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[ [ "Epoch (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''epoch''' is an instant in time chosen as the origin of a particular calendar era.", "'''Epoch''' or '''EPOCH''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Time-related", "* Any historical era* Epoch (astronomy), a moment in time used as a reference for the orbital elements of a celestial body* Epoch (computing), a moment from which system time is usually measured* Epoch (cosmology) or cosmologic epoch, a phase in the development of the universe since the Big Bang* Epoch (race), racial periods in Blavatsky's esoteric theory of the root races* Unix epoch, the starting time for Unix-based operating systems* Epoch, a span of time on the geologic time scale smaller than a period and larger than an age* Epoch, a reward cycle on the Cardano blockchain platform" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* Epoch (DC Comics), a supervillain also known as the Lord of Time* Epoch (Marvel Comics), a cosmic entity in the Marvel Comics universe* ''Epoch'' (film), a 2001 American science fiction film* ''Epoch'' (anthology), a 1975 anthology of science fiction stories* ''Epoch'' (video game), a 1981 space combat game for the Apple II* ''Epoch'' (The Brave album), 2016* ''Epoch'' (Tycho album), 2016* ''Epoch'', a 2006 album by Rip Slyme" ], [ "Games", "* Epoch Co., a Japanese toy and computer games company** Epoch Game Pocket Computer, an early hand-held game console produced by Epoch Co.* Epoch (Chrono Trigger), a flying time machine in role-playing game ''Chrono Trigger''* Epoch Hunter, a boss in ''Caverns of Time'' from the game ''World of Warcraft''" ], [ "Publications", "* ''Epoch'' (American magazine), literary magazine of Cornell University* ''Epoch'' (Russian magazine), literary magazine by Fyodor Dostoyevsky and his brother Mikhail* ''Ha-Tsfira'' (lit.", "Epoch), a Hebrew language newspaper published in 1862 and 1874–1931* ''The Epoch Times'', a privately owned Falun Gong-linked newspaper" ], [ "Science and technology", "* EPOCH (chemotherapy), a chemotherapy regimen* EPOCh (Extrasolar Planet Observation and Characterization), a NASA mission associated with EPOXI" ], [ "Weapons", "* Epoch Remote Control Turret" ], [ "See also", "* Epoché* Belle Epoque (disambiguation)* Epic (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erdős number" ], [ "Introduction", "Paul Erdős in 1992The '''Erdős number''' () describes the \"collaborative distance\" between mathematician Paul Erdős and another person, as measured by authorship of mathematical papers.", "The same principle has been applied in other fields where a particular individual has collaborated with a large and broad number of peers." ], [ "Overview", "Paul Erdős (1913–1996) was an influential Hungarian mathematician who in the latter part of his life spent a great deal of time writing papers with a large number of colleagues—over 500—working on solutions to outstanding mathematical problems.", "He published more papers during his lifetime (at least 1,525) than any other mathematician in history.", "(Leonhard Euler published more total pages of mathematics but fewer separate papers: about 800.)", "Erdős spent most of his career with no permanent home or job.", "He traveled with everything he owned in two suitcases, and would visit mathematicians he wanted to collaborate with, often unexpectedly, and expect to stay with them.The idea of the Erdős number was originally created by the mathematician's friends as a tribute to his enormous output.", "Later it gained prominence as a tool to study how mathematicians cooperate to find answers to unsolved problems.", "Several projects are devoted to studying connectivity among researchers, using the Erdős number as a proxy.", "For example, Erdős collaboration graphs can tell us how authors cluster, how the number of co-authors per paper evolves over time, or how new theories propagate.Several studies have shown that leading mathematicians tend to have particularly low Erdős numbers (i.e.", "high proximity).", "The median Erdős number of Fields Medalists is 3.Only 7,097 (about 5% of mathematicians with a collaboration path) have an Erdős number of 2 or lower.", "As time passes, the lowest Erdős number that can still be achieved will necessarily increase, as mathematicians with low Erdős numbers die and become unavailable for collaboration.", "Still, historical figures can have low Erdős numbers.", "For example, renowned Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan has an Erdős number of only 3 (through G. H. Hardy, Erdős number 2), even though Paul Erdős was only 7 years old when Ramanujan died." ], [ "Definition and application in mathematics", "Alice collaborates with Paul Erdős on one paper, and with Bob on another, but Bob never collaborates with Erdős himself, then Alice is given an Erdős number of 1 and Bob is given an Erdős number of 2, as he is two steps from Erdős.To be assigned an Erdős number, someone must be a coauthor of a research paper with another person who has a finite Erdős number.", "Paul Erdős himself is assigned an Erdős number of zero.", "A certain author's Erdős number is one greater than the lowest Erdős number of any of their collaborators; for example an author who has coauthored a publication with Erdős would have an Erdős number of 1.The American Mathematical Society provides a free online tool to determine the collaboration distance between two mathematical authors listed in the ''Mathematical Reviews'' catalogue.Erdős wrote around 1,500 mathematical articles in his lifetime, mostly co-written.", "He had 509 direct collaborators; these are the people with Erdős number 1.The people who have collaborated with them (but not with Erdős himself) have an Erdős number of 2 (12,600 people as of 7 August 2020), those who have collaborated with people who have an Erdős number of 2 (but not with Erdős or anyone with an Erdős number of 1) have an Erdős number of 3, and so forth.", "A person with no such coauthorship chain connecting to Erdős has an Erdős number of infinity (or an undefined one).", "Since the death of Paul Erdős, the lowest Erdős number that a new researcher can obtain is 2.There is room for ambiguity over what constitutes a link between two authors.", "The American Mathematical Society collaboration distance calculator uses data from ''Mathematical Reviews'', which includes most mathematics journals but covers other subjects only in a limited way, and which also includes some non-research publications.", "The Erdős Number Project web site says: It also says:but excludes non-research publications such as elementary textbooks, joint editorships, obituaries, and the like.", "The \"Erdős number of the second kind\" restricts assignment of Erdős numbers to papers with only two collaborators.The Erdős number was most likely first defined in print by Casper Goffman, an analyst whose own Erdős number is 2.Goffman published his observations about Erdős' prolific collaboration in a 1969 article entitled \"''And what is your Erdős number?''\"", "See also some comments in an obituary by Michael Golomb.The median Erdős number among Fields medalists is as low as 3.Fields medalists with Erdős number 2 include Atle Selberg, Kunihiko Kodaira, Klaus Roth, Alan Baker, Enrico Bombieri, David Mumford, Charles Fefferman, William Thurston, Shing-Tung Yau, Jean Bourgain, Richard Borcherds, Manjul Bhargava, Jean-Pierre Serre and Terence Tao.", "There are no Fields medalists with Erdős number 1; however, Endre Szemerédi is an Abel Prize Laureate with Erdős number 1." ], [ "Most frequent Erdős collaborators", "While Erdős collaborated with hundreds of co-authors, there were some individuals with whom he co-authored dozens of papers.", "This is a list of the ten persons who most frequently co-authored with Erdős and their number of papers co-authored with Erdős (i.e.", "their number of collaborations).", "Co-author Number of collaborations András Sárközy 62 András Hajnal 56 Ralph Faudree 50 Richard Schelp 42 Cecil C. Rousseau 35 Vera T. Sós 35 Alfréd Rényi 32 Pál Turán 30 Endre Szemerédi 29 Ronald Graham 28" ], [ "Related fields", ", all Fields Medalists have a finite Erdős number, with values that range between 2 and 6, and a median of 3.In contrast, the median Erdős number across all mathematicians (with a finite Erdős number) is 5, with an extreme value of 13.The table below summarizes the Erdős number statistics for Nobel prize laureates in Physics, Chemistry, Medicine and Economics.", "The first column counts the number of laureates.", "The second column counts the number of winners with a finite Erdős number.", "The third column is the percentage of winners with a finite Erdős number.", "The remaining columns report the minimum, maximum, average and median Erdős numbers among those laureates.+ Statistics on Mathematical Collaboration, 1903-2016 #Laureates #Erdős %Erdős Min Max Average MedianFields Medal5656100.0%263.363Nobel Economics764761.84%284.114Nobel Chemistry1724224.42%3105.485Nobel Medicine2105827.62%3125.505Nobel Physics20015979.50%2125.635===Physics===Among the Nobel Prize laureates in Physics, Albert Einstein and Sheldon Glashow have an Erdős number of 2.Nobel Laureates with an Erdős number of 3 include Enrico Fermi, Otto Stern, Wolfgang Pauli, Max Born, Willis E. Lamb, Eugene Wigner, Richard P. Feynman, Hans A. Bethe, Murray Gell-Mann, Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg, Norman F. Ramsey, Frank Wilczek, and David Wineland.", "Fields Medal-winning physicist Ed Witten has an Erdős number of 3.===Biology===Computational biologist Lior Pachter has an Erdős number of 2.Evolutionary biologist Richard Lenski has an Erdős number of 3, having co-authored a publication with Lior Pachter and with mathematician Bernd Sturmfels, each of whom has an Erdős number of 2.===Finance and economics===There are at least two winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics with an Erdős number of 2: Harry M. Markowitz (1990) and Leonid Kantorovich (1975).", "Other financial mathematicians with Erdős number of 2 include David Donoho, Marc Yor, Henry McKean, Daniel Stroock, and Joseph Keller.Nobel Prize laureates in Economics with an Erdős number of 3 include Kenneth J. Arrow (1972), Milton Friedman (1976), Herbert A. Simon (1978), Gerard Debreu (1983), John Forbes Nash, Jr. (1994), James Mirrlees (1996), Daniel McFadden (2000), Daniel Kahneman (2002), Robert J. Aumann (2005), Leonid Hurwicz (2007), Roger Myerson (2007), Alvin E. Roth (2012), and Lloyd S. Shapley (2012) and Jean Tirole (2014).Some investment firms have been founded by mathematicians with low Erdős numbers, among them James B.", "Ax of Axcom Technologies, and James H. Simons of Renaissance Technologies, both with an Erdős number of 3.===Philosophy===Since the more formal versions of philosophy share reasoning with the basics of mathematics, these fields overlap considerably, and Erdős numbers are available for many philosophers.", "Philosophers John P. Burgess and Brian Skyrms have an Erdős number of 2.Jon Barwise and Joel David Hamkins, both with Erdős number 2, have also contributed extensively to philosophy, but are primarily described as mathematicians.===Law===Judge Richard Posner, having coauthored with Alvin E. Roth, has an Erdős number of at most 4.Roberto Mangabeira Unger, a politician, philosopher and legal theorist who teaches at Harvard Law School, has an Erdős number of at most 4, having coauthored with Lee Smolin.===Politics===Angela Merkel, Chancellor of Germany from 2005 to 2021, has an Erdős number of at most 5.===Engineering===Some fields of engineering, in particular communication theory and cryptography, make direct use of the discrete mathematics championed by Erdős.", "It is therefore not surprising that practitioners in these fields have low Erdős numbers.", "For example, Robert McEliece, a professor of electrical engineering at Caltech, had an Erdős number of 1, having collaborated with Erdős himself.", "Cryptographers Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman, inventors of the RSA cryptosystem, all have Erdős number 2.===Linguistics===The Romanian mathematician and computational linguist Solomon Marcus had an Erdős number of 1 for a paper in ''Acta Mathematica Hungarica'' that he co-authored with Erdős in 1957." ], [ "Impact", "Paul Erdős in 1985 at the University of Adelaide teaching Terence Tao, who was then 10 years old.", "Tao became a math professor at UCLA, received the Fields Medal in 2006, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 2007.His Erdős number is 2.Erdős numbers have been a part of the folklore of mathematicians throughout the world for many years.", "Among all working mathematicians at the turn of the millennium who have a finite Erdős number, the numbers range up to 15, the median is 5, and the mean is 4.65; almost everyone with a finite Erdős number has a number less than 8.Due to the very high frequency of interdisciplinary collaboration in science today, very large numbers of non-mathematicians in many other fields of science also have finite Erdős numbers.", "For example, political scientist Steven Brams has an Erdős number of 2.In biomedical research, it is common for statisticians to be among the authors of publications, and many statisticians can be linked to Erdős via John Tukey, who has an Erdős number of 2.Similarly, the prominent geneticist Eric Lander and the mathematician Daniel Kleitman have collaborated on papers, and since Kleitman has an Erdős number of 1, a large fraction of the genetics and genomics community can be linked via Lander and his numerous collaborators.", "Similarly, collaboration with Gustavus Simmons opened the door for Erdős numbers within the cryptographic research community, and many linguists have finite Erdős numbers, many due to chains of collaboration with such notable scholars as Noam Chomsky (Erdős number 4), William Labov (3), Mark Liberman (3), Geoffrey Pullum (3), or Ivan Sag (4).", "There are also connections with arts fields.According to Alex Lopez-Ortiz, all the Fields and Nevanlinna prize winners during the three cycles in 1986 to 1994 have Erdős numbers of at most 9.Earlier mathematicians published fewer papers than modern ones, and more rarely published jointly written papers.", "The earliest person known to have a finite Erdős number is either Antoine Lavoisier (born 1743, Erdős number 13), Richard Dedekind (born 1831, Erdős number 7), or Ferdinand Georg Frobenius (born 1849, Erdős number 3), depending on the standard of publication eligibility.Martin Tompa proposed a directed graph version of the Erdős number problem, by orienting edges of the collaboration graph from the alphabetically earlier author to the alphabetically later author and defining the ''monotone Erdős number'' of an author to be the length of a longest path from Erdős to the author in this directed graph.", "He finds a path of this type of length 12.Also, Michael Barr suggests \"rational Erdős numbers\", generalizing the idea that a person who has written ''p'' joint papers with Erdős should be assigned Erdős number 1/''p''.", "From the collaboration multigraph of the second kind (although he also has a way to deal with the case of the first kind)—with one edge between two mathematicians for ''each'' joint paper they have produced—form an electrical network with a one-ohm resistor on each edge.", "The total resistance between two nodes tells how \"close\" these two nodes are.It has been argued that \"for an individual researcher, a measure such as Erdős number captures the structural properties of the network whereas the ''h''-index captures the citation impact of the publications,\" and that \"One can be easily convinced that ranking in coauthorship networks should take into account both measures to generate a realistic and acceptable ranking.", "\"In 2004 William Tozier, a mathematician with an Erdős number of 4 auctioned off a co-authorship on eBay, hence providing the buyer with an Erdős number of 5.The winning bid of $1031 was posted by a Spanish mathematician, who refused to pay and only placed the bid to stop what he considered a mockery." ], [ "Variations", "A number of variations on the concept have been proposed to apply to other fields, notably the Bacon number (as in the game Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon), connecting actors to the actor Kevin Bacon by a chain of joint appearances in films.", "It was created in 1994, 25 years after Goffman's article on the Erdős number.A small number of people are connected to both Erdős and Bacon and thus have an Erdős–Bacon number, which combines the two numbers by taking their sum.", "One example is the actress-mathematician Danica McKellar, best known for playing Winnie Cooper on the TV series ''The Wonder Years''.", "Her Erdős number is 4, and her Bacon number is 2.Further extension is possible.", "For example, the \"Erdős–Bacon–Sabbath number\" is the sum of the Erdős–Bacon number and the collaborative distance to the band Black Sabbath in terms of singing in public.", "Physicist Stephen Hawking had an Erdős–Bacon–Sabbath number of 8, and actress Natalie Portman has one of 11 (her Erdős number is 5).In chess, the Morphy number describes a player's connection to Paul Morphy, widely considered the greatest chess player of his time and an unofficial World Chess Champion.In go, the Shusaku number describes a player's connection to Honinbo Shusaku, the strongest player of his time.In video games, the Ryu number describes a video game character's connection to the Street Fighter character Ryu." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Jerry Grossman, The Erdős Number Project.", "Contains statistics and a complete list of all mathematicians with an Erdős number less than or equal to 2.", "* New Erdős Number Project website Migration to new site in 2021.", "* \"On a Portion of the Well-Known Collaboration Graph\", Jerrold W. Grossman and Patrick D. F.", "Ion.", "* \"Some Analyses of Erdős Collaboration Graph\", Vladimir Batagelj and Andrej Mrvar.", "* American Mathematical Society, MR: Search MSC database.", "A search engine for Erdős numbers and collaboration distance between other authors.", "As of 18 November 2011 no special access is required.", "* Numberphile video.", "Ron Graham on imaginary Erdős numbers." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "School voucher" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''school voucher''', also called an '''education voucher''' in a '''voucher system''', is a certificate of government funding for students at schools chosen by themselves or their parents.", "Funding is usually for a particular year, term, or semester.", "In some countries, states, or local jurisdictions, the voucher can be used to cover or reimburse home schooling expenses.", "In some countries, vouchers only exist for tuition at private schools.A 2017 review of the economics literature on school vouchers concluded that \"the evidence to date is not sufficient to warrant recommending that vouchers be adopted on a widespread basis; however, multiple positive findings support continued exploration\".", "A 2006 survey of members of the American Economic Association found that over two-thirds of economists support giving parents educational vouchers that can be used at both government-operated and private schools, and that support is greater if the vouchers are to be used by parents with low incomes or children in poorly performing schools." ], [ "History", "When France lost the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) many blamed the loss on its inferior military education system.", "Following this defeat, the French Assembly proposed a voucher that they hoped would improve schools by allowing students to seek out the best.", "This proposal never moved forward due to the reluctance of the French to subsidize religious education.", "Despite its failure, this proposal closely resembles voucher systems proposed and used today in many countries.The oldest extant school voucher programs in the United States are the Town Tuitioning programs in Vermont and Maine, beginning in 1869 and 1873 respectively.", "Because some towns in these states operate neither local high schools nor elementary schools, students in these towns \"are eligible for a voucher to attend either public schools in other towns or non-religious private schools.", "In these cases, the 'sending' towns pay tuition directly to the 'receiving' schools\".A system of educational vouchers was introduced in the Netherlands in 1917.Today, more than 70% of pupils attend privately run but publicly funded schools, mostly split along denominational lines.Milton Friedman argued for the modern concept of vouchers in the 1950s, stating that competition would improve schools, cost less and yield superior educational outcomes.", "Friedman's reasoning in favor of vouchers gained additional attention in 1980 with the broadcast of his ten-part television series ''Free to Choose'' and the publication of its companion book of the same name (co-written with his wife Rose Friedman, who was also an economist).", "Episode 6 of the series and chapter 6 of the book were both entitled \"What's Wrong with Our Schools\", and asserted that permitting parents and students to use vouchers to choose their schools would expand freedom of choice and produce more well-educated students.In some Southern states during the 1960s, school vouchers were used as a way to perpetuate segregation.", "In a few instances, public schools were closed outright and vouchers were issued to parents.", "The vouchers, known as tuition grants, in many cases, were only good at new, private and segregated schools, known as segregation academies." ], [ "Definitions", "There are important distinctions between different kinds of schools:* Charter schools are funded publicly* Education savings accounts (ESAs) allow parents to withdraw their children from public district or charter schools and receive a deposit of public funds into government-authorized savings accounts with restricted, but multiple, uses.", "Those funds, often distributed to families via debit card, can cover private school tuition and fees, online learning programs, private tutoring, community college costs, higher education expenses and other approved customized learning services and materials.", "* Education tax credit, tuition tax credit, or tax-credit scholarship: There are two types of education tax credits: personal use, and donation.", "Personal use tax credits are tax credits given to individual taxpayers for education expenditures made on behalf of their own children.", "Donation tax credits are tax credits given to individual taxpayers or businesses who donate to non-profit organizations that give out private school scholarships.", "* Open enrollment is the process of allowing parents to choose which public school their child attends instead of being assigned one (provided the school has not reached its maximum capacity number for students).", "This is sometimes confused with vouchers as a promotion for school choice.", "* Private schools are funded privately, such as by tuition or donations.", "* Public schools are funded by taxes (except in the United Kingdom, where the term 'public school' refers to older private schools, and the equivalent term for tax-funded schools is 'state school') * '''School vouchers''' are subsidies given directly to parents for tuition at any school" ], [ "Economics", "===Background===Education as a tool for human capital accumulation is often crucial to the development and progression of societies and thus governments have large incentives to continually intervene and improve public education.", "Additionally, education is often the tool with which societies instill a common set of values that underlie the basic norms of the society.", "Furthermore, there are positive externalities to society from education.", "These positive externalities can be in the form of reduced crime, more informed citizens and economic development, known as the neighborhood effect.In terms of economic theory, families face a bundle of consumption choices that determine how much they will spend on education and private consumption.", "Any number of consumption bundles are available as long as they fit within the budget constraint.", "This means that any bundle of consumption of education and private consumption must not exceed budgetary constraints.", "Indifference curves represent the preferences of one good over another.", "The indifference curve determines how much education an individual will want to consume versus how much private consumption an individual will want to consume.Education Consumption ChoicesGovernment intervention in education typically takes two forms.", "The first approach can be broad, such as instituting charter schools, magnet schools, or for-profit schools and increasing competition.", "The second approach can be individually focused such as providing subsidies or loans for individuals to attend college or school vouchers for K-12.Family consumption bundles with vouchersVouchers are typically instituted for two broad economic reasons.", "The first reason is consumer choice.", "A family can choose to where their child goes to school and pick the school that is closest to their preference of education provider.The second reason why vouchers are proposed is to increase market competition amongst schools.", "Similar to the free market theorem, vouchers are intended to make schools more competitive while lowering costs for schools and increasing the educational quality for consumers, the families.===Effects=======Negative effects====Besides the general lack of results, critics of school vouchers argue that vouchers will lead to segregation.", "Empirical studies show that there is some evidence that school vouchers can lead to racial or income segregation.", "However, research on this topic is inconclusive, as there is also valid research that shows under certain circumstances, income and racial segregation can be reduced indirectly by increasing school choice.Additionally, since school vouchers are funded by the government, the implementation could cause the funds for public schools to be reduced.", "Private-school vouchers affect government budgets through two channels: additional direct voucher expenditures, and public school cost savings from lower enrollments.", "Voucher programs would be paid for by the government's education budget, which would be subtracted from the public school's budget.", "This might affect the public school system by giving them less to spend and use for their student's education.A 2018 study by Abdulkadiroğlu et al.", "found that disadvantaged students who won a lottery (the Louisiana Scholarship Program) to get vouchers to attend private schools had worse education outcomes than disadvantaged students who did not win vouchers: \"LSP participation lowers math scores by 0.4 standard deviations and also reduces achievement in reading, science, and social studies.", "These effects may be due in part to selection of low-quality private schools into the program\".====Positive effects====A 2021 meta-analysis by Shakeel et al., published in the journal '' School Effectiveness and School Improvement'', evaluated evidence from randomized controlled trials assessing \"student-level math and reading test score effects of school vouchers internationally.\"", "After evaluating 21 studies addressing 11 different voucher programs, the meta-analysis authors found \"moderate evidence of positive achievement impacts of private school vouchers, with substantial effect heterogeneity across programs and outcome years\" as well as evidence suggesting that \"voucher interventions may be cost-effective even for null achievement impacts.\"", "The study authors noted that future experimental studies might yield more facts on whether and how \"long-term, scaled-up voucher interventions\" affect student achievement." ], [ "Implementations", "===Colombia===The PACES voucher program was established by the Colombian government in late 1991.It aimed to assist low-income households by distributing school vouchers to students living in neighborhoods situated in the two lowest socioeconomic strata.", "Between 1991 and 1997, the PACES program awarded 125,000 vouchers to lower-income secondary school students.", "Those vouchers were worth about US$190 in 1998, and data shows that matriculation fees and other monthly expenses incurred by voucher students attending private schools averaged about US$340 in 1998, so a majority of voucher recipients supplemented the voucher with personal funds.Basic School Voucher Utility Maximization PictureThe students selected to be in the program were selected by lottery.", "The vouchers were able to be renewed annually, conditional on students achieving satisfactory academic success as indicated by scheduled grade promotion.", "The program also included incentives to study harder as well as widening schooling options.", "Empirical evidence showed that the program had some success.", "Joshua Angrist shows that after three years into the program, lottery winners were 15 percentage points more likely to attend private school and complete 0.1 more years of schooling, and were about 10 percentage points more likely to have finished the 8th grade.", "The study also reported that there were larger voucher effects for boys than for girls, especially in mathematics performance.", "It is important to note that the program did not have a significant impact on dropout rates.", "Angrist reports that lottery winners scored 0.2 standard deviations higher on standardized tests.", "The voucher program also reported some social effects.", "Lottery winners worked less on average than non-lottery winners.", "Angrist reports that this was correlated with a decreased likelihood to marry or cohabit as teenagers.===Chile===In 1981, Chile implemented a universal school voucher system for both elementary and secondary school students.", "As a result, over 1,000 private schools entered the market, and private enrollment increased by 20–40% by 1998, surpassing 50% in some urban areas.", "From 1981 to 1988, the private school enrollment rate in urban areas grew 11% more than the private school enrollment rate in rural areas.", "This change coincided with the transfer of public school administration from the central government to local municipalities.", "The financial value of a voucher did not depend on the income of the family receiving it, and the program allowed private voucher schools to be selective, while public schools had to accept and enroll every interested student.", "At the turn of the 21st century, student achievement in Chile was low compared to students in other nations based on international test scores.", "This disparity led to the Chilean government enacting substantial educational reforms in 2008, including major changes in the school voucher system.The Chilean government passed the Preferential School Subsidy Law (SEP) in January 2008.This piece of legislation made the educational voucher system much more like the regulated compensatory model championed by Christopher Jencks.", "Under SEP, the voucher system was altered to take family incomes into account.", "The vouchers provided to \"priority students\" – those whose family income was in the lower than 40% of Chileans – were worth 50% more than those given to the families with higher income.", "Schools with larger numbers of priority students were eligible to receive per-student bonuses, the size of which was tied to the percentage of priority students in the student body.", "When SEP was started, it covered preschool to fourth grade, and an additional school year of coverage was added each subsequent year.", "Almost every public school chose to participate in SEP in 2008, as well as almost two-thirds of private subsidized elementary schools.There were three important requirements attached to the program.", "The first requirement stipulated that participating schools could not charge fees to priority students, although private schools in the voucher system could do so for non-priority students.", "The second requirement ensured that schools could not select students based on their academic ability, nor expel them on academic grounds.", "The third requirement postulated that schools had to self-enroll themselves in an accountability system that ensured that schools were responsible for the utilization of financial resources and student test scores.===Europe===In most European countries, education for all primary and secondary schools is fully subsidized.", "In some countries (e.g., Belgium or France), parents are free to choose which school their child attends.====France====Parents can choose either a private school or a public school.", "Most private schools are under contract to the French government in which case the French government pays teachers' salaries and they are considered state employees.", "Other costs at private schools are paid through fees which are usually low.", "Schools under contract follow the French national curriculum.", "Some private schools are not under contract giving them more freedom to teach different curricula although the state still monitors educational standards.", "Teachers' salaries at private schools not 'under contract' are paid through fees that are therefore much higher than those under contract.", "About 20% of French schoolchildren attend private schools.", "Homeschooling is possible but restricted in France.", "Indeed, on October 2, 2022, Emmanuel Macron reinforced secularism by allowing homeschooling only under specific circumstances, such as for individuals with disabilities, high-level athletes or artists, or those belonging to nomadic communities, as part of measures to combat the spread of obscurantism in some families.====Ireland====Most schools in the Republic of Ireland are state-aided Catholic parish schools, established under diocesan patronage but with capital costs, teachers' salaries, and a fee per head paid to the school.", "These are given to the school regardless of whether or not it requires its students to pay fees.", "(Although fee-paying schools are in the minority, there has been much criticism over the state aid they receive.", "Opponents claim that the aid gives them an unfair advantage.", ")There is a recent trend towards multi-denominational schools established by parents and organised as limited companies without share capital.", "Parents and students are free to choose their own schools.", "If a school fails to attract students, it immediately loses its fees and eventually loses its teaching posts, and teachers are moved to other schools that are attracting students.", "The system is perceived to have achieved very successful outcomes for most Irish children.The 1995–97 \"Rainbow Coalition\" government, containing ministers from parties of the center-right and the left, introduced free third-level education to primary degree level.", "Critics charge that this has not increased the number of students from economically deprived backgrounds attending university.", "However, studies have shown that the removal of tuition fees at third level has increased the numbers of students overall and of students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.", "Since the economic crisis of 2008, there has been extensive debate regarding the possible reintroduction of third-level fees.====Sweden====In Sweden, a system of school vouchers (called ''skolpeng'') was introduced in 1992 at primary and secondary school level, enabling free choice among publicly run schools and privately run ''fristående skolor'' (\"independent schools\").", "The voucher is paid with public funds from the local municipality (''kommun'') directly to a school based solely on its number of students.", "Both public schools and independent schools are funded the same way.", "Independent schools can be run by not-for-profit groups as well as by for-profit companies, but may not charge top-up fees or select students other than on a first-come, first-served basis.", "Over 10% of Swedish students were enrolled in independent schools in 2008 and the number is growing fast, leading the country to be viewed as a pioneer of the model.Per Unckel, governor of Stockholm and former Minister of Education, has promoted the system, saying \"Education is so important that you can't just leave it to one producer, because we know from monopoly systems that they do not fulfill all wishes.\"", "The Swedish system has been recommended to Barack Obama by some commentators, including the Pacific Research Institute, which has released a documentary called ''Not As Good As You Think: Myth of the Middle Class Schools'', a movie depicting positive benefits for middle class schools resulting from Sweden's voucher programs.A 2004 study concluded that school results in public schools improved due to increased competition.", "However, Per Thulberg, director general of the Swedish National Agency for Education, has said that the system \"has not led to better results\" and in the 2000s Sweden's ranking in the PISA league tables worsened.", "Though Rachel Wolf, director of the New Schools Network, has suggested that Sweden's education standards had slipped for reasons other than as a result of independent schools.A 2015 study was able to show that \"an increase in the share of independent school students improves average short‐ and long‐run outcomes, explained primarily by external effects (e.g., school competition)\".===Hong Kong===A voucher system for children three to six years old who attend a non-profit kindergarten was implemented in Hong Kong in 2007.Each child will get HK$13,000 per year.", "The $13,000 subsidy will be separated into two parts.", "$10,000 is used to subsidize the school fee and the remaining $3,000 is used for kindergarten teachers to pursue further education and obtain a certificate in Education.", "Also, there are some restrictions on the voucher system.", "Parents can only choose non-profit schools with a yearly fee of less than $24,000.The government hoped that all kindergarten teachers can obtain an education certificate by the year 2011–12, at which point the subsidies are to be adjusted to $16,000 for each student, all of which will go toward the school fee.Milton Friedman criticised the system, saying \"I do not believe that CE Mr. Tsang's proposal is properly structured.\"", "He said that the whole point of a voucher system is to provide a competitive marketplace so should not be limited to non-profit kindergartens.", "After protests by parents with children enrolled in for-profit kindergartens, the program was extended to children in for-profit kindergartens, but only for children enrolled in or before September 2007.The government will also provide up to HK$30,000 subsidy to for-profit kindergartens wanting to convert to non-profit.===Pakistan===In Pakistani Punjab, the Education Voucher Scheme (EVS) was introduced by Dr. Allah Bakhsh Malik Managing Director and Chief Executive of Punjab Education Foundation (PEF), especially in urban slums and the poorest of the poor in 2005.The initial study was sponsored by Open Society Institute New York USA.", "Professor Henry M. Levin extended Pro-Bono services for children of poor families from Punjab.", "To ensure educational justice and integration, the government must ensure that the poorest families have equal access to quality education.", "The voucher scheme was designed by the Teachers College, Columbia University, and the Open Society Institute.", "It aims to promote freedom of choice, efficiency, equity, and social cohesion.A pilot project was started in 2006 in the urban slums of Sukhnehar, Lahore, where a survey showed that all households lived below the poverty line.", "Through the EVS, the foundation would deliver education vouchers to every household with children 5–16 years of age.", "The vouchers would be redeemable against tuition payments at participating private schools.", "In the pilot stage, 1,053 households were given an opportunity to send their children to a private school of their choice.", "The EVS makes its partner schools accountable to the parents rather than to the bureaucrats at the Ministry of Education.", "In the FAS program, every school principal has the choice to admit a student or not.", "However, in the EVS, a partner school cannot refuse a student if the student has a voucher, and the family has chosen that school.", "The partner schools are also accountable to the PEF: they are subject to periodic reviews of their student learning outcomes, additional private investments, and improvements in the working conditions of the teachers.", "The EVS provides an incentive to parents to send their children to school, and so it has become a source of competition among private schools seeking to join the program.When it comes to the selection of schools, the following criteria are applied across the board: (i) The fee paid by the PEF to EVS partner schools is PKR 550 per child per month.", "Schools charging higher fees can also apply to the program, but they will not be paid more than PKR 1200, and they will not be entitled to charge the difference to students' families.", "(ii) Total school enrollment should be at least 50 children.", "(iii) The school should have adequate infrastructure and a good learning environment.", "(iv) EVS partner schools should be located within a half-kilometer radius of the residences of voucher holders.", "However, if the parents prefer a particular school farther away, the PEF will not object, provided that the school fulfills the EVS selection criteria.", "(v) The PEF advertises to stimulate the interest of potential partner schools.", "It then gives students at short-listed schools preliminary tests in selected subjects and conducts physical inspections of these schools.", "PEF offices display a list of all the EVS partner schools so that parents may consult it and choose a school for their children.By now more than 500,000 students are benefiting from EVS and the program is being scaled up by financing from the Government of Punjab." ], [ "School voucher public policy in the United States", "In the 1980s, the Reagan administration pushed for vouchers, as did the George W. Bush administration in the initial education reform proposals leading up to the No Child Left Behind Act.", "As of December 2016, 14 states had traditional school voucher programs.", "These states consist of: Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Utah, Vermont, and Wisconsin.", "The capital of the United States, Washington, D.C., also had operating school voucher programs as of December 2016.When including scholarship tax credits and education savings accounts – two alternatives to vouchers – there are 27 states plus the District of Columbia with private school choice programs.", "Most of these programs were offered to students in low-income families, low-performing schools, or students with disabilities.", "By 2014, the number participating in either vouchers or tax-credit scholarships increased to 250,000, a 30% increase from 2010, but still a small fraction compared to the 55 million in traditional schools.In 1990, the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin's public schools implemented a program called the Milwaukee Parental Choice Program.", "Originally, this funded school vouchers for nonreligious, private institutions.", "It was, however, eventually expanded to include private, religious institutions after it saw success with nonreligious, private institutions.", "The 2006/07 school year marked the first time in Milwaukee that more than $100 million was paid in vouchers.", "Twenty-six percent of Milwaukee students will receive public funding to attend schools outside the traditional Milwaukee Public School system.", "In fact, if the voucher program alone were considered a school district, it would mark the sixth-largest district in Wisconsin.", "St. Anthony Catholic School, located on Milwaukee's south side, boasts 966 voucher students, meaning that it very likely receives more public money for general school support of a parochial elementary or high school than any before it in American history.", "A 2013 study of Milwaukee's program posited that the use of vouchers increased the probability that a student would graduate from high school, go to college, and stay in college.", "A 2015 paper published by the National Bureau of Economic Research found that participation in Louisiana's voucher program \"substantially reduces academic achievement\" although that the result may be reflective of the poor quality of private schools in the program.A recent analysis of the competitive effects of school vouchers in Florida suggests that more competition improves performance in the regular public schools.The largest school voucher program in the United States is the Indiana Choice Scholarships program.===Opponents===The main critique of school vouchers and education tax credits is that they put public education in competition with private education, threatening to reduce and reallocate public school funding to private schools.", "Opponents question the belief that private schools are more efficient.Public school teachers and teacher unions have also fought against school vouchers.", "In the United States, public school teacher unions, most notably the National Education Association (the largest labor union in the US), argue that school vouchers erode educational standards and reduce funding and that giving money to parents who choose to send their child to a religious or other school is unconstitutional.", "The latter issue was struck down by the Supreme Court case ''Zelman v. Simmons-Harris'', which upheld Ohio's voucher plan in a 5–4 ruling.", "In contrast, the use of public-school funding for vouchers to private schools was disallowed by the Louisiana Supreme Court in 2013.The Louisiana Supreme Court did not declare vouchers unconstitutional, just the use of money earmarked for public schools via the Louisiana Constitution for funding Louisiana's voucher program.", "The National Education Association also points out that access to vouchers is just like \"a chance in a lottery\" where parents had to be lucky in order to get a space in this program.", "Since almost all students and their families would like to choose the best schools, those schools, as a result, quickly reach its maximum capacity number for students that state law permits.", "Those who did not get vouchers then have to compete again to look for some other less preferred and competitive schools or give up searching and go back to their assigned local schools.", "Jonathan Kozol, a prominent public school reform thinker and former public-school teacher called vouchers the \"single worst, most dangerous idea to have entered education discourse in my adult life\".The National Education Association additionally argues that more money should go towards public education to help the schools struggling and improve the schools overall, instead of reducing the public school's fund to go towards school vouchers.", "Their argument claims that increasing that amount of money that goes towards public education would also increase the amount of resources put into public schools, therefore, improving the education.", "This argument made towards school vouchers reflects the way the organization values public education.", "For example, in an interview in May 2017 regarding Donald Trump's 2018 Budget Proposal, the organization's president, Lily Eskelsen García, claimed:\"We should invest in what makes schools great, the things that build curiosity and instill a love of learning.", "That is what every student deserves and what every parent wants for his or her child.", "It should not depend on how much their parents make, what language they speak at home, and certainly, not what neighborhood they live in.\"", "– National Education Association President Lily Eskelsen García.Furthermore, there are multiple studies that support the arguments made by opponents of school vouchers.", "One of these studies, conducted by the Tulane University's Education Research Alliance, consists of observing the relationship between voucher programs and students' test scores.", "They found that students in the Louisiana voucher program initially had lower test scores, but after three years, their scores matched those of students who stayed in public schools from standardized test scores spanning from 2012 to 2015.People who can benefit from vouchers may not know it.", "In April 2012, a bill passed in Louisiana that made vouchers available to low-income families whose children attended poorly ranked schools.", "A student whose household income was low (up to about $44,000 for a family of three) and who attended a school ranked \"C\", \"D\", or \"F\" could apply for vouchers to attend another.", "Of the estimated 380,000 eligible students during the school year when the bill was passed (2012/13), only 5,000 students knew about and applied for the vouchers, and accepted them.In 2006, the United States Department of Education released a report concluding that average test scores for reading and mathematics, when adjusted for student and school characteristics, tend to be very similar among public schools and private schools.", "Private schools performed significantly better than public schools only if results were not adjusted for factors such as race, gender, and free or reduced-price lunch program eligibility.", "Other research questions assumptions that large improvements would result from a more comprehensive voucher system.Given the limited budget for schools, it is claimed that a voucher system would weaken public schools while not providing enough money for people to attend private schools.", "76% of the money given in Arizona's voucher program went to children already in private schools.Some sources claim that public schools' higher per-pupil spending is due to having a higher proportion of students with behavioral, physical, and emotional problems since in the United States, public schools must by law accept any student regardless of race, gender, religion, disability, educational aptitude, and so forth, while private schools are not so bound.", "They argue that some, if not all, of the cost difference between public and private schools comes from \"cream skimming\", whereby the private schools select only those students who belong to a preferred group – whether economic, religious, educational aptitude level, or ethnicity – rather than from differences in administration.", "The result, it has been argued, is that a voucher system has led or would lead students who do not belong to the private schools' preferred groupings to become concentrated at public schools.", "However, of the ten state-run voucher programs in the United States at the beginning of 2011, four targeted low-income students, two targeted students in failing schools, and six targeted students with special needs.", "(Louisiana ran a single program targeting all three groups.", ")It is also argued that voucher programs are often implemented without the necessary safeguards that prevent institutions from discriminating against marginalized communities.", "In the United States, as of 2016, there are currently no state laws that require voucher programs to not discriminate against marginalized communities.", "Further, while some voucher programs may explicitly be aimed at marginalized communities, this is not necessarily always the case.", "A common argument for school vouchers is that it allows for marginalized communities of color to be uplifted from poverty.", "Historically, however, data suggests that voucher programs have been used to further segregate Americans.", "Further, some data has shown that the effects of voucher programs such as the New York City School Choice Scholarship Program, are marginal when it comes to increasing student achievement.Another argument against a school voucher system is its lack of accountability to taxpayers.", "In many states, members of a community's board of education are elected by voters.", "Similarly, a school budget faces a referendum.", "Meetings of the Board of Education must be announced in advance, and members of the public are permitted to voice their concerns directly to board members.", "By contrast, although vouchers may be used in private and religious schools, taxpayers cannot vote on budget issues, elect members of the board or even attend board meetings.", "Even voucher proponents acknowledge that decreased transparency and accountability for public funds are problematic features of the voucher system, and some have suggested a 'sliding scale' approach wherein oversight and accountability increase in proportion to the number of taxpayer dollars (in the form of vouchers) received by the private school.Kevin Welner points out that vouchers funded through a convoluted tax credit system – a policy he calls \"neovouchers\" – present additional accountability concerns.", "With neovoucher systems, a taxpayer owing money to the state instead donates that money to a private, nonprofit organization.", "That organization then bundles donations and gives them to parents as vouchers to be used for private school tuition.", "The state then steps in and forgives (through a tax credit) some or all of the taxes that the donor has given to the organization.", "While conventional tax credit systems are structured to treat all private school participants equally, neovoucher systems effectively delegate to individual private taxpayers (those owing money to the state) the power to decide which private schools will benefit.An example of a lack of accountability is the voucher situation in Louisiana.", "In 2012, Louisiana State Superintendent of Education John White selected private schools to receive vouchers, then tried to fabricate criteria (including site visits) after schools had already received approval letters.", "One school of note, New Living Word in Ruston, Louisiana, did not have sufficient facilities for the over 300 students White and the state board of education had approved.", "Following a voucher audit in 2013, New Living Word had overcharged the state $395,000.White referred to the incident as a \"lone substantive issue\".", "However, most voucher schools did not undergo a complete audit for not having a separate checking account for state voucher money.According to Susanne Wiborg, an expert on comparative education, Sweden's voucher system introduced in 1992 has \"augmented social and ethnic segregation, particularly in relation to schools in deprived areas\".Tax-credit scholarships which are in most part disbursed to current private school students or to families which made substantial donations to the scholarship fund, rather than to low-income students attempting to escape from failing schools, amount to nothing more than a mechanism to use public funds in the form of foregone taxes to support private, often religiously based, private schools.===Proponents===Proponents of school vouchers and education tax credit systems argue that those systems promote free market competition among both private and public schools by allowing parents and students to choose the school to use the vouchers.", "This choice available to parents' forces schools to perpetually improve in order to maintain enrollment.", "Thus, proponents argue that a voucher system increases school performance and accountability because it provides consumer sovereignty – allowing individuals to choose what product to buy, as opposed to a bureaucracy.This argument is supported by studies such as \"When Schools Compete: The Effects of Vouchers on Florida Public School Achievement\" (Manhattan Institute for Policy Research, 2003), which concluded that public schools located near private schools that were eligible to accept voucher students made significantly more improvements than did similar schools not located near eligible private schools.", "Stanford's Caroline Hoxby, who has researched the systemic effects of school choice, determined that areas with greater residential school choice have consistently higher test scores at a lower per-pupil cost than areas with very few school districts.", "Hoxby studied the effects of vouchers in Milwaukee and of charter schools in Arizona and Michigan on nearby public schools.", "Public schools forced to compete made greater test-score gains than schools not faced with such competition, and that the so-called effect of cream skimming did not exist in any of the voucher districts examined.", "Hoxby's research has found that both private and public schools improved through the use of vouchers.Similarly, it is argued that such competition has helped in higher education, with publicly funded universities directly competing with private universities for tuition money provided by the Government, such as the GI Bill and the Pell Grant in the United States.", "The Foundation for Educational Choice alleges that a school voucher plan \"embodies exactly the same principle as the GI bills that provide for educational benefits to military veterans.", "The veteran gets a voucher good only for educational expense and he is completely free to choose the school at which he uses it, provided that it satisfies certain standards\".", "The Pell Grant, a need-based aid, like the Voucher, can only be used for authorized school expenses at qualified schools, and, like the Pell, the money follows the student, for use against those authorized expenses (not all expenses are covered).Proponents are encouraged by private school sector growth, as they believe that private schools are typically more efficient at achieving results at a much lower per-pupil cost than public schools.", "A CATO Institute study of public and private school per pupil spending in Phoenix, Los Angeles, D.C., Chicago, New York City, and Houston found that public schools spend 93% more than the estimated median private schools.Proponents claim that institutions often are forced to operate more efficiently when they are made to compete and that any resulting job losses in the public sector would be offset by the increased demand for jobs in the private sector.Friedrich von Hayek on the privatizing of education:Other notable supporters include New Jersey Senator Cory Booker, former Governor of South Carolina Mark Sanford, billionaire and American philanthropist John T. Walton, Former Mayor of Baltimore Kurt L. Schmoke, Former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney and John McCain.", "A random survey of 210 Ph.D. holding members of the American Economic Association, found that over two-thirds of economists support giving parents educational vouchers that can be used at government-operated or privately operated schools, and that support is greater if the vouchers are to be used by parents with low-incomes or parents with children in poorly performing schools.Another prominent proponent of the voucher system was Apple co-founder and CEO, Steve Jobs, who said:As a practical matter, proponents note, most U.S. programs only offer poor families the same choice more affluent families already have, by providing them with the means to leave a failing school and attend one where the child can get an education.", "Because public schools are funded on a per-pupil basis, the money simply follows the child, but the cost to taxpayers is less because the voucher generally is less than the actual cost.In addition, they say, the comparisons of public and private schools on average are meaningless.", "Vouchers usually are utilized by children in failing schools, so they can hardly be worse off even if the parents fail to choose a better school.", "Also, focusing on the effect on public school suggests that is more important than the education of children.Some proponents of school vouchers, including the Sutherland Institute and many supporters of the Utah voucher effort, see it as a remedy for the negative cultural impact caused by underperforming public schools, which falls disproportionately on demographic minorities.", "During the run-up to the November referendum election, Sutherland issued a controversial publication: Voucher, Vows, & Vexations.", "Sutherland called the publication an important review of the history of education in Utah, while critics just called it revisionist history.", "Sutherland then released a companion article in a law journal as part of an academic conference about school choice.EdChoice, founded by Milton and Rose Friedman in 1996, is a non-profit organization that promotes universal school vouchers and other forms of school choice.", "In defense of vouchers, it cites empirical research showing that students who were randomly assigned to receive vouchers had higher academic outcomes than students who applied for vouchers but lost a random lottery and did not receive them; and that vouchers improve academic outcomes at public schools, reduce racial segregation, deliver better services to special education students, and do not drain money from public schools.EdChoice also argues that education funding should belong to children, not a specific school type or building.", "Their purpose for the argument is to try to argue that people should prioritize a student's education and their opportunity over making a specific type of school better.", "They also emphasize that if a family chooses a public school, the funds also go to that school.", "This would mean that it would also benefit those who value the public education system.====Legal challenges====The school voucher question in the United States also received a considerable amount of judicial review in the early 2000s.A program launched in the city of Cleveland in 1995 and authorized by the state of Ohio was challenged in court on the grounds that it violated both the federal constitutional principle of separation of church and state and the guarantee of religious liberty in the Ohio Constitution.", "These claims were rejected by the Ohio Supreme Court, but the federal claims were upheld by the local federal district court and by the Sixth Circuit appeals court.", "The fact that nearly all of the families using vouchers attended Catholic schools in the Cleveland area was cited in the decisions.This was later reversed in 2002 in a landmark case before the US Supreme Court, ''Zelman v. Simmons-Harris'', in which the divided court, in a 5–4 decision, ruled the Ohio school voucher plan constitutional and removed any constitutional barriers to similar voucher plans in the future, with conservative justices Anthony Kennedy, Sandra Day O'Connor, William Rehnquist, Antonin Scalia, and Clarence Thomas in the majority.Chief Justice William Rehnquist, writing for the majority, stated that \"The incidental advancement of a religious mission, or the perceived endorsement of a religious message, is reasonably attributable to the individual aid recipients, not the government, whose role ends with the disbursement of benefits.\"", "The Supreme Court ruled that the Ohio program did not violate the Establishment Clause, because it passed a five-part test developed by the Court in this case, titled the Private Choice Test.Dissenting opinions included Justice Stevens's, who wrote \"...the voluntary character of the private choice to prefer a parochial education over an education in the public school system seems to me quite irrelevant to the question whether the government's choice to pay for religious indoctrination is constitutionally permissible\" and Justice Souter's, whose opinion questioned how the Court could keep ''Everson v. Board of Education'' on as precedent and decide this case in the way they did, feeling it was contradictory.In 2006, the Florida Supreme Court struck down legislation known as the Florida Opportunity Scholarship Program (OSP), which would have implemented a system of school vouchers in Florida.", "The court ruled that the OSP violated article IX, section 1(a) of the Florida Constitution: \"Adequate provision shall be made by law for a uniform, efficient, safe, secure, and high-quality system of free public schools.\"", "This decision was criticized by Clark Neily, Institute for Justice senior attorney and legal counsel to Pensacola families using Florida Opportunity Scholarships, as \"educational policymaking\".====Political support====Political support for school vouchers in the United States is mixed.", "On the left/right spectrum, conservatives are more likely to support vouchers.", "Some state legislatures have enacted voucher laws.", "In New Mexico, then-Republican Gary Johnson made school voucher provision the major issue of his second term as governor.", "The federal government provided a voucher program for 7,500 residents of Washington, D.C., called the D.C.", "Opportunity Scholarship Program.", "The program operated until in early March 2009, when congressional Democrats moved to close down the program and remove children from their voucher-funded school places at the end of the 2009/10 school year under the $410 billion Omnibus Appropriations Act of 2009 which, as of March 7 had passed the House and was pending in the Senate.", "The Obama administration stated that it preferred to allow children already enrolled in the program to finish their schooling while closing the program to new entrants.", "However, its preference on this matter was not strong enough to prevent the president from signing the bill.Whether or not the public generally supports vouchers is debatable.", "Majorities seem to favor improving existing schools over providing vouchers, yet as many as 40% of those surveyed admit that they do not know enough to form an opinion or do not understand the system of school vouchers.In November 2000, a voucher system proposed by Tim Draper was placed on the California ballot as Proposition 38.It was unusual among school voucher proposals in that it required neither accreditation on the part of schools accepting vouchers, nor proof of need on the part of families applying for them; neither did it have any requirement that schools accept vouchers as payment-in-full, nor any other provision to guarantee a reduction in the real cost of private school tuition.", "The measure was defeated by a final percentage tally of 70.6 to 29.4.A statewide universal school voucher system providing a maximum tuition subsidy of $3,000 was passed in Utah in 2007, but 62% of voters repealed it in a statewide referendum before it took effect.", "On April 27, 2011, Indiana passed a statewide voucher program, the largest in the U.S.", "It offers up to $4,500 to students with household incomes under $41,000, and lesser benefits to households with higher incomes.", "The vouchers can be used to fund a variety of education options outside the public school system.", "In March 2013, the Indiana Supreme Court found that the program does not violate the state constitution.==== Trump's 2018 Budget ====President Donald Trump proposed a 2018 budget that included $250 million for voucher initiatives, state-funded programs that pay for students to go to private school.", "This 2018 budget served the purpose of \"Expanding school choice, ensuring more children have an equal opportunity to receive a great education, maintaining strong support for the Nation's most vulnerable students, simplifying funding for post-secondary education, continuing to build evidence around educational innovation, and eliminating or reducing Department programs consistent with the limited Federal role in education.\"", "The Budget reduced more than 30 programs that duplicated other programs; that were deemed ineffective; or that were more appropriately supported with state, local, or private funds.", "Another $1 billion was set aside for encouraging schools to adopt school choice-friendly policies.Former U.S. Secretary of Education Betsy DeVosBetsy DeVos, Trump's education secretary, is also an advocate for voucher programs and has argued that they would lead to better educational outcomes for students.", "Both Trump and DeVos proposed cutting the Education Department's budget by about $3.6 billion and spend more than $1 billion on private school vouchers and other school choice plans.Regarding the purpose and importance of the budget, DeVos claimed:This budget makes an historic investment in America's students.", "President Trump is committed to ensuring the Department focuses on returning decision-making power back to the States, where it belongs, and on giving parents more control over their child's education.", "By refocusing the Department's funding priorities on supporting students, we can usher in a new era of creativity and ingenuity and lay a new foundation for American greatness.", "– Betsy DeVos, U.S. Secretary of Education====Teaching creationism instead of evolution====Some private religious schools in voucher programs teach creationism instead of the theory of evolution, including religious schools that teach religious theology side by side with or in place of science.", "Over 300 schools in the U.S. have been documented as teaching creationism and receiving taxpayer money.", "A strict definition of state-funded religious education was narrowly deemed constitutional in ''Zelman v. Simmons-Harris'' (2002).", "At least 35 states have passed various Blaine Amendments restricting or prohibiting public funding of religious education.", "However, ''Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue'' (2020) ruled that it is unconstitutional to disqualify all religious schools from receiving public funds that other private schools are eligible to get." ], [ "See also", "* Scholarship* School choice* Student debt* Student loan" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Carl, Jim.", "''Freedom of Choice: Vouchers in American Education''.", "(Westport: Praeger, 2011), 264 pp.", "* * Dennis Epple, Richard E. Romano, and Miguel Urquiola.", "\"School Vouchers: A Survey of the Economics\".", "''Journal of Economic Literature''.", "Jun 2017, Vol.", "55, No.", "2: Pages 441-492* * - Hosted by the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "E. B. White" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elwyn Brooks White''' (July 11, 1899 – October 1, 1985) was an American writer.", "He was the author of several highly popular books for children, including ''Stuart Little'' (1945), ''Charlotte's Web'' (1952), and ''The Trumpet of the Swan'' (1970).", "In a 2012 survey of ''School Library Journal'' readers, ''Charlotte's Web'' came in first in their poll of the top one hundred children's novels.", "In addition, he was a writer and contributing editor to ''The New Yorker'' magazine and a co-author of the English-language style guide ''The Elements of Style.''" ], [ "Life", "E.B.", "White was born in Mount Vernon, New York, the sixth and youngest child of Samuel Tilly White, the president of a piano firm, and Jessie Hart White, the daughter of Scottish-American painter William Hart.", "Elwyn's older brother Stanley Hart White, known as Stan, a professor of landscape architecture and the inventor of the vertical garden, taught E.B.", "White to read and to explore the natural world.While attending Cornell University, White was very briefly a private in the Student Army Training Corps (SATC).", "In early 1918, the War Department created the SATC to hasten the training of soldiers for the war in Europe.", "Students continued to take college courses while training for the army.", "Unlike the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC), SATC students were required to live and take all meals on campus and adhered to a strict military schedule of study and training.", "They also required a pass to go off campus on weekends.", "With the end of World War I, the SATC program was disbanded in December 1918, and White did not serve with the active armed forces.White graduated from Cornell University with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1921.He got the nickname \"Andy\" at Cornell, where tradition confers that moniker on any male student whose surname is White, after Cornell co-founder Andrew Dickson White.", "While at Cornell, he worked as editor of ''The Cornell Daily Sun'' with classmate Allison Danzig, who later became a sportswriter for ''The New York Times''.", "White was also a member of the Aleph Samach and Quill and Dagger societies and Phi Gamma Delta (\"Fiji\") fraternity.After graduation, White worked for the United Press (later United Press International) and the American Legion News Service in 1921 and 1922.From September 1922 to June 1923, he was a cub reporter for ''The Seattle Times''.", "On one occasion, when White was stuck writing a story, a ''Times'' editor said, \"Just say the words.\"", "He was fired from the ''Times'' and later wrote for the rival ''Seattle Post-Intelligencer'' before a stint in Alaska on a fireboat.", "He then worked for almost two years with the Frank Seaman advertising agency as a production assistant and copywriter before returning to New York City in 1924.When ''The New Yorker'' was founded in 1925, White submitted manuscripts to it.", "Katharine Angell, the literary editor, recommended to editor-in-chief and founder Harold Ross that White be hired as a staff writer.", "However, it took months to convince him to come to a meeting at the office and additional weeks to convince him to work on the premises.", "Eventually, he agreed to work in the office on Thursdays.White was shy around women, claiming he had \"too small a heart, too large a pen\".", "But in 1929, after an affair that led to Katharine Angell's divorce, she and White were married.", "They had a son, Joel White, a naval architect and boat builder, who later owned Brooklin Boat Yard in Brooklin, Maine.", "Katharine's son from her first marriage, Roger Angell, spent decades as a fiction editor for ''The New Yorker'' and was well known as the magazine's baseball writer.In her foreword to ''Charlotte's Web'', Kate DiCamillo quotes White as saying, \"All that I hope to say in books, all that I ever hope to say, is that I love the world.\"", "White also loved animals, farms and farming implements, seasons, and weather formats.James Thurber described White as a quiet man who disliked publicity and who, during his time at ''The New Yorker'', would slip out of his office via the fire escape to a nearby branch of Schrafft's to avoid visitors he didn't know: Later in life, White developed Alzheimer's disease and died on October 1, 1985, at his farm home in North Brooklin, Maine.", "He is buried in the Brooklin Cemetery beside Katharine, who died in 1977." ], [ "Career", "White in his twentiesE.B.", "White published his first article for ''The New Yorker'' in 1925, then joined the staff in 1927 and continued to contribute for almost six decades.", "Best recognized for his essays and unsigned \"Notes and Comment\" pieces, he gradually became the magazine's most important contributor.", "From the beginning to the end of his career at ''The New Yorker,'' he frequently provided what the magazine calls \"Newsbreaks\" (short, witty comments on oddly worded printed items from many sources) under various categories such as \"Block That Metaphor.\"", "He also was a columnist for ''Harper's Magazine'' from 1938 to 1943.In 1949, White published ''Here Is New York'', a short book based on an article he had been commissioned to write for ''Holiday''.", "Editor Ted Patrick approached White about writing the essay telling him it would be fun.", "\"Writing is never 'fun'\", replied White.", "That article reflects the writer's appreciation of a city that provides its residents with both \"the gift of loneliness and the gift of privacy.\"", "It concludes with a dark note touching on the forces that could destroy the city that he loved.", "This prescient \"love letter\" to the city was re-published in 1999 on his centennial with an introduction by his stepson, Roger Angell.In 1959, White edited and updated ''The Elements of Style''.", "This handbook of grammatical and stylistic guidance for writers of American English was first written and published in 1918 by William Strunk Jr., one of White's professors at Cornell.", "White's reworking of the book was extremely well received, and later editions followed in 1972, 1979, and 1999.Maira Kalman illustrated an edition in 2005.That same year, a New York composer named Nico Muhly premiered a short opera based on the book.", "The volume is a standard tool for students and writers and remains required reading in many composition classes.", "The complete history of ''The Elements of Style ''is detailed in Mark Garvey's ''Stylized: A Slightly Obsessive History of Strunk & White's The Elements of Style''.In 1978, White won a special Pulitzer Prize citing \"his letters, essays and the full body of his work\".", "He also received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963 and honorary memberships in a variety of literary societies throughout the United States.", "The 1973 Oscar-nominated Canadian animated short ''The Family That Dwelt Apart'' is narrated by White and is based on his short story of the same name." ], [ "Children's books", "In the late 1930s, White turned his hand to children's fiction on behalf of a niece, Janice Hart White.", "His first children's book, ''Stuart Little'', was published in 1945, and ''Charlotte's Web'' followed in 1952.", "''Stuart Little'' initially received a lukewarm welcome from the literary community.", "However, both books went on to receive high acclaim, and ''Charlotte's Web'' won a Newbery Honor from the American Library Association, though it lost out on winning the Newbery Medal to ''Secret of the Andes'' by Ann Nolan Clark.White received the Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal from the U.S. professional children's librarians in 1970.It recognized his \"substantial and lasting contributions to children's literature.\"", "That year, he was also the U.S. nominee and eventual runner-up for the biennial Hans Christian Andersen Award, as he was again in 1976.Also, in 1970, White's third children's novel was published, ''The Trumpet of the Swan''.", "In 1973 it won the Sequoyah Award from Oklahoma and the William Allen White Award from Kansas, both selected by students voting for their favorite book of the year.", "In 2012, the ''School Library Journal'' sponsored a survey of readers, which identified ''Charlotte's Web'' as the best children's novel (\"fictional title for readers 8–12\" years old).", "The librarian who conducted it said, \"It is impossible to conduct a poll of this sort and expect White's novel to be anywhere but #1.\"" ], [ "Awards and honors", "*1953 Newbery Honor for ''Charlotte's Web''*1960 American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal*1963 Presidential Medal of Freedom*1970 Laura Ingalls Wilder Award*1971 National Medal for Literature *1977 L. L. Winship/PEN New England Award, ''Letters of E.B.", "White''*1978 Pulitzer Prize Special Citation for Letters" ], [ "Other", "The E.B.", "White Read Aloud Award is given by The Association of Booksellers for Children (ABC) to honor books that its membership feel embodies the universal read-aloud standards that E.B.", "White's works created." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books===*''Less than Nothing, or, The Life and Times of Sterling Finny'' (1927)***''Ho Hum: Newsbreaks from'' The New Yorker (1931).", "Intro by E. B.", "White, and much of the text as well.", "*''Alice Through the Cellophane'', John Day (1933)*''Every Day Is Saturday'', Harper (1934)*''Farewell to Model T'' (1936, G P Putnam's Sons) - originally published under pseudonym Lee Strout White as ''Farewell, My Lovely!''", "(1936, ''The New Yorker'') collaboration with Richard L. Strout*''The Fox of Peapack, and other poems'' (1938, Harper)*''Quo Vadimus: or The Case for the Bicycle'', Harper (1938)*''A Subtreasury of American Humor'' (1941).", "Co-edited with Katherine S.", "White.", "*''One Man's Meat'' (1942): A collection of his columns from ''Harper's Magazine''*''The Wild Flag: Editorials from ''The New Yorker'' on Federal World Government and Other Matters'' (1943)*''Stuart Little'' (1945)*''Here Is New York'' (1949)*''Charlotte's Web'' (1952)*''The Second Tree from the Corner'' (1954)*''The Elements of Style'' (by William Strunk Jr. in 1918, revised and expanded by White in 1959)*''The Points of My Compass'' (1962) - letters*''The Trumpet of the Swan'' (1970)*''Letters of E. B.", "White'' (1976)*''Essays of E. B.", "White'' (1977)*''Poems and Sketches of E. B.", "White'' (1981)*''Writings from ''The New Yorker'' 1925-1976'' (1990, HarperCollins, ed.", "Rebecca M. Dale)*''Farewell to Model T / From Sea to Shining Sea'' (2003, Little Bookroom)*''In the Words of E. B.", "White'' (2011)*''An E. B.", "White Reader''.", "Edited by William W. Watt and Robert W. Bradford.===Essays and reporting===***" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"E.B.", "White, The Art of the Essay No.", "1\", ''The Paris Review'', Fall 1969 – interview by George Plimpton and Frank H. Crowther* (audio-video)* miNYstories based on ''Here Is New York''* * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Evangelist (Latter Day Saints)" ], [ "Introduction", "In the Latter Day Saint movement, an '''evangelist''' is an ordained office of the ministry.", "In some denominations of the movement, an evangelist is referred to as a '''patriarch'''.", "However, the latter term was deprecated by the Community of Christ after the church began ordaining women to the priesthood.", "Other denominations, such as The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite), have an evangelist position independent of the original \"patriarch\" office instituted movement founder Joseph Smith." ], [ "Early Latter Day Saint movement", "The first use of the term \"evangelist\" in Latter Day Saint theology were mainly consistent with how the term is used by Protestants and Catholics.In 1833, Joseph Smith introduced the new office of patriarch, to which he ordained his father.", "The elder Smith was given the \"keys of the patriarchal Priesthood over the kingdom of God on earth\", the same power said to be held by the Biblical patriarchs, which included the power to give blessings upon one's posterity.", "The elder Smith, however, was also called to give patriarchal blessings to the fatherless within the church, and the church as a whole, a calling he passed onto his eldest surviving son Hyrum Smith prior to his death.", "Hyrum himself was killed in 1844 along with Joseph, resulting in a succession crisis that broke the Latter Day Saint movement into multiple denominations.It is not known who first identified the term \"evangelist\" with the office of patriarch.", "However, in an 1835 church publication, W. W. Phelps stated,:\"Who is not desirous of receiving a father's or an evangelist's blessing?", "Who can read the ancient patriarchal blessings, recorded in the bible, for the benefit of the church, without a heart filled with joy ...", "?", "\"In 1839, Joseph Smith equated an evangelist with the office of patriarch, stating that \"an Evangelist is a Patriarch\".The necessity of an evangelist in the church organization has been reinforced repeatedly, based on the passage in Ephesians 4:11, which states, \"And he gave some, apostles; and some, prophets; and some, evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers\".", "In 1834, while writing what he called the \"principles of salvation\", prominent early Latter Day Saint Oliver Cowdery stated that::\"We do not believe that he ever had a church on earth without revealing himself to that church: consequently, there were apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers, in the same.", "\"Joseph Smith echoed Cowdery's statement in 1842, in a letter to a Chicago newspaper editor outlining the church's basic beliefs.", "Smith said that his religion \"believes in the same organization that existed in the primitive church, viz: apostles, prophets, pastors, teachers, evangelists\"." ], [ "Community of Christ", "In the Community of Christ, which was formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS Church), an evangelist is an office in the Melchizedec Order of the priesthood.An evangelist-patriarch's primary responsibility was to provide special blessings to members of the church; these blessings were considered one of the eight sacraments in the RLDS Church.", "The local evangelist-patriarchs of the church were governed by an individual with church-wide authority known as the Presiding Patriarch.In 1984, when the first women began to be ordained to the office of evangelist-patriarch, the RLDS Church changed the title of the evangelist-patriarchs to simply \"evangelist\".", "Similarly, it changed the title of the Presiding Patriarch to the \"Presiding Evangelist\".", "To be an evangelist, a person must also be a high priest of the Melchizedec Order of the priesthood.The primary duty of an evangelist in the Community of Christ remains the giving of sacramental \"evangelist's blessings\"; it is for this reason that evangelists are often referred to as \"ministers of blessing\".", "Ideally, an evangelist is free from administrative responsibilities in the church in order to allow them to be fully responsive to the Holy Spirit.", "The blessings—which are given by the laying on of hands—provide counsel and advice and confer spiritual blessings upon the recipient(s).", "Not only individuals, but also couples, families, households, groups and congregations may receive an evangelist's blessing.", "Any person, including nonmembers, eight years of age or older can receive a blessing, although the blessing is rarely offered for someone who has not reached adolescence.", "A recipient may receive multiple evangelist's blessings in their life.", "Evangelist's blessings may or may not be recorded.", "If it is recorded in written form, a copy is stored in the church archives at Independence, Missouri.", "All evangelists belong to the Order of Evangelists, which is led by the Presiding Evangelist (currently Jane M. Gardner, since 2016)." ], [ "The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite)", "In The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite), the prescribed duties of an evangelist are to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ to every nation, kindred, language, and people.", "An evangelist is part of the Quorum of Seventy Evangelists.===Quorum of Seventy Evangelists===The Quorum of Seventy Evangelists is responsible for management of the International Missionary Programs of the church and assists Regions of the church with their individual Domestic Missionary Programs.", "The Quorum of Seventy oversees the activities of its Missionary Operating Committees to ensure the fulfilling of Christ’s commandment to take the gospel to the entire world.In 2007, the officers of the Quorum of Seventy Evangelists were:*Evangelist Eugene Perri, President*Evangelist Alex Gentile, Vice-President*Evangelist Jeffrey Giannetti, Secretary" ], [ "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), an evangelist is considered to be an office of the Melchizedek priesthood.", "However, the term \"evangelist\" is rarely used for this position; instead, the church has retained the term \"patriarch\", the term most commonly used by Joseph Smith.The most prominent reference to the term \"evangelist\" in the LDS Church's literature is found in its \"Articles of Faith\", derived from the Wentworth letter—a statement by Smith in 1842 to a Chicago newspaper editor—that the church believes in \"the same organization that existed in the primitive church\", including \"evangelists\".", "Smith taught that \"an Evangelist is an Patriarch\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Edwards, Paul M., \"RLDS Priesthood: Structure and Process\", ''Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought'' '''17'''(3) (1984) p. 6.", "**The Church of Jesus Christ (2005).", "''Faith and Doctrine of The Church of Jesus Christ''.", "Bridgewater, Michigan: The Church of Jesus Christ.", "*Valenti, Jerry (1986).", "\"Volume 56\", \"Welcome to The Church of Jesus Christ\".", "Bridgewater, Michigan: ''Gospel News'', 9.", "*Veazey, Stephen M. (2006).", "''Faith & Beliefs: Sacraments in the Community of Christ'' (Independence, Missouri: Herald House)." ] ]
