the ticket purchase line, and the second elevator line.", "Following renovations completed in 2019, designed to streamline queuing and reduce wait times, guests enter from a single entrance on 34th Street, where they make their way through exhibits on their way up to the observatories.", "Guests were offered a variety of ticket packages, including a package that enables them to skip the lines throughout the duration of their stay.", "The Empire State Building garners significant revenue from ticket sales for its observation decks, making more money from ticket sales than it does from renting office space during some years.====New York Skyride====In early 1994, a motion simulator attraction was built on the 2nd floor, as a complement to the observation deck.", "The original cinematic presentation lasted approximately 25 minutes, while the simulation was about eight minutes.", "The ride had two incarnations.", "The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan, ''Star Trek's'' Scotty, as the airplane's pilot who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm.", "After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the ride was closed.", "An updated version debuted in mid-2002, featuring actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot, with the new flight also going haywire.", "This new version served a more informative goal, as opposed to the old version's main purpose of entertainment, and contained details about the 9/11 attacks.", "The simulator received mixed reviews, with assessments of the ride ranging from \"great\" to \"satisfactory\" to \"corny\".===Spire=======Above the 102nd floor====The final stage of the building was the installation of a hollow mast, a steel shaft fitted with elevators and utilities, above the 86th floor.", "At the top would be a conical roof and the 102nd-floor docking station.", "Inside, the elevators would ascend from the 86th floor ticket offices to a 101st-floor waiting room.", "From there, stairs would lead to the 102nd floor, where passengers would enter the airships.", "The airships would have been moored to the spire at the equivalent of the building's 106th floor.As constructed, the mast contains four rectangular tiers topped by a cylindrical shaft with a conical pinnacle.", "On the 102nd floor (formerly the 101st floor), there is a door with stairs ascending to the 103rd floor (formerly the 102nd).", "This was built as a disembarkation floor for airships tethered to the building's spire, and has a circular balcony outside.", "It is now an access point to reach the spire for maintenance.", "The room now contains electrical equipment, but celebrities and dignitaries may also be given permission to take pictures there.", "Above the 103rd floor, there is a set of stairs and a ladder to reach the spire for maintenance work.", "The mast's 480 windows were all replaced in 2015.The mast serves as the base of the building's broadcasting antenna.====Broadcast stations====Antennas for broadcast stations located at the top of the buildingBroadcasting began at the Empire State Building on December 22, 1931, when NBC and RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the mast, with two separate transmitters for the visual and audio data.", "They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there.", "In 1934, RCA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the building's antenna.", "This setup, which entailed the installation of the world's first FM transmitter, continued only until October of the next year due to disputes between RCA and Armstrong.", "Specifically, NBC wanted to install more TV equipment in the room where Armstrong's transmitter was located.After some time, the 85th floor became home to RCA's New York television operations initially as experimental station W2XBS channel 1 then, from 1941, as commercial station WNBT channel 1 (now WNBC channel 4).", "NBC's FM station, W2XDG, began transmitting from the antenna in 1940.NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the building until 1950 when the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ordered the exclusive deal be terminated.", "The FCC directive was based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the seven extant New York-area television stations to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted.", "Other television broadcasters would later join RCA at the building on the 81st through 83rd floors, often along with sister FM stations.", "Construction of a dedicated broadcast tower began on July 27, 1950, with TV, and FM, transmissions starting in 1951.The broadcast tower was completed in 1953.From 1951, six broadcasters agreed to pay a combined $600,000 per year for the use of the antenna.", "In 1965, a separate set of FM antennae was constructed ringing the 103rd floor observation area to act as a master antenna.The placement of the stations in the Empire State Building became a major issue with the construction of the World Trade Center's Twin Towers in the late 1960s, and early 1970s.", "The greater height of the Twin Towers would reflect radio waves broadcast from the Empire State Building, eventually resulting in some broadcasters relocating to the newer towers instead of suing the developer, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.", "Even though the nine stations who were broadcasting from the Empire State Building were leasing their broadcast space until 1984, most of these stations moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed in 1971.The broadcasters obtained a court order stipulating that the Port Authority had to build a mast and transmission equipment in the North Tower, as well as pay the broadcasters' leases in the Empire State Building until 1984.Only a few broadcasters renewed their leases in the Empire State Building.The September 11 attacks destroyed the World Trade Center and the broadcast centers atop it, leaving most of the city's stations without a transmitter for ten days until the Armstrong Tower in Alpine, New Jersey, was re-activated temporarily.", "By October 2001, nearly all of the city's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) were again transmitting from the top of the Empire State Building.", "In a report that Congress commissioned about the transition from analog television to digital television, it was stated that the placement of broadcast stations in the Empire State Building was considered \"problematic\" due to interference from nearby buildings.", "In comparison, the congressional report stated that the former Twin Towers had very few buildings of comparable height nearby thus signals suffered little interference.", "In 2003, a few FM stations were relocated to the nearby Condé Nast Building to reduce the number of broadcast stations using the Empire State Building.", "Eleven television stations and twenty-two FM stations had signed 15-year leases in the building by May 2003.It was expected that a taller broadcast tower in Bayonne, New Jersey, or Governors Island, would be built in the meantime with the Empire State Building being used as a \"backup\" since signal transmissions from the building were generally of poorer quality.", "Following the construction of One World Trade Center in the late 2000s and early 2010s, some TV stations began moving their transmitting facilities there., the Empire State Building is home to the following stations:* Television: WABC-7, WPIX-11, WXTV-41 Paterson, and WFUT-68 Newark* FM: WINS-92.3, WPAT-93.1 Paterson, WNYC-93.9, WPLJ-95.5, WXNY-96.3, WQHT-97.1, WSKQ-97.9, WEPN-98.7, WHTZ-100.3 Newark, WCBS-101.1, WFAN-101.9, WNEW-FM-102.7, WKTU-103.5 Lake Success, WAXQ-104.3, WWPR-105.1, WQXR-105.9 Newark, WLTW-106.7, and WBLS-107.5* NOAA Weather Radio station KWO35 broadcasts at a frequency of 162.550 MHz from the National Weather Service in Upton, New York." ], [ "History", "The site was previously owned by John Jacob Astor of the prominent Astor family, who had owned the site since the mid-1820s.", "In 1893, John Jacob Astor Sr.'s grandson William Waldorf Astor opened the Waldorf Hotel on the site.", "Four years later, his cousin, John Jacob Astor IV, opened the 16-story Astoria Hotel on an adjacent site.", "The two portions of the Waldorf–Astoria hotel had 1,300 bedrooms, making it the largest hotel in the world at the time.", "After the death of its founding proprietor, George Boldt, in early 1918, the hotel lease was purchased by Thomas Coleman du Pont.", "By the 1920s, the old Waldorf–Astoria was becoming dated and the elegant social life of New York had moved much farther north.", "Additionally, many stores had opened on Fifth Avenue north of 34th Street.", "The Astor family decided to build a replacement hotel on Park Avenue and sold the hotel to Bethlehem Engineering Corporation in 1928 for $14–16 million.", "The hotel closed shortly thereafter on May 3, 1929.===Planning======= Early plans ====Waldorf-Astoria in 1901Bethlehem Engineering Corporation originally intended to build a 25-story office building on the Waldorf–Astoria site.", "The company's president, Floyd De L. Brown, paid $100,000 of the $1 million down payment required to start construction on the building, with the promise that the difference would be paid later.", "Brown borrowed $900,000 from a bank but defaulted on the loan.After Brown was unable to secure additional funding, the land was resold to Empire State Inc., a group of wealthy investors that included Louis G. Kaufman, Ellis P. Earle, John J. Raskob, Coleman du Pont, and Pierre S. du Pont.", "The name came from the state nickname for New York.", "Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York and U.S. presidential candidate whose 1928 campaign had been managed by Raskob, was appointed head of the company.", "The group also purchased nearby land so they would have the needed for the base, with the combined plot measuring wide by long.", "The Empire State Inc. consortium was announced to the public in August 1929.Concurrently, Smith announced the construction of an 80-story building on the site, to be taller than any other buildings in existence.Empire State Inc. contracted William F. Lamb, of architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, to create the building design.", "Lamb produced the building drawings in just two weeks using the firm's earlier designs for the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, as the basis.", "He had also been inspired by Raymond Hood's design for the Daily News Building, which was being constructed at the same time.", "Concurrently, Lamb's partner Richmond Shreve created \"bug diagrams\" of the project requirements.", "The 1916 Zoning Act forced Lamb to design a structure that incorporated setbacks resulting in the lower floors being larger than the upper floors.", "Consequently, the building was designed from the top down, giving it a pencil-like shape.", "The plans were devised within a budget of $50 million and a stipulation that the building be ready for occupancy within 18 months of the start of construction.==== Design changes ====Architectural sketch of heights and allowed building areasThe original plan of the building was 50 stories, but was later increased to 60 and then 80 stories.", "Height restrictions were placed on nearby buildings to ensure that the top fifty floors of the planned 80-story, building would have unobstructed views of the city.", "''The New York Times'' lauded the site's proximity to mass transit, with the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit's 34th Street station and the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad's 33rd Street terminal one block away, as well as Penn Station two blocks away and Grand Central Terminal nine blocks away at its closest.", "It also praised the of proposed floor space near \"one of the busiest sections in the world\".", "The Empire State Building was to be a typical office building, but Raskob intended to build it \"better and in a bigger way\", according to architectural writer Donald J. Reynolds.While plans for the Empire State Building were being finalized, an intense competition in New York for the title of \"world's tallest building\" was underway.", "40 Wall Street (then the Bank of Manhattan Building) and the Chrysler Building in Manhattan both vied for this distinction and were already under construction when work began on the Empire State Building.", "The \"Race into the Sky\", as popular media called it at the time, was representative of the country's optimism in the 1920s, fueled by the building boom in major cities.", "The race was defined by at least five other proposals, although only the Empire State Building would survive the Wall Street Crash of 1929.The 40 Wall Street tower was revised, in April 1929, from to making it the world's tallest.", "The Chrysler Building added its steel tip to its roof in October 1929, thus bringing it to a height of and greatly exceeding the height of 40 Wall Street.", "The Chrysler Building's developer, Walter Chrysler, realized that his tower's height would exceed the Empire State Building's as well, having instructed his architect, William Van Alen, to change the Chrysler's original roof from a stubby Romanesque dome to a narrow steel spire.", "Raskob, wishing to have the Empire State Building be the world's tallest, reviewed the plans and had five floors added as well as a spire; however, the new floors would need to be set back because of projected wind pressure on the extension.", "On November 18, 1929, Smith acquired a lot at 27–31 West 33rd Street, adding to the width of the proposed office building's site.", "Two days later, Smith announced the updated plans for the skyscraper.", "The plans included an observation deck on the 86th-floor roof at a height of , higher than the Chrysler's 71st-floor observation deck.The 1,050-foot Empire State Building would only be taller than the Chrysler Building, and Raskob was afraid that Chrysler might try to \"pull a trick like hiding a rod in the spire and then sticking it up at the last minute.\"", "The plans were revised one last time in December 1929, to include a 16-story, metal \"crown\" and an additional mooring mast intended for dirigibles.", "The roof height was now , making it the tallest building in the world by far, even without the antenna.", "The addition of the dirigible station meant that another floor, the now-enclosed 86th floor, would have to be built below the crown; however, unlike the Chrysler's spire, the Empire State's mast would serve a practical purpose.", "A revised plan was announced to the public in late December 1929, just before the start of construction.", "The final plan was sketched within two hours, the night before the plan was supposed to be presented to the site's owners in January 1930.", "''The New York Times'' reported that the spire was facing some \"technical problems\", but they were \"no greater than might be expected under such a novel plan.\"", "By this time the blueprints for the building had gone through up to fifteen versions before they were approved.", "Lamb described the other specifications he was given for the final, approved plan:=== Construction ===The contractors were Starrett Brothers and Eken, which were composed of Paul and William A. Starrett and Andrew J. Eken.", "The project was financed primarily by Raskob and Pierre du Pont, while James Farley's General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials.", "John W. Bowser was the construction superintendent of the project, and the structural engineer of the building was Homer G. Balcom.", "The tight completion schedule necessitated the commencement of construction even though the design had yet to be finalized.==== Hotel demolition ====Demolition of the old Waldorf–Astoria began on October 1, 1929.Stripping the building down was an arduous process, as the hotel had been constructed using more rigid material than earlier buildings had been.", "Furthermore, the old hotel's granite, wood chips, and \"'precious' metals such as lead, brass, and zinc\" were not in high demand, resulting in issues with disposal.", "Most of the wood was deposited into a woodpile on nearby 30th Street or was burned in a swamp elsewhere.", "Much of the other materials that made up the old hotel, including the granite and bronze, were dumped into the Atlantic Ocean near Sandy Hook, New Jersey.By the time the hotel's demolition started, Raskob had secured the required funding for the construction of the building.", "The plan was to start construction later that year but, on October 24, the New York Stock Exchange experienced the major and sudden Wall Street Crash, marking the beginning of the decade-long Great Depression.", "Despite the economic downturn, Raskob refused to cancel the project because of the progress that had been made up to that point.", "Neither Raskob, who had ceased speculation in the stock market the previous year, nor Smith, who had no stock investments, suffered financially in the crash.", "However, most of the investors were affected and as a result, in December 1929, Empire State Inc. obtained a $27.5 million loan from Metropolitan Life Insurance Company so construction could begin.", "The stock market crash resulted in no demand for new office space; Raskob and Smith nonetheless started construction, as canceling the project would have resulted in greater losses for the investors.==== Steel structure ====A worker bolts beams in 1930 during construction; the Chrysler Building can be seen in the background.A structural steel contract was awarded on January 12, 1930, with excavation of the site beginning ten days later on January 22, before the old hotel had been completely demolished.", "Two twelve-hour shifts, consisting of 300 men each, worked continuously to dig the deep foundation.", "Small pier holes were sunk into the ground to house the concrete footings that would support the steelwork.", "Excavation was nearly complete by early March, and construction on the building itself started on March 17, with the builders placing the first steel columns on the completed footings before the rest of the footings had been finished.", "Around this time, Lamb held a press conference on the building plans.", "He described the reflective steel panels parallel to the windows, the large-block Indiana Limestone facade that was slightly more expensive than smaller bricks, and the building's vertical lines.", "Four colossal columns, intended for installation in the center of the building site, were delivered; they would support a combined when the building was finished.The structural steel was pre-ordered and pre-fabricated in anticipation of a revision to the city's building code that would have allowed the Empire State Building's structural steel to carry , up from , thus reducing the amount of steel needed for the building.", "Although the 18,000-psi regulation had been safely enacted in other cities, Mayor Jimmy Walker did not sign the new codes into law until March 26, 1930, just before construction was due to commence.", "The first steel framework was installed on April 1, 1930.From there, construction proceeded at a rapid pace; during one stretch of 10 working days, the builders erected fourteen floors.", "This was made possible through precise coordination of the building's planning, as well as the mass production of common materials such as windows and spandrels.", "On one occasion, when a supplier could not provide timely delivery of dark Hauteville marble, Starrett switched to using Rose Famosa marble from a German quarry that was purchased specifically to provide the project with sufficient marble.The scale of the project was massive, with trucks carrying \"16,000 partition tiles, 5,000 bags of cement, of sand and 300 bags of lime\" arriving at the construction site every day.", "There were also cafes and concession stands on five of the incomplete floors so workers did not have to descend to the ground level to eat lunch.", "Temporary water taps were also built so workers did not waste time buying water bottles from the ground level.", "Additionally, carts running on a small railway system transported materials from the basement storage to elevators that brought the carts to the desired floors where they would then be distributed throughout that level using another set of tracks.", "The of steel ordered for the project was the largest-ever single order of steel at the time, comprising more steel than was ordered for the Chrysler Building and 40 Wall Street combined.", "According to historian John Tauranac, building materials were sourced from numerous, and distant, sources with \"limestone from Indiana, steel girders from Pittsburgh, cement and mortar from upper New York State, marble from Italy, France, and England, wood from northern and Pacific Coast forests, and hardware from New England.