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[ [ "Elegiac couplet" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''elegiac couplet''' is a poetic form used by Greek lyric poets for a variety of themes usually of smaller scale than the epic.", "Roman poets, particularly Catullus, Propertius, Tibullus, and Ovid, adopted the same form in Latin many years later.", "As with the English heroic couplet, each pair of lines usually makes sense on its own, while forming part of a larger work.Each couplet consists of a dactylic hexameter verse followed by a dactylic pentameter verse.", "The following is a graphic representation of its scansion: – uu | – uu | – uu | – uu | – uu | – x – uu | – uu | – – '''–''' is one long syllable, '''u''' one short syllable, '''uu''' is one long or two short syllables, and '''x''' is one long or one short syllable (anceps).The form was felt by the ancients to contrast the rising action of the first verse with a falling quality in the second.", "The sentiment is summarized in a line from Ovid's ''Amores'' I.1.27 ''Sex mihi surgat opus numeris, in quinque residat''—\"Let my work rise in six steps, fall back in five.\"", "The effect is illustrated by Samuel Taylor Coleridge as::In the hexameter rises the fountain's silvery column,:In the pentameter aye falling in melody back.translating Friedrich Schiller,::" ], [ "Greek origins<!--Linked from 'Aulos'-->", "The elegiac couplet is presumed to be the oldest Greek form of epodic poetry (a form where a later verse is sung in response or comment to a previous one).", "Scholars, who even in the past did not know who created it, theorize the form was originally used in Ionian dirges, with the name \"elegy\" derived from the Greek ''ε, λεγε ε, λεγε''—\"Woe, cry woe, cry!\"", "Hence, the form was used initially for funeral songs, typically accompanied by an aulos, a double-reed wind instrument.", "Archilochus expanded use of the form to treat other themes, such as war, travel, and homespun philosophy.", "Between Archilochus and other imitators, the verse form became a common poetic vehicle for conveying any strong emotion.At the end of the 7th century BCE, Mimnermus of Colophon struck on the innovation of using the verse for erotic poetry.", "He composed several elegies celebrating his love for the flute girl Nanno, and though fragmentary today, his poetry was clearly influential in the later Roman development of the form.", "Propertius, to cite one example, notes —\"The verse of Mimnermus is stronger in love than Homer\".The form continued to be popular throughout the Greek period and treated a number of different themes.", "Tyrtaeus composed elegies on a war theme, apparently for a Spartan audience.", "Theognis of Megara vented himself in couplets as an embittered aristocrat in a time of social change.", "Popular leaders were writers of elegies—Solon the lawgiver of Athens composed on political and ethical subjects—and even Plato and Aristotle dabbled with the meter.A famous example of an elegiac couplet is the epitaph composed by Simonides of Ceos which Herodotus says was inscribed on a stone to commemorate those who died at the battle of Thermopylae in 490 BC::: (Book VII, 228):::\"O stranger, tell the Spartans that in this place:we lie, obeying their commands\"Cicero translates it as follows (''Tusc.", "Disp.''", "1.42.101), also using an elegiac couplet: :::\"Say, stranger, in Sparta that you saw us lying here:while we obey the sacred laws of our fatherland\"By the Hellenistic period, the Library of Alexandria made elegy its favorite and most highly developed form.", "They preferred the briefer style associated with elegy in contrast to the lengthier epic forms, and made it the singular medium for short epigrams.", "The founder of this school was Philitas of Cos.", "He was eclipsed only by the school's most admired exponent, Callimachus; their learned character and intricate art would have a heavy influence on the Romans." ], [ "Roman elegy", "Like many Greek forms, elegy was adapted by the Romans for their own literature.", "The fragments of Ennius contain a few couplets, but it is the elegists of the mid-to-late first century BCE who are most commonly associated with the distinctive Roman form of the elegiac couplet.", "Catullus, the first of these, is an invaluable link between the Alexandrine school and the subsequent elegies of Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid.", "He shows a familiarity with the usual Alexandrine style of terse epigram and a wealth of mythological learning, as in his 66th poem, , a direct translation of Callimachus' ''Lock of Berenice''.", "His 85th poem is famous:To read it correctly it is necessary to take account of the three elisions: – u u| – –| – u u|– – | – u u| – x Od'et a|mo.", "Qua|r'id faci|am, for|tasse re|quiris?", "– uu – – Nescio, | sed fie|ri or.Cornelius Gallus, an important statesman of this period, was also regarded by the ancients as a great elegist, but, except for a few lines, his work has been lost." ], [ "Elegy in the Augustan Age", "The form reached its zenith with the collections of Tibullus and Propertius and several collections of Ovid (the ''Amores, Ars Amatoria, Heroides, Tristia'', and ''Epistulae ex Ponto'').", "The vogue of elegy during this time is seen in the so-called 3rd and 4th books of Tibullus.", "Many poems in these books were clearly not written by Tibullus but by others, perhaps part of a circle under Tibullus' patron Messalla.", "Notable in this collection are the poems of Sulpicia, thought to be the only surviving work by a Classical Latin female poet.", "The six elegiac poems of Lygdamus in the collection are thought by some to be an anonymous early work by Ovid, though other scholars attribute them to an imitator of Ovid who may have lived in a much later period.Through these poets—and in comparison with the earlier Catullus—it is possible to trace specific characteristics and evolutionary patterns in the Roman form of the verse:*The Roman authors often write about their own love affairs.", "In contrast to their Greek originals, these poets are characters in his own stories, and write about love in a highly subjective way.", "*The form began to be applied to new themes beyond the traditional love, loss, and other \"strong emotion\" verse.", "Propertius uses it to relate aetiological or \"origin\" myths such as the origins of Rome (IV.1) and the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill (IV.6).", "Ovid's ''Heroides''—though at first glance fictitious love letters—are described by Ovid himself as a new literary form, and can be read as character studies of famous heroines from mythology.", "Ovid's ''Fasti'' is a lengthy elegiac poem on the first six months of the Roman calendar.", "*The Romans adopted the Alexandrine habit of concealing the name of their beloved in the poem with a pseudonym.", "Catullus' Lesbia is notorious as the pseudonym of Clodia.", "But as the form developed, this habit becomes more artificial; Tibullus' Delia and Propertius' Cynthia, while likely real people, lack something of the specificity seen in Lesbia, while Ovid's Corinna is often considered a mere literary device.", "*The poets become extremely strict with pentameters.", "For example::*There is a trend toward the clear separation of the pentameter halves.", "Catullus, for example, allows an elision across the caesura in 18 cases, a rare occurrence in the later poets (Ovid, for example, never does this).", ":*The pentameter begins to show a semi-regular \"leonine\" rhyme between the two halves of the verse, e.g.", "Tib.", "I.1–2, where the ''culti'' ending the first half of the pentameter rhymes with the ''soli'' closing the verse::::::::::\"Let another man pile up riches for himself with yellow gold:::and hold many acres of cultivated land\"::While Catullus shows this rhyme in about 1 in 5 couplets, the later elegists use it more frequently.", "Propertius II.34, for example, has the rhyme in nearly half its pentameters.", "Rhyming between adjacent lines and even in the two halves of the hexameter is also observed, more than would be expected by chance alone.", ":*Unlike Catullus, later poets show a definite trend toward ending the pentameter with a two-syllable word.", "In Catullus the proportion of disyllabic endings is 39%, not dissimilar to Greek practice; in Propertius book 1, this rises to 61%; but in the last two books endings other than a disyllabic word are very rare.", "In Tibullus book 1 the figure is 93%.", "Ovid has no exceptions to the disyllabic ending in his ''Amores'', and only a few exceptions in his later work.", "*The hexameter follows the usual rhetorical trends of the dactylic hexameter in this age.", "If anything, the elegists are even more interested in verbal effects like alliteration and assonance.", "*Overall there is a tendency to make the elegiac couplet increasingly dactylic.", "In Catullus the proportion of dactylic feet (not counting the verse endings, which do not vary) is about 37%; this rises to 45% in Propertius books 2 and 3; and in Ovid's it rises as high as 57%." ], [ "Post-Augustan writers", "Although no classical poet wrote collections of love elegies after Ovid, the verse retained its popularity as a vehicle for popular occasional poetry.", "Elegiac verses appear, for example, in Petronius' ''Satyricon'', and Martial's Epigrams uses it for many witty stand-alone couplets and for longer pieces.", "The trend continues through the remainder of the empire; short elegies appear in Apuleius's story of Cupid and Psyche and in the minor writings of Ausonius." ], [ "Medieval elegy", "After the fall of the empire, one writer who produced elegiac verse was Maximianus.", "Various Christian writers also adopted the form; Venantius Fortunatus wrote some of his hymns in the meter, while later Alcuin and the Venerable Bede dabbled in the verse.", "The form also remained popular among the educated classes for gravestone epitaphs; many such epitaphs can be found in European cathedrals.", "''De tribus puellis'' is an example of a Latin ''fabliau'', a genre of comedy which employed elegiac couplets in imitation of Ovid.", "The medieval theorist John of Garland wrote that \"all comedy is elegy, but the reverse is not true.\"", "Medieval Latin had a developed comedic genre known as elegiac comedy.", "Sometimes narrative, sometimes dramatic, it deviated from ancient practice because, as Ian Thompson writes, \"no ancient drama would ever have been written in elegiacs.\"" ], [ "Renaissance and modern period", "With the Renaissance, more skilled writers interested in the revival of Roman culture attempted to recapture the spirit of the Augustan writers.", "The Dutch Latinist Johannes Secundus, for example, included Catullus-inspired love elegies in his ''Liber Basiorum'', while the English poet John Milton wrote several lengthy elegies throughout his career.", "This trend continued down through the Recent Latin writers, whose close study of their Augustan counterparts reflects their general attempts to apply the cultural and literary forms of the ancient world to contemporary themes." ], [ "See also", "*Elegiac*Prosody (Latin)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Reading Latin Verse Aloud: Metre and Scansion* What is Elegy?", "(Archive.org)" ] ]
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[ [ "Era" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''era''' is a span of time defined for the purposes of chronology or historiography, as in the regnal eras in the history of a given monarchy, a calendar era used for a given calendar, or the geological eras defined for the history of Earth.Comparable terms are epoch, age, period, saeculum, aeon (Greek ''aion'') and Sanskrit yuga." ], [ "Etymology", "The word has been in use in English since 1615, and is derived from Late Latin ''aera'' \"an era or epoch from which time is reckoned,\" probably identical to Latin ''æra'' \"counters used for calculation,\" plural of ''æs'' \"brass, money\".The Latin word use in chronology seems to have begun in 5th century Visigothic Spain, where it appears in the ''History'' of Isidore of Seville, and in later texts.", "The Spanish era is calculated from 38 BC, Before Christ, perhaps because of a tax (cfr.", "indiction) levied in that year, or due to a miscalculation of the Battle of Actium, which occurred in 31 BC.Like epoch, \"era\" in English originally meant \"the starting point of an age\"; the meaning \"system of chronological notation\" is c. 1646; that of \"historical period\" is 1741." ], [ "Use in chronology", "In chronology, an \"era\" is the highest level for the organization of the measurement of time.", "A \"calendar era\" indicates a span of many years which are numbered beginning at a specific reference date (epoch), which often marks the origin of a political state or cosmology, dynasty, ruler, the birth of a leader, or another significant historical or mythological event; it is generally called after its focus accordingly as in \"Victorian era\".===Geological era===In large-scale natural science, there is need for another time perspective, independent from human activity, and indeed spanning a far longer period (mainly prehistoric), where \"geologic era\" refers to well-defined time spans.The next-larger division of geologic time is the eon.", "The Phanerozoic Eon, for example, is subdivided into eras.", "There are currently three eras defined in the Phanerozoic; the following table lists them from youngest to oldest (BP is an abbreviation for \"before present\").", "Era Beginning (millions of years BP) End (millions of years BP) Cenozoic66.038N/A Mesozoic 252.17 66.038 Paleozoic 542 252.17The older Proterozoic and Archean eons are also divided into eras.===Cosmological era===For periods in the history of the universe, the term \"epoch\" is typically preferred, but \"era\" is used e.g.", "of the \"Stelliferous Era\".===Calendar eras===Calendar eras count the years since a particular date (epoch), often one with religious significance.", "''Anno mundi'' (year of the world) refers to a group of calendar eras based on a calculation of the age of the world, assuming it was created as described in the Book of Genesis.", "In Jewish religious contexts one of the versions is still used, and many Eastern Orthodox religious calendars used another version until 1728.Hebrew year 5772 AM began at sunset on 28 September 2011 and ended on 16 September 2012.In the Western church, ''Anno Domini'' (''AD'' also written ''CE''), counting the years since the birth of Jesus on traditional calculations, was always dominant.The Islamic calendar, which also has variants, counts years from the Hijra or emigration of the Islamic prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina, which occurred in 622 AD.", "The Islamic year is some days shorter than 365; January 2012 fell in 1433 AH (\"After Hijra\").For a time ranging from 1872 to the Second World War, the Japanese used the imperial year system (''kōki''), counting from the year when the legendary Emperor Jimmu founded Japan, which occurred in 660 BC.Many Buddhist calendars count from the death of the Buddha, which according to the most commonly used calculations was in 545–543 BCE or 483 BCE.", "Dates are given as \"BE\" for \"Buddhist Era\"; 2000 AD was 2543 BE in the Thai solar calendar.Other calendar eras of the past counted from political events, such as the Seleucid era and the Ancient Roman ''ab urbe condita'' (\"AUC\"), counting from the foundation of the city.===Regnal eras===The word era also denotes the units used under a different, more arbitrary system where time is not represented as an endless continuum with a single reference year, but each unit starts counting from one again as if time starts again.", "The use of regnal years is a rather impractical system, and a challenge for historians if a single piece of the historical chronology is missing, and often reflects the preponderance in public life of an absolute ruler in many ancient cultures.", "Such traditions sometimes outlive the political power of the throne, and may even be based on mythological events or rulers who may not have existed (for example Rome numbering from the rule of Romulus and Remus).", "In a manner of speaking the use of the supposed date of the birth of Christ as a base year is a form of an era.In East Asia, each emperor's reign may be subdivided into several reign periods, each being treated as a new era.", "The name of each was a motto or slogan chosen by the emperor.", "Different East Asian countries utilized slightly different systems, notably:*Chinese eras*Japanese era*Korean eras*Vietnamese erasA similar practice survived in the United Kingdom until quite recently, but only for formal official writings: in daily life the ordinary year A.D. has been used for a long time, but Acts of Parliament were dated according to the years of the reign of the current monarch, so that \"61 & 62 Vict c. 37\" refers to the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 passed in the session of Parliament in the 61st/62nd year of the reign of Queen Victoria.===Historiography===\"Era\" can be used to refer to well-defined periods in historiography, such as the Roman era, Elizabethan era, Victorian era, etc.Use of the term for more recent periods or topical history might include Soviet era, and \"musical eras\" in the history of modern popular music, such as the \"big band era\", \"disco era\", etc." ], [ "See also", "*Periodization*List of time periods*List of archaeological periods*" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eschatology" ], [ "Introduction", "''Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse'', woodcut print from the ''Apocalypse'' of Albrecht Dürer (1497–1498), Staatliche Kunsthalle Karlsruhe'''Eschatology''' (; ) concerns expectations of the end of the present age, human history, or the world itself.", "The '''end of the world''' or '''end times''' is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic), which teach that negative world events will reach a climax.", "Belief that the end of the world is imminent is known as apocalypticism, and over time has been held both by members of mainstream religions and by doomsday cults.", "In the context of mysticism, the term refers metaphorically to the end of ordinary reality and to reunion with the divine.", "Various religions treat eschatology as a future event prophesied in sacred texts or in folklore.", "While other religions may have concepts of renewal or transformation after significant events, the explicit description of a new earth is primarily found in Christian teachings within the context of eschatology, this description can be found in the book of Revelation, Chapter 21.The Abrahamic religions maintain a linear cosmology, with end-time scenarios containing themes of transformation and redemption.", "In Judaism, the term \"end of days\" makes reference to the Messianic Age and includes an in-gathering of the exiled Jewish diaspora, the coming of the Messiah, the resurrection of the righteous, and the world to come.", "Christianity depicts the end time as a period of tribulation that precedes the second coming of Christ, who will face the rise of the Antichrist along with his power structure and false prophets, and usher in the Kingdom of God.", "In later traditions of Islam, separate contradictory hadiths detail the Day of Judgment is preceded by the appearance of the Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl, and followed by the descending of ʿĪsā (Jesus), which shall triumph over the false Messiah or Antichrist; his defeat will lead to a sequence of events that will end with the sun rising from the west and the beginning of the Qiyāmah (Judgment Day).Dharmic religions tend to have more cyclical worldviews, with end-time eschatologies characterized by decay, redemption, and rebirth (though some believe transitions between cycles are relatively uneventful).", "In Hinduism, the end time occurs when Kalki, the final incarnation of Vishnu, descends atop a white horse and brings an end to the current ''Kali Yuga'', completing a cycle that starts again with the regeneration of the world.", "In Buddhism, the Buddha predicted his teachings would be forgotten after 5,000 years, followed by turmoil.", "It says a ''bodhisattva'' named Maitreya will appear and rediscover the teachings of the ''Buddha Dharma'', and that the ultimate destruction of the world will then come through seven suns.Since the development of the concept of deep time in the 18th century the calculation of the estimated age of planet Earth, scientific discourse about end times has considered the ultimate fate of the universe.", "Theories have included the Big Rip, Big Crunch, Big Bounce, and Big Freeze (heat death).", "Social and scientific commentators also worry about global catastrophic risks and scenarios that could result in human extinction." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"eschatology\" arises from the Ancient Greek term (''éschatos''), meaning \"last\", and ''-logy'', meaning \"the study of\", and first appeared in English around 1844.The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' defines eschatology as \"the part of theology concerned with death, judgment, and the final destiny of the soul and of humankind\"." ], [ "Linear cosmology", "=== Judaism ===Scroll of Book of IsaiahThe main tenets of modern Jewish eschatology, in no particular order, include:* God will redeem Israel from the captivity that began during the Babylonian Exile in a new Exodus.", "* God will return the Jewish people to the Land of Israel.", "* God will restore the House of David and the Temple in Jerusalem.", "* God will raise up a regent from the House of David, the Jewish Messiah, to lead the Jewish people and the world and to usher in an age of justice and peace, the Messianic Age.", "* Non-Jews will recognize that the God of Israel is the only true god.", "* God will resurrect the dead.", "* God will create a new heaven and earth.Judaism usually refers to the end times as the \"end of days\" (''aḥarit ha-yamim'', אחרית הימים), a phrase that appears several times in the Tanakh.", "The end times are addressed in the Book of Daniel and in numerous other prophetic passages in the Hebrew scriptures, and also in the Talmud, particularly Tractate Avodah Zarah.The idea of a Messianic Age, an era of global peace and knowledge of the Creator, has a prominent place in Jewish thought, and is incorporated as part of the end of days.", "A well-known passage from the Book of Isaiah describes this future condition of the world: \"They shall beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks; nation will not lift sword against nation and they will no longer study warfare\" (2:4).", "Maimonides (1135–1204) further describes the Messianic Era in the Mishneh Torah: \"And at that time there will be no hunger or war, no jealousy or rivalry.", "For the good will be plentiful, and all delicacies available as dust.", "The entire occupation of the world will be only to know God;... the people Israel will be of great wisdom; they will perceive the esoteric truths and comprehend their Creator's wisdom as is the capacity of man.", "As it is written (Isaiah 11:9): 'For the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of God, as the waters cover the sea.", "'\"====Kabbalah====In Kabbalah, the Zohar maintains that the seven days of the week, based on the seven days of creation, correspond to the seven millennia of creation.", "The seventh day of the week, the Shabbat day of rest, corresponds to the seventh millennium, the age of universal rest, or the Messianic Era.", "The seventh millennium begins with the year 6000 AM, and is the latest time the Messiah can come.", "A number of early and late Jewish scholars have written in support of this, including the Ramban, Isaac Abarbanel, Abraham Ibn Ezra, Rabbeinu Bachya, the Vilna Gaon, the Lubavitcher Rebbe, the Ramchal, Aryeh Kaplan and Rebbetzin Esther Jungreis.===Zoroastrianism===Frashokereti is the Zoroastrian doctrine of a final renovation of the universe when evil will be destroyed, and everything else will then be in perfect unity with God (Ahura Mazda).", "The doctrinal premises are:# Good will eventually prevail over evil.# Creation, initially perfectly good, was subsequently corrupted by evil.# The world will ultimately be restored to the perfection it had at the time of creation.# The \"salvation for the individual depended on the sum of that person's thoughts, words and deeds, and there could be no intervention, whether compassionate or capricious, by any divine being to alter this\".", "Thus each human bears the responsibility for the fate of his own soul, and simultaneously shares in the responsibility for the fate of the world.Zoroastrian eschatology is considered one of the oldest in recorded history.", "The birth of its founder, Zoroaster, is unknown, with scholarly dates ranging from 500 BCE to 1,500 BCE.", "Pliny the Elder even suggests there were two Zoroasters.", "However, with beliefs paralleling and possibly predating the framework of the major Abrahamic faiths, a fully developed concept of the end of the world was not established in Zoroastrianism until 500 BCE.", "The Bahman Yasht describes:At the end of thy tenth hundredth winter, the sun is more unseen and more spotted; the year, month, and day are shorter; and the earth is more barren; and the crop will not yield the seed.", "And men become more deceitful and more given to vile practices.", "They will have no gratitude.", "Honorable wealth will proceed to those of perverted faith.", "And a dark cloud makes the whole sky night, and it will rain more noxious creatures than water.A battle between the righteous and wicked will be followed by the Frashokereti.", "On earth, the Saoshyant will arrive as the final savior of mankind, and bring about the resurrection of the dead.", "The ''yazata''s Airyaman and Atar will melt the metal in the hills and mountains, which will flow as lava across the earth and all mankind, both the living and resurrected, will be required to wade through it.", "''Ashavan'' will pass through the molten river as if it were warm milk, but the sinful will burn.", "It will then flow down to hell, where it will annihilate Angra Mainyu and the last vestiges of wickedness.The righteous will partake of the ''parahaoma'', which will confer immortality upon them.", "Humanity will become like the Amesha Spentas, living without food, hunger, thirst, weapons or injury.", "Bodies will become so light as to cast no shadow.", "All humanity will speak a single language, and belong to a single nation with no borders.", "All will share a single purpose and goal, joining with Ahura Mazda for a perpetual and divine exaltation.===Gnosticism===The Gnostic codex On the Origin of the World (possibly dating from near the end of the third century CE) states that during what is called the consummation of the age, the Sun and Moon will become dark as the stars change their ordinary course.", "Kings will make war with each other, and thunder will cause the world to be shaken.", "The corrupt Archons will mourn.", "The sea will be troubled by fighting of the kings who became drunk from the flaming sword.", "Finally, great thunder will come from Sophia, the woman in the firmament above the forces of Chaos.", "She will cast the corrupt gods into the abyss where they will fight each other until only their chief Yaldabaoth remains and destroys himself.", "Next the heavens of the Archons will collapse on each other before the Earth sinks into the abyss.", "Light will cover the darkness and eliminate it then form into something greater than anything that ever existed before.", "The source of the darkness will dissolve, and the deficiency will be taken from its root.", "Those who were not perfected in the unconceived one will receive glories in their realms and kingdoms of the immortals, but those who were will enter a kingless realm.", "All will be judged according to their deeds and gnosis.===Christianity===Christian eschatology is the study concerned with the ultimate destiny of the individual soul and of the entire created order, based primarily upon biblical texts within the Old and New Testaments.Christian eschatological research looks to study and discuss matters such as the nature of the divine and the divine nature of Jesus Christ, death and the afterlife, Heaven and Hell, the Second Coming of Jesus, the resurrection of the dead, the rapture, the Tribulation, millennialism, the end of the world, the Last Judgment, and the New Heaven and New Earth in the world to come.Eschatological passages occur in many places in the Bible, in both the Old and the New Testaments.", "In the Old Testament, apocalyptic eschatology can be found notably in Isaiah 24–27, Isaiah 56–66, Joel, Zechariah 9–14 as well as in the closing chapters of Daniel, and in Ezekiel.", "In the New Testament, applicable passages include Matthew 24, Mark 13, the parable of \"The Sheep and the Goats\" and the Book of Revelation—Revelation often occupies a central place in Christian eschatology.The Second Coming of Christ is the central event in Christian eschatology within the broader context of the fullness of the Kingdom of God.", "Most Christians believe that death and suffering will continue to exist until Christ's return.", "There are, however, various views concerning the order and significance of other eschatological events.The Book of Revelation stands at the core of much of Christian eschatology.", "The study of Revelation is usually divided into four interpretative methodologies or hermeneutics:* The Futurist approach treats the Book of Revelation mostly as unfulfilled prophecy taking place in some yet undetermined future.", "* The Preterist approach interprets Revelation chiefly as having had prophetic fulfillment in the past, principally in the events of the first century CE.", "* The Historicist approach places Revelation within the context of history, identifying figures and passages in Revelation with major historical people and events.", "This view was commonly held by the early Christian church, then among the predecessors to Protestantism, such as John Wycliffe, Joachim of Fiore and later by the majority of Protestant Reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and John Wesley.", "Further supporters of this view included Isaac Newton (1642–1727), among others.", "* The Idealist approach sees the events of Revelation as neither past nor future actualities, but as purely symbolic accounts, dealing with the ongoing struggle and ultimate triumph of good over evil.====Date====First-century Christians believed Jesus would return during their lifetime.", "When the converts of Paul in Thessalonica were persecuted by the Roman Empire, they believed the end of days to be imminent.", "Most of the scholars participating in the third quest hold that Jesus was an eschatological prophet who believed the \"Kingdom of God\" was coming within his own lifetime or within the lifetime of his contemporaries.", "This view, generally known as \"consistent eschatology,\" was influential during the early to the mid—twentieth century and continues to be influential today in proposed portraits of the Historical Jesus.", "However, C. H. Dodd and others have insisted on a \"realized eschatology\" that says Jesus' own ministry fulfilled prophetic hopes.", "Many conservative scholars have adopted the paradoxical position the Kingdom of God passages describes a kingdom that is both \"present\" and \"still to come\" claiming Pauline eschatology as support.", "R. T. France and N. T. Wright among others have taken Jesus' apocalyptic statements of an imminent end, historically, as referring to the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE.", "A number of interpretations of the term \"Kingdom of God\" have thus appeared in its eschatological context, e.g., apocalyptic, realized or Inaugurated eschatologies, yet no consensus has emerged among scholars.While some who believe in the literal interpretation of the Bible insist the prediction of dates or times is futile, others believe Jesus foretold signs of the end of days.", "The precise time, however, will come like a \"thief in the night\" ().", "They may also refer to in which Jesus is quoted as saying:====Great Tribulation====In the New Testament, Jesus refers to this period preceding the end times as the \"Great Tribulation\" (), \"Affliction\" (), and \"days of vengeance\" ().The Book of Matthew describes the devastation:The resulting chaos will affect pregnancies, newborns, and a scourge will spread throughout the flesh, save for the elect.", "The vivid imagery of this section is repeated closely in .The Gospel of Luke describes a complete unraveling of the social fabric, with widespread calamity and war:In the Book of Revelation, the \"great tribulation\" (Rev.", "7:14b) refers to a time of affliction upon God's people.====Catholicism====The Profession of Faith addresses Catholic beliefs concerning the last days.", "Catholicism adheres to the amillennial school of thought, promoted by Augustine of Hippo in his work ''The City of God''.====Protestantism====Contemporary use of the term ''End Times'' has evolved from literal belief in Christian millennialism.", "In this tradition, Biblical apocalypse is believed to be imminent, with various current events as omens of impending Armageddon.", "These beliefs have been put forward by the Adventist movement (Millerites), Jehovah's Witnesses, and dispensational premillennialists.", "In 1918 a group of eight, well-known preachers produced the London Manifesto, warning of an imminent second coming of Christ shortly after the 1917 liberation of Jerusalem by the British.=====Millennialists and Amillennialists=====The Antichrist, by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1521).", "Here the Antichrist is shown wearing the triple crown of the Roman papacy.Protestants are divided between Millennialists and Amillennialists.", "Millennialists concentrate on the issue of whether the true believers will see the Great Tribulation or be removed from it by what is referred to as a Pre-Tribulation rapture.Amillennialists believe the end times encompass the time from Christ's ascension to the last day, and maintain that the mention of the \"thousand years\" in the Book of Revelation is meant to be taken metaphorically (i.e., not literally), a view which continues to cause divisions within Protestant Christianity.There is a range of eschatological belief in Protestant Christianity.", "Christian premillennialists who believe the end times are occurring now, are usually specific about timelines that climax in the end of the world.", "For some, Israel, the European Union, or the United Nations are seen as major players whose roles were foretold in scripture.", "Within dispensational premillennialist writing, there is the belief that Christians will be summoned to Heaven by Christ at the rapture, occurring before a Great Tribulation prophesied in Matthew 24–25; Mark 13 and Luke 21.The Tribulation is described in the Book of Revelation.", "\"End times\" may also refer to the passing of an age or long period in the relationship between man and God.", "Adherents to this view cite the Second Epistle to Timothy and draw analogies to the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.Post-Exilic Hebrew books of prophecy such as Daniel and Ezekiel are given new interpretations in this Christian tradition, while apocalyptic forecasts appear in the Judeo-Christian Sibylline Oracles which include the Book of Revelation ascribed to John, the apocryphal Apocalypse of Peter, and the Second Book of Esdras.=====Fundamentalists=====Most fundamentalist Christians anticipate biblical prophecy to be literally fulfilled.", "They see current wars, natural disaster and famine as the birth pains which Jesus described in Matthew and Mark .", "They believe mankind began in the garden of Eden, and point to the Valley of Megiddo as the place where the current world system will terminate, after which the Messiah will rule for 1,000 years.=====Adventists and Millerites=====Icon of the Second Coming.", "Greek, ca.", "1700 A.D.Religious movements which expect that the second coming of Christ will be a cataclysmic event are generally called adventism.", "These have arisen throughout the Christian era, but were particularly common after the Protestant Reformation.", "Emanuel Swedenborg considered the second coming to be symbolic, and to have occurred in 1757.Along with others, he developed a religious system around the second coming of Christ, disclosed by new prophecy or special revelation not described in the Bible.", "The Millerites are diverse religious groups which similarly rely upon a special gift of interpretation for predicting the second coming.The difference between the 19th-century Millerite and adventist movements and contemporary prophecy is that William Miller and his followers, based on biblical interpretation, predicted the time of the Second Coming to have occurred in 1844.Contemporary writing of end time has suggested the timetable will be triggered by future wars and moral catastrophe, and that this time of tribulation is close at hand.Seventh-day Adventists believe biblical prophecy to foretell an end time scenario in which the United States works in conjunction with the Catholic Church to mandate worship on a day other than the true Sabbath, Saturday, as prescribed in the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:8–11).", "This will bring about a situation where one must choose for or against the Bible as the will of God.=====Preterists=====Another view of the ''end times'' is preterism.", "It distinguishes ''the time of the end'' from ''the end of time''.", "Preterists believe the term ''last days'' (or ''Time of the End'') refers to, neither the last days of the Earth, nor the last days of humankind, but the end of the Old Covenant between God and Israel; which, according to preterism, took place when the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed in 70 CE.Preterists believe that prophecies—such as the Second Coming, the desecration of the Jewish Temple, the destruction of Jerusalem, the rise of the Antichrist, the Great Tribulation, the advent of The Day of the Lord, and a Final Judgment—had been fulfilled when the Romans sacked Jerusalem and completely destroyed its Temple.Proponents of ''full preterism'' do not believe in a coming resurrection of the dead.", "They place this event (as well as the Second Coming) in the year 70.Advocates of partial preterism do believe in a coming resurrection.", "Full preterists contend that partial preterists are merely ''futurists'', since they believe the Second Coming, the Resurrection, the Rapture, and the Judgment are yet to come.Many preterists believe first-century Christians experienced the Rapture to rejoin the Christ.According with Preterism's interpretation of end times, many \"time passages\" in the New Testament foretell a Second Coming of Christ, with last days to take place within the lifetimes of his disciples: Matt.", "10:23, Matt.", "16:28, Matt.", "24:34, Matt.", "26:64, Rom.", "13:11–12, 1 Cor.", "7:29–31, 1 Cor.", "10:11, Phil.", "4:5, James 5:8–9, 1 Pet.", "4:7, 1 Jn.", "2:18.=====Dispensationalists=====Dispensationalism is an evangelical futurist Biblical interpretation that foresees a series of dispensations, or periods, in which God relates to human beings under different Biblical covenants.", "The belief system is primarily rooted in the writings of John Nelson Darby and is premillennial in content.", "The reestablishment of Israel in 1948 provided a major impetus to the dispensationalist belief system.", "The wars of Israel after 1948 with its Arab neighbors provided further support, according to John F. Walvoord.", "After the Six-Day War in 1967, and the Yom Kippur War in 1973, it seemed plausible to many Fundamentalist Christians in the 1970s that Middle East turmoil may well be leading up to the fulfillment of various Bible prophecies and to the Battle of Armageddon.Members of the dispensationalist movement such as Hal Lindsey, J. Dwight Pentecost, John Walvoord, all of whom have Dallas Theological Seminary backgrounds, and some other writers, claimed further that the European Economic Community, which preceded the European Union, would become a United States of Europe, which would in turn become a Revived Roman Empire ruled by the Antichrist.", "The Revived Roman Empire also figured into the New Testament writers' vision of the future.", "The fact that in the early 1970s, there were (erroneously thought to be) seven nations in the European Economic Community was held to be significant; this aligned the Community with a seven-headed beast mentioned in Revelation.", "This specific prophecy has required revision, but the idea of a Revived Roman Empire remains.Dispensationalism, in contrast to the Millerite Adventist movement, had its beginning in the 19th century, when John Nelson Darby, founder of the Plymouth Brethren religious denomination, incorporated into his system of Biblical interpretation a system of organizing Biblical time into a number of discrete dispensations, each of which marks a separate covenant with God.", "Darby's beliefs were widely publicized in Cyrus I. Scofield's ''Scofield Reference Bible'', an annotated Bible that became popular in the United States.Since the majority of the Biblical prophets were writing at a time when the Temple in Jerusalem was still functioning, they wrote as if it would still be standing during the prophesied events.", "According to preterism, this was a fulfillment of the prophecies.", "However, according to Futurists, their destruction in 70 CE put the prophetic timetable on hold.", "Many such believers therefore anticipated the return of Jews to Israel and the reconstruction of the Temple before the Second Coming could occur.====Post-tribulation pre-millennialism====A view of the Second Coming of Christ as held by post-tribulational pre-millennialists holds that the Church of Christ will have to undergo great persecution by being present during the great tribulation.====Specific prophetic movements====William Miller predicted the end of the world in 1843, known as the Great Disappointment.In 1843, William Miller made the first of several predictions that the world would end in only a few months.", "As his predictions did not come true (referred to as the Great Disappointment), followers of Miller went on to found separate groups, the most successful of which is the Seventh-day Adventist Church.Members of the Baháʼí Faith believe Miller's interpretation of signs and dates of the coming of Jesus were, for the most part, correct.", "They believe the fulfillment of biblical prophecies of the coming of Christ came through a forerunner of their own religion, the Báb.", "According to the Báb's words, 4 April 1844 was \"the first day that the Spirit descended\" into his heart.", "His subsequent declaration to Mullá Husayn-i Bushru'i that he was the \"Promised One\"—an event now commemorated by Baháʼís as a major holy day—took place on 23 May 1844.It was in October of that year that the Báb embarked on a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he openly declared his claims to the Sharif of Mecca.", "The first news coverage of these events in the West was in 1845 by ''The Times'', followed by others in 1850 in the United States.", "The first Baháʼí to come to America was in 1892.Several Baháʼí books and pamphlets make mention of the Millerites, the prophecies used by Miller and the Great Disappointment, most notably William Sears's ''Thief in the Night''.====Restorationism (Christian primitivism)====End times theology is also significant to restorationist Christian religions, which consider themselves distinct from both Catholicism and Protestantism.=====Jehovah's Witnesses=====Former Watchtower headquarters in Brooklyn.", "The society made a number of emphatic claims of impending last days and ensuing chaos between 1879 and 1924.The eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses is central to their religious beliefs.", "They believe Jesus Christ has been ruling in heaven as king since 1914 (a date they believe was prophesied in the Bible) and that after that time a period of cleansing occurred, resulting in God's selection of the Bible Students associated with Charles Taze Russell as his people in 1919.They also believe that the destruction of those who reject the Bible's message and thus willfully refuse to obey God will shortly take place at Armageddon, ensuring that the beginning of the new earthly society will be composed of willing subjects of that kingdom.The religion's doctrines surrounding 1914 are the legacy of a series of emphatic claims regarding the years 1799, 1874, 1878, 1914, 1918 and 1925 made in the Watch Tower Society's publications between 1879 and 1924.Claims about the significance of those years, including the presence of Jesus Christ, the beginning of the \"last days\", the destruction of worldly governments and the earthly resurrection of Jewish patriarchs, were successively abandoned.", "In 1922 the society's principal magazine, ''The Watchtower'', described its chronology as \"no stronger than its weakest link\", but also claimed the chronological relationships to be \"of divine origin and divinely corroborated... in a class by itself, absolutely and unqualifiedly correct\" and \"indisputable facts\", and repudiation of Russell's teachings was described as \"equivalent to a repudiation of the Lord\".The Watch Tower Society has acknowledged its early leaders promoted \"incomplete, even inaccurate concepts\".", "The Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses says that, unlike Old Testament prophets, its interpretations of the Bible are not inspired or infallible.", "It says that Bible prophecies can be fully understood only after their fulfillment, citing examples of biblical figures who did not understand the meaning of prophecies they received.", "Watch Tower Society literature often cites Proverbs 4:18, \"The path of the righteous ones is like the bright light that is getting lighter and lighter until the day is firmly established\" (NWT) to support their view that there would be an increase in knowledge during \"the time of the end\", and that this increase in knowledge needs adjustments.", "Watch Tower Society publications also say that unfulfilled expectations are partly due to eagerness for God's Kingdom and that they do not call their core beliefs into question.=====The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints=====Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) believe there will be a Second Coming of Jesus to the earth at some time in the future.", "The LDS Church and its leaders do not make any predictions of the date of the Second Coming.According to church doctrine, the true gospel will be taught in all parts of the world prior to the Second Coming.", "They also believe there will be increasing war, earthquakes, hurricanes, and man-made disasters prior to the Second Coming.", "Disasters of all kind will happen before Christ comes.", "Upon the return of Jesus Christ, all people will be resurrected, the righteous in a first resurrection and the unrighteous in a second, later resurrection.", "Christ shall reign for a period of 1000 years, after which the Final Judgment will occur.====Realized eschatology====Realized eschatology is a Christian eschatological theory that holds that the eschatological passages in the New Testament do not refer to the future, but instead refer to the ministry of Jesus and his lasting legacy.===Islam===Sufi mystic and Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi, ca.", "1238.Shown are the 'Arsh (Throne of God), pulpits for the righteous (al-Aminun), seven rows of angels, Gabriel (al-Ruh), A'raf (the Barrier), the Pond of Abundance, al-Maqam al-Mahmud (the Praiseworthy Station; where the Prophet Muhammad will stand to intercede for the faithful), Mizan (the Scale), As-Sirāt (the Bridge), Jahannam (Hell), and Marj al-Jannat (Meadow of Paradise).Muslims believe there are three periods before the Day of Judgment with some debate as to whether the periods could overlap.====Sunni====Sunnis believe the dead will then stand in a grand assembly, awaiting a scroll detailing their righteous deeds, sinful acts and ultimate judgment.", "Prophet Muhammad will be the first to be resurrected.", "Punishments will include ''adhab'', or severe pain and embarrassment, and ''khizy'' or shame.", "There will also be a punishment of the grave between death and the resurrection.", "Several Sunni scholars explain some of the signs metaphorically.Main Stream Sunni VersionMainstream Islam TimelineThe signs of the coming end time are divided into major and minor signs:Following the second period, the third is said to be marked by the ten major signs known as ''alamatu's-sa'ah al- kubra'' (The major signs of the end).", "They are as follows:# A huge black cloud of smoke (dukhan) will cover the earth.# Three sinkings of the earth, one in the East.# One sinking of the earth in the West.# One sinking of the earth in Arabia.# The false messiah—anti-Christ, Masih ad-Dajjal—shall appear with great powers as a one-eyed man with his right eye blind and deformed like a grape.", "Although believers will not be deceived, he will claim to be God, to hold the keys to heaven and hell, and will lead many astray.", "In reality, his heaven is hell, and his hell is heaven.", "The Dajjal will be followed by seventy thousand Jews of Isfahan wearing Persian shawls.# The return of Isa (Jesus), from the fourth sky, to kill Dajjal.# ''Ya'jooj'' and ''Ma'jooj'' (Gog and Magog), a Japhetic tribe of vicious beings who had been imprisoned by Dhul-Qarnayn, will break out.", "They will ravage the earth, drink all the water of Lake Tiberias, and kill all believers in their way.", "Isa, Imam Al-Mahdi, and the believers with them will go to the top of a mountain and pray for the destruction of Gog and Magog.", "God eventually will send disease and worms to wipe them out.# The sun will rise from the West.# The ''Dabbat al-ard'', or Beast of the Earth, will come out of the ground to talk to people.# The second blow of the trumpet will be sounded, the dead will return to life, and a fire will come out of Yemen that shall gather all to Mahshar Al Qiy'amah (The Gathering for Judgment).====Shia====Many of the signs shown above are shared by both Sunni and Shia beliefs, with some exceptions, e.g.", "Imam Al-Mahdi defeating Al-Masih ad-Dajjal.Concepts and terminology in Shia eschatology include Mi'ad, the Occultation, Al-Yamani, and Sufyani.", "In Twelver Shia narrations about the last days, the literature largely revolves around Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is considered by many beliefs to be the true twelfth appointed successor to Prophet Muhammad.", "Muhammad al-Mahdi will help mankind against the deception by the ''Dajjal'' who will try to get people in to a new world religion which is called \"the great deception\".====Ahmadiyya====Ahmadiyya is considered distinct from mainstream Islam.", "In its writing, the present age has been witness to the evil of man and wrath of God, with war and natural disaster.", "Ghulam Ahmad is seen as the promised Messiah and the Mahdi, fulfilling Islamic and Biblical prophecies, as well as scriptures of other religions such as Hinduism.", "His teaching will establish spiritual reform and establish an age of peace.", "This will continue for a thousand years, and will unify mankind under one faith.Ahmadis believe that despite harsh and strong opposition and discrimination they will eventually be triumphant and their message vindicated both by Muslims and non-Muslims alike.", "Ahmadis also incorporate the eschatological views from other religions into their doctrine and believe Mirza Ghulam Ahmed falls into this sequence.===Baháʼí Faith===Bahá'í House of Worship, Delhi, IndiaIn the Baháʼí Faith, creation has neither a beginning nor an end; Baháʼís regard the eschatologies of other religions as symbolic.", "In Baháʼí belief, human time is marked by a series of progressive revelations in which successive messengers or prophets come from God.", "The coming of each of these messengers is seen as the day of judgment to the adherents of the previous religion, who may choose to accept the new messenger and enter the \"heaven\" of belief, or denounce the new messenger and enter the \"hell\" of denial.", "In this view, the terms \"heaven\" and \"hell\" become symbolic terms for a person's spiritual progress and their nearness to or distance from God.", "In Baháʼí belief, Bahá'u'lláh (1817-1892), the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, was the Second Coming of Christ and also the fulfilment of previous eschatological expectations of Islam and other major religions.The inception of the Baháʼí Faith coincides with Great Disappointment of the Millerite prophecy in 1844.ʻAbdu'l-Bahá taught that Armageddon would begin in 1914, but without a clear indication of its end date.", "Baháʼís believe that the mass martyrdom anticipated during the ''End Times'' had already passed within the historical context of the Baháʼí Faith.", "Baháʼís expect their faith to be eventually embraced by the masses of the world, ushering in a golden age.===Rastafari===Haile Selassie I is viewed as god incarnate in Rastafari.Rastafari have a unique interpretation of end times, based on the Old Testament and the Book of Revelation.", "They believe Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie I to be God incarnate, the ''King of kings'' and ''Lord of lords'' mentioned in Revelation 5:5.They saw the crowning of Selassie as the second coming, and the Second Italo-Ethiopian War as fulfillment of Revelation.", "There is also the expectation that Selassie will return for a day of judgment and bring home the \"lost children of Israel\", which in Rastafari refers to those taken from Africa through the slave trade.", "There will then be an era of peace and harmony at Mount Zion in Africa." ], [ "Cyclic cosmology", "===Hinduism===The Vaishnavite tradition links contemporary Hindu eschatology to the figure of Kalki, the tenth and last avatar of Vishnu.", "Many Hindus believe that before the age draws to a close, Kalki will reincarnate as Shiva and simultaneously dissolve and regenerate the universe.", "In contrast, Shaivites hold the view that Shiva is incessantly destroying and creating the world.In Hindu eschatology, time is cyclic and consists of kalpas.", "Each lasts 4.1–8.2 billion years, which is a period of one full day and night for Brahma, who will be alive for 311 trillion, 40 billion years.", "Within a ''kalpa'' there are periods of creation, preservation and decline.", "After this larger cycle, all of creation will contract to a singularity and then again will expand from that single point, as the ages continue in a religious fractal pattern.Within the current kalpa, there are four epochs that encompass the cycle.", "They progress from a beginning of complete purity to a descent into total corruption.", "The last of the four ages is Kali Yuga (which most Hindus believe is the current time), characterized by quarrel, hypocrisy, impiety, violence and decay.", "The four pillars of dharma will be reduced to one, with truth being all that remains.", "As written in the Gita:''Yadā yadā hi dharmasya glānirbhavati Bhārata''''Abhyutthānam adharmasya tadātmānam sṛjāmyaham''Whenever there is decay of righteousness in Bharata (Aryavarta)And a rise of unrighteousness then I manifest Myself!At this time of chaos, the final avatar, Kalki, endowed with eight superhuman faculties will appear on a white horse.", "Kalki will amass an army to \"establish righteousness upon the earth\" and leave \"the minds of the people as pure as crystal.", "\"At the completion of Kali Yuga, the next Yuga Cycle will begin with a new Satya Yuga, in which all will once again be righteous with the reestablishment of dharma.", "This, in turn, will be followed by epochs of Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga and again another Kali Yuga.", "This cycle will then repeat until the larger cycle of existence under Brahma returns to the singularity, and a new universe is born.The cycle of birth, growth, decay, and renewal at the individual level finds its echo in the cosmic order, yet is affected by vagueries of divine intervention in Vaishnavite belief.===Buddhism===There is no classic account of beginning or endin Buddhism; Masao Abe attributes this to the absence of God.History is embedded in the continuing process of samsara or the \"beginningless and endless cycles of birth-death-rebirth\".", "Buddhists believe there is an end to things but it is not final because they are bound to be born again.", "However, the writers of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures establish a specific end-time account in Buddhist tradition: this describes the return of Maitreya Buddha, who would bring about an end to the world.", "This constitutes one of the two major branches of Buddhist eschatology, with the other being the Sermon of the Seven Suns.", "End time in Buddhism could also involve a cultural eschatology covering \"final things\", which include the idea that Sakyamuni Buddha's dharma will also come to an end.====Maitreya====The Buddha described his teachings disappearing five thousand years from when he preached them, corresponding approximately to the year 4300 since he was born in 623 BCE.", "At this time, knowledge of dharma will be lost as well.", "The last of his relics will be gathered in Bodh Gaya and cremated.", "There will be a new era in which the next Buddha Maitreya will appear, but it will be preceded by the degeneration of human society.", "This will be a period of greed, lust, poverty, ill will, violence, murder, impiety, physical weakness, sexual depravity and societal collapse, and even the Buddha himself will be forgotten.This will be followed by the coming of Maitreya when the teachings of dharma are forgotten.", "Maitreya was the first Bodhisattva around whom a cult developed, in approximately the third century CE.The earliest known mention of Maitreya occurs in the Cakkavatti, or Sihanada Sutta in Digha Nikaya 26 of the Pali Canon.", "In it, Gautama Buddha predicted his teachings of dharma would be forgotten after 5,000 years.The text then foretells the birth of Maitreya Buddha in the city of Ketumatī in present-day Benares, whose king will be the Cakkavattī Sankha.", "Sankha will live in the former palace of King Mahāpanadā, and will become a renunciate who follows Maitreya.In Mahayana Buddhism, Maitreya will attain ''bodhi'' in seven days, the minimum period, by virtue of his many lifetimes of preparation.", "Once Buddha, he will rule over the Ketumati Pure Land, an earthly paradise sometimes associated with the Indian city of Varanasi or Benares in present-day Uttar Pradesh.", "In Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha presides over a land of purity.", "For example, Amitabha presides over Sukhavati, more popularly known as the \"Western Paradise\".Bodhisattva Maitreya from the second-century Gandharan art periodA notable teaching he will rediscover is that of the ten non-virtuous deeds—killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, abusive speech, idle speech, covetousness, harmful intent and wrong views.", "The ten virtuous deeds will replace them with the abandonment of each of these practices.", "Edward Conze in his ''Buddhist Scriptures'' (1959) gives an account of Maitreya:Maitreya currently resides in Tushita, but will come to Jambudvipa when needed most as successor to the historic Śākyamuni Buddha.", "Maitreya will achieve complete enlightenment during his lifetime, and following this reawakening he will bring back the timeless teaching of dharma to this plane and rediscover enlightenment.", "The Arya Maitreya Mandala, founded in 1933 by Lama Anagarika Govinda, is based on the idea of Maitreya.Maitreya eschatology forms the central canon of the White Lotus Society, a religious and political movement which emerged in Yuan China.", "It later branched into the Chinese underground criminal organization known as the Triads, which exist today as an international underground criminal network.", "Note that no description of Maitreya occurs in any other sutta in the canon, casting doubt as to the authenticity of the scripture.", "In addition, sermons of the Buddha normally are in response to a question, or in a specific context, but this sutta has a beginning and an ending, and its content is quite different from the others.", "This has led some to conclude that the whole sutta is apocryphal, or tampered with.====Sermon of the Seven Suns====In his \"Sermon of the Seven Suns\" in the Pali Canon, the Buddha describes the ultimate fate of the Earth in an apocalypse characterized by the consequent appearance of seven suns in the sky, each causing progressive ruin until the planet is destroyed:The canon goes on to describe the progressive destruction of each sun.", "The third sun will dry the Ganges River and other rivers, whilst the fourth will cause the lakes to evaporate; the fifth will dry the oceans.", "Later:The sermon completes with the Earth immersed into an extensive holocaust.", "The Pali Canon does not indicate when this will happen relative to Maitreya.===Norse mythology===Norse mythology depicts the end of days as ''Ragnarök'', an Old Norse term translatable as \"twilight of the gods\".", "It will be heralded by a devastation known as Fimbulvetr which will seize Midgard in cold and darkness.", "The sun and moon will disappear from the sky, and poison will fill the air.", "The dead will rise from the ground and there will be widespread despair.There follows a battle between—on the one hand—the Gods with the Æsir, Vanir and Einherjar, led by Odin, and—on the other hand—forces of Chaos, including the fire giants and jötunn, led by Loki.", "In the fighting Odin will be swallowed whole by his old nemesis Fenrir.", "The god Freyr fights Surtr but loses.", "Víðarr, son of Odin, will then avenge his father by ripping Fenrir's jaws apart and stabbing the wolf in the heart with his spear.", "The serpent Jörmungandr will open its gaping maw and be met in combat by Thor.", "Thor, also a son of Odin, will defeat the serpent, only to take nine steps afterwards before collapsing in his own death.After this people will flee their homes as the sun blackens and the earth sinks into the sea.", "The stars will vanish, steam will rise, and flames will touch the heavens.", "This conflict will result in the deaths of most of the major Gods and forces of Chaos.", "Finally, Surtr will fling fire across the nine worlds.", "The ocean will then completely submerge Midgard.After the cataclysm, the world will resurface new and fertile, and the surviving Gods will meet.", "Baldr, another son of Odin, will be reborn in the new world, according to Völuspá.", "The two human survivors, Líf and Lífþrasir, will then repopulate this new earth." ], [ "No end times", "=== Taoism ===The Taoist faith is not concerned with what came before or after life, knowing only their own being in the Tao.", "The philosophy is that people come and go, just like mountains, trees and stars, but Tao will go on for time immemorial." ], [ "Analogies in science and philosophy", "A diagram showing the life cycle of the SunResearchers in futures studies and transhumanists investigate how the accelerating rate of scientific progress may lead to a \"technological singularity\" in the future that would profoundly and unpredictably change the course of human history, and result in ''Homo sapiens'' no longer being the dominant life form on Earth.Occasionally the term \"physical eschatology\" is applied to the long-term predictions of astrophysics about the future of Earth and ultimate fate of the universe.", "The Sun will turn into a red giant in approximately 6 billion years.", "Life on Earth will become impossible due to a rise in temperature long before the planet is possibly actually swallowed up by the Sun or left charred.", "Even later, the Sun will become a white dwarf." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Craig C. Hill, ''In God's Time: The Bible and the Future'', Grand Rapids: Eerdmans 2002..* Dave Hunt, ''A Cup of Trembling'', Harvest House Publishers, Eugene, (Oregon) 1995 .", "* Jonathan Menn, ''Biblical Eschatology'', Eugene, Oregon, Wipf & Stock 2013..* Joseph Ratzinger., ''Eschatology: Death and Eternal Life'', Washington D.C.: Catholic University of America Press 1985..* Robert Sungenis, Scott Temple, David Allen Lewis, ''Shock Wave 2000!''", "subtitled ''The Harold Camping 1994 Debacle'', New Leaf Press, Inc. 2004, .", "* Stephen Travis, ''Christ Will Come Again: Hope for the Second Coming of Jesus'', Toronto: Clements Publishing 2004..