\"", "The facade, too, used a variety of material, most prominently Indiana limestone but also Swedish black granite, terracotta, and brick.By June 20, the skyscraper's supporting steel structure had risen to the 26th floor, and by July 27, half of the steel structure had been completed.", "Starrett Bros. and Eken endeavored to build one floor a day in order to speed up construction, achieving a pace of stories per week; prior to this, the fastest pace of construction for a building of similar height had been stories per week.", "While construction progressed, the final designs for the floors were being designed from the ground up (as opposed to the general design, which had been from the roof down).", "Some of the levels were still undergoing final approval, with several orders placed within an hour of a plan being finalized.", "On September 10, as steelwork was nearing completion, Smith laid the building's cornerstone during a ceremony attended by thousands.", "The stone contained a box with contemporary artifacts including the previous day's ''New York Times'', a U.S. currency set containing all denominations of notes and coins minted in 1930, a history of the site and building, and photographs of the people involved in construction.", "The steel structure was topped out at on September 19, twelve days ahead of schedule and 23 weeks after the start of construction.", "Workers raised a flag atop the 86th floor to signify this milestone.==== Completion and scale ====USS ''Los Angeles'', ZMC-2 and a J-class blimp seen overheadWork on the building's interior and crowning mast commenced after the topping out.", "The mooring mast topped out on November 21, two months after the steelwork had been completed.", "Meanwhile, work on the walls and interior was progressing at a quick pace, with exterior walls built up to the 75th floor by the time steelwork had been built to the 95th floor.", "The majority of the facade was already finished by the middle of November.", "Because of the building's height, it was deemed infeasible to have many elevators or large elevator cabins, so the builders contracted with the Otis Elevator Company to make 66 cars that could speed at , which represented the largest-ever elevator order at the time.In addition to the time constraint builders had, there were also space limitations because construction materials had to be delivered quickly, and trucks needed to drop off these materials without congesting traffic.", "This was solved by creating a temporary driveway for the trucks between 33rd and 34th Streets, and then storing the materials in the building's first floor and basements.", "Concrete mixers, brick hoppers, and stone hoists inside the building ensured that materials would be able to ascend quickly and without endangering or inconveniencing the public.", "At one point, over 200 trucks made material deliveries at the building site every day.", "A series of relay and erection derricks, placed on platforms erected near the building, lifted the steel from the trucks below and installed the beams at the appropriate locations.", "The Empire State Building was structurally completed on April 11, 1931, twelve days ahead of schedule and 410 days after construction commenced.", "Al Smith shot the final rivet, which was made of solid gold.Photograph of a cable worker taken by Lewis HineThe project involved more than 3,500 workers at its peak, including 3,439 on a single day, August 14, 1930.Many of the workers were Irish and Italian immigrants, with a sizable minority of Mohawk ironworkers from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal.", "According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction, although the ''New York Daily News'' gave reports of 14 deaths and a headline in the socialist magazine ''The New Masses'' spread unfounded rumors of up to 42 deaths.", "The Empire State Building cost $40,948,900 to build (equivalent to $ in ), including demolition of the Waldorf–Astoria.", "This was lower than the $60 million budgeted for construction.Lewis Hine captured many photographs of the construction, documenting not only the work itself but also providing insight into the daily life of workers in that era.", "Hine's images were used extensively by the media to publish daily press releases.", "According to the writer Jim Rasenberger, Hine \"climbed out onto the steel with the ironworkers and dangled from a derrick cable hundreds of feet above the city to capture, as no one ever had before (or has since), the dizzy work of building skyscrapers\".", "In Rasenberger's words, Hine turned what might have been an assignment of \"corporate flak\" into \"exhilarating art\".", "These images were later organized into their own collection.", "Onlookers were enraptured by the sheer height at which the steelworkers operated.", "''New York'' magazine wrote of the steelworkers: \"Like little spiders they toiled, spinning a fabric of steel against the sky\".===Opening and early years===The Empire State Building in 1932.The building's antenna was installed 21 years later, in 1953.The Empire State Building officially opened on May 1, 1931, forty-five days ahead of its projected opening date, and eighteen months from the start of construction.", "The opening was marked with an event featuring United States President Herbert Hoover, who turned on the building's lights with the ceremonial button push from Washington, D.C. Over 350 guests attended the opening ceremony, and following luncheon, at the 86th floor including Jimmy Walker, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Al Smith.", "An account from that day stated that the view from the luncheon was obscured by a fog, with other landmarks such as the Statue of Liberty being \"lost in the mist\" enveloping New York City.", "The Empire State Building officially opened the next day.", "Advertisements for the building's observatories were placed in local newspapers, while nearby hotels also capitalized on the events by releasing advertisements that lauded their proximity to the newly opened building.According to ''The New York Times'', builders and real estate speculators predicted that the Empire State Building would be the world's tallest building \"for many years\", thus ending the great New York City skyscraper rivalry.", "At the time, most engineers agreed that it would be difficult to build a building taller than , even with the hardy Manhattan bedrock as a foundation.", "Technically, it was believed possible to build a tower of up to , but it was deemed uneconomical to do so, especially during the Great Depression.", "As the tallest building in the world, at that time, and the first one to exceed 100 floors, the Empire State Building became an icon of the city and, ultimately, of the nation.In 1932, the Fifth Avenue Association gave the building its 1931 \"gold medal\" for architectural excellence, signifying that the Empire State had been the best-designed building on Fifth Avenue to open in 1931.A year later, on March 2, 1933, the movie ''King Kong'' was released.", "The movie, which depicted a large stop motion ape named Kong climbing the Empire State Building, made the still-new building into a cinematic icon.==== Tenants and tourism ====At the beginning of 1931, Fifth Avenue was experiencing high demand for storefront space, with only 12 of 224 stores being unoccupied.", "The Empire State Building, along with 500 Fifth Avenue and 608 Fifth Avenue, were expected to add a combined 11 stores.", "The office space was less successful, as the Empire State Building's opening had coincided with the Great Depression in the United States.", "In the first year, only 23 percent of the available space was rented, as compared to the early 1920s, where the average building would be 52 percent occupied upon opening and 90 percent occupied within five years.", "The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the \"Empty State Building\" or \"Smith's Folly\".The earliest tenants in the Empire State Building were large companies, banks, and garment industries.", "Jack Brod, one of the building's longest resident tenants, co-established the Empire Diamond Corporation with his father in the building in mid-1931 and rented space in the building until he died in 2008.Brod recalled that there were only about 20 tenants at the time of opening, including him, and that Al Smith was the only real tenant in the space above his seventh-floor offices.", "Generally, during the early 1930s, it was rare for more than a single office space to be rented in the building, despite Smith's and Raskob's aggressive marketing efforts in the newspapers and to anyone they knew.", "The building's lights were continuously left on, even in the unrented spaces, to give the impression of occupancy.", "This was exacerbated by competition from Rockefeller Center as well as from buildings on 42nd Street, which, when combined with the Empire State Building, resulted in surplus of office space in a slow market during the 1930s.Aggressive marketing efforts served to reinforce the Empire State Building's status as the world's tallest.", "The observatory was advertised in local newspapers as well as on railroad tickets.", "The building became a popular tourist attraction, with one million people each paying one dollar to ride elevators to the observation decks in 1931.In its first year of operation, the observation deck made approximately $2 million in revenue, as much as its owners made in rent that year.", "By 1936, the observation deck was crowded on a daily basis, with food and drink available for purchase at the top, and by 1944 the building had received its five-millionth visitor.", "In 1931, NBC took up tenancy, leasing space on the 85th floor for radio broadcasts.", "From the outset the building was in debt, losing $1 million per year by 1935.Real estate developer Seymour Durst recalled that the building was so underused in 1936 that there was no elevator service above the 45th floor, as the building above the 41st floor was empty except for the NBC offices and the Raskob/Du Pont offices on the 81st floor.==== Other events ====Per the original plans, the Empire State Building's spire was intended to be an airship docking station.", "Raskob and Smith had proposed dirigible ticketing offices and passenger waiting rooms on the 86th floor, while the airships themselves would be tied to the spire at the equivalent of the building's 106th floor.", "An elevator would ferry passengers from the 86th to the 101st floor after they had checked in on the 86th floor, after which passengers would have climbed steep ladders to board the airship.", "The idea, however, was impractical and dangerous due to powerful updrafts caused by the building itself, the wind currents across Manhattan, and the spires of nearby skyscrapers.", "Furthermore, even if the airship were to successfully navigate all these obstacles, its crew would have to jettison some ballast by releasing water onto the streets below in order to maintain stability, and then tie the craft's nose to the spire with no mooring lines securing the tail end of the craft.", "On September 15, 1931, a small commercial United States Navy airship circled 25 times in winds.", "The airship then attempted to dock at the mast, but its ballast spilled and the craft was rocked by unpredictable eddies.", "The near-disaster scuttled plans to turn the building's spire into an airship terminal, although one blimp did manage to make a single newspaper delivery afterward.On July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors.", "One engine completely penetrated the building and landed in a neighboring block, while the other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft.", "Fourteen people were killed in the incident, but the building escaped severe damage and was reopened two days later.===Profitability===setbacks causes the building to taper with height.By the 1940s, the Empire State Building was 98 percent occupied.", "The structure broke even for the first time in the 1950s.", "At the time, mass transit options in the building's vicinity were limited compared to the present day.", "Despite this challenge, the Empire State Building began to attract renters due to its reputation.", "A radio antenna was erected on top of the towers starting in 1950, allowing the area's television stations to be broadcast from the building.Despite the turnaround in the building's fortunes, Raskob listed it for sale in 1951, with a minimum asking price of $50 million.", "The property was purchased by business partners Roger L. Stevens, Henry Crown, Alfred R. Glancy and Ben Tobin.", "The sale was brokered by the Charles F. Noyes Company, a prominent real estate firm in upper Manhattan, for $51 million, the highest price paid for a single structure at the time.", "By this time, the Empire State had been fully leased for several years with a waiting list of parties looking to lease space in the building, according to the ''Cortland Standard''.", "That same year, six news companies formed a partnership to pay a combined annual fee of $600,000 to use the building's antenna, which was completed in 1953.Crown bought out his partners' ownership stakes in 1954, becoming the sole owner.", "The following year, the American Society of Civil Engineers named the building one of the \"Seven Modern Civil Engineering Wonders\".In 1961, Lawrence A. Wien signed a contract to purchase the Empire State Building for $65 million, with Harry B. Helmsley acting as partners in the building's operating lease.", "This became the new highest price for a single structure.", "Over 3,000 people paid $10,000 for one share each in a company called Empire State Building Associates.", "The company in turn subleased the building to another company headed by Helmsley and Wien, raising $33 million of the funds needed to pay the purchase price.", "In a separate transaction, the land underneath the building was sold to Prudential Insurance for $29 million.", "Helmsley, Wien, and Peter Malkin quickly started a program of minor improvement projects, including the first-ever full-building facade refurbishment and window-washing in 1962, the installation of new flood lights on the 72nd floor in 1964, and replacement of the manually operated elevators with automatic units in 1966.The little-used western end of the second floor was used as a storage space until 1964, at which point it received escalators to the first floor as part of its conversion into a highly sought retail area.===Loss of \"tallest building\" title===World Trade Center's North Tower surpassed the Empire State Building in height by 1970.In 1961, the same year that Helmsley, Wien, and Malkin had purchased the Empire State Building, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey formally backed plans for a new World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan.", "The plan originally included 66-story twin towers with column-free open spaces.", "The Empire State's owners and real estate speculators were worried that the twin towers' of office space would create a glut of rentable space in Manhattan as well as take away the Empire State Building's profits from lessees.", "A revision in the World Trade Center's plan brought the twin towers to each or 110 stories, taller than the Empire State.", "Opponents of the new project included prominent real-estate developer Robert Tishman, as well as Wien's Committee for a Reasonable World Trade Center.", "In response to Wien's opposition, Port Authority executive director Austin J. Tobin said that Wien was only opposing the project because it would overshadow his Empire State Building as the world's tallest building.The World Trade Center's twin towers started construction in 1966.The following year, the Ostankino Tower succeeded the Empire State Building as the tallest freestanding structure in the world.", "In 1970, the Empire State surrendered its position as the world's tallest building, when the World Trade Center's still-under-construction North Tower surpassed it, on October 19; the North Tower was topped out on December 23, 1970.In December 1975, the observation deck was opened on the 110th floor of the Twin Towers, significantly higher than the 86th floor observatory on the Empire State Building.", "The latter was also losing revenue during this period, particularly as a number of broadcast stations had moved to the World Trade Center in 1971; although the Port Authority continued to pay the broadcasting leases for the Empire State until 1984.The Empire State Building was still seen as prestigious, having seen its forty-millionth visitor in March 1971.===1980s and 1990s===By 1980, there were nearly two million annual visitors, although a building official had previously estimated between 1.5 million and 1.75 million annual visitors.", "The building received its own ZIP code in May 1980 in a roll out of 63 new postal codes in Manhattan.", "At the time, its tenants collectively received 35,000 pieces of mail daily.", "The Empire State Building celebrated its 50th anniversary on May 1, 1981, with a much-publicized, but poorly received, laser light show, as well as an \"Empire State Building Week\" that ran through to May 8.The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) voted to designate the building and its lobby as city landmarks on May 19, 1981,Capital improvements were made to the Empire State Building during the early to mid-1990s at a cost of $55 million.", "Because all of the building's windows were being replaced at the same time, the LPC mandated a paint-color test for the windows; the test revealed that the Empire State Building's original windows were actually red.", "The improvements also entailed replacing alarm systems, elevators, windows, and air conditioning; making the observation deck compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA); and refurbishing the limestone facade.", "The observation deck renovation was added after disability rights groups and the United States Department of Justice filed a lawsuit against the building in 1992, in what was the first lawsuit filed by an organization under the new law.", "A settlement was reached in 1994, in which Empire State Building Associates agreed to add ADA-compliant elements, such as new elevators, ramps, and automatic doors, during the renovation.Prudential sold the land under the building in 1991 for $42 million to a buyer representing hotelier , who was imprisoned at the time in connection with the deadly at the in Tokyo.", "In 1994, Donald Trump entered into a joint-venture agreement with Yokoi, with a shared goal of breaking the Empire State Building's lease on the land in an effort to gain total ownership of the building so that, if successful, the two could reap the potential profits of merging the ownership of the building with the land beneath it.", "Having secured a half-ownership of the land, Trump devised plans to take ownership of the building itself so he could renovate it, even though Helmsley and Malkin had already started their refurbishment project.", "He sued Empire State Building Associates in February 1995, claiming that the latter had caused the building to become a \"high-rise slum\" and a \"second-rate, rodent-infested\" office tower.", "Trump had intended to have Empire State Building Associates evicted for violating the terms of their lease, but was denied.", "This led to Helmsley's companies countersuing Trump in May.", "This sparked a series of lawsuits and countersuits that lasted several years, partly arising from Trump's desire to obtain the building's master lease by taking it from Empire State Building Associates.", "Upon Harry Helmsley's death in 1997, the Malkins sued Helmsley's widow, Leona Helmsley, for control of the building.=== 21st century =======2000s====Following the destruction of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, but was only the second-tallest building in the Americas after the Sears (later Willis) Tower in Chicago.", "As a result of the attacks, transmissions from nearly all of the city's commercial television and FM radio stations were again broadcast from the Empire State Building.", "The attacks also led to an increase in security due to persistent terror threats against prominent sites in New York City.In 2002, Trump and Yokoi sold their land claim to the Empire State Building Associates, now headed by Malkin, in a $57.5 million sale.", "This action merged the building's title and lease for the first time in half a century.", "Despite the lingering threat posed by the 9/11 attacks, the Empire State Building remained popular with 3.5 million visitors to the observatories in 2004, compared to about 2.8 million in 2003.Even though she maintained her ownership stake in the building until the post-consolidation IPO in October 2013, Leona Helmsley handed over day-to-day operations of the building in 2006 to Peter Malkin's company.", "In 2008, the building was temporarily \"stolen\" by the ''New York Daily News'' to show how easy it was to transfer the deed on a property, since city clerks were not required to validate the submitted information, as well as to help demonstrate how fraudulent deeds could be used to obtain large mortgages and then have individuals disappear with the money.", "The paperwork submitted to the city included the names of Fay Wray, the famous star of ''King Kong'', and Willie Sutton, a notorious New York bank robber.", "The newspaper then transferred the deed back over to the legitimate owners, who at that time were Empire State Land Associates.====2010s to present====Since 2009, the Empire State Building has been lit blue and white annually for commencement at Columbia University.The current One World Trade Center (seen in the distance) surpassed the Empire State Building's height on April 30, 2012.Starting in 2009, the building's public areas received a $550 million renovation, with improvements to the air conditioning and waterproofing, renovations to the observation deck and main lobby, and relocation of the gift shop to the 80th floor.", "About $120 million was spent on improving the energy efficiency of the building, with the goal of reducing energy emissions by 38% within five years.", "For example, all of the windows were refurbished onsite into film-coated \"superwindows\" which block heat but pass light.", "Air conditioning operating costs on hot days were reduced, saving $17 million of the project's capital cost immediately and partially funding some of the other retrofits.", "The Empire State Building won the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold for Existing Buildings rating in September 2011, as well as the World Federation of Great Towers' Excellence in Environment Award for 2010.For the LEED Gold certification, the building's energy reduction was considered, as was a large purchase of carbon offsets.", "Other factors included low-flow bathroom fixtures, green cleaning supplies, and use of recycled paper products.On April 30, 2012, One World Trade Center topped out, taking the Empire State Building's record of tallest in the city.", "By 2014, the building was owned by the Empire State Realty Trust (ESRT), with Anthony Malkin as chairman, CEO, and president.", "The ESRT was a public company, having begun trading publicly on the New York Stock Exchange the previous year.", "In August 2016, the Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) was issued new fully diluted shares equivalent to 9.9% of the trust; this investment gave them partial ownership of the entirety of the ESRT's portfolio, and as a result, partial ownership of the Empire State Building.", "The trust's president John Kessler called it an \"endorsement of the company's irreplaceable assets\".", "The investment has been described by the real-estate magazine ''The Real Deal'' as \"an unusual move for a sovereign wealth fund\", as these funds typically buy direct stakes in buildings rather than real estate companies.", "Other foreign entities that have a stake in the ESRT include investors from Norway, Japan, and Australia.A renovation of the Empire State Building was commenced in the 2010s to further improve energy efficiency, public areas, and amenities.", "In August 2018, to improve the flow of visitor traffic, the main visitor's entrance was shifted to 20 West 34th Street as part of a major renovation of the observatory lobby.", "The new lobby includes several technological features, including large LED panels, digital ticket kiosks in nine languages, and a two-story architectural model of the building surrounded by two metal staircases.", "The first phase of the renovation, completed in 2019, features an updated exterior lighting system and digital hosts.", "The new lobby also features free Wi-Fi provided for those waiting.", "A exhibit with nine galleries opened in July 2019.The 102nd floor observatory, the third phase of the redesign, reopened to the public on October 12, 2019.That portion of the project included outfitting the space with floor-to-ceiling glass windows and a brand-new glass elevator.", "The final portion of the renovations to be completed was a new observatory on the 80th floor, which opened on December 2, 2019.In total, the renovation cost $160 million or $165 million and took four years to finish.A comprehensive restoration of the building's mooring and antenna masts also began in June 2019.Antennas on the mooring mast were removed or relocated to the upper mast, while the aluminum panels were cleaned and coated with silver paint.", "To minimize disruption to the observation decks, the restoration work took place at night.", "The project was completed by late 2020." ], [ "Height records", "Height comparison of several New York City buildings, with Empire State second from leftThe longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 42 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in October 1970.The Empire State Building was also the tallest human-made structure in the world before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954, and the tallest freestanding structure in the world until the completion of the Ostankino Tower in 1967.An early-1970s proposal to dismantle the spire and replace it with an additional 11 floors, which would have brought the building's height to 1,494 feet (455 m) and made it once again the world's tallest at the time, was considered but ultimately rejected.With the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, and the second-tallest building in the Americas, surpassed only by the Willis Tower in Chicago.", "The Empire State Building remained the tallest building in New York until the new One World Trade Center reached a greater height in April 2012., it is the seventh-tallest building in New York City and the tenth-tallest in the United States.", "The Empire State Building is the 49th-tallest in the world .", "It is also the eleventh-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas behind the tallest U.S. buildings and the CN Tower." ], [ "Notable tenants", ", the building houses around 1,000 businesses.", "Current tenants include:Former tenants include:* The National Catholic Welfare Council (now Catholic Relief Services, located in Baltimore)* The King's College (now located at 56 Broadway)* China National Tourist Office (now located at 370 Lexington Avenue)* National Film Board of Canada (now located at 1123 Broadway)* Nathaniel Branden Institute* Schenley Industries* YWCA of the USA (relocated to Washington, DC)" ], [ "Incidents", "===1945 plane crash===Wreckage from the alt=A black-and-white photo of airplane wreckage embedded in the facade, high upAt 9:40 am on July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith Jr., crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building between the 79th and 80th floors (then the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council).", "One engine completely penetrated the building, landing on the roof of a nearby building where it started a fire that destroyed a penthouse.", "The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft, causing a fire that was extinguished in 40 minutes.", "Fourteen people were killed in the incident.", "Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver fell 75 stories and survived, which still holds the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded.Despite the damage and loss of life, many floors were open two days later.", "The crash helped spur the passage of the long-pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the incident.", "Also as a result of the crash, the Civil Aeronautics Administration enacted strict regulations regarding flying over New York City, setting a minimum flying altitude of above sea level regardless of the weather conditions.A year later, on July 24, 1946, another airplane narrowly missed striking the building.", "The unidentified twin-engine plane scraped past the observation deck, frightening the tourists there.=== 2000 elevator plunge ===On January 24, 2000, an elevator in the building suddenly descended 40 stories after a cable that controlled the cabin's maximum speed was severed.", "The elevator fell from the 44th floor to the fourth floor, where a narrowed elevator shaft provided a second safety system.", "Despite the 40-floor fall, both of the passengers in the cabin at the time were only slightly injured.", "After the fall, building inspectors reviewed all of the building's elevators.===Suicide attempts===Because of the building's iconic status, it and other Midtown landmarks are popular locations for suicide attempts.", "More than 30 people have attempted suicide over the years by jumping from the upper parts of the building, with most attempts being successful.The first suicide from the building occurred on April 7, 1931, before it was even completed, when a carpenter who had been laid-off went to the 58th floor and jumped.", "The first suicide after the building's opening occurred from the 86th floor observatory in February 1935, when Irma P. Eberhardt fell onto a marquee sign.", "On December 16, 1943, William Lloyd Rambo jumped to his death from the 86th floor, landing amidst Christmas shoppers on the street below.", "In the early morning of September 27, 1946, shell-shocked Marine Douglas W. Brashear Jr. jumped from the 76th-floor window of the Grant Advertising Agency; police found his shoes from his body.On May 1, 1947, Evelyn McHale leapt to her death from the 86th floor observation deck and landed on a limousine parked at the curb.", "Photography student Robert Wiles took a photo of McHale's oddly intact corpse a few minutes after her death.", "The police found a suicide note among possessions that she left on the observation deck: \"He is much better off without me....", "I wouldn't make a good wife for anybody\".", "The photo ran in the May 12, 1947, edition of ''Life'' magazine and is often referred to as \"The Most Beautiful Suicide\".", "It was later used by visual artist Andy Warhol in one of his prints entitled ''Suicide (Fallen Body)''.", "A mesh fence was put up around the 86th floor terrace in December 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three-week span in October and November of that year.", "By then, sixteen people had died from suicide jumps.Only one person has jumped from the upper observatory.", "Frederick Eckert of Astoria ran past a guard in the enclosed 102nd-floor gallery on November 3, 1932, and jumped a gate leading to an outdoor catwalk intended for dirigible passengers.", "He landed and died on the roof of the 86th floor observation promenade.Two people have survived falls by not falling more than a floor.", "On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto a ledge on the 85th floor by a gust of wind and left with a broken hip.", "On April 25, 2013, a man fell from the 86th floor observation deck, but he landed alive with minor injuries on an 85th-floor ledge where security guards brought him inside and paramedics transferred him to a hospital for a psychiatric evaluation.===Shootings===Two fatal shootings have occurred in the direct vicinity of the Empire State Building.", "Abu Kamal, a 69-year-old Palestinian teacher, shot seven people on the 86th floor observation deck during the afternoon of February 23, 1997.He killed one person and wounded six others before committing suicide.", "Kamal reportedly committed the shooting in response to events happening in Palestine and Israel.On the morning of August 24, 2012, 58-year-old Jeffrey T. Johnson shot and killed a former co-worker on the building's Fifth Avenue sidewalk.", "He had been laid off from his job in 2011.Two police officers confronted the gunman, and he aimed his firearm at them.", "They responded by firing 16 shots, killing him but also wounding nine bystanders.", "Most of the injured were hit by bullet fragments, although three took direct hits from bullets." ], [ "Impact", "Glenn Odem Coleman,As the tallest building in the world and the first one to exceed 100 floors, the Empire State Building immediately became an icon of the city and of the nation.", "In 2013, ''Time'' magazine noted that the Empire State Building \"seems to completely embody the city it has become synonymous with\".", "The historian John Tauranac called it \"'the' twentieth-century New York building\", despite the existence of taller and more modernist buildings.The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission voted to designate the building and its lobby as city landmarks on May 19, 1981, citing the historic nature of the first and second floors, as well as \"the fixtures and interior components\" of the upper floors.", "The New York City Planning Commission endorsed the landmark status.", "The building became a National Historic Landmark in 1986 in close alignment with the New York City Landmarks report.", "The Empire State Building was added to the National Register of Historic Places the following year due to its architectural significance.=== Contemporary reception ===Early architectural critics also focused on the Empire State Building's exterior ornamentation.", "Architectural critic Talbot Hamlin wrote in 1931, \"That it is the world's tallest building is purely incidental.\"", "George Shepard Chappell, writing in ''The New Yorker'' under the pseudonym \"T-Square\", wrote the same year that the Empire State Building had a \"palpably enormous\" appeal to the general public, and that \"its difference and distinction lay in the extreme sensitiveness of its entire design\".", "Edmund Wilson of ''The New Republic'' wrote that the building's neutral color palette made it \"New York's handsomest skyscraper\".Architectural critics also wrote negatively of the mast, especially in light of its failure to become a real air terminal.", "Chappell called the mast \"a silly gesture\", and Lewis Mumford called it \"a public comfort station for migratory birds\".", "Nevertheless, architecture critic Douglas Haskell said the Empire State Building's appeal came from the fact that it was \"caught at the exact moment of transition—caught between metal and stone, between the idea of 'monumental mass' and that of airy volume, between handicraft and machine design, and in the swing from what was essentially handicraft to what will be essentially industrial methods of fabrication.", "\"===As icon===Early in the building's history, travel companies such as Short Line Motor Coach Service and New York Central Railroad used the building as an icon to symbolize the city.", "In a 1932 survey of 50 American architects, fourteen ranked the Empire State Building as the United States' best building; the Empire State Building received more votes than any building except the Lincoln Memorial.", "After the construction of the first World Trade Center, architect Paul Goldberger noted that the Empire State Building \"is famous for being tall, but it is good enough to be famous for being good.", "\"As an icon of the United States, it is also very popular among Americans.", "In a 2007 survey, the American Institute of Architects found that the Empire State Building was \"America's favorite building\".", "The building was originally a symbol of hope in a country devastated by the Depression, as well as a work of accomplishment by newer immigrants.", "The writer Benjamin Flowers states that the Empire State was \"a building intended to celebrate a new America, built by men (both clients and construction workers) who were themselves new Americans.\"", "The architectural critic Jonathan Glancey refers to the building as an \"icon of American design\".", "Additionally, in 2007, the Empire State Building was first on the AIA's List of America's Favorite Architecture.The Empire State Building has been hailed as an example of a \"wonder of the world\" due to the massive effort expended during construction.", "''The Washington Star'' listed it as part of one of the \"seven wonders of the modern world\" in 1931, while ''Holiday'' magazine wrote in 1958 that the Empire State's height would be taller than the combined heights of the Eiffel Tower and the Great Pyramid of Giza.", "The American Society of Civil Engineers also declared the building \"A Modern Civil Engineering Wonder of the United States\" in 1958 and one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World in 1994.Ron Miller, in a 2010 book, also described the Empire State Building as one of the \"seven wonders of engineering\".", "It has often been called the Eighth Wonder of the World as well, an appellation that it has held since shortly after opening.", "The panels installed in the lobby in 1963 reflected this, showing the seven original wonders alongside the Empire State Building.", "The Empire State Building also became the standard of reference to describe the height and length of other structures globally, both natural and human-made.The building has also inspired replicas.", "The New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains the \"Empire Tower\", a 47-story replica of the Empire State Building.In addition, the New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains the \"Chrysler Tower\", a replica of the Chrysler Building measuring 35 or 40 stories tall.", "A portion of the hotel's interior was also designed to resemble the Empire State Building's interior.===In media===As an icon of New York City, the Empire State Building has been featured in various films, books, TV shows, and video games.", "According to the building's official website, more than 250 movies contain depictions of the Empire State Building.", "In his book about the building, John Tauranac writes that its first documented appearance in popular culture was ''Swiss Family Manhattan'', a 1932 children's story by Christopher Morley.", "A year later, the film ''King Kong'' depicted Kong, a giant stop motion ape that climbs the Empire State Building during the film's climax, bringing the building into the popular imagination.", "Later movies such as ''An Affair to Remember'' (1957), ''Sleepless in Seattle'' (1993), and ''Independence Day'' (1996) also prominently featured the building.", "The building has also been featured in other works, such as \"Daleks in Manhattan\", a 2007 episode of the TV series ''Doctor Who''; and ''Empire'', an eight-hour black-and-white silent film by Andy Warhol, which was later added to the Library of Congress's National Film Registry.Throughout its history, the Empire State Building has welcomed celebrities, royalty, and dignitaries to visit the observation deck.", "From celebrities like Taylor Swift and Zendaya to royalty such as Prince William, the Empire State Building hosts notable figures every year.