* Jerry L. Walls (ed.", "), ''The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology'', New York: Oxford University Press 2008.." ], [ "External links", "* * * ''Christian Eschatology Explained'' (A short primer on the main schools of Christian Eschatology)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ecumenical council" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''ecumenical council''', also called '''general council''', is a meeting of bishops and other church authorities to consider and rule on questions of Christian doctrine, administration, discipline, and other matters in which those entitled to vote are convoked from the whole world (''oikoumene'') and which secures the approbation of the whole Church.The word \"ecumenical\" derives from the Late Latin ''oecumenicus'' \"general, universal\", from Greek ''oikoumenikos'' \"from the whole world\", from ''he oikoumene ge'' \"the inhabited world\" (as known to the ancient Greeks); the Greeks and their neighbors, considered as developed human society (as opposed to barbarian lands); in later use \"the Roman world\" and in the Christian sense in ecclesiastical Greek, from ''oikoumenos'', present passive participle of ''oikein'' (\"inhabit\"), from ''oikos'' (\"house, habitation\").", "The first seven ecumenical councils, recognised by both the eastern and western denominations comprising Chalcedonian Christianity, were convoked by Roman Emperors, who also enforced the decisions of those councils within the state church of the Roman Empire.Starting with the third ecumenical council, noteworthy schisms led to non-participation by some members of what had previously been considered a single Christian Church.", "Thus, some parts of Christianity did not attend later councils, or attended but did not accept the results.", "Bishops belonging to what became known as the Eastern Orthodox Church accept seven ecumenical councils, as described below.", "Bishops belonging to what became known as the Church of the East participated in the first two councils.", "Bishops belonging to what became known as Oriental Orthodoxy participated in the first four councils, but rejected the decisions of the fourth and did not attend any subsequent ecumenical councils.Acceptance of councils as ecumenical and authoritative varies between different Christian denominations.", "Disputes over Christological and other questions have led certain branches to reject some councils that others accept." ], [ "Acceptance of councils by denomination", "The Church of the East (accused by others of adhering to Nestorianism) accepts as ecumenical the first two councils.", "Oriental Orthodox Churches accept the first three.Both the Eastern Orthodox Church and Catholic Church recognize as ecumenical the first seven councils, held from the 4th to the 9th centuries.", "While some Eastern Orthodox accept one later council as ecumenical (which was later repudiated by the Catholic Church), the Catholic Church continues to hold general councils of the bishops in full communion with the Pope, reckoning them as ecumenical.", "In all, the Catholic Church recognizes twenty-one councils as ecumenical.The first four ecumenical councils are recognized by some Lutheran Churches, Anglican Communion and Reformed Churches—though they are \"considered subordinate to Scripture\".", "The Lutheran World Federation recognizes the first seven Ecumenical Councils as \"exercises of apostolic authority\" and recognizes their decisions as authoritative; while member churches are not required to accept all theological statements produced by the Federation, but only to subscribe to the most basic Lutheran historical confessional documents, most do follow this recommendation." ], [ "Infallibility of ecumenical councils", "The doctrine of the ''infallibility of ecumenical councils'' states that solemn definitions of ecumenical councils, which concern faith or morals, and to which the whole Church must adhere, are infallible.", "Such decrees are often labeled as 'Canons' and they often have an attached anathema, a penalty of excommunication, against those who refuse to believe the teaching.", "The doctrine does not claim that every aspect of every ecumenical council is dogmatic, but that every aspect of an ecumenical council is free of errors or impeccable.Both the Eastern Orthodox and the Catholic churches uphold versions of this doctrine.", "However, the Catholic Church holds that solemn definitions of ecumenical councils meet the conditions of infallibility only when approved by the Pope, while the Eastern Orthodox Church holds that an ecumenical council is itself infallible when pronouncing on a specific matter.Protestant churches would generally view ecumenical councils as fallible human institutions that have no more than a derived authority to the extent that they correctly expound Scripture (as most would generally consider occurred with the first four councils in regard to their dogmatic decisions)." ], [ "Council documents", "Church councils were, from the beginning, bureaucratic exercises.", "Written documents were circulated, speeches made and responded to, votes taken, and final documents published and distributed.", "A large part of what is known about the beliefs of heresies comes from the documents quoted in councils in order to be refuted, or indeed only from the deductions based on the refutations.Most councils dealt not only with doctrinal but also with disciplinary matters, which were decided in ''canons'' (\"laws\").", "Study of the canons of church councils is the foundation of the development of canon law, especially the reconciling of seemingly contradictory canons or the determination of priority between them.", "Canons consist of doctrinal statements and disciplinary measures—most Church councils and local synods dealt with immediate disciplinary concerns as well as major difficulties of doctrine.", "Eastern Orthodoxy typically views the purely doctrinal canons as dogmatic and applicable to the entire church at all times, while the disciplinary canons apply to a particular time and place and may or may not be applicable in other situations." ], [ "Circumstances of the first ecumenical councils", "Of the seven councils recognised in whole or in part by both the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Church as ecumenical, all were called by a Roman emperor.", "The emperor gave them legal status within the entire Roman Empire.", "All were held in the eastern part of the Roman Empire.", "The bishop of Rome (self-styled as \"pope\" since the end of the fourth century) did not attend, although he sent legates to some of them.Church councils were traditional and the ecumenical councils were a continuation of earlier councils (also known as synods) held in the Empire before Christianity was made legal.", "These include the Council of Jerusalem (c. 50), the Council of Rome (155), the Second Council of Rome (193), the Council of Ephesus (193), the Council of Carthage (251), the Council of Iconium (258), the Council of Antioch (264), the Councils of Arabia (246–247), the Council of Elvira (306), the Council of Carthage (311), the Synod of Neo-Caesarea (c. 314), the Council of Ancyra (314) and the Council of Arles (314).The first seven councils recognised in both East and West as ecumenical and several others to which such recognition is refused were called by the Byzantine emperors.", "In the first millennium, various theological and political differences such as Nestorianism or Dyophysitism caused parts of the Church to separate after councils such as those of Ephesus and Chalcedon, but councils recognised as ecumenical continued to be held.The Council of Hieria of 754, held at the imperial palace of that name close to Chalcedon in Anatolia, was summoned by Byzantine Emperor Constantine V and was attended by 338 bishops, who regarded it as the seventh ecumenical council.", "The Second Council of Nicaea, which annulled that of Hieria, was itself annulled at the synod held in 815 in Constantinople under Emperor Leo V. This synod, presided over by Patriarch Theodotus I of Constantinople, declared the Council of Hieria to be the seventh ecumenical council, but, although the Council of Hieria was called by an emperor and confirmed by another, and although it was held in the East, it later ceased to be considered ecumenical.Similarly, the Second Council of Ephesus of 449, also held in Anatolia, was called by the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II and, though annulled by the Council of Chalcedon, was confirmed by Emperor Basiliscus, who annulled the Council of Chalcedon.", "This too ceased to be considered an ecumenical council.===Catholic views on those circumstances===The Catholic Church does not consider the validity of an ecumenical council's teaching to be in any way dependent on where it is held or on the granting or withholding of prior authorization or legal status by any state, in line with the attitude of the 5th-century bishops who \"saw the definition of the church's faith and canons as supremely their affair, with or without the leave of the Emperor\" and who \"needed no one to remind them that Synodical process pre-dated the Christianisation of the royal court by several centuries\".The Catholic Church recognizes as ecumenical various councils held later than the First Council of Ephesus (after which churches out of communion with the Holy See because of the Nestorian Schism did not participate), later than the Council of Chalcedon (after which there was no participation by churches that rejected Dyophysitism), later than the Second Council of Nicaea (after which there was no participation by the Eastern Orthodox Church), and later than the Fifth Council of the Lateran (after which groups that adhered to Protestantism did not participate).Of the twenty-one ecumenical councils recognised by the Catholic Church, some gained recognition as ecumenical only later.", "Thus the Eastern First Council of Constantinople became ecumenical only when its decrees were accepted in the West also." ], [ "List of ecumenical councils", "===First seven ecumenical councils===In the history of Christianity, the first seven ecumenical councils, from the First Council of Nicaea (325) to the Second Council of Nicaea (787), represent an attempt to reach an orthodox consensus and to unify Christendom.All of the original seven ecumenical councils as recognized in whole or in part were called by an emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire and all were held in the Eastern Roman Empire, a recognition denied to other councils similarly called by an Eastern Roman emperor and held in his territory, in particular the Council of Serdica (343), the Second Council of Ephesus (449) and the Council of Hieria (754), which saw themselves as ecumenical or were intended as such.# # The First Council of Nicaea (325) repudiated Arianism, declared that Christ is \"homoousios with the Father\" (of the same substance as the Father), and adopted the original Nicene Creed; addressed the Quartodeciman controversy by fixing the date of Easter; recognised authority of the sees of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch outside their own civil provinces and granted the see of Jerusalem a position of honour.# # The First Council of Constantinople (381) repudiated Arianism and Macedonianism, declared that Christ is \"born of the Father before all time\", revised the Nicene Creed in regard to the Holy Spirit and water baptism.# # The Council of Ephesus (431) repudiated Nestorianism, proclaimed the Virgin Mary as the Theotokos (\"Birth-giver to God\", \"God-bearer\", \"Mother of God\"), repudiated Pelagianism, and reaffirmed the Nicene Creed.", "''This and all the following councils in this list are not recognised by all of the Church of the East.", "''#* The Second Council of Ephesus (449) received Eutyches as orthodox based on his petition outlining his confession of faith.", "Deposed Theodoret of Cyrrhus and Ibas of Edessa.", "Condemned Ibas's Letter to \"Maris the Persian\" (possibly a misunderstood title, indicating as the receiver a certain Catholicus Dadyeshu, bishop of Ardashir/Ctesiphon between 421 and 456; this same letter later became one of the Three Chapters).", "''Though originally convened as an ecumenical council, this council is not recognised as ecumenical and is denounced as a ''Robber Council'' by the Chalcedonians (Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Protestants).", "''# # The Council of Chalcedon (451) repudiated the Eutychian doctrine of monophysitism; adopted the Chalcedonian Creed, which described the hypostatic union of the two natures of Christ, human and divine; reinstated those deposed in 449 including Theodoret of Cyrus.", "Restored Ibas of Edessa to his see and declared him innocent upon reading his letter.", "Deposed Dioscorus of Alexandria; and elevated the bishoprics of Constantinople and Jerusalem to the status of patriarchates.", "This is also the last council explicitly recognised by the Anglican Communion.", "''This council is rejected by Oriental Orthodox churches.", "''#* The Third Council of Ephesus (475) ratified an encyclical of Emperor Basiliscus which repudiated the Council of Chalcedon and particularly the Tome of Leo.", "''This council is recognised only by Oriental Orthodox churches, but is not recognised by the Chalcedonians (Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Protestants).", "All the following councils in this list are rejected or at least not explicitly affirmed by Oriental Orthodox churches.", "''# # The Second Council of Constantinople (553) repudiated the Three Chapters as Nestorian, condemned Origenism, and decreed the theopaschite formula.# # The Third Council of Constantinople (680–681) repudiated monothelitism and monoenergism.#* The Quinisext Council, also called Council in Trullo (692) addressed matters of discipline (in amendment to the 5th and 6th councils).", "''The ecumenical status of this council was repudiated by the Western churches.", "''# # The Second Council of Nicaea (787) restored the veneration of icons (condemned at the Council of Hieria, 754) and repudiated iconoclasm.===Further councils recognised as ecumenical in the Catholic Church===As late as the 11th century, seven councils were recognised as ecumenical in the Catholic Church.", "Then, in the time of Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085), canonists who in the Investiture Controversy quoted the prohibition in canon 22 of the Council of Constantinople of 869–870 against laymen influencing the appointment of prelates elevated this council to the rank of ecumenical council.", "Only in the 16th century was recognition as ecumenical granted by Catholic scholars to the Councils of the Lateran, of Lyon and those that followed.", "The following is a list of further councils generally recognised as ecumenical by Catholic theologians:# Fourth Council of Constantinople (Catholic) (869–870) deposed Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople as an usurper and reinstated his predecessor Saint Ignatius.", "Photius had already been declared deposed by the Pope, an act to which the See of Constantinople acquiesced at this council.# First Council of the Lateran (1123) addressed investment of bishops and the Holy Roman Emperor's role therein.# Second Council of the Lateran (1139) reaffirmed Lateran I and addressed clerical discipline (clerical celibacy, dress).# Third Council of the Lateran (1179) restricted papal election to the cardinals, condemned simony, and introduced minimum ages for ordination (thirty for bishops).# Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) defined transubstantiation, addressed papal primacy and clerical discipline.# First Council of Lyon (1245) proclaimed the deposition of Emperor Frederick II and instituted a levy to support the Holy Land.# Second Council of Lyon (1274) attempted reunion with the Eastern churches, defined teaching on purgatory, approved Franciscan and Dominican orders, a tithe to support crusades, and conclave procedures.# Council of Vienne (1311–1312) disbanded the Knights Templar.#*Council of Pisa (1409) attempted to solve the Great Western Schism.", "''The council is not numbered because it was not convened by a pope and its outcome was repudiated at Constance.", "''# Council of Constance (1414–1418) resolved the Great Western Schism and condemned John Hus.", "''The Catholic Church declared invalid the first sessions of the Council of Constance, gathered under the authority of Antipope John XXIII, which included the famous decree ''Haec Sancta Synodus'', which marked the high-water mark of the conciliar movement of reform.''", "Decrees of the council later annulled by Pope Sixtus IV.#*Council of Siena (1423–1424) addressed church reform.Not numbered as it was swiftly disbanded.# Council of Basel, Ferrara and Florence (1431–1445) addressed church reform and reunion with the Eastern Churches but split into two parties.", "The fathers remaining at Basel became the apogee of conciliarism.", "The fathers at Florence achieved union with various Eastern Churches and temporarily with the Eastern Orthodox Church.# Fifth Council of the Lateran (1512–1517) addressed church reform.# Council of Trent (1545–1563, with interruptions) addressed church reform and repudiated Protestantism, defined the role and canon of Scripture and the seven sacraments, and strengthened clerical discipline and education.", "Considered the founding event of the Counter-Reformation.", "''Temporarily attended by Lutheran delegates.", "''# First Council of the Vatican (1869–1870) defined the Pope's primacy in church governance and his infallibility, repudiated rationalism, materialism and atheism, addressed revelation, interpretation of scripture and the relationship of faith and reason.# Second Council of the Vatican (1962–1965) addressed pastoral and disciplinary issues dealing with the Church and its relation to the modern world, including liturgy and ecumenism.===Further councils recognised as ecumenical by some Eastern Orthodox===Eastern Orthodox catechisms teach that there are seven ecumenical councils and there are feast days for seven ecumenical councils.", "Nonetheless, some Eastern Orthodox consider events like the Council of Constantinople of 879–880, that of Constantinople in 1341–1351 and that of Jerusalem in 1672 to be ecumenical:#Council in Trullo (692) debates on ritual observance and clerical discipline in different parts of the Christian Church.#Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox) (879–880) restored Photius to the See of Constantinople.", "This happened after the death of Ignatius and with papal approval.#Fifth Council of Constantinople (1341–1351) affirmed hesychastic theology according to Gregory Palamas and condemned Barlaam of Seminara.#Synod of Iași (1642) reviewed and amended Peter Mogila's ''Expositio fidei'' (''Statement of Faith'', also known as the ''Orthodox Confession'').#Synod of Jerusalem (1672) defined Orthodoxy relative to Catholicism and Protestantism, defined the orthodox Biblical canon.#Synod of Constantinople (1872) addressing with nationalism or phyletism in the unity of Orthodoxy.It is unlikely that formal ecumenical recognition will be granted to these councils, despite the acknowledged orthodoxy of their decisions, so that seven are universally recognized among the Eastern Orthodox as ecumenical.The 2016 Pan-Orthodox Council was sometimes referred to as a potential \"Eighth Ecumenical Council\" following debates on several issues facing Eastern Orthodoxy, however not all autocephalous churches were represented.", "The Eastern Orthodox Church has held many binding and infallible councils since the 7th Ecumenical.", "Generally speaking, any council that is signed by all of the autocephalous patriarchs is considered infallible.", "This signing which leads to an infallible council in Orthodoxy can be performed presently at the council or at a later date." ], [ "Acceptance of the councils", "Although some Protestants reject the concept of an ecumenical council establishing doctrine for the entire Christian faith, Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox all accept the authority of ecumenical councils in principle.", "Where they differ is in which councils they accept and what the conditions are for a council to be considered \"ecumenical\".", "The relationship of the Papacy to the validity of ecumenical councils is a ground of controversy between Catholicism and the Eastern Orthodox Churches.", "The Catholic Church holds that recognition by the Pope is an essential element in qualifying a council as ecumenical; Eastern Orthodox view approval by the Bishop of Rome (the Pope) as being roughly equivalent to that of other patriarchs.Some have held that a council is ecumenical only when all five patriarchs of the Pentarchy are represented at it.", "Others reject this theory in part because there were no patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem at the time of the first ecumenical council.===Catholic Church===Both the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches recognize seven councils in the early centuries of the church, but Catholics also recognize fourteen councils in later times called or confirmed by the Pope.", "At the urging of German King Sigismund, who was to become Holy Roman Emperor in 1433, the Council of Constance was convoked in 1414 by Antipope John XXIII, one of three claimants to the papal throne, and was reconvened in 1415 by the Roman Pope Gregory XII.", "The Council of Florence is an example of a council accepted as ecumenical in spite of being rejected by the East, as the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon are accepted in spite of being rejected respectively by the Church of the East and Oriental Orthodoxy.The Catholic Church teaches that an ecumenical council is a gathering of the College of Bishops (of which the Bishop of Rome is an essential part) to exercise in a solemn manner its supreme and full power over the whole Church.", "It holds that \"there never is an ecumenical council which is not confirmed or at least recognized as such by Peter's successor\".", "Its present canon law requires that an ecumenical council be convoked and presided over, either personally or through a delegate, by the Pope, who is also to decide the agenda; but the church makes no claim that all past ecumenical councils observed these present rules, declaring only that the Pope's confirmation or at least recognition has always been required, and saying that the version of the Nicene Creed adopted at the First Council of Constantinople (381) was accepted by the Church of Rome only seventy years later, in 451.===Eastern Orthodox Church===The Eastern Orthodox Church accepts seven ecumenical councils, with the disputed Council in Trullo—rejected by Catholics—being incorporated into, and considered as a continuation of, the Third Council of Constantinople.To be considered ecumenical, Orthodox accept a council that meets the condition that it was accepted by the whole church.", "That it was called together legally is also an important factor.", "A case in point is the Third Ecumenical Council, where two groups met as duly called for by the emperor, each claiming to be the legitimate council.", "The Emperor had called for bishops to assemble in the city of Ephesus.", "Theodosius did not attend but sent his representative Candidian to preside.", "However, Cyril managed to open the council over Candidian's insistent demands that the bishops disperse until the delegation from Syria could arrive.", "Cyril was able to completely control the proceedings, completely neutralizing Candidian, who favored Cyril's antagonist, Nestorius.", "When the pro-Nestorius Antiochene delegation finally arrived, they decided to convene their own council, over which Candidian presided.", "The proceedings of both councils were reported to the emperor, who decided ultimately to depose Cyril, Memnon and Nestorius.", "Nonetheless, the Orthodox accept Cyril's group as being the legitimate council because it maintained the same teaching that the church has always taught.Paraphrasing a rule by St Vincent of Lérins, Hasler statesOrthodox believe that councils could over-rule or even depose popes.", "At the Sixth Ecumenical Council, Pope Honorius and Patriarch Sergius were declared heretics.", "The council anathematized them and declared them tools of the devil and cast them out of the church.It is their position that, since the Seventh Ecumenical Council, there has been no synod or council of the same scope.", "Local meetings of hierarchs have been called \"pan-Orthodox\", but these have invariably been simply meetings of local hierarchs of whatever Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions are party to a specific local matter.", "From this point of view, there has been no fully \"pan-Orthodox\" (Ecumenical) council since 787.The use of the term \"pan-Orthodox\" is confusing to those not within Eastern Orthodoxy, and it leads to mistaken impressions that these are ''ersatz'' ecumenical councils rather than purely local councils to which nearby Orthodox hierarchs, regardless of jurisdiction, are invited.Others, including 20th-century theologians Metropolitan Hierotheos (Vlachos) of Naupactus, Fr.", "John S. Romanides, and Fr.", "George Metallinos (all of whom refer repeatedly to the \"Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils\"), Fr.", "George Dragas, and the 1848 Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs (which refers explicitly to the \"Eighth Ecumenical Council\" and was signed by the patriarchs of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria as well as the Holy Synods of the first three), regard other synods beyond the Seventh Ecumenical Council as being ecumenical.From the Eastern Orthodox perspective, a council is accepted as being ecumenical if it is accepted by the Eastern Orthodox church at large—clergy, monks and assembly of believers.", "Teachings from councils that purport to be ecumenical, but which lack this acceptance by the church at large, are, therefore, not considered ecumenical.===Oriental Orthodoxy===Oriental Orthodoxy accepts three ecumenical councils, the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of Constantinople, and the Council of Ephesus.", "The formulation of the Chalcedonian Creed caused a schism in the Alexandrian and Syriac churches.", "Reconciliatory efforts between Oriental Orthodox with the Eastern Orthodox and the Catholic Church in the mid- and late 20th century have led to common Christological declarations.", "The Oriental and Eastern Churches have also been working toward reconciliation as a consequence of the ecumenical movement.The Oriental Orthodox hold that the Dyophysite formula of two natures formulated at the Council of Chalcedon is inferior to the Miaphysite formula of \"One Incarnate Nature of God the Word\" (Byzantine Greek: ''Mia physis tou theou logou sarkousomene'') and that the proceedings of Chalcedon themselves were motivated by imperial politics.", "The Alexandrian Church, the main Oriental Orthodox body, also felt unfairly underrepresented at the council following the deposition of their Pope, Dioscorus of Alexandria at the council.===Church of the East===The Church of the East accepts two ecumenical councils, the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople, as well as a series of their own national councils, starting with the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 410 AD.", "It was the formulation of Mary as the Theotokos which caused a schism with the Church of the East, now divided between the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East, while the Chaldean Catholic Church entered into full communion with Rome in the 16th century.", "Meetings between Pope John Paul II and the Assyrian Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV led to a common Christological declaration on 11 November 1994 that \"the humanity to which the Blessed Virgin Mary gave birth always was that of the Son of God himself\".", "Both sides recognised the legitimacy and rightness, as expressions of the same faith, of the Assyrian Church's liturgical invocation of Mary as \"the Mother of Christ our God and Saviour\" and the Catholic Church's use of \"the Mother of God\" and also as \"the Mother of Christ\".===Protestantism=======Lutheran Churches====The Lutheran World Federation, in ecumenical dialogues with the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, has affirmed all of the first seven councils as ecumenical and authoritative.", "It teaches:====Anglican Communion====Article XXI of the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion of Anglicanism teaches: \"General Councils ... when they be gathered together, forasmuch as they be an assembly of men, whereof all be not governed with the Spirit and word of God, they may err and sometime have erred, even in things pertaining to God.", "Wherefore things ordained by them as necessary to salvation have neither strength nor authority, unless it may be declared that they be taken out of Holy Scripture.", "\"The 19th Canon of 1571 asserted the authority of the Councils in this manner: \"Let preachers take care that they never teach anything ... except what is agreeable to the doctrine of the Old and New Testament, and what the Catholic Fathers and ancient Bishops have collected from the same doctrine.\"", "This remains the Church of England's teaching on the subject.", "A modern version of this appeal to catholic consensus is found in the Canon Law of the Church of England and also in the liturgy published in ''Common Worship'':The 1559 Act of Supremacy made a distinction between the decisions of the first four ecumenical councils, which were to be used as sufficient proof that something was heresy, as opposed to those of later councils, which could only be used to that purpose if \"the same was declared heresy by the express and plain words of the ... canonical Scriptures\".", "As such, the Anglican tradition accepts the first four ecumenical councils, though they \"considered subordinate to Scripture\".While the Councils are part of the \"historic formularies\" of Anglican tradition, it is difficult to locate an explicit reference in Anglicanism to the unconditional acceptance of all Seven Ecumenical Councils.", "There is little evidence of dogmatic or canonical acceptance beyond the statements of individual Anglican theologians and bishops.", "Anglican cleric of Anglo-Catholic churchmanship Bishop Chandler Holder Jones, SSC, explains:He quotes William Tighe, Associate Professor of History at Muhlenberg College in Allentown, Pennsylvania, (another member of the Anglo-Catholic wing of Anglicanism):====Methodist Churches====Methodist theologian Charles W. Brockwell Jr wrote that the first \"four ecumenical councils produced and clarified the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Symbol (Nicene Creed), the most important document in Christian history after the Bible itself.", "\"The Manual of the Church of the Nazarene, part of the Wesleyan-Holiness movement within Methodism, states \"Our denomination receives the creeds of the first five Christian centuries as expressions of its own faith,\" including the Christological doctrines formulated during the first four Ecumenical Councils.====Other Protestant denominations====Some, including some fundamentalist Christians, condemn the ecumenical councils for other reasons.", "Independency or congregationalist polity among Protestants may involve the rejection of any governmental structure or binding authority above local congregations; conformity to the decisions of these councils is therefore considered purely voluntary and the councils are to be considered binding only insofar as those doctrines are derived from the Scriptures.", "Many of these churches reject the idea that anyone other than the authors of Scripture can directly lead other Christians by original divine authority; after the New Testament, they assert, the doors of revelation were closed and councils can only give advice or guidance, but have no authority.", "They consider new doctrines not derived from the sealed canon of Scripture to be both impossible and unnecessary whether proposed by church councils or by more recent prophets.", "Catholic and Orthodox objections to this position point to the fact that the Canon of Scripture itself was fixed by these councils.", "They conclude that this would lead to a logical inconsistency of a non-authoritative body fixing a supposedly authoritative source.===Polish National Catholic Church===The Polish National Catholic Church recognizes the first four ecumenical councils, along with the Bible, as the basis of their denomination.===Nontrinitarian groups===Ecumenical councils are not recognised by nontrinitarian churches such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (and other denominations within the Latter Day Saint movement), Christadelphians, Jehovah's Witnesses, Church of God (Seventh-Day), their descendants and Unitarians.", "They view the ecumenical councils as misguided human attempts to establish doctrine, and as attempts to define dogmas by debate rather than by revelation." ], [ "See also", "* Buddhist councils" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Fairweather, Eugene R., and Edward R. Hardy.", "''The Voice of the Church: the Ecumenical Council''.", "Greenwich, Conn.: Seabury Press, 1962.127 p.", "''N.B''.", ": Defines and approaches the topic from an Anglican orientation.", "* Michalopoulos, Dimitris, \"The First Council of Nicaea: The end of a conflict or beginning of a struggle?", "\", ''Uluslarasi Iznik Semposyumu'', Iznik (Turkey), 2005, pp. 47–56..", "* Tanner, Norman P. ''The Councils of the Church'', .", "* Tanner, Norman P. ''Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils'', ." ], [ "External links", "* Broken link: All Catholic Church Ecumenical Councils – All the Decrees** * Catholic Encyclopedia: The 21 Ecumenical Councils* * Multilingual Full Documentations of the 21 Ecumenical Councils and Mansi JD, Sacrorum Conciliorum Nova Amplissima Collectio, all the Latin documents of all the Councils* FAQ Ecumenical Synods Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia* The Canons of the Eastern Orthodox Church" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Exoplanet" ], [ "Introduction", "Four exoplanets orbiting counterclockwise with their host star (upright=1.5An '''exoplanet''' or '''extrasolar planet''' is a planet outside the Solar System.", "The first possible evidence of an exoplanet was noted in 1917 but was not recognized as such.", "The first confirmation of the detection occurred in 1992.A different planet, initially detected in 1988, was confirmed in 2003.The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is expected to discover more exoplanets, as well as provide further insight in regard to aspects including their composition, environmental conditions and potential for life.There are many methods of detecting exoplanets.", "Transit photometry and Doppler spectroscopy have found the most, but these methods suffer from a clear observational bias favoring the detection of planets near the star; thus, 85% of the exoplanets detected are inside the tidal locking zone.", "In several cases, multiple planets have been observed around a star.", "About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an \"Earth-sized\" planet in the habitable zone.", "Assuming there are 200 billion stars in the Milky Way, it can be hypothesized that there are 11 billion potentially habitable Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way, rising to 40 billion if planets orbiting the numerous red dwarfs are included.The least massive exoplanet known is Draugr (also known as PSR B1257+12 A or PSR B1257+12 b), which is about twice the mass of the Moon.", "The most massive exoplanet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is HR 2562 b, about 30 times the mass of Jupiter.", "However, according to some definitions of a planet (based on the nuclear fusion of deuterium), it is too massive to be a planet and might be a brown dwarf instead.", "Known orbital times for exoplanets vary from less than an hour (for those closest to their star) to thousands of years.", "Some exoplanets are so far away from the star that it is difficult to tell whether they are gravitationally bound to it.Almost all planets detected so far are within the Milky Way.", "However, there is evidence that extragalactic planets, exoplanets located in other galaxies, may exist.", "The nearest exoplanets are located 4.2 light-years (1.3 parsecs) from Earth and orbit Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun.The discovery of exoplanets has intensified interest in the search for extraterrestrial life.", "There is special interest in planets that orbit in a star's habitable zone (or sometimes called \"goldilocks zone\"), where it is possible for liquid water, a prerequisite for life as we know it, to exist on the surface.", "However, the study of planetary habitability also considers a wide range of other factors in determining the suitability of a planet for hosting life.Rogue planets are those that do not orbit any star.", "Such objects are considered a separate category of planets, especially if they are gas giants, often counted as sub-brown dwarfs.", "The rogue planets in the Milky Way possibly number in the billions or more." ], [ "Definition", "=== IAU ===The official definition of the term ''planet'' used by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) only covers the Solar System and thus does not apply to exoplanets.", "The IAU Working Group on Extrasolar Planets issued a position statement containing a working definition of \"planet\" in 2001 and which was modified in 2003.An ''exoplanet'' was defined by the following criteria:This working definition was amended by the IAU's Commission F2: Exoplanets and the Solar System in August 2018.The official working definition of an ''exoplanet'' is now as follows:The IAU noted that this definition could be expected to evolve as knowledge improves.=== Alternatives ===The IAU's working definition is not always used.", "One alternate suggestion is that planets should be distinguished from brown dwarfs on the basis of their formation.", "It is widely thought that giant planets form through core accretion, which may sometimes produce planets with masses above the deuterium fusion threshold; massive planets of that sort may have already been observed.", "Brown dwarfs form like stars from the direct gravitational collapse of clouds of gas, and this formation mechanism also produces objects that are below the limit and can be as low as .", "Objects in this mass range that orbit their stars with wide separations of hundreds or thousands of AU and have large star/object mass ratios likely formed as brown dwarfs; their atmospheres would likely have a composition more similar to their host star than accretion-formed planets, which would contain increased abundances of heavier elements.", "Most directly imaged planets as of April 2014 are massive and have wide orbits so probably represent the low-mass end of a brown dwarf formation.One study suggests that objects above formed through gravitational instability and should not be thought of as planets.Also, the 13-Jupiter-mass cutoff does not have a precise physical significance.", "Deuterium fusion can occur in some objects with a mass below that cutoff.", "The amount of deuterium fused depends to some extent on the composition of the object.", "As of 2011, the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia included objects up to 25 Jupiter masses, saying, \"The fact that there is no special feature around in the observed mass spectrum reinforces the choice to forget this mass limit\".", "As of 2016, this limit was increased to 60 Jupiter masses based on a study of mass–density relationships.The Exoplanet Data Explorer includes objects up to 24 Jupiter masses with the advisory: \"The 13 Jupiter-mass distinction by the IAU Working Group is physically unmotivated for planets with rocky cores, and observationally problematic due to the sin i ambiguity.", "\"The NASA Exoplanet Archive includes objects with a mass (or minimum mass) equal to or less than 30 Jupiter masses.Another criterion for separating planets and brown dwarfs, rather than deuterium fusion, formation process or location, is whether the core pressure is dominated by Coulomb pressure or electron degeneracy pressure with the dividing line at around 5 Jupiter masses." ], [ "Nomenclature", "Exoplanet HIP 65426b is the first discovered planet around star HIP 65426.The convention for naming exoplanets is an extension of the system used for designating multiple-star systems as adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).", "For exoplanets orbiting a single star, the IAU designation is formed by taking the designated or proper name of its parent star, and adding a lower case letter.", "Letters are given in order of each planet's discovery around the parent star, so that the first planet discovered in a system is designated \"b\" (the parent star is considered \"a\") and later planets are given subsequent letters.", "If several planets in the same system are discovered at the same time, the closest one to the star gets the next letter, followed by the other planets in order of orbital size.", "A provisional IAU-sanctioned standard exists to accommodate the designation of circumbinary planets.", "A limited number of exoplanets have IAU-sanctioned proper names.", "Other naming systems exist." ], [ "History of detection", "For centuries scientists, philosophers, and science fiction writers suspected that extrasolar planets existed, but there was no way of knowing whether they were real in fact, how common they were, or how similar they might be to the planets of the Solar System.", "Various detection claims made in the nineteenth century were rejected by astronomers.The first evidence of a possible exoplanet, orbiting Van Maanen 2, was noted in 1917, but was not recognized as such.", "The astronomer Walter Sydney Adams, who later became director of the Mount Wilson Observatory, produced a spectrum of the star using Mount Wilson's 60-inch telescope.", "He interpreted the spectrum to be of an F-type main-sequence star, but it is now thought that such a spectrum could be caused by the residue of a nearby exoplanet that had been pulverized by the gravity of the star, the resulting dust then falling onto the star.The first suspected scientific detection of an exoplanet occurred in 1988.Shortly afterwards, the first confirmation of detection came in 1992 from the Arecibo Observatory, with the discovery of several terrestrial-mass planets orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12.The first confirmation of an exoplanet orbiting a main-sequence star was made in 1995, when a giant planet was found in a four-day orbit around the nearby star 51 Pegasi.", "Some exoplanets have been imaged directly by telescopes, but the vast majority have been detected through indirect methods, such as the transit method and the radial-velocity method.", "In February 2018, researchers using the Chandra X-ray Observatory, combined with a planet detection technique called microlensing, found evidence of planets in a distant galaxy, stating, \"Some of these exoplanets are as (relatively) small as the moon, while others are as massive as Jupiter.", "Unlike Earth, most of the exoplanets are not tightly bound to stars, so they're actually wandering through space or loosely orbiting between stars.", "We can estimate that the number of planets in this faraway galaxy is more than a trillion.", "\"On 21 March 2022, the 5000th exoplanet beyond the Solar System was confirmed.On 11 January 2023, NASA scientists reported the detection of LHS 475 b, an Earth-like exoplanet – and the first exoplanet discovered by the James Webb Space Telescope.=== Early speculations ===In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that Earth and other planets orbit the Sun (heliocentrism), put forward the view that fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets.In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in the \"General Scholium\" that concludes his ''Principia''.", "Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote \"And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of ''One''.", "\"In 1952, more than 40 years before the first hot Jupiter was discovered, Otto Struve wrote that there is no compelling reason that planets could not be much closer to their parent star than is the case in the Solar System, and proposed that Doppler spectroscopy and the transit method could detect super-Jupiters in short orbits.=== Discredited claims ===Claims of exoplanet detections have been made since the nineteenth century.", "Some of the earliest involve the binary star 70 Ophiuchi.", "In 1855, William Stephen Jacob at the East India Company's Madras Observatory reported that orbital anomalies made it \"highly probable\" that there was a \"planetary body\" in this system.", "In the 1890s, Thomas J. J.", "See of the University of Chicago and the United States Naval Observatory stated that the orbital anomalies proved the existence of a dark body in the 70 Ophiuchi system with a 36-year period around one of the stars.", "However, Forest Ray Moulton published a paper proving that a three-body system with those orbital parameters would be highly unstable.During the 1950s and 1960s, Peter van de Kamp of Swarthmore College made another prominent series of detection claims, this time for planets orbiting Barnard's Star.", "Astronomers now generally regard all early reports of detection as erroneous.In 1991, Andrew Lyne, M. Bailes and S. L. Shemar claimed to have discovered a pulsar planet in orbit around PSR 1829-10, using pulsar timing variations.", "The claim briefly received intense attention, but Lyne and his team soon retracted it.=== Confirmed discoveries ===As of , a total of confirmed exoplanets are listed in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia, including a few that were confirmations of controversial claims from the late 1980s.", "The first published discovery to receive subsequent confirmation was made in 1988 by the Canadian astronomers Bruce Campbell, G. A. H. Walker, and Stephenson Yang of the University of Victoria and the University of British Columbia.", "Although they were cautious about claiming a planetary detection, their radial-velocity observations suggested that a planet orbits the star Gamma Cephei.", "Partly because the observations were at the very limits of instrumental capabilities at the time, astronomers remained skeptical for several years about this and other similar observations.", "It was thought some of the apparent planets might instead have been brown dwarfs, objects intermediate in mass between planets and stars.", "In 1990, additional observations were published that supported the existence of the planet orbiting Gamma Cephei, but subsequent work in 1992 again raised serious doubts.", "Finally, in 2003, improved techniques allowed the planet's existence to be confirmed.Coronagraphic image of AB Pictoris showing a companion (bottom left), which is either a brown dwarf or a massive planet.", "The data were obtained on 16 March 2003 with NACO on the VLT, using a 1.4 arcsec occulting mask on top of AB Pictoris.On 9 January 1992, radio astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of two planets orbiting the pulsar PSR 1257+12.This discovery was confirmed, and is generally considered to be the first definitive detection of exoplanets.", "Follow-up observations solidified these results, and confirmation of a third planet in 1994 revived the topic in the popular press.", "These pulsar planets are thought to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation, or else to be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that somehow survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.", "As pulsars are aggressive stars, it was considered unlikely at the time that a planet may be able to be formed in their orbit.In the early 1990s, a group of astronomers led by Donald Backer, who were studying what they thought was a binary pulsar (PSR B1620−26 b), determined that a third object was needed to explain the observed Doppler shifts.", "Within a few years, the gravitational effects of the planet on the orbit of the pulsar and white dwarf had been measured, giving an estimate of the mass of the third object that was too small for it to be a star.", "The conclusion that the third object was a planet was announced by Stephen Thorsett and his collaborators in 1993.On 6 October 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting a main-sequence star, nearby G-type star 51 Pegasi.", "This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, ushered in the modern era of exoplanetary discovery, and was recognized by a share of the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics.", "Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution spectroscopy, led to the rapid detection of many new exoplanets: astronomers could detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their host stars.", "More extrasolar planets were later detected by observing the variation in a star's apparent luminosity as an orbiting planet transited in front of it.Initially, the most known exoplanets were massive planets that orbited very close to their parent stars.", "Astronomers were surprised by these \"hot Jupiters\", because theories of planetary formation had indicated that giant planets should only form at large distances from stars.", "But eventually more planets of other sorts were found, and it is now clear that hot Jupiters make up the minority of exoplanets.", "In 1999, Upsilon Andromedae became the first main-sequence star known to have multiple planets.", "Kepler-16 contains the first discovered planet that orbits a binary main-sequence star system.On 26 February 2014, NASA announced the discovery of 715 newly verified exoplanets around 305 stars by the ''Kepler'' Space Telescope.", "These exoplanets were checked using a statistical technique called \"verification by multiplicity\".", "Before these results, most confirmed planets were gas giants comparable in size to Jupiter or larger because they were more easily detected, but the ''Kepler'' planets are mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth.On 23 July 2015, NASA announced Kepler-452b, a near-Earth-size planet orbiting the habitable zone of a G2-type star.On 6 September 2018, NASA discovered an exoplanet about 145 light years away from Earth in the constellation Virgo.", "This exoplanet, Wolf 503b, is twice the size of Earth and was discovered orbiting a type of star known as an \"Orange Dwarf\".", "Wolf 503b completes one orbit in as few as six days because it is very close to the star.", "Wolf 503b is the only exoplanet that large that can be found near the so-called Fulton gap.", "The Fulton gap, first noticed in 2017, is the observation that it is unusual to find planets within a certain mass range.", "Under the Fulton gap studies, this opens up a new field for astronomers, who are still studying whether planets found in the Fulton gap are gaseous or rocky.In January 2020, scientists announced the discovery of TOI 700 d, the first Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone detected by TESS.=== Candidate discoveries ===As of January 2020, NASA's ''Kepler'' and TESS missions had identified 4374 planetary candidates yet to be confirmed, several of them being nearly Earth-sized and located in the habitable zone, some around Sun-like stars.In September 2020, astronomers reported evidence, for the first time, of an extragalactic planet, M51-ULS-1b, detected by eclipsing a bright X-ray source (XRS), in the Whirlpool Galaxy (M51a).Also in September 2020, astronomers using microlensing techniques reported the detection, for the first time, of an Earth-mass rogue planet unbounded by any star, and free floating in the Milky Way galaxy." ], [ "Detection methods", "=== Direct imaging ===Directly imaged planet Beta Pictoris bPlanets are extremely faint compared to their parent stars.", "For example, a Sun-like star is about a billion times brighter than the reflected light from any exoplanet orbiting it.", "It is difficult to detect such a faint light source, and furthermore, the parent star causes a glare that tends to wash it out.", "It is necessary to block the light from the parent star to reduce the glare while leaving the light from the planet detectable; doing so is a major technical challenge which requires extreme optothermal stability.", "All exoplanets that have been directly imaged are both large (more massive than Jupiter) and widely separated from their parent stars.Specially designed direct-imaging instruments such as Gemini Planet Imager, VLT-SPHERE, and SCExAO will image dozens of gas giants, but the vast majority of known extrasolar planets have only been detected through indirect methods.=== Indirect methods ===* Transit method:When the star is behind a planet, its brightness will seem to dimIf a planet crosses (or transits) in front of its parent star's disk, then the observed brightness of the star drops by a small amount.", "The amount by which the star dims depends on its size and on the size of the planet, among other factors.", "Because the transit method requires that the planet's orbit intersect a line-of-sight between the host star and Earth, the probability that an exoplanet in a randomly oriented orbit will be observed to transit the star is somewhat small.", "The Kepler telescope used this method.Exoplanet detections per year as of August 2023* Radial velocity or Doppler method:As a planet orbits a star, the star also moves in its own small orbit around the system's center of mass.", "Variations in the star's radial velocity—that is, the speed with which it moves towards or away from Earth—can be detected from displacements in the star's spectral lines due to the Doppler effect.", "Extremely small radial-velocity variations can be observed, of 1 m/s or even somewhat less.", "* Transit timing variation (TTV) :When multiple planets are present, each one slightly perturbs the others' orbits.", "Small variations in the times of transit for one planet can thus indicate the presence of another planet, which itself may or may not transit.", "For example, variations in the transits of the planet Kepler-19b suggest the existence of a second planet in the system, the non-transiting Kepler-19c.", "* Transit duration variation (TDV)Animation showing difference between planet transit timing of one-planet and two-planet systems:When a planet orbits multiple stars or if the planet has moons, its transit time can significantly vary per transit.", "Although no new planets or moons have been discovered with this method, it is used to successfully confirm many transiting circumbinary planets.", "* Gravitational microlensing:Microlensing occurs when the gravitational field of a star acts like a lens, magnifying the light of a distant background star.", "Planets orbiting the lensing star can cause detectable anomalies in magnification as it varies over time.", "Unlike most other methods which have a detection bias towards planets with small (or for resolved imaging, large) orbits, the microlensing method is most sensitive to detecting planets around 1–10 AU away from Sun-like stars.", "* Astrometry:Astrometry consists of precisely measuring a star's position in the sky and observing the changes in that position over time.", "The motion of a star due to the gravitational influence of a planet may be observable.", "Because the motion is so small, however, this method was not very productive until the 2020s.", "It has produced only a few confirmed discoveries, though it has been successfully used to investigate the properties of planets found in other ways.", "* Pulsar timing:A pulsar (the small, ultradense remnant of a star that has exploded as a supernova) emits radio waves extremely regularly as it rotates.", "If planets orbit the pulsar, they will cause slight anomalies in the timing of its observed radio pulses.", "The first confirmed discovery of an extrasolar planet was made using this method.", "But as of 2011, it has not been very productive; five planets have been detected in this way, around three different pulsars.", "* Variable star timing (pulsation frequency):Like pulsars, there are some other types of stars which exhibit periodic activity.", "Deviations from periodicity can sometimes be caused by a planet orbiting it.", "As of 2013, a few planets have been discovered with this method.", "* Reflection/emission modulations:When a planet orbits very close to a star, it catches a considerable amount of starlight.", "As the planet orbits the star, the amount of light changes due to planets having phases from Earth's viewpoint or planets glowing more from one side than the other due to temperature differences.", "* Relativistic beaming:Relativistic beaming measures the observed flux from the star due to its motion.", "The brightness of the star changes as the planet moves closer or further away from its host star.", "* Ellipsoidal variations:Massive planets close to their host stars can slightly deform the shape of the star.", "This causes the brightness of the star to slightly deviate depending on how it is rotated relative to Earth.", "* Polarimetry:With the polarimetry method, a polarized light reflected off the planet is separated from unpolarized light emitted from the star.", "No new planets have been discovered with this method, although a few already discovered planets have been detected with this method.", "* Circumstellar disks:Disks of space dust surround many stars, thought to originate from collisions among asteroids and comets.", "The dust can be detected because it absorbs starlight and re-emits it as infrared radiation.", "Features on the disks may suggest the presence of planets, though this is not considered a definitive detection method." ], [ "Formation and evolution", "Planets may form within a few to tens (or more) of millions of years of their star forming.", "The planets of the Solar System can only be observed in their current state, but observations of different planetary systems of varying ages allows us to observe planets at different stages of evolution.", "Available observations range from young proto-planetary disks where planets are still forming to planetary systems of over 10 Gyr old.", "When planets form in a gaseous protoplanetary disk, they accrete hydrogen/helium envelopes.", "These envelopes cool and contract over time and, depending on the mass of the planet, some or all of the hydrogen/helium is eventually lost to space.", "This means that even terrestrial planets may start off with large radii if they form early enough.", "An example is Kepler-51b which has only about twice the mass of Earth but is almost the size of Saturn, which is a hundred times the mass of Earth.", "Kepler-51b is quite young at a few hundred million years old." ], [ "Planet-hosting stars", "The Morgan-Keenan spectral classificationArtist's impression of exoplanet orbiting two stars.There is at least one planet on average per star.About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an \"Earth-sized\" planet in the habitable zone.Most known exoplanets orbit stars roughly similar to the Sun, i.e.", "main-sequence stars of spectral categories F, G, or K. Lower-mass stars (red dwarfs, of spectral category M) are less likely to have planets massive enough to be detected by the radial-velocity method.", "Despite this, several tens of planets around red dwarfs have been discovered by the Kepler telescope, which uses the transit method to detect smaller planets.Using data from Kepler, a correlation has been found between the metallicity of a star and the probability that the star hosts a giant planet, similar to the size of Jupiter.", "Stars with higher metallicity are more likely to have planets, especially giant planets, than stars with lower metallicity.Some planets orbit one member of a binary star system, and several circumbinary planets have been discovered which orbit both members of a binary star.", "A few planets in triple star systems are known and one in the quadruple system Kepler-64." ], [ "Orbital and physical parameters" ], [ "General features", "=== Color and brightness ===This color–color diagram compares the colors of planets in the Solar System to exoplanet HD 189733b.", "The exoplanet's deep blue color is produced by silicate droplets, which scatter blue light in its atmosphere.In 2013, the color of an exoplanet was determined for the first time.", "The best-fit albedo measurements of HD 189733b suggest that it is deep dark blue.", "Later that same year, the colors of several other exoplanets were determined, including GJ 504 b which visually has a magenta color, and Kappa Andromedae b, which if seen up close would appear reddish in color.", "Helium planets are expected to be white or grey in appearance.The apparent brightness (apparent magnitude) of a planet depends on how far away the observer is, how reflective the planet is (albedo), and how much light the planet receives from its star, which depends on how far the planet is from the star and how bright the star is.", "So, a planet with a low albedo that is close to its star can appear brighter than a planet with a high albedo that is far from the star.The darkest known planet in terms of geometric albedo is TrES-2b, a hot Jupiter that reflects less than 1% of the light from its star, making it less reflective than coal or black acrylic paint.", "Hot Jupiters are expected to be quite dark due to sodium and potassium in their atmospheres, but it is not known why TrES-2b is so dark—it could be due to an unknown chemical compound.For gas giants, geometric albedo generally decreases with increasing metallicity or atmospheric temperature unless there are clouds to modify this effect.", "Increased cloud-column depth increases the albedo at optical wavelengths, but decreases it at some infrared wavelengths.", "Optical albedo increases with age, because older planets have higher cloud-column depths.", "Optical albedo decreases with increasing mass, because higher-mass giant planets have higher surface gravities, which produces lower cloud-column depths.", "Also, elliptical orbits can cause major fluctuations in atmospheric composition, which can have a significant effect.There is more thermal emission than reflection at some near-infrared wavelengths for massive and/or young gas giants.", "So, although optical brightness is fully phase-dependent, this is not always the case in the near infrared.Temperatures of gas giants reduce over time and with distance from their stars.", "Lowering the temperature increases optical albedo even without clouds.", "At a sufficiently low temperature, water clouds form, which further increase optical albedo.", "At even lower temperatures, ammonia clouds form, resulting in the highest albedos at most optical and near-infrared wavelengths.=== Magnetic field ===In 2014, a magnetic field around HD 209458 b was inferred from the way hydrogen was evaporating from the planet.", "It is the first (indirect) detection of a magnetic field on an exoplanet.", "The magnetic field is estimated to be about one-tenth as strong as Jupiter's.The magnetic fields of exoplanets may be detectable by their auroral radio emissions with sensitive enough radio telescopes such as LOFAR.", "The radio emissions could enable determination of the rotation rate of the interior of an exoplanet, and may yield a more accurate way to measure exoplanet rotation than by examining the motion of clouds.Earth's magnetic field results from its flowing liquid metallic core, but on massive super-Earths with high pressure, different compounds may form which do not match those created under terrestrial conditions.", "Compounds may form with greater viscosities and high melting temperatures, which could prevent the interiors from separating into different layers and so result in undifferentiated coreless mantles.", "Forms of magnesium oxide such as MgSi3O12 could be a liquid metal at the pressures and temperatures found in super-Earths and could generate a magnetic field in the mantles of super-Earths.Hot Jupiters have been observed to have a larger radius than expected.", "This could be caused by the interaction between the stellar wind and the planet's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up (Joule heating) causing it to expand.", "The more magnetically active a star is, the greater the stellar wind and the larger the electric current leading to more heating and expansion of the planet.", "This theory matches the observation that stellar activity is correlated with inflated planetary radii.In August 2018, scientists announced the transformation of gaseous deuterium into a liquid metallic hydrogen form.", "This may help researchers better understand giant gas planets, such as Jupiter, Saturn and related exoplanets, since such planets are thought to contain a lot of liquid metallic hydrogen, which may be responsible for their observed powerful magnetic fields.Although scientists previously announced that the magnetic fields of close-in exoplanets may cause increased stellar flares and starspots on their host stars, in 2019 this claim was demonstrated to be false in the HD 189733 system.", "The failure to detect \"star-planet interactions\" in the well-studied HD 189733 system calls other related claims of the effect into question.In 2019, the strength of the surface magnetic fields of 4 hot Jupiters were estimated and ranged between 20 and 120 gauss compared to Jupiter's surface magnetic field of 4.3 gauss.=== Plate tectonics ===In 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-Earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-Earths even if the planet is dry.If super-Earths have more than 80 times as much water as Earth, then they become ocean planets with all land completely submerged.", "However, if there is less water than this limit, then the deep water cycle will move enough water between the oceans and mantle to allow continents to exist.=== Volcanism ===Large surface temperature variations on 55 Cancri e have been attributed to possible volcanic activity releasing large clouds of dust which blanket the planet and block thermal emissions.=== Rings ===The star 1SWASP J140747.93-394542.6 is orbited by an object that is circled by a ring system much larger than Saturn's rings.", "However, the mass of the object is not known; it could be a brown dwarf or low-mass star instead of a planet.The brightness of optical images of Fomalhaut b could be due to starlight reflecting off a circumplanetary ring system with a radius between 20 and 40 times that of Jupiter's radius, about the size of the orbits of the Galilean moons.The rings of the Solar System's gas giants are aligned with their planet's equator.", "However, for exoplanets that orbit close to their star, tidal forces from the star would lead to the outermost rings of a planet being aligned with the planet's orbital plane around the star.", "A planet's innermost rings would still be aligned with the planet's equator so that if the planet has a tilted rotational axis, then the different alignments between the inner and outer rings would create a warped ring system.=== Moons ===In December 2013 a candidate exomoon of a rogue planet was announced.", "On 3 October 2018, evidence suggesting a large exomoon orbiting Kepler-1625b was reported.=== Atmospheres ===Clear versus cloudy atmospheres on two exoplanets.Atmospheres have been detected around several exoplanets.", "The first to be observed was HD 209458 b in 2001.Titan by ''Cassini'' help understand exoplanet atmospheres (artist's concept).As of February 2014, more than fifty transiting and five directly imaged exoplanet atmospheres have been observed, resulting in detection of molecular spectral features; observation of day–night temperature gradients; and constraints on vertical atmospheric structure.", "Also, an atmosphere has been detected on the non-transiting hot Jupiter Tau Boötis b.In May 2017, glints of light from Earth, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere.", "The technology used to determine this may be useful in studying the atmospheres of distant worlds, including those of exoplanets.==== Comet-like tails ====KIC 12557548 b is a small rocky planet, very close to its star, that is evaporating and leaving a trailing tail of cloud and dust like a comet.", "The dust could be ash erupting from volcanos and escaping due to the small planet's low surface-gravity, or it could be from metals that are vaporized by the high temperatures of being so close to the star with the metal vapor then condensing into dust.In June 2015, scientists reported that the atmosphere of GJ 436 b was evaporating, resulting in a giant cloud around the planet and, due to radiation from the host star, a long trailing tail long.=== Insolation pattern ===Tidally locked planets in a 1:1 spin-orbit resonance would have their star always shining directly overhead on one spot, which would be hot with the opposite hemisphere receiving no light and being freezing cold.", "Such a planet could resemble an eyeball, with the hotspot being the pupil.", "Planets with an eccentric orbit could be locked in other resonances.", "3:2 and 5:2 resonances would result in a double-eyeball pattern with hotspots in both eastern and western hemispheres.", "Planets with both an eccentric orbit and a tilted axis of rotation would have more complicated insolation patterns." ], [ "Surface", "=== Surface composition ===Surface features can be distinguished from atmospheric features by comparing emission and reflection spectroscopy with transmission spectroscopy.", "Mid-infrared spectroscopy of exoplanets may detect rocky surfaces, and near-infrared may identify magma oceans or high-temperature lavas, hydrated silicate surfaces and water ice, giving an unambiguous method to distinguish between rocky and gaseous exoplanets.=== Surface temperature ===Artist's illustration of temperature inversion in exoplanet's atmosphere.Measuring the intensity of the light it receives from its parent star can estimate the temperature of an exoplanet.", "For example, the planet OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb is estimated to have a surface temperature of roughly −220 °C (50 K).", "However, such estimates may be substantially in error because they depend on the planet's usually unknown albedo, and because factors such as the greenhouse effect may introduce unknown complications.", "A few planets have had their temperature measured by observing the variation in infrared radiation as the planet moves around in its orbit and is eclipsed by its parent star.", "For example, the planet HD 189733b has been estimated to have an average temperature of 1,205 K (932 °C) on its dayside and 973 K (700 °C) on its nightside." ], [ "Habitability", "As more planets are discovered, the field of exoplanetology continues to grow into a deeper study of extrasolar worlds, and will ultimately tackle the prospect of life on planets beyond the Solar System.", "At cosmic distances, life can only be detected if it is developed at a planetary scale and strongly modified the planetary environment, in such a way that the modifications cannot be explained by classical physico-chemical processes (out of equilibrium processes).", "For example, molecular oxygen () in the atmosphere of Earth is a result of photosynthesis by living plants and many kinds of microorganisms, so it can be used as an indication of life on exoplanets, although small amounts of oxygen could also be produced by non-biological means.", "Furthermore, a potentially habitable planet must orbit a stable star at a distance within which planetary-mass objects with sufficient atmospheric pressure can support liquid water at their surfaces.=== Habitable zone ===The habitable zone around a star is the region where the temperature is just right to allow liquid water to exist on the surface of a planet; that is, not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze.", "The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star, so that the habitable zone can be at different distances for different stars.", "Also, the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun.", "The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out.", "Rocky planets with a thick hydrogen atmosphere could maintain surface water much further out than the Earth–Sun distance.", "Planets with larger mass have wider habitable zones because gravity reduces the water cloud column depth which reduces the greenhouse effect of water vapor, thus moving the inner edge of the habitable zone closer to the star.Planetary rotation rate is one of the major factors determining the circulation of the atmosphere and hence the pattern of clouds: slowly rotating planets create thick clouds that reflect more and so can be habitable much closer to their star.", "Earth with its current atmosphere would be habitable in Venus's orbit, if it had Venus's slow rotation.", "If Venus lost its water ocean due to a runaway greenhouse effect, it is likely to have had a higher rotation rate in the past.", "Alternatively, Venus never had an ocean because water vapor was lost to space during its formation and could have had its slow rotation throughout its history.Tidally locked planets (a.k.a.", "\"eyeball\" planets) can be habitable closer to their star than previously thought due to the effect of clouds: at high stellar flux, strong convection produces thick water clouds near the substellar point that greatly increase the planetary albedo and reduce surface temperatures.Planets in the habitable zones of stars with low metallicity are more habitable for complex life on land than high metallicity stars because the stellar spectrum of high metallicity stars is less likely to cause the formation of ozone thus enabling more ultraviolet rays to reach the planet's surface.Habitable zones have usually been defined in terms of surface temperature, however over half of Earth's biomass is from subsurface microbes, and the temperature increases with depth, so the subsurface can be conducive for microbial life when the surface is frozen and if this is considered, the habitable zone extends much further from the star, even rogue planets could have liquid water at sufficient depths underground.", "In an earlier era of the universe the temperature of the cosmic microwave background would have allowed any rocky planets that existed to have liquid water on their surface regardless of their distance from a star.", "Jupiter-like planets might not be habitable, but they could have habitable moons.=== Ice ages and snowball states ===The outer edge of the habitable zone is where planets are completely frozen, but planets well inside the habitable zone can periodically become frozen.", "If orbital fluctuations or other causes produce cooling, then this creates more ice, but ice reflects sunlight causing even more cooling, creating a feedback loop until the planet is completely or nearly completely frozen.", "When the surface is frozen, this stops carbon dioxide weathering, resulting in a build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from volcanic emissions.", "This creates a greenhouse effect which thaws the planet again.", "Planets with a large axial tilt are less likely to enter snowball states and can retain liquid water further from their star.", "Large fluctuations of axial tilt can have even more of a warming effect than a fixed large tilt.", "Paradoxically, planets orbiting cooler stars, such as red dwarfs, are less likely to enter snowball states because the infrared radiation emitted by cooler stars is mostly at wavelengths that are absorbed by ice which heats it up.=== Tidal heating ===If a planet has an eccentric orbit, then tidal heating can provide another source of energy besides stellar radiation.", "This means that eccentric planets in the radiative habitable zone can be too hot for liquid water.", "Tides also circularize orbits over time, so there could be planets in the habitable zone with circular orbits that have no water because they used to have eccentric orbits.", "Eccentric planets further out than the habitable zone would still have frozen surfaces, but the tidal heating could create a subsurface ocean similar to Europa's.", "In some planetary systems, such as in the Upsilon Andromedae system, the eccentricity of orbits is maintained or even periodically varied by perturbations from other planets in the system.", "Tidal heating can cause outgassing from the mantle, contributing to the formation and replenishment of an atmosphere.=== Potentially habitable planets ===A review in 2015 identified exoplanets Kepler-62f, Kepler-186f and Kepler-442b as the best candidates for being potentially habitable.", "These are at a distance of 1200, 490 and 1,120 light-years away, respectively.", "Of these, Kepler-186f is in similar size to Earth with its 1.2-Earth-radius measure, and it is located towards the outer edge of the habitable zone around its red dwarf star.When looking at the nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates, Proxima Centauri b is about 4.2 light-years away.", "Its equilibrium temperature is estimated to be .==== Earth-size planets ====* In November 2013, it was estimated that 22±8% of Sun-like stars in the Milky Way galaxy may have an Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone.", "Assuming 200 billion stars in the Milky Way, that would be 11 billion potentially habitable Earths, rising to 40 billion if red dwarfs are included.", "* Kepler-186f, a 1.2-Earth-radius planet in the habitable zone of a red dwarf, was reported in April 2014.", "*Proxima Centauri b, a planet in the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri, the nearest known star to the solar system with an estimated minimum mass of 1.27 times the mass of the Earth.", "* In February 2013, researchers speculated that up to 6% of small red dwarfs may have Earth-size planets.", "This suggests that the closest one to the Solar System could be 13 light-years away.", "The estimated distance increases to 21 light-years when a 95% confidence interval is used.", "In March 2013, a revised estimate gave an occurrence rate of 50% for Earth-size planets in the habitable zone of red dwarfs.", "* At 1.63 times Earth's radius Kepler-452b is the first discovered near-Earth-size planet in the \"habitable zone\" around a G2-type Sun-like star (July 2015)." ], [ "Planetary system", "Exoplanets are often members of planetary systems of multiple planets around a star.", "The planets interact with each other gravitationally and sometimes form resonant systems where the orbital periods of the planets are in integer ratios.", "The Kepler-223 system contains four planets in an 8:6:4:3 orbital resonance.Some hot Jupiters orbit their stars in the opposite direction to their stars' rotation.", "One proposed explanation is that hot Jupiters tend to form in dense clusters, where perturbations are more common and gravitational capture of planets by neighboring stars is possible." ], [ "Search projects", "*CoRoT – Mission to look for exoplanets using the transit method.", "*Kepler – Mission to look for large numbers of exoplanets using the transit method.", "*TESS – To search for new exoplanets; rotating so by the end of its two-year mission it will have observed stars from all over the sky.", "It is expected to find at least 3,000 new exoplanets.", "*HARPS – High-precision echelle planet-finding spectrograph installed on the ESO's 3.6m telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile.", "*ESPRESSO – A rocky planet-finding, and stable spectroscopic observing, spectrograph mounted on ESO's 4 by 8.2m VLT telescope, sited on the levelled summit of Cerro Paranal in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile.", "*ANDES – The ArmazoNes High Dispersion Echelle Spectrograph, a planet finding and planet characterisation spectrograph, is expected to be fitted onto ESO's ELT 39.3m telescope.", "ANDES was formally known as HIRES, which itself was created after a merger of the consortia behind the earlier CODEX (optical high-resolution) and SIMPLE (near-infrared high-resolution) spectrograph concepts." ], [ "See also", "* Detecting Earth from distant star-based systems* Lists of exoplanets* List of coolest exoplanets* Planets in science fiction (about fictional planets)* Planetary capture* Life habitable zones" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* (Hardback); (Paperback).", "* (Hardback); (Paperback).", "* (Hardcover).", "* * .", "* .", "* (Paperback).", "*" ], [ "External links", "* The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia (Paris Observatory)* NASA Exoplanet Archive" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Emma Goldman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Emma Goldman''' (June 27, 1869 – May 14, 1940) was a Lithuanian-born anarchist revolutionary, political activist, and writer.", "She played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America and Europe in the first half of the 20th century.Born in Kaunas, Lithuania (then within the Russian Empire), to an Orthodox Lithuanian Jewish family, Goldman emigrated to the United States in 1885.Attracted to anarchism after the Chicago Haymarket affair, Goldman became a writer and a renowned lecturer on anarchist philosophy, women's rights, and social issues, attracting crowds of thousands.", "She and anarchist writer Alexander Berkman, her lover and lifelong friend, planned to assassinate industrialist and financier Henry Clay Frick as an act of propaganda of the deed.", "Frick survived the attempt on his life in 1892, and Berkman was sentenced to 22 years in prison.", "Goldman was imprisoned several times in the years that followed, for \"inciting to riot\" and illegally distributing information about birth control.", "In 1906, Goldman founded the anarchist journal ''Mother Earth''.In 1917, Goldman and Berkman were sentenced to two years in jail for conspiring to \"induce persons not to register\" for the newly instated draft.", "After their release from prison, they were arrested—along with 248 others—in the so-called Palmer Raids during the First Red Scare and deported to Russia in December 1919.Initially supportive of that country's October Revolution that brought the Bolsheviks to power, Goldman changed her opinion in the wake of the Kronstadt rebellion; she denounced the Soviet Union for its violent repression of independent voices.", "She left the Soviet Union and in 1923 published a book about her experiences, ''My Disillusionment in Russia''.", "While living in England, Canada, and France, she wrote an autobiography called ''Living My Life''.", "It was published in two volumes, in 1931 and 1935.After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, Goldman traveled to Spain to support the anarchist revolution there.", "She died in Toronto, Canada, in 1940, aged 70.During her life, Goldman was lionized as a freethinking \"rebel woman\" by admirers, and denounced by detractors as an advocate of politically motivated murder and violent revolution.", "Her writing and lectures spanned a wide variety of issues, including prisons, atheism, freedom of speech, militarism, capitalism, marriage, free love, and homosexuality.", "Although she distanced herself from first-wave feminism and its efforts toward women's suffrage, she developed new ways of incorporating gender politics into anarchism.", "After decades of obscurity, Goldman gained iconic status in the 1970s by a revival of interest in her life, when feminist and anarchist scholars rekindled popular interest." ], [ "Biography", "=== Family ===Emma Goldman was born into an Orthodox Jewish family in Kovno in Lithuania, then within the Russian Empire.", "Goldman's mother Taube Bienowitch had been married before to a man with whom she had two daughters—Helena in 1860 and Lena in 1862.When her first husband died of tuberculosis, Taube was devastated.", "Goldman later wrote: \"Whatever love she had had died with the young man to whom she had been married at the age of fifteen.", "\"Taube's second marriage was arranged by her family and, as Goldman puts it, \"mismated from the first\".", "Her second husband, Abraham Goldman, invested Taube's inheritance in a business that quickly failed.", "The ensuing hardship, combined with the emotional distance between husband and wife, made the household a tense place for the children.", "When Taube became pregnant, Abraham hoped desperately for a son; a daughter, he believed, would be one more sign of failure.", "They eventually had three sons, but their first child was Emma.Emma Goldman was born on June 27, 1869.Her father used violence to punish his children, beating them when they disobeyed him.", "He used a whip on Emma, the most rebellious of them.", "Her mother provided scarce comfort, rarely calling on Abraham to tone down his beatings.", "Goldman later speculated that her father's furious temper was at least partly a result of sexual frustration.Goldman's relationships with her elder half-sisters, Helena and Lena, were a study in contrasts.", "Helena, the oldest, provided the comfort the children lacked from their mother and filled Goldman's childhood with \"whatever joy it had\".", "Lena, however, was distant and uncharitable.", "The three sisters were joined by brothers Louis (who died at the age of six), Herman (born in 1872), and Moishe (born in 1879).