===Empire State Building Run-Up===The Empire State Building Run-Up, a foot race from ground level to the 86th-floor observation deck, has been held annually since 1978.It is organized by NYCRUNS.", "Its participants are referred to both as runners and as climbers, and are often tower running enthusiasts.", "The race covers a vertical distance of and takes in 1,576 steps.", "The record time is 9 minutes and 33 seconds, achieved by Australian professional cyclist Paul Crake in 2003, at a climbing rate of per hour." ], [ "See also", "* Early skyscrapers* NTT Docomo Yoyogi Building* List of buildings with 100 floors or more* List of National Historic Landmarks in New York City* List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets* List of tallest buildings by U.S. state* List of tallest freestanding steel structures* National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Empire State Building on CTBUH Skyscraper Center* Empire State Building under construction (1930–1931) at the New York Public Library* Empire State Building archive, circa 1930–1969, Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library, Columbia University" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eugenics" ], [ "Introduction", "A 1930s exhibit by the Eugenics Society.", "Two of the signs read \"Healthy and Unhealthy Families\" and \"Heredity as the Basis of Efficiency\".", "'''Eugenics''' ( ; ) is a set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population.", "Historically, eugenicists have attempted to alter human gene pools by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior or promoting those judged to be superior.", "In recent years, the term has seen a revival in bioethical discussions on the usage of new technologies such as CRISPR and genetic screening, with heated debate around whether these technologies should be considered eugenics or not.The concept predates the term; Plato suggested applying the principles of selective breeding to humans around 400 BCE.", "Early advocates of eugenics in the 19th century regarded it as a way of improving groups of people.", "In contemporary usage, the term ''eugenics'' is closely associated with scientific racism.", "Modern bioethicists who advocate new eugenics characterize it as a way of enhancing individual traits, regardless of group membership.While eugenic principles have been practiced as early as ancient Greece, the contemporary history of eugenics began in the late 19th century, when a popular eugenics movement emerged in the United Kingdom, and then spread to many countries, including the United States, Canada, Australia, and most European countries (e.g.", ", Sweden and Germany).", "In this period, people from across the political spectrum espoused eugenic ideas.", "Consequently, many countries adopted eugenic policies, intended to improve the quality of their populations' genetic stock.", "Such programs included both ''positive'' measures, such as encouraging individuals deemed particularly \"fit\" to reproduce, and ''negative'' measures, such as marriage prohibitions and forced sterilization of people deemed unfit for reproduction.", "Those deemed \"unfit to reproduce\" often included people with mental or physical disabilities, people who scored in the low ranges on different IQ tests, criminals and \"deviants\", and members of disfavored minority groups.The eugenics movement became associated with Nazi Germany and the Holocaust when the defense of many of the defendants at the Nuremberg trials of 1945 to 1946 attempted to justify their human-rights abuses by claiming there was little difference between the Nazi eugenics programs and the US eugenics programs.", "In the decades following World War II, with more emphasis on human rights, many countries began to abandon eugenics policies, although some Western countries (the United States, Canada, and Sweden among them) continued to carry out forced sterilizations.", "Since the 1980s and 1990s, with new assisted reproductive technology procedures available, such as gestational surrogacy (available since 1985), preimplantation genetic diagnosis (available since 1989), and cytoplasmic transfer (first performed in 1996), concern has grown about the possible revival of a more potent form of eugenics after decades of promoting human rights.A criticism of eugenics policies is that, regardless of whether ''negative'' or ''positive'' policies are used, they are susceptible to abuse because the genetic selection criteria are determined by whichever group has political power at the time.", "Furthermore, many criticize ''negative eugenics'' in particular as a violation of basic human rights, seen since 1968's Proclamation of Tehran, as including the right to reproduce.", "Another criticism is that eugenics policies eventually lead to a loss of genetic diversity, thereby resulting in inbreeding depression due to a loss of genetic variation.", "Yet another criticism of contemporary eugenics policies is that they propose to permanently and artificially disrupt millions of years of human evolution, and that attempting to create genetic lines \"clean\" of \"disorders\" can have far-reaching ancillary downstream effects in the genetic ecology, including negative effects on immunity and on species resilience.", "Eugenics is commonly seen in popular media, as highlighted by series like ''Resident Evil''." ], [ "History", "===Origin and development===alt=Logo from the alt=G.", "K. Chesterton, an opponent of eugenics, photographed by Ernest Herbert Mills in 1909Types of eugenic practices have existed for millennia.", "Some indigenous peoples of Brazil are known to have practiced infanticide against children born with physical abnormalities since precolonial times.", "In ancient Greece, the philosopher Plato suggested selective mating to produce a \"guardian\" class.", "In Sparta, every Spartan child was inspected by the council of elders, the Gerousia, who determined whether or not the child was fit to live.The geographer Strabo ( 64 BCE - 24 CE) states that the Samnites would take ten virgin women and ten young men who were considered to be the best representation of their sex and mate them.", "Following this, the best women would be given to the best male, then the second-best women to the second-best male.", "It is possible that the \"best\" men and women were chosen based on athletic capabilities.", "This would continue until all 20 people had been assigned to one another.", "Any selected male dishonoring himself, would be separated from his partner.In the early years of the Roman Republic, a Roman father was obliged by law to immediately kill any \"dreadfully deformed\" child.", "According to Tacitus ( - ), a Roman of the Imperial Period, the Germanic tribes of his day killed any member of their community they deemed cowardly, unwarlike or \"stained with abominable vices\", usually by drowning them in swamps.", "Modern historians, however, see Tacitus' ethnographic writing as unreliable in such details.The idea of a modern project for improving the human population through selective breeding was originally developed by Francis Galton (1822-1911), and was initially inspired by Darwinism and its theory of natural selection.", "Galton had read his half-cousin Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, which sought to explain the development of plant and animal species, and desired to apply it to humans.", "Based on his biographical studies, Galton believed that desirable human qualities were hereditary traits, although Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory.", "In 1883, one year after Darwin's death, Galton gave his research a name: ''eugenics''.", "With the introduction of genetics, eugenics became associated with genetic determinism, the belief that human character is entirely or in the majority caused by genes, unaffected by education or living conditions.", "Many of the early geneticists were not Darwinians, and evolution theory was not needed for eugenics policies based on genetic determinism.", "Throughout its recent history, eugenics has remained controversial.Eugenics became an academic discipline at many colleges and universities and received funding from many sources.", "Organizations were formed to win public support for and to sway opinion towards responsible eugenic values in parenthood, including the British Eugenics Education Society of 1907 and the American Eugenics Society of 1921.Both sought support from leading clergymen and modified their message to meet religious ideals.", "In 1909, the Anglican clergymen William Inge and James Peile both wrote for the Eugenics Education Society.", "Inge was an invited speaker at the 1921 International Eugenics Conference, which was also endorsed by the Roman Catholic Archbishop of New York Patrick Joseph Hayes.", "The book ''The Passing of the Great Race'' (''Or, The Racial Basis of European History'') by American eugenicist, lawyer, and amateur anthropologist Madison Grant was published in 1916.Although subsequently influential, the book was largely ignored when it first appeared, and it went through several revisions and editions.", "Nevertheless, the book was used by people who advocated restricted immigration as justification for what became known as \"scientific racism\".Three International Eugenics Conferences presented a global venue for eugenicists, with meetings in 1912 in London, and in 1921 and 1932 in New York City.", "Eugenic policies in the United States were first implemented by state-level legislators in the early 1900s.", "Eugenic policies also took root in France, Germany, and Great Britain.", "Later, in the 1920s and 1930s, the eugenic policy of sterilizing certain mental patients was implemented in other countries including Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Japan and Sweden.", "Frederick Osborn's 1937 journal article \"Development of a Eugenic Philosophy\" framed eugenics as a social philosophy—a philosophy with implications for social order.", "That definition is not universally accepted.", "Osborn advocated for higher rates of sexual reproduction among people with desired traits (\"positive eugenics\") or reduced rates of sexual reproduction or sterilization of people with less-desired or undesired traits (\"negative eugenics\").In addition to being practiced in a number of countries, eugenics was internationally organized through the International Federation of Eugenics Organizations.", "Its scientific aspects were carried on through research bodies such as the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics, the Cold Spring Harbor Carnegie Institution for Experimental Evolution, and the Eugenics Record Office.", "Politically, the movement advocated measures such as sterilization laws.", "In its moral dimension, eugenics rejected the doctrine that all human beings are born equal and redefined moral worth purely in terms of genetic fitness.", "Its racist elements included pursuit of a pure \"Nordic race\" or \"Aryan\" genetic pool and the eventual elimination of \"unfit\" races.", "Many leading British politicians subscribed to the theories of eugenics.", "Winston Churchill supported the British Eugenics Society and was an honorary vice president for the organization.", "Churchill believed that eugenics could solve \"race deterioration\" and reduce crime and poverty.Early critics of the philosophy of eugenics included the American sociologist Lester Frank Ward, the English writer G. K. Chesterton, the German-American anthropologist Franz Boas, who argued that advocates of eugenics greatly over-estimate the influence of biology, and Scottish tuberculosis pioneer and author Halliday Sutherland.", "Ward's 1913 article \"Eugenics, Euthenics, and Eudemics\", Chesterton's 1917 book ''Eugenics and Other Evils'', and Boas' 1916 article \"Eugenics\" (published in ''The Scientific Monthly'') were all harshly critical of the rapidly growing movement.", "Sutherland identified eugenicists as a major obstacle to the eradication and cure of tuberculosis in his 1917 address \"Consumption: Its Cause and Cure\", and criticism of eugenicists and Neo-Malthusians in his 1921 book ''Birth Control'' led to a writ for libel from the eugenicist Marie Stopes.", "Several biologists were also antagonistic to the eugenics movement, including Lancelot Hogben.", "Other biologists such as J.", "B. S. Haldane and R. A. Fisher expressed skepticism in the belief that sterilization of \"defectives\" would lead to the disappearance of undesirable genetic traits.Among institutions, the Catholic Church was an opponent of state-enforced sterilizations, but accepted isolating people with hereditary diseases so as not to let them reproduce.", "Attempts by the Eugenics Education Society to persuade the British government to legalize voluntary sterilization were opposed by Catholics and by the Labour Party.", "The American Eugenics Society initially gained some Catholic supporters, but Catholic support declined following the 1930 papal encyclical ''Casti connubii''.", "In this, Pope Pius XI explicitly condemned sterilization laws: \"Public magistrates have no direct power over the bodies of their subjects; therefore, where no crime has taken place and there is no cause present for grave punishment, they can never directly harm, or tamper with the integrity of the body, either for the reasons of eugenics or for any other reason.", "\"As a social movement, eugenics reached its greatest popularity in the early decades of the 20th century, when it was practiced around the world and promoted by governments, institutions, and influential individuals (such as the playwright G. B. Shaw).", "Many countries enacted various eugenics policies, including: genetic screenings, birth control, promoting differential birth rates, marriage restrictions, segregation (both racial segregation and sequestering the mentally ill), compulsory sterilization, forced abortions or forced pregnancies, ultimately culminating in genocide.", "By 2014, gene selection (rather than \"people selection\") was made possible through advances in genome editing, leading to what is sometimes called ''new eugenics'', also known as \"neo-eugenics\", \"consumer eugenics\", or \"liberal eugenics\"; which focuses on individual freedom and allegedly pull away from racism, sexism, heterosexism or a focus on intelligence.===Eugenics in the United States===Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States made it a crime for individuals to wed someone categorized as belonging to a different race.", "These laws were part of a broader policy of racial segregation in the United States to minimize contact between people of different ethnicities.", "Race laws and practices in the United States were explicitly used as models by the Nazi regime when it developed the Nuremberg Laws, stripping Jewish citizens of their citizenship.===Nazism and the decline of eugenics ===Schloss Hartheim, a former center for Nazi Germany's Aktion T4 campaignA ''Lebensborn'' birth house in Nazi Germany.", "Created with the intention of raising the birth rate of \"Aryan\" children from the extramarital relations of \"racially pure and healthy\" parents.The scientific reputation of eugenics started to decline in the 1930s, a time when Ernst Rüdin used eugenics as a justification for the racial policies of Nazi Germany.", "Adolf Hitler had praised and incorporated eugenic ideas in ''Mein Kampf'' in 1925 and emulated eugenic legislation for the sterilization of \"defectives\" that had been pioneered in the United States once he took power.", "Some common early 20th century eugenics methods involved identifying and classifying individuals and their families, including the poor, mentally ill, blind, deaf, developmentally disabled, promiscuous women, homosexuals, and racial groups (such as the Roma and Jews in Nazi Germany) as \"degenerate\" or \"unfit\", and therefore led to segregation, institutionalization, sterilization, and even mass murder.", "The Nazi policy of identifying German citizens deemed mentally or physically unfit and then systematically killing them with poison gas, referred to as the Aktion T4 campaign, is understood by historians to have paved the way for the Holocaust.By the end of World War II, many eugenics laws were abandoned, having become associated with Nazi Germany.", "H. G. Wells, who had called for \"the sterilization of failures\" in 1904, stated in his 1940 book ''The Rights of Man: Or What Are We Fighting For?''", "that among the human rights, which he believed should be available to all people, was \"a prohibition on mutilation, sterilization, torture, and any bodily punishment\".", "After World War II, the practice of \"imposing measures intended to prevent births within a national, ethnical, racial or religious group\" fell within the definition of the new international crime of genocide, set out in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.", "The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union also proclaims \"the prohibition of eugenic practices, in particular those aiming at selection of persons\".", "In spite of the decline in discriminatory eugenics laws, some government mandated sterilizations continued into the 21st century.", "During the ten years President Alberto Fujimori led Peru from 1990 to 2000, 2,000 persons were allegedly involuntarily sterilized.", "China maintained its one-child policy until 2015 as well as a suite of other eugenics-based legislation to reduce population size and manage fertility rates of different populations.===Compulsory sterilization ===While there is ostensibly less support for eugenics today, forced sterilization remains a problem around the world.", "It has been used against Indigenous women in Canada as recently as 2019.Until 2014, the Netherlands required sterilization of transgender people as a prerequisite for legal recognition of their genders.", "A similar law persists in Japan and was upheld in 2019 as constitutional.", "In the United States, most people affected by forced sterilization are under guardianship, though procedures were also performed on inmates in the California prison system.", "According to a report from The National Women's Law Center, 31 states and D.C. have laws allowing forced sterilization, and in most other states it is not clear whether it is legal or not.", "Seventeen states allow the sterilization of children under the age of 18, and some do not even require a legal guardian to make that decision." ], [ "Modern eugenics", "Developments in genetic, genomic, and reproductive technologies at the beginning of the 21st century have raised numerous questions regarding the ethical status of eugenics, effectively creating a resurgence of interest in the subject.", "Some, such as UC Berkeley sociologist Troy Duster, have argued that modern genetics is a back door to eugenics.", "This view was shared by then-White House Assistant Director for Forensic Sciences, Tania Simoncelli, who stated in a 2003 publication by the Population and Development Program at Hampshire College that advances in pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) are moving society to a \"new era of eugenics\", and that, unlike the Nazi eugenics, modern eugenics is consumer driven and market based, \"where children are increasingly regarded as made-to-order consumer products\".In a 2006 newspaper article, Richard Dawkins said that discussion regarding eugenics was inhibited by the shadow of Nazi misuse, to the extent that some scientists would not admit that breeding humans for certain abilities is at all possible.", "He believes that it is not physically different from breeding domestic animals for traits such as speed or herding skill.", "Dawkins felt that enough time had elapsed to at least ask just what the ethical differences were between breeding for ability versus training athletes or forcing children to take music lessons, though he could think of persuasive reasons to draw the distinction.Lee Kuan Yew, the founding father of Singapore, promoted eugenics as late as 1983.A proponent of nature over nurture, he stated that \"intelligence is 80% nature and 20% nurture\", and attributed the successes of his children to genetics.", "In his speeches, Lee urged highly educated women to have more children, claiming that \"social delinquents\" would dominate unless their fertility rate increased.", "In 1984, Singapore began providing financial incentives to highly educated women to encourage them to have more children.", "In 1985, incentives were significantly reduced after public uproar.In October 2015, the United Nations' International Bioethics Committee wrote that the ethical problems of human genetic engineering should not be confused with the ethical problems of the 20th century eugenics movements.", "However, it is still problematic because it challenges the idea of human equality and opens up new forms of discrimination and stigmatization for those who do not want, or cannot afford, the technology.The National Human Genome Research Institute says that eugenics is \"inaccurate\", \"scientifically erroneous and immoral\".Transhumanism is often associated with eugenics, although most transhumanists holding similar views nonetheless distance themselves from the term \"eugenics\" (preferring \"germinal choice\" or \"reprogenetics\") to avoid having their position confused with the discredited theories and practices of early-20th-century eugenic movements.Prenatal screening has been called by some a contemporary form of eugenics because it may lead to abortions of fetuses with undesirable traits.A system was proposed by California State Senator Nancy Skinner to compensate victims of the well-documented examples of prison sterilizations resulting from California's eugenics programs, but this did not pass by the bill's 2018 deadline in the Legislature." ], [ "Meanings and types", "Karl Pearson in 1912The term ''eugenics'' and its modern field of study were first formulated by Francis Galton in 1883, drawing on the recent work of his half-cousin Charles Darwin.", "Galton published his observations and conclusions in his book ''Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development''.The origins of the concept began with certain interpretations of Mendelian inheritance and the theories of August Weismann.", "The word ''eugenics'' is derived from the Greek word ''eu'' (\"good\" or \"well\") and the suffix ''-genēs'' (\"born\"); Galton intended it to replace the word \"stirpiculture\", which he had used previously but which had come to be mocked due to its perceived sexual overtones.", "Galton defined eugenics as \"the study of all agencies under human control which can improve or impair the racial quality of future generations\".The most disputed aspect of eugenics has been the definition of \"improvement\" of the human gene pool, such as what is a beneficial characteristic and what is a defect.", "Historically, this aspect of eugenics was tainted with scientific racism and pseudoscience.Historically, the idea of ''eugenics'' has been used to argue for a broad array of practices ranging from prenatal care for mothers deemed genetically desirable to the forced sterilization and murder of those deemed unfit.", "To population geneticists, the term has included the avoidance of inbreeding without altering allele frequencies; for example, J.", "B. S. Haldane wrote that \"the motor bus, by breaking up inbred village communities, was a powerful eugenic agent.