=== Adolescence ===Emma Goldman's family in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1882.From left to right: Emma, standing; Helena, seated, with Morris on her lap; Taube; Herman; Abraham.When Emma Goldman was a young girl, the Goldman family moved to the village of Papilė, where her father ran an inn.", "While her sisters worked, she became friends with a servant named Petrushka, who excited her \"first erotic sensations\".", "Later in Papilė she witnessed a peasant being whipped with a knout in the street.", "This event traumatized her and contributed to her lifelong distaste for violent authority.At the age of seven, Goldman moved with her family to the Prussian city of Königsberg (then part of the German Empire), and she was enrolled in a ''Realschule''.", "One teacher punished disobedient students—targeting Goldman in particular—by beating their hands with a ruler.", "Another teacher tried to molest his female students and was fired when Goldman fought back.", "She found a sympathetic mentor in her German-language teacher, who loaned her books and took her to an opera.", "A passionate student, Goldman passed the exam for admission into a gymnasium, but her religion teacher refused to provide a certificate of good behavior and she was unable to attend.The family moved to the Russian capital of Saint Petersburg, where her father opened one unsuccessful store after another.", "Their poverty forced the children to work, and Goldman took an assortment of jobs, including one in a corset shop.", "As a teenager Goldman begged her father to allow her to return to school, but instead he threw her French book into the fire and shouted: \"Girls do not have to learn much!", "All a Jewish daughter needs to know is how to prepare gefilte fish, cut noodles fine, and give the man plenty of children.", "\"Goldman pursued an independent education on her own.", "She studied the political turmoil around her, particularly the Nihilists responsible for assassinating Alexander II of Russia.", "The ensuing turmoil intrigued Goldman, although she did not fully understand it at the time.", "When she read Nikolai Chernyshevsky's novel, ''What Is to Be Done?''", "(1863), she found a role model in the protagonist Vera, who adopts a Nihilist philosophy and escapes her repressive family to live freely and organize a sewing cooperative.", "The book enthralled Goldman and remained a source of inspiration throughout her life.Her father, meanwhile, continued to insist on a domestic future for her, and he tried to arrange for her to be married at the age of fifteen.", "They fought about the issue constantly; he complained that she was becoming a \"loose\" woman, and she insisted that she would marry for love alone.", "At the corset shop, she was forced to fend off unwelcome advances from Russian officers and other men.", "One man took her into a hotel room and committed what Goldman described as \"violent contact\"; two biographers call it rape.", "She was stunned by the experience, overcome by \"shock at the discovery that the contact between man and woman could be so brutal and painful.\"", "Goldman felt that the encounter forever soured her interactions with men.=== Rochester, New York ===Emma Goldman in 1886In 1885, her sister Helena made plans to move to New York in the United States to join her sister Lena and her husband.", "Goldman wanted to join her sister, but their father refused to allow it.", "Despite Helena's offer to pay for the trip, Abraham turned a deaf ear to their pleas.", "Desperate, Goldman threatened to throw herself into the Neva River if she could not go.", "Their father finally agreed.", "On December 29, 1885, Helena and Emma arrived at New York City's Castle Garden, the entry for immigrants.They settled upstate, living in the Rochester home which Lena had made with her husband Samuel.", "Fleeing the rising antisemitism of Saint Petersburg, their parents and brothers joined them a year later.", "Goldman began working as a seamstress, sewing overcoats for more than ten hours a day, earning two and a half dollars a week.", "She asked for a raise and was denied; she quit and took work at a smaller shop nearby.At her new job, Goldman met a fellow worker named Jacob Kershner, who shared her love for books, dancing, and traveling, as well as her frustration with the monotony of factory work.", "After four months, they married in February 1887.Once he moved in with Goldman's family, their relationship faltered.", "On their wedding night she discovered that he was impotent; they became emotionally and physically distant.", "Before long he became jealous and suspicious and threatened to commit suicide should she leave him.", "Meanwhile, Goldman was becoming more engaged with the political turmoil around her, particularly the aftermath of executions related to the 1886 Haymarket affair in Chicago and the anti-authoritarian political philosophy of anarchism.Less than a year after the wedding, the couple were divorced; Kershner begged Goldman to return and threatened to poison himself if she did not.", "They reunited, but after three months she left once again.", "Her parents considered her behavior \"loose\" and refused to allow Goldman into their home.", "Carrying her sewing machine in one hand and a bag with five dollars in the other, she left Rochester and headed southeast to New York City.=== Most and Berkman ===Goldman enjoyed a decades-long relationship with her lover Alexander Berkman.", "Photo c. 1917–1919.On her first day in New York City, Goldman met two men who would have a significant and enduring influence on the course of her life.", "At Sachs' Café, a gathering place for radicals, she was introduced to Alexander Berkman, an anarchist who invited her to a public speech that evening.", "They went to hear Johann Most, editor of a radical publication called ''Freiheit'' and an advocate of \"propaganda of the deed\"—the use of violence to instigate change.", "She was impressed by his fiery oration, and Most took her under his wing, training her in methods of public speaking.", "He encouraged her vigorously, telling her that she was \"to take my place when I am gone.\"", "One of her first public talks in support of \"the Cause\" was in Rochester.", "After convincing Helena not to tell their parents of her speech, Goldman found her mind a blank once on stage.", "She later wrote, suddenly:Excited by the experience, Goldman refined her public persona during subsequent engagements.", "She quickly found herself arguing with Most over her independence.", "After a momentous speech in Cleveland, she felt as though she had become \"a parrot repeating Most's views\" and resolved to express herself on the stage.", "When she returned to New York, Most became furious and told her: \"Who is not with me is against me!\"", "She left ''Freiheit'' and joined another publication, ''Die Autonomie''.Meanwhile, Goldman had begun a friendship with Berkman, whom she affectionately called Sasha.", "Before long they became lovers and moved into a communal apartment with his cousin Modest \"Fedya\" Stein and Goldman's friend, Helen Minkin, on 42nd Street.", "Although their relationship had numerous difficulties, Goldman and Berkman would share a close bond for decades, united by their anarchist principles and commitment to personal equality.In 1892, Goldman joined with Berkman and Stein in opening an ice cream shop in Worcester, Massachusetts.", "After a few months of operating the shop, Goldman and Berkman were diverted to participate in the Homestead Strike near Pittsburgh.=== Homestead plot ===Berkman and Goldman came together through the Homestead Strike.", "In June 1892, a steel plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania, owned by Andrew Carnegie became the focus of national attention when talks between the Carnegie Steel Company and the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (AA) broke down.", "The factory's manager was Henry Clay Frick, a fierce opponent of the union.", "When a final round of talks failed at the end of June, management closed the plant and locked out the workers, who immediately went on strike.", "Strikebreakers were brought in and the company hired Pinkerton guards to protect them.", "On July 6, a fight broke out between 300 Pinkerton guards and a crowd of armed union workers.", "During the twelve-hour gunfight, seven guards and nine strikers were killed.Goldman and Berkman believed that a retaliatory assassination of Carnegie Steel Company manager Henry Clay Frick (''pictured'') would \"strike terror into the soul of his class\" and \"bring the teachings of Anarchism before the world\".When a majority of the nation's newspapers expressed support of the strikers, Goldman and Berkman resolved to assassinate Frick, an action they expected would inspire the workers to revolt against the capitalist system.", "Berkman chose to carry out the assassination, and ordered Goldman to stay behind in order to explain his motives after he went to jail.", "He would be in charge of \"the deed\"; she of the associated propaganda.", "Berkman set off for Pittsburgh on his way to Homestead, where he planned to shoot Frick.Goldman, meanwhile, decided to help fund the scheme through prostitution.", "Remembering the character of Sonya in Fyodor Dostoevsky's novel ''Crime and Punishment'' (1866), she mused: \"She had become a prostitute in order to support her little brothers and sisters...Sensitive Sonya could sell her body; why not I?\"", "Once on the street, Goldman caught the eye of a man who took her into a saloon, bought her a beer, gave her ten dollars, informed her she did not have \"the knack,\" and told her to quit the business.", "She was \"too astounded for speech\".", "She wrote to Helena, claiming illness, and asked her for fifteen dollars.On July 23, Berkman gained access to Frick's office while carrying a concealed handgun; he shot Frick three times, and stabbed him in the leg.", "A group of workers—far from joining in his ''attentat''—beat Berkman unconscious, and he was carried away by the police.", "Berkman was convicted of attempted murder and sentenced to 22 years in prison.", "Goldman suffered during his long absence.Convinced Goldman was involved in the plot, police raided her apartment.", "Although they found no evidence, they pressured her landlord into evicting her.", "Furthermore, the ''attentat'' had failed to rouse the masses: workers and anarchists alike condemned Berkman's action.", "Johann Most, their former mentor, lashed out at Berkman and the assassination attempt.", "Furious at these attacks, Goldman brought a toy horsewhip to a public lecture and demanded, onstage, that Most explain his betrayal.", "He dismissed her, whereupon she struck him with the whip, broke it on her knee, and hurled the pieces at him.", "She later regretted her assault, confiding to a friend: \"At the age of twenty-three, one does not reason.", "\"=== \"Inciting to riot\" ===When the Panic of 1893 struck in the following year, the United States suffered one of its worst economic crises.", "By year's end, the unemployment rate was higher than 20%, and \"hunger demonstrations\" sometimes gave way to riots.", "Goldman began speaking to crowds of frustrated men and women in New York City.", "On August 21, she spoke to a crowd of nearly 3,000 people in Union Square, where she encouraged unemployed workers to take immediate action.", "Her exact words are unclear: undercover agents insist she ordered the crowd to \"take everything ... by force\".", "But Goldman later recounted this message: \"Well then, demonstrate before the palaces of the rich; demand work.", "If they do not give you work, demand bread.", "If they deny you both, take bread.\"", "Later in court, Detective-Sergeant Charles Jacobs offered yet another version of her speech.Union Square, New York in 1916) urged unemployed workers to take direct action rather than depend on charity or government aid.A week later, Goldman was arrested in Philadelphia and returned to New York City for trial, charged with \"inciting to riot\".", "During the train ride, Jacobs offered to drop the charges against her if she would inform on other radicals in the area.", "She responded by throwing a glass of ice water in his face.", "As she awaited trial, Goldman was visited by Nellie Bly, a reporter for the ''New York World.''", "She spent two hours talking to Goldman and wrote a positive article about the woman she described as a \"modern Joan of Arc.", "\"Despite this positive publicity, the jury was persuaded by Jacobs' testimony and frightened by Goldman's politics.", "The assistant district attorney questioned Goldman about her anarchism, as well as her atheism; the judge spoke of her as \"a dangerous woman\".", "She was sentenced to one year in the Blackwell's Island Penitentiary.", "Once inside, she suffered an attack of rheumatism and was sent to the infirmary.", "There, she befriended a visiting doctor and received informal training in nursing, eventually being placed in charge of a 16-bed women's ward in the infirmary.", "She also read dozens of books, including works by the American activist-writers Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau; novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne; poet Walt Whitman, and philosopher John Stuart Mill.", "When Goldman was released after ten months, a raucous crowd of nearly 3,000 people greeted her at the Thalia Theater in New York City.", "She soon became swamped with requests for interviews and lectures.To make money, Goldman decided to continue the medical studies she had started in prison, but her preferred fields of specialization—midwifery and massage—were unavailable to nursing students in the US.", "She sailed to Europe, lecturing in London, Glasgow, and Edinburgh.", "She met with renowned anarchists such as Errico Malatesta, Louise Michel, and Peter Kropotkin.", "In Vienna, she received two diplomas for midwifery and put them immediately to use back in the US.Alternating between lectures and midwifery, Goldman conducted the first cross-country tour by an anarchist speaker.", "In November 1899, she returned to Europe to speak, where she met the Czech anarchist Hippolyte Havel in London.", "They went together to France and helped organize the 1900 International Anarchist Congress on the outskirts of Paris.", "Afterward, Havel immigrated to the United States, traveling with Goldman to Chicago.", "They shared a residence there with friends of Goldman.=== McKinley assassination ===Leon Czolgosz insisted that Goldman had not guided his plan to assassinate US President William McKinley, but she was arrested and held for two weeks.On September 6, 1901, Leon Czolgosz, an unemployed factory worker and anarchist, shot US President William McKinley twice during a public speaking event in Buffalo, New York.", "McKinley was hit in the breastbone and stomach, and died eight days later.", "Czolgosz was arrested, and interrogated around the clock.", "During interrogation he claimed to be an anarchist and said he had been inspired to act after attending a speech by Goldman.", "The authorities used this as a pretext to charge Goldman with planning McKinley's assassination.", "They tracked her to the residence in Chicago she shared with Havel, as well as with Mary and Abe Isaak, an anarchist couple and their family.", "Goldman was arrested, along with Isaak, Havel, and ten other anarchists.Earlier, Czolgosz had tried but failed to become friends with Goldman and her companions.", "During a talk in Cleveland, Czolgosz had approached Goldman and asked her advice on which books he should read.", "In July 1901, he had appeared at the Isaak house, asking a series of unusual questions.", "They assumed he was an infiltrator, like a number of police agents sent to spy on radical groups.", "They had remained distant from him, and Abe Isaak sent a notice to associates warning of \"another spy\".Although Czolgosz repeatedly denied Goldman's involvement, the police held her in close custody, subjecting her to what she called the \"third degree\".", "She explained her housemates' distrust of Czolgosz, and the police finally recognized that she had not had any significant contact with the attacker.", "No evidence was found linking Goldman to the attack, and she was released after two weeks of detention.", "Before McKinley died, Goldman offered to provide nursing care, referring to him as \"merely a human being\".", "Czolgosz, despite considerable evidence of mental illness, was convicted of murder and executed.Throughout her detention and after her release, Goldman steadfastly refused to condemn Czolgosz's actions, standing virtually alone in doing so.", "Friends and supporters—including Berkman—urged her to quit his cause.", "But Goldman defended Czolgosz as a \"supersensitive being\" and chastised other anarchists for abandoning him.", "She was vilified in the press as the \"high priestess of anarchy\", while many newspapers declared the anarchist movement responsible for the murder.", "In the wake of these events, socialism gained support over anarchism among US radicals.", "McKinley's successor, Theodore Roosevelt, declared his intent to crack down \"not only against anarchists, but against all active and passive sympathizers with anarchists\".=== ''Mother Earth'' and Berkman's release ===After Czolgosz was executed, Goldman withdrew from society and, from 1903 to 1913, lived at 208–210 East 13th Street, New York City.", "Scorned by her fellow anarchists, vilified by the press, and separated from her love, Berkman, she retreated into anonymity and nursing.", "\"It was bitter and hard to face life anew,\" she wrote later.Using the name E. G. Smith, she left public life and took on a series of private nursing jobs while suffering from severe depression.", "The US Congress' passage of the Anarchist Exclusion Act (1903) stirred a new wave of oppositional activism, pulling Goldman back into the movement.", "A coalition of people and organizations across the left end of the political spectrum opposed the law on grounds that it violated freedom of speech, and she had the nation's ear once again.After an English anarchist named John Turner was arrested under the Anarchist Exclusion Act and threatened with deportation, Goldman joined forces with the Free Speech League to champion his cause.", "The league enlisted the aid of noted attorneys Clarence Darrow and Edgar Lee Masters, who took Turner's case to the US Supreme Court.", "Although Turner and the League lost, Goldman considered it a victory of propaganda.", "She had returned to anarchist activism, but it was taking its toll on her.", "\"I never felt so weighed down,\" she wrote to Berkman.", "\"I fear I am forever doomed to remain public property and to have my life worn out through the care for the lives of others.", "\"In 1906, Goldman decided to start a publication, \"a place of expression for the young idealists in arts and letters\".", "''Mother Earth'' was staffed by a cadre of radical activists, including Hippolyte Havel, Max Baginski, and Leonard Abbott.", "In addition to publishing original works by its editors and anarchists around the world, ''Mother Earth'' reprinted selections from a variety of writers.", "These included the French philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin, German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, and British writer Mary Wollstonecraft.", "Goldman wrote frequently about anarchism, politics, labor issues, atheism, sexuality, and feminism, and was the first editor of the magazine.Mother Earth'' magazine became a home to radical activists and literary free thinkers around the US.On May 18 of the same year, Alexander Berkman was released from prison.", "Carrying a bouquet of roses, Goldman met him on the train platform and found herself \"seized by terror and pity\" as she beheld his gaunt, pale form.", "Neither was able to speak; they returned to her home in silence.", "For weeks, he struggled to readjust to life on the outside: An abortive speaking tour ended in failure, and in Cleveland he purchased a revolver with the intent of killing himself.", "Upon returning to New York, he learned that Goldman had been arrested with a group of activists meeting to reflect on Czolgosz.", "Invigorated anew by this violation of freedom of assembly, he declared, \"My resurrection has come!\"", "and set about securing their release.Berkman took the helm of ''Mother Earth'' in 1907, while Goldman toured the country to raise funds to keep it operating.", "Editing the magazine was a revitalizing experience for Berkman.", "But his relationship with Goldman faltered, and he had an affair with a 15-year-old anarchist named Becky Edelsohn.", "Goldman was pained by his rejection of her but considered it a consequence of his prison experience.", "Later that year she served as a delegate from the US to the International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam.", "Anarchists and syndicalists from around the world gathered to sort out the tension between the two ideologies, but no decisive agreement was reached.", "Goldman returned to the US and continued speaking to large audiences.=== Reitman, essays, and birth control ===For the next ten years, Goldman traveled around the country nonstop, delivering lectures and agitating for anarchism.", "The coalitions formed in opposition to the Anarchist Exclusion Act had given her an appreciation for reaching out to those of other political positions.", "When the US Justice Department sent spies to observe, they reported the meetings as \"packed\".", "Writers, journalists, artists, judges, and workers from across the spectrum spoke of her \"magnetic power\", her \"convincing presence\", her \"force, eloquence, and fire\".Goldman joined Margaret Sanger in crusading for women's access to birth control; both women were arrested for violating the Comstock Law.In the spring of 1908, Goldman met and fell in love with Ben Reitman, the so-called \"Hobo doctor\".", "Having grown up in Chicago's Tenderloin District, Reitman spent several years as a drifter before earning a medical degree from the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Chicago.", "As a doctor, he treated people suffering from poverty and illness, particularly venereal diseases.", "He and Goldman began an affair.", "They shared a commitment to free love and Reitman took a variety of lovers, but Goldman did not.", "She tried to reconcile her feelings of jealousy with a belief in freedom of the heart but found it difficult.Two years later, Goldman began feeling frustrated with lecture audiences.", "She yearned to \"reach the few who really want to learn, rather than the many who come to be amused\".", "She collected a series of speeches and items she had written for ''Mother Earth'' and published a book titled ''Anarchism and Other Essays.''", "Covering a wide variety of topics, Goldman tried to represent \"the mental and soul struggles of twenty-one years\".When Margaret Sanger, an advocate of access to contraception, coined the term \"birth control\" and disseminated information about various methods in the June 1914 issue of her magazine ''The Woman Rebel,'' she received aggressive support from Goldman.", "The latter had already been active in efforts to increase birth control access for several years.", "In 1916, Goldman was arrested for giving lessons in public on how to use contraceptives.", "Sanger, too, was arrested under the Comstock Law, which prohibited the dissemination of \"obscene, lewd, or lascivious articles\", which authorities defined as including information relating to birth control.Although they later split from Sanger over charges of insufficient support, Goldman and Reitman distributed copies of Sanger's pamphlet ''Family Limitation'' (along with a similar essay of Reitman's).", "In 1915 Goldman conducted a nationwide speaking tour, in part to raise awareness about contraception options.", "Although the nation's attitude toward the topic seemed to be liberalizing, Goldman was arrested on February 11, 1916, as she was about to give another public lecture.", "Goldman was charged with violating the Comstock Law.", "Refusing to pay a $100 fine, she spent two weeks in a prison workhouse, which she saw as an \"opportunity\" to reconnect with those rejected by society.=== World War I ===Although President Woodrow Wilson was re-elected in 1916 under the slogan \"He kept us out of the war\", at the start of his second term, he announced that Germany's continued deployment of unrestricted submarine warfare was sufficient cause for the US to enter the Great War.", "Shortly afterward, Congress passed the Selective Service Act of 1917, which required all males aged 21–30 to register for military conscription.", "Goldman saw the decision as an exercise in militarist aggression, driven by capitalism.", "She declared in ''Mother Earth'' her intent to resist conscription, and to oppose US involvement in the war.Goldman on a streetcar in 1917, perhaps during a strike or demonstrationTo this end, she and Berkman organized the No Conscription League of New York, which proclaimed: \"We oppose conscription because we are internationalists, antimilitarists, and opposed to all wars waged by capitalistic governments.\"", "The group became a vanguard for anti-draft activism, and chapters began to appear in other cities.", "When police began raiding the group's public events to find young men who had not registered for the draft, Goldman and others focused their efforts on distributing pamphlets and other writings.", "In the midst of the nation's patriotic fervor, many elements of the political left refused to support the League's efforts.", "The Women's Peace Party, for example, ceased its opposition to the war once the US entered it.", "The Socialist Party of America took an official stance against US involvement but supported Wilson in most of his activities.On June 15, 1917, Goldman and Berkman were arrested during a raid of their offices, in which authorities seized \"a wagon load of anarchist records and propaganda\".", "''The New York Times'' reported that Goldman asked to change into a more appropriate outfit, and emerged in a gown of \"royal purple\".", "The pair were charged with conspiracy to \"induce persons not to register\" under the newly enacted Espionage Act, and were held on US$25,000 bail each.", "Defending herself and Berkman during their trial, Goldman invoked the First Amendment, asking how the government could claim to fight for democracy abroad while suppressing free speech at home:We say that if America has entered the war to make the world safe for democracy, she must first make democracy safe in America.", "How else is the world to take America seriously, when democracy at home is daily being outraged, free speech suppressed, peaceable assemblies broken up by overbearing and brutal gangsters in uniform; when free press is curtailed and every independent opinion gagged?", "Verily, poor as we are in democracy, how can we give of it to the world?", "The jury found Goldman and Berkman guilty.", "Judge Julius Marshuetz Mayer imposed the maximum sentence: two years' imprisonment, a $10,000 fine each, and the possibility of deportation after their release from prison.", "As she was transported to Missouri State Penitentiary, Goldman wrote to a friend: \"Two years imprisonment for having made an uncompromising stand for one's ideal.", "Why that is a small price.", "\"In prison, she was assigned to work as a seamstress, under the eye of a \"miserable gutter-snipe of a 21-year-old boy paid to get results\".", "She met the socialist Kate Richards O'Hare, who had also been imprisoned under the Espionage Act.", "Although they differed on political strategy—O'Hare believed in voting to achieve state power—the two women came together to agitate for better conditions among prisoners.", "Goldman also met and became friends with Gabriella Segata Antolini, an anarchist and follower of Luigi Galleani.", "Antolini had been arrested transporting a satchel filled with dynamite on a Chicago-bound train.", "She had refused to cooperate with authorities and was sent to prison for 14 months.", "Working together to make life better for the other inmates, the three women became known as \"The Trinity\".", "Goldman was released on September 27, 1919.=== Deportation ===Goldman's deportation photo, 1919Goldman and Berkman were released from prison during the United States' Red Scare of 1919–20, when public anxiety about wartime pro-German activities had expanded into a pervasive fear of Bolshevism and the prospect of an imminent radical revolution.", "It was a time of social unrest due to union organizing strikes and actions by activist immigrants.", "Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer and J. Edgar Hoover, head of the US Department of Justice's General Intelligence Division (now the FBI), were intent on using the Anarchist Exclusion Act and its 1918 expansion to deport any non-citizens they could identify as advocates of anarchy or revolution.", "\"Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman,\" Hoover wrote while they were in prison, \"are, beyond doubt, two of the most dangerous anarchists in this country and return to the community will result in undue harm.", "\"At her deportation hearing on October 27, 1919, Goldman refused to answer questions about her beliefs, on the grounds that her American citizenship invalidated any attempt to deport her under the Anarchist Exclusion Act, which could be enforced only against non-citizens of the US.", "She presented a written statement instead: \"Today so-called aliens are deported.", "Tomorrow native Americans will be banished.", "Already some patrioteers are suggesting that native American sons to whom democracy is a sacred ideal should be exiled.\"", "Louis Post at the Department of Labor, which had ultimate authority over deportation decisions, determined that the revocation of her husband Kershner's American citizenship in 1908 after his conviction had revoked hers as well.", "After initially promising a court fight, Goldman decided not to appeal his ruling.The Labor Department included Goldman and Berkman among 249 aliens it deported ''en masse,'' mostly people with only vague associations with radical groups, who had been swept up in government raids in November.", "''Buford'', a ship the press nicknamed the \"Soviet Ark\", sailed from the Army's New York Port of Embarkation on December 21.Some 58 enlisted men and four officers provided security on the journey, and pistols were distributed to the crew.", "Most of the press approved enthusiastically.", "The Cleveland ''Plain Dealer'' wrote: \"It is hoped and expected that other vessels, larger, more commodious, carrying similar cargoes, will follow in her wake.\"", "The ship landed her charges in Hanko, Finland, on Saturday, January 17, 1920.Upon arrival in Finland, authorities there conducted the deportees to the Russian frontier under a flag of truce.=== Russia ===Here, Emma Goldman delivers a eulogy at Peter Kropotkin's funeral procession.", "Immediately in front of Goldman stands her lifelong comrade Alexander Berkman.", "Kropotkin's funeral was the occasion of the last great demonstration of anarchists in Moscow—tens of thousands of people poured into the streets to pay their respects.Goldman initially viewed the Bolshevik revolution in a positive light.", "She wrote in ''Mother Earth'' that despite its dependence on Communist government, it represented \"the most fundamental, far-reaching and all-embracing principles of human freedom and of economic well-being\".", "By the time she neared Europe, she expressed fears about what was to come.", "She was worried about the ongoing Russian Civil War and the possibility of being seized by anti-Bolshevik forces.", "The state, anti-capitalist though it was, also posed a threat.", "\"I could never in my life work within the confines of the State,\" she wrote to her niece, \"Bolshevist or otherwise.", "\"She quickly discovered that her fears were justified.", "Days after returning to Petrograd (Saint Petersburg), she was shocked to hear a party official refer to free speech as a \"bourgeois superstition\".", "As she and Berkman traveled around the country, they found repression, mismanagement, and corruption instead of the equality and worker empowerment they had dreamed of.", "Those who questioned the government were demonized as counter-revolutionaries, and workers labored under severe conditions.", "They met with Vladimir Lenin, who assured them that government suppression of press liberties was justified.", "He told them: \"There can be no free speech in a revolutionary period.\"", "Berkman was more willing to forgive the government's actions in the name of \"historical necessity\", but he eventually joined Goldman in opposing the Soviet state's authority.In March 1921, strikes erupted in Petrograd when workers took to the streets demanding better food rations and more union autonomy.", "Goldman and Berkman felt a responsibility to support the strikers, stating: \"To remain silent now is impossible, even criminal.\"", "The unrest spread to the port town of Kronstadt, where the government ordered a military response to suppress striking soldiers and sailors.", "In the Kronstadt rebellion, approximately 1,000 rebelling sailors and soldiers were killed and two thousand more were arrested; many were later executed.", "In the wake of these events, Goldman and Berkman decided there was no future in the country for them.", "\"More and more\", she wrote, \"we have come to the conclusion that we can do nothing here.", "And as we can not keep up a life of inactivity much longer we have decided to leave.", "\"In December 1921, they left the country and went to the Latvian capital city of Riga.", "The US commissioner in that city wired officials in Washington DC, who began requesting information from other governments about the couple's activities.", "After a short trip to Stockholm, they moved to Berlin for several years; during this time Goldman agreed to write a series of articles about her time in Russia for Joseph Pulitzer's newspaper, the ''New York World.''", "These were later collected and published in book form as ''My Disillusionment in Russia'' (1923) and ''My Further Disillusionment in Russia'' (1924).", "The publishers added these titles to attract attention; Goldman protested, albeit in vain.=== England, Canada, and France ===Goldman found it difficult to acclimate to the German leftist community in Berlin.", "Communists despised her outspokenness about Soviet repression; liberals derided her radicalism.", "While Berkman remained in Berlin helping Russian exiles, Goldman moved to London in September 1924.Upon her arrival, the novelist Rebecca West arranged a reception dinner for her, attended by philosopher Bertrand Russell, novelist H. G. Wells, and more than 200 other guests.", "When she spoke of her dissatisfaction with the Soviet government, the audience was shocked.", "Some left the gathering; others berated her for prematurely criticizing the Communist experiment.", "Later, in a letter, Russell declined to support her efforts at systemic change in the Soviet Union and ridiculed her anarchist idealism.The 1927 executions of Italian anarchists Nicola Sacco (right) and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were troubling for Goldman, then living alone in Canada.In 1925, the spectre of deportation loomed again, but James Colton, a Scottish anarchist Goldman had first met in Glasgow whilst on a speaking tour in 1895, had offered to marry her and provide British citizenship.", "Although they were only distant acquaintances, she accepted and they were married on June 27, 1925, Goldman's 58th birthday.", "Her new status gave her peace of mind and allowed her to travel to France and Canada.", "The pair sporadically exchanged correspondence until Colton's death in 1936.Life in London was stressful for Goldman; she wrote to Berkman: \"I am awfully tired and so lonely and heartsick.", "It is a dreadful feeling to come back here from lectures and find not a kindred soul, no one who cares whether one is dead or alive.\"", "She worked on analytical studies of drama, expanding on the work she had published in 1914.But the audiences were \"awful,\" and she never finished her second book on the subject.Goldman traveled to Canada in 1927, just in time to receive news of the impending executions of Italian anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti in Boston.", "Angered by the many irregularities of the case, she saw it as another travesty of justice in the US.", "She longed to join the mass demonstrations in Boston; memories of the Haymarket affair overwhelmed her, compounded by her isolation.", "\"Then,\" she wrote, \"I had my life before me to take up the cause for those killed.", "Now I have nothing.", "\"In 1928, she began writing her autobiography, with the support of a group of American admirers, including journalist H. L. Mencken, poet Edna St. Vincent Millay, novelist Theodore Dreiser and art collector Peggy Guggenheim, who raised $4,000 for her.", "She secured a cottage in the French coastal city of Saint-Tropez and spent two years recounting her life.", "Berkman offered sharply critical feedback, which she eventually incorporated at the price of a strain on their relationship.", "Goldman intended the book, ''Living My Life,'' as a single volume for a price the working class could afford (she urged no more than $5.00); her publisher Alfred A. Knopf released it as two volumes sold together for $7.50.Goldman was furious, but unable to force a change.", "Due in large part to the Great Depression, sales were sluggish despite keen interest from libraries around the US.", "Critical reviews were generally enthusiastic; ''The New York Times'', ''The New Yorker'', and ''Saturday Review of Literature'' all listed it as one of the year's top non-fiction books.In 1933, Goldman received permission to lecture in the United States under the condition that she speak only about drama and her autobiography—but not current political events.", "She returned to New York on February 2, 1934, to generally positive press coverage—except from Communist publications.", "Soon she was surrounded by admirers and friends, besieged with invitations to talks and interviews.", "Her visa expired in May, and she went to Toronto in order to file another request to visit the US.", "This second attempt was denied.", "She stayed in Canada, writing articles for US publications.In February and March 1936, Berkman underwent a pair of prostate gland operations.", "Recuperating in Nice and cared for by his companion, Emmy Eckstein, he missed Goldman's sixty-seventh birthday in Saint-Tropez in June.", "She wrote in sadness, but he never read the letter; she received a call in the middle of the night that Berkman was in great distress.", "She left for Nice immediately but when she arrived that morning, Goldman found that he had shot himself and was in a nearly comatose paralysis.", "He died later that evening.=== Spanish Civil War ===In July 1936, the Spanish Civil War started after an attempted ''coup d'état'' by parts of the Spanish Army against the government of the Second Spanish Republic.", "At the same time, the Spanish anarchists, fighting against the Nationalist forces, started an anarchist revolution.", "Goldman was invited to Barcelona and in an instant, as she wrote to her niece, \"the crushing weight that was pressing down on my heart since Sasha's death left me as by magic\".", "She was welcomed by the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI) organizations, and for the first time in her life lived in a community run by and for anarchists, according to true anarchist principles.", "\"In all my life\", she wrote later, \"I have not met with such warm hospitality, comradeship and solidarity.\"", "After touring a series of collectives in the province of Huesca, she told a group of workers: \"Your revolution will destroy forever the notion that anarchism stands for chaos.\"", "She began editing the weekly ''CNT-FAI Information Bulletin'' and responded to English-language mail.Goldman edited the English-language ''Bulletin'' of the Anarcho-syndicalist organizations Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI) during the Spanish Civil War.Goldman began to worry about the future of Spain's anarchism when the CNT-FAI joined a coalition government in 1937—against the core anarchist principle of abstaining from state structures—and, more distressingly, made repeated concessions to Communist forces in the name of uniting against fascism.", "In November 1936, she wrote that cooperating with Communists in Spain was \"a denial of our comrades in Stalin's concentration camps\".", "The USSR, meanwhile, refused to send weapons to anarchist forces, and disinformation campaigns were being waged against the anarchists across Europe and the US.", "Her faith in the movement unshaken, Goldman returned to London as an official representative of the CNT-FAI.Delivering lectures and giving interviews, Goldman enthusiastically supported the Spanish anarcho-syndicalists.", "She wrote regularly for ''Spain and the World'', a biweekly newspaper focusing on the civil war.", "In May 1937, Communist-led forces attacked anarchist strongholds and broke up agrarian collectives.", "Newspapers in England and elsewhere accepted the timeline of events offered by the Second Spanish Republic at face value.", "British journalist George Orwell, present for the crackdown, wrote: \"The accounts of the Barcelona riots in May ... beat everything I have ever seen for lying.", "\"Goldman returned to Spain in September, but the CNT-FAI appeared to her like people \"in a burning house\".", "Worse, anarchists and other radicals around the world refused to support their cause.", "The Nationalist forces declared victory in Spain just before she returned to London.", "Frustrated by England's repressive atmosphere—which she called \"more fascist than the fascists\"—she returned to Canada in 1939.Her service to the anarchist cause in Spain was not forgotten.", "On her seventieth birthday, the former Secretary-General of the CNT-FAI, Mariano Vázquez, sent a message to her from Paris, praising her for her contributions and naming her as \"our spiritual mother\".", "She called it \"the most beautiful tribute I have ever received\".=== Final years ===Forest Home Cemetery, near those of the anarchists executed for the Haymarket affair.", "The dates on the stone are incorrect.As the events preceding World War II began to unfold in Europe, Goldman reiterated her opposition to wars waged by governments.", "\"Much as I loathe Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin and Franco\", she wrote to a friend, \"I would not support a war against them and for the democracies which, in the last analysis, are only Fascist in disguise.\"", "She felt that Britain and France had missed their opportunity to oppose fascism, and that the coming war would only result in \"a new form of madness in the world\".=== Death ===On Saturday, February 17, 1940, Goldman suffered a debilitating stroke.", "She became paralyzed on her right side, and although her hearing was unaffected, she could not speak.", "As one friend described it: \"Just to think that here was Emma, the greatest orator in America, unable to utter one word.\"", "For three months she improved slightly, receiving visitors and on one occasion gesturing to her address book to signal that a friend might find friendly contacts during a trip to Mexico.", "She suffered another stroke on May 8 and she died six days later in Toronto, aged 70.The US Immigration and Naturalization Service allowed her body to be brought back to the United States.", "She was buried in German Waldheim Cemetery (now named Forest Home Cemetery) in Forest Park, Illinois, a western suburb of Chicago, near the graves of those executed after the Haymarket affair.", "The bas relief on her grave marker was created by sculptor Jo Davidson, and the stone includes the quote \"Liberty will not descend to a people, a people must raise themselves to liberty\"." ], [ "Philosophy", "Goldman spoke and wrote extensively on a wide variety of issues.", "While she rejected orthodoxy and fundamentalist thinking, she was an important contributor to several fields of modern political philosophy.She was influenced by many diverse thinkers and writers, including Mikhail Bakunin, Henry David Thoreau, Peter Kropotkin, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nikolai Chernyshevsky, and Mary Wollstonecraft.", "Another philosopher who influenced Goldman was Friedrich Nietzsche.", "In her autobiography, she wrote: \"Nietzsche was not a social theorist, but a poet, a rebel, and innovator.", "His aristocracy was neither of birth nor of purse; it was the spirit.", "In that respect Nietzsche was an anarchist, and all true anarchists were aristocrats.", "\"=== Anarchism ===Anarchism was central to Goldman's view of the world, and she is widely considered one of the most important figures in the history of anarchism and libertarian socialism.", "First drawn to it during the persecution of anarchists after the 1886 Haymarket affair, she wrote and spoke regularly on behalf of anarchism.", "In the title essay of her book ''Anarchism and Other Essays'', she wrote:Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government.", "Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations.Goldman's anarchism was intensely personal.", "She believed it was necessary for anarchist thinkers to live their beliefs, demonstrating their convictions with every action and word.", "\"I don't care if a man's theory for tomorrow is correct,\" she once wrote.", "\"I care if his spirit of today is correct.\"", "Anarchism and free association were to her logical responses to the confines of government control and capitalism.", "\"It seems to me that ''these'' are the new forms of life,\" she wrote, \"and that they will take the place of the old, not by preaching or voting, but by living them.", "\"At the same time, she believed that the movement on behalf of human liberty must be staffed by liberated humans.", "While dancing among fellow anarchists one evening, she was chided by an associate for her carefree demeanor.", "In her autobiography, Goldman wrote:I told him to mind his own business, I was tired of having the Cause constantly thrown in my face.", "I did not believe that a Cause which stood for a beautiful ideal, for anarchism, for release and freedom from conventions and prejudice, should demand denial of life and joy.", "I insisted that our Cause could not expect me to behave as a nun and that the movement should not be turned into a cloister.", "If it meant that, I did not want it.", "\"I want freedom, the right to self-expression, everybody's right to beautiful, radiant things.", "\"==== Tactical uses of violence ====Goldman, in her political youth, held targeted violence to be a legitimate means of revolutionary struggle.", "Goldman at the time believed that the use of violence, while distasteful, could be justified in relation to the social benefits it might accrue.", "She advocated propaganda of the deed—''attentat'', or violence carried out to encourage the masses to revolt.", "She supported her partner Alexander Berkman's attempt to kill industrialist Henry Clay Frick, and even begged him to allow her to participate.", "She believed that Frick's actions during the Homestead strike were reprehensible and that his murder would produce a positive result for working people.", "\"Yes,\" she wrote later in her autobiography, \"the end in this case justified the means.\"", "While she never gave explicit approval of Leon Czolgosz's assassination of US President William McKinley, she defended his ideals and believed actions like his were a natural consequence of repressive institutions.", "As she wrote in \"The Psychology of Political Violence\": \"the accumulated forces in our social and economic life, culminating in an act of violence, are similar to the terrors of the atmosphere, manifested in storm and lightning.", "\"Her experiences in Russia led her to qualify her earlier belief that revolutionary ends might justify violent means.", "In the afterword to ''My Disillusionment in Russia'', she wrote: \"There is no greater fallacy than the belief that aims and purposes are one thing, while methods and tactics are another....", "The means employed become, through individual habit and social practice, part and parcel of the final purpose....\" In the same chapter, Goldman affirmed that \"Revolution is indeed a violent process,\" and noted that violence was the \"tragic inevitability of revolutionary upheavals...\" Some misinterpreted her comments on the Bolshevik terror as a rejection of all militant force, but Goldman corrected this in the preface to the first US edition of ''My Disillusionment in Russia'':The argument that destruction and terror are part of revolution I do not dispute.", "I know that in the past every great political and social change necessitated violence.", "... Black slavery might still be a legalized institution in the United States but for the militant spirit of the John Browns.", "I have never denied that violence is inevitable, nor do I gainsay it now.", "Yet it is one thing to employ violence in combat, as a means of defense.", "It is quite another thing to make a principle of terrorism, to institutionalize it, to assign it the most vital place in the social struggle.", "Such terrorism begets counter-revolution and in turn itself becomes counter-revolutionary.Goldman saw the militarization of Soviet society not as a result of armed resistance per se, but of the statist vision of the Bolsheviks, writing that \"an insignificant minority bent on creating an absolute State is necessarily driven to oppression and terrorism.", "\"=== Capitalism and labor ===Goldman believed that the economic system of capitalism was incompatible with human liberty.", "\"The only demand that property recognizes,\" she wrote in ''Anarchism and Other Essays'', \"is its own gluttonous appetite for greater wealth, because wealth means power; the power to subdue, to crush, to exploit, the power to enslave, to outrage, to degrade.\"", "She also argued that capitalism dehumanized workers, \"turning the producer into a mere particle of a machine, with less will and decision than his master of steel and iron.", "\"Originally opposed to anything less than complete revolution, Goldman was challenged during one talk by an elderly worker in the front row.", "In her autobiography, she wrote:He said that he understood my impatience with such small demands as a few hours less a day, or a few dollars more a week....", "But what were men of his age to do?", "They were not likely to live to see the ultimate overthrow of the capitalist system.", "Were they also to forgo the release of perhaps two hours a day from the hated work?", "That was all they could hope to see realized in their lifetime.===State===Goldman viewed the state as essentially and inevitably a tool of control and domination.", "As a result of her anti-state views, Goldman believed that voting was useless at best and dangerous at worst.", "Voting, she wrote, provided an illusion of participation while masking the true structures of decision-making.", "Instead, Goldman advocated targeted resistance in the form of strikes, protests, and \"direct action against the invasive, meddlesome authority of our moral code\".", "She maintained an anti-voting position even when many anarcho-syndicalists in 1930s Spain voted for the formation of a liberal republic.", "Goldman wrote that any power anarchists wielded as a voting bloc should instead be used to strike across the country.", "She disagreed with the movement for women's suffrage, which demanded the right of women to vote.", "In her essay \"Woman Suffrage\", she ridicules the idea that women's involvement would infuse the democratic state with a more just orientation: \"As if women have not sold their votes, as if women politicians cannot be bought!\"", "She agreed with the suffragists' assertion that women are equal to men but disagreed that their participation alone would make the state more just.", "\"To assume, therefore, that she would succeed in purifying something which is not susceptible of purification, is to credit her with supernatural powers.\"", "Goldman was also critical of Zionism, which she saw as another failed experiment in state control.Goldman was also a passionate critic of the prison system, critiquing both the treatment of prisoners and the social causes of crime.", "Goldman viewed crime as a natural outgrowth of an unjust economic system, and in her essay \"Prisons: A Social Crime and Failure\", she quoted liberally from the 19th-century authors Fyodor Dostoevsky and Oscar Wilde on prisons, and wrote:Year after year the gates of prison hells return to the world an emaciated, deformed, will-less, shipwrecked crew of humanity, with the Cain mark on their foreheads, their hopes crushed, all their natural inclinations thwarted.", "With nothing but hunger and inhumanity to greet them, these victims soon sink back into crime as the only possibility of existence.Goldman was a committed war resister and was particularly opposed to the draft, viewing it as one of the worst of the state's forms of coercion, and was one of the founders of the No-Conscription League for which she was ultimately arrested and imprisoned in 1917 before being deported in 1919.Goldman was routinely surveilled, arrested, and imprisoned for her speech and organizing activities in support of workers and various strikes, access to birth control, and in opposition to World War I.", "As a result, she became active in the early 20th century free speech movement, seeing freedom of expression as a fundamental necessity for achieving social change.", "Her outspoken championship of her ideals, in the face of persistent arrests, inspired Roger Baldwin, one of the founders of the American Civil Liberties Union.", "Goldman's and Reitman's experiences with vigilantism in the San Diego free speech fight in 1912 is an example of their persistence in the fight for free speech despite risking their safety.=== Feminism and sexuality ===Although she was hostile to the suffragist goals of first-wave feminism, Goldman advocated passionately for the rights of women, and is today heralded as a founder of anarcha-feminism, which challenges patriarchy as a hierarchy to be resisted alongside state power and class divisions.", "In 1897, she wrote: \"I demand the independence of woman, her right to support herself; to live for herself; to love whomever she pleases, or as many as she pleases.", "I demand freedom for both sexes, freedom of action, freedom in love and freedom in motherhood.", "\"Anarcha-feminists at an anti-globalization protest quote Emma GoldmanA nurse by training, Goldman was an early advocate for educating women concerning contraception.", "Like many feminists of her time, she saw abortion as a tragic consequence of social conditions, and birth control as a positive alternative.", "Goldman was also an advocate of free love, and a strong critic of marriage.", "She saw early feminists as confined in their scope and bounded by social forces of Puritanism and capitalism.", "She wrote: \"We are in need of unhampered growth out of old traditions and habits.", "The movement for women's emancipation has so far made but the first step in that direction.", "\"Goldman was also an outspoken critic of prejudice against homosexual and genderqueer people.", "Her belief that social liberation should extend to gay men and lesbians was virtually unheard of at the time, even among anarchists.", "As German sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld wrote, \"she was the first and only woman, indeed the first and only American, to take up the defense of homosexual love before the general public.\"", "In numerous speeches and letters, she defended the right of gay men and lesbians to love as they pleased and condemned the fear and stigma associated with homosexuality.", "As Goldman wrote in a letter to Hirschfeld, \"It is a tragedy, I feel, that people of a different sexual type are caught in a world which shows so little understanding for homosexuals and is so crassly indifferent to the various gradations and variations of gender and their great significance in life.", "\"=== Atheism ===A committed atheist, Goldman viewed religion as another instrument of control and domination.", "Her essay \"The Philosophy of Atheism\" quoted Bakunin at length on the subject and added:Consciously or unconsciously, most theists see in gods and devils, heaven and hell, reward and punishment, a whip to lash the people into obedience, meekness and contentment....", "The philosophy of Atheism expresses the expansion and growth of the human mind.", "The philosophy of theism, if we can call it a philosophy, is static and fixed.In essays like \"The Hypocrisy of Puritanism\" and a speech entitled \"The Failure of Christianity\", Goldman made more than a few enemies among religious communities by attacking their moralistic attitudes and efforts to control human behavior.", "She blamed Christianity for \"the perpetuation of a slave society\", arguing that it dictated individuals' actions on Earth and offered poor people a false promise of a plentiful future in heaven." ], [ "Legacy", "Goldman's image, often accompanying a popular paraphrase of her ideas—\"If I can't dance, I don't want to be in your revolution\"—has been reproduced on countless walls, garments, stickers, and posters as an icon of freedom.Goldman was well known during her life, described as—among other things—\"the most dangerous woman in America\".", "After her death and through the middle part of the 20th century, her fame faded.", "Scholars and historians of anarchism viewed her as a great speaker and activist but did not regard her as a philosophical or theoretical thinker on par with, for example, Kropotkin.In 1970, Dover Press reissued Goldman's biography, ''Living My Life'', and in 1972, feminist writer Alix Kates Shulman issued a collection of Goldman's writing and speeches, ''Red Emma Speaks''.", "These works brought Goldman's life and writings to a larger audience, and she was in particular lionized by the women's movement of the late 20th century.", "In 1973, Shulman was asked by a printer friend for a quotation by Goldman for use on a T-shirt.", "She sent him the selection from ''Living My Life'' about \"the right to self-expression, everybody's right to beautiful, radiant things\", recounting that she had been admonished \"that it did not behoove an agitator to dance\".", "The printer created a statement based on these sentiments that has become one of the most famous quotations attributed to Goldman even though she probably never said or wrote it as such: \"If I can't dance I don't want to be in your revolution.\"", "Variations of this saying have appeared on thousands of T-shirts, buttons, posters, bumper stickers, coffee mugs, hats, and other items.The women's movement of the 1970s that \"rediscovered\" Goldman was accompanied by a resurgent anarchist movement, beginning in the late 1960s, which also reinvigorated scholarly attention to earlier anarchists.", "The growth of feminism also initiated some reevaluation of Goldman's philosophical work, with scholars pointing out the significance of Goldman's contributions to anarchist thought in her time.", "Goldman's belief in the value of aesthetics, for example, can be seen in the later influences of anarchism and the arts.", "Similarly, Goldman is now given credit for significantly influencing and broadening the scope of activism on issues of sexual liberty, reproductive rights, and freedom of expression.Goldman has been depicted in numerous works of fiction over the years, including Warren Beatty's 1981 film ''Reds'', in which she was portrayed by Maureen Stapleton, who won an Academy Award for her performance.", "Goldman has also been a character in two Broadway musicals, ''Ragtime'' and ''Assassins''.", "Plays depicting Goldman's life include Howard Zinn's play, ''Emma''; Martin Duberman's ''Mother Earth''; Jessica Litwak's ''Emma Goldman: Love, Anarchy, and Other Affairs'' (about Goldman's relationship with Berkman and her arrest in connection with McKinley's assassination); Lynn Rogoff's ''Love Ben, Love Emma'' (about Goldman's relationship with Reitman); Carol Bolt's ''Red Emma''; and Alexis Roblan's ''Red Emma and the Mad Monk''.", "Ethel Mannin's 1941 novel ''Red Rose'' is also based on Goldman's Life.Goldman has been honored by a number of organizations named in her memory.", "The Emma Goldman Clinic, a women's health center located in Iowa City, Iowa, selected Goldman as a namesake \"in recognition of her challenging spirit.\"", "Red Emma's Bookstore Coffeehouse, an infoshop in Baltimore, Maryland adopted her name out of their belief \"in the ideas and ideals that she fought for her entire life: free speech, sexual and racial equality and independence, the right to organize in our jobs and in our own lives, ideas and ideals that we continue to fight for, even today\"." ], [ "Works", "Goldman was a prolific writer, penning countless pamphlets and articles on a diverse range of subjects.", "She authored six books, including an autobiography, ''Living My Life'', and a biography of fellow anarchist Voltairine de Cleyre.=== Books ===* ''Anarchism and Other Essays''.", "New York: Mother Earth Publishing Association, 1910.", "* ''The Social Significance of the Modern Drama''.", "Boston: Gorham Press, 1914.", "* ''My Disillusionment in Russia''.", "Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1923.", "* ''My Further Disillusionment in Russia''.", "Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1924.", "* ''Living My Life''.", "New York: Knopf, 1931.", "* ''Voltairine de Cleyre''.", "Berkeley Heights, New Jersey: Oriole Press, 1932.=== Edited collections ===* ''Red Emma Speaks: Selected Writings and Speeches''.", "New York: Random House, 1972..* ''Emma Goldman: A Documentary History of the American Years, Volume 1 – Made for America, 1890–1901''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003..* ''Emma Goldman: A Documentary History of the American Years, Volume 2 – Making Speech Free, 1902–1909''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004..* ''Emma Goldman: A Documentary History of the American Years, Volume 3 – Light and Shadows, 1910–1916''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012.." ], [ "See also", "* ''Emma Goldman: The Anarchist Guest''* ''Emma'' or ''Emma: A Play in Two Acts about Emma Goldman, American Anarchist'', a play by Howard Zinn* Birth control movement in the United States* John R. Coryell* List of peace activists* List of women's rights activists" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Cited sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "'''Digital collections'''* * * * PBS American Experience: Emma Goldman* * Works by Emma Goldman at the Anarchist Library* Works of Emma Goldman, online'''Physical collections'''* * Emma Goldman \"Women of Valor\" exhibit at the Jewish Women's Archive* Emma Goldman Papers Project at University of California, Berkeley* Emma Goldman Papers at the International Institute of Social History* Emma Goldman Papers.", "Schlesinger Library , Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University* Emma Goldman Papers, 1909–1941.Rubenstein Library, Duke University* Emma Goldman papers at the Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College Special Collections" ] ]
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[ [ "Equuleus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Equuleus''' ( ) is a faint constellation located just north of the celestial equator.", "Its name is Latin for \"little horse\", a foal.", "It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations.", "It is the second smallest of the modern constellations (after Crux), spanning only 72 square degrees.", "It is also very faint, having no stars brighter than the fourth magnitude." ], [ "Notable features", "The constellation Equuleus as it can be seen by the naked eye.The constellation Equuleus, color and contrast enhanced.===Stars===The brightest star in Equuleus is α Equulei, traditionally called Kitalpha, a yellow star magnitude 3.9, 186 light-years from Earth.", "Its traditional name means \"the section of the horse\".There are few variable stars in Equuleus.", "Only around 25 are known, most of which are faint.", "γ Equulei is an α2 CVn variable star, ranging between magnitudes 4.58 and 4.77 over a period of around 12½ minutes.", "It is a white star 115 light-years from Earth, and has an optical companion of magnitude 6.1, 6 Equulei.", "It is divisible in binoculars.", "6 Equulei is an astrometric binary system itself, with an apparent magnitude of 6.07.R Equulei is a Mira variable that ranges between magnitudes 8.0 and 15.7 over nearly 261 days.", "It has a spectral type of M3e-M4e and has an average B-V colour index of +1.41.Equuleus contains some double stars of interest.", "γ Equulei consists of a primary star with a magnitude around 4.7 (slightly variable) and a secondary star of magnitude 11.6, separated by 2 arcseconds.", "ε Equulei is a triple star also designated 1 Equulei.", "The system, 197 light-years away, has a primary of magnitude 5.4 that is itself a binary star; its components are of magnitude 6.0 and 6.3 and have a period of 101 years.", "The secondary is of magnitude 7.4 and is visible in small telescopes.", "The components of the primary are becoming closer together and will not be divisible in amateur telescopes beginning in 2015.δ Equulei is a binary star with an orbital period of 5.7 years, which at one time was the shortest known orbital period for an optical binary.", "The two components of the system are never more than 0.35 arcseconds apart.===Deep-sky objects===Due to its small size and its distance from the plane of the Milky Way, Equuleus contains no notable deep sky objects.", "Some very faint galaxies between magnitudes 13 and 15 include NGC 7015, NGC 7040, NGC 7045 and NGC 7046." ], [ "Mythology", "Seen in ''Urania's Mirror'' (1825)In Greek mythology, one myth associates Equuleus with the foal Celeris (meaning \"swiftness\" or \"speed\"), who was the offspring or brother of the winged horse Pegasus.", "Celeris was given to Castor by Mercury.", "Other myths say that Equuleus is the horse struck from Poseidon's trident, during the contest between him and Athena when deciding which would be the superior.", "Because this section of stars rises before Pegasus, it is often called Equus Primus, or the First Horse.", "Equuleus is also linked to the story of Philyra and Saturn.Created by Hipparchus and included by Ptolemy, it abuts Pegasus; unlike the larger horse, it is depicted as a horse's head alone." ], [ "Equivalents", "In Chinese astronomy, the stars that correspond to Equuleus are located within the Black Tortoise of the North (北方玄武, ''Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ'')." ], [ "See also", "* Equuleus (Chinese astronomy)" ], [ "References", "* * Burnham, Robert (1978).", "''Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An observer's guide to the universe beyond the solar system'', vol 2.Dover Publications * Hoffleit+ (1991) ''V/50 The Bright Star Catalogue'', 5th revised ed, Yale University Observatory, Strasbourg astronomical Data Center* * Ian Ridpath & Wil Tirion (2007).", "''Stars and Planets Guide'', Collins, London.", ".", "Princeton University Press, Princeton.", "." ], [ "External links", "* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Equuleus* The clickable Equuleus* Star Tales – Equuleus* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Equuleus)" ] ]
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[ [ "Eridanus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eridanus''' can refer to:" ], [ "Rivers", "*Eridanos (mythology) (or Eridanus), a river in Greek mythology, somewhere in Central Europe, which was territory that Ancient Greeks knew only vaguely*The Po River, according to Roman word usage*Eridanos (Athens), a former river near Athens, now subterranean*Eridanos (geology), a former large river that flowed between forty million and seven hundred thousand years ago from Lapland to the North Sea through where the Baltic Sea is now" ], [ "Astronomy", "*Eridanus (constellation), a southern constellation*Eridanus Cluster of galaxies in the constellation Eridanus*Eridanus II, a low-surface brightness dwarf galaxy in the constellation Eridanus*List of stars in Eridanus*Delta Eridani, a star*Eta Eridani, a star*Gamma Eridani, a star*Eridanus Supervoid, a large-scale cosmic underdensity" ], [ "Miscellaneous", "*Éridan (rocket), a French rocket*''Éridan''-class minehunter, a class of French naval minehunters*''Eridanosaurus'', a rhinocerotid originally described as a crocodilian*USS ''Eridanus'' (AK-92), a ship of the United States Navy*Eridan Ampora, a character from the webcomic ''Homestuck'' (2009-2016)" ] ]
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[ [ "Eucharist" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Eucharist''' (, ; from , ), also known as '''Holy Communion''', '''Blessed Sacrament''' and the '''Lord's Supper''', is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches, and as an ordinance in others.", "Christians believe that the rite was instituted by Jesus at the Last Supper, the night before his crucifixion, giving his disciples bread and wine.", "Passages in the New Testament state that he commanded them to \"do this in memory of me\" while referring to the bread as \"my body\" and the cup of wine as \"the blood of my covenant, which is poured out for many\".", "According to the Synoptic Gospels this was at a Passover meal.The elements of the Eucharist, sacramental bread, either leavened or unleavened, and wine (non-alcoholic grape juice in some Protestant traditions), are consecrated on an altar or a communion table and consumed thereafter.", "The consecrated elements are the end product of the Eucharistic Prayer.", "Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present.The Catholic Church states that the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ under the species of bread and wine.", "It maintains that by the consecration, the substances of the bread and wine actually become the substances of the body and blood of Jesus Christ (transubstantiation) while the appearances of the bread and wine remain unaltered (e.g.", "colour, taste, feel, and smell).", "The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches agree that an objective change occurs of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ.", "Lutherans believe the true body and blood of Christ are really present \"in, with, and under\" the forms of the bread and wine, known as the sacramental union.", "Reformed Christians believe in a real spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist.", "Anglican eucharistic theologies universally affirm the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, though Evangelical Anglicans believe that this is a spiritual presence, while Anglo-Catholics hold to a corporeal presence.", "As a result of these different understandings, \"the Eucharist has been a central issue in the discussions and deliberations of the ecumenical movement.\"" ], [ "Terminology", "The Eucharist has been a key theme in the depictions of the Last Supper in Christian art, as in this 16th-century Juan de Juanes painting, after Leonardo da Vinci's ''Last Supper''.===Eucharist===The New Testament was originally written in the Greek language and the Greek noun (), meaning \"thanksgiving\", appears a few times in it, while the related Greek verb is found several times in New Testament accounts of the Last Supper, including the earliest such account:The term (thanksgiving) is that by which the rite is referred to in the ''Didache'' (a late 1st or early 2nd century document), by Ignatius of Antioch (who died between 98 and 117) and by Justin Martyr (''First Apology'' written between 155 and 157).", "Today, \"the Eucharist\" is the name still used by Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholics, Anglicans, Presbyterians, and Lutherans.", "Other Protestant denominations rarely use this term, preferring \"Communion\", \"the Lord's Supper\", \"Remembrance\", or \"the Breaking of Bread\".", "Latter-day Saints call it \"the Sacrament\".===Lord's Supper===In the First Epistle to the Corinthians Paul uses the term \"Lord's Supper\", in Greek (), in the early 50s of the 1st century:So Paul's use of the term \"Lord's Supper\" in reference to the Corinthian banquet is powerful and interesting; but to be an actual name for the Christian meal, rather than a meaningful phrase connected with an ephemeral rhetorical contrast, it would have to have some history, previous or subsequent.", "Nevertheless, given its existence in the biblical text, \"Lord's Supper\" came into use after the Protestant Reformation and remains the predominant term among Evangelicals, such as Baptists and Pentecostals.", "They also refer to the observance as an ordinance rather than a sacrament.A Kremikovtsi Monastery fresco (15th century) depicting the Last Supper celebrated by Jesus and his disciples.", "The early Christians too would have celebrated this meal to commemorate Jesus' death and subsequent resurrection.Eucharistic window (1898–1900) by Józef Mehoffer===Communion===Use of the term ''Communion'' (or ''Holy Communion'') to refer to the Eucharistic rite began by some groups originating in the Protestant Reformation.", "Others, such as the Catholic Church, do not formally use this term for the rite, but instead mean by it the act of partaking of the consecrated elements; they speak of receiving Holy Communion at Mass or outside of it, they also use the term First Communion when one receives the Eucharist for the first time.", "The term ''Communion'' is derived from Latin (\"sharing in common\"), translated from the Greek () in 1 Corinthians 10:16:===Other terms=======Breaking of bread====The phrase (, 'breaking of the bread'; in later liturgical Greek also ) appears in various related forms five times in the New Testament in contexts which, according to some, may refer to the celebration of the Eucharist, in either closer or symbolically more distant reference to the Last Supper.", "This term is used by the Plymouth Brethren.====Sacrament or Blessed Sacrament====The \"Blessed Sacrament\", the \"Sacrament of the Altar\", and other variations, are common terms used by Catholics, Lutherans and some Anglicans (Anglo-Catholics) for the consecrated elements, particularly when reserved in a tabernacle.", "In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the term \"The Sacrament\" is used of the rite.====Mass====The term \"Mass\" is used in the Catholic Church, the Lutheran churches (especially the Churches of Sweden, Norway and Finland), and by some Anglicans.", "It derives from the Latin word , a dismissal: or \"go, it is sent\", the very last phrase of the service.", "That Latin word has come to imply \"mission\" as well because the congregation is sent out to serve Christ.At least in the Catholic Church, the Mass is a long rite in two parts: the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist.", "The former consists of readings from the Bible and a homily, or sermon, given by a priest or deacon.", "The latter, which follows seamlessly, includes the \"Offering\" of the bread and wine at the altar, their consecration by the priest through prayer, and their reception by the congregation in Holy Communion.", "Among the many other terms used in the Catholic Church are \"Holy Mass\", \"the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord\", the \"Holy Sacrifice of the Mass\", and the \"Holy Mysteries\".====Divine Liturgy and Divine Service====The term Divine Liturgy () is used in Byzantine Rite traditions, whether in the Eastern Orthodox Church or among the Eastern Catholic Churches.", "These also speak of \"the Divine Mysteries\", especially in reference to the consecrated elements, which they also call \"the Holy Gifts\".The term Divine Service () has often been used to refer to Christian worship more generally and is still used in Lutheran churches, in addition to the terms \"Eucharist\", \"Mass\" and \"Holy Communion\".", "Historically this refers (like the term \"worship\" itself) to service of God, although more recently it has been associated with the idea that God is serving the congregants in the liturgy.====Other Eastern rites====Some Eastern rites have yet more names for Eucharist.", "Holy Qurbana is common in Syriac Christianity and ''Badarak'' in the Armenian Rite; in the Alexandrian Rite, the term ''Prosfora'' (from the Greek ) is common in Coptic Christianity and ''Keddase'' in Ethiopian and Eritrean Christianity." ], [ "History", "''Christ with the Eucharist'', Vicente Juan Masip, 16th century.===Biblical basis===The Last Supper appears in all three Synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, and Luke.", "It also is found in the First Epistle to the Corinthians, which suggests how early Christians celebrated what Paul the Apostle called the Lord's Supper.", "Although the Gospel of John does not reference the Last Supper explicitly, some argue that it contains theological allusions to the early Christian celebration of the Eucharist, especially in the chapter 6 Bread of Life Discourse but also in other passages.", "Other New Testament passages depicting Jesus eating with crowds or after the resurrection also have eucharistic overtones.====Gospels====In the synoptic gospels, Mark 14:22–25, Matthew 26:26–29 and Luke 22:13–20 depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper prior to his crucifixion.", "The versions in Matthew and Mark are almost identical, but the Gospel of Luke presents a textual difference, in that a few manuscripts omit the second half of verse 19 and all of verse 20 (\"given for you … poured out for you\"), which are found in the vast majority of ancient witnesses to the text.", "If the shorter text is the original one, then Luke's account is independent of both that of Paul and that of Matthew/Mark.", "If the majority longer text comes from the author of the third gospel, then this version is very similar to that of Paul in 1 Corinthians, being somewhat fuller in its description of the early part of the Supper, particularly in making specific mention of a cup being blessed before the bread was broken.In the one prayer given to posterity by Jesus, the Lord's Prayer, the word epiousion—which is otherwise unknown in Classical Greek literature—was interpreted by some early Christian writers as meaning \"super-substantial\", and hence a possible reference to the Eucharist as the Bread of Life.In the Gospel of John, however, the account of the Last Supper does not mention Jesus taking bread and \"the cup\" and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead, it recounts other events: his humble act of washing the disciples' feet, the prophecy of the betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him, with each other, and with God.", "Some would find in this unity and in the washing of the feet the deeper meaning of the Communion bread in the other three gospels.", "In John 6:26–65, a long discourse is attributed to Jesus that deals with the subject of the living bread; John 6:51–59 also contains echoes of Eucharistic language.====First Epistle to the Corinthians====1 Corinthians 11:23–25 gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus' Last Supper: \"The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it and said, 'This is my body, which is for you.", "Do this in remembrance of me.'\"", "The Greek word used in the passage for 'remembrance' is (), which itself has a much richer theological history than the English word \"remember\".Early Christian painting of an Agape feast.The expression \"The Lord's Supper\", derived from Paul's usage in 1 Corinthians 11:17–34, may have originally referred to the Agape feast (or love feast), the shared communal meal with which the Eucharist was originally associated.", "The Agape feast is mentioned in Jude 12 but \"The Lord's Supper\" is now commonly used in reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread and wine.===Early Christian sources===The ''Didache'' (Greek: , \"teaching\") is an Early Church treatise that includes instructions for baptism and the Eucharist.", "Most scholars date it to the late 1st century, and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions, the earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9.The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14.Ignatius of Antioch (born , died between 98 and 117), one of the Apostolic Fathers, mentions the Eucharist as \"the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ\":Justin Martyr (born , died ) mentions in this regard:Paschasius Radbertus (785–865) was a Carolingian theologian, and the abbot of Corbie, whose best-known and influential work is an exposition on the nature of the Eucharist written around 831, entitled .", "In it, Paschasius agrees with St Ambrose in affirming that the Eucharist contains the true, historical body of Jesus Christ.", "According to Paschasius, God is truth itself, and therefore, his words and actions must be true.", "Christ's proclamation at the Last Supper that the bread and wine were his body and blood must be taken literally, since God is truth.", "He thus believes that the transubstantiation of the bread and wine offered in the Eucharist really occurs.", "Only if the Eucharist is the actual body and blood of Christ can a Christian know it is salvific.=== Jews and the Eucharist ===The concept of the Jews both destroying and partaking in some perverted version of the Eucharist has been a vessel to promote anti-Judaism and anti-Jewish ideology and violence.", "In medieval times, Jews were often depicted stabbing or in some other way physically harming communion wafers.", "These characterizations drew parallels to the idea that the Jews killed Christ; murdering this transubstantiation or \"host\" was thought of as a repetition of the event.", "Jewish people's eagerness to destroy hosts were also a variation of blood libel charges, with Jews being accused of murdering bodies of Christ, whether they be communion wafers or Christian children.", "The blood libel charges and the concept of Eucharist are also related in the belief that blood is efficacious, meaning it has some sort of divine power." ], [ "Eucharistic theology", "Most Christians, even those who deny that there is any real change in the elements used, recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite.", "However, Christians differ about exactly how, where and how long Christ is present in it.", "Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Church of the East teach that the reality (the \"substance\") of the elements of bread and wine is wholly changed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ, while the appearances (the \"species\") remain.", "Transubstantiation (\"change of the substance\") is the term used by Catholics to denote is changed, not to explain the change occurs, since the Catholic Church teaches that \"the signs of bread and wine become, ''in a way surpassing understanding'', the Body and Blood of Christ\".", "The Orthodox use various terms such as transelementation, but no explanation is official as they prefer to leave it a mystery.Lutherans believe Christ to be \"truly and substantially present\" with the bread and wine that are seen in the Eucharist.", "They attribute the real presence of Jesus' living body to his word spoken in the Eucharist, and not to the faith of those receiving it.", "They also believe that \"forgiveness of sins, life, and salvation\" are given through the words of Christ in the Eucharist to those who believe his words (\"given and shed for you\").Reformed Christians believe Christ to be present and may both use the term \"sacramental union\" to describe this.", "Although Lutherans will also use this phrase, the Reformed generally describe the presence as a \"spiritual presence\", not a physical one.", "Anglicans adhere to a range of views depending on churchmanship although the teaching in the Anglican Thirty-Nine Articles holds that the body of Christ is received by the faithful only in a heavenly and spiritual manner, a doctrine also taught in the Methodist Articles of Religion.", "Unlike Catholics and Lutherans, Reformed Christians do not believe forgiveness and eternal life are given in the Eucharist.Christians adhering to the theology of Memorialism, such as the Anabaptist Churches, do not believe in the concept of the real presence, believing that the Eucharist is only a ceremonial remembrance or memorial of the death of Christ.The ''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'' document of the World Council of Churches, attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as \"essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit\", \"Thanksgiving to the Father\", \"Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ\", \"the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make intercession for us\", \"the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, the sacrament of his real presence\", \"Invocation of the Spirit\", \"Communion of the Faithful\", and \"Meal of the Kingdom\"." ], [ "Ritual and liturgy", "Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a sacrament.", "Some Protestants (though not all) prefer to instead call it an ''ordinance'', viewing it not as a specific channel of divine grace but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.===Catholic Church===At a Solemn Tridentine Mass, the Host is displayed to the people before Communion.In the Catholic Church the Eucharist is considered as a sacrament, according to the church the Eucharist is \"the source and summit of the Christian life.\"", "\"The other sacraments, and indeed all ecclesiastical ministries and works of the apostolate, are bound up with the Eucharist and are oriented toward it.", "For in the blessed Eucharist is contained the whole spiritual good of the Church, namely Christ himself, our Pasch.\"", "(\"Pasch\" is a word that sometimes means Easter, sometimes Passover.", ")====As a sacrifice====In the Eucharist the same sacrifice that Jesus made only once on the cross is made present at every Mass.", "According to Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, \"The Eucharist is the very sacrifice of the Body and Blood of the Lord Jesus which he instituted to perpetuate the sacrifice of the cross throughout the ages until his return in glory.", "\"\"When the Church celebrates the Eucharist, she commemorates Christ's Passover, and it is made present the sacrifice Christ offered once for all on the cross remains ever present.", "...", "The Eucharist is thus a sacrifice because it re-presents (makes present) the same and only sacrifice offered once for all on the cross\"The sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Eucharist are one single sacrifice: \"The victim is one and the same: the same now offers through the ministry of priests, who then offered himself on the cross; only the manner of offering is different.\"", "In the holy sacrifice of the Mass, \"it is Christ himself, the eternal high priest of the New Covenant who, acting through the ministry of the priests, offers the Eucharistic sacrifice.", "And it is the same Christ, really present under the species of bread and wine, who is the offering of the Eucharistic sacrifice.", "\"====As a real presence====Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima.According to the Catholic Church Jesus Christ is present in the Eucharist in a true, real and substantial way, with his body, blood, soul and divinity.", "By the consecration, the substances of the bread and wine actually become the substances of the body and blood of Christ (transubstantiation) while the appearances or \"species\" of the bread and wine remain unaltered (e.g.", "colour, taste, feel, and smell).", "This change is brought about in the eucharistic prayer through the efficacy of the word of Christ and by the action of the Holy Spirit.", "The Eucharistic presence of Christ begins at the moment of the consecration and endures as long as the Eucharistic species subsist, that is, until the Eucharist is digested, physically destroyed, or decays by some natural process (at which point, theologian Thomas Aquinas argued, the substance of the bread and wine cannot return).The Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215 spoke of the bread and wine as \"transubstantiated\" into the body and blood of Christ: \"His body and blood are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the forms of bread and wine, the bread and wine having been transubstantiated, by God's power, into his body and blood\".", "In 1551, the Council of Trent definitively declared: \"Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood.", "This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation.", "\"The church holds that the body and blood of Jesus can no longer be truly separated.", "Where one is, the other must be.", "Therefore, although the priest (or extraordinary minister of Holy Communion) says \"The Body of Christ\" when administering the Host and \"The Blood of Christ\" when presenting the chalice, the communicant who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire.", "\"Christ is present whole and entire in each of the species and whole and entire in each of their parts, in such a way that the breaking of the bread does not divide Christ.", "\"Pope Benedict XVI celebrates a Mass.The Catholic Church sees as the main basis for this belief the words of Jesus himself at his Last Supper: the Synoptic Gospels and Paul's recount that Jesus at the time of taking the bread and the cup said: \"This is my body … this is my blood.\"", "The Catholic understanding of these words, from the Patristic authors onward, has emphasized their roots in the covenantal history of the Old Testament.", "The interpretation of Christ's words against this Old Testament background coheres with and supports belief in the Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.===Reception and devotions===According to the Catholic Church doctrine receiving the Eucharist in a state of mortal sin is a sacrilege and only those who are in a state of grace, that is, without any mortal sin, can receive it.", "Based on 1 Corinthians 11:27–29, it affirms the following: \"Anyone who is aware of having committed a mortal sin must not receive Holy Communion, even if he experiences deep contrition, without having first received sacramental absolution, unless he has a grave reason for receiving Communion and there is no possibility of going to confession.", "\"Since the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ, \"the worship due to the sacrament of the Eucharist, whether during the celebration of the Mass or outside it, is the worship of , that is, the adoration given to God alone.\"\"", "The Blessed Sacrament can be exposed (displayed) on an altar in a monstrance.", "Rites involving the exposure of the Blessed Sacrament include Benediction and eucharistic adoration.", "According to Catholic theology, the host, after the Rite of Consecration, is no longer bread, but is the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ.", "Catholics believe that Jesus is the sacrificial Lamb of God prefigured in the Old Testament Passover.", "Unless the flesh of that Passover sacrificial lamb was consumed, the members of the household would not be saved from death.", "As the Passover was the Old Covenant, so the Eucharist became the New Covenant.", "(Matthew 26:26–28, Mark 14:22-24, Luke 22: 19–20, and John 6:48–58)===Eastern Orthodoxy===Eucharistic elements prepared for the Divine LiturgyWithin Eastern Christianity, the Eucharistic service is called the \"Divine Liturgy\" (Byzantine Rite) or similar names in other rites.", "It comprises two main divisions: the first is the \"Liturgy of the Catechumens\" which consists of introductory litanies, antiphons and scripture readings, culminating in a reading from one of the Gospels and, often, a homily; the second is the \"Liturgy of the Faithful\" in which the Eucharist is offered, consecrated, and received as Holy Communion.", "Within the latter, the actual Eucharistic prayer is called the ''anaphora'', (literally \"offering\" or \"carrying up\", from the Greek ).", "In the Rite of Constantinople, two different anaphoras are currently used: one is attributed to John Chrysostom, the other to Basil the Great.", "In the Oriental Orthodox Church, a variety of anaphoras are used, but all are similar in structure to those of the Constantinopolitan Rite, in which the Anaphora of Saint John Chrysostom is used most days of the year; Saint Basil's is offered on the Sundays of Great Lent, the eves of Christmas and Theophany, Holy Thursday, Holy Saturday, and upon his feast day (1 January).", "At the conclusion of the Anaphora the bread and wine are held to be the body and blood of Christ.", "Unlike the Latin Church, the Byzantine Rite uses leavened bread, with the leaven symbolizing the presence of the Holy Spirit.", "The Greek Orthodox Church utilizes leavened bread in their celebration.Conventionally this change in the elements is understood to be accomplished at the epiclesis (\"invocation\") by which the Holy Spirit is invoked and the consecration of the bread and wine as the genuine body and blood of Christ is specifically requested, but since the anaphora as a whole is considered a unitary (albeit lengthy) prayer, no one moment within it can readily be singled out.===Protestantism=======Anabaptists====Anabaptist denominations, such as the Mennonites and German Baptist Brethren Churches like the Church of the Brethren churches and congregations have the Agape feast, footwashing, as well as the serving of the bread and wine in the celebration of the Lovefeast.", "In the more modern groups, Communion is only the serving of the Lord's Supper.", "In the communion meal, the members of the Mennonite churches renew their covenant with God and with each other.====Moravian/Hussite ====The Moravian Church adheres to a view known as the \"sacramental presence\", teaching that in the sacrament of Holy Communion: Nicolaus Zinzendorf, a bishop of the Moravian Church, stated that Holy Communion is the \"most intimate of all connection with the person of the Saviour.", "\"The Order of Service for the observance of the Lord's Supper includes a salutation, hymns, the right hand of fellowship, prayer, consecration of the elements, distribution of the elements, partaking of the elements, and a benediction.", "Moravian Christians traditionally practice footwashing before partaking in the Lord's Supper, although in certain Moravian congregations, this rite is observed chiefly on Maundy Thursday.====Anglican====1845 illustrated ''Book of Common Prayer''.Anglican theology on the matter of the Eucharist is nuanced.", "The Eucharist is neither wholly a matter of transubstantiation nor simply devotional and memorialist in orientation.", "The Anglican churches do not adhere to the belief that the Lord's Supper is merely a devotional reflection on Christ's death.", "For some Anglicans, Christ is spiritually present in the fullness of his person in the Eucharist.The Church of England itself has repeatedly refused to make official any definition of \"the presence of Christ\".", "Church authorities prefer to leave it a mystery while proclaiming the consecrated bread and wine to be \"spiritual food\" of \"Christ's Most Precious Body and Blood\"; the bread and wine are an \"outward sign of an inner grace\".", "The words of administration at communion allow for real presence or for a real but spiritual presence (Calvinist receptionism and virtualism).", "This concept was congenial to most Anglicans well into the 19th century.", "From the 1840s, the Tractarians reintroduced the idea of \"the real presence\" to suggest a corporeal presence, which could be done since the language of the BCP rite referred to the body and blood of Christ without details as well as referring to these as spiritual food at other places in the text.", "Both are found in the Latin and other rites, but in the former, a definite interpretation as corporeal is applied.Both receptionism and virtualism assert the real presence.", "The former places emphasis on the recipient and the latter states \"the presence\" is confected by the power of the Holy Spirit but not in Christ's natural body.", "His presence is objective and does not depend on its existence from the faith of the recipient.", "The liturgy petitions that elements \"be\" rather than \"become\" the body and blood of Christ leaving aside any theory of a change in the natural elements: bread and wine are the outer reality and \"the presence\" is the inner invisible except as perceived in faith.In 1789, the Episcopal Church in the United States restored explicit language that the Eucharist is an oblation (sacrifice) to God.", "Subsequent revisions of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' by member churches of the Anglican Communion have done likewise (the Church of England did so in the proposed 1928 prayer book).The so-called \"Black Rubric\" in the 1552 prayer book, which allowed kneeling when receiving Holy Communion was omitted in the 1559 edition at Queen Elizabeth I's insistence.", "It was reinstated in the 1662 prayer book, modified to deny any corporal presence of Christ's natural flesh and blood, which are in Heaven and not here.", "====Baptists====The serving of elements individually, to be taken in unison, is common among Baptists.The bread and \"fruit of the vine\" indicated in Matthew, Mark and Luke as the elements of the Lord's Supper are interpreted by many Baptists as unleavened bread (although leavened bread is often used) and, in line with the historical stance of some Baptist groups (since the mid-19th century) against partaking of alcoholic beverages, grape juice, which they commonly refer to simply as \"the Cup\".", "The unleavened bread also underscores the symbolic belief attributed to Christ's breaking the bread and saying that it was his body.", "A soda cracker is often used.Some Baptists consider the Communion to be primarily an act of remembrance of Christ's atonement, and a time of renewal of personal commitment (memorialism) such as Free Will Baptists, while others, such as Particular Baptists affirm the Reformed doctrine of a pneumatic presence, which is expressed in the Second London Baptist Confession, specifically in Chapter 30, Articles 3 and 7.This view is prevalent among Southern Baptists, those in the Founders movement (a Calvinistic movement among some Independent Baptists),and several individuals in other Baptist associations.Communion practices and frequency vary among congregations.", "A typical practice is to have small cups of juice and plates of broken bread distributed to the seated congregation.", "In other congregations, communicants may proceed to the altar to receive the elements, then return to their seats.", "A widely accepted practice is for all to receive and hold the elements until everyone is served, then consume the bread and cup in unison.", "Usually, music is performed and Scripture is read during the receiving of the elements.Some Baptist churches are closed-Communionists (even requiring full membership in the local church congregation before partaking), with others being partially or fully open-Communionists.", "It is rare to find a Baptist church where the Lord's Supper is observed every Sunday; most observe monthly or quarterly, with some holding Communion only during a designated Communion service or following a worship service.", "Adults and children in attendance who have not made a profession of faith in Christ are expected to not participate.====Lutheran====Table set for the Eucharist in an ELCA serviceLutherans believe that the body and blood of Christ are \"truly and substantially present in, with, and under the forms\" of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink the body and blood of Christ himself as well as the bread and wine in the Eucharistic sacrament.", "The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as the \"sacramental union\".", "Others have erroneously called this consubstantiation, a Lollardist doctrine, though this term is specifically rejected by Lutheran churches and theologians since it creates confusion about the actual doctrine and subjects the doctrine to the control of a non-biblical philosophical concept in the same manner as, in their view, does the term \"transubstantiation\".While an official movement exists in Lutheran congregations to celebrate Eucharist weekly, using formal rites very similar to the Catholic and \"high\" Anglican services, it was historically common for congregations to celebrate monthly or even quarterly.", "Even in congregations where Eucharist is offered weekly, there is not a requirement that every church service be a Eucharistic service, nor that all members of a congregation must receive it weekly.====Open Brethren and Exclusive Brethren====Among Open assemblies, also termed Plymouth Brethren, the Eucharist is more commonly called the Breaking of Bread or the Lord's Supper.", "They believe it is only a symbolic reenactment of the Last Supper and a memorial, and is central to the worship of both individual and assembly.", "In principle, the service is open to all baptized Christians, but an individual's eligibility to participate depends on the views of each particular assembly.", "The service takes the form of non-liturgical, open worship with all male participants allowed to pray audibly and select hymns or readings.", "The breaking of bread itself typically consists of one leavened loaf, which is prayed over and broken by a participant in the meeting and then shared around.", "The wine is poured from a single container into one or several vessels, and these are again shared around.The Exclusive Brethren follow a similar practice to the Open Brethren.", "They also call the Eucharist the Breaking of Bread or the Lord's Supper.====Reformed (Continental Reformed, Presbyterian and Congregationalist)====In the Reformed tradition (which includes the Continental Reformed Churches, the Presbyterian Churches, and the Congregationalist Churches), the Eucharist is variously administered.", "The Calvinist view of the Sacrament sees a real presence of Christ in the supper which differs both from the objective ontological presence of the Catholic view, and from the real absence of Christ and the mental recollection of the memorialism of the Zwinglians and their successors.Many Presbyterian churches historically used communion tokens to provide entrance to the Lord's Supper.The bread and wine become the means by which the believer has real communion with Christ in his death and Christ's body and blood are present to the faith of the believer as really as the bread and wine are present to their senses but this presence is \"spiritual\", that is the work of the Holy Spirit.", "There is no standard frequency; John Calvin desired weekly communion, but the city council only approved monthly, and monthly celebration has become the most common practice in Reformed churches today.Many, on the other hand, follow John Knox in celebration of the Lord's supper on a quarterly basis, to give proper time for reflection and inward consideration of one's own state and sin.", "Recently, Presbyterian and Reformed Churches have been considering whether to restore more frequent communion, including weekly communion in more churches, considering that infrequent communion was derived from a memorialist view of the Lord's Supper, rather than Calvin's view of the sacrament as a means of grace.", "Some churches use bread without any raising agent (whether yeast or another leaven.)", "in view of the use of unleavened bread at Jewish Passover meals, while others use any bread available.The Presbyterian Church (USA), for instance, prescribes \"bread common to the culture\".", "Harking back to the regulative principle of worship, the Reformed tradition had long eschewed coming forward to receive communion, preferring to have the elements distributed throughout the congregation by the presbyters (elders) more in the style of a shared meal.", "Over the last half a century it is much more common in Presbyterian churches to have Holy Communion monthly or on a weekly basis.", "It is also becoming common to receive the elements by intinction (receiving a piece of consecrated bread or wafer, dipping it in the blessed wine, and consuming it) Wine and grape juice are both used, depending on the congregation.", "Most Reformed churches practice \"open communion\", i.e., all believers who are united to a church of like faith and practice, and who are not living in sin, would be allowed to join in the Sacrament.====Methodist====A United Methodist minister consecrating the elementsThe British ''Catechism for the use of the people called Methodists'' states that, \"in the Eucharist Jesus Christ is present with his worshipping people and gives himself to them as their Lord and Saviour\".", "Methodist theology of this sacrament is reflected in one of the fathers of the movement, Charles Wesley, who wrote a Eucharistic hymn with the following stanza:We need not now go up to Heaven,To bring the long sought Saviour down;Thou art to all already given,Thou dost e'en now Thy banquet crown:To every faithful soul appear,And show Thy real presence here!Reflecting Wesleyan covenant theology, Methodists also believe that the Lord's Supper is a sign and seal of the covenant of grace.In many Methodist denominations, non-alcoholic wine (grape juice) is used, so as to include those who do not take alcohol for any reason, as well as a commitment to the Church's historical support of temperance.", "Variations of the Eucharistic Prayer are provided for various occasions, including communion of the sick and brief forms for occasions that call for greater brevity.", "Though the ritual is standardized, there is great variation amongst Methodist churches, from typically high-church to low-church, in the enactment and style of celebration.", "Methodist clergy are not required to be vested when celebrating the Eucharist.John Wesley, a founder of Methodism, said that it was the duty of Christians to receive the sacrament as often as possible.", "Methodists in the United States are encouraged to celebrate the Eucharist every Sunday, though it is typically celebrated on the first Sunday of each month, while a few go as long as celebrating quarterly (a tradition dating back to the days of circuit riders that served multiple churches).", "Communicants may receive standing, kneeling, or while seated.", "Gaining more wide acceptance is the practice of receiving by intinction (receiving a piece of consecrated bread or wafer, dipping it in the blessed wine, and consuming it).", "The most common alternative to intinction is for the communicants to receive the consecrated juice using small, individual, specially made glass or plastic cups known as communion cups.", "The United Methodist Church practices open communion (which it describes as an \"open table\"), inviting \"all who intend a Christian life, together with their children\" to receive the eucharistic elements.", "''The Doctrines and Discipline of the Methodist Church'' specifies, on days during which Holy Communion is celebrated, that \"Upon entering the church let the communicants bow in prayer and in the spirit of prayer and meditation approach the Blessed Sacrament.", "\"====Nondenominational Christians====matzo is sometimes used for bread, emphasising the \"re-creation\" of the Last Supper.Many non-denominational Christians, including the Churches of Christ, receive communion every Sunday.", "Others, including Evangelical churches such as the Church of God and Calvary Chapel, typically receive communion on a monthly or periodic basis.", "Many non-denominational Christians hold to the Biblical autonomy of local churches and have no universal requirement among congregations.Some Churches of Christ, among others, use grape juice and unleavened wafers or unleavened bread and practice open communion.===Syriac Christianity=======Edessan Rite (Church of the East)===='''Holy Qurbana''' or '''Qurbana Qaddisha,''' the \"Holy Offering\" or \"Holy Sacrifice\", refers to the Eucharist as celebrated according to the East Syriac Christianity.", "The main Anaphora of the East Syrian tradition is the Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari.====Syro-Antiochene Rite (West Syriac)===='''Holy Qurobo''' or '''Qurobo Qadisho''' refers to the Eucharist as celebrated in the West Syrian traditions of Syriac Christianity, while that of the West Syrian tradition is the Liturgy of Saint James.Both are extremely old, going back at least to the third century, and are the oldest extant liturgies continually in use.===Restorationism=======Irvingian====In the Irvingian Churches, Holy Communion, along with Holy Baptism and Holy Sealing, is one of the three sacraments.", "It is the focus of the Divine Service in the liturgies of Irvingism.Edward Irving, who founded the Irvingian Churches, such as the New Apostolic Church, taught the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, emphasizing \"the ''humiliated'' humanity of Christ in the Lord's Supper.\"", "Additionally, the Irvingian Churches affirm the \"real presence of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion\":In the Irvingian tradition of Restorationist Christianity, consubstantiation is taught as the explanation of how the real presence is effected in the liturgy.====Seventh-day Adventists====In the Seventh-day Adventist Church the Holy Communion service customarily is celebrated once per quarter.", "The service includes the ordinance of footwashing and the Lord's Supper.", "Unleavened bread and unfermented (non-alcoholic) grape juice is used.", "Open communion is practised: all who have committed their lives to the Saviour may participate.", "The communion service must be conducted by an ordained pastor, minister or church elder.====Jehovah's Witnesses====Jehovah's Witnesses commemorate Jesus' death annually on the evening that corresponds to the Passover, Nisan 14, according to the ancient Jewish calendar.", "They generally refer to the observance as \"the Lord's Evening Meal\" or the \"Memorial of Christ's Death\".", "They believe the event is the only annual religious observance commanded for Christians in the Bible.Of those who attend the Memorial, a small minority worldwide partake of the wine and unleavened bread.", "Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only 144,000 people will go to heaven, to serve as under-priests and co-rulers with Christ the King in God's Kingdom.", "They are referred to as the \"anointed\" class.", "They believe that the baptized \"other sheep\" also benefit from the ransom sacrifice, and are respectful observers and viewers of the Lord's Supper, but they hope to obtain everlasting life in Paradise restored on earth.The Memorial, held after sundown, includes a sermon on the meaning and importance of the celebration and gathering, and includes the circulation of unadulterated red wine and unleavened bread (matzo).", "Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the bread represents Jesus' perfect body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine represents his perfect blood which he shed to redeem fallen man from inherited sin and death.", "The wine and the bread (sometimes referred to as \"emblems\") are viewed as symbolic and commemorative; the Witnesses do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation.====Latter-day Saints====In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the \"Holy Sacrament of the Lord's Supper\", more simply referred to as the Sacrament, is administered every Sunday (except General Conference or other special Sunday meeting) in each Latter-Day Saint Ward or branch worldwide at the beginning of Sacrament meeting.", "The Sacrament, which consists of both ordinary bread and water (rather than wine or grape juice), is prepared by priesthood holders prior to the beginning of the meeting.", "At the beginning of the Sacrament, priests say specific prayers to bless the bread and water.", "The Sacrament is passed row-by-row to the congregation by priesthood holders (typically deacons).The prayer recited for the bread and the water is found in the Book of Mormon and Doctrine and Covenants.", "The prayer contains the above essentials given by Jesus: \"Always remember him, and keep his commandments … that they may always have his Spirit to be with them.\"", "(Moroni, 4:3.)" ], [ "Non-observing denominations", "===Salvation Army===While the Salvation Army does not reject the Eucharistic practices of other churches or deny that their members truly receive grace through this sacrament, it does not practice the sacraments of Communion or baptism.", "This is because they believe that these are unnecessary for the living of a Christian life, and because in the opinion of Salvation Army founders William and Catherine Booth, the sacrament placed too much stress on outward ritual and too little on inward spiritual conversion.===Quakers===Emphasizing the inward spiritual experience of their adherents over any outward ritual, Quakers (members of the Religious Society of Friends) generally do not baptize or observe Communion.===Christian Scientists===Although the early Church of Christ, Scientist observed Communion, founder Mary Baker Eddy eventually discouraged the physical ritual as she believed it distracted from the true spiritual nature of the sacrament.", "As such, Christian Scientists do not observe physical communion with bread and wine, but spiritual communion at two special Sunday services each year by \"uniting together with Christ in silent prayer and on bended knee.", "\"===Shakers===The United Society of Believers (commonly known as Shakers) do not take communion, instead viewing every meal as a Eucharistic feast." ], [ "Practice and customs", "===Open and closed communion===In the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, the administration of the Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation to receive the body of Christ with faith and devotion.Christian denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may celebrate the Eucharist with those with whom they are not in full communion.", "The apologist Justin Martyr () wrote of the Eucharist \"of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined.\"", "This was continued in the practice of dismissing the catechumens (those still undergoing instruction and not yet baptized) before the sacramental part of the liturgy, a custom which has left traces in the expression \"Mass of the Catechumens\" and in the Byzantine Rite exclamation by the deacon or priest, \"The doors!", "The doors!", "\", just before recitation of the Creed.Churches such as the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches practice closed communion under normal circumstances.", "However, the Catholic Church allows administration of the Eucharist, at their spontaneous request, to properly disposed members of the eastern churches (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Church of the East) not in full communion with it and of other churches that the Holy See judges to be sacramentally in the same position as these churches; and in grave and pressing need, such as danger of death, it allows the Eucharist to be administered also to individuals who do not belong to these churches but who share the Catholic Church's faith in the reality of the Eucharist and have no access to a minister of their own community.", "Some Protestant communities exclude non-members from Communion.The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) practices open communion, provided those who receive are baptized, but the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) practice closed communion, excluding non-members and requiring communicants to have been given catechetical instruction.", "The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, the Evangelical Church in Germany, the Church of Sweden, and many other Lutheran churches outside of the U.S. also practice open communion.Some use the term \"close communion\" for restriction to members of the same denomination, and \"closed communion\" for restriction to members of the local congregation alone.Most Protestant communities including Congregational churches, the Church of the Nazarene, the Assemblies of God, Methodists, most Presbyterians and Baptists, Anglicans, and Churches of Christ and other non-denominational churches practice various forms of open communion.", "Some churches do not limit it to only members of the congregation, but to any people in attendance (regardless of Christian affiliation) who consider themselves to be Christian.", "Others require that the communicant be a baptized person, or a member of a church of that denomination or a denomination of \"like faith and practice\".", "Some Progressive Christian congregations offer communion to any individual who wishes to commemorate the life and teachings of Christ, regardless of religious affiliation.Most Latter-Day Saint churches practice closed communion; one notable exception is the Community of Christ, the second-largest denomination in this movement.", "While The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the largest of the LDS denominations) technically practice a closed communion, their official direction to local Church leaders (in Handbook 2, section 20.4.1, last paragraph) is as follows: \"Although the sacrament is for Church members, the bishopric should not announce that it will be passed to members only, and nothing should be done to prevent nonmembers from partaking of it.", "\"In the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church the Eucharist is only given to those who have come prepared to receive the life-giving body and blood.", "Therefore, in a manner to worthily receive, believers fast the night before the liturgy, from around 6pm or the conclusion of evening prayer, and remain fasting until they receive Holy Qurbana the next morning.", "Additionally, members who plan to receive the holy communion have to follow a strict guide of prescribed prayers from the Shehimo, or the book of common prayers, for the week.===Preparation=======Catholic====The Catholic Church requires its members to receive the sacrament of Penance or Reconciliation before taking Communion if they are aware of having committed a mortal sin and to prepare by fasting, prayer, and other works of piety.====Eastern Orthodox====Traditionally, the Eastern Orthodox church has required its members to have observed all church-appointed fasts (most weeks, this will be at least Wednesday and Friday) for the week prior to partaking of communion, and to fast from all food and water from midnight the night before.", "In addition, Orthodox Christians are to have made a recent confession to their priest (the frequency varying with one's particular priest), and they must be at peace with all others, meaning that they hold no grudges or anger against anyone.", "In addition, one is expected to attend Vespers or the All-Night Vigil, if offered, on the night before receiving communion.", "Furthermore, various pre-communion prayers have been composed, which many (but not all) Orthodox churches require or at least strongly encourage members to say privately before coming to the Eucharist.", "However, all this will typically vary from priest to priest and jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but abstaining from food and water for several hours beforehand is a fairly universal rule.====Protestant confessions====Many Protestant congregations generally reserve a period of time for self-examination and private, silent confession just before partaking in the Lord's Supper.===Adoration===Worshippers kneel and bow in the street during the Eucharist Procession, London, England.The Eucharist displayed in a monstrance, flanked by candlesEucharistic adoration is a practice in the Latin Church, Anglo-Catholic and some Lutheran traditions, in which the Blessed Sacrament is exposed to and adored by the faithful.", "When this exposure and adoration is constant (twenty-four hours a day), it is called \"Perpetual Adoration\".", "In a parish, this is usually done by volunteer parishioners; in a monastery or convent, it is done by the resident monks or nuns.", "In the ''Exposition of the Blessed Sacrament'', the Eucharist is displayed in a monstrance, typically placed on an altar, at times with a light focused on it, or with candles flanking it.===Health issues=======Gluten====The gluten in wheat bread is dangerous to people with celiac disease and other gluten-related disorders, such as non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy.", "For the Catholic Church, this issue was addressed in the 24 July 2003 letter of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which summarized and clarified earlier declarations.", "The Catholic Church believes that the matter for the Eucharist must be wheaten bread and fermented wine from grapes: it holds that, if the gluten has been entirely removed, the result is not true wheaten bread.", "For celiacs, but not generally, it allows low-gluten bread.", "It also permits Holy Communion to be received under the form of either bread or wine alone, except by a priest who is celebrating Mass without other priests or as principal celebrant.", "Many Protestant churches offer communicants gluten-free alternatives to wheaten bread, usually in the form of a rice-based or other gluten-free wafer.====Alcohol====The Catholic Church believes that grape juice that has not begun even minimally to ferment cannot be accepted as wine, which it sees as essential for celebration of the Eucharist.", "For non-alcoholics, but not generally, it allows the use of mustum (grape juice in which fermentation has begun but has been suspended without altering the nature of the juice), and it holds that \"since Christ is sacramentally present under each of the species, communion under the species of bread alone makes it possible to receive all the fruit of Eucharistic grace.", "For pastoral reasons, this manner of receiving communion has been legitimately established as the most common form in the Latin rite.", "\"As already indicated, the one exception is in the case of a priest celebrating Mass without other priests or as principal celebrant.", "The water that in the Roman Rite is prescribed to be mixed with the wine must be only a relatively small quantity.", "The practice of the Coptic Church is that the mixture should be two parts wine to one part water.Some Protestant churches allow communion in a non-alcoholic form, either normatively or as a pastoral exception.", "Since the invention of the necessary technology, grape juice which has been pasteurized to stop the fermentation process the juice naturally undergoes and de-alcoholized wine from which most of the alcohol has been removed (between 0.5% and 2% remains) are commonly used, and more rarely water may be offered.", "Exclusive use of unfermented grape juice is common in Baptist churches, the United Methodist Church, Seventh-day Adventists, Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Church of God (Anderson, Indiana), some Lutherans, Assemblies of God, Pentecostals, Evangelicals, the Christian Missionary Alliance, and other American independent Protestant churches.====Transmission of diseases====Risk of infectious disease transmission related to use of a common communion cup exists but it is low.", "No case of transmission of an infectious disease related to a common communion cup has ever been documented.", "Experimental studies have demonstrated that infectious diseases can be transmitted.", "The most likely diseases to be transmitted would be common viral illnesses such as the common cold.", "A study of 681 individuals found that taking communion up to daily from a common cup did not increase the risk of infection beyond that of those who did not attend services at all.In influenza epidemics, some churches suspend the giving wine at communion, for fear of spreading the disease.", "This is in full accord with Catholic Church belief that communion under the form of bread alone makes it possible to receive all the fruit of Eucharistic grace.", "However, the same measure has also been taken by churches that normally insist on the importance of receiving communion under both forms.", "This was done in 2009 by the Church of England.Some fear contagion through the handling involved in distributing the hosts to the communicants, even if they are placed on the hand rather than on the tongue.", "Accordingly, some churches use mechanical wafer dispensers or \"pillow packs\" (communion wafers with wine inside them).", "While these methods of distributing communion are not generally accepted in Catholic parishes, one parish provides a mechanical dispenser to allow those intending to commune to place in a bowl, without touching them by hand, the hosts for use in the celebration." ], [ "See also", "===Eucharistic theology===* Eucharistic theology* Eucharistic miracle* Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist===Liturgical worship===* Eucharistic Prayers* Holy Qurbana* Holy Qurobo* Armenian Rite* Divine Liturgy* Mass* Canon of the Mass===Eucharistic practice===* Closed communion* Communion under both kinds* First Communion* Fraction (religion)* Intinction* Open communion* Sacramental wine* Thanksgiving after Communion===Views of different churches===* Anglican Eucharistic theology* Eucharist in the Catholic Church* Sacrament (Latter Day Saints)* Sacramental union (Lutheran)* Transubstantiation (Catholicism)===Sacramental theology===* Baptism* Concomitance* Sacrament===History===* Origin of the Eucharist (The Last Supper)* Marburg Colloquy (1529)* Sacramentarians (Protestant Reformation period, approx.", "16th Century)* ''The Adoration of the Sacrament'' by Martin Luther (1523)* Confession Concerning Christ's Supper by Martin Luther (1528)* Ubiquitarians (1530 and 1540)* Receptionism (16th and 17th-century Anglicans)* Year of the Eucharist (2004–2005)* Host desecration===Mandaeism===* Pihta* Fatira* Hamra===Others===* Agape feast* Catholic social teaching* Catholic theology of the body* Perichoresis" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* (English translation: *** Bouyer, Louis.", "''Eucharist: Theology and Spirituality of the Eucharistic Prayer'', trans.", "by Charles Underhill Quinn.", "Notre Dame, Ind.", ": University of Notre Dame Press, 1968.''N.B''.", ": Despite what the subtitle may suggest, the book discusses the Christian Eucharist in further aspects than alone the \"Canon of the Mass\".", "* * Chemnitz, Martin.", "''The Lord's Supper''.", "J.", "A. O. Preus, trans.", "St. Louis: Concordia, 1979.", "* Church, Catholic.", "\"The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent\" Translated by H.J.", "Schroeder, published by Tan Books and Publishers, Inc., Rockford, IL** Dix, Gregory.", "''The Shape of the Liturgy''.", "London: Continuum International, 2005.", "* Cabrera de Armida, Concepcion.", "''I Am: Eucharistic Meditations on the Gospel'', Alba House Publishing 2001 * Elert, Werner.", "''Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries''.", "N. E. Nagel, trans.", "St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1966.", "* Felton, Gayle.", "''This Holy Mystery''.", "Nashville: Discipleship Resources, 2005.", "* Father Gabriel.", "''Divine Intimacy''.", "London, UK: Baronius Press Ltd., 2013 reprint ed.", "* Grime, J. H. ''Close Communion and Baptists''* Hahn, Scott.", "''The Lamb's Supper: Mass as Heaven on Earth''.", "Darton, Longman, Todd.", "1999.", "* Henke, Frederick Goodrich ''A Study in the Psychology of Ritualism''.", "University of Chicago Press, 1910* Jurgens, William A.", "''The Faith of the Early Fathers''.", "Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1970.", "* Kolb, Robert and Timothy J. Wengert, eds.", "''The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church''.", "Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000.", "* Latinovic, Vladimir, ''Christologie und Kommunion Vol.", "1: Entstehung und Verbreitung der homoousianischen Christologie'', Münster: Aschendorff-Verlag 2018.", "* Latinovic, Vladimir, ''Christologie und Kommunion Vol.", "2: Liturgische Einführung und Rezeption der homoousianischen Christologie'', Münster: Aschendorff-Verlag 2020.", "* Latinovic, Vladimir, ''Christologie und Kommunion Vol.", "3: Auswirkungen auf die Frömmigkeit und den Eucharistieempfang'', Münster: Aschendorff-Verlag 2022.", "* Lefebvre, Gaspar.", "''The Saint Andrew Daily Missal''.", "Reprint.", "Great Falls, MT: St. Bonaventure Publications, Inc., 1999* Löhr, Hermut, ed., ''Abendmahl'' (Themen der Theologie 3), Tübingen: UTB / Mohr Siebeck 2012.", "* Macy, Gary.", "''The Banquet's Wisdom: A Short History of the Theologies of the Lord's Supper''.", "(2005, )* Magni, JA '' The Ethnological Background of the Eucharist''.", "Clark University.", "''American Journal of Religious Psychology and Education'', IV (No.", "1–2), March, 1910.", "** McBride, Alfred, O. Praem.", "''Celebrating the Mass''.", "Our Sunday Visitor, 1999.", "* Neal, Gregory.", "''Grace Upon Grace: Sacramental Theology and the Christian Life.''", "2014.", "* Nevin, John Williamson.", "''The Mystical Presence: A Vindication of the Reformed or Calvinistic Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist''.", "1846; Wipf & Stock reprint, 2000..* Oden, Thomas C. ''Corrective Love: The Power of Communion Discipline''.", "St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1995.", "* Piolanti, Antonio, ed.", "''Eucharistia: il mistero dell'altare nel pensiero e nella vita della Chiesa''.", "Roma: Desclée, 1957.", "* Rasperger (Raspergero), Christopher (Christophorus, Christoph, Christophoro, Christophe) ''Two hundred interpretations of the words: This is my Body'', Ingolstadt, 1577 Latin text.", "(Latin title: ''Ducentae paucorum istorum et quidem clarissimorum Christi verborum: Hoc est Corpus meum; interpretationes''; German title: ''Zweihundert Auslegungen der Worte das ist mein Leib''.", ")* Sasse, Hermann.", "''This Is My Body: Luther's Contention for the Real Presence in the Sacrament of the Altar''.", "Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2001.", "* Schmemann, Alexander.", "''The Eucharist''.", "St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1997.", "* Scotland, N. A. D. ''Eucharistic Consecration in the First Four Centuries and Its Implications for Liturgical Reform'', in series, ''Latimer Studies'', 31.Oxford, Eng.", ": Latimer House, 1989.", "* Stoffer, Dale R. ''The Lord's Supper: Believers Church Perspectives''* Stookey, L.H.", "''Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church''.", "Nashville: Abingdon, 1993.", "* Tissot, J.", "''The Interior Life''.", "1916, pp. 347–49.", "* Wright, N. T. ''The Meal Jesus Gave Us''* Yarnold, G.D. ''The Bread Which We Break''.", "London: Oxford University Press, 1960.119 p." ], [ "External links", "* The Ordinary of the Mass, Roman Rite according to the current edition of the Roman Missal* Sacrament of the Eucharist – Catechism of the Catholic Church* A Brief Exposition of the Divine Service" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eclipse" ], [ "Introduction", "Totality during the 1999 solar eclipse.", "Solar prominences can be seen along the limb (in red) as well as extensive coronal filaments.The shadow of an eclipse on Earth as seen from spaceAn '''eclipse''' is an astronomical event that occurs when an astronomical object or spacecraft is temporarily obscured, by passing into the shadow of another body or by having another body pass between it and the viewer.", "This alignment of three celestial objects is known as a ''syzygy''.", "An eclipse is the result of either an ''occultation'' (completely hidden) or a ''transit'' (partially hidden).", "A \"deep eclipse\" (or \"deep occultation\") is when a small astronomical object is behind a bigger one.The term eclipse is most often used to describe either a solar eclipse, when the Moon's shadow crosses the Earth's surface, or a lunar eclipse, when the Moon moves into the Earth's shadow.", "However, it can also refer to such events beyond the Earth–Moon system: for example, a planet moving into the shadow cast by one of its moons, a moon passing into the shadow cast by its host planet, or a moon passing into the shadow of another moon.", "A binary star system can also produce eclipses if the plane of the orbit of its constituent stars intersects the observer's position.For the special cases of solar and lunar eclipses, these only happen during an \"eclipse season\", the two times of each year when the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun crosses with the plane of the Moon's orbit around the Earth and the line defined by the intersecting planes points near the Sun.", "The type of solar eclipse that happens during each season (whether total, annular, hybrid, or partial) depends on apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon.", "If the orbit of the Earth around the Sun and the Moon's orbit around the Earth were both in the same plane with each other, then eclipses would happen every month.", "There would be a lunar eclipse at every full moon, and a solar eclipse at every new moon.", "And if both orbits were perfectly circular, then each solar eclipse would be the same type every month.", "It is because of the non-planar and non-circular differences that eclipses are not a common event.", "Lunar eclipses can be viewed from the entire nightside half of the Earth.", "But solar eclipses, particularly total eclipses occurring at any one particular point on the Earth's surface, are very rare events that can be many decades apart." ], [ "Etymology", "The term is derived from the ancient Greek noun (''''), which means \"the abandonment\", \"the downfall\", or \"the darkening of a heavenly body\", which is derived from the verb ('''') which means \"to abandon\", \"to darken\", or \"to cease to exist,\" a combination of prefix (''''), from preposition (''''), \"out,\" and of verb (''''), \"to be absent\"." ], [ "Umbra, penumbra and antumbra", "Umbra, penumbra and antumbra cast by an opaque object occulting a larger light sourceFor any two objects in space, a line can be extended from the first through the second.", "The latter object will block some amount of light being emitted by the former, creating a region of shadow around the axis of the line.", "Typically these objects are moving with respect to each other and their surroundings, so the resulting shadow will sweep through a region of space, only passing through any particular location in the region for a fixed interval of time.", "As viewed from such a location, this shadowing event is known as an eclipse.Typically the cross-section of the objects involved in an astronomical eclipse is roughly disk-shaped.", "The region of an object's shadow during an eclipse is divided into three parts:* The ''umbra'' (Latin for \"shadow\"), within which the object completely covers the light source.", "For the Sun, this light source is the photosphere.", "* The ''antumbra'' (from Latin ''ante'', \"before, in front of\", plus ''umbra'') extending beyond the tip of the umbra, within which the object is completely in front of the light source but too small to completely cover it.", "* The ''penumbra'' (from the Latin ''paene'', \"almost, nearly\", plus ''umbra''), within which the object is only partially in front of the light source.leftA '''total eclipse''' occurs when the observer is within the umbra, an '''annular eclipse''' when the observer is within the antumbra, and a '''partial eclipse''' when the observer is within the penumbra.", "During a lunar eclipse only the umbra and penumbra are applicable, because the antumbra of the Sun-Earth system lies far beyond the Moon.", "Analogously, Earth's apparent diameter from the viewpoint of the Moon is nearly four times that of the Sun and thus cannot produce an annular eclipse.", "The same terms may be used analogously in describing other eclipses, e.g., the antumbra of Deimos crossing Mars, or Phobos entering Mars's penumbra.The ''first contact'' occurs when the eclipsing object's disc first starts to impinge on the light source; ''second contact'' is when the disc moves completely within the light source; ''third contact'' when it starts to move out of the light; and ''fourth'' or ''last contact'' when it finally leaves the light source's disc entirely.For spherical bodies, when the occulting object is smaller than the star, the length (''L'') of the umbra's cone-shaped shadow is given by::where ''Rs'' is the radius of the star, ''Ro'' is the occulting object's radius, and ''r'' is the distance from the star to the occulting object.", "For Earth, on average ''L'' is equal to 1.384 km, which is much larger than the Moon's semimajor axis of 3.844 km.", "Hence the umbral cone of the Earth can completely envelop the Moon during a lunar eclipse.", "If the occulting object has an atmosphere, however, some of the luminosity of the star can be refracted into the volume of the umbra.", "This occurs, for example, during an eclipse of the Moon by the Earth—producing a faint, ruddy illumination of the Moon even at totality.On Earth, the shadow cast during an eclipse moves very approximately at 1 km per sec.", "This depends on the location of the shadow on the Earth and the angle in which it is moving." ], [ "Eclipse cycles", "As the Earth revolves around the Sun, approximate axial parallelism of the Moon's tilted orbital plane (inclined at five degrees to the Earth's orbital plane) results in the revolution of the lunar nodes relative to the Earth.", "This causes an eclipse season approximately every six months, in which a solar eclipse can occur at the new moon phase and a lunar eclipse can occur at the full moon phase.An eclipse cycle takes place when eclipses in a series are separated by a certain interval of time.", "This happens when the orbital motions of the bodies form repeating harmonic patterns.", "A particular instance is the saros, which results in a repetition of a solar or lunar eclipse every 6,585.3 days, or a little over 18 years.", "Because this is not a whole number of days, successive eclipses will be visible from different parts of the world.", "In one saros period there are 239.0 anomalistic periods, 241.0 sidereal periods, 242.0 nodical periods, and 223.0 synodic periods.", "Although the orbit of the Moon does not give exact integers, the numbers of orbit cycles are close enough to integers to give strong similarity for eclipses spaced at 18.03 yr intervals." ], [ "Earth–Moon system", "A symbolic orbital diagram from the view of the Earth at the center, with the Sun and Moon projected upon the celestial sphere, showing the Moon's two nodes where eclipses can occur.An eclipse involving the Sun, Earth, and Moon can occur only when they are nearly in a straight line, allowing one to be hidden behind another, viewed from the third.", "Because the orbital plane of the Moon is tilted with respect to the orbital plane of the Earth (the ecliptic), eclipses can occur only when the Moon is close to the intersection of these two planes (the nodes).", "The Sun, Earth and nodes are aligned twice a year (during an eclipse season), and eclipses can occur during a period of about two months around these times.", "There can be from four to seven eclipses in a calendar year, which repeat according to various eclipse cycles, such as a saros.Between 1901 and 2100 there are the maximum of seven eclipses in:* four (penumbral) lunar and three solar eclipses: 1908, 2038.", "* four solar and three lunar eclipses: 1918, 1973, 2094.", "* five solar and two lunar eclipses: 1934.Excluding penumbral lunar eclipses, there are a maximum of seven eclipses in:* 1591, 1656, 1787, 1805, 1918, 1935, 1982, and 2094.===Solar eclipse===The progression of a solar eclipse on August 1, 2008, viewed from Novosibirsk, Russia.", "The time between shots is three minutes.|alt=|leftAs observed from the Earth, a solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes in front of the Sun.", "The type of solar eclipse event depends on the distance of the Moon from the Earth during the event.", "A total solar eclipse occurs when the Earth intersects the umbra portion of the Moon's shadow.", "When the umbra does not reach the surface of the Earth, the Sun is only partially occulted, resulting in an annular eclipse.", "Partial solar eclipses occur when the viewer is inside the penumbra.Each icon shows the view from the centre of its black spot, representing the Moon (not to scale)The eclipse magnitude is the fraction of the Sun's diameter that is covered by the Moon.", "For a total eclipse, this value is always greater than or equal to one.", "In both annular and total eclipses, the eclipse magnitude is the ratio of the angular sizes of the Moon to the Sun.Solar eclipses are relatively brief events that can only be viewed in totality along a relatively narrow track.", "Under the most favorable circumstances, a total solar eclipse can last for 7 minutes, 31 seconds, and can be viewed along a track that is up to 250 km wide.", "However, the region where a partial eclipse can be observed is much larger.", "The Moon's umbra will advance eastward at a rate of 1,700 km/h, until it no longer intersects the Earth's surface.Geometry of a total solar eclipse (not to scale)During a solar eclipse, the Moon can sometimes perfectly cover the Sun because its apparent size is nearly the same as the Sun's when viewed from the Earth.", "A total solar eclipse is in fact an occultation while an annular solar eclipse is a transit.When observed at points in space other than from the Earth's surface, the Sun can be eclipsed by bodies other than the Moon.", "Two examples include when the crew of Apollo 12 observed the Earth to eclipse the Sun in 1969 and when the ''Cassini'' probe observed Saturn to eclipse the Sun in 2006.The progression of a lunar eclipse from right to left.", "Totality is shown with the first two images.", "These required a longer exposure time to make the details visible.|alt=|left===Lunar eclipse===Lunar eclipses occur when the Moon passes through the Earth's shadow.", "This happens only during a full moon, when the Moon is on the far side of the Earth from the Sun.", "Unlike a solar eclipse, an eclipse of the Moon can be observed from nearly an entire hemisphere.", "For this reason it is much more common to observe a lunar eclipse from a given location.", "A lunar eclipse lasts longer, taking several hours to complete, with totality itself usually averaging anywhere from about 30 minutes to over an hour.There are three types of lunar eclipses: penumbral, when the Moon crosses only the Earth's penumbra; partial, when the Moon crosses partially into the Earth's umbra; and total, when the Moon crosses entirely into the Earth's umbra.", "Total lunar eclipses pass through all three phases.", "Even during a total lunar eclipse, however, the Moon is not completely dark.", "Sunlight refracted through the Earth's atmosphere enters the umbra and provides a faint illumination.", "Much as in a sunset, the atmosphere tends to more strongly scatter light with shorter wavelengths, so the illumination of the Moon by refracted light has a red hue, thus the phrase 'Blood Moon' is often found in descriptions of such lunar events as far back as eclipses are recorded.===Historical record===262x262pxRecords of solar eclipses have been kept since ancient times.", "Eclipse dates can be used for chronological dating of historical records.", "A Syrian clay tablet, in the Ugaritic language, records a solar eclipse which occurred on March 5, 1223, B.C., while Paul Griffin argues that a stone in Ireland records an eclipse on November 30, 3340 B.C.", "Positing classical-era astronomers' use of Babylonian eclipse records mostly from the 13th century BC provides a feasible and mathematically consistent explanation for the Greek finding all three lunar mean motions (synodic, anomalistic, draconitic) to a precision of about one part in a million or better.", "Chinese historical records of solar eclipses date back over 3,000 years and have been used to measure changes in the Earth's rate of spin.The first person to give scientific explanation on eclipses was Anaxagoras.", "Anaxagoras stated that the Moon shines by reflected light from the Sun.In 5th century AD, solar and lunar eclipses were scientifically explained by Aryabhata, in his treatise ''Aryabhatiya.''", "Aryabhata states that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight and explains eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth.", "Aryabhata provides the computation and the size of the eclipsed part during an eclipse.", "Indian computations were very accurate that 18th-century French scientist Guillaume Le Gentil, during a visit to Pondicherry, India, found the Indian computations of the duration of the lunar eclipse of 30 August 1765 to be short by only 41 seconds, whereas Le Gentil's charts were long by 68 seconds.By the 1600s, European astronomers were publishing books with diagrams explaining how lunar and solar eclipses occurred.", "In order to disseminate this information to a broader audience and decrease fear of the consequences of eclipses, booksellers printed broadsides explaining the event either using the science or via astrology.=== Eclipses in mythology and religion ===Before eclipses were understood well, there was a much more fearful connotation surrounding the seemingly inexplicable events.", "There was very considerable confusion regarding eclipses before the 17th century because eclipses were not very accurately or scientifically described until Johannes Kepler provided a scientific explanation for eclipses in the early seventeenth century.", "Typically in mythology, eclipses were understood to be one variation or another of a spiritual battle between the sun and evil forces or spirits of darkness.", "The phenomenon of the Sun seeming to disappear was a very fearful sight to all who did not understand the science of eclipses as well as those who supported and believed in the idea of mythological gods.", "The Sun was highly regarded as divine by many old religions, and some even viewed eclipses as the Sun god being overwhelmed by evil spirits.", "More specifically, in Norse mythology, it is believed that there is a wolf by the name of Fenrir that is in constant pursuit of the Sun, and eclipses are thought to occur when the wolf successfully devours the divine Sun.", "Other Norse tribes believe that there are two wolves by the names of Sköll and Hati that are in pursuit of the Sun and the Moon, known by the names of Sol and Mani, and these tribes believe that an eclipse occurs when one of the wolves successfully eats either the Sun or the Moon.", "Once again, this mythical explanation was a very common source of fear for the majority of people at the time who believed the sun to be a sort of divine power or god because the known explanations of eclipses were quite frequently viewed as the downfall of their highly regarded god.", "Similarly, other mythological explanations of eclipses describe the phenomenon of darkness covering the sky during the day as a war between the gods of the Sun and the Moon.In most types of mythologies and certain religions, eclipses were seen as a sign that the gods were angry and that danger was soon to come, so people often altered their actions in an effort to dissuade the gods from unleashing their wrath.", "In the Hindu religion, for example, people often sing religious hymns for protection from the evil spirits of the eclipse, and many people of the Hindu religion refuse to eat during an eclipse to avoid the effects of the evil spirits.", "Hindu people living in India will also wash off in the Ganges River, which is believed to be spiritually cleansing, directly following an eclipse to clean themselves of the evil spirits.", "In early Judaism and Christianity, eclipses were viewed as signs from God, and some eclipses were seen as a display of God's greatness or even signs of cycles of life and death.", "However, more ominous eclipses such as a blood moon were believed to be a divine sign that God would soon destroy their enemies." ], [ "Other planets and dwarf planets", "===Gas giants===A picture of Jupiter and its moon Io taken by Hubble.", "The black spot is Io's shadow.Saturn occults the Sun as seen from the ''Cassini–Huygens'' space probeThe gas giant planets have many moons and thus frequently display eclipses.", "The most striking involve Jupiter, which has four large moons and a low axial tilt, making eclipses more frequent as these bodies pass through the shadow of the larger planet.", "Transits occur with equal frequency.", "It is common to see the larger moons casting circular shadows upon Jupiter's cloudtops.The eclipses of the Galilean moons by Jupiter became accurately predictable once their orbital elements were known.", "During the 1670s, it was discovered that these events were occurring about 17 minutes later than expected when Jupiter was on the far side of the Sun.", "Ole Rømer deduced that the delay was caused by the time needed for light to travel from Jupiter to the Earth.", "This was used to produce the first estimate of the speed of light.The timing of the Jovian satellite eclipses was also used to calculate an observer's longitude upon the Earth.", "By knowing the expected time when an eclipse would be observed at a standard longitude (such as Greenwich), the time difference could be computed by accurately observing the local time of the eclipse.", "The time difference gives the longitude of the observer because every hour of difference corresponded to 15° around the Earth's equator.", "This technique was used, for example, by Giovanni D. Cassini in 1679 to re-map France.On the other three gas giants (Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) eclipses only occur at certain periods during the planet's orbit, due to their higher inclination between the orbits of the moon and the orbital plane of the planet.", "The moon Titan, for example, has an orbital plane tilted about 1.6° to Saturn's equatorial plane.", "But Saturn has an axial tilt of nearly 27°.", "The orbital plane of Titan only crosses the line of sight to the Sun at two points along Saturn's orbit.", "As the orbital period of Saturn is 29.7 years, an eclipse is only possible about every 15 years.===Mars===Transit of Phobos from Mars, as seen by the Mars ''Opportunity rover'' (10 March 2004).On Mars, only partial solar eclipses (transits) are possible, because neither of its moons is large enough, at their respective orbital radii, to cover the Sun's disc as seen from the surface of the planet.", "Eclipses of the moons by Mars are not only possible, but commonplace, with hundreds occurring each Earth year.", "There are also rare occasions when Deimos is eclipsed by Phobos.", "Martian eclipses have been photographed from both the surface of Mars and from orbit.===Pluto===Pluto, with its proportionately largest moon Charon, is also the site of many eclipses.", "A series of such mutual eclipses occurred between 1985 and 1990.These daily events led to the first accurate measurements of the physical parameters of both objects.