\"", "Debate as to what exactly counts as eugenics continues today.Edwin Black, journalist, historian, and author of ''War Against the Weak'', argues that eugenics is often deemed a pseudoscience because what is defined as a genetic improvement of a desired trait is a cultural choice rather than a matter that can be determined through objective scientific inquiry.", "Black states the following about the pseudoscientific past of eugenics: \"As American eugenic pseudoscience thoroughly infused the scientific journals of the first three decades of the twentieth century, Nazi-era eugenics placed its unmistakable stamp on the medical literature of the twenties, thirties and forties.\"", "Black says that eugenics was the pseudoscience aimed at \"improving\" the human race, used by Adolf Hitler to \"try to legitimize his anti- Semitism by medicalizing it, and wrapping it in the more palatable pseudoscientific facade of eugenics.", "\"Early eugenicists were mostly concerned with factors of perceived intelligence that often correlated strongly with social class.", "These included Karl Pearson and Walter Weldon, who worked on this at the University College London.", "In his lecture \"Darwinism, Medical Progress and Eugenics\", Pearson claimed that everything concerning eugenics fell into the field of medicine.Eugenic policies have been conceptually divided into two categories.", "Positive eugenics is aimed at encouraging reproduction among the genetically advantaged; for example, the reproduction of the intelligent, the healthy, and the successful.", "Possible approaches include financial and political stimuli, targeted demographic analyses, ''in vitro'' fertilization, egg transplants, and cloning.", "Negative eugenics aimed to eliminate, through sterilization or segregation, those deemed physically, mentally, or morally \"undesirable\".", "This includes abortions, sterilization, and other methods of family planning.", "Both positive and negative eugenics can be coercive; in Nazi Germany, for example, abortion was illegal for women deemed by the state to be fit." ], [ "Controversy over scientific and moral legitimacy", "===Arguments for scientific validity===The heterozygote test is used for the early detection of recessive hereditary diseases, allowing for couples to determine if they are at risk of passing genetic defects to a future child.", "The goal of the test is to estimate the likelihood of passing the hereditary disease to future descendants.There are examples of eugenic acts that managed to lower the prevalence of recessive diseases, although not influencing the prevalence of heterozygote carriers of those diseases.", "The elevated prevalence of certain genetically transmitted diseases among the Ashkenazi Jewish population (Tay–Sachs, cystic fibrosis, Canavan's disease, and Gaucher's disease), has been decreased in current populations by the application of genetic screening.===Objections to scientific validity ===The first major challenge to conventional eugenics based on genetic inheritance was made in 1915 by Thomas Hunt Morgan.", "He demonstrated the event of genetic mutation occurring outside of inheritance involving the discovery of the hatching of a fruit fly (''Drosophila melanogaster'') with white eyes from a family with red eyes, demonstrating that major genetic changes occurred outside of inheritance.", "Additionally, Morgan criticized the view that certain traits, such as intelligence and criminality, were hereditary because these traits were subjective.", "Despite Morgan's public rejection of eugenics, much of his genetic research was adopted by proponents of eugenics.Pleiotropy occurs when one gene influences multiple, seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits, an example being phenylketonuria, which is a human disease that affects multiple systems but is caused by one gene defect.", "Andrzej Pękalski, from the University of Wroclaw, argues that eugenics can cause harmful loss of genetic diversity if a eugenics program selects a pleiotropic gene that could possibly be associated with a positive trait.", "Pekalski uses the example of a coercive government eugenics program that prohibits people with myopia from breeding but has the unintended consequence of also selecting against high intelligence since the two go together.", "Further, a culturally-accepted \"improvement\" of the gene pool may result in extinction, due to increased vulnerability to disease, reduced ability to adapt to environmental change, and other factors that may not be anticipated in advance.", "This has been evidenced in numerous instances, in isolated island populations.", "A long-term, species-wide eugenics plan might lead to such a scenario because the elimination of traits deemed undesirable would reduce genetic diversity by definition.While the science of genetics has increasingly provided means by which certain characteristics and conditions can be identified and understood, given the complexity of human genetics, culture, and psychology, at this point there is no agreed objective means of determining which traits might be ultimately desirable or undesirable.", "Some conditions such as sickle-cell disease and cystic fibrosis respectively confer immunity to malaria and resistance to cholera when a single copy of the recessive allele is contained within the genotype of the individual, so eliminating these genes is undesirable in places where such diseases are common.===Ethical controversies===Societal and political consequences of eugenics call for a place in the discussion on the ethics behind the eugenics movement.", "Many of the ethical concerns regarding eugenics arise from its controversial past, prompting a discussion on what place, if any, it should have in the future.", "Advances in science have changed eugenics.", "In the past, eugenics had more to do with sterilization and enforced reproduction laws.", "Now, in the age of a progressively mapped genome, embryos can be tested for susceptibility to disease, gender, and genetic defects, and alternative methods of reproduction such as in vitro fertilization are becoming more common.", "Therefore, eugenics is no longer ''ex post facto'' regulation of the living but instead preemptive action on the unborn.With this change, however, there are ethical concerns which some groups feel warrant more attention before this practice is commonly rolled out.", "Sterilized individuals, for example, could volunteer for the procedure, albeit under incentive or duress, or at least voice their opinion.", "The unborn fetus on which these new eugenic procedures are performed cannot speak out, as the fetus lacks the voice to consent or to express their opinion.", "Philosophers disagree about the proper framework for reasoning about such actions, which change the very identity and existence of future persons.====Opposition====In the decades after World War II, the term \"eugenics\" had taken on a negative connotation and as a result, the use of it became increasingly unpopular within the scientific community.", "Many organizations and journals that had their origins in the eugenics movement began to distance themselves from the philosophy which spawned it, as when ''Eugenics Quarterly'' was renamed ''Social Biology'' in 1969.Edwin Black has described potential \"eugenics wars\" as the worst-case outcome of eugenics.", "In his view, this scenario would mean the return of coercive state-sponsored genetic discrimination and human rights violations such as the compulsory sterilization of persons with genetic defects, the killing of the institutionalized and, specifically, the segregation and genocide of races which are considered inferior.", "Law professors George Annas and Lori Andrews have argued that the use of these technologies could lead to such human-posthuman caste warfare.Environmental ethicist Bill McKibben argued against germinal choice technology and other advanced biotechnological strategies for human enhancement.", "He writes that it would be morally wrong for humans to tamper with fundamental aspects of themselves (or their children) in an attempt to overcome universal human limitations, such as vulnerability to aging, maximum life span and biological constraints on physical and cognitive ability.", "Attempts to \"improve\" themselves through such manipulation would remove limitations that provide a necessary context for the experience of meaningful human choice.", "He claims that human lives would no longer seem meaningful in a world where such limitations could be overcome with technology.", "Even the goal of using germinal choice technology for clearly therapeutic purposes should be relinquished, he argues, since it would inevitably produce temptations to tamper with such things as cognitive capacities.", "He argues that it is possible for societies to benefit from renouncing particular technologies, using Ming China, Tokugawa Japan and the contemporary Amish as examples.Amanda Caleb, Professor of Medical Humanities at Geisinger Commonwealth School of Medicine, says \"Eugenic laws and policies are now understood as part of a specious devotion to a pseudoscience that actively dehumanizes to support political agendas and not true science or medicine.", "\"====Endorsement====Some, for example Nathaniel C. Comfort from Johns Hopkins University, claim that the change from state-led reproductive-genetic decision-making to individual choice has moderated the worst abuses of eugenics by transferring the decision-making process from the state to patients and their families.", "Comfort suggests that \"the eugenic impulse drives us to eliminate disease, live longer and healthier, with greater intelligence, and a better adjustment to the conditions of society; and the health benefits, the intellectual thrill and the profits of genetic bio-medicine are too great for us to do otherwise.\"", "Others, such as bioethicist Stephen Wilkinson of Keele University and Honorary Research Fellow Eve Garrard at the University of Manchester, claim that some aspects of modern genetics can be classified as eugenics, but that this classification does not inherently make modern genetics immoral.In their book published in 2000, ''From Chance to Choice: Genetics and Justice'', bioethicists Allen Buchanan, Dan Brock, Norman Daniels and Daniel Wikler argued that liberal societies have an obligation to encourage as wide an adoption of eugenic enhancement technologies as possible (so long as such policies do not infringe on individuals' reproductive rights or exert undue pressures on prospective parents to use these technologies) in order to maximize public health and minimize the inequalities that may result from both natural genetic endowments and unequal access to genetic enhancements.In his book ''A Theory of Justice'' (1971), American philosopher John Rawls argued that \"Over time a society is to take steps to preserve the general level of natural abilities and to prevent the diffusion of serious defects\".", "The original position, a hypothetical situation developed by Rawls, has been used as an argument for ''negative eugenics''." ], [ "In science fiction", "The novel ''Brave New World'' (1931) is a dystopian social science fiction novel by the English author Aldous Huxley, set in a futuristic World State, whose citizens are environmentally engineered into an intelligence-based social hierarchy.The film ''Gattaca'' (1997) provides a fictional example of a dystopian society that uses eugenics to decide what people are capable of and their place in the world.", "Though ''Gattaca'' was not a box office success, it was critically acclaimed and is said to have crystallized the debate over the controversial topic of human genetic engineering.", "The film's dystopian depiction of \"genoism\" has been cited by many bioethicists and laypeople in support of their hesitancy about, or opposition to, eugenics and the societal acceptance of the genetic-determinist ideology that may frame it.", "In a 1997 review of the film for the journal ''Nature Genetics'', molecular biologist Lee M. Silver stated that \"''Gattaca'' is a film that all geneticists should see if for no other reason than to understand the perception of our trade held by so many of the public-at-large\".", "In his 2018 book ''Blueprint'', behavioural geneticist Robert Plomin writes that while ''Gattaca'' warned of the dangers of genetic information being used by a totalitarian state, genetic testing could also favour better meritocracy in democratic societies which already administer psychological tests to select people for education and employment.", "Plomin suggests that polygenic scores might supplement testing in a manner that is free of biases.Various works by author Robert A. Heinlein mention the Howard Foundation, a group aimed at improving human longevity through selective breeding." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * ()* * * * * * * * " ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", " * * * * * * * * * ===Histories of eugenics (academic accounts)===* * * * * * Leon, Sharon M. (2013).", "''An Image of God: The Catholic Struggle with Eugenics.''", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "* * * Stepan, Nancy Leys (1991).", "''\"The Hour of Eugenics\": Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America''.", "Ithaca: Cornell University Press.", "* * * ===Histories of hereditarian thought===* * * * ===Criticisms of eugenics===* * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Eugenics: Its Origin and Development (1883–Present) by the National Human Genome Research Institute (November 30, 2021)* Eugenics and Scientific Racism Fact Sheet by the National Human Genome Research Institute (November 3, 2021)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Email" ], [ "Introduction", "This screenshot shows the \"Inbox\" page of an email client; users can see new emails and take actions, such as reading, deleting, saving, or responding to these messages.When a \"robot\" on Wikipedia makes changes to image files, the uploader receives an email about the changes made.", "'''Electronic mail''' ('''email''' or '''e-mail''') is a method of transmitting and receiving messages using electronic devices.", "It was conceived in the late–20th century as the digital version of, or counterpart to, mail (hence ''e- + mail'').", "Email is a ubiquitous and very widely used communication medium; in current use, an email address is often treated as a basic and necessary part of many processes in business, commerce, government, education, entertainment, and other spheres of daily life in most countries.Email operates across computer networks, primarily the Internet, and also local area networks.", "Today's email systems are based on a store-and-forward model.", "Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages.", "Neither the users nor their computers are required to be online simultaneously; they need to connect, typically to a mail server or a webmail interface to send or receive messages or download it.Originally an ASCII text-only communications medium, Internet email was extended by Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) to carry text in other character sets and multimedia content attachments.", "International email, with internationalized email addresses using UTF-8, is standardized but not widely adopted." ], [ "Terminology", "The term ''electronic mail'' has been in use with its modern meaning since 1975, and variations of the shorter ''E-mail'' have been in use since 1979:* '''''email''''' is now the common form, and recommended by style guides.", "It is the form required by IETF Requests for Comments (RFC) and working groups.", "This spelling also appears in most dictionaries.", "* '''''e-mail''''' is the form favored in edited published American English and British English writing as reflected in the Corpus of Contemporary American English data, but is falling out of favor in some style guides.", "* ''E-mail'' is sometimes used.", "The original usage in June 1979 occurred in the journal ''Electronics'' in reference to the United States Postal Service initiative called E-COM, which was developed in the late 1970s and operated in the early 1980s.", "* '''''Email''''' is also used.", "* '''''EMAIL''''' was used by CompuServe starting in April 1981, which popularized the term.", "* '''''EMail''''' is a traditional form used in RFCs for the \"Author's Address\".The service is often simply referred to as ''mail'', and a single piece of electronic mail is called a ''message''.", "The conventions for fields within emails—the \"To\", \"From\", \"CC\", \"BCC\" etc.