===Mercury and Venus===Eclipses are impossible on Mercury and Venus, which have no moons.", "However, as seen from the Earth, both have been observed to transit across the face of the Sun.", "There are on average 13 transits of Mercury each century.", "Transits of Venus occur in pairs separated by an interval of eight years, but each pair of events happen less than once a century.", "According to NASA, the next pair of Venus transits will occur on December 10, 2117, and December 8, 2125.Transits of Mercury are much more common." ], [ "Eclipsing binaries", "A binary star system consists of two stars that orbit around their common centre of mass.", "The movements of both stars lie on a common orbital plane in space.", "When this plane is very closely aligned with the location of an observer, the stars can be seen to pass in front of each other.", "The result is a type of extrinsic variable star system called an eclipsing binary.The maximum luminosity of an eclipsing binary system is equal to the sum of the luminosity contributions from the individual stars.", "When one star passes in front of the other, the luminosity of the system is seen to decrease.", "The luminosity returns to normal once the two stars are no longer in alignment.The first eclipsing binary star system to be discovered was Algol, a star system in the constellation Perseus.", "Normally this star system has a visual magnitude of 2.1.However, every 2.867 days the magnitude decreases to 3.4 for more than nine hours.", "This is caused by the passage of the dimmer member of the pair in front of the brighter star.", "The concept that an eclipsing body caused these luminosity variations was introduced by John Goodricke in 1783." ], [ "Types", "'''Sun - Moon - Earth:''' '''Solar eclipse''' | annular eclipse | hybrid eclipse | partial eclipse'''Sun - Earth - Moon:''' '''Lunar eclipse''' | penumbral eclipse | partial lunar eclipse | central lunar eclipse'''Sun - Phobos - Mars: Transit of Phobos from Mars''' | Solar eclipses on Mars'''Sun - Deimos - Mars: Transit of Deimos from Mars''' | Solar eclipses on Mars'''Other types:''' Solar eclipses on Jupiter | Solar eclipses on Saturn | Solar eclipses on Uranus | Solar eclipses on Neptune | Solar eclipses on Pluto" ], [ "See also", "* List of solar eclipses in the 21st century* Mursili's eclipse* Transit of Venus" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * A Catalogue of Eclipse Cycles* Search 5,000 years of eclipses* NASA eclipse home page* International Astronomical Union's Working Group on Solar Eclipses* Interactive eclipse maps site* Classroom demonstration of how an eclipse occurs;Image galleries* The World at Night Eclipse Gallery* Solar and Lunar Eclipse Image Gallery* Williams College eclipse collection of images" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ed (text editor)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''' (pronounced as distinct letters, ) is a line editor for Unix and Unix-like operating systems.", "It was one of the first parts of the Unix operating system that was developed, in August 1969.It remains part of the POSIX and Open Group standards for Unix-based operating systems, alongside the more sophisticated full-screen editor vi." ], [ "History and influence", "The ed text editor was one of the first three key elements of the Unix operating system—assembler, editor, and shell—developed by Ken Thompson in August 1969 on a PDP-7 at AT&T Bell Labs.", "Many features of ed came from the qed text editor developed at Thompson's alma mater University of California, Berkeley.", "Thompson was very familiar with qed, and had reimplemented it on the CTSS and Multics systems.", "Thompson's versions of qed were notable as the first to implement regular expressions.", "Regular expressions are also implemented in ed, though their implementation is considerably less general than that in qed.Dennis M. Ritchie produced what Doug McIlroy later described as the \"definitive\" ed, and aspects of ed went on to influence ex, which in turn spawned vi.", "The non-interactive Unix command grep was inspired by a common special use of qed and later ed, where the command g/re/p performs a '''g'''lobal '''r'''egular '''e'''xpression search and '''p'''rints the lines containing matches.", "The Unix stream editor, sed implemented many of the scripting features of qed that were not supported by ed on Unix." ], [ "Features", "Features of ed include:* available on essentially all Unix systems (and mandatory on systems conforming to the Single Unix Specification).", "* support for regular expressions* powerful automation can be achieved by feeding commands from standard input(In)famous for its terseness, ed, compatible with teletype terminals like Teletype Model 33, gives almost no visual feedback, and has been called (by Peter H. Salus) \"the most user-hostile editor ever created\", even when compared to the contemporary (and notoriously complex) TECO.", "For example, the message that ed will produce in case of error, ''and'' when it wants to make sure the user wishes to quit without saving, is \"?\".", "It does not report the current filename or line number, or even display the results of a change to the text, unless requested.", "Older versions (c. 1981) did not even ask for confirmation when a quit command was issued without the user saving changes.", "This terseness was appropriate in the early versions of Unix, when consoles were teletypes, modems were slow, and memory was precious.", "As computer technology improved and these constraints were loosened, editors with more visual feedback became the norm.The man page for edIn current practice, ed is rarely used interactively, but does find use in some shell scripts.", "For interactive use, ed was subsumed by the sam, vi and Emacs editors in the 1980s.", "ed can be found on virtually every version of Unix and Linux available, and as such is useful for people who have to work with multiple versions of Unix.", "On Unix-based operating systems, some utilities like SQL*Plus run ed as the editor if the EDITOR and VISUAL environment variables are not defined.", "If something goes wrong, ed is sometimes the only editor available.", "This is often the only time when it is used interactively.The version of ed provided by GNU has a few switches to enhance the feedback.", "Using provides a simple prompt and enables more useful feedback messages.", "The switch is defined in POSIX since XPG2 (1987).The ed commands are often imitated in other line-based editors.", "For example, EDLIN in early MS-DOS versions and 32-bit versions of Windows NT has a somewhat similar syntax, and text editors in many MUDs (LPMud and descendants, for example) use ed-like syntax.", "These editors, however, are typically more limited in function." ], [ "Example", "Here is an example transcript of an ed session.", "For clarity, commands and text typed by the user are in normal face, and output from ed is '''emphasized'''.", "a This is line number two.", ".", "2i   .", ",l '''ed is the standard Unix text editor.$''' '''$''' '''This is line number two.$''' w text '''63''' ,l '''ed is the standard Unix text editor.$''' '''$''' '''This is line number three.$''' w text '''65''' qThe end result is a simple text file containing the following text: ed is the standard Unix text editor.", "This is line number three.Started with an empty file, the a command appends text (all ed commands are single letters).", "The command puts ed in ''insert mode'', inserting the characters that follow and is terminated by a single dot on a line.", "The two lines that are entered before the dot end up in the file buffer.", "The 2i command also goes into insert mode, and will insert the entered text (a single empty line in our case) before line two.", "All commands may be prefixed by a line number to operate on that line.In the line ,l, the lowercase L stands for the list command.", "The command is prefixed by a range, in this case , which is a shortcut for 1,$.", "A range is two line numbers separated by a comma ($ means the last line).", "In return, ed lists all lines, from first to last.", "These lines are ended with dollar signs, so that white space at the end of lines is clearly visible.Once the empty line is inserted in line 2, the line which reads \"This is line number two.\"", "is now actually the third line.", "This error is corrected with , a substitution command.", "The 3 will apply it to the correct line; following the command is the text to be replaced, and then the replacement.", "Listing all lines with ,l the line is shown now to be correct.w text writes the buffer to the file \"text\" making ed respond with ''65'', the number of characters written to the file.", "q will end an ed session." ], [ "Cultural references", "The GNU Project has numerous jokes around ed hosted on its website.", "In addition, the glibc documentation notes an error code called with its description (errorstr) merely a single question mark, noting \"the experienced user will know what is wrong.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Edlin, the standard MS-DOS line editor which was inspired by ''ed''* Sam (text editor)* Editor war* List of Unix commands" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Manual page from Unix First Edition describing ed.", "* * , a direct descendant of the original ed.", "* GNU ed homepage* A History of UNIX before Berkeley section 3.1 describes the history of ed." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edlin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edlin''' is a line editor, and the only text editor provided with early versions of IBM PC DOS, MS-DOS and OS/2.Although superseded in MS-DOS 5.0 and later by the full-screen MS-DOS Editor, and by Notepad in Microsoft Windows, it continues to be included in the 32-bit versions of current Microsoft operating systems." ], [ "History", "EDLIN.COM (among several other commands) in IBM PC DOS 1.0Using EDLIN for typing Japanese with the ATOK 8 input method editor, running on MS-DOS 3.3C for the PC-9800 seriesEdlin was created by Tim Paterson in two weeks in 1980, for Seattle Computer Products's 86-DOS (QDOS) based on the CP/M context editor ''ED'', itself a distant derivative of the Unix ''ed'' line editor.Microsoft acquired 86-DOS and, after some further development, sold it as MS-DOS, so Edlin was included in v1.0–v5.0 of MS-DOS.", "From MS-DOS 6 onwards, the only editor included was the new full-screen MS-DOS Editor.", "Windows 95, 98 and ME ran on top of an embedded version of DOS, which reports itself as MS-DOS 7.As a successor to MS-DOS 6, this did not include Edlin.", "However, Edlin is included in the 32-bit versions of Windows NT and its derivatives—up to and including Windows 10—because the NTVDM's DOS support in those operating systems is based on MS-DOS version 5.0.However, unlike most other external DOS commands, it has not been transformed into a native Win32 program.", "It also does not support long filenames, which were not added to MS-DOS and Windows until long after Edlin was written.The FreeDOS version was developed by Gregory Pietsch." ], [ "Usage", "There are only a few commands.", "The short list can be found by entering a ?", "at the edlin prompt.When a file is open, typing L lists the contents (e.g., 1,6L lists lines 1 through 6).", "Each line is displayed with a line number in front of it.", "*1,6L 1: Edlin: The only text editor in early versions of DOS.", "2: 3: Back in the day, I remember seeing web pages 4: branded with a logo at the bottom: 5: \"This page created in edlin.\"", "6: The things that some people put themselves through.", ";-) *The currently selected line has a *.", "To replace the contents of any line, the line number is entered and any text entered replaces the original.", "While editing a line pressing Ctrl-C cancels any changes.", "The * marker remains on that line.Entering I (optionally preceded with a line number) inserts one or more lines before the * line or the line given.", "When finished entering lines, Ctrl-C returns to the edlin command prompt.", "*6I 6:*(...or similar) 7:*^C   *7D *L 1: Edlin: The only text editor in early versions of DOS.", "2: 3: Back in the day, I remember seeing web pages 4: branded with a logo at the bottom: 5: \"This page created in edlin.\"", "6: (...or similar) *:'''i''' - Inserts lines of text.", ":'''D''' - deletes the specified line, again optionally starting with the number of a line, or a range of lines.", "E.g.", ": 2,4d deletes lines 2 through 4.In the above example, line 7 was deleted.", ":'''R''' - is used to replace all occurrences of a piece of text in a given range of lines, for example, to replace a spelling error.", "Including the ?", "prompts for each change.", "E.g.", ": To replace 'prit' with 'print' and to prompt for each change: ?rprit^Zprint (the ^Z represents pressing CTRL-Z).", "It is case-sensitive.", ":'''S''' - searches for given text.", "It is used in the same way as replace, but without the replacement text.", "A search for 'apple' in the first 20 lines of a file is typed 1,20?sapple (no space, unless that is part of the search) followed by a press of enter.", "For each match, it asks if it is the correct one, and accepts n or y (or Enter).", ":'''P''' - displays a listing of a range of lines.", "If no range is specified, P displays the complete file from the * to the end.", "This is different from L in that P changes the current line to be the last line in the range.", ":'''T''' - transfers another file into the one being edited, with this syntax: line to insert attfull path to file.", ":'''W''' - (write) saves the file.", ":'''E''' - saves the file and quits edlin.", ":'''Q''' - quits edlin without saving.===Scripts===Edlin may be used as a non-interactive file editor in scripts by redirecting a series of edlin commands.", "edlin < script===FreeDOS Edlin===A GPL-licensed clone of Edlin that includes long filename support is available for download as part of the FreeDOS project.", "This runs on operating systems such as Linux or Unix as well as MS-DOS." ], [ "See also", "*List of DOS commands*ed and ex, similar Unix line editors.", "*86-DOS" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Edlin | Microsoft Docs* MS-DOS edlin command help* Open source EDLIN implementation that comes with MS-DOS v2.0" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "EBCDIC" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code''' ('''EBCDIC'''; ) is an eight-bit character encoding used mainly on IBM mainframe and IBM midrange computer operating systems.", "It descended from the code used with punched cards and the corresponding six-bit binary-coded decimal code used with most of IBM's computer peripherals of the late 1950s and early 1960s.", "It is supported by various non-IBM platforms, such as Fujitsu-Siemens' BS2000/OSD, OS-IV, MSP, and MSP-EX, the SDS Sigma series, Unisys VS/9, Unisys MCP and ICL VME." ], [ "History", "Punched card with the Hollerith encoding of the 1964 EBCDIC character set.", "Contrast at the top is enhanced to show the printed characters.", "The \"number\" punches (0-9) directly translate to the lower 4 bits of EBCDIC, though the upper 4 bits of EBCDIC are more complex.EBCDIC was devised in 1963 and 1964 by IBM and was announced with the release of the IBM System/360 line of mainframe computers.", "It is an eight-bit character encoding, developed separately from the seven-bit ASCII encoding scheme.", "It was created to extend the existing Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) Interchange Code, or BCDIC, which itself was devised as an efficient means of encoding the two ''zone'' and ''number'' punches on punched cards into six bits.", "The distinct encoding of 's' and 'S' (using position 2 instead of 1) was maintained from punched cards where it was desirable not to have hole punches too close to each other to ensure the integrity of the physical card.While IBM was a chief proponent of the ASCII standardization committee, the company did not have time to prepare ASCII peripherals (such as card punch machines) to ship with its System/360 computers, so the company settled on EBCDIC.", "The System/360 became wildly successful, together with clones such as RCA Spectra 70, ICL System 4, and Fujitsu FACOM, thus so did EBCDIC.All IBM's mainframe operating systems, and its IBM i operating system for midrange computers, use EBCDIC as their inherent encoding (with toleration for ASCII, for example, ISPF in z/OS can browse and edit both EBCDIC and ASCII encoded files).", "Software can translate to and from encodings, and modern mainframes (such as IBM Z) include processor instructions, at the hardware level, to accelerate translation between character sets.There is an EBCDIC-oriented Unicode Transformation Format called UTF-EBCDIC proposed by the Unicode Consortium, designed to allow easy updating of EBCDIC software to handle Unicode, but not intended to be used in open interchange environments.", "Even on systems with extensive EBCDIC support, it has not been popular.", "For example, z/OS supports Unicode (preferring UTF-16 specifically), but z/OS only has limited support for UTF-EBCDIC.Not all operating systems running on IBM hardware use EBCDIC; IBM AIX, Linux on IBM Z, and Linux on Power all use ASCII, as did all operating systems on the IBM Personal Computer and its successors." ], [ "Compatibility with ASCII", "There were numerous difficulties to writing software that would work in both ASCII and EBCDIC.", "* The gaps between letters made simple code that worked in ASCII fail on EBCDIC.", "For example would print the alphabet from A to Z if ASCII is used, but print 41 characters (including a number of unassigned ones) in EBCDIC.", "* Sorting EBCDIC put lowercase letters before uppercase letters and letters before numbers, exactly the opposite of ASCII.", "* Most programming languages and file formats and network protocols designed for ASCII used available punctuation marks (such as the curly braces and ) that did not exist in EBCDIC, making translation to EBCDIC systems difficult.", "Workarounds such as trigraphs were used.", "Conversely EBCDIC had a few characters such as (US cent) that got used on IBM systems and could not be translated to ASCII.", "* The most common newline convention used with EBCDIC is to use a NEL (NEXT LINE) code between lines.", "Converters to other encodings often replace NEL with LF or CR/LF, even if there is a NEL in the target encoding.", "This causes the LF and NEL to translate to the same character and be unable to be distinguished.", "* If seven-bit ASCII was used, there was an \"unused\" high bit in 8-bit bytes, and many pieces of software stored other information there.", "Software would also pack the seven bits and discard the eighth, such as packing five seven-bit ASCII characters in a 36-bit word.", "On the PDP-11 bytes with the high bit set were treated as negative numbers, behavior that was copied to C, causing unexpected problems if the high bit was set.", "These all made it difficult to switch from ASCII to the 8-bit EBCDIC (and also made it difficult to switch to 8-bit extended ASCII encodings)." ], [ "Code page layout", "There are hundreds of EBCDIC code pages based on the original EBCDIC character encoding; there are a variety of EBCDIC code pages intended for use in different parts of the world, including code pages for non-Latin scripts such as Chinese, Japanese (e.g., EBCDIC 930, JEF, and KEIS), Korean, and Greek (EBCDIC 875).", "There is also a huge number of variations with the letters swapped around for no discernible reason.The table below shows the \"invariant subset\" of EBCDIC, which are characters that ''should'' have the same assignments on all EBCDIC code pages that use the Latin alphabet.", "(This includes most of the ISO/IEC 646 invariant repertoire, except the exclamation mark.)", "It also shows (in gray) missing ASCII and EBCDIC punctuation, located where they are in Code Page 37 (one of the code page variants of EBCDIC).", "The blank cells are filled with region-specific characters in the variants, but the characters in gray are often swapped around or replaced as well.", "Like ASCII, the invariant subset works only for languages using the ISO basic Latin alphabet, such as English (excluding loanwords and some uncommon orthographic variations) and Dutch (if the \"ij\" and \"IJ\" ligatures are written as two characters)." ], [ "Definitions of non-ASCII EBCDIC controls", "Following are the definitions of EBCDIC control characters which either do not map onto the ASCII control characters, or have additional uses.", "When mapped to Unicode, these are mostly mapped to C1 control character codepoints in a manner specified by IBM's Character Data Representation Architecture (CDRA).Although the default mapping of New Line (NL) corresponds to the ISO/IEC 6429 Next Line (NEL) character (the behaviour of which is also specified, but not required, in Unicode Annex 14), most of these C1-mapped controls match neither those in the ISO/IEC 6429 C1 set, nor those in other registered C1 control sets such as ISO 6630.Although this effectively makes the non-ASCII EBCDIC controls a unique C1 control set, they are not among the C1 control sets registered in the ISO-IR registry, meaning that they do not have an assigned control set designation sequence (as specified by ISO/IEC 2022, and optionally permitted in ISO/IEC 10646 (Unicode)).Besides U+0085 (Next Line), the Unicode Standard does not prescribe an interpretation of C1 control characters, leaving their interpretation to higher level protocols (it suggests, but does not require, their ISO/IEC 6429 interpretations in the absence of use for other purposes), so this mapping is permissible in, but not specified by, Unicode.", "Mnemonic EBCDIC CDRA pairing Name Description SEL 04 009C Select Device control character taking a single-byte parameter.", "PF Punch Off Listed in this location by GOST 19768-93.RNL 06 0086 Required New Line Line-break resetting mode LC Lower Case Listed in this location by GOST 19768-93.GE 08 0097 Graphic Escape Non-locking shift that changes the interpretation of the following character (see e.g.", "Code page 310).", "Compare ISO/IEC 6429's (008E).", "SPS 09 008D Superscript Begin superscript or undo subscript.", "Compare ISO/IEC 6429's (008C).", "RPT 0A 008E Repeat Switch to an operation mode repeating a print buffer SMM Start of Manual Message Listed in this location by GOST 19768-93.RES/ENP 14 009D Restore, Enable Presentation Resume output (after ) NL 15 0085 (000A) New Line Line break.", "Default mapping (0085) matches ISO/IEC 6429's .", "Mappings sometimes swapped with Line Feed (EBCDIC 0x25) in accordance with UNIX line breaking convention.", "POC 17 0087 Program Operator Communication Followed by two one-byte operators that identify the specific function, for example a light or function key.", "Contrast with ISO/IEC 6429's (009B), (009D) and (009F).", "IL Idle Listed in this location by GOST 19768-93.UBS 1A 0092 Unit Backspace A fractional backspace.", "CC Cursor Control Listed in this location by GOST 19768-93.CU1 1B 008F Customer Use One Not used by IBM; for customer use.", "IUS/ITB 1F 001F Interchange Unit Separator, Intermediate Transmission Block Either used as an information separator to terminate a block called a \"unit\" (as in ASCII; see also ), or used as a transmission control code to delimit the end of an intermediate block.", "DS 20 0080 Digit Select Used by S/360 CPU edit (ED) instruction SOS 21 0081 Start of Significance Used by S/360 CPU edit (ED) instruction.", "(Note: different from ISO/IEC 6429's ; where distinguishing them is necessary, IBM abbreviates Start of Significance as (with a dot) and Start of String as , otherwise they are abbreviated the same.)", "FS, FDS 22 0082 Field Separator Used by S/360 CPU edit (ED) instruction.", "(Note: , as abbreviated FS in ASCII, is at 0x1C and abbreviated IFS.)", "WUS 23 0083 Word Underscore Underscores the immediately preceding word.", "Contrast with ISO/IEC 6429's SGR.", "BYP/INP 24 0084 Bypass, Inhibit Presentation De-activates output, i.e.", "ignores all graphical characters and control characters besides transmission control codes and RES/ENP, until the next .", "SA 28 0088 Set Attribute Marks the beginning of a fixed-length device specific control sequence.", "Deprecated in favour of .", "SFE 29 0089 Start Field Extended Marks the beginning of a variable-length device specific control sequence.", "Deprecated in favour of .", "SM/SW 2A 008A Set Mode, Switch Device specific control that sets a mode of operation, such as a buffer switch.", "CU2 2B 008B Customer Use Two This appears in some specifications, such as GOST 19768-93; newer IBM specifications for EBCDIC control codes list only CU1 and CU3 as customer-use, and use this position for .", "CSP Control Sequence Prefix Marks the beginning of a variable-length device specific control sequence.", "Followed by a class byte specifying a category of control function, a count byte giving the sequence length (including count and type bytes, but not the class byte or initial CSP), a type byte identifying a control function within that category, and zero or more parameter bytes.", "Contrast with ISO/IEC 6429's (0090) and (009B).", "MFA 2C 008C Modify Field Attribute Marks the beginning of a variable-length device specific control sequence.", "Deprecated in favour of .", "30 0090 ''(reserved)'' Reserved for future use by IBM 31 0091 ''(reserved)'' Reserved for future use by IBM IR 33 0093 Index Return Either move to start of next line (see also ), or terminate an information unit (see also ).", "PP 34 0094 Presentation Position Followed by two one-byte parameters (firstly function, secondly number of either column or line) to set the current position.", "Contrast with ISO/IEC 6429's CUP and HVP.", "PN Punch On Listed in this location by GOST 19768-93.TRN 35 0095 Transparent Followed by one byte parameter that indicates the number of bytes of transparent data that follow.", "RST Reader Stop Listed in this location by GOST 19768-93.NBS 36 0096 Numeric Backspace Move backward the width of one digit.", "UC Upper Case Listed in this location by GOST 19768-93.SBS 38 0098 Subscript Begin subscript or undo superscript.", "Compare ISO/IEC 6429's (008B).", "IT 39 0099 Indent Tab Indents the current and all following lines, until or is encountered.", "RFF 3A 009A Required Form Feed Page-break resetting mode.", "CU3 3B 009B Customer Use Three Not used by IBM; for customer use.", "3E 009E ''(reserved)'' Reserved for future use by IBM EO FF 009F Eight Ones All ones character used as filler" ], [ "{{anchor|CECP}}Code pages with Latin-1 character sets", "The following code pages have the full Latin-1 character set (ISO/IEC 8859-1).", "The first column gives the original code page number.", "The second column gives the number of the code page updated with the euro sign (€) replacing the universal currency sign (¤) (or in the case of EBCDIC 924, with the set changed to match ISO 8859-15)Different countries have different code pages because these code pages originated as code pages with country-specific character repertoires, and were later expanded to contain the entire ISO 8859-1 repertoire, meaning that a given ISO 8859-1 character may have different code point values in different code pages.", "They are known as '''Country Extended Code Pages''' ('''CECP'''s).", "CCSID Euroupdate Countries 037 1140 Australia, Brazil, Canada, New Zealand, Portugal, South Africa, USA 273 1141 Austria, Germany 277 1142 Denmark, Norway 278 1143 Finland, Sweden 280 1144 Italy 284 1145 Latin America, Spain 285 1146 Ireland, United Kingdom 297 1147 France 500 1148 International 871 1149 Iceland 1047 924 Open Systems (MVS C compiler)" ], [ "Criticism and humor", "Open-source software advocate and software developer Eric S. Raymond writes in his ''Jargon File'' that EBCDIC was loathed by hackers, by which he meant members of a subculture of enthusiastic programmers.", "The Jargon File 4.4.7 gives the following definition:EBCDIC design was also the source of many jokes.", "One such joke, found in the Unix fortune file of 4.3BSD Reno (1990) went:References to the EBCDIC character set are made in the 1979 computer game series ''Zork''.", "In the \"Machine Room\" in ''Zork II'', EBCDIC is used to imply an incomprehensible language:In 2021, it became public that a Belgian bank was still using EBCDIC internally in 2019.This came to attention because a customer insisted that the correct spelling of his surname included an umlaut, which the bank omitted.", "The customer filed a complaint citing the guarantee in the General Data Protection Regulation of the right to timely \"rectification of inaccurate personal data.\"", "The bank argued in part that it could not comply because its computer system was only compatible with EBCDIC, which does not support umlauted letters.", "The appeals court ruled in favor of the customer." ], [ "See also", "* UTF-EBCDIC" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* IBM-related:** .", "Contains IBM's official information on code pages and character sets.", "*** *** ** Host Code Page Reference from IBM, shows code charts for several single-byte IBM EBCDIC pages.", "** ICU Converter Explorer Contains more information about EBCDIC derived from IBM's CDRA, including DBCS EBCDIC (Double Byte Character Set EBCDIC)** from * XHCS V2.0 manual, shows code charts for several single-byte Siemens/Fujitsu (as opposed to IBM) EBCDIC pages used on the BS2000.", "* * * * ICU Character Set Mapping Tables Contains computer readable Unicode mapping tables for EBCDIC and many other character sets" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Endoplasmic reticulum" ], [ "Introduction", "nucleus (shown in the lower right-hand area of the picture).", "Dark small circles in the network are mitochondria.The '''endoplasmic reticulum''' ('''ER''') is a part of a transportation system of the eukaryotic cell, and has many other important functions such as protein folding.", "It is a type of organelle made up of two subunits – '''rough endoplasmic reticulum''' ('''RER'''), and '''smooth endoplasmic reticulum''' ('''SER''').", "The endoplasmic reticulum is found in most eukaryotic cells and forms an interconnected network of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs known as cisternae (in the RER), and tubular structures in the SER.", "The membranes of the ER are continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.", "The endoplasmic reticulum is not found in red blood cells, or spermatozoa.The two types of ER share many of the same proteins and engage in certain common activities such as the synthesis of certain lipids and cholesterol.", "Different types of cells contain different ratios of the two types of ER depending on the activities of the cell.", "RER is found mainly toward the nucleus of cell and SER towards the cell membrane or plasma membrane of cell.The outer (cytosolic) face of the RER is studded with ribosomes that are the sites of protein synthesis.", "The RER is especially prominent in cells such as hepatocytes.", "The SER lacks ribosomes and functions in lipid synthesis but not metabolism, the production of steroid hormones, and detoxification.", "The SER is especially abundant in mammalian liver and gonad cells.The ER was observed by light microscopy by Garnier in 1897, who coined the term ''ergastoplasm''.", "The lacy membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen by electron microscopy in 1945 by Keith R. Porter, Albert Claude, and Ernest F. Fullam.", "Later, the word ''reticulum'', which means \"network\", was applied by Porter in 1953 to describe this fabric of membranes." ], [ "Structure", "Nucleus'''2''' Nuclear pore'''3''' Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)'''4''' Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)'''5''' Ribosome on the rough ER'''6''' Proteins that are transported'''7''' Transport vesicle'''8''' Golgi apparatus'''9''' Cis face of the Golgi apparatus'''10''' Trans face of the Golgi apparatus'''11''' Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus3D rendering of endoplasmic reticulumThe general structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes called cisternae.", "These sac-like structures are held together by the cytoskeleton.", "The phospholipid membrane encloses the cisternal space (or lumen), which is continuous with the perinuclear space but separate from the cytosol.", "The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum can be summarized as the synthesis and export of proteins and membrane lipids, but varies between ER and cell type and cell function.", "The quantity of both rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum in a cell can slowly interchange from one type to the other, depending on the changing metabolic activities of the cell.", "Transformation can include embedding of new proteins in membrane as well as structural changes.", "Changes in protein content may occur without noticeable structural changes.===Rough endoplasmic reticulum===A 2-minute animation showing how a protein destined for the secretory pathway is synthesized and secreted into the rough endoplasmic reticulum, which appears at the upper right approximately halfway through the animation.The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (often abbreviated ''RER'' or ''rough ER''; also called ''granular endoplasmic reticulum'') is studded with protein-manufacturing ribosomes giving it a \"rough\" appearance (hence its name).", "The binding site of the ribosome on the rough endoplasmic reticulum is the translocon.", "However, the ribosomes are not a stable part of this organelle's structure as they are constantly being bound and released from the membrane.", "A ribosome only binds to the RER once a specific protein-nucleic acid complex forms in the cytosol.", "This special complex forms when a free ribosome begins translating the mRNA of a protein destined for the secretory pathway.", "The first 5–30 amino acids polymerized encode a signal peptide, a molecular message that is recognized and bound by a signal recognition particle (SRP).", "Translation pauses and the ribosome complex binds to the RER translocon where translation continues with the nascent (new) protein forming into the RER lumen and/or membrane.", "The protein is processed in the ER lumen by an enzyme (a signal peptidase), which removes the signal peptide.", "Ribosomes at this point may be released back into the cytosol; however, non-translating ribosomes are also known to stay associated with translocons.The membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is in the form of large double-membrane sheets that are located near, and continuous with, the outer layer of the nuclear envelope.", "The double membrane sheets are stacked and connected through several right- or left-handed helical ramps, the \"Terasaki ramps\", giving rise to a structure resembling a parking garage.", "Although there is no continuous membrane between the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus, membrane-bound transport vesicles shuttle proteins between these two compartments.", "Vesicles are surrounded by coating proteins called COPI and COPII.", "COPII targets vesicles to the Golgi apparatus and COPI marks them to be brought back to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.", "The rough endoplasmic reticulum works in concert with the Golgi complex to target new proteins to their proper destinations.", "The second method of transport out of the endoplasmic reticulum involves areas called membrane contact sites, where the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum and other organelles are held closely together, allowing the transfer of lipids and other small molecules.The rough endoplasmic reticulum is key in multiple functions:* Manufacture of lysosomal enzymes with a mannose-6-phosphate marker added in the ''cis''-Golgi network.", "* Manufacture of secreted proteins, either secreted constitutively with no tag or secreted in a regulatory manner involving clathrin and paired basic amino acids in the signal peptide.", "* Integral membrane proteins that stay embedded in the membrane as vesicles exit and bind to new membranes.", "Rab proteins are key in targeting the membrane; SNAP and SNARE proteins are key in the fusion event.", "* Initial glycosylation as assembly continues.", "This is N-linked (O-linking occurs in the Golgi).", "** N-linked glycosylation: If the protein is properly folded, oligosaccharyltransferase recognizes the AA sequence NXS or NXT (with the S/T residue phosphorylated) and adds a 14-sugar backbone (2-''N''-acetylglucosamine, 9-branching mannose, and 3-glucose at the end) to the side-chain nitrogen of Asn.===Smooth endoplasmic reticulum===Electron micrograph showing smooth ER (arrow) in mouse tissue, at 110,510× magnification.In most cells the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (abbreviated '''SER''') is scarce.", "Instead there are areas where the ER is partly smooth and partly rough, this area is called the transitional ER.", "The transitional ER gets its name because it contains ER exit sites.", "These are areas where the transport vesicles that contain lipids and proteins made in the ER, detach from the ER and start moving to the Golgi apparatus.", "Specialized cells can have a lot of smooth endoplasmic reticulum and in these cells the smooth ER has many functions.", "It synthesizes lipids, phospholipids, and steroids.", "Cells which secrete these products, such as those in the testes, ovaries, and sebaceous glands have an abundance of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.", "It also carries out the metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of natural metabolism products and of alcohol and drugs, attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins, and steroid metabolism.", "In muscle cells, it regulates calcium ion concentration.", "Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found in a variety of cell types (both animal and plant), and it serves different functions in each.", "The smooth endoplasmic reticulum also contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis.", "It is connected to the nuclear envelope and consists of tubules that are located near the cell periphery.", "These tubes sometimes branch forming a network that is reticular in appearance.", "In some cells, there are dilated areas like the sacs of rough endoplasmic reticulum.", "The network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum allows for an increased surface area to be devoted to the action or storage of key enzymes and the products of these enzymes.==== Sarcoplasmic reticulum ====Skeletal muscle fiber, with sarcoplasmic reticulum colored in blue.The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), from the Greek σάρξ ''sarx'' (\"flesh\"), is smooth ER found in muscle cells.", "The only structural difference between this organelle and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the composition of proteins they have, both bound to their membranes and drifting within the confines of their lumens.", "This fundamental difference is indicative of their functions: The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes molecules, while the sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions and pumps them out into the sarcoplasm when the muscle fiber is stimulated.", "After their release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium ions interact with contractile proteins that utilize ATP to shorten the muscle fiber.", "The sarcoplasmic reticulum plays a major role in excitation-contraction coupling." ], [ "Functions", "The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the folding of protein molecules in sacs called cisternae and the transport of synthesized proteins in vesicles to the Golgi apparatus.", "Rough endoplasmic reticulum is also involved in protein synthesis.", "Correct folding of newly made proteins is made possible by several endoplasmic reticulum chaperone proteins, including protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), ERp29, the Hsp70 family member BiP/Grp78, calnexin, calreticulin, and the peptidylprolyl isomerase family.", "Only properly folded proteins are transported from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus – unfolded proteins cause an unfolded protein response as a stress response in the ER.", "Disturbances in redox regulation, calcium regulation, glucose deprivation, and viral infection or the over-expression of proteins can lead to endoplasmic reticulum stress response (ER stress), a state in which the folding of proteins slows, leading to an increase in unfolded proteins.", "This stress is emerging as a potential cause of damage in hypoxia/ischemia, insulin resistance, and other disorders.===Protein transport===Secretory proteins, mostly glycoproteins, are moved across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane.", "Proteins that are transported by the endoplasmic reticulum throughout the cell are marked with an address tag called a signal sequence.", "The N-terminus (one end) of a polypeptide chain (i.e., a protein) contains a few amino acids that work as an address tag, which are removed when the polypeptide reaches its destination.", "Nascent peptides reach the ER via the translocon, a membrane-embedded multiprotein complex.", "Proteins that are destined for places outside the endoplasmic reticulum are packed into transport vesicles and moved along the cytoskeleton toward their destination.", "In human fibroblasts, the ER is always co-distributed with microtubules and the depolymerisation of the latter cause its co-aggregation with mitochondria, which are also associated with the ER.The endoplasmic reticulum is also part of a protein sorting pathway.", "It is, in essence, the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell.", "The majority of its resident proteins are retained within it through a retention motif.", "This motif is composed of four amino acids at the end of the protein sequence.", "The most common retention sequences are KDEL for lumen located proteins and KKXX for transmembrane protein.", "However, variations of KDEL and KKXX do occur, and other sequences can also give rise to endoplasmic reticulum retention.", "It is not known whether such variation can lead to sub-ER localizations.", "There are three KDEL (1, 2 and 3) receptors in mammalian cells, and they have a very high degree of sequence identity.", "The functional differences between these receptors remain to be established.===Bioenergetics regulation of ER ATP supply by a CaATiER mechanism===Ca2+-antagonized transport into the endoplasmic reticulum (CaATiER) modelThe endoplasmic reticulum does not harbor an ATP-regeneration machinery, and therefore requires ATP import from mitochondria.", "The imported ATP is vital for the ER to carry out its house keeping cellular functions, such as for protein folding and trafficking.The ER ATP transporter, SLC35B1/AXER, was recently cloned and characterized, and the mitochondria supply ATP to the ER through a ''Ca2+-antagonized transport into the ER'' (''CaATiER'') mechanism.", "The ''CaATiER'' mechanism shows sensitivity to cytosolic Ca2+ ranging from high nM to low μM range, with the Ca2+-sensing element yet to be identified and validated." ], [ "Clinical significance", "Increased and supraphysiological ER stress in pancreatic β cells disrupts normal insulin secretion, leading to hyperinsulinemia and consequently peripheral insulin resistance associated with obesity in humans.", "Human clinical trials also suggested a causal link between obesity-induced increase in insulin secretion and peripheral insulin resistance.Abnormalities in XBP1 lead to a heightened endoplasmic reticulum stress response and subsequently causes a higher susceptibility for inflammatory processes that may even contribute to Alzheimer's disease.", "In the colon, XBP1 anomalies have been linked to the inflammatory bowel diseases including Crohn's disease.The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a cellular stress response related to the endoplasmic reticulum.", "The UPR is activated in response to an accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum.", "The UPR functions to restore normal function of the cell by halting protein translation, degrading misfolded proteins, and activating the signaling pathways that lead to increasing the production of molecular chaperones involved in protein folding.", "Sustained overactivation of the UPR has been implicated in prion diseases as well as several other neurodegenerative diseases and the inhibition of the UPR could become a treatment for those diseases." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Endoplasmic Reticulum* Lipid and protein composition of Endoplasmic reticulum in OPM database* Animations of the various cell functions referenced here" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Enemy (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''enemy''' or '''foe''' is an individual or group that is seen as forcefully adverse or threatening.", "'''Enemy''' or '''The Enemy''' may refer to:* Enemy combatant" ], [ "Art, entertainment, and media", "===Fictional entities===* The Enemy, an alias of Morgoth, a fictional character in Tolkien's legendarium=== Films ===* ''The Enemy'' (1916 film), directed by Paul Scardon, with Julia Swayne Gordon and Charles Kent* ''The Enemy'' (1927 film), directed by Fred Niblo, starring Lillian Gish* ''The Enemy'' (1952 film), directed by Giorgio Bianchi, starring Elisa Cegani* ''The Enemy'' (1979 film), directed by Yılmaz Güney and Zeki Ökten, starring Aytaç Arman* ''Enemy'' (1990 film), directed by George Rowe, starring Peter Fonda* ''The Enemy'' (2001 film), directed by Tom Kinninmont, starring Roger Moore and Luke Perry* ''Enemy'' (2013 film), directed by Denis Villeneuve, starring Jake Gyllenhaal* ''Enemy'' (2015 film), an Indian mystery film* ''Enemy'' (2021 film), an Indian Tamil-language film===Literature===* ''The Enemy'' (Bagley novel), a 1977 espionage thriller by Desmond Bagley* ''The Enemy'' (Child novel), a 2004 novel by Lee Child in the Jack Reacher thriller series* ''The Enemy'' (Higson novel), a 2009 young adult novel by Charlie Higson and the first book in an eponymous series * ''The Enemy'' (short story), a 1958 science-fiction short story by Damon Knight* ''The Enemy'', a short story by Pearl S. Buck===Games===* ''CIMA: The Enemy'' (2003), a role-playing video game* Enemy (eSports), a professional gaming team===Music======= Groups====* Enemy (American band), an American band fronted by guitarist and vocalist Troy Van Leeuwen* The Enemy (New Zealand band), a 1970s punk band from Dunedin, New Zealand* The Enemy (English punk band), a 1980s punk band from Derby, Derbyshire, England* The Enemy (English rock band), an indie rock band from Coventry, Warwickshire, England* The Enemy, a band with Journey drummer Deen Castronovo* The Enemy, an American band with Charlie Farren from The Joe Perry Project====Albums ====* ''Enemy'' (Blood for Blood album), 1997* ''Enemy'' (Kristeen Young album), 1999====Songs ====* \"Enemy\" (Days of the New song), 1999* \"Enemy\" (Drowning Pool song), 2007* \"Enemy\" (Fozzy song)* \"Enemy\" (Sandro Cavazza song), 2019* \"Enemy\" (Sevendust song), 2003* \"Enemy\" (The Brilliant Green song), 2007* \"Enemy\" (Imagine Dragons and JID song), a 2021 song by Imagine Dragons & J.I.D for the League of Legends Netflix series ''Arcane''* \"Enemy\", a song by Beartooth from their album ''Disease''* \"Enemy\", a song by Blue Stahli from ''The Devil''* \"Enemy\", a song by Cascada from the album ''Original Me''* \"Enemy\", a song by Chris Brown from the 2017 album ''Heartbreak on a Full Moon''* \"Enemy\", a song by Eve 6 from their album ''Horrorscope''* \"Enemy\", a song by Nelly Furtado from the 2012 album ''The Spirit Indestructible''* \"Enemy\", a song by Scars On Broadway from their ''eponymous album''* \"Enemy\", a song by Wage War from their album ''Blueprints''* \"The Enemy\" (Godsmack song)* \"The Enemy\" (Paradise Lost song)* \"The Enemy\", a song by Anthrax from the album ''Spreading the Disease''* \"The Enemy\", a song by Dark Tranquillity from the album ''Damage Done''* \"The Enemy\", a song by Dirty Pretty Things* \"The Enemy\", a song by Guided by Voices from the album ''Isolation Drills''* \"The Enemy\", a song by Memphis May Fire from the album ''This Light I Hold''===Television===* \"The Enemy\" (''Space: Above and Beyond'' episode), an episode of ''Space: Above and Beyond''* \"The Enemy\" (''Star Trek: The Next Generation''), an episode of ''Star Trek: The Next Generation''" ], [ "Other uses", "* The Enemy (film company), a film production company run by John Harlacher and Dave Buchwald* TheEnemy, a Brazilian gaming website hosted by Omelete" ], [ "See also", "* Enemies (disambiguation)* Enemy Mine (disambiguation)* Public enemy (disambiguation)* The enemy of my enemy (disambiguation)* The Enemy Within (disambiguation)* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Executive Order 9066" ], [ "Introduction", "Sign posted notifying people of Japanese descent to report for incarcerationA girl detained in Arkansas walks to school in 1943.", "'''Executive Order 9066''' was a United States presidential executive order signed and issued during World War II by United States president Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942.", "\"This order authorized the forced removal of all persons deemed a threat to national security from the West Coast to \"relocation centers\" further inland—resulting in the incarceration of Japanese Americans.\"", "Two-thirds of them were U.S. citizens, born and raised in the United States.Notably, far more Americans of Asian descent were forcibly interned than Americans of European descent, both in total and as a share of their relative populations.", "German and Italian Americans who were sent to internment camps during the war were sent under the provisions of Presidential Proclamation 2526 and the Alien Enemy Act, part of the Alien and Sedition Act of 1798." ], [ "Transcript of Executive Order 9066", "The text of Executive Order 9066 was as follows:" ], [ "Background to the Order", "The Order was consistent with Roosevelt's long-time racial views toward Japanese Americans.", "During the 1920s, for example, he had written articles in the ''Macon Telegraph'' opposing white-Japanese intermarriage for fostering \"the mingling of Asiatic blood with European or American blood\" and praising California's ban on land ownership by the first-generation Japanese.", "In 1936, while president he privately wrote that, in regard to contacts between Japanese sailors and the local Japanese American population in the event of war, “every Japanese citizen or non-citizen on the Island of Oahu who meets these Japanese ships or has any connection with their officers or men should be secretly but definitely identified and his or her name placed on a special list of those who would be the first to be placed in a concentration camp.\"", "In addition, during the crucial period after Pearl Harbor the president had failed to speak out for the rights of Japanese Americans despite the urgings of advisors such as John Franklin Carter.", "During the same period, Roosevelt rejected the recommendations of Attorney General Francis Biddle and other top advisors, who opposed the incarceration of Japanese Americans." ], [ "Exclusion under the order", "Revealingly, the text of Roosevelt's order did not use the terms Japanese or Japanese Americans, favoring coded euphemisms such as \"any and all persons who may be excluded.\"", "In this use of coded language, it was similar to the \"all other persons\" reference to slaves in the U.S. Constitution.", "The lack of a specific mention of Japanese or Japanese Americans also characterized Public Law 77-503, which Roosevelt signed on March 21, 1942 to enforce the order.", "Public Law 77-50 (approved after only an hour of discussion in the Senate and thirty minutes in the House) in order to provide for the enforcement of his executive order.", "Authored by War Department official Karl Bendetsen—who would later be promoted to Director of the Wartime Civilian Control Administration and oversee the incarceration of Japanese Americans—the law made violations of military orders a misdemeanor punishable by up to $5,000 in fines and one year in prison.Using a broad interpretation of EO 9066, Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt issued orders declaring certain areas of the western United States as zones of exclusion under the Executive Order.", "In contrast to EO 9066, the text of these orders did not use coded euphemisms, such as \"any and all persons who may be excluded,\" but specified \"all people of Japanese ancestry.\"", "As a result, approximately 112,000 men, women, and children of Japanese ancestry were evicted from the West Coast of the continental United States and held in American relocation camps and other confinement sites across the country.", "EO 9066 was not applied in such a sweeping manner to persons of non-Japanese descent.", "Notably, in a 1943 letter, Attorney General Francis Biddle reminded Roosevelt that \"You signed the original Executive Order permitting the exclusions so the Army could handle the Japs.", "It was never intended to apply to Italians and Germans.", "\"Roosevelt hoped to establish concentration camps for Japanese Americans in Hawaii even after he signed Executive Order 9066.On February 26, 1942, he informed Secretary of the Navy Knox that he had \"long felt most of the Japanese should be removed from Oahu to one of the other islands.\"", "Nevertheless, the tremendous cost, including the diversion of ships from the front lines, as well as the quiet resistance of the local military commander General Delos Emmons, made this proposal impractical and Japanese Americans in Hawaii were never incarcerated.", "Although the Japanese-American population in Hawaii was nearly 40% of the population of the territory and Hawaii would have been first in line for a Japanese attack, only a few thousand people were detained there.", "This fact supported the government's eventual conclusion that the mass removal of ethnic Japanese from the West Coast was motivated by reasons other than \"military necessity.", "\"Japanese Americans and other Asians in the U.S. had suffered for decades from prejudice and racially motivated fears.", "Racially discriminatory laws prevented Asian Americans from owning land, voting, testifying against whites in court, and set up other restrictions.", "Additionally, the FBI, Office of Naval Intelligence and Military Intelligence Division had been conducting surveillance on Japanese-American communities in Hawaii and the continental U.S. from the early 1930s.", "In early 1941, President Roosevelt secretly commissioned a study to assess the possibility that Japanese Americans would pose a threat to U.S. security.", "The report, submitted one month before the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, found that, \"There will be no armed uprising of Japanese\" in the United States.", "\"For the most part,\" the Munson Report said, \"the local Japanese are loyal to the United States or, at worst, hope that by remaining quiet they can avoid concentration camps or irresponsible mobs.\"", "A second investigation started in 1940, written by Naval Intelligence officer Kenneth Ringle and submitted in January 1942, likewise found no evidence of fifth column activity and urged against mass incarceration.", "Both were ignored by military and political leaders.Over two-thirds of the people of Japanese ethnicity who were incarcerated—almost 70,000—were American citizens.", "Many of the rest had lived in the country between 20 and 40 years.", "Most Japanese Americans, particularly the first generation born in the United States (the ''Nisei''), identified as loyal to the United States of America.", "No Japanese-American citizen or Japanese national residing in the United States was ever found guilty of sabotage or espionage.There were 10 of these internment camps across the country called “relocation centers”.", "There were two in Arkansas, two in Arizona, two in California, one in Idaho, one in Utah, one in Wyoming, and one in Colorado." ], [ "World War II camps under the order", "Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was responsible for assisting relocated people with transport, food, shelter, and other accommodations and delegated Colonel Karl Bendetsen to administer the removal of West Coast Japanese.", "Over the spring of 1942, General John L. DeWitt issued Western Defense Command orders for Japanese Americans to present themselves for removal.", "The \"evacuees\" were taken first to temporary assembly centers, requisitioned fairgrounds and horse racing tracks where living quarters were often converted livestock stalls.", "As construction on the more permanent and isolated War Relocation Authority camps was completed, the population was transferred by truck or train.", "These accommodations consisted of tar paper-walled frame buildings in parts of the country with bitter winters and often hot summers.", "The camps were guarded by armed soldiers and fenced with barbed wire (security measures not shown in published photographs of the camps).", "Camps held up to 18,000 people, and were small cities, with medical care, food, and education provided by the government.", "Adults were offered \"camp jobs\" with wages of $12 to $19 per month, and many camp services such as medical care and education were provided by the camp inmates themselves." ], [ "Termination, apology, and redress", "President Gerald Ford signs a proclamation confirming the termination of Executive Order 9066 (February 19, 1976)In 1943 and 1944, Roosevelt did not release those incarcerated in the camps despite the urgings of Attorney General Francis Biddle, Secretary of Interior Harold L. Ickes.", "Ickes blamed the president's failure to act on his need to win California in a potentially close election.", "In December 1944, Roosevelt suspended the Executive Order after the Supreme Court decision ''Ex parte Endo''.", "Detainees were released, often to resettlement facilities and temporary housing, and the camps were shut down by 1946.In the years after the war, the interned Japanese Americans had to rebuild their lives after having suffered heavy personal losses.", "United States citizens and long-time residents who had been incarcerated lost their personal liberties; many also lost their homes, businesses, property, and savings.", "Individuals born in Japan were not allowed to become naturalized US citizens until after passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952.On February 19, 1976, President Gerald Ford signed a proclamation formally terminating Executive Order 9066 and apologizing for the internment, stated: \"We now know what we should have known then—not only was that evacuation wrong but Japanese Americans were and are loyal Americans.", "On the battlefield and at home the names of Japanese Americans have been and continue to be written in history for the sacrifices and the contributions they have made to the well-being and to the security of this, our common Nation.", "\"In 1980, President Jimmy Carter signed legislation to create the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC).", "The CWRIC was appointed to conduct an official governmental study of Executive Order 9066, related wartime orders, and their effects on Japanese Americans in the West and Alaska Natives in the Pribilof Islands.In December 1982, the CWRIC issued its findings in ''Personal Justice Denied'', concluding that the incarceration of Japanese Americans had not been justified by military necessity.", "The report determined that the decision to incarcerate was based on \"race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership\".", "The Commission recommended legislative remedies consisting of an official Government apology and redress payments of $20,000 to each of the survivors; a public education fund was set up to help ensure that this would not happen again ().On August 10, 1988, the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, based on the CWRIC recommendations, was signed into law by Ronald Reagan.", "On November 21, 1989, George H. W. Bush signed an appropriation bill authorizing payments to be paid out between 1990 and 1998.In 1990, surviving internees began to receive individual redress payments and a letter of apology.", "This bill applied to the Japanese Americans and to members of the Aleut people inhabiting the strategic Aleutian islands in Alaska who had also been relocated." ], [ "Legacy", "February 19, the anniversary of the signing of Executive Order 9066, is now the Day of Remembrance, an annual commemoration of the unjust incarceration of the Japanese-American community.", "In 2017, the Smithsonian launched an exhibit about these events with artwork by Roger Shimomura.", "It provides context and interprets the treatment of Japanese Americans during World War II.", "In February 2022, for the 80th anniversary of the signing of the order, supporters lobbied to pass the Amache National Historic Site Act historical designation for the Granada War Relocation Center in Colorado." ], [ "See also", "* Defence Regulation 18B* ''Ex parte Endo''* Executive Order 9102* Bob Emmett Fletcher* Group Areas Act in South Africa* ''Hirabayashi v. United States''* Internment of Japanese Canadians* Japanese American service in World War II* ''Korematsu v. United States''* Fred Korematsu Day* Manzanar* Population Registration Act, 1950 in South Africa* George Takei, Japanese American actor who was interned at one of the camps as a child and wrote a memoir about it titled ''They Called Us Enemy''* War Relocation Authority" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Text of Executive Order No.", "9066* Digital Copy of Signed Executive Order No.", "9066 * Instructional poster for San Francisco* Instructional poster for Los Angeles* German American Internment Coalition* FOITimes a resource for European American Internment of World War 2* \"The War Relocation Centers of World War II: When Fear Was Stronger than Justice\", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edvard Munch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edvard Munch''' ( , ; 12 December 1863 – 23 January 1944) was a Norwegian painter.", "His 1893 work, ''The Scream'', has become one of Western art's most acclaimed images.His childhood was overshadowed by illness, bereavement and the dread of inheriting a mental condition that ran in the family.", "Studying at the Royal School of Art and Design in Kristiania (today's Oslo), Munch began to live a bohemian life under the influence of the nihilist Hans Jæger, who urged him to paint his own emotional and psychological state ('soul painting'); from this emerged his distinctive style.Travel brought new influences and outlets.", "In Paris, he learned much from Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, especially their use of color.", "In Berlin, he met the Swedish dramatist August Strindberg, whom he painted, as he embarked on a major series of paintings he would later call ''The Frieze of Life'', depicting a series of deeply-felt themes such as love, anxiety, jealousy and betrayal, steeped in atmosphere.", "''The Scream'' was conceived in Kristiania.", "According to Munch, he was out walking at sunset, when he 'heard the enormous, infinite scream of nature'.", "The painting's agonized face is widely identified with the ''angst'' of the modern person.", "Between 1893 and 1910, he made two painted versions and two in pastels, as well as a number of prints.", "One of the pastels would eventually command the fourth highest nominal price paid for a painting at auction.", "''Self-Portrait with Palette'' (1926).", "Currently on view at the Clark Art InstituteAs his fame and wealth grew, his emotional state remained insecure.", "He briefly considered marriage, but could not commit himself.", "A mental breakdown in 1908 forced him to give up heavy drinking, and he was cheered by his increasing acceptance by the people of Kristiania and exposure in the city's museums.", "His later years were spent working in peace and privacy.", "Although his works were banned in Nazi-occupied Europe, most of them survived World War II, securing him a legacy." ], [ "Life", "=== Childhood ===Edvard Munch was born in a farmhouse in the village of Ådalsbruk in Løten, Norway, to Laura Catherine Bjølstad and Christian Munch, the son of a priest.", "Christian was a doctor and medical officer who married Laura, a woman half his age, in 1861.Edvard had an elder sister, Johanne Sophie, and three younger siblings: Peter Andreas, Laura Catherine, and Inger Marie.", "Laura was artistically talented and may have encouraged Edvard and Sophie.", "Edvard was related to the painter Jacob Munch and the historian Peter Andreas Munch.The family moved to Oslo (then called Christiania and renamed to Kristiania in 1877) in 1864 when Christian Munch was appointed medical officer at Akershus Fortress.", "Edvard's mother died of tuberculosis in 1868, as did Munch's favorite sister Johanne Sophie in 1877.After their mother's death, the Munch siblings were raised by their father and by their aunt Karen.", "Often ill for much of the winters and kept out of school, Edvard would draw to keep himself occupied.", "He was tutored by his school mates and his aunt.", "Christian Munch also instructed his son in history and literature, and entertained the children with vivid ghost-stories and the tales of the American writer Edgar Allan Poe.As Edvard remembered it, Christian's positive behavior towards his children was overshadowed by his morbid pietism.", "Munch wrote, \"My father was temperamentally nervous and obsessively religious—to the point of psychoneurosis.", "From him I inherited the seeds of madness.", "The angels of fear, sorrow, and death stood by my side since the day I was born.\"", "Christian reprimanded his children by telling them that their mother was looking down from heaven and grieving over their misbehavior.", "The oppressive religious milieu, Edvard's poor health, and the vivid ghost stories helped inspire his macabre visions and nightmares; the boy felt that death was constantly advancing on him.", "One of Munch's younger sisters, Laura, was diagnosed with mental illness at an early age.", "Of the five siblings, only Andreas married, but he died a few months after the wedding.", "Munch would later write, \"I inherited two of mankind's most frightful enemies—the heritage of consumption and insanity.", "\"Christian Munch's military pay was very low, and his attempts to develop a private side practice failed, keeping his family in genteel but perennial poverty.", "They moved frequently from one cheap flat to another.", "Munch's early drawings and watercolors depicted these interiors, and the individual objects, such as medicine bottles and drawing implements, plus some landscapes.", "By his teens, art dominated Munch's interests.", "At 13, Munch had his first exposure to other artists at the newly formed Art Association, where he admired the work of the Norwegian landscape school.", "He returned to copy the paintings, and soon he began to paint in oils.===Mental health===dissociation or depression in borderline personality disorder.Edvard Munch had severe mental health difficulties during his lifetime.", "He is believed to have had borderline personality disorder, a mental health disorder characterized by fear of abandonment, chronic feelings of emptiness, impulsive behavior, and various other symptoms.", "Munch also displayed alcoholism, a trait often associated with impulsivity in BPD.===Studies and influences===''Self-Portrait with Skeleton Arm'', 1895, Munch Museum, OsloIn 1879, Munch enrolled in a technical college to study engineering, where he excelled in physics, chemistry and mathematics.", "He learned scaled and perspective drawing, but frequent illnesses interrupted his studies.", "The following year, much to his father's disappointment, Munch left the college determined to become a painter.", "His father viewed art as an \"unholy trade\", and his neighbors reacted bitterly and sent him anonymous letters.", "In contrast to his father's rabid pietism, Munch adopted an undogmatic stance towards art.", "He wrote his goal in his diary: \"In my art I attempt to explain life and its meaning to myself.", "\"In 1881, Munch enrolled at the Royal School of Art and Design of Kristiania, one of whose founders was his distant relative Jacob Munch.", "His teachers were the sculptor Julius Middelthun and the naturalistic painter Christian Krohg.", "That year, Munch demonstrated his quick absorption of his figure training at the academy in his first portraits, including one of his father and his first self-portrait.", "In 1883, Munch took part in his first public exhibition and shared a studio with other students.", "His full-length portrait of Karl Jensen-Hjell, a notorious bohemian-about-town, earned a critic's dismissive response: \"It is impressionism carried to the extreme.", "It is a travesty of art.\"", "Munch's nude paintings from this period survive only in sketches, except for ''Standing Nude'' (1887).", "They may have been confiscated by his father.Impressionism inspired Munch from a young age.", "During these early years, he experimented with many styles, including Naturalism and Impressionism.", "Some early works are reminiscent of Manet.", "Many of these attempts brought him unfavorable criticism from the press and garnered him constant rebukes by his father, who nonetheless provided him with small sums for living expenses.", "At one point, however, Munch's father, perhaps swayed by the negative opinion of Munch's cousin Edvard Diriks (an established, traditional painter), destroyed at least one painting (likely a nude) and refused to advance any more money for art supplies.Munch also received his father's ire for his relationship with Hans Jæger, the local nihilist who lived by the code \"a passion to destroy is also a creative passion\" and who advocated suicide as the ultimate way to freedom.", "Munch came under his malevolent, anti-establishment spell.", "\"My ideas developed under the influence of the bohemians or rather under Hans Jæger.", "Many people have mistakenly claimed that my ideas were formed under the influence of Strindberg and the Germans ... but that is wrong.", "They had already been formed by then.\"", "At that time, contrary to many of the other bohemians, Munch was still respectful of women, as well as reserved and well-mannered, but he began to give in to the binge drinking and brawling of his circle.", "He was unsettled by the sexual revolution going on at the time and by the independent women around him.", "He later turned cynical concerning sexual matters, expressed not only in his behavior and his art, but in his writings as well, an example being a long poem called ''The City of Free Love''.", "After numerous experiments, Munch concluded that the Impressionist idiom did not allow sufficient expression.", "He found it superficial and too akin to scientific experimentation.", "He felt a need to go deeper and explore situations brimming with emotional content and expressive energy.", "Under Jæger's commandment that Munch should \"write his life\", meaning that Munch should explore his own emotional and psychological state, the young artist began a period of reflection and self-examination, recording his thoughts in his \"soul's diary\".", "This deeper perspective helped move him to a new view of his art.", "He wrote that his painting ''The Sick Child'' (1886), based on his sister's death, was his first \"soul painting\", his first break from Impressionism.", "The painting received a negative response from critics and from his family, and caused another \"violent outburst of moral indignation\" from the community.Only his friend Christian Krohg defended him:He paints, or rather regards, things in a way that is different from that of other artists.", "He sees only the essential, and that, naturally, is all he paints.", "For this reason Munch's pictures are as a rule \"not complete\", as people are so delighted to discover for themselves.", "Oh, yes, they are complete.", "His complete handiwork.", "Art is complete once the artist has really said everything that was on his mind, and this is precisely the advantage Munch has over painters of the other generation, that he really knows how to show us what he has felt, and what has gripped him, and to this he subordinates everything else.Munch continued to employ a variety of brushstroke techniques and color palettes throughout the 1880s and early 1890s, as he struggled to define his style.", "His idiom continued to veer between naturalistic, as seen in ''Portrait of Hans Jæger'', and impressionistic, as in ''Rue Lafayette''.", "His ''Inger on the Beach'' (1889), which caused another storm of confusion and controversy, hints at the simplified forms, heavy outlines, sharp contrasts, and emotional content of his mature style to come.", "He began to carefully calculate his compositions to create tension and emotion.", "While stylistically influenced by the Post-Impressionists, what evolved was a subject matter which was symbolist in content, depicting a state of mind rather than an external reality.", "In 1889, Munch presented his first one-man show of nearly all his works to date.", "The recognition it received led to a two-year state scholarship to study in Paris under French painter Léon Bonnat.Munch seems to have been an early critic of photography as an art form, and remarked that it \"will never compete with the brush and the palette, until such time as photographs can be taken in Heaven or Hell!", "\"Munch's younger sister Laura was the subject of his 1899 interior ''Melancholy: Laura''.", "Amanda O'Neill says of the work, \"In this heated claustrophobic scene Munch not only portrays Laura's tragedy, but his own dread of the madness he might have inherited.", "\"===Paris===Munch arrived in Paris during the festivities of the Exposition Universelle (1889) and roomed with two fellow Norwegian artists.", "His picture ''Morning'' (1884) was displayed at the Norwegian pavilion.", "He spent his mornings at Bonnat's busy studio (which included female models) and afternoons at the exhibition, galleries, and museums (where students were expected to make copies as a way of learning technique and observation).", "Munch recorded little enthusiasm for Bonnat's drawing lessons—\"It tires and bores me—it's numbing\"—but enjoyed the master's commentary during museum trips.Munch was enthralled by the vast display of modern European art, including the works of three artists who would prove influential: Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec—all notable for how they used color to convey emotion.", "Munch was particularly inspired by Gauguin's \"reaction against realism\" and his credo that \"art was human work and not an imitation of Nature\", a belief earlier stated by Whistler.", "As one of his Berlin friends said later of Munch, \"he need not make his way to Tahiti to see and experience the primitive in human nature.", "He carries his own Tahiti within him.\"", "Influenced by Gauguin, as well as the etchings of German artist Max Klinger, Munch experimented with prints as a medium to create graphic versions of his works.", "In 1896 he created his first woodcuts—a medium that proved ideal to Munch's symbolic imagery.", "Together with his contemporary Nikolai Astrup, Munch is considered an innovator of the woodcut medium in Norway.In December 1889 his father died, leaving Munch's family destitute.", "He returned home and arranged a large loan from a wealthy Norwegian collector when wealthy relatives failed to help, and assumed financial responsibility for his family from then on.", "Christian's death depressed him and he was plagued by suicidal thoughts: \"I live with the dead—my mother, my sister, my grandfather, my father...Kill yourself and then it's over.", "Why live?\"", "Munch's paintings of the following year included sketchy tavern scenes and a series of bright cityscapes in which he experimented with the pointillist style of Georges Seurat.===Berlin===Melancholy'', 1891, oil, pencil and crayon on canvas, 73 × 101 cm, Munch Museum, OsloMunch in 1902, in the garden of his patron Max Linde in Lübeck; in the background is a cast of Auguste Rodin's sculpture ''The Age of Bronze''.By 1892, Munch formulated his characteristic, and original, Synthetist style, as seen in ''Melancholy'' (1891), in which color is the symbol-laden element.", "Considered by the artist and journalist Christian Krohg as the first Symbolist painting by a Norwegian artist, ''Melancholy'' was exhibited in 1891 at the Autumn Exhibition in Oslo.", "In 1892, Adelsteen Normann, on behalf of the Union of Berlin Artists, invited Munch to exhibit at its November exhibition, the society's first one-man exhibition.", "However, his paintings evoked bitter controversy (dubbed \"The Munch Affair\"), and after one week the exhibition closed.", "Munch was pleased with the \"great commotion\", and wrote in a letter: \"Never have I had such an amusing time—it's incredible that something as innocent as painting should have created such a stir.", "\"In Berlin, Munch became involved in an international circle of writers, artists and critics, including the Swedish dramatist and leading intellectual August Strindberg, whom he painted in 1892.He also met Danish writer and painter Holger Drachmann, whom he painted in 1898.Drachmann was 17 years Munch's senior and a drinking companion at Zum schwarzen Ferkel (At the Black Piglet) in 1893–94.In 1894 Drachmann wrote of Munch: \"He struggles hard.", "Good luck with your struggles, lonely Norwegian.", "\"During his four years in Berlin, Munch sketched out most of the ideas that would be comprised in his major work, ''The Frieze of Life'', first designed for book illustration but later expressed in paintings.", "He sold little, but made some income from charging entrance fees to view his controversial paintings.", "His other paintings, including casino scenes, show a simplification of form and detail which marked his early mature style.", "Munch also began to favor a shallow pictorial space and a minimal backdrop for his frontal figures.", "Since poses were chosen to produce the most convincing images of states of mind and psychological conditions, as in ''Ashes'', the figures impart a monumental, static quality.", "Munch's figures appear to play roles on a theatre stage (''Death in the Sick-Room''), whose pantomime of fixed postures signify various emotions; since each character embodies a single psychological dimension, as in ''The Scream'', Munch's men and women began to appear more symbolic than realistic.", "He wrote, \"No longer should interiors be painted, people reading and women knitting: there would be living people, breathing and feeling, suffering and loving.", "\"===''The Scream''===''The Scream'' (1893), National Gallery, Oslo''The Scream'' exists in four versions: two pastels (1893 and 1895) and two paintings (1893 and 1910).", "There are also several lithographs of ''The Scream'' (1895 and later).The 1895 pastel sold at auction on 2 May 2012 for US$119,922,500, including commission.", "It is the most colorful of the versions and is distinctive for the downward-looking stance of one of its background figures.", "It is also the only version not held by a Norwegian museum.The 1893 version was stolen from the National Gallery in Oslo in 1994 and was recovered.", "The 1910 painting was stolen in 2004 from the Munch Museum in Oslo, but recovered in 2006 with limited damage.", "''The Scream'' is Munch's most famous work, and one of the most recognizable paintings in all art.", "It has been widely interpreted as representing the universal anxiety of modern man.", "Painted with broad bands of garish color and highly simplified forms, and employing a high viewpoint, it reduces the agonized figure to a garbed skull in the throes of an emotional crisis.With this painting, Munch met his stated goal of \"the study of the soul, that is to say the study of my own self\".", "Munch wrote of how the painting came to be: \"I was walking down the road with two friends when the sun set; suddenly, the sky turned as red as blood.", "I stopped and leaned against the fence, feeling unspeakably tired.", "Tongues of fire and blood stretched over the bluish black fjord.", "My friends went on walking, while I lagged behind, shivering with fear.", "Then I heard the enormous, infinite scream of nature.\"", "He later described the personal anguish behind the painting, \"for several years I was almost mad... You know my picture, 'The Scream?'", "I was stretched to the limit—nature was screaming in my blood... After that I gave up hope ever of being able to love again.", "\"In 2003, comparing the painting with other great works, art historian Martha Tedeschi wrote:''Whistler's Mother'', Wood's ''American Gothic'', Leonardo da Vinci's ''Mona Lisa'' and Edvard Munch's ''The Scream'' have all achieved something that most paintings—regardless of their art historical importance, beauty, or monetary value—have not: they communicate a specific meaning almost immediately to almost every viewer.", "These few works have successfully made the transition from the elite realm of the museum visitor to the enormous venue of popular culture.===''Frieze of Life—A Poem about Life, Love and Death''===this painting might be of the Virgin Mary.", "Whether the painting is specifically intended as a representation of Mary is disputed.", "Munch used more than one title, including both ''Loving Woman'' and ''Madonna''.In December 1893, Unter den Linden in Berlin was the location of an exhibition of Munch's work, showing, among other pieces, six paintings entitled ''Study for a Series: Love.''", "This began a cycle he later called the ''Frieze of Life—A Poem about Life, Love and Death''.", "''Frieze of Life'' motifs, such as ''The Storm'' and ''Moonlight'', are steeped in atmosphere.", "Other motifs illuminate the nocturnal side of love, such as ''Rose and Amelie'' and ''Love and Pain''.", "In ''Death in the Sickroom'', the subject is the death of his sister Sophie, which he re-worked in many future variations.", "The dramatic focus of the painting, portraying his entire family, is dispersed in the separate and disconnected figures of sorrow.", "In 1894, he enlarged the spectrum of motifs by adding ''Anxiety'', ''Ashes'', ''Madonna'' and ''Women in Three Stages'' (from innocence to old age).Around the start of the 20th century, Munch worked to finish the \"Frieze\".", "He painted a number of pictures, several of them in bigger format and to some extent featuring the Art Nouveau aesthetics of the time.", "He made a wooden frame with carved reliefs for the large painting ''Metabolism'' (1898), initially called ''Adam and Eve''.", "This work reveals Munch's pre-occupation with the \"fall of man\" and his pessimistic philosophy of love.", "Motifs such as ''The Empty Cross'' and ''Golgotha'' (both ) reflect a metaphysical orientation, and also reflect Munch's pietistic upbringing.", "The entire ''Frieze'' was shown for the first time at the secessionist exhibition in Berlin in 1902.", "\"The Frieze of Life\" themes recur throughout Munch's work but he especially focused on them in the mid-1890s.", "In sketches, paintings, pastels and prints, he tapped the depths of his feelings to examine his major motifs: the stages of life, the femme fatale, the hopelessness of love, anxiety, infidelity, jealousy, sexual humiliation, and separation in life and death.", "These themes are expressed in paintings such as ''The Sick Child'' (1885), ''Love and Pain'' (retitled ''Vampire''; 1893–94), ''Ashes'' (1894), and ''The Bridge''.", "The latter shows limp figures with featureless or hidden faces, over which loom the threatening shapes of heavy trees and brooding houses.", "Munch portrayed women either as frail, innocent sufferers (see ''Puberty'' and ''Love and Pain'') or as the cause of great longing, jealousy and despair (see ''Separation'', ''Jealousy'', and ''Ashes'').Munch often uses shadows and rings of color around his figures to emphasize an aura of fear, menace, anxiety, or sexual intensity.", "These paintings have been interpreted as reflections of the artist's sexual anxieties, though it could also be argued that they represent his turbulent relationship with love itself and his general pessimism regarding human existence.", "Many of these sketches and paintings were done in several versions, such as ''Madonna'', ''Hands'' and ''Puberty'', and also transcribed as wood-block prints and lithographs.", "Munch hated to part with his paintings because he thought of his work as a single body of expression.", "So to capitalize on his production and make some income, he turned to graphic arts to reproduce many of his paintings, including those in this series.", "Munch admitted to the personal goals of his work but he also offered his art to a wider purpose, \"My art is really a voluntary confession and an attempt to explain to myself my relationship with life—it is, therefore, actually a sort of egoism, but I am constantly hoping that through this I can help others achieve clarity.", "\"While attracting strongly negative reactions, in the 1890s Munch began to receive some understanding of his artistic goals, as one critic wrote, \"With ruthless contempt for form, clarity, elegance, wholeness, and realism, he paints with intuitive strength of talent the most subtle visions of the soul.\"", "One of his great supporters in Berlin was Walther Rathenau, later the German foreign minister, who strongly contributed to his success.=== Landscapes and Nature ===''From Thuringerwald'', 1905, oil on canvas.", "The work depicts a sinuous cut through the forest with a fleshy earth that harkens back to a physical connection to the viewer.Despite over half of his painted works being landscapes, Munch is rarely seen as a landscape artist.", "However, Munch had a fixation on several elements of nature that resulted in recurrent motifs throughout his work.", "The shoreline and the forest are both significant settings of Munch's work.", "A focus on Munch's use of nature to convey emotion is the topic of ''Edvard Munch: Trembling Earth'' at the Clark Art Institute.===Paris, Berlin and Kristiania===The Sick Child'' (1907)In 1896, Munch moved to Paris, where he focused on graphic representations of his ''Frieze of Life'' themes.", "He further developed his woodcut and lithographic technique.", "Munch's ''Self-Portrait with Skeleton Arm'' (1895) is done with an etching needle-and-ink method also used by Paul Klee.", "Munch also produced multi-colored versions of ''The Sick Child'', concerning tuberculosis, which sold well, as well as several nudes and multiple versions of ''Kiss'' (1892).", "In May 1896, Siegfried Bing held an exhibition of Munch's work inside Bing's Maison de l'Art Nouveau.", "The exhibition displayed 60 works, including ''The Kiss, The Scream, Madonna, The Sick Child, The Death Chamber, and The Day After.''", "Bing's exhibition helped to introduce Munch to a French audience.", "Still, many of the Parisian critics still considered Munch's work \"violent and brutal\" even if his exhibitions received serious attention and good attendance.", "His financial situation improved considerably and, in 1897, Munch bought himself a summer house facing the fjords of Kristiania, a small fisherman's cabin built in the late 18th century, in the small town of Åsgårdstrand in Norway.", "He dubbed this home the \"Happy House\" and returned here almost every summer for the next 20 years.", "It was this place he missed when he was abroad and when he felt depressed and exhausted.", "\"To walk in Åsgårdstrand is like walking among my paintings—I get so inspired to paint when I am here\".Harald Nørregaard (with his wife, painted by Munch in 1899, National Gallery) was one of Munch's closest friends since adolescence, adviser and lawyer.In 1897 Munch returned to Kristiania, where he also received grudging acceptance—one critic wrote, \"A fair number of these pictures have been exhibited before.", "In my opinion these improve on acquaintance.\"", "In 1899, Munch began an intimate relationship with Tulla Larsen, a \"liberated\" upper-class woman.", "They traveled to Italy together and upon returning, Munch began another fertile period in his art, which included landscapes and his final painting in \"The Frieze of Life\" series, ''The Dance of Life'' (1899).", "Larsen was eager for marriage, but Munch was not.", "His drinking and poor health reinforced his fears, as he wrote in the third person: \"Ever since he was a child he had hated marriage.", "His sick and nervous home had given him the feeling that he had no right to get married.\"", "Munch almost gave in to Tulla, but fled from her in 1900, also turning away from her considerable fortune, and moved to Berlin.", "His ''Girls on the Jetty'', created in 18 different versions, demonstrated the theme of feminine youth without negative connotations.", "In 1902, he displayed his works thematically at the hall of the Berlin Secession, producing \"a symphonic effect—it made a great stir—a lot of antagonism—and a lot of approval.\"", "The Berlin critics were beginning to appreciate Munch's work even though the public still found his work alien and strange.The good press coverage gained Munch the attention of influential patrons Albert Kollman and Max Linde.", "He described the turn of events in his diary, \"After 20 years of struggle and misery forces of good finally come to my aid in Germany—and a bright door opens up for me.\"", "However, despite this positive change, Munch's self-destructive and erratic behavior led him first to a violent quarrel with another artist, then to an accidental shooting in the presence of Tulla Larsen, who had returned for a brief reconciliation, which injured two of his fingers.", "Munch later sawed a self-portrait depicting him and Larsen in half as a consequence of the shooting and subsequent events.", "She finally left him and married a younger colleague of Munch.", "Munch took this as a betrayal, and he dwelled on the humiliation for some time to come, channeling some of the bitterness into new paintings.", "His paintings ''Still Life (The Murderess)'' and ''The Death of Marat I'', done in 1906–07, clearly reference the shooting incident and the emotional after-effects.In 1903–04, Munch exhibited in Paris where the coming Fauvists, famous for their boldly false colors, likely saw his works and might have found inspiration in them.", "When the Fauves held their own exhibit in 1906, Munch was invited and displayed his works with theirs.", "After studying the sculpture of Rodin, Munch may have experimented with plasticine as an aid to design, but he produced little sculpture.", "During this time, Munch received many commissions for portraits and prints which improved his usually precarious financial condition.", "In 1906, he painted the screen for an Ibsen play in the small Kammerspiele Theatre located in Berlin's Deutsches Theater, in which the ''Frieze of Life'' was hung.", "The theatre's director Max Reinhardt later sold it; it is now in the Berlin Nationalgalerie.", "After an earlier period of landscapes, in 1907 he turned his attention again to human figures and situations.===Breakdown and recovery===Munch in 1933In the autumn of 1908, Munch's anxiety, compounded by excessive drinking and brawling, had become acute.", "As he later wrote, \"My condition was verging on madness—it was touch and go.\"", "Subject to hallucinations and feelings of persecution, he entered the clinic of Daniel Jacobson.", "The therapy Munch received for the next eight months included diet and \"electrification\" (a treatment then fashionable for nervous conditions, not to be confused with electroconvulsive therapy).", "Munch's stay in hospital stabilized his personality, and after returning to Norway in 1909, his work became more colorful and less pessimistic.", "Further brightening his mood, the general public of Kristiania finally warmed to his work, and museums began to purchase his paintings.", "He was made a Knight of the Royal Order of St. Olav \"for services in art\".", "His first American exhibit was in 1912 in New York.As part of his recovery, Jacobson advised Munch to only socialize with good friends and avoid drinking in public.", "Munch followed this advice and in the process produced several full-length portraits of high quality of friends and patrons—honest portrayals devoid of flattery.", "He also created landscapes and scenes of people at work and play, using a new optimistic style—broad, loose brushstrokes of vibrant color with frequent use of white space and rare use of black—with only occasional references to his morbid themes.", "With more income Munch was able to buy several properties giving him new vistas for his art and he was finally able to provide for his family.The outbreak of World War I found Munch with divided loyalties, as he stated, \"All my friends are German but it is France I love.\"", "In the 1930s, his German patrons, many Jewish, lost their fortunes and some their lives during the rise of the Nazi movement.", "Munch found Norwegian printers to substitute for the Germans who had been printing his graphic work.", "Given his poor health history, during 1918 Munch felt himself lucky to have survived a bout of the Spanish flu, the worldwide pandemic of that year.===Later years===Munch's grave at the Cemetery of Our Saviour in OsloMunch spent most of his last two decades in solitude at his nearly self-sufficient estate in Ekely, at Skøyen, Oslo.", "Many of his late paintings celebrate farm life, including several in which he used his work horse \"Rousseau\" as a model.", "Without any effort, Munch attracted a steady stream of female models, whom he painted as the subjects of numerous nude paintings.", "He likely had sexual relationships with some of them.", "Munch occasionally left his home to paint murals on commission, including those done for the Freia chocolate factory.To the end of his life, Munch continued to paint unsparing self-portraits, adding to his self-searching cycle of his life and his unflinching series of takes on his emotional and physical states.", "In the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazis labeled Munch's work \"degenerate art\" (along with that of Picasso, Klee, Matisse, Gauguin and many other modern artists) and removed his 82 works from German museums.", "Adolf Hitler announced in 1937, \"For all we care, those pre-historic Stone Age culture barbarians and art-stutterers can return to the caves of their ancestors and there can apply their primitive international scratching.", "\"In 1940, the Germans invaded Norway and the Nazi party took over the government.", "Munch was 76 years old.", "With nearly an entire collection of his art in the second floor of his house, Munch lived in fear of a Nazi confiscation.", "Seventy-one of the paintings previously taken by the Nazis had been returned to Norway through purchase by collectors (the other 11 were never recovered), including ''The Scream'' and ''The Sick Child'', and they too were hidden from the Nazis.Munch died in his house at Ekely near Oslo on 23 January 1944, about a month after his 80th birthday.", "His Nazi-orchestrated funeral suggested to Norwegians that he was a Nazi sympathizer, a kind of appropriation of the independent artist.", "The city of Oslo bought the Ekely estate from Munch's heirs in 1946; his house was demolished in May 1960." ], [ "Legacy", "Munch Museum, OsloMunch Museum, OsloWhen Munch died, his remaining works were bequeathed to the city of Oslo, which built the Munch Museum at Tøyen (it opened in 1963).", "The museum holds a collection of approximately 1,100 paintings, 4,500 drawings, and 18,000 prints, the broadest collection of his works in the world.", "The Munch Museum serves as Munch's official estate; it has been active in responding to copyright infringements as well as clearing copyright for the work, such as the appearance of Munch's ''The Scream'' in a 2006 M&M's advertising campaign.", "The U.S. copyright representative for the Munch Museum and the Estate of Edvard Munch is the Artists Rights Society.Munch's art was highly personalized and he did little teaching.", "His \"private\" symbolism was far more personal than that of other Symbolist painters such as Gustave Moreau and James Ensor.", "Munch was still highly influential, particularly with the German Expressionists, who followed his philosophy, \"I do not believe in the art which is not the compulsive result of Man's urge to open his heart.\"", "Many of his paintings, including ''The Scream'', have universal appeal in addition to their highly personal meaning.Munch's works are now represented in numerous major museums and galleries in Norway and abroad.", "His cabin, \"the Happy House\", was given to the municipality of Åsgårdstrand in 1944; it serves as a small Munch Museum.", "The inventory has been maintained exactly as he left it.One version of ''The Scream'' was stolen from the National Gallery in 1994.In 2004, another version of ''The Scream'', along with one of ''Madonna'', was stolen from the Munch Museum in a daring daylight robbery.", "These were all eventually recovered, but the paintings stolen in the 2004 robbery were extensively damaged.", "They have been meticulously restored and are on display again.", "Three Munch works were stolen from the Hotel Refsnes Gods in 2005; they were shortly recovered, although one of the works was damaged during the robbery.In October 2006, the color woodcut ''Two people.", "The lonely'' (''To mennesker.", "De ensomme'') set a new record for his prints when it was sold at an auction in Oslo for 8.1 million kroner (US$1.27 million ).", "It also set a record for the highest price paid in auction in Norway.", "On 3 November 2008, the painting ''Vampire'' set a new record for his paintings when it was sold for US$38,162,000 () at Sotheby's New York.Munch's image appears on the Norwegian 1,000-kroner note, along with pictures inspired by his artwork.In February 2012, a major Munch exhibition, ''Edvard Munch.", "The Modern Eye'', opened at the Schirn Kunsthalle Frankfurt; the exhibition was opened by Mette-Marit, Crown Princess of Norway.In May 2012, ''The Scream'' sold for US$119.9 million (), and is the second most expensive artwork ever sold at an open auction.", "(It was surpassed in November 2013 by ''Three Studies of Lucian Freud'', which sold for US$142.4 million).In 2013, four of Munch's paintings were depicted in a series of stamps by the Norwegian postal service, to commemorate in 2014 the 150th anniversary of his birth.On 14 November 2016 a version of Munch's ''The Girls on the Bridge'' sold for US$54.5 million () at Sotheby's, New York, making it the second highest price achieved for one of his paintings.In April 2019 the British Museum hosted the exhibition, ''Edvard Munch: Love and Angst'', comprising 83 artworks and including a rare original print of ''The Scream''.In May 2022 the Courtauld Gallery hosted the exhibition, ''Edvard Munch.", "Masterpieces from Bergen'', showcasing 18 paintings from Norwegian industrialist Rasmus Meyer's collection.In June 2023 the Clark Art Institute hosted the exhibition ''Edvard Munch: Trembling Earth''.", "It is the first exhibit in the United States to focus on how Munch used nature to convey deeper meaning in his painting.", "''Trembling Earth'' features more than 75 works, many from the Munchmuseet's collection, and over 40 paintings and prints from rarely seen private collections.In September 2023, the Berlinische Galerie Museum for Modern Art hosted an exhibition ''Edvard Munch.", "Magic of the North'' in collaboration with the Munch Museum Oslo.", "The exhibition includes around 80 works by Edvard Munch, supplemented by works by other artists who shaped the idea of the north and the modern art scene on the Spree in Berlin at the end of the 19th century.", "In November 2023, the Museum Barberini in Potsdam also hosted an exibition ''Edvard Munch: Trembling Earth'' in collaboration with the Munch Museum Oslo.", "The exhibition overlaps the Berlinische Galerie exhibition by eight weeks, both exhibitions are under the joint patronage of German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier and His Majesty King Harald V of Norway.", "The exhibition includes more than 110 loans from other institutions.===University Aula===The Aula featuring ''History'' (left), ''The Sun'' (front), ''Alma Mater'' (right), smaller paintings on cornersIn 1911 the final competition for the decoration of the large walls of the University of Oslo Aula (assembly hall) was held between Munch and Emanuel Vigeland.", "The episode is known as the \"Aula controversy\".", "In 1914 Munch was finally commissioned to decorate the Aula and the work was completed in 1916.This major work in Norwegian monumental painting includes 11 paintings covering .", "''The Sun'', ''History'' and ''Alma Mater'' are the key works in this sequence.", "Munch declared: \"I wanted the decorations to form a complete and independent world of ideas, and I wanted their visual expression to be both distinctively Norwegian and universally human\".", "In 2014 it was suggested that the Aula paintings have a value of at least 500 million kroner.=== Looted art controversies ===In 2007, Munch's ''Summer Night at the Beach'' was returned to the granddaughter of Alma Mahler, who was forced to flee the Nazis with her Jewish husband in March 1938, after Hitler's annexation of Austria.", "In 2008 the Basel Fine Arts Museum rejected a claim for Munch's ''Madonna, a'' lithograph of a nude in black, red and blue'','' from the heirs of the Jewish collector Curt Glaser.", "In 2012 Berlin’s Kupferstichkabinett restituted three drawings by Munch to the heirs of Curt Glaser, a Jewish collector forced into exile by the Nazis.", "In 2012, a claim for ''The Scream'' from the heirs of Hugo Simon was rejected as it went to auction.", "In 2023 Munch's ''Dance on the Beach'' was the object of an accord between the Glaser heirs and the heirs of Thomas Olsen, a Norwegian shipowner and Munch’s neighbour and collector." ], [ "Major works", "''Life'' by Munch, at the Rådhuset (City Hall) in Oslo.", "The room is called ''The Munch room''.", "* 1885–1886: ''The Sick Child''* 1892: ''Evening on Karl Johan''* 1893: ''The Scream''* 1894: ''Ashes''* 1894: ''Despair''* 1894: ''Woman in Three Stages''* 1894–1895: ''Madonna''* 1894–1896: ''Melancholy'' * 1895: ''Puberty''* 1895: ''Self-Portrait with Cigarette''* 1895: ''Death in the Sickroom''* 1899–1900: ''The Dance of Life''* 1899–1900: ''The Dead Mother''* 1903: ''Village in Moonlight''* 1940–1942: ''Self-Portrait.", "Between the Clock and the Bed.''" ], [ "Selected works", "File:Edvard Munch - Ashes (1895).jpg|''Ashes'', 1894, oil on canvas, .", "Nasjonalgalleriet, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - The dance of life (1899-1900).jpg|alt=The Dance of Life, 1899–1900, oil on canvas, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}126 cm × 191 cm (49+1⁄2 in × 75 in), Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo|''The Dance of Life'', 1899–1900, oil on canvas, , Nasjonalgalleriet, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - At the Roulette Table in Monte Carlo - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=At the Roulette Table in Monte Carlo, 1892, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}74.5 cm × 116 cm (29+1⁄4 in × 45+3⁄4 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''At the Roulette Table in Monte Carlo'', 1892, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Death in the Sickroom - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Death in the Sickroom, 1893, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}134 cm × 160 cm (52+3⁄4 in × 63 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Death in the Sickroom'', 1893, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:'Starry Night' by Edvard Munch, 1893, Getty Center.JPG|alt=Starry Night, 1893, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}135.6 cm × 140 cm (53+1⁄2 in × 55 in), J. Paul Getty Museum|''Starry Night'', 1893, , J. Paul Getty MuseumFile:Edvard Munch - Anxiety - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Anxiety, 1894, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}94 cm × 74 cm (37 in × 29+1⁄4 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Anxiety'', 1894, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Despair Edvard Munch 1894.jpeg|alt=Despair, 1894, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}92 cm × 72.5 cm (36+1⁄4 in × 28+1⁄2 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Despair'', 1894, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Vampire (1895) - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Love and Pain (Vampire), 1895, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}91 cm × 109 cm (35+3⁄4 in × 43 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Love and Pain (Vampire)'', 1895, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Munch deathSickroom.jpg|''Death in the Sickroom'', , oil on canvas, , Nasjonalgalleriet, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Separation - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Separation, 1896, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}96 cm × 127 cm (37+3⁄4 in × 50 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Separation'', 1896, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - The Voice , Summer Night - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=The Voice / Summer Night, 1896, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}90 cm × 119 cm (35+1⁄2 in × 46+3⁄4 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''The Voice / Summer Night'', 1896, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Red and White - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Red and White, 1899–1900, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}93 cm × 129 cm (36+1⁄2 in × 50+3⁄4 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Red and White'', 1899–1900, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Golgotha (1900).jpg|''Golgotha'', 1900, oil on canvas, Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Kiss IV - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Kiss IV, 1902, woodcut print on wood, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}47 cm × 47 cm (18+1⁄2 in × 18+1⁄2 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Kiss IV'', 1902, woodcut print on wood, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Four Girls in Åsgårdstrand - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Four Girls in Åsgårdstrand, 1903, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}87 cm × 111 cm (34+1⁄4 in × 43+3⁄4 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Four Girls in Åsgårdstrand'', 1903, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - The Brooch.", "Eva Mudocci - Google Art Project.jpg|''The Brooch, Eva Mudocci'', 1903, lithograph print on paper, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Friederich Nietzsche.jpg|''Portrait of Friedrich Nietzsche'', 1906, Thiel Gallery, StockholmFile:Edvard Munch - Jealousy - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Jealousy, 1907, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}75 cm × 98 cm (29+1⁄2 in × 38+1⁄2 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Jealousy'', 1907, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - The Sun - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=The Sun, 1910–1911, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}450 cm × 772 cm (177+1⁄4 in × 304 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''The Sun'', 1910–1911, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Galloping Horse - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Galloping Horse, 1910–12, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}148 cm × 120 cm (58+1⁄4 in × 47+1⁄4 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Galloping Horse'', 1910–12, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - The Yellow Log - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=The Yellow Log, 1912, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}129.5 cm × 159.5 cm (51 in × 62+3⁄4 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''The Yellow Log'', 1912, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Workers on their Way Home - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Workers on their Way Home, 1913–14, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}227 cm × 201 cm (89+1⁄4 in × 79+1⁄4 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Workers on their Way Home'', 1913–14, , Munch Museum, Oslo=== Nudes ===File:Edvard Munch - The Hands (1893).jpg|''The Hands'', 1893, oil on canvas, 91 x 77 cm, Munch Museum, OsloFile:Puberty (1894-95) by Edvard Munch.jpg|''Puberty'', 1894–1895, oil on canvas, 151.5 x 110 cm, National Gallery (Norway)File:Edvard Munch, Lady from the sea.jpg|alt=Lady From the Sea (detail), 1896, oil on canvas.", ".mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}100 cm × 320 cm (39+1⁄2 in × 126 in)|''Lady From the Sea'' (detail), 1896, oil on canvas.", "File:Edvard Munch - Metabolism - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Metabolism, 1898–1899, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}172 cm × 142 cm (67+3⁄4 in × 56 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Metabolism'', 1898–1899, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:MunchDerToddesMarat1907.JPG|''Death of Marat I'' 1907, 150 x 199 cm, Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Bathing Men (Ateneum).jpg|''Bathing Men'', 1907–1908, oil on canvas, 206 x 227.5 cm, Ateneum, HelsinkiFile:Edvard Munch, Gråtende kvinne.JPG|''Weeping Woman'', 1907–1909, oil on canvas, private collectionFile:'Morning Yawn' by Edvard Munch, 1913, Bergen Kunstmuseum.JPG|''Morning Yawn'', 1913, oil on canvas, 108 × 98 cm, Art Museums of BergenFile:Edvard Munch - Weeping Nude - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Weeping Nude, 1913–1914, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}110 cm × 135 cm (43+1⁄4 in × 53+1⁄4 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Weeping Nude'', 1913–1914, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Model by the Wicker Chair.jpeg|''Model by the Wicker Chair'', 1919–1921, oil on canvas, 122.5 × 100 cm, Munch Museum, Oslo===Self-portraits===File:Edvard Munch - Self-Portrait - Google Art Project (533070).jpg|alt=Self-Portrait, 1882, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}26 cm × 19 cm (10+1⁄4 in × 7+1⁄2 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Self-Portrait'', 1882, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Self-Portrait in Hell - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Self-Portrait in Hell, 1903, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}82 cm × 66 cm (32+1⁄4 in × 26 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Self-Portrait in Hell'', 1903, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Self-Portrait with Brushes - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Self-Portrait with Brushes, 1904, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}197 cm × 91 cm (77+1⁄2 in × 35+3⁄4 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Self-Portrait with Brushes'', 1904, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Self-Portrait with a Bottle of Wine - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Self-Portrait with a Bottle of Wine, 1906, .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}110 cm × 120 cm (43+1⁄4 in × 47+1⁄4 in), Munch Museum, Oslo|''Self-Portrait with a Bottle of Wine'', 1906, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Self-Portrait with the Spanish Flu (1919).jpg|''Self-Portrait with the Spanish Flu'', 1919, oil on canvas, 150 x 131 cm, National Gallery (Norway)File:Edvard Munch, Selvportrett.", "Mellom klokken og sengen.JPG|''Self-Portrait.", "Between the Clock and the Bed.''", "c. 1940–1943, Munch Museum, Oslo===Landscapes===File:SmallLakewithBoatMunch.jpg|''Small Lake with Boat'', 1880, oil on paper on board, 12 x 18 cm, Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - From Sandviken (c. 1882).jpg|''From Sandviken'', , oil on cardboard, 20 x 25 cm, Flaten Art MuseumFile:Fra Saxegårdsgate - Edvard Munch.jpg|''From Saxegårdsgate'', , oil on canvas, Lillehammer Art Museum, LillehammerFile:Sketch for 'Ashes' by Edvard Munch, Bergen Kunstmuseum.JPG|''Sketch for 'Ashes' '', 1894, oil on canvas, Bergen KunstmuseumFile:Edvard Munch - Train Smoke - Google Art Project.jpg|''Train Smoke'', 1900, , Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Shore with Red House - Google Art Project.jpg|''Shore with Red House'', 1904, oil on canvas, 69 × 109 cm, Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch, 1918, Coastal Landscape, oil on canvas, 120.9 x 160 cm, Kunstmuseum Basel.jpg|''Landscape at the Sea'', 1918, oil on canvas, 120.9 x 160, Kunstmuseum BaselFile:Edvard Munch, 1922, Starry Night, Munch Museum, Oslo.jpg|''Starry Night'', 1922-1924, oil on canvas, 120.5 x 100 cm, Munch Museum, OsloFile:'Winter Night, Ekely' by Edvard Munch, 1930-31.JPG|''Winter Night, Ekely'', 1930-1931, oil on canvas===Photographs===File:Edvard Munch - Self-Portrait at 53 Am Strom in Warnemünde - Google Art Project (cropped).jpg|''Self-Portrait at 53 Am Strom in Warnemünde'', 1907, Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Edvard Munch at the Beach in Warnemünde - Google Art Project.jpg|''Edvard Munch at the Beach in Warnemünde'', 1907, Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Self-Portrait “à la Marat” - Google Art Project.jpg|''Self-Portrait \"à la Marat\"'', 1908–09, Munch Museum, OsloFile:Edvard Munch - Self-Portrait Somewhere on the Continent I - Google Art Project.jpg|''Self-Portrait Somewhere on the Continent I'', 1906, Munch Museum, OsloFile:Portrett av Edvard Munch, 26 år gammel.jpg|Portrait at 26 yearsFile:Portrait photographique dEdvard Munch (4865295519).jpg|Portrait of Edvard Munch 1902File:Portrett av Edvard Munch.jpg|Portrait of Edvard MunchFile:Edvard Munch 1912.jpg|Munch in 1912File:Edvard Munch - Rosa Meissner at the Hotel Rohn in Warnemünde - Google Art Project.jpg|''Rosa Meissner at the Hotel Rohn in Warnemünde'', 1907, photograph, Munch Museum, Oslo" ], [ "See also", "* ''Edvard Munch'', a 1974 biographical film* List of claims for restitution for Nazi-looted art" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations====== General sources ===** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Catalogue of exhibition at the Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery, University of Glasgow and the National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin.", "* * Recounts the 1994 theft of ''The Scream'' from Norway's National Gallery in Oslo, and its eventual recovery* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Oslo goes high on ‘Old Munch* Munch at Olga's Gallery—large online collection of Munch's works (over 200 paintings)* Munch at artcyclopedia* Edvard Munch at WikiGallery.org* Exhibition \"Edvard Munch L'oeil moderne\"—Centre Pompidou, Paris 2011* Edvard Munch at Norway's National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Extended Industry Standard Architecture" ], [ "Introduction", "SCSI controller (Adaptec AHA-1740)Fast SCSI RAID controller (DPT PM2022)ELSA Winner 1000 Video card for ISA and EISAEISA Network cardThe '''Extended Industry Standard Architecture''' (in practice almost always shortened to '''EISA''' and frequently pronounced \"eee-suh\") is a bus standard for IBM PC compatible computers.", "It was announced in September 1988 by a consortium of PC clone vendors (the '''Gang of Nine''') as an alternative to IBM's proprietary Micro Channel architecture (MCA) in its PS/2 series.In comparison with the AT bus, which the Gang of Nine retroactively renamed to the ISA bus to avoid infringing IBM's trademark on its PC/AT computer, EISA is extended to 32 bits and allows more than one CPU to share the bus.", "The bus mastering support is also enhanced to provide access to 4 GB of memory.", "Unlike MCA, EISA can accept older ISA cards — the lines and slots for EISA are a superset of ISA.EISA was much favoured by manufacturers due to the proprietary nature of MCA, and even IBM produced some machines supporting it.", "It was somewhat expensive to implement (though not as much as MCA), so it never became particularly popular in desktop PCs.", "However, it was reasonably successful in the server market, as it was better suited to bandwidth-intensive tasks (such as disk access and networking).", "Most EISA cards produced were either SCSI or network cards.", "EISA was also available on some non-IBM-compatible machines such as the DEC AlphaServer, HP 9000 D-class, SGI Indigo2 and MIPS Magnum.By the time there was a strong market need for a bus of these speeds and capabilities for desktop computers, the VESA Local Bus and later PCI filled this niche, and EISA vanished into obscurity." ], [ "History", "The original IBM PC included five 8-bit slots, running at the system clock speed of 4.77 MHz.", "The PC/AT, introduced in 1984, had three 8-bit slots and five 16-bit slots, all running at the system clock speed of 6 MHz in the earlier models and 8 MHz in the last version of the computer.", "The 16-bit slots were a superset of the 8-bit configuration, so ''most'' 8-bit cards were able to plug into a 16-bit slot (some cards used a \"skirt\" design that physically interfered with the extended portion of the slot) and continue to run in 8-bit mode.", "One of the key reasons for the success of the IBM PC (and the PC clones that followed it) was the active ecosystem of third-party expansion cards available for the machines.", "IBM was restricted from patenting the bus and widely published the bus specifications.As the PC-clone industry continued to build momentum in the mid- to late-1980s, several problems with the bus began to be apparent.", "First, because the \"AT slot\" (as it was known at the time) was not managed by any central standards group, there was nothing to prevent a manufacturer from \"pushing\" the standard.", "One of the most common issues was that as PC clones became more common, PC manufacturers began increasing the processor speed to maintain a competitive advantage.", "Unfortunately, because the ISA bus was originally locked to the processor clock, this meant that some 286 machines had ISA buses that ran at 10, 12, or even 16 MHz.", "In fact, the first systems to clock the ISA bus at 8 MHz were the turbo Intel 8088 clones that clocked the processors at 8 MHz.", "This caused many issues with incompatibility, where a true IBM-compatible third-party card (designed for an 8 MHz or 4.77 MHz bus) might not work reliably or at all in a higher-clocked system.", "Most PC makers eventually decoupled the bus clock from the system clock, but there was still no standards body to \"police\" the industry.As companies like Dell modified the AT bus design, the architecture was so well entrenched that no single clone manufacturer had the leverage to create a standardized alternative, and there was no compelling reason for them to cooperate on a new standard.", "Because of this, when the first 386-based system (the Compaq Deskpro 386) was sold in 1986, it still supported 16-bit slots.", "Other 386 PCs followed suit, and the AT (later ISA) bus remained a part of most systems even into the late 1990s.Meanwhile, IBM began to worry that it was losing control of the industry it had created.", "In 1987, IBM released the PS/2 line of computers, most of which included the MCA bus.", "MCA included numerous enhancements over the 16-bit AT bus, including bus mastering, burst mode, software-configurable resources, and 32-bit capabilities.", "However, in an effort to reassert its dominant role, IBM patented the bus and placed stringent licensing and royalty policies on its use.", "A few manufacturers did produce licensed MCA machines (most notably, NCR), but overall the industry balked at IBM's restrictions.Steve Gibson proposed that clone makers adopt NuBus.", "A group of companies led by Compaq (the ''Gang of Nine'') created a new bus instead.", "This new bus was named the Extended (or Enhanced) Industry Standard Architecture, or \"EISA\", while the older AT bus had already been renamed Industry Standard Architecture, or \"ISA\".", "This provided virtually all of the technical advantages of MCA, while remaining compatible with existing 8-bit and 16-bit cards, and (most enticing to system and card makers) minimal licensing cost.The EISA bus slot is a two-level staggered pin system, with the upper part of the slot corresponding to the standard ISA bus pin layout.", "The additional features of the EISA bus are implemented on the lower part of the slot connector, using thin traces inserted into the insulating gap of the upper / ISA card card edge connector.", "Additionally, the lower part of the bus has five keying notches, so an ISA card with unusually long traces cannot accidentally extend down into the lower part of the slot.Intel introduced their first EISA chipset (and also their first chipset in the modern sense of the word) as the 82350 in September 1989.Intel introduced a lower-cost variant as the 82350DT, announced in April 1991; it began shipping in June of that year.The first EISA computer announced was the HP Vectra 486 in October 1989.The first EISA computers to hit the market were the Compaq Deskpro 486 and the SystemPro.", "The SystemPro, being one of the first PC-style systems designed as a network server, was built from the ground up to take full advantage of the EISA bus.", "It included such features as multiprocessing, hardware RAID, and bus-mastering network cards.One of the benefits to come out of the EISA standard was a final codification of the standard to which ISA slots and cards should be held (in particular, clock speed was fixed at an industry standard of 8.33 MHz).", "Thus, even systems that didn't use the EISA bus gained the advantage of having the ISA standardized, which contributed to its longevity." ], [ "The Gang of Nine", "The ''Gang of Nine'' was the informal name given to the consortium of personal computer manufacturing companies, led by Compaq, that together created the EISA bus.", "Compaq was among the first clone makers, and had the largest market share for 386-based computers.", "Rival members generally acknowledged its leadership, with one stating in 1989 that within the Gang of Nine \"when you have 10 people sit down before a table to write a letter to the president, someone has to write the letter.", "Compaq is sitting down at the typewriter\".", "The members were:* AST Research, Inc.* Compaq Computer Corporation* Seiko Epson Corporation* Hewlett-Packard Company* NEC Corporation* Olivetti* Tandy Corporation* WYSE* Zenith Data Systems" ], [ "Technical data", "EISA pinout Bus width 32 bits Compatible with 8-bit ISA, 16-bit ISA, 32-bit EISA Pins 98 + 100 inlay Vcc +5 V, −5 V, +12 V, −12 V Clock 8.33 MHz Theoretical data rate (32-bit) about 33 MB/s (8.33 MHz × 4 bytes) Usable data rate (32-bit) about 20 MB/sAlthough the MCA bus had a slight performance advantage over EISA (bus speed of 10 MHz, compared to 8.33 MHz), EISA contained almost all of the technological benefits that MCA boasted, including bus mastering, burst mode, software-configurable resources, and 32-bit data/address buses.", "These brought EISA nearly to par with MCA from a performance standpoint, and EISA easily defeated MCA in industry support.EISA replaced the tedious jumper configuration common with ISA cards with software-based configuration.", "Every EISA system shipped with an EISA configuration utility; this was usually a slightly customized version of the standard utilities written by the EISA chipset makers.", "The user would boot into this utility, either from floppy disk or on a dedicated hard-drive partition.", "The utility software would detect all EISA cards in the system and could configure any hardware resources (interrupts, memory ports, etc.)", "on any EISA card (each EISA card would include a disk with information that described the available options on the card) or on the EISA system motherboard.", "The user could also enter information about ISA cards in the system, allowing the utility to automatically reconfigure EISA cards to avoid resource conflicts.Similarly, Windows 95, with its Plug-and-Play capability, was not able to change the configuration of EISA cards, but it could detect the cards, read their configuration, and reconfigure Plug-and-Play hardware to avoid resource conflicts.", "Windows 95 would also automatically attempt to install appropriate drivers for detected EISA cards." ], [ "Industry acceptance", "EISA's success was far from guaranteed.", "Dell was a notable clone maker that did not join the Gang of Nine.", "Many manufacturers, including those in the Gang of Nine, researched the possibility of using MCA.", "For example, Compaq actually produced prototype DeskPro systems using the bus.", "However, these were never put into production, and when it was clear that MCA had lost, Compaq allowed its MCA license to expire (the license actually cost relatively little; the primary costs associated with MCA, and at which the industry revolted, were royalties to be paid per system shipped).On the other hand, when it became clear to IBM that Micro Channel was dying, IBM actually licensed EISA for use in a few server systems.", "As a final jab at their competitor, Compaq (leader of the EISA consortium) didn't cash the first check sent by IBM for the EISA license.", "Instead, the check was framed and put on display in the company museum at Compaq's main campus in Houston, Texas." ], [ "See also", "* Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)* Amiga Zorro II* CompactPCI* Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)* List of device bandwidths* Low Pin Count (LPC)* Micro Channel architecture (MCA)* Micro Channel Developers Association, consortium competing with the Gang of Nine* MiniPCI* NuBus* PC card* PC/104* PCI Express (PCIe)* PCI-X* Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)* Universal Serial Bus* VESA Local Bus (VLB)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Intel EISA chipset explained* EISA bus technical summary* Intel EISA Controllers* Intel 82350 EISA chip family" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Earthdawn" ], [ "Introduction", "''Earthdawn Gamemaster's Compendium'' (RedBrick)'''''Earthdawn''''' is a fantasy role-playing game, originally produced by FASA in 1993.In 1999 it was licensed to Living Room Games, which produced the ''Second Edition''.", "It was licensed to RedBrick in 2003, who released the Classic Edition in 2005 and the game's Third Edition in 2009 (the latter through Mongoose Publishing's Flaming Cobra imprint).", "The license is now held by FASA Games, Inc. (from FASA), who have released the Fourth Edition, with updated mechanics and an advanced metaplot timeline.", "Vagrant Workshop released the ''Age of Legend'' edition in 2016 using alternative rules-lite mechanics.The game is similar to fantasy games like ''Dungeons & Dragons'', but draws more inspiration from games like ''RuneQuest''.", "The rules of the game are tightly bound to the underlying magical metaphysics, with the goal of creating a rich, logical fantasy world.", "Like many role-playing games from the nineties, ''Earthdawn'' focuses much of its detail on its setting, a province called Barsaive.", "It was also originally written as a prequel to ''Shadowrun'', mirroring its setting of returning magic with one where magic has just recently dropped from its peak.", "However, after ''Shadowrun'' was licensed out to a different publisher, the ties between the two were deliberately severed." ], [ "History", "Starting in 1993, FASA released over 20 gaming supplements describing this universe; however, it closed down production of ''Earthdawn'' in January 1999.During that time several novels and short-story anthologies set in the ''Earthdawn'' universe were also released.", "In late 1999, FASA granted Living Room Games a licensing agreement to produce new material for the game.The ''Second Edition'' did not alter the setting, though it did update the timeline to include events that took place in Barsaive.", "There were a few changes to the rules in the ''Second Edition''; some classes were slightly different or altered abilities from the original.", "The changes were meant to allow for more rounded characters and better balance of play.", "Living Room Games last published in 2005 and they no longer have a license with FASA to publish Earthdawn material.In 2003 a second license was granted to RedBrick, who developed their own edition based on the FASA products, in addition to releasing the original FASA books in PDF form.", "The ''Earthdawn Classic Player's Compendium'' and ''Earthdawn Classic Gamemaster's Compendium'' are essentially an alternative Second Edition, but without a version designation (since the material is compatible anyway).", "Each book has 524 pages and summarizes much of what FASA published—not only the game mechanics, but also the setting, narrations, and stories.", "For example, each Discipline has its own chapter, describing it from the point of view of different adepts.", "Likewise, Barsaive gets a complete treatment, and the chapters contain a lot of log entries and stories in addition to the setting descriptions; the same applies to Horrors and Dragons.", "Errata was incorporated into the text, correcting previous edition errors and providing rules clarifications.While RedBrick tried to remain faithful to FASA's vision and visual style, they revised almost everything and introduced new material to fill the gaps.", "RedBrick began publishing new Earthdawn novels in 2007.In 2009, RedBrick announced the Third Edition of the game.", "To gain a larger audience for this edition, RedBrick published the book through Mongoose Publishing's Flaming Cobra imprint.", "The first two books were released in July 2009.In 2012, RedBrick ceased publishing and announced the transfer of the Earthdawn license to FASA Games, Inc.In 2014, FASA Games announced the forthcoming publication of Earthdawn Fourth Edition and launched a successful Kickstarter to support the project.", "Fourth Edition is described as a reworking of the game mechanics, with redundancies eliminated, and a simpler success level system.", "The game world is advanced five years, past the end of the Barsaive-Thera War, in order to clear dangling threads in the metaplot and open the game world to new stories.", "The first Fourth Edition title—the Player's Guide—was released in early 2015.In 2014 FASA Corporation also gave permission for Impact Miniatures to return the original Heartbreaker Hobbies & Games Official Earthdawn Miniatures range to production.", "In order to fund this, Impact Miniatures launched a successful Kickstarter project.In 2016, Vagrant Workshop released the ''Age of Legend'' edition using a permutation of the rules-lite mechanics of the ''Freeform Universal'' RPG system.", "With its rules-lite mechanics the ''Age of Legend'' edition is marketed as being \"ideal for one-shots, convention games, and introductory games — even for kids!\"" ], [ "Setting", "In Barsaive, magic, like many things in nature, goes through cycles.", "As the magic level rises, it allows alien creatures called Horrors to cross from their distant, otherworldly dimension into our own.", "The Horrors come in an almost infinite variety—from simple eating machines that devour all they encounter, to incredibly intelligent and cunning foes that feed off the negative emotions they inspire in their prey.In the distant past of ''Earthdawn''s setting, an elf scholar discovered that the time of the Horrors was approaching, and founded the Eternal Library in order to discover a way to defeat them — or at the very least, survive them.", "The community that grew up around the library developed wards and protections against the Horrors, which they traded to other lands and eventually became the powerful Theran Empire, an extremely magically advanced civilization and the main antagonist of the ''Earthdawn'' setting.The peoples of the world built kaers, underground towns and cities, which they sealed with the Theran wards to wait out the time of the Horrors, which was called the Scourge.", "Theran wizards and politicians warned many of the outlying nations around Thera of the coming of the Horrors, offering the protection of the kaers to those who would pledge their loyalty to the Empire.", "Most of these nations agreed at first though some became unwilling to fulfill their end of the bargain after the end of the Scourge, wanting to have nothing to do with the bureaucratic nation run on political conflict and powered by slavery.", "After four hundred years of hiding, the Scourge ended, and the people emerged to a world changed by the Horrors.", "The player characters explore this new world, discovering lost secrets of the past, and fighting Horrors that remain.The primary setting of Earthdawn is Barsaive, a former province of the Theran Empire.", "Barsaive is a region of city-states, independent from the Therans since the dwarven Kingdom of Throal led a rebellion against their former overlords.", "The Theran presence in Barsaive has been limited to a small part of south-western Barsaive, located around the magical fortress of Sky Point and the city of Vivane.The setting of Earthdawn is the same world as ''Shadowrun'' (i.e.", "a fictionalized version of Earth), but takes place millennia earlier.", "The map of Barsaive and its neighboring regions established that most of the game takes place where Ukraine and Russia are in our world.", "However, the topography other than coastlines and major rivers is quite different, and the only apparent reference to the real world besides the map may be the Blood Wood, known as \"Wyrm Wood\" before the Scourge and similar in location and extent to the Chernobyl (Ukrainian for \"wormwood\") zone of alienation.", "Note should be made that game world links between ''Earthdawn'' and ''Shadowrun'' were deliberately broken by the publisher when the ''Shadowrun'' property was licensed out, in order to avoid the necessity for coordination between publishing companies.", "FASA has announced since then, that there are no plans to return ''Shadowrun'' to in-house publication, nor to restore the links between the game worlds.Two Earthdawn supplements cover territories outside Barsaive.", "''The Theran Empire'' book (First Edition) covers the Theran Empire and its provinces (which roughly correspond to the territories of the Roman Empire, plus colonies in America and India).", "''Cathay: The Five Kingdoms'' (Third Edition) covers the lands of Cathay (Far East).===Races===Known as Namegivers, the setting of ''Earthdawn'' features several fantasy races for characters and NPCs:# Dwarf: Dwarfs in ''Earthdawn'' are similar in appearance to the classic ''D&D'' or Tolkien dwarfs.", "They are the predominant race in Barsaive, and the dwarf language is considered the common language.", "Their culture, especially of the dominant Throal Kingdom, can be considered more of a Renaissance-level culture than in most other fantasy settings, and forms the main source of resistance to a return of Thera's rule in Barsaive.# Elf: Elves in ''Earthdawn'' fit the common fantasy role playing convention; they are tall, lithe, pointy-eared humanoids who prefer living in nature.", "Elves in ''Earthdawn'' naturally live a very long time; some are thought to be immortal.", "Such immortal Elves feature in many cross-pollinated storylines with ''Shadowrun''.", "A subrace of ''Earthdawn'' elves are called the Blood Elves.", "The blood elves rejected the Theran protective magic, and attempted their own warding spells.", "These wards failed, and a last-ditch ritual caused thorns to thrust through the skin of the blood elves.", "These ever-bleeding wounds caused constant pain, but the self-inflicted suffering was enough to protect the blood elves from the worst of the Horrors.# Human: Humans in ''Earthdawn'' are physically similar to humans in our own real world.", "Human adepts are granted a special Versatility talent to make them more mechanically appealing.", "Humans in ''Earthdawn'' are considered to be somewhat warlike in general outlook.# Obsidiman: Obsidimen are a race of large, rock-based humanoids.", "They stand over tall and weigh over 900 pounds.", "Their primary connection is to their Liferock, which is a large formation of stone that they emerge from.", "Obsidimen are loyal to the community around their Liferock, and eventually return to and re-merge with it.", "Obsidimen can live around 500 years away from their Liferock, and their ultimate lifespan is unknown, as they generally return to it and remain there.", "Due to their rocky nature and long lives, Obsidimen are rather slow moving and deliberate in both speech and action, and can have difficulty understanding the smaller races' need for haste.", "However, if aroused by a threat to self, friend, or community, obsidimen are fearsome to behold.# Ork: The ork race in ''Earthdawn'' is physically similar to other depictions of orcs in fantasy role-playing.", "They are tribal, nomadic and often barbaric humanoids, with olive, tan, beige or ebony skin.", "They are relatively short-lived, and as a result many attempt to leave a legacy marked by a memorable death—preferably one that leaves no corpse.", "Before the Scourge almost all orks were enslaved by other races.# Troll: The troll race in ''Earthdawn'' is also similar in appearance to many other fantasy role playing depictions of trolls.", "They are very tall humanoids, with a hardened skin and horns.", "Socially, they form clans to which they are fiercely loyal.", "Troll clans often raid one another, and a significant subset of the troll race are crystal raiders, which command many of the airships of Barsaive.", "Other trolls, known as lowland trolls, have merged with mixed communities around Barsaive, although most retain the fierce cultural and personal pride of their less-civilized cousins.# T'skrang: The t'skrang are lizard-like amphibious humanoids with long tails and a flair for dramatics.", "Many of them exhibit the behaviors and characteristics which are stereotypical to a \"swashbuckler\".", "T'skrang are often sailors, and many t'skrang families run ships up and down the rivers of Barsaive.", "A rare subrace of t'skrang, the ''k'stulaami'', possess a flap of skin much like a flying squirrel's patagium, allowing them to glide.", "While ''k'stulaami'' can be born as a random mutation in any t'skrang line, they tend to congregate into communities filled with their own kind.# Windling: The windlings are small, winged humanoids; similar to many depictions of fae creatures, they resemble small elves with insect-like wings.", "They have the ability to see into the astral plane, and are considerably luckier than the other races.", "Windlings are often somewhat mischievous, hedonistic, and eager for new experiences, and are culturally similar to the Kender of Krynn, but without the same kleptomaniacal tendencies.", "They have wings similar to those of a dragonfly and are one to two feet in height.# Leafer: A race native to the Dark Forest of Vasgothia, leafers are sentient plant people.# Ulkmen: Another race unique to Vasgothia, the ulkmen have been merged with Horrors.", "In addition to their talents, an ulkman adepts gain a Horror power every four Circles.", "Despite their origins & horrific appearance, the ulkmen are a largely peaceful people.# Jubruq: The only 'half-race' in Earthdawn, jubruq are half human or ork and half elemental spirit.", "They are native to the Sufik tribes of Marak.# Jackelmen: Native to Creana, jackalmen have the body of a human and the head of a jackal.", "They are a warrior people and are thought to practice cannibalism.# Gar: An Elven like race with considerably shorter lifespan.", "This is primarily due to their violent lifestyle and high rate of infant mortality.", "While native to the Cathay region they have mostly been driven out and live around the outskirts of the Five Kingdoms.", "A Gar's primary loyalty is to their tribe with personal glory being a close second.# Ki Mao: The Ki Mao are another elven race native to the Cathay region that inhabit the Jungle of Endless Wandering.", "One distinguishing characteristic setting the Ki Mao apart from their elven cousins is their uncanny resemblance to tigers.", "They have the eyes of a cat as well as distinct patterning along their bodies resembling that of a tiger's stripes.# Po Na: Also found in the Jungle of Endless Wandering, the Po Na are a humanoid race with long, prehensile tails and faces that resemble a cross between a monkey and a human.", "Po Na tend to be driven heavily by their curiosity while living there daily life and admire quick wit and word play, engaging in verbal jousts as a type of sport.# Storm Children: At first glance they appear to be abnormally pale humans with solid black hair, their eyes, a solid bluish white without sign of a pupil, are a strikingly none human looking.", "The Storm Children are born during particularly terrible storms where a lightning bolt will strike the earth leaving behind a naked genderless fully-grown Humanoid.", "They are born knowing Cathayan, they are driven by a ravenous hunger for knowledge, but for the most part they are subject to the same merits and vices as every other race." ], [ "Game mechanics", "The ''Earthdawn Companion 2nd Edition'' cover shows Throal, the capital of Barsaive''Earthdawn'' stands out from other tabletop RPGs with a unique approach to skill tests.", "Players wanting to perform an action determine their level or \"step\" for the skill, talent, or ability to be used.", "This step can then be looked up in a list of dice to be thrown; it is the next-highest integer of the average roll of the dice(s) in question.", "For example, two six-sided dice will on average yield a result of 7, thus the step number 8 means that 2d6 will be rolled.", "The consequence is that each such dice roll has a 50% chance of yielding a result at least as high as the corresponding step number.The result of each die is added (dice which reach their maximum value are thrown again, adding each maximum to the tally, along with the final result below maximum) and compared to a value decided by the game master/storyteller according to the difficulty of the task.", "This approach means it's always technically possible to succeed with a low step number, yet leaves room for failure on high step numbers.", "This will sometimes make combat last longer than in other games.", "As per the above, the difficulty value where the odds of success are perfectly even is identical to the step number.+Examples of steps Step Dice Rolled (Classic and 2nd Edition) Dice Rolled (3rd Edition) Dice Rolled (4th Edition) 1 1d4-2 1d6-3 1d4-2 2 1d4-1 1d6-2 1d4-1 3 1d4 1d6-1 1d4 4 1d6 1d6 1d6 5 1d8 1d8 1d8 6 1d10 1d10 1d10 7 1d12 1d12 1d12 8 2d6 2d6 2d6 9 1d8 + 1d6 1d8 + 1d6 1d8 + 1d6 10 1d10 + 1d6 2d8 2d8 11 1d10 + 1d8 1d10 + 1d8 1d10 + 1d8 12 2d10 2d10 2d10 13 1d12 + 1d10 1d12 + 1d10 1d12 + 1d10 14 1d20 + 1d4 or 2d12 (''Earthdawn Classic'' option) 2d12 2d12 15 1d20 + 1d6 1d12 + 2d6 1d12 + 2d6 16 1d20 + 1d8 1d12 + 1d8 + 1d6 1d12 + 1d8 + 1d6 17 1d20 + 1d10 1d12 + 2d8 1d12 + 2d8 18 1d20 + 1d12 1d12 + 1d10 + 1d8 1d12 + 1d10 + 1d8 19 1d20 + 2d6 1d12 + 2d10 1d20 + 2d6The dice in steps 3 through 13 form the basis of an 11-Step cycle.", "To form Steps 14–24, add 1d20.To form Steps 25–35, further add 1d10 + 1d8.For higher cycles, continue alternating between the addition of 1d20 and 1d10 + 1d8.Step 2 is rolled as Step 3, but you subtract 1 from the result.", "This is notated as \"1d4 – 1\".", "Step 1 is 1d4 – 2.The 3rd edition changes this by removing d4s and d20s from the system.", "Steps 6 through 12 (as listed above) form the basis of a 7-Step cycle.", "To add 7 Steps from then on, simply add 1d12.The 4th edition changes this by making Steps 8 through 18 form the basis of an 11-Step cycle.", "To form Steps 19–29, add 1d20.To form Steps 30–41, add 2d20, and so on.The ''Age of Legend'' edition departs from the Step System mechanics of previous Earthdawn editions and instead uses a permutation of the rules-lite mechanics of the ''Freeform Universal'' RPG system by Nathan Russell.", "In the ''Age of Legend'' permutation a six-sided die (\"d6\") is used with \"''but...''\" and \"''and...''\" situational modifiers added to four of the six die faces, and conditionally up to six additional Fudge dice of two differing colors which can alter the initial result of the main d6 die.", "(Alternatively, the ''Age of Legend'' edition can be played with just seven standard d6 dice, ideally of three differing colors.)", "Dice rolls in the ''Age of Legend'' edition answer closed yes–no questions, with the default question being \"''Do you get what you want?''\"", "subsequent to a character's attempt to elicit a desired outcome.+Age of Legend Edition - Main d6 Die Results Roll Do you get what you want?", "6 \"''Yes, and...''\" - You get what you want, and a bonus.", "4 \"''Yes...''\" - You get what you want.", "2 \"''Yes, but...''\" - You get what you want, but at a cost.", "5 \"''No, but...''\" - You don’t get what you want, but it’s not a total loss.", "3 \"''No...''\" - You don’t get what you were after.", "1 \"''No, and...''\" - You don’t get what you want, and things get worse." ], [ "Reception", "Chris W. McCubbin reviewed ''Earthdawn'' in ''Pyramid'' #3 (Sept./Oct., 1993), and stated that \"Although it never becomes bogged down in cliches and avoids outmoded concepts, ''Earthdawn'' is, at heart, a very traditional heroic fantasy RPG.", "\"In the February 1994 edition of ''Dragon'' (Issue 202), Rick Swan liked the high production values \"highlighted by striking illustrations and FASA’s usual state-of-the-art graphics\", and found that \"Thanks to clear writing and sensible organization... it's an easy read.\"", "But Swan also found the game setting insubstantial compared to others.", "\"Despite workable rules and a clever setting, ''Earthdawn'' is more frosting than cake, with little of substance to distinguish it from the competition.\"", "Nevertheless, he found himself drawn to the game.", "\"In a greasy pizza, let’s-not-take-this-too-seriously kind of way, ''Earthdawn'' holds its own.", "\"In a 1996 reader poll conducted by ''Arcane'' magazine to determine the 50 most popular roleplaying games of all time, ''Earthdawn'' was ranked 24th.", "Editor Paul Pettengale commented: \"Very good indeed.", "''Earthdawn'' combined traditional fantasy with ''Call of Cthulhu''-style horror and a detailed background to create an evocative and interesting setting.", "Combined with a clear, well-designed rules system and an impressive range of supporting supplements and adventures, this is an excellent fantasy game.", "It's also of special interest to fans of ''Shadowrun'', because it describes the past of the same gameworld.", "\"In 1999 ''Pyramid'' magazine named ''Earthdawn'' as one of ''The Millennium's Most Underrated Games''.", "Editor Scott Haring noted (referring to the FASA edition) that \"''Earthdawn'' had an original, inventive magic system (no mean trick given the hundreds of fantasy RPGs that came before), and a game world that gave you the classic \"monsters and dungeons\" sort of RPG experience, but made sense doing it.\"" ], [ "Reviews", "*''White Wolf'' #37 (July/Aug., 1993)*''Shadis'' #10 (Dec., 1993)*''Shadis'' #24 (Feb., 1996)*''Pyramid'' – Second Edition*''Rollespilsmagasinet Fønix'' (Danish) (Issue 1 – March/April 1994)*''Envoyer'' (German) (Issue 62 – Dec 2001)" ], [ "Publications" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Earthdawn.com (Vagrant Workshop)* FASA Games, Inc. Earthdawn Homepage* Ulisses Spiele, 4.Edition Earthdawn* Internet Archive of FASA's official ''Earthdawn'' page" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electronic data interchange" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Electronic data interchange''' ('''EDI''') is the concept of businesses electronically communicating information that was traditionally communicated on paper, such as purchase orders, advance ship notices, and invoices.", "Technical standards for EDI exist to facilitate parties transacting such instruments without having to make special arrangements.EDI has existed at least since the early 70s, and there are many EDI standards (including X12, EDIFACT, ODETTE, etc.", "), some of which address the needs of specific industries or regions.", "It also refers specifically to a family of standards.", "In 1996, the National Institute of Standards and Technology defined electronic data interchange as \"the computer-to-computer interchange of a standardized format for data exchange.", "EDI implies a sequence of messages between two parties, either of whom may serve as originator or recipient.", "The formatted data representing the documents may be transmitted from originator to recipient via telecommunications or physically transported on electronic storage media.\"", "It distinguished mere electronic communication or data exchange, specifying that \"in EDI, the usual processing of received messages is by computer only.", "Human intervention in the processing of a received message is typically intended only for error conditions, for quality review, and for special situations.", "For example, the transmission of binary or textual data is not EDI as defined here unless the data are treated as one or more data elements of an EDI message and are not normally intended for human interpretation as part of online data processing.\"", "In short, EDI can be defined as the transfer of structured data, by agreed message standards, from one computer system to another without human intervention." ], [ "History", "Like many other early information technologies, EDI was inspired by developments in military logistics.", "The complexity of the 1948 Berlin airlift required the development of concepts and methods to exchange, sometimes over a 300 baud teletype modem, vast quantities of data and information about transported goods.", "These initial concepts later shaped the first TDCC (Transportation Data Coordinating Committee) standards in the US.", "Among the first integrated systems using EDI were Freight Control Systems.", "One such real-time system was the London Airport Cargo EDP Scheme (LACES) at Heathrow Airport, London, UK, in 1971.Implementing the direct trader input (DTI) method, it allowed forwarding agents to enter information directly into the customs processing system, reducing the time for clearance.", "The increase of maritime traffic and problems at customs similar to those experienced at Heathrow Airport led to the implementation of DTI systems in individual ports or groups of ports in the 1980s." ], [ "Standards", "EDI provides a technical basis for automated commercial \"conversations\" between two entities, either internal or external.", "The term EDI encompasses the entire electronic data interchange process, including the transmission, message flow, document format, and software used to interpret the documents.", "However, EDI standards describe the rigorous format of electronic documents, and the EDI standards were designed, initially in the automotive industry, to be independent of communication and software technologies.EDI documents generally contain the same information that would normally be found in a paper document used for the same organizational function.", "For example, an EDI 940 ship-from-warehouse order is used by a manufacturer to tell a warehouse to ship a product to a retailer.", "It typically has a 'ship-to' address, a 'bill-to' address, and a list of product numbers (usually a UPC) and quantities.", "Another example is the set of messages between sellers and buyers, such as request for quotation (RFQ), bid in response to RFQ, purchase order, purchase order acknowledgement, shipping notice, receiving advice, invoice, and payment advice.", "However, EDI is not confined to just business data related to trade but encompasses all fields such as medicine (e.g., patient records and laboratory results), transport (e.g., container and modal information), engineering and construction, etc.", "In some cases, EDI will be used to create a new business information flow (that was not a paper flow before).", "This is the case in the Advanced Shipment Notification (ASN) which was designed to inform the receiver of a shipment, the goods to be received and how the goods are packaged.", "This is further complemented with the shipment's use of the shipping labels containing a GS1-128 barcode referencing the shipment's tracking number.Some major sets of EDI standards:* The UN-recommended UN/EDIFACT is the only international standard and is predominant outside of North America.", "* The US standard ANSI ASC X12 (X12) is predominant in North America.", "* GS1 EDI set of standards developed the GS1, predominant in global supply chain.", "* The TRADACOMS standard developed by the ANA (Article Number Association, now known as GS1 UK) is predominant in the UK retail industry.", "* The ODETTE standard used within the European automotive industry.", "* The VDA standard used within the European automotive industry, mainly in Germany.", "* HL7, a semantic interoperability standard used for healthcare data.", "*HIPAA, The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability ACT (HIPAA), requires millions of healthcare entities who electronically transmit data to use EDI in a standard HIPAA format.", "*IATA Cargo-IMP, IATA Cargo-IMP stands for International Air Transport Association Cargo Interchange Message Procedures.", "It's an EDI standard based on EDIFACT created to automate and standardize data exchange between airlines and other parties.", "*NCPDP Script, SCRIPT is a standard developed and maintained by the National Council for Prescription Drug Programs (NCPDP).", "The standard defines documents for electronic transmission of medical prescriptions in the United States.", "* The NCPDP Telecommunications standard includes transactions for eligibility verification, claim and service billing, predetermination of benefits, prior authorization, and information reporting, and is used primarily in the United States.", "* Edig@s (EDIGAS) is a standard dealing with commerce, transport (via pipeline or container) and storage of gas.Many of these standards first appeared in the early to mid-1980s.", "The standards prescribe the formats, character sets, and data elements used in the exchange of business documents and forms.", "The complete X12 Document List includes all major business documents, including purchase orders and invoices.The EDI standard prescribes mandatory and optional information for a particular document and gives the rules for the structure of the document.", "The standards are like building codes.", "Just as two kitchens can be built \"to code\" but look completely different, two EDI documents can follow the same standard and contain different sets of information.", "For example, a food company may indicate a product's expiration date while a clothing manufacturer would choose to send colour and size information." ], [ "Transmission protocols", "EDI can be transmitted using any methodology agreed to by the sender and recipient, but as more trading partners began using the Internet for transmission, standardized protocols have emerged.This includes various technologies such as:* mModem (asynchronous and synchronous)* FTP, SFTP and FTPS* Email* HTTP/HTTPS* AS1* AS2* AS4* OFTP (and OFTP2)* Mobile EDIWhen some people compared the synchronous protocol 2400 bit/s modems, CLEO devices, and value-added networks used to transmit EDI documents to transmitting via the Internet, they equated the non-Internet technologies with EDI and predicted erroneously that EDI itself would be replaced along with the non-Internet technologies.", "In most cases, these non-internet transmission methods are simply being replaced by Internet protocols, such as FTP, HTTP, telnet, and e-mail, but the EDI documents themselves still remain.In 2002, the IETF published , offering a standardized, secure method of transferring EDI data via e-mail.", "On July 12, 2005, an IETF working group ratified RFC4130 for MIME-based HTTP EDIINT (a.k.a.", "AS2) transfers, and the IETF has prepared a similar RFC for FTP transfers (a.k.a.", "AS3).", "EDI via web services (a.k.a.", "AS4) has also been standardized by the OASIS standards body.", "While some EDI transmission has moved to these newer protocols, the providers of value-added networks remain active.