—began with RFC-680 in 1975.An Internet email consists of an ''envelope'' and ''content''; the content consists of a ''header'' and a ''body''." ], [ "History", "Computer-based messaging between users of the same system became possible after the advent of time-sharing in the early 1960s, with a notable implementation by MIT's CTSS project in 1965.Most developers of early mainframes and minicomputers developed similar, but generally incompatible, mail applications.", "In 1971 the first ARPANET network mail was sent, introducing the now-familiar address syntax with the '@' symbol designating the user's system address.", "Over a series of RFCs, conventions were refined for sending mail messages over the File Transfer Protocol.", "Proprietary electronic mail systems soon began to emerge.", "IBM, CompuServe and Xerox used in-house mail systems in the 1970s; CompuServe sold a commercial intraoffice mail product in 1978 to IBM and to Xerox from 1981.DEC's ALL-IN-1 and Hewlett-Packard's HPMAIL (later HP DeskManager) were released in 1982; development work on the former began in the late 1970s and the latter became the world's largest selling email system.The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) protocol was implemented on the ARPANET in 1983.LAN email systems emerged in the mid 1980s.", "For a time in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it seemed likely that either a proprietary commercial system or the X.400 email system, part of the Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile (GOSIP), would predominate.", "However, once the final restrictions on carrying commercial traffic over the Internet ended in 1995, a combination of factors made the current Internet suite of SMTP, POP3 and IMAP email protocols the standard (see Protocol Wars)." ], [ "Operation", "The following is a typical sequence of events that takes place when sender Alice transmits a message using a mail user agent (MUA) addressed to the email address of the recipient.Email operation# The MUA formats the message in email format and uses the submission protocol, a profile of the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), to send the message content to the local mail submission agent (MSA), in this case ''smtp.a.org''.# The MSA determines the destination address provided in the SMTP protocol (not from the message header)—in this case, ''[email protected]''—which is a fully qualified domain address (FQDA).", "The part before the @ sign is the ''local part'' of the address, often the username of the recipient, and the part after the @ sign is a domain name.", "The MSA resolves a domain name to determine the fully qualified domain name of the mail server in the Domain Name System (DNS).# The DNS server for the domain ''b.org'' (''ns.b.org'') responds with any MX records listing the mail exchange servers for that domain, in this case ''mx.b.org'', a message transfer agent (MTA) server run by the recipient's ISP.# smtp.a.org sends the message to mx.b.org using SMTP.", "This server may need to forward the message to other MTAs before the message reaches the final message delivery agent (MDA).# The MDA delivers it to the mailbox of user ''bob''.# Bob's MUA picks up the message using either the Post Office Protocol (POP3) or the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP).In addition to this example, alternatives and complications exist in the email system:* Alice or Bob may use a client connected to a corporate email system, such as IBM Lotus Notes or Microsoft Exchange.", "These systems often have their own internal email format and their clients typically communicate with the email server using a vendor-specific, proprietary protocol.", "The server sends or receives email via the Internet through the product's Internet mail gateway which also does any necessary reformatting.", "If Alice and Bob work for the same company, the entire transaction may happen completely within a single corporate email system.", "* Alice may not have an MUA on her computer but instead may connect to a webmail service.", "* Alice's computer may run its own MTA, so avoiding the transfer at step 1.", "* Bob may pick up his email in many ways, for example logging into mx.b.org and reading it directly, or by using a webmail service.", "* Domains usually have several mail exchange servers so that they can continue to accept mail even if the primary is not available.Many MTAs used to accept messages for any recipient on the Internet and do their best to deliver them.", "Such MTAs are called ''open mail relays''.", "This was very important in the early days of the Internet when network connections were unreliable.", "However, this mechanism proved to be exploitable by originators of unsolicited bulk email and as a consequence open mail relays have become rare, and many MTAs do not accept messages from open mail relays." ], [ "Message format {{anchor\|Internet Message Format}}", "The basic Internet message format used for email is defined by , with encoding of non-ASCII data and multimedia content attachments defined in RFC 2045 through RFC 2049, collectively called ''Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions'' or ''MIME''.", "The extensions in International email apply only to email.", "RFC 5322 replaced the earlier RFC 2822 in 2008, then RFC 2822 in 2001 replaced RFC 822 – the standard for Internet email for decades.", "Published in 1982, RFC 822 was based on the earlier RFC 733 for the ARPANET.Internet email messages consist of two sections, \"header\" and \"body\".", "These are known as \"content\".", "The header is structured into fields such as From, To, CC, Subject, Date, and other information about the email.", "In the process of transporting email messages between systems, SMTP communicates delivery parameters and information using message header fields.", "The body contains the message, as unstructured text, sometimes containing a signature block at the end.", "The header is separated from the body by a blank line.===Message header===RFC 5322 specifies the syntax of the email header.", "Each email message has a header (the \"header section\" of the message, according to the specification), comprising a number of fields (\"header fields\").", "Each field has a name (\"field name\" or \"header field name\"), followed by the separator character \":\", and a value (\"field body\" or \"header field body\").Each field name begins in the first character of a new line in the header section, and begins with a non-whitespace printable character.", "It ends with the separator character \":\".", "The separator is followed by the field value (the \"field body\").", "The value can continue onto subsequent lines if those lines have space or tab as their first character.", "Field names and, without SMTPUTF8, field bodies are restricted to 7-bit ASCII characters.", "Some non-ASCII values may be represented using MIME encoded words.====Header fields====Email header fields can be multi-line, with each line recommended to be no more than 78 characters, although the limit is 998 characters.", "Header fields defined by RFC 5322 contain only US-ASCII characters; for encoding characters in other sets, a syntax specified in RFC 2047 may be used.", "In some examples, the IETF EAI working group defines some standards track extensions, replacing previous experimental extensions so UTF-8 encoded Unicode characters may be used within the header.", "In particular, this allows email addresses to use non-ASCII characters.", "Such addresses are supported by Google and Microsoft products, and promoted by some government agents.The message header must include at least the following fields:* ''From'': The email address, and, optionally, the name of the author(s).", "Some email clients are changeable through account settings.", "* ''Date'': The local time and date the message was written.", "Like the ''From:'' field, many email clients fill this in automatically before sending.", "The recipient's client may display the time in the format and time zone local to them.RFC 3864 describes registration procedures for message header fields at the IANA; it provides for permanent and provisional field names, including also fields defined for MIME, netnews, and HTTP, and referencing relevant RFCs.", "Common header fields for email include:* ''To'': The email address(es), and optionally name(s) of the message's recipient(s).", "Indicates primary recipients (multiple allowed), for secondary recipients see Cc: and Bcc: below.", "* ''Subject'': A brief summary of the topic of the message.", "Certain abbreviations are commonly used in the subject, including \"RE:\" and \"FW:\".", "* ''Cc'': Carbon copy; Many email clients mark email in one's inbox differently depending on whether they are in the To: or Cc: list.", "* ''Bcc'': Blind carbon copy; addresses are usually only specified during SMTP delivery, and not usually listed in the message header.", "* Content-Type: Information about how the message is to be displayed, usually a MIME type.", "* ''Precedence'': commonly with values \"bulk\", \"junk\", or \"list\"; used to indicate automated \"vacation\" or \"out of office\" responses should not be returned for this mail, e.g.", "to prevent vacation notices from sent to all other subscribers of a mailing list.", "Sendmail uses this field to affect prioritization of queued email, with \"Precedence: special-delivery\" messages delivered sooner.", "With modern high-bandwidth networks, delivery priority is less of an issue than it was.", "Microsoft Exchange respects a fine-grained automatic response suppression mechanism, the ''X-Auto-Response-Suppress'' field.", "* ''Message-ID'': Also an automatic-generated field to prevent multiple deliveries and for reference in In-Reply-To: (see below).", "* ''In-Reply-To'': Message-ID of the message this is a reply to.", "Used to link related messages together.", "This field only applies to reply messages.", "* ''List-Unsubscribe'': HTTP link to unsubscribe from a mailing list.", "* ''References'': Message-ID of the message this is a reply to, and the message-id of the message the previous reply was a reply to, etc.", "* '''': Address should be used to reply to the message.", "* ''Sender'': Address of the sender acting on behalf of the author listed in the From: field (secretary, list manager, etc.).", "* ''Archived-At'': A direct link to the archived form of an individual email message.The ''To:'' field may be unrelated to the addresses to which the message is delivered.", "The delivery list is supplied separately to the transport protocol, SMTP, which may be extracted from the header content.", "The \"To:\" field is similar to the addressing at the top of a conventional letter delivered according to the address on the outer envelope.", "In the same way, the \"From:\" field may not be the sender.", "Some mail servers apply email authentication systems to messages relayed.", "Data pertaining to the server's activity is also part of the header, as defined below.SMTP defines the ''trace information'' of a message saved in the header using the following two fields:* ''Received'': after an SMTP server accepts a message, it inserts this trace record at the top of the header (last to first).", "* ''Return-Path'': after the delivery SMTP server makes the ''final delivery'' of a message, it inserts this field at the top of the header.Other fields added on top of the header by the receiving server may be called ''trace fields''.", "* ''Authentication-Results'': after a server verifies authentication, it can save the results in this field for consumption by downstream agents.", "* ''Received-SPF'': stores results of SPF checks in more detail than Authentication-Results.", "* ''DKIM-Signature'': stores results of DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) decryption to verify the message was not changed after it was sent.", "* ''Auto-Submitted'': is used to mark automatic-generated messages.", "* ''VBR-Info'': claims VBR whitelisting===Message body=======Content encoding====Internet email was designed for 7-bit ASCII.", "Most email software is 8-bit clean, but must assume it will communicate with 7-bit servers and mail readers.", "The MIME standard introduced character set specifiers and two content transfer encodings to enable transmission of non-ASCII data: quoted printable for mostly 7-bit content with a few characters outside that range and base64 for arbitrary binary data.", "The 8BITMIME and BINARY extensions were introduced to allow transmission of mail without the need for these encodings, but many mail transport agents may not support them.", "In some countries, e-mail software violates by sending raw non-ASCII text and several encoding schemes co-exist; as a result, by default, the message in a non-Latin alphabet language appears in non-readable form (the only exception is a coincidence if the sender and receiver use the same encoding scheme).", "Therefore, for international character sets, Unicode is growing in popularity.====Plain text and HTML====Most modern graphic email clients allow the use of either plain text or HTML for the message body at the option of the user.", "HTML email messages often include an automatic-generated plain text copy for compatibility.Advantages of HTML include the ability to include in-line links and images, set apart previous messages in block quotes, wrap naturally on any display, use emphasis such as underlines and italics, and change font styles.", "Disadvantages include the increased size of the email, privacy concerns about web bugs, abuse of HTML email as a vector for phishing attacks and the spread of malicious software.Some e-mail clients interpret the body as HTML even in the absence of a Content-Type: html header field; this may cause various problems.Some web-based mailing lists recommend all posts be made in plain text, with 72 or 80 characters per line for all the above reasons, and because they have a significant number of readers using text-based email clients such as Mutt.Various informal conventions evolved for marking up plain text in email and usenet posts, which later led to the development of formal languages like setext ''(c. 1992)'' and many others, the most popular of them being markdown.Some Microsoft email clients may allow rich formatting using their proprietary Rich Text Format (RTF), but this should be avoided unless the recipient is guaranteed to have a compatible email client." ], [ "Servers and client applications", "The interface of an email client, ThunderbirdMessages are exchanged between hosts using the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol with software programs called mail transfer agents (MTAs); and delivered to a mail store by programs called mail delivery agents (MDAs, also sometimes called local delivery agents, LDAs).", "Accepting a message obliges an MTA to deliver it, and when a message cannot be delivered, that MTA must send a bounce message back to the sender, indicating the problem.Users can retrieve their messages from servers using standard protocols such as POP or IMAP, or, as is more likely in a large corporate environment, with a proprietary protocol specific to Novell Groupwise, Lotus Notes or Microsoft Exchange Servers.", "Programs used by users for retrieving, reading, and managing email are called mail user agents (MUAs).When opening an email, it is marked as \"read\", which typically visibly distinguishes it from \"unread\" messages on clients' user interfaces.", "Email clients may allow hiding read emails from the inbox so the user can focus on the unread.Mail can be stored on the client, on the server side, or in both places.", "Standard formats for mailboxes include Maildir and mbox.", "Several prominent email clients use their own proprietary format and require conversion software to transfer email between them.", "Server-side storage is often in a proprietary format but since access is through a standard protocol such as IMAP, moving email from one server to another can be done with any MUA supporting the protocol.Many current email users do not run MTA, MDA or MUA programs themselves, but use a web-based email platform, such as Gmail or Yahoo!", "Mail, that performs the same tasks.", "Such webmail interfaces allow users to access their mail with any standard web browser, from any computer, rather than relying on a local email client.===Filename extensions===Upon reception of email messages, email client applications save messages in operating system files in the file system.", "Some clients save individual messages as separate files, while others use various database formats, often proprietary, for collective storage.", "A historical standard of storage is the ''mbox'' format.", "The specific format used is often indicated by special filename extensions:;eml:Used by many email clients including Novell GroupWise, Microsoft Outlook Express, Lotus notes, Windows Mail, Mozilla Thunderbird, and Postbox.", "The files contain the email contents as plain text in MIME format, containing the email header and body, including attachments in one or more of several formats.", ";emlx:Used by Apple Mail.", ";msg:Used by Microsoft Office Outlook and OfficeLogic Groupware.", ";mbx:Used by Opera Mail, KMail, and Apple Mail based on the mbox format.Some applications (like Apple Mail) leave attachments encoded in messages for searching while also saving separate copies of the attachments.", "Others separate attachments from messages and save them in a specific directory.===URI scheme mailto===The URI scheme, as registered with the IANA, defines the mailto: scheme for SMTP email addresses.", "Though its use is not strictly defined, URLs of this form are intended to be used to open the new message window of the user's mail client when the URL is activated, with the address as defined by the URL in the ''To:'' field.", "Many clients also support query string parameters for the other email fields, such as its subject line or carbon copy recipients." ], [ "Types", "===Web-based email===Many email providers have a web-based email client.", "This allows users to log into the email account by using any compatible web browser to send and receive their email.", "Mail is typically not downloaded to the web client, so it cannot be read without a current Internet connection.===POP3 email servers===The Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) is a mail access protocol used by a client application to read messages from the mail server.", "Received messages are often deleted from the server.", "POP supports simple download-and-delete requirements for access to remote mailboxes (termed maildrop in the POP RFC's).", "POP3 allows downloading messages on a local computer and reading them even when offline.===IMAP email servers===The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) provides features to manage a mailbox from multiple devices.", "Small portable devices like smartphones are increasingly used to check email while traveling and to make brief replies, larger devices with better keyboard access being used to reply at greater length.", "IMAP shows the headers of messages, the sender and the subject and the device needs to request to download specific messages.", "Usually, the mail is left in folders in the mail server.===MAPI email servers===Messaging Application Programming Interface (MAPI) is used by Microsoft Outlook to communicate to Microsoft Exchange Server—and to a range of other email server products such as Axigen Mail Server, Kerio Connect, Scalix, Zimbra, HP OpenMail, IBM Lotus Notes, Zarafa, and Bynari where vendors have added MAPI support to allow their products to be accessed directly via Outlook." ], [ "Uses", "===Business and organizational use===Email has been widely accepted by businesses, governments and non-governmental organizations in the developed world, and it is one of the key parts of an 'e-revolution' in workplace communication (with the other key plank being widespread adoption of highspeed Internet).", "A sponsored 2010 study on workplace communication found 83% of U.S. knowledge workers felt email was critical to their success and productivity at work.It has some key benefits to business and other organizations, including:; Facilitating logistics: Much of the business world relies on communications between people who are not physically in the same building, area, or even country; setting up and attending an in-person meeting, telephone call, or conference call can be inconvenient, time-consuming, and costly.", "Email provides a method of exchanging information between two or more people with no set-up costs and that is generally far less expensive than a physical meeting or phone call.", "; Helping with synchronization: With real time communication by meetings or phone calls, participants must work on the same schedule, and each participant must spend the same amount of time in the meeting or call.", "Email allows asynchrony: each participant may control their schedule independently.", "Batch processing of incoming emails can improve workflow compared to interrupting calls.", "; Reducing cost: Sending an email is much less expensive than sending postal mail, or long distance telephone calls, telex or telegrams.", "; Increasing speed: Much faster than most of the alternatives.", "; Creating a \"written\" record: Unlike a telephone or in-person conversation, email by its nature creates a detailed written record of the communication, the identity of the sender(s) and recipient(s) and the date and time the message was sent.", "In the event of a contract or legal dispute, saved emails can be used to prove that an individual was advised of certain issues, as each email has the date and time recorded on it.", "; Possibility of auto-processing and improved distribution: As well pre-processing of customer's orders or addressing the person in charge can be realized by automated procedures.====Email marketing====Email marketing via \"opt-in\" is often successfully used to send special sales offerings and new product information.", "Depending on the recipient's culture, email sent without permission—such as an \"opt-in\"—is likely to be viewed as unwelcome \"email spam\".===Personal use=======Personal computer====Many users access their personal emails from friends and family members using a personal computer in their house or apartment.====Mobile====Email has become used on smartphones and on all types of computers.", "Mobile \"apps\" for email increase accessibility to the medium for users who are out of their homes.", "While in the earliest years of email, users could only access email on desktop computers, in the 2010s, it is possible for users to check their email when they are away from home, whether they are across town or across the world.", "Alerts can also be sent to the smartphone or other devices to notify them immediately of new messages.", "This has given email the ability to be used for more frequent communication between users and allowed them to check their email and write messages throughout the day.", ", there were approximately 1.4 billion email users worldwide and 50 billion non-spam emails that were sent daily.Individuals often check emails on smartphones for both personal and work-related messages.", "It was found that US adults check their email more than they browse the web or check their Facebook accounts, making email the most popular activity for users to do on their smartphones.", "78% of the respondents in the study revealed that they check their email on their phone.", "It was also found that 30% of consumers use only their smartphone to check their email, and 91% were likely to check their email at least once per day on their smartphone.", "However, the percentage of consumers using email on a smartphone ranges and differs dramatically across different countries.", "For example, in comparison to 75% of those consumers in the US who used it, only 17% in India did.====Declining use among young people====, the number of Americans visiting email web sites had fallen 6 percent after peaking in November 2009.For persons 12 to 17, the number was down 18 percent.", "Young people preferred instant messaging, texting and social media.", "Technology writer Matt Richtel said in ''The New York Times'' that email was like the VCR, vinyl records and film cameras—no longer cool and something older people do.A 2015 survey of Android users showed that persons 13 to 24 used messaging apps 3.5 times as much as those over 45, and were far less likely to use email." ], [ "Issues", "===Attachment size limitation===Email messages may have one or more attachments, which are additional files that are appended to the email.", "Typical attachments include Microsoft Word documents, PDF documents, and scanned images of paper documents.", "In principle, there is no technical restriction on the size or number of attachments.", "However, in practice, email clients, servers, and Internet service providers implement various limitations on the size of files, or complete email – typically to 25MB or less.", "Furthermore, due to technical reasons, attachment sizes as seen by these transport systems can differ from what the user sees, which can be confusing to senders when trying to assess whether they can safely send a file by email.", "Where larger files need to be shared, various file hosting services are available and commonly used.===Information overload===The ubiquity of email for knowledge workers and \"white collar\" employees has led to concerns that recipients face an \"information overload\" in dealing with increasing volumes of email.", "With the growth in mobile devices, by default employees may also receive work-related emails outside of their working day.", "This can lead to increased stress and decreased satisfaction with work.", "Some observers even argue it could have a significant negative economic effect, as efforts to read the many emails could reduce productivity.===Spam===Email \"spam\" is unsolicited bulk email.", "The low cost of sending such email meant that, by 2003, up to 30% of total email traffic was spam, and was threatening the usefulness of email as a practical tool.", "The US CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 and similar laws elsewhere had some impact, and a number of effective anti-spam techniques now largely mitigate the impact of spam by filtering or rejecting it for most users, but the volume sent is still very high—and increasingly consists not of advertisements for products, but malicious content or links.", "In September 2017, for example, the proportion of spam to legitimate email rose to 59.56%.", "The percentage of spam email in 2021 is estimated to be 85%.===Malware===A range of malicious email types exist.", "These range from various types of email scams, including \"social engineering\" scams such as advance-fee scam \"Nigerian letters\", to phishing, email bombardment and email worms.===Email spoofing===Email spoofing occurs when the email message header is designed to make the message appear to come from a known or trusted source.", "Email spam and phishing methods typically use spoofing to mislead the recipient about the true message origin.", "Email spoofing may be done as a prank, or as part of a criminal effort to defraud an individual or organization.", "An example of a potentially fraudulent email spoofing is if an individual creates an email that appears to be an invoice from a major company, and then sends it to one or more recipients.", "In some cases, these fraudulent emails incorporate the logo of the purported organization and even the email address may appear legitimate.===Email bombing===Email bombing is the intentional sending of large volumes of messages to a target address.", "The overloading of the target email address can render it unusable and can even cause the mail server to crash.===Privacy concerns===Today it can be important to distinguish between the Internet and internal email systems.", "Internet email may travel and be stored on networks and computers without the sender's or the recipient's control.", "During the transit time it is possible that third parties read or even modify the content.", "Internal mail systems, in which the information never leaves the organizational network, may be more secure, although information technology personnel and others whose function may involve monitoring or managing may be accessing the email of other employees.Email privacy, without some security precautions, can be compromised because:* email messages are generally not encrypted.", "* email messages have to go through intermediate computers before reaching their destination, meaning it is relatively easy for others to intercept and read messages.", "* many Internet Service Providers (ISP) store copies of email messages on their mail servers before they are delivered.", "The backups of these can remain for up to several months on their server, despite deletion from the mailbox.", "* the \"Received:\"-fields and other information in the email can often identify the sender, preventing anonymous communication.", "* web bugs invisibly embedded in HTML content can alert the sender of any email whenever an email is rendered as HTML (some e-mail clients do this when the user reads, or re-reads the e-mail) and from which IP address.", "It can also reveal whether an email was read on a smartphone or a PC, or Apple Mac device via the user agent string.There are cryptography applications that can serve as a remedy to one or more of the above.", "For example, Virtual Private Networks or the Tor network can be used to encrypt traffic from the user machine to a safer network while GPG, PGP, SMEmail, or S/MIME can be used for end-to-end message encryption, and SMTP STARTTLS or SMTP over Transport Layer Security/Secure Sockets Layer can be used to encrypt communications for a single mail hop between the SMTP client and the SMTP server.Additionally, many mail user agents do not protect logins and passwords, making them easy to intercept by an attacker.", "Encrypted authentication schemes such as SASL prevent this.", "Finally, the attached files share many of the same hazards as those found in peer-to-peer filesharing.", "Attached files may contain trojans or viruses.===Legal contracts===It is possible for an exchange of emails to form a binding contract, so users must be careful about what they send through email correspondence.", "A signature block on an email may be interpreted as satisfying a signature requirement for a contract.===Flaming===Flaming occurs when a person sends a message (or many messages) with angry or antagonistic content.", "The term is derived from the use of the word ''incendiary'' to describe particularly heated email discussions.", "The ease and impersonality of email communications mean that the social norms that encourage civility in person or via telephone do not exist and civility may be forgotten.===Email bankruptcy===Also known as \"email fatigue\", email bankruptcy is when a user ignores a large number of email messages after falling behind in reading and answering them.", "The reason for falling behind is often due to information overload and a general sense there is so much information that it is not possible to read it all.", "As a solution, people occasionally send a \"boilerplate\" message explaining that their email inbox is full, and that they are in the process of clearing out all the messages.", "Harvard University law professor Lawrence Lessig is credited with coining this term, but he may only have popularized it.===Internationalization===Originally Internet email was completely ASCII text-based.", "MIME now allows body content text and some header content text in international character sets, but other headers and email addresses using UTF-8, while standardized have yet to be widely adopted.===Tracking of sent mail===The original SMTP mail service provides limited mechanisms for tracking a transmitted message, and none for verifying that it has been delivered or read.", "It requires that each mail server must either deliver it onward or return a failure notice (bounce message), but both software bugs and system failures can cause messages to be lost.", "To remedy this, the IETF introduced Delivery Status Notifications (delivery receipts) and Message Disposition Notifications (return receipts); however, these are not universally deployed in production.Many ISPs now deliberately disable non-delivery reports (NDRs) and delivery receipts due to the activities of spammers:* Delivery Reports can be used to verify whether an address exists and if so, this indicates to a spammer that it is available to be spammed.", "* If the spammer uses a forged sender email address (email spoofing), then the innocent email address that was used can be flooded with NDRs from the many invalid email addresses the spammer may have attempted to mail.", "These NDRs then constitute spam from the ISP to the innocent user.In the absence of standard methods, a range of system based around the use of web bugs have been developed.", "However, these are often seen as underhand or raising privacy concerns, and only work with email clients that support rendering of HTML.", "Many mail clients now default to not showing \"web content\".", "Webmail providers can also disrupt web bugs by pre-caching images." ], [ "See also", "* Anonymous remailer* Anti-spam techniques* biff* Bounce message* Comparison of email clients* Dark Mail Alliance* Disposable email address* E-card* Electronic mailing list* Email art* Email authentication* Email digest* Email encryption* Email hosting service* Email storm* Email tracking* HTML email* Information overload* Internet fax* Internet mail standards* List of email subject abbreviations* MCI Mail* Netiquette* Posting style* Privacy-enhanced Electronic Mail* Push email* RSS* Telegraphy* Unicode and email* Usenet quoting* Webmail, Comparison of webmail providers* X-Originating-IP* X.400* Yerkish" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Cemil Betanov, ''Introduction to X.400'', Artech House, .", "* Marsha Egan, \" Inbox Detox and The Habit of Email Excellence \", Acanthus Publishing * Lawrence Hughes, ''Internet e-mail Protocols, Standards and Implementation'', Artech House Publishers, .", "* Kevin Johnson, ''Internet Email Protocols: A Developer's Guide'', Addison-Wesley Professional, .", "* Pete Loshin, ''Essential Email Standards: RFCs and Protocols Made Practical'', John Wiley & Sons, .", "* * Sara Radicati, ''Electronic Mail: An Introduction to the X.400 Message Handling Standards'', Mcgraw-Hill, .", "* John Rhoton, ''Programmer's Guide to Internet Mail: SMTP, POP, IMAP, and LDAP'', Elsevier, .", "* John Rhoton, ''X.400 and SMTP: Battle of the E-mail Protocols'', Elsevier, .", "* David Wood, ''Programming Internet Mail'', O'Reilly, ." ], [ "External links", "* IANA's list of standard header fields* The History of Email is Dave Crocker's attempt at capturing the sequence of 'significant' occurrences in the evolution of email; a collaborative effort that also cites this page.", "* The History of Electronic Mail is a personal memoir by the implementer of an early email system* A Look at the Origins of Network Email is a short, yet vivid recap of the key historical facts* Business E-Mail Compromise - An Emerging Global Threat, FBI* Explained from first principles, a 2021 article attempting to summarize more than 100 RFCs" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emoticon" ], [ "Introduction", "A smiley-face emoticonkaomoji smileysAn '''emoticon''' (, , rarely , ), short for '''emotion icon''', is a pictorial representation of a facial expression using characters—usually punctuation marks, numbers, and letters—to express a person's feelings, mood, or reaction, without needing to describe it in detail.The first ASCII emoticons are generally credited to computer scientist Scott Fahlman, who proposed what came to be known as \"smileys\":-) and in a message on the bulletin board system (BBS) of Carnegie Mellon University in 1982.In Western countries, emoticons are usually written at a right angle to the direction of the text.", "Users from Japan popularized a kind of emoticon called '''kaomoji''', utilizing the larger character sets required for Japanese, that can be understood without tilting one's head to the left.", "This style arose on ASCII NET of Japan in 1986.As SMS mobile text messaging and the Internet became widespread in the late 1990s, emoticons became increasingly popular and were commonly used in texting, Internet forums, and e-mails.", "Emoticons have played a significant role in communication through technology, and some devices and applications have provided stylized pictures that do not use text punctuation.", "They offer another range of \"tone\" and feeling through texting that portrays specific emotions through facial gestures while in the midst of text-based cyber communication.", "Emoticons were the precursors to modern emojis, which have been in a state of continuous development for a variety of digital platforms.", "Today, over 90% of the world's online population uses emojis or emoticons." ], [ "History", "===Different uses of text characters (pre-1981)===Cover of the French magazine ''Le Charivari'', text of a legal ruling against it in the shape of a pear, 1834Modern emoticons were not the first instances of or being used in text.", "In 1648, poet Robert Herrick wrote, ''\"Tumble me down, and I will sit Upon my ruins, (smiling yet:).\"''", "Herrick's work predated any other recorded use of brackets as a smiling face by around 200 years.", "However, experts have since weighed whether the inclusion of the colon in the poem was deliberate and if it was meant to represent a smiling face.", "English professor Alan Jacobs argued that \"punctuation, in general, was unsettled in the seventeenth century ... Herrick was unlikely to have consistent punctuational practices himself, and even if he did he couldn't expect either his printers or his readers to share them.", "\"Precursors to modern emoticons have existed since the 19th century.The ''National Telegraphic Review and Operators Guide'' in April 1857 documented the use of the number 73 in Morse code to express \"love and kisses\" (later reduced to the more formal \"best regards\").", "''Dodge's Manual'' in 1908 documented the reintroduction of \"love and kisses\" as the number 88.New Zealand academics Joan Gajadhar and John Green comment that both Morse code abbreviations are more succinct than modern abbreviations such as LOL.The transcript of one of Abraham Lincoln's speeches in 1862 recorded the audience's reaction as: \"(applause and laughter ;)\".There has been some debate whether the glyph in Lincoln's speech was a typo, a legitimate punctuation construct, or the first emoticon.Linguist Philip Seargeant argues that it was a simple typesetting error.Before March 1881 the examples of \"typographical art\" appeared in at least three newspaper articles, including ''Kurjer warszawski'' (published in Warsaw) from March 5, 1881, using punctuation to represent the emotions of joy, melancholy, indifference, and astonishment.Transcript of a speech by Abraham Lincoln in 1862In a 1912 essay titled \"For Brevity and Clarity\", American author Ambrose Bierce suggested facetiously that a bracket could be used to represent a smiling face, proposing \"an improvement in punctuation\" with which writers could convey ''cachinnation'', loud or immoderate laughter: \"it is written thus ‿ and presents a smiling mouth.", "It is to be appended, with the full stop, to every jocular or ironical sentence\".In a 1936 ''Harvard Lampoon'' article, writer Alan Gregg proposed combining brackets with various other punctuation marks to represent various moods.", "Brackets were used for the sides of the mouth or cheeks, with other punctuation used between the brackets to display various emotions: for a smile, (showing more \"teeth\") for laughter, for a frown and for a wink.The September 1962 issue of ''MAD'' magazine included an article titled \"Typewri-toons\".", "The piece, featuring typewriter-generated artwork credited to \"Royal Portable\", was entirely made up of repurposed typography, including a capital letter P having a bigger bust than a capital I, a lowercase b and d discussing their pregnancies, an asterisk on top of a letter to indicate the letter had just come inside from snowfall, and a classroom of lowercase n's interrupted by a lowercase h \"raising its hand\".", "\"Typographical art\" published in the March 5, 1881 issue of ''Kurjer Warszawski''A further example attributed to a ''Baltimore Sunday Sun'' columnist appeared in a 1967 article in ''Reader's Digest'', using a dash and right bracket to represent a tongue in one's cheek: .Prefiguring the modern \"smiley\" emoticon, writer Vladimir Nabokov told an interviewer from ''The New York Times'' in 1969, \"I often think there should exist a special typographical sign for a smilesome sort of concave mark, a supine round bracket, which I would now like to trace in reply to your question.", "\"In the 1970s, the PLATO IV computer system was launched.", "It was one of the first computers used throughout educational and professional institutions, but rarely used in a residential setting.", "On the computer system, a student at the University of Illinois developed pictograms that resembled different smiling faces.", "Mary Kalantzis and Bill Cope stated this likely took place in 1972, and they claimed these to be the first emoticons.", "The student's creations likely cover multiple timelines, the creation of computer icons, digital pictograms and emoticons.", "Since the pictograms were not focused on offering a means to communicate, they are not generally considered important in the history of the emoticon.===ASCII emoticons use in digital communication (1982–mid-1990s)===Carnegie Mellon computer scientist Scott Fahlman is generally credited with the invention of the digital text-based emoticon in 1982.Carnegie Mellon's bulletin board system (BBS) was a forum used by students and teachers for discussing a variety of topics, where jokes often created misunderstandings.", "As a response to the difficulty of conveying humor or sarcasm in plain text, Fahlman proposed colon–hyphen–right bracket as a label for \"attempted humor\".The use of ASCII symbols, a standard set of codes representing typographical marks, was essential to allow the symbols to be displayed on any computer.", "Fahlman sent the following message after an incident where a humorous warning about a mercury spill in an elevator was misunderstood as serious:19-Sep-82 11:44 Scott E Fahlman :-)From: Scott E Fahlman I propose that the following character sequence for joke markers: :-) Read it sideways.", "Actually, it is probably more economical to markthings that are NOT jokes, given current trends.", "For this, use :-(Other suggestions on the forum included an asterisk and an ampersand , the former meant to represent a person doubled over in laughter, as well as a percent sign and a pound sign .Within a few months, the smiley had spread to the ARPANET and Usenet.Many of those that pre-dated Fahlman either drew faces using alphabetic symbols or created digital pictograms.", "Scott Fahlman took it a step further, by suggesting that not only could his emoticon communication emotion, but also replace language.", "Using the emoticons as a form of communication is why Fahlman is seen as the creator of emoticons vs. other earlier claims.Since the 1990s, emoticons (colon, hyphen and bracket) have become integral to digital communications, and have inspired a variety of other emoticons, including the \"winking\" face using a semicolon , the \"surprised\" face with a letter ''o'' in place of a bracket , and , a visual representation of the Face with Tears of Joy emoji or the acronym LOL.In 1996, The Smiley Company was established by Nicolas Loufrani and his father Franklin as a way of commercializing the smiley trademark.", "As part of this, The Smiley Dictionary website focused on ASCII emoticons, where a catalogue was made of them.", "Hundreds of these basic designs had not been documented in one place, such as .", "Many other people did similar to Loufrani from 1995 onwards, including David Sanderson creating the book ''Smileys'' in 1997.James Marshall also hosted an online collection of ASCII emoticons which he completed in 2008.Loufrani's catalogue sorted the ASCII emoticons into 11 different categories, with designs that were more widespread than just representing human emotion.A researcher at Stanford University surveyed the emoticons used in four million Twitter messages and found that the smiling emoticon without a hyphen \"nose\" was much more common than the original version with the hyphen .", "Linguist Vyvyan Evans argues that this represents a shift in usage by younger users as a form of ''covert prestige'': rejecting a standard usage in order to demonstrate in-group membership.===Graphical emoticons & other developments (1990s–present)===Loufrani went a step further than ASCII emoticons, when he began to use the basic text designs and turned them into graphical representations.", "Today, they are known as graphical emoticons.", "His designs based on a newly reinvented 3D Smiley logo were registered at the United States Copyright Office in 1997 and appeared online as .gif files in 1998.For ASCII emoticons that did not exist to convert into graphical form, Loufrani also backward engineered new ASCII emoticons from the graphical versions he created.", "These were the first graphical representations of ASCII emoticons.", "He published his Smiley icons as well as emoticons created by others, along with their ASCII versions, in an online Smiley Dictionary in 2001.This dictionary included 640 different smiley icons and was published as a book called ''Dico Smileys'' in 2002.In 2017, British magazine The Drum referred to Loufrani as the \"godfather of the emoji\" for his work in the field.Fahlman has stated that he sees emojis as \"the remote descendants of this thing I did.", "\"On September 23, 2021, it was announced that Scott Fahlman was holding an auction for the original emoticons he created in 1982.The auction was held in Dallas, United States, and sold the two designs as non-fungible tokens (NFT).", "The online auction ended later that month, with the originals selling for $237,500.In some programming languages, certain operators are known informally by their emoticon-like appearance.", "This includes the Spaceship operator (a comparison), Diamond operator (for type hinting) and Elvis operator ?", ": (a shortened ternary operator)." ], [ "Styles", "===Western===Usually, emoticons in Western style have the eyes on the left, followed by the nose and the mouth.", "The two-character version :) which omits the nose is also very popular.The most basic emoticons are relatively consistent in form, but each of them can be transformed by being rotated (making them tiny ambigrams), with or without a hyphen (nose).There are also some possible variations to emoticons to get new definitions, like changing a character to express a new feeling, or slightly change the mood of the emoticon.", "For example, equals sad and equals very sad.", "Weeping can be written as :'(.", "A blush can be expressed as :\">.", "Others include wink ;), a grin :D, smug , and can be used to denote a flirting or joking tone, or may be implying a second meaning in the sentence preceding it.", ";P, such as when blowing a raspberry.", "An often used combination is also for a heart, and for a broken heart.", ":O is also sometimes used to depict shock.", ":/ is used to depict melancholy, disappointment, or disapproval.", ":\| is used to depict a neutral face.A broad grin is sometimes shown with crinkled eyes to express further amusement; XD and the addition of further \"D\" letters can suggest laughter or extreme amusement e.g.", "XDDDD.", "The same is true for X3 but the three represents an animal's mouth.", "There are other variations including for anger, or >:D for an evil grin, which can be, again, used in reverse, for an unhappy angry face, in the shape of =K for vampire teeth, :s for grimace, and :P tongue out, can be used to denote a flirting or joking tone, or may be implying a second meaning in the sentence preceding it.As computers offer increasing built-in support for non-Western writing systems, it has become possible to use other glyphs to build emoticons.", "The 'shrug' emoticon, uses the glyph ツ from the Japanese katakana writing system.An equal sign is often used for the eyes in place of the colon, seen as =), without changing the meaning of the emoticon.", "In these instances, the hyphen is almost always either omitted or, occasionally, replaced with an \"o\" as in =O).", "In most circles it has become acceptable to omit the hyphen, whether a colon or an equal sign is used for the eyes, but in some areas of usage people still prefer the larger, more traditional emoticon :-) or :^).", "One linguistic study has indicated that the use of a nose in an emoticon may be related to the user's age, with younger people less likely to use a nose.", "Similar-looking characters are commonly substituted for one another: for instance, o, O, and 0 can all be used interchangeably, sometimes for subtly different effect or, in some cases, one type of character may look better in a certain font and therefore be preferred over another.", "It is also common for the user to replace the rounded brackets used for the mouth with other, similar brackets, such as instead of ).Some variants are also more common in certain countries due to keyboard layouts.", "For example, the smiley =) may occur in Scandinavia, where the keys for = and ) are placed right beside each other.", "However, the :) variant is without a doubt the dominant one in Scandinavia, making the =) version a rarity.", "Diacritical marks are sometimes used.", "The letters Ö and Ü can be seen as an emoticon, as the upright version of :O (meaning that one is surprised) and :D (meaning that one is very happy) respectively.Some emoticons may be read right to left instead, and in fact, can only be written using standard ASCII keyboard characters this way round; for example D: which refers to being shocked or anxious, opposite to the large grin of :D.In countries where the Cyrillic alphabet is used, the right parenthesis ) is used as a smiley.", "Multiple parentheses )))) are used to express greater happiness, amusement or laughter.", "It is commonly placed at the end of a sentence, replacing the full stop.", "The colon is omitted due to being in a lesser-known position on the ЙЦУКЕН keyboard layout.===Kaomoji (Japan ASCII movement)===Kaomoji are often seen as the Japanese development of emoticons, which was separate to the Scott Fahlman movement started in 1982.In 1986, a designer began to use brackets and other ASCII text characters to form faces.A Kaomoji painting in JapanOver time, these designs became much more complex than western emoticons and why the two are often differentiated from one another, despite both using ASCII characters.", "Kaomoji also became focused around some Japanese industries, such as anime.===2channel===Users of the Japanese discussion board 2channel, in particular, have developed a wide variety of unique emoticons using characters from various scripts, such as Kannada, as in ಠ_ಠ (for a look of disapproval, disbelief, or confusion).", "Similarly, the letter ರೃ has been used in emoticons to represent a monocle, while ಥ has been used to represent a tearing eye.", "These were quickly picked up by 4chan and spread to other Western sites soon after.", "Some have taken on a life of their own and become characters in their own right, like Monā.===Korean===In South Korea, emoticons use Korean Hangul letters, and the Western style is rarely used.", "The structures of Korean and Japanese emoticons are somewhat similar, but they have some differences.", "Korean style contains Korean jamo (letters) instead of other characters.", "There are countless number of emoticons that can be formed with such combinations of Korean jamo letters.", "Consonant jamos ㅅ, ㅁ or ㅂ as the mouth/nose component and ㅇ, ㅎ or ㅍ for the eyes.", "For example: and Faces such as 'ㅅ', \"ㅅ\", 'ㅂ' and 'ㅇ', using quotation marks \" and apostrophes ' are also commonly used combinations.", "Vowel jamos such as ㅜ, ㅠ depict a crying face.", "Example: and (same function as T in western style).", "Sometimes ㅡ (not an em-dash \"—\" but a vowel jamo), a comma or an underscore is added, and the two character sets can be mixed together, as in and Also, semicolons and carets are commonly used in Korean emoticons; semicolons mean sweating (embarrassed).", "If they are used with ㅡ or – they depict a bad feeling.", "Examples: -;/, and However, ^^, means smile (almost all people use this without distinction of sex or age).", "Others include: ~_~, -6-, +0+.===Chinese ideographic===The character 囧 (U+56E7), which means , may be combined with posture emoticon Orz, such as The character existed in Oracle bone script, but its use as emoticon was documented as early as January 20, 2005.Other variants of 囧 include 崮 (king 囧), 莔 (queen 囧), 商 (囧 with hat), 囧興 (turtle), 卣 (Bomberman).The character 槑 (U+69D1), a variant of 梅 , is used to represent double of 呆 , or further magnitude of dullness.", "In Chinese, normally full characters (as opposed to the stylistic use of 槑) might be duplicated to express emphasis." ], [ "Posture emoticons", "===Orz===The Japanese custom of ''dogeza''Orz (other forms include: ) is an emoticon representing a kneeling or bowing person (the Japanese version of which is called ''dogeza'') with the \"o\" being the head, the \"r\" being the arms and part of the body, and the \"z\" being part of the body and the legs.", "This stick figure can represent respect or ''kowtowing'', but commonly appears along a range of responses, including \"frustration, despair, sarcasm, or grudging respect\".It was first used in late 2002 at the forum on Techside, a Japanese personal website.", "At the \"Techside FAQ Forum\" (), a poster asked about a cable cover, typing to show a cable and its cover.", "Others commented that it looked like a kneeling person, and the symbol became popular.", "These comments were soon deleted as they were considered off-topic.", "By 2005, Orz spawned a subculture: blogs have been devoted to the emoticon, and URL shortening services have been named after it.", "In Taiwan, Orz is associated with the phrase \"nice guy\"that is, the concept of males being rejected for a date by females, with a phrase like \"You are a nice guy.", "\"Orz should not be confused with m(_ _)m, which represents a standing bow directly towards the viewer as a means to say \"Thank you\" or as an apology." ], [ "Multimedia variations", "A portmanteau of ''emotion'' and ''sound'', an '''emotisound''' is a brief sound transmitted and played back during the viewing of a message, typically an IM message or e-mail message.", "The sound is intended to communicate an emotional subtext.", "Many instant messaging clients automatically trigger sound effects in response to specific emoticons.Some services, such as MuzIcons, combine emoticons and music player in an Adobe Flash-based widget.In 2004, the Trillian chat application introduced a feature called \"emotiblips\", which allows Trillian users to stream files to their instant message recipients \"as the voice and video equivalent of an emoticon\".In 2007, MTV and Paramount Home Entertainment promoted the \"emoticlip\" as a form of viral marketing for the second season of the show ''The Hills''.", "The emoticlips were twelve short snippets of dialogue from the show, uploaded to YouTube, which the advertisers hoped would be distributed between web users as a way of expressing feelings in a similar manner to emoticons.", "The emoticlip concept is credited to the Bradley & Montgomery advertising firm, which hopes they would be widely adopted as \"greeting cards that just happen to be selling something\".In 2008, an emotion-sequence animation tool, called FunIcons was created.", "The Adobe Flash and Java-based application allows users to create a short animation.", "Users can then email or save their own animations to use them on similar social utility applications.During the first half of the 2010s, there have been different forms of small audiovisual pieces to be sent through instant messaging systems to express one's emotion.", "These videos lack an established name, and there are several ways to designate them: \"emoticlips\" (named above), \"emotivideos\" or more recently \"emoticon videos\".", "These are tiny videos that can be easily transferred from one mobile phone to another.", "Current video compression codecs such as H.264 allow these pieces of video to be light in terms of file size and very portable.", "The popular computer and mobile app Skype use these in a separate keyboard or by typing the code of the \"emoticon videos\" between parentheses." ], [ "Emoticons and intellectual property rights", "Patented drop down menu for composing phone mail text message with emoticonsIn 2000, Despair, Inc. obtained a U.S. trademark registration for the \"frowny\" emoticon when used on \"greeting cards, posters and art prints\".", "In 2001, they issued a satirical press release, announcing that they would sue Internet users who typed the frowny; the joke backfired and the company received a storm of protest when its mock release was posted on technology news website Slashdot.A number of patent applications have been filed on inventions that assist in communicating with emoticons.", "A few of these have been issued as US patents.", "US 6987991, for example, discloses a method developed in 2001 to send emoticons over a cell phone using a drop-down menu.", "The stated advantage over the prior art was that the user saved on the number of keystrokes though this may not address the obviousness criteria.The emoticon :-) was also filed in 2006 and registered in 2008 as a European Community Trademark (CTM).", "In Finland, the Supreme Administrative Court ruled in 2012 that the emoticon cannot be trademarked, thus repealing a 2006 administrative decision trademarking the emoticons :-), =), , :) and In 2005, a Russian court rejected a legal claim against Siemens by a man who claimed to hold a trademark on the ;-) emoticon.In 2008, Russian entrepreneur Oleg Teterin claimed to have been granted the trademark on the ;-) emoticon.", "A license would not \"cost that muchtens of thousands of dollars\" for companies, but would be free of charge for individuals." ], [ "Unicode", "A different, but related, use of the term \"emoticon\" is found in the Unicode Standard, referring to a subset of emoji which display facial expressions.", "The standard explains this usage with reference to existing systems, which provided functionality for substituting certain textual emoticons with images or emoji of the expressions in question.Some smiley faces were present in Unicode since 1.1, including a white frowning face, a white smiling face, and a black smiling face.", "(\"Black\" refers to a glyph which is filled, \"white\" refers to a glyph which is unfilled).The Emoticons block was introduced in Unicode Standard version 6.0 (published in October 2010) and extended by 7.0.It covers Unicode range from U+1F600 to U+1F64F fully.After that block had been filled, Unicode 8.0 (2015), 9.0 (2016) and 10.0 (2017) added additional emoticons in the range from U+1F910 to U+1F9FF.", "Currently, U+1F90CU+1F90F, U+1F93F, U+1F94DU+1F94F, U+1F96CU+1F97F, U+1F998U+1F9CF (excluding U+1F9C0 which contains the 🧀 emoji) and U+1F9E7U+1F9FF do not contain any emoticons since Unicode 10.0.For historic and compatibility reasons, some other heads, and figures, which mostly represent different aspects like genders, activities, and professions instead of emotions, are also found in Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs (especially U+1F466U+1F487) and Transport and Map Symbols.", "Body parts, mostly hands, are also encoded in the Dingbat and Miscellaneous Symbols blocks." ], [ "See also", "* ASCII art* Emotion Markup Language (EML)* Emotions in virtual communication* Henohenomoheji* Hieroglyph* iConji* Internet slang* Irony punctuation* Kaoani* List of emoticons* Martian language* Pixel art* Smiley* Tête à Toto* Text* Typographic alignment* Typographic approximation" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Bódi, Zoltán, and Veszelszki, Ágnes (2006).", "''Emotikonok.", "Érzelemkifejezés az internetes kommunikációban'' (Emoticons: Expressing Emotions in the Internet Communication).", "Budapest: Magyar Szemiotikai Társaság.", "* Dresner, Eli, and Herring, Susan C. (2010).", "\"Functions of the Non-verbal in CMC: Emoticons and Illocutionary Force\" (preprint copy).", "''Communication Theory 20'': 249–268.", "* * Veszelszki, Ágnes (2012).", "Connections of Image and Text in Digital and Handwritten Documents.", "In: Benedek, András, and Nyíri, Kristóf (eds.", "): ''The Iconic Turn in Education''.", "Series Visual Learning Vol.", "2.Frankfurt am Main et al.", ": Peter Lang, pp. 97−110.", "* Veszelszki, Ágnes (2015).", "\"Emoticons vs. Reaction-Gifs: Non-Verbal Communication on the Internet from the Aspects of Visuality, Verbality and Time\".", "In: Benedek, András − Nyíri, Kristóf (eds.", "): ''Beyond Words: Pictures, Parables, Paradoxes'' (series Visual Learning, vol.", "5).", "Frankfurt: Peter Lang.", "131−145.", "* Wolf, Alecia (2000).", "\"Emotional expression online: Gender differences in emoticon use\".", "''CyberPsychology & Behavior 3'': 827–833." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia

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