=== Internet ===As more organizations connected to the Internet, eventually most or all EDI was pushed onto it.", "Initially, this was through ad hoc conventions, such as unencrypted FTP of ASCII text files to a certain folder on a certain host, permitted only from certain IP addresses.", "However, the IETF has published several informational documents (the \"Applicability Statements\"; see below under '''Protocols''') describing ways to use standard internet protocols for EDI.As of 2002, Walmart has pushed AS2 for EDI.", "Because of its significant presence in the global supply chain, AS2 has become a commonly adopted approach for EDI." ], [ "Specifications", "Organizations that send or receive documents from each other are referred to as \"trading partners\" in EDI terminology.", "The trading partners agree on the specific information to be transmitted and how it should be used.", "This is done in human-readable specifications (also called Message Implementation Guidelines).", "While the standards are analogous to building codes, the specifications are analogous to blueprints.", "(The specification may also be called a \"mapping,\" but the term mapping is typically reserved for specific machine-readable instructions given to the translation software .)", "Larger trading \"hubs\" have existing Message Implementation Guidelines which mirror their business processes for processing EDI and they are usually unwilling to modify their EDI business practices to meet the needs of their trading partners.", "Often in a large company, these EDI guidelines will be written to be generic enough to be used by different branches or divisions and therefore will contain information not needed for a particular business document exchange.", "For other large companies, they may create separate EDI guidelines for each branch/division." ], [ "<span lang=\"ace\" dir=\"ltr\">Transmission</span>: Direct EDI and VANs", "Trading partners are free to use any method for the transmission of documents (as described above in the Transmission protocols section).", "Further, they can either interact directly or through an intermediary.===Direct EDI: peer-to-peer===Trading partners can connect directly to each other.", "For example, an automotive manufacturer might maintain a modem-pool that all of its hundreds of suppliers are required to dial into to perform EDI.", "However, if a supplier does business with several manufacturers, it may need to acquire a different modem (or VPN device, etc.)", "and different software for each one.As EDI and web technology have evolved, new EDI software technologies have emerged to facilitate direct (also known as point-to-point) EDI between trading partners.", "Modern EDI software can facilitate exchanges using any number of different file transmission protocols and EDI document standards, reducing costs and barriers to entry.===Value-added networks===To address the limitations in peer-to-peer adoption of EDI, VANs (value-added networks) were established decades ago.", "A VAN acts as a regional post office.", "It receives transactions, examines the 'from' and the 'to' information, and routes the transaction to the final recipient.", "VANs may provide a number of additional services, e.g.", "retransmitting documents, providing third party audit information, acting as a gateway for different transmission methods, and handling telecommunications support.", "Because of these and other services VANs provide, businesses frequently use a VAN even when both trading partners are using Internet-based protocols.", "Healthcare clearinghouses perform many of the same functions as a VAN, but have additional legal restrictions.VANs may be operated by various entities:* telecommunication companies;* industry group consortia;* a large company interacting with its suppliers/vendors;*managed services providers.=== Costs, trade-offs and implementation ===It is important to note that there are key trade-offs between VANs and Direct EDI, and in many instances, organizations exchanging EDI documents can in fact use both in concert, for different aspects of their EDI implementations.", "For example, in the U.S., the majority of EDI document exchanges use AS2, so a direct EDI setup for AS2 may make sense for a U.S.-based organization.", "But adding OFTP2 capabilities to communicate with a European partner may be difficult, so a VAN might make sense to handle those specific transactions, while direct EDI is used for the AS2 transactions.", "In many ways, a VAN acts as a service provider, simplifying much of the setup for organizations looking to initiate EDI.", "Due to the fact that many organizations first starting out with EDI often do so to meet a customer or partner requirement and therefore lack in-house EDI expertise, a VAN can be a valuable asset.However, VANs may come with high costs.", "VANs typically charge a per-document or even per-line-item transaction fee to process EDI transactions as a service on behalf of their customers.", "This is the predominant reason why many organizations also implement an EDI software solution or eventually migrate to one for some or all of their EDI.On the other hand, implementing EDI software can be a challenging process, depending on the complexity of the use case, technologies involved and availability of EDI expertise.", "In addition, there are ongoing maintenance requirements and updates to consider.", "For example, EDI mapping is one of the most challenging EDI management tasks.", "Companies must develop and maintain EDI maps for each of their trading partners (and sometimes multiple EDI maps for each trading partner based on their order fulfilment requirements)." ], [ "Interpreting data", "''EDI translation software'' provides the interface between internal systems and the EDI format sent/received.", "For an \"inbound\" document, the EDI solution will receive the file (either via a value-added network or directly using protocols such as FTP or AS2), take the received EDI file (commonly referred to as an \"envelope\"), and validate that the trading partner who is sending the file is a valid trading partner, that the structure of the file meets the EDI standards, and that the individual fields of information conform to the agreed-upon standards.", "Typically, the translator will either create a file of either fixed length, variable length or XML tagged format or \"print\" the received EDI document (for non-integrated EDI environments).", "The next step is to convert/transform the file that the translator creates into a format that can be imported into a company's back-end business systems, applications or ERP.", "This can be accomplished by using a custom program, an integrated proprietary \"mapper\" or an integrated standards-based graphical \"mapper,\" using a standard data transformation language such as XSLT.", "The final step is to import the transformed file (or database) into the company's back-end system.For an \"outbound\" document, the process for integrated EDI is to export a file (or read a database) from a company's information systems and transform the file to the appropriate format for the translator.", "The translation software will then \"validate\" the EDI file sent to ensure that it meets the standard agreed upon by the trading partners, convert the file into \"EDI\" format (adding the appropriate identifiers and control structures) and send the file to the trading partner (using the appropriate communications protocol).Another critical component of any EDI translation software is a complete \"audit\" of all the steps to move business documents between trading partners.", "The audit ensures that any transaction (which in reality is a business document) can be tracked to ensure that they are not lost.", "In the case of a retailer sending a Purchase Order to a supplier, if the Purchase Order is \"lost\" anywhere in the business process, the effect is devastating to both businesses.", "To the supplier, they do not fulfil the order as they have not received it thereby losing business and damaging the business relationship with their retail client.", "For the retailer, they have a stock outage and the effect is lost sales, reduced customer service and ultimately lower profits.In EDI terminology, \"inbound\" and \"outbound\" refer to the direction of transmission of an EDI document in relation to a particular system, not the direction of merchandise, money or other things represented by the document.", "For example, an EDI document that tells a warehouse to perform an outbound shipment is an inbound document in relation to the warehouse computer system.", "It is an outbound document in relation to the manufacturer or dealer that transmitted the document." ], [ "Advantages over paper systems", "EDI and other similar technologies save the company money by providing an alternative to or replacing, information flows that require a great deal of human interaction and paper documents.", "Even when paper documents are maintained in parallel with EDI exchange, e.g.", "printed shipping manifests, electronic exchange and the use of data from that exchange reduces the handling costs of sorting, distributing, organizing, and searching paper documents.", "EDI and similar technologies allow a company to take advantage of the benefits of storing and manipulating data electronically without the cost of manual entry.", "Another advantage of EDI is the opportunity to reduce or eliminate manual data entry errors, such as shipping and billing errors, because EDI eliminates the need to re-key documents on the destination side.", "One very important advantage of EDI over paper documents is the speed at which the trading partner receives and incorporates the information into their system greatly reducing cycle times.", "For this reason, EDI can be an important component of just-in-time production systems.According to the 2008 Aberdeen report \"A Comparison of Supplier Enablement around the World\", only 34% of purchase orders are transmitted electronically in North America.", "In EMEA, 36% of orders are transmitted electronically and in APAC, 41% of orders are transmitted electronically.", "They also report that the average paper requisition to order costs a company in North America, in EMEA and in APAC.", "With an EDI requisition to order, costs are reduced to in North America, in EMEA and in APAC." ], [ "Barriers to implementation", "There are a few barriers to adopting electronic data interchange.", "One of the most significant barriers is the accompanying business process change.", "Existing business processes built around paper handling may not be suited for EDI and would require changes to accommodate automated processing of business documents.", "For example, a business may receive the bulk of their goods by 1 or 2-day shipping and all of their invoices by mail.", "The existing process may, therefore, assume that goods are typically received before the invoice.", "With EDI, the invoice will typically be sent when the goods ship and will, therefore, require a process that handles large numbers of invoices whose corresponding goods have not yet been received.Another significant barrier is the cost in time and money in the initial setup.", "The preliminary expenses and time that arise from the implementation, customization and training can be costly.", "It is important to select the correct level of integration to match the business requirement.", "For a business with relatively few transactions with EDI-based partners, it may make sense for businesses to implement inexpensive \"rip and read\" solutions, where the EDI format is printed out in human-readable form, and people — rather than computers — respond to the transaction.", "Another alternative is outsourced EDI solutions provided by EDI \"Service Bureaus\".", "For other businesses, the implementation of an integrated EDI solution may be necessary as increases in trading volumes brought on by EDI force them to re-implement their order processing business processes.The key hindrance to a successful implementation of EDI is the perception many businesses have of the nature of EDI.", "Many view EDI from the technical perspective that EDI is a data format; it would be more accurate to take the business view that EDI is a system for exchanging business documents with external entities, and integrating the data from those documents into the company's internal systems.", "Successful implementations of EDI take into account the effect externally generated information will have on their internal systems and validate the business information received.", "For example, allowing a supplier to update a retailer's accounts payable system without appropriate checks and balances would put the company at significant risk.", "Businesses new to the implementation of EDI must understand the underlying business process and apply proper judgment." ], [ "Acknowledgement", "There are several mechanisms used in EDI for '''acknowledgement''', i.e.", "notifying the sender that an incoming transaction was received and handled by the recipient:* Communication Status – Indicate the transmission completed* MDN (Message Disposition Notification) – In AS2 only, indicate the message is readable * Functional Acknowledgement – typically \"997\" in ANSI, or \"CONTRL\" in EDIFACT, which indicate the message content is verified against its template, and tell if the transaction is posted to the receiver's electronic system.", "* Business Level Acknowledgement – the final indicator shows if the transaction is accepted by the receiver or not." ], [ "See also", "* Expense and Cost Recovery System (ECRS)* Extract, transform, load (ETL)* Legal Electronic Data Exchange Standard (LEDES);Protocols* HTTP/HTTPS* POP3/SMTP* OFTP/OFTP2* SOAP* WebDAV* X.400* EDIINT working group:** EDIINT AS1 (extension to mail transport)** EDIINT AS2 (based on HTTP transport)** EDIINT AS3 (based on FTP transport)** EDIINT AS4 (based on WebServices);Formats* ''ANSI X.12''** X12** X12 Document List** X12 EDIFACT Mapping* ''XML''** cXML** xCBL** ebXML** railML** RosettaNet** UBL** UNIDOC* Tradacoms* EDIFACT* Cefic – Chemical* GS1 EANCOM – Retail* EDIBDB – Construction* EDIFICE – High Tech Industry* EDIFURN – Furniture* EDILEKTRO – Electro* EDILIBE – Books* EDITEC – Sanitary* EDITEX – Fashion* EDIFOR/EDITRANS – Transports & Logistics* EDIWHEEL – Wheels & Tires* ETIS – Telecommunication* STAR – Standards for Technology in Automotive Retail* CXIO (Commerce Exchange Information Objects) ( external link)* SPEC2000 (Airline Industry) ( external link );Fixed-length formats* EURITMO;Separator formats* CSV/TSV/DSV" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Gengeswari, K. and Abu Bakar Abdul Hamid (2010).", "\"Integration of electronic data interchange: a review\", ''Jurnal Kemanusiaan'', * Notto, Ralph W. \"Challenge and Consequence: Forcing Change to ECommerce\", ''Fenestra Books.", "2005''," ], [ "External links", "* \"E-Procurement — Electronic Data Integration Comes of Age\" – Article from Finance Director Europe Journal* EDI Protocols – An overview of the various protocols and formats used in EDI networks* EDI Standards – An overview of the various EDI file format standards available." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Extravehicular activity" ], [ "Introduction", "Sergey Volkov works outside the International Space Station on August 3, 2011.Stephen Robinson riding the Canadarm2 during STS-114 on August 3, 2005.The first in-flight repair of the Space Shuttle.", "The landmass in the backdrop is the Bari region of Somalia.", "'''Extravehicular activity''' ('''EVA''') is any activity done by an astronaut in outer space outside a spacecraft.", "In the absence of a breathable Earthlike atmosphere, the astronaut is completely reliant on a space suit for environmental support.", "EVA includes '''spacewalks''' and lunar or planetary surface exploration (commonly known from 1969 to 1972 as '''moonwalks''').", "In a stand-up EVA (SEVA), an astronaut stands through an open hatch but does not fully leave the spacecraft.", "EVAs have been conducted by the Soviet Union/Russia, the United States, Canada, the European Space Agency and China.On March 18, 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to perform a spacewalk, exiting the Voskhod 2 capsule for 12 minutes and 9 seconds.", "On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong became the first human to perform a moonwalk, outside his lunar lander on Apollo 11 for 2 hours and 31 minutes.", "In 1984, Svetlana Savitskaya became the first woman to perform a spacewalk, conducting EVA outside the Salyut 7 space station for 3 hours and 35 minutes.", "On the last three Moon missions, astronauts also performed deep-space EVAs on the return to Earth, to retrieve film canisters from the outside of the spacecraft.", "American Astronauts Pete Conrad, Joseph Kerwin, and Paul Weitz also used EVA in 1973 to repair launch damage to Skylab, the United States' first space station.EVAs may be either tethered (the astronaut is connected to the spacecraft; oxygen and electrical power can be supplied through an umbilical cable; no propulsion is needed to return to the spacecraft), or untethered.", "Untethered spacewalks were only performed on three missions in 1984 using the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU), and on a flight test in 1994 of the Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue (SAFER), a safety device worn on tethered U.S. EVAs." ], [ "Development history", "NASA planners invented the term ''extravehicular activity'' (abbreviated with the acronym EVA) in the early 1960s for the Apollo program to land humans on the Moon, because the astronauts would leave the spacecraft to collect lunar material samples and deploy scientific experiments.", "To support this, and other Apollo objectives, the Gemini program was spun off to develop the capability for astronauts to work outside a two-person Earth orbiting spacecraft.", "However, the Soviet Union was fiercely competitive in holding the early lead it had gained in crewed spaceflight, so the Soviet Communist Party, led by Nikita Khrushchev, ordered the conversion of its single-pilot Vostok capsule into a two- or three-person craft named Voskhod, in order to compete with Gemini and Apollo.", "The Soviets were able to launch two Voskhod capsules before U.S. was able to launch its first crewed Gemini.The Voskhod's avionics required cooling by cabin air to prevent any kind of overheating, therefore an airlock was required for the spacewalking cosmonaut to exit and re-enter the cabin while it remained pressurized.", "Unusually, and by contrast, the Gemini avionics did not require air cooling, allowing the spacewalking astronaut to exit and re-enter the depressurized cabin through an open hatch.", "Because of this, the American and Soviet space programs developed different definitions for the duration of an EVA.", "The Soviet (now Russian) definition begins when the outer airlock hatch is open and the cosmonaut is in vacuum.", "An American EVA began when the astronaut had at least their head outside the spacecraft.", "The USA has changed its EVA definition since.===First instance===Alexei Leonov performs the first spacewalk during Voskhod 2.The first EVA was performed on March 18, 1965, by Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, who spent 12 minutes and 9 seconds outside the Voskhod 2 spacecraft.", "Carrying a white metal backpack containing 45 minutes' worth of breathing and pressurization oxygen, Leonov had no means to control his motion other than pulling on his tether.", "After the flight, he claimed this was easy, but his space suit ballooned from its internal pressure against the vacuum of space, stiffening so much that he could not activate the shutter on his chest-mounted camera.At the end of his space walk, the suit stiffening caused a more serious problem: Leonov had to re-enter the capsule through the inflatable cloth airlock, in diameter and long.", "He improperly entered the airlock head-first and got stuck sideways.", "He could not get back in without reducing the pressure in his suit, risking \"the bends\".", "This added another 12 minutes to his time in vacuum, and he was overheated by from the exertion.", "It would be almost four years before the Soviets tried another EVA.", "They misrepresented to the press how difficult Leonov found it to work in weightlessness and concealed the problems encountered until after the end of the Cold War.===Project Gemini===Ed White performs the first American spacewalk during Gemini IV.The first American spacewalk was performed on June 3, 1965, by Ed White from the second crewed Gemini flight, Gemini IV, for 21 minutes.", "White was tethered to the spacecraft, and his oxygen was supplied through a umbilical, which also carried communications and biomedical instrumentation.", "He was the first to control his motion in space with a Hand-Held Maneuvering Unit, which worked well but only carried enough propellant for 20 seconds.", "White found his tether useful for limiting his distance from the spacecraft but difficult to use for moving around, contrary to Leonov's claim.", "However, a defect in the capsule's hatch latching mechanism caused difficulties opening and closing the hatch, which delayed the start of the EVA and put White and his crewmate at risk of not getting back to Earth alive.No EVAs were planned on the next three Gemini flights.", "The next EVA was planned to be made by David Scott on Gemini VIII, but that mission had to be aborted due to a critical spacecraft malfunction before the EVA could be conducted.", "Astronauts on the next three Gemini flights (Eugene Cernan, Michael Collins, and Richard Gordon), performed several EVAs, but none was able to successfully work for long periods outside the spacecraft without tiring and overheating.", "Cernan attempted but failed to test an Air Force Astronaut Maneuvering Unit which included a self-contained oxygen system.On November 13, 1966, Edwin \"Buzz\" Aldrin became the first to successfully work in space without tiring during Gemini XII, the last Gemini mission.", "Aldrin worked outside the spacecraft for 2 hours and 6 minutes, in addition to two stand-up EVAs in the spacecraft hatch for an additional 3 hours and 24 minutes.", "Aldrin's interest in scuba diving inspired the use of underwater EVA training to simulate weightlessness, which has been used ever since to allow astronauts to practice techniques of avoiding wasted muscle energy.===First crew transfer===On January 16, 1969, Soviet cosmonauts Aleksei Yeliseyev and Yevgeny Khrunov transferred from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4, which were docked together.", "This was the second Soviet EVA, and it would be almost another nine years before the Soviets performed their third.===Apollo missions===Buzz Aldrin walks on the Moon during the pioneering Apollo 11 mission in 1969.American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin performed the first EVA on the lunar surface on July 21, 1969 (UTC), after landing their Apollo 11 Lunar Module spacecraft.", "This first Moon walk, using self-contained portable life support systems, lasted 2 hours and 36 minutes.", "A total of fifteen Moon walks were performed among six Apollo crews, including Charles \"Pete\" Conrad, Alan Bean, Alan Shepard, Edgar Mitchell, David Scott, James Irwin, John Young, Charles Duke, Eugene Cernan, and Harrison \"Jack\" Schmitt.", "Cernan was the last Apollo astronaut to step off the surface of the Moon.Charles Duke with a hammer on the lunar surfaceApollo 15 command module pilot Al Worden made an EVA on August 5, 1971, on the return trip from the Moon, to retrieve a film and data recording canister from the service module.", "He was assisted by Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin standing up in the Command Module hatch.", "This procedure was repeated by Ken Mattingly and Charles Duke on Apollo 16, and by Ronald Evans and Harrison Schmitt on Apollo 17.===Post-Apollo===The first EVA repairs of a spacecraft were made by Charles \"Pete\" Conrad, Joseph Kerwin, and Paul J. Weitz on May 26, June 7, and June 19, 1973, on the Skylab 2 mission.", "They rescued the functionality of the launch-damaged Skylab space station by freeing a stuck solar panel, deploying a solar heating shield, and freeing a stuck circuit breaker relay.", "The Skylab 2 crew made three EVAs, and a total of ten EVAs were made by the three Skylab crews.", "They found that activities in weightlessness required about 2 times longer than on Earth because many astronauts suffered spacesickness early in their flights.After Skylab, no more EVAs were made by the United States until the advent of the Space Shuttle program in the early 1980s.", "In this period, the Soviets resumed EVAs, making four from the Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 space stations between December 20, 1977, and July 30, 1982.When the United States resumed EVAs on April 7, 1983, astronauts started using an Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) for self-contained life support independent of the spacecraft.", "STS-6 was the first Space Shuttle mission during which a spacewalk was conducted.", "Also, for the first time, American astronauts used an airlock to enter and exit the spacecraft like the Soviets.", "Accordingly, the American definition of EVA start time was redefined to when the astronaut switches the EMU to battery power.Numerous EVAs were conducted during the assembly of the ISS, often using the Quest Joint Airlock, designed to support both US EMUs, and Russian Orlan space suits.===By China===thumbChina became the third country to independently carry out an EVA on September 27, 2008, during the Shenzhou 7 mission.", "Chinese taikonaut Zhai Zhigang completed a 22-minute spacewalk wearing the Chinese-developed Feitian space suit, with taikonaut Liu Boming wearing the Russian-derived Orlan space suit assisting him in the process.", "Zhai completely exited the craft, while Liu stood by at the airlock, straddling the portal.Since 2021, China has carried out several more extravehicular activities lasting several hours for the construction of the Tiangong space station." ], [ "Milestones", "===Capability milestones===* The first untethered spacewalk was made by American Bruce McCandless II on February 7, 1984, during the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' mission STS-41-B, using the Manned Maneuvering Unit.", "He was subsequently joined by Robert L. Stewart during the 5-hour, 55-minute spacewalk.", "A self-contained spacewalk was first attempted by Eugene Cernan in 1966 on Gemini 9A, but Cernan could not reach the maneuvering unit without tiring.", "* The first metalwork in open space, consisting of welding, brazing and metal spraying, was conducted by Soviet cosmonauts Svetlana Savitskaya and Vladimir Dzhanibekov on July 25, 1984.A specially designed multipurpose tool was used to perform these activities during a 3-hour, 30-minute EVA outside the Salyut 7 space station.", "* The first three-person EVA was performed on May 13, 1992, as the third EVA of STS-49, the maiden flight of ''Endeavour''.", "Pierre Thuot, Richard Hieb, and Thomas Akers conducted the EVA to hand-capture and repair a non-functional Intelsat VI-F3 satellite.", "it was the only three-person EVA.", "* The first EVA to perform an in-flight repair of the Space Shuttle was by American Steve Robinson on August 3, 2005, during \"Return to Flight\" mission STS-114.Robinson was sent to remove two protruding gap fillers from ''Discovery'''s heat shield, after engineers determined there was a small chance they could affect the shuttle upon re-entry.", "Robinson successfully removed the loose material while ''Discovery'' was docked to the International Space Station.", "* The longest EVA performed as of January 2022, was 8 hours and 56 minutes, performed by Susan Helms and James S. Voss on March 11, 2001.Bruce McCandless uses a manned maneuvering unit.", "Photo taken by Robert \"Hoot\" Gibson.Capture of Intelsat VI in 1992 on STS-49.This hand-capture of a satellite is the only EVA to date to be performed by three astronauts.===Personal cumulative duration records===* Russian Anatoly Solovyev holds both the record for most EVAs and for the greatest cumulative duration spent in EVA (16 EVAs; 82 hr and 22 min over 4 Mir missions between July 1990 and January 1998).", "* Michael Lopez-Alegria holds the American record (10 EVAs; 67 hr and 40 min over 2 Shuttle and 1 ISS missions between October 2000 and February 2007).", "* Thomas Pesquet holds the European (and non-US/Russian) record (6 EVAs; 39 hr and 54 min over 2 ISS missions between January 2017 and August 2021).", "* Peggy Whitson holds the record for most EVAs and most cumulative duration spent for a woman (10 EVAs, 60 hr and 21 min over 3 ISS missions between August 2002 and May 2017).===National, ethnic and gender firsts===* The first woman to perform an EVA was Soviet Svetlana Savitskaya on July 25, 1984, while aboard the Salyut 7 space station.", "Her EVA lasted 3 hours and 35 minutes.", "** The first American woman to perform an EVA was Kathryn D. Sullivan on October 11, 1984.", "** The first two women to perform an EVA together and the first all-female EVA team were Christina Koch and Jessica Meir on October 18, 2019, during Expedition 61 on the International Space Station.", "** The first female Asian and Chinese woman to perform an EVA was Wang Yaping on 8 November 2021, outside the Chinese Tiangong space station.", "** The first Native American woman to perform a space walk was Nicole Aunapu Mann on January 20, 2023, during Expedition 68 on the International Space Station.", "* The first EVA by a non-Soviet, non-American was made on December 9, 1988, by Jean-Loup Chrétien of France during a three-week stay on the Mir space station.", "* The first EVA by a black African-American was on February 9, 1995, by Bernard A. Harris Jr.* The first EVA by a Japanese astronaut was made on November 25, 1997, by Takao Doi during STS-87.", "* The first EVA by a Swiss astronaut was made on December 23, 1999, by Claude Nicollier during STS-103.", "* The first EVA by an Australian-born person was on March 13, 2001, by Andy Thomas (although he is a naturalized US citizen).", "*The first EVA by a Canadian astronaut was made on April 22, 2001, by Chris Hadfield along with NASA astronaut Scott Parazynski during mission STS-100 to install Canadarm2 on the International Space Station.", "* The first EVA by a Swedish astronaut was made on December 12, 2006, by Christer Fuglesang.", "* The first EVA by a Chinese astronaut was made on September 27, 2008, by Zhai Zhigang during Shenzhou 7 mission.", "The spacewalk, using a Feitian space suit, made China the third country to independently carry out an EVA.", "* The first EVA by an Italian astronaut was made on July 9, 2013, by Luca Parmitano along with NASA Astronaut Chris Cassidy during Expedition 36 on the International Space Station.", "* The first EVA by a British astronaut was on January 15, 2016, by Tim Peake.", "** Although British-American Michael Foale carried out an EVA on February 9, 1995, he flew as an American astronaut in NASA's program.", "* The first EVA by an Arab astronaut was made on April 28, 2023, by Emirati astronaut Sultan Al Neyadi.International Space Station assembly EVA made during the STS-116 mission.", "Robert Curbeam (with red stripes) together with Christer Fuglesang over Cook Strait, New Zealand.Anatoly Solovyev holds the record for time spent during spacewalks: 82+ hours over 16 separate outings, seen here performing an EVA outside Mir space station in 1997." ], [ "Commemoration", "The first spacewalk, made by Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, was commemorated in 1965 with several Eastern Bloc stamps (see Alexei Leonov#Stamps).", "Since the Soviet Union did not publish details of the Voskhod spacecraft at the time, the spaceship depiction in the stamps was purely fictional.The U.S. Post Office issued a postage stamp in 1967 commemorating Ed White's first American spacewalk.", "The engraved image has an accurate depiction of the Gemini IV spacecraft and White's space suit." ], [ "Designations", "NASA \"spacewalkers\" during the Space Shuttle program were designated as EV-1, EV-2, EV-3 and EV-4 (assigned to mission specialists for each mission, if applicable)." ], [ "Camp-out procedure", "For EVAs from the International Space Station, NASA employed a ''camp-out'' procedure to reduce the risk of decompression sickness.", "This was first tested by the Expedition 12 crew.", "During a camp-out, astronauts sleep overnight in the airlock prior to an EVA, lowering the air pressure to , compared to the normal station pressure of .", "Spending a night at the lower air pressure helps flush nitrogen from the body, thereby preventing \"the bends\".", "More recently astronauts have been using the In-Suit Light Exercise protocol rather than camp-out to prevent decompression sickness." ], [ "See also", "* List of cumulative spacewalk records* List of International Space Station spacewalks* List of Mir spacewalks* List of spacewalkers* List of spacewalks since 2015* List of spacewalks 2000–2014* List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999* Omega Speedmaster* Suitport* ''The Age of Pioneers'', 2017 film about the first spacewalk" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* NASA JSC Oral History Project ''Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology'' PDF document.", "* Astronaut space walk picture* NASDA Online Space Notes* Apollo Extravehicular mobility unit.", "Volume 1: System description – 1971 (PDF document)* Apollo Extravehicular mobility unit.", "Volume 2: Operational procedures – 1971 (PDF document)* Skylab Extravehicular Activity Development Report – 1974 (PDF document)* Analysis of the Space Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit – 1986 (PDF document)* NASA Space Shuttle EVA tools and equipment reference book – 1993 (PDF document)* Preparing for an American EVA on the ISS – 2006" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erin Brockovich" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Erin Brockovich''' (née '''Pattee'''; born June 22, 1960) is an American paralegal, consumer advocate, and environmental activist who was instrumental in building a case against Pacific Gas & Electric Company (PG&E) involving groundwater contamination in Hinkley, California for attorney Ed Masry in 1993.Their successful lawsuit was the subject of the Oscar-winning film, ''Erin Brockovich'' (2000), starring Julia Roberts as Brockovich and Albert Finney as Masry.Since then, Brockovich has become a media personality, hosting the TV series ''Challenge America with Erin Brockovich'' on ABC and ''Final Justice'' on Zone Reality, and became president of Brockovich Research & Consulting.", "She also works as a consultant for the New York law firm of Weitz & Luxenberg, which has a focus on personal injury claims for asbestos exposure, and Shine Lawyers in Australia.", "She worked as a consultant for the now-defunct California law firm Girardi & Keese." ], [ "Early life", "Brockovich was born Erin Pattee in Lawrence, Kansas, the daughter of Betty Jo (born O'Neal; 1923–2008), a journalist, and Frank Pattee (1924–2011), an industrial engineer and football player.", "She has two brothers, Frank Jr. and Thomas (1954–1992), and a sister, Jodie.", "She graduated from Lawrence High School, then attended Kansas State University, in Manhattan, Kansas, and graduated with an Associate in Applied Arts Degree from Wade College in Dallas, Texas.Brockovich is dyslexic." ], [ "Pacific Gas & Electric litigation", "In 1993, Brockovich became a whistleblower when she spoke out against PG&E after finding widespread unexplained illness in the town of Hinkley, California.", "She became instrumental in suing the utility company on behalf of the town.The case (''Anderson, et al.", "v. Pacific Gas & Electric,'' file BCV 00300) alleged contamination of drinking water with hexavalent chromium (also written as \"chromium 6\", \"chromium VI\", \"Cr-VI\" or \"Cr-6\") in the town.", "At the center of the case was a facility, the Hinkley compressor station, built in 1952 as a part of a natural-gas pipeline connecting to the San Francisco Bay Area.", "Between 1952 and 1966, PG&E used hexavalent chromium in a cooling tower system to fight corrosion.", "The waste water was discharged to unlined ponds at the site, and some of the waste water percolated into the groundwater, affecting an area of approximately near the plant.", "The Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB) put the PG&E site under its regulations in 1968.The case was settled in 1996 for $333 million, the largest settlement ever paid in a direct-action lawsuit in United States history to that date.", "Masry & Vititoe, the law firm for which Brockovich was a legal clerk, received $133.6 million of that settlement, and Brockovich received $2.5 million as part of her fee.A study released in 2010 by the California Cancer Registry suggested that cancer rates in Hinkley \"remained unremarkable from 1988 to 2008\".", "John W. Morgan, an epidemiologist involved in the study said that the 196 cases of cancer reported during the most recent survey of 1996 through 2008 were fewer than what he would expect based on demographics and the regional rate of cancer.", "However, in June 2013, ''Mother Jones'' magazine featured a critique from the Center for Public Integrity of the author's work on the later epidemiological studies, pointing out, for example, that the affected area of Hinkley had been bulldozed by 1996., average Cr-6 levels for water from wells in Hinkley were still peaking at 100 times California's maximum contaminant level for the compound at over 1,000 parts per billion,even though, by 2021, PG&E claimed they had cleaned up 70% of the contamination.", "In October 2022, even though the EPA announced Cr-6 was likely carcinogenic if consumed in drinking water, The American Chemistry Council, an industry lobby group, disputed their finding." ], [ "Other litigation", "Working with Edward L. Masry, a lawyer based in Thousand Oaks, California, Brockovich went on to participate in other anti-pollution lawsuits.", "One suit accused the Whitman Corporation of chromium contamination in Willits, California.", "Another, which listed 1,200 plaintiffs, alleged contamination near PG&E's Kettleman Hills compressor station in Kings County, California, along the same pipeline as the Hinkley site.", "The Kettleman suit was settled for $335 million in 2006.In 2003, after experiencing problems with mold contamination in her own home in the Conejo Valley, Brockovich received settlements of $430,000 from two parties, and an undisclosed amount from a third party, to settle her lawsuit alleging toxic mold in her Agoura Hills, California, home.", "Brockovich then became a prominent activist and educator in the area as well.Brockovich, speaking at the Arizona Ultimate Women's Expo in Phoenix, Arizona, October 2016Brockovich and Masry filed suit against the Beverly Hills Unified School District in 2003, in which the district was accused of harming the health and safety of its students by allowing a contractor to operate a cluster of oil wells on campus.", "Brockovich and Masry alleged that 300 cancer cases were linked to the oil wells.", "Subsequent testing and epidemiological investigation failed to corroborate a substantial link, and Los Angeles County Superior Court Judge Wendell Mortimer granted summary judgment against the plaintiffs.", "In May 2007, the school district announced that it was to be paid $450,000 as reimbursement for legal expenses.Brockovich assisted in the filing of a lawsuit against Prime Tanning Corp. of St. Joseph, Missouri, in April 2009.The lawsuit claims that waste sludge from the production of leather, containing high levels of hexavalent chromium, was distributed to farmers in northwest Missouri to use as fertilizer on their fields.", "It is believed to be a potential cause of an abnormally high number of brain tumors around the town of Cameron, Missouri.", "Prior to the lawsuit, the site was investigated by the EPA and at the time, the agency found \"no detections of total chromium\", and added, \"we would like to get any specific information from this law firm as soon as we can so we can evaluate it, and we intend to ask for that directly.\"", "The EPA, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Missouri Department of Health and a state epidemiologist had been investigating what residents believed were a high number of brain tumors in the area — more than 70 since 1996.The epidemiologist had stated the numbers did not seem abnormally high.", "In June 2009, Brockovich began investigating a case of contaminated water in Midland, Texas.", "\"Significant amounts\" of hexavalent chromium were found in the water of more than 40 homes in the area, some of which have now been fitted with state-monitored filters on their water supply.", "Brockovich said: \"The only difference between here and Hinkley is that I saw higher levels here than I saw in Hinkley.", "\"In 2012, Brockovich became involved in the mysterious case of 14 students from LeRoy, New York, who began reporting perplexing medical symptoms, including tics and speech difficulties.", "Brockovich believed environmental pollution from the 1970 Lehigh Valley Railroad derailment was the cause and conducted testing in the area.", "Brockovich was supposed to return to LeRoy to present her findings, but never did; in the meantime, the students' doctors determined the cause was mass psychogenic illness, and that the media exposure was exacerbating the symptoms.", "No environmental causes were found after repeat testing, and the students improved once the media attention died down.In early 2016, Brockovich became involved in potential litigation against Southern California Gas for the Aliso Canyon gas leak, a large methane leak from its underground storage facility near the community of Porter Ranch, north of Los Angeles.In early 2023, within hours of the Feb. 3 Norfolk Southern train derailment in East Palestine, Ohio, Brockovich started getting calls for assistance from the community about the toxic chemical fires.", "She has been interviewed on various news outlets, from independent media to national networks.", "A few weeks later, Brockovich traveled to East Palestine, where she was interviewed by local media, and appeared at one of several high-profile town hall meetings on Friday night, Feb. 24th.", "At the meeting, Brockovich and an attorney highlighted decades of toxic chemical train derailments.", "Among Brockovich's many concerns is the potential groundwater contamination after chemicals were, as she describes it, dumped in a big hole in the ground and burned off.", "A recurring theme of her appearances is that the nation has, for decades, in the name of profits over people, failed to undertake infrastructure improvements, enact tighter regulations, and adequately protect the health, safety and welfare of communities from long-term bodily harm and environmental damage.", "Brockovich continues to cite the Hinkley case and Flint water crisis, as well as the 2013 Lac-Megantic, Canada oil train catastrophe." ], [ "Awards", "* Honorary Doctor of Laws and commencement speaker at Lewis & Clark Law School, Portland, Oregon, in May 2005* Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters and commencement speaker at Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, California, on May 5, 2007* Honorary Master of Arts, Business Communication, from Jones International University, Centennial, Colorado" ], [ "Movies and television", "Brockovich's work in bringing litigation against Pacific Gas & Electric was the focus of the 2000 feature film ''Erin Brockovich'', starring Julia Roberts in the title role.", "The film was nominated for five Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, Best Actor in a Supporting Role, Best Director, Best Picture, and Best Writing in a Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen.", "Roberts won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of Erin Brockovich.", "Brockovich herself had a cameo role as a waitress named Julia.Brockovich had a more extensive role in the 2012 documentary ''Last Call at the Oasis'', which focused on not only water pollution but also the overall state of water scarcity as it relates to water policy in the United States.On April 8, 2021, ''Rebel'', a television series which creator Krista Vernoff loosely based on Brockovich's life, premiered on ABC." ], [ "Books and articles", "Brockovich's first book, ''Take It from Me: Life's a Struggle But You Can Win'' (), was published in 2001.A second book, ''Superman's Not Coming'', was released on August 25, 2020.In 2021, Brockovich wrote about hormone-disrupting chemicals (such as PFAS) eroding human fertility at an alarming rate.On February 8, 2022, Brockovich wrote an article talking about the case of Steven Donziger, a lawyer who won an $18 billion judgment against Chevron before being jailed for contempt of court after refusing to turn his phone and computer over to Chevron's legal team." ], [ "Personal life", "Brockovich has three children: a son, Matthew, and a daughter, Katie, from her first marriage to Shawn Brown, and a daughter, Elizabeth (\"Beth\"), from her second marriage to Steven Brockovich.", "Her third husband was actor and country-musician DJ, Eric L. Ellis.", "As of 2016, Brockovich resides in Agoura Hills, California, in a house she purchased in 1996 with her US$2.5 million bonus after the Hinkley settlement." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website of Erin Brockovich* The Brockovich Report BrockovichBlog.com* Brockovich Village* Official MySpace of Erin Brockovich* Erin Brockovich biography on the Biography Channel* * '' Evening with Erin Brockovich'' in Sydney, hosted by the ''Climate Change Coalition'' 2007* Detail about Hinkley case at AwesomeStories.com* Did Hinkley Residents Really Win?", "at salon.com* Weitz & Luxenberg PC* Shine Lawyers Australia* Environmental Justice Society* Erin Brockovich video produced by ''Makers: Women Who Make America''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electric charge" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Electric charge''' (symbol ''q'', sometimes ''Q'') is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field.", "Electric charge can be ''positive'' or ''negative''.", "Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.", "An object with no net charge is referred to as electrically neutral.", "Early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that do not require consideration of quantum effects.Electric charge is a conserved property; the net charge of an isolated system, the quantity of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge, cannot change.", "Electric charge is carried by subatomic particles.", "In ordinary matter, negative charge is carried by electrons, and positive charge is carried by the protons in the nuclei of atoms.", "If there are more electrons than protons in a piece of matter, it will have a negative charge, if there are fewer it will have a positive charge, and if there are equal numbers it will be neutral.", "Charge is ''quantized''; it comes in integer multiples of individual small units called the elementary charge, ''e'', about which is the smallest charge that can exist freely.", "Particles called quarks have smaller charges, multiples of ''e'', but they are found only combined in particles that have a charge that is an integer multiple of ''e''.", "In the Standard Model, charge is an absolutely conserved quantum number.", "The proton has a charge of +''e'', and the electron has a charge of −''e''.Electric charges produce electric fields.", "A moving charge also produces a magnetic field.", "The interaction of electric charges with an electromagnetic field (a combination of an electric and a magnetic field) is the source of the electromagnetic (or Lorentz) force, which is one of the four fundamental interactions in physics.", "The study of photon-mediated interactions among charged particles is called quantum electrodynamics.The SI derived unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C) named after French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb.", "In electrical engineering it is also common to use the ampere-hour (A⋅h).", "In physics and chemistry it is common to use the elementary charge (''e'') as a unit.", "Chemistry also uses the Faraday constant, which is the charge of one mole of elementary charges." ], [ "Overview", "Diagram showing field lines and equipotentials around an electron, a negatively charged particle.", "In an electrically neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons (which are positively charged), resulting in a net zero overall chargeCharge is the fundamental property of matter that exhibits electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter with charge.", "Electric charge is a characteristic property of many subatomic particles.", "The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the elementary charge ''e''; we say that electric charge is ''quantized''.", "Michael Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge.", "Robert Millikan's oil drop experiment demonstrated this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge.", "It has been discovered that one type of particle, quarks, have fractional charges of either − or +, but it is believed they always occur in multiples of integral charge; free-standing quarks have never been observed.By convention, the charge of an electron is negative, ''−e'', while that of a proton is positive, ''+e''.", "Charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract.", "Coulomb's law quantifies the electrostatic force between two particles by asserting that the force is proportional to the product of their charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.", "The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, but with opposite sign.The electric charge of a macroscopic object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that it is made up of.", "This charge is often small, because matter is made of atoms, and atoms typically have equal numbers of protons and electrons, in which case their charges cancel out, yielding a net charge of zero, thus making the atom neutral.An ''ion'' is an atom (or group of atoms) that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net positive charge (cation), or that has gained one or more electrons, giving it a net negative charge (anion).", "''Monatomic ions'' are formed from single atoms, while ''polyatomic ions'' are formed from two or more atoms that have been bonded together, in each case yielding an ion with a positive or negative net charge.During the formation of macroscopic objects, constituent atoms and ions usually combine to form structures composed of neutral ''ionic compounds'' electrically bound to neutral atoms.", "Thus macroscopic objects tend toward being neutral overall, but macroscopic objects are rarely perfectly net neutral.Sometimes macroscopic objects contain ions distributed throughout the material, rigidly bound in place, giving an overall net positive or negative charge to the object.", "Also, macroscopic objects made of conductive elements can more or less easily (depending on the element) take on or give off electrons, and then maintain a net negative or positive charge indefinitely.", "When the net electric charge of an object is non-zero and motionless, the phenomenon is known as static electricity.", "This can easily be produced by rubbing two dissimilar materials together, such as rubbing amber with fur or glass with silk.", "In this way, non-conductive materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively.", "Charge taken from one material is moved to the other material, leaving an opposite charge of the same magnitude behind.", "The law of ''conservation of charge'' always applies, giving the object from which a negative charge is taken a positive charge of the same magnitude, and vice versa.Even when an object's net charge is zero, the charge can be distributed non-uniformly in the object (e.g., due to an external electromagnetic field, or bound polar molecules).", "In such cases, the object is said to be polarized.", "The charge due to polarization is known as bound charge, while the charge on an object produced by electrons gained or lost from outside the object is called ''free charge''.", "The motion of electrons in conductive metals in a specific direction is known as electric current." ], [ "Unit", "The SI unit of quantity of electric charge is the coulomb (symbol: C).", "The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that passes through the cross section of an electrical conductor carrying one ampere for one second.", "This unit was proposed in 1946 and ratified in 1948.The lowercase symbol ''q'' is often used to denote a quantity of electric charge.", "The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an electrometer, or indirectly measured with a ballistic galvanometer.The elementary charge (the electric charge of the proton) is defined as a fundamental constant in the SI.", "The value for elementary charge, when expressed in SI units, is exactly After discovering the quantized character of charge, in 1891 George Stoney proposed the unit 'electron' for this fundamental unit of electrical charge.", "J. J. Thomson subsequently discovered the particle that we now call the electron in 1897.The unit is today referred to as , , or simply denoted ''e'', with the charge of an electron being −''e''.", "The charge of an isolated system should be a multiple of the elementary charge ''e'', even if at large scales charge seems to behave as a continuous quantity.", "In some contexts it is meaningful to speak of fractions of an elementary charge; for example, in the fractional quantum Hall effect.The unit faraday is sometimes used in electrochemistry.", "One faraday is the magnitude of the charge of one mole of elementary charges, i.e." ], [ "History", "torsion balanceFrom ancient times, people were familiar with four types of phenomena that today would all be explained using the concept of electric charge: (a) lightning, (b) the torpedo fish (or electric ray), (c) St Elmo's Fire, and (d) that amber rubbed with fur would attract small, light objects.", "The first account of the is often attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician Thales of Miletus, who lived from c. 624 to c. 546 BC, but there are doubts about whether Thales left any writings; his account about amber is known from an account from early 200s.", "This account can be taken as evidence that the phenomenon was known since at least c. 600 BC, but Thales explained this phenomenon as evidence for inanimate objects having a soul.", "In other words, there was no indication of any conception of electric charge.", "More generally, the ancient Greeks did not understand the connections among these four kinds of phenomena.", "The Greeks observed that the charged amber buttons could attract light objects such as hair.", "They also found that if they rubbed the amber for long enough, they could even get an electric spark to jump, but there is also a claim that no mention of electric sparks appeared until late 17th century.", "This property derives from the triboelectric effect.In late 1100s, the substance jet, a compacted form of coal, was noted to have an amber effect, and in the middle of the 1500s, Girolamo Fracastoro, discovered that diamond also showed this effect.", "Some efforts were made by Fracastoro and others, especially Gerolamo Cardano to develop explanations for this phenomenon.In contrast to astronomy, mechanics, and optics, which had been studied quantitatively since antiquity, the start of ongoing qualitative and quantitative research into electrical phenomena can be marked with the publication of ''De Magnete'' by the English scientist William Gilbert in 1600.In this book, there was a small section where Gilbert returned to the amber effect (as he called it) in addressing many of the earlier theories, and coined the Neo-Latin word ''electrica'' (from (ēlektron), the Greek word for ''amber'').", "The Latin word was translated into English as .", "Gilbert is also credited with the term ''electrical'', while the term ''electricity'' came later, first attributed to Sir Thomas Browne in his Pseudodoxia Epidemica from 1646.", "(For more linguistic details see Etymology of electricity.)", "Gilbert hypothesized that this amber effect could be explained by an effluvium (a small stream of particles that flows from the electric object, without diminishing its bulk or weight) that acts on other objects.", "This idea of a material electrical effluvium was influential in the 17th and 18th centuries.", "It was a precursor to ideas developed in the 18th century about \"electric fluid\" (Dufay, Nollet, Franklin) and \"electric charge\".Around 1663 Otto von Guericke invented what was probably the first electrostatic generator, but he did not recognize it primarily as an electrical device and only conducted minimal electrical experiments with it.", "Other European pioneers were Robert Boyle, who in 1675 published the first book in English that was devoted solely to electrical phenomena.", "His work was largely a repetition of Gilbert's studies, but he also identified several more \"electrics\", and noted mutual attraction between two bodies.In 1729 Stephen Gray was experimenting with static electricity, which he generated using a glass tube.", "He noticed that a cork, used to protect the tube from dust and moisture, also became electrified (charged).", "Further experiments (e.g., extending the cork by putting thin sticks into it) showed—for the first time—that electrical effluvia (as Gray called it) could be transmitted (conducted) over a distance.", "Gray managed to transmit charge with twine (765 feet) and wire (865 feet).", "Through these experiments, Gray discovered the importance of different materials, which facilitated or hindered the conduction of electrical effluvia.", "John Theophilus Desaguliers, who repeated many of Gray's experiments, is credited with coining the terms conductors and insulators to refer to the effects of different materials in these experiments.", "Gray also discovered electrical induction (i.e., where charge could be transmitted from one object to another without any direct physical contact).", "For example, he showed that by bringing a charged glass tube close to, but not touching, a lump of lead that was sustained by a thread, it was possible to make the lead become electrified (e.g., to attract and repel brass filings).", "He attempted to explain this phenomenon with the idea of electrical effluvia.Gray's discoveries introduced an important shift in the historical development of knowledge about electric charge.", "The fact that electrical effluvia could be transferred from one object to another, opened the theoretical possibility that this property was not inseparably connected to the bodies that were electrified by rubbing.", "In 1733 Charles François de Cisternay du Fay, inspired by Gray's work, made a series of experiments (reported in ''Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences''), showing that more or less all substances could be 'electrified' by rubbing, except for metals and fluids and proposed that electricity comes in two varieties that cancel each other, which he expressed in terms of a two-fluid theory.", "When glass was rubbed with silk, du Fay said that the glass was charged with ''vitreous electricity'', and, when amber was rubbed with fur, the amber was charged with ''resinous electricity''.", "In contemporary understanding, positive charge is now defined as the charge of a glass rod after being rubbed with a silk cloth, but it is arbitrary which type of charge is called positive and which is called negative.", "Another important two-fluid theory from this time was proposed by Jean-Antoine Nollet (1745).Up until about 1745, the main explanation for electrical attraction and repulsion was the idea that electrified bodies gave off an effluvium.Benjamin Franklin started electrical experiments in late 1746, and by 1750 had developed a one-fluid theory of electricity, based on an experiment that showed that a rubbed glass received the same, but opposite, charge strength as the cloth used to rub the glass.", "Franklin imagined electricity as being a type of invisible fluid present in all matter and coined the term itself (as well as battery and some others); for example, he believed that it was the glass in a Leyden jar that held the accumulated charge.", "He posited that rubbing insulating surfaces together caused this fluid to change location, and that a flow of this fluid constitutes an electric current.", "He also posited that when matter contained an excess of the fluid it was charged and when it had a deficit it was charged.", "He identified the term with vitreous electricity and with resinous electricity after performing an experiment with a glass tube he had received from his overseas colleague Peter Collinson.", "The experiment had participant A charge the glass tube and participant B receive a shock to the knuckle from the charged tube.", "Franklin identified participant B to be positively charged after having been shocked by the tube.", "There is some ambiguity about whether William Watson independently arrived at the same one-fluid explanation around the same time (1747).", "Watson, after seeing Franklin's letter to Collinson, claims that he had presented the same explanation as Franklin in spring 1747.Franklin had studied some of Watson's works prior to making his own experiments and analysis, which was probably significant for Franklin's own theorizing.", "One physicist suggests that Watson first proposed a one-fluid theory, which Franklin then elaborated further and more influentially.", "A historian of science argues that Watson missed a subtle difference between his ideas and Franklin's, so that Watson misinterpreted his ideas as being similar to Franklin's.", "In any case, there was no animosity between Watson and Franklin, and the Franklin model of electrical action, formulated in early 1747, eventually became widely accepted at that time.", "After Franklin's work, effluvia-based explanations were rarely put forward.It is now known that the Franklin model was fundamentally correct.", "There is only one kind of electrical charge, and only one variable is required to keep track of the amount of charge.Until 1800 it was only possible to study conduction of electric charge by using an electrostatic discharge.", "In 1800 Alessandro Volta was the first to show that charge could be maintained in continuous motion through a closed path.In 1833, Michael Faraday sought to remove any doubt that electricity is identical, regardless of the source by which it is produced.", "He discussed a variety of known forms, which he characterized as common electricity (e.g., static electricity, piezoelectricity, magnetic induction), voltaic electricity (e.g., electric current from a voltaic pile), and animal electricity (e.g., bioelectricity).In 1838, Faraday raised a question about whether electricity was a fluid or fluids or a property of matter, like gravity.", "He investigated whether matter could be charged with one kind of charge independently of the other.", "He came to the conclusion that electric charge was a relation between two or more bodies, because he could not charge one body without having an opposite charge in another body.In 1838, Faraday also put forth a theoretical explanation of electric force, while expressing neutrality about whether it originates from one, two, or no fluids.", "He focused on the idea that the normal state of particles is to be nonpolarized, and that when polarized, they seek to return to their natural, nonpolarized state.In developing a field theory approach to electrodynamics (starting in the mid-1850s), James Clerk Maxwell stops considering electric charge as a special substance that accumulates in objects, and starts to understand electric charge as a consequence of the transformation of energy in the field.", "This pre-quantum understanding considered magnitude of electric charge to be a continuous quantity, even at the microscopic level." ], [ "The role of charge in static electricity", "Static electricity refers to the electric charge of an object and the related electrostatic discharge when two objects are brought together that are not at equilibrium.", "An electrostatic discharge creates a change in the charge of each of the two objects.===Electrification by sliding===When a piece of glass and a piece of resin—neither of which exhibit any electrical properties—are rubbed together and left with the rubbed surfaces in contact, they still exhibit no electrical properties.", "When separated, they attract each other.A second piece of glass rubbed with a second piece of resin, then separated and suspended near the former pieces of glass and resin causes these phenomena:* The two pieces of glass repel each other.", "* Each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin.", "* The two pieces of resin repel each other.This attraction and repulsion is an ''electrical phenomenon'', and the bodies that exhibit them are said to be ''electrified'', or ''electrically charged''.", "Bodies may be electrified in many other ways, as well as by sliding.", "The electrical properties of the two pieces of glass are similar to each other but opposite to those of the two pieces of resin: The glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the resin attracts.If a body electrified in any manner whatsoever behaves as the glass does, that is, if it repels the glass and attracts the resin, the body is said to be ''vitreously'' electrified, and if it attracts the glass and repels the resin it is said to be ''resinously'' electrified.", "All electrified bodies are either vitreously or resinously electrified.An established convention in the scientific community defines vitreous electrification as positive, and resinous electrification as negative.", "The exactly opposite properties of the two kinds of electrification justify our indicating them by opposite signs, but the application of the positive sign to one rather than to the other kind must be considered as a matter of arbitrary convention—just as it is a matter of convention in mathematical diagram to reckon positive distances towards the right hand." ], [ "The role of charge in electric current", "Electric current is the flow of electric charge through an object.", "The most common charge carriers are the positively charged proton and the negatively charged electron.", "The movement of any of these charged particles constitutes an electric current.", "In many situations, it suffices to speak of the ''conventional current'' without regard to whether it is carried by positive charges moving in the direction of the conventional current or by negative charges moving in the opposite direction.", "This macroscopic viewpoint is an approximation that simplifies electromagnetic concepts and calculations.At the opposite extreme, if one looks at the microscopic situation, one sees there are many ways of carrying an electric current, including: a flow of electrons; a flow of electron holes that act like positive particles; and both negative and positive particles (ions or other charged particles) flowing in opposite directions in an electrolytic solution or a plasma.Beware that, in the common and important case of metallic wires, the direction of the conventional current is opposite to the drift velocity of the actual charge carriers; i.e., the electrons.", "This is a source of confusion for beginners.==Conservation of electric charge==The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself.", "This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from gauge invariance of the wave function.", "The conservation of charge results in the charge-current continuity equation.", "More generally, the rate of change in charge density ''ρ'' within a volume of integration ''V'' is equal to the area integral over the current density '''J''' through the closed surface ''S'' = ∂''V'', which is in turn equal to the net current ''I''::Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equation, gives the result::The charge transferred between times and is obtained by integrating both sides::where ''I'' is the net outward current through a closed surface and ''q'' is the electric charge contained within the volume defined by the surface." ], [ "Relativistic invariance", "Aside from the properties described in articles about electromagnetism, charge is a relativistic invariant.", "This means that any particle that has charge ''q'' has the same charge regardless of how fast it is travelling.", "This property has been experimentally verified by showing that the charge of one helium nucleus (two protons and two neutrons bound together in a nucleus and moving around at high speeds) is the same as two deuterium nuclei (one proton and one neutron bound together, but moving much more slowly than they would if they were in a helium nucleus)." ], [ "See also", "* SI electromagnetism units* Color charge* Partial charge* Positron or antielectron is an antiparticle or antimatter counterpart of the electron" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * How fast does a charge decay?" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ellis Island" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ellis Island''' is a federally owned island in New York Harbor, situated within the U.S. states of New Jersey and New York, that was the busiest immigrant inspection and processing station in the United States.", "From 1892 to 1954, nearly 12 million immigrants arriving at the Port of New York and New Jersey were processed there under federal law.", "Today, it is part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument and is accessible to the public only by ferry.", "The north side of the island is the site of the main building, now a national museum of immigration.", "The south side of the island, including the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is open to the public only through guided tours.In the 19th century, Ellis Island was the site of Fort Gibson and later became a naval magazine.", "The first inspection station opened in 1892 and was destroyed by fire in 1897.The second station opened in 1900 and housed facilities for medical quarantines and processing immigrants.", "After 1924, Ellis Island was used primarily as a detention center for migrants.", "During both World War I and World War II, its facilities were also used by the US military to detain prisoners of war.", "After the immigration station's closure, the buildings languished for several years until they were partially reopened in 1976.The main building and adjacent structures were completely renovated in 1990.The island was greatly expanded by land reclamation between the late 1890s and the 1930s.", "Jurisdictional disputes between New Jersey and New York State persisted until the 1998 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in ''New Jersey v. New York''." ], [ "Geography and access", "Ellis Island is in Upper New York Bay, east of Liberty State Park and north of Liberty Island.", "While most of the island is in Jersey City, New Jersey, a small section is an exclave of New York City.", "The island has a land area of , much of which is from land reclamation.", "The natural island and contiguous areas comprise within New York, and are located on the northern portion of the present-day island.", "The artificial land is part of New Jersey.", "The island has been owned and administered by the federal government of the United States since 1808 and operated by the National Park Service, since 1965.===Land expansion===Ellis Island and Manhattan as seen from New Jersey shore in 2020Initially, much of the Upper New York Bay's western shore consisted of large tidal flats with vast oyster beds, which were a major source of food for the Lenape.", "Ellis Island was one of three \"Oyster Islands,\" the other two being Liberty Island and the now-subsumed Black Tom Island.", "In the late 19th century, the federal government began expanding the island by land reclamation to accommodate its immigration station, and the expansions continued until 1934.The fill was acquired from the ballast of ships, as well as material excavated from the first line of the New York City Subway.", "It also came from the railyards of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and the Central Railroad of New Jersey.", "It eventually obliterated the oyster beds, engulfed one of the Oyster Islands, and brought the shoreline much closer to the others.The current island is shaped like a \"C\", with two landmasses of equal size on the northeastern and southwestern sides, separated by what was formerly a ferry pier.", "It was originally three separate islands.", "The current north side, formerly called island 1, contains the original island and the fill around it.", "The current south side was composed of island 2, created in 1899, and island 3, created in 1906.Two eastward-facing ferry docks separated the three numbered landmasses.The fill was retained with a system of wood piles and cribbing, and later encased with more than 7,700 linear feet of concrete and granite sea wall.", "It was placed atop either wood piles, cribbing, or submerged bags of concrete.", "In the 1920s, the second ferry basin between islands 2 and 3 was infilled to create the great lawn, forming the current south side of Ellis Island.", "As part of the project, a concrete and granite seawall was built to connect the tip of these landmasses.===State sovereignty dispute===State border after ''New Jersey v. New York'', 1998The circumstances which led to an exclave of New York being located within New Jersey began in the colonial era, after the British takeover of New Netherland in 1664.A clause in the colonial land grant outlined the territory that the proprietors of New Jersey would receive as being \"westward of Long Island, and Manhitas Island and bounded on the east part by the main sea, and part by Hudson's river.", "\"As early as 1804, attempts were made to resolve the status of the state line.", "The City of New York claimed the right to regulate trade on all waters.", "This was contested in ''Gibbons v. Ogden'', which decided that the regulation of interstate commerce fell under the authority of the federal government, thus influencing competition in the newly developing steam ferry service in New York Harbor.", "In 1830, New Jersey planned to bring suit to clarify the border, but the case was never heard.", "The matter was resolved with a compact between the states, ratified by U.S. Congress in 1834.This set the boundary line at the middle of the Hudson River and New York Harbor; however, New York was guaranteed \"exclusive jurisdiction of and over all the waters of Hudson River lying west of Manhattan and to the south of the mouth of Spuytenduyvil Creek; and of and over the lands covered by the said waters, to the low-water mark on the New Jersey shore.\"", "This was later confirmed in other cases by the U.S. Supreme Court.New Jersey contended that the artificial portions of the island were part of New Jersey, since they were outside New York's border.", "In 1956, after the closure of the U.S. immigration station two years prior, the Mayor of Jersey City Bernard J. Berry commandeered a U.S. Coast Guard cutter and led a contingent of New Jersey officials on an expedition to claim the island.Jurisdictional disputes reemerged in the 1980s with the renovation of Ellis Island, and then again in the 1990s with the proposed redevelopment of the south side.", "New Jersey sued in 1997.The lawsuit was escalated to the Supreme Court, which ruled in ''New Jersey v. New York''.", "The border was redrawn using geographic information science data: It was decided that of the land fill area are territory of New Jersey and that , including the original island, are territory of New York.", "This caused some initial confusion, as some buildings straddled the interstate border.", "The ruling had no effect on the status of Liberty Island.Although the island remained under federal ownership after the lawsuit, New Jersey and New York agreed to share jurisdiction over the land itself.", "Neither state took any fiscal or physical responsibility for the maintenance, preservation, or improvement of any of the historic properties, and each state has jurisdiction over its respective land areas.", "Jersey City and New York City then gave separate tax lot numbers to their respective claims.===Public access===Two ferry slips are located on the northern side of the basin that bisects Ellis Island.", "No charge is made for entrance to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service.", "A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953.The ferries travel from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and the Battery in Lower Manhattan.", "The NPS also offers guided public tours of the south side as part of the \"Hard Hat Tour\".The bridge to Liberty State ParkA bridge to Liberty State Park was built in 1986 for transporting materials and personnel during the island's late-1980s restoration.", "Originally slated to be torn down in 1992, it remained after construction was complete.", "It is not open to the public.", "The city of New York and the island's private ferry operator have opposed proposals to use it or replace it with a pedestrian bridge, and a 1995 proposal for a new pedestrian bridge to New Jersey was voted down in the United States House of Representatives.", "The bridge is not strong enough to be classified as a permanent bridge, and any action to convert it into a pedestrian passageway would require renovations." ], [ "History", "===Precolonial and colonial use===Aerial viewThe present-day Ellis Island was created by retreating glaciers at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation about 15,000 years ago.", "The island was described as a \"hummock along a plain fronting the west side of the Hudson River estuary,\" and when the glaciers melted, the water of the Upper New York Bay surrounded the mass.", "The native Mohegan name for the island was \"Kioshk\", meaning \"Gull Island\", in reference to Ellis Island's former large population of seagulls.", "Kioshk was composed mostly of marshy, brackish lowlands that disappeared underwater at high tide.", "The Native American tribes who lived nearby are presumed to have been hunter-gatherers who used the island to hunt for fish and oysters, as well as to build transient hunting and fishing communities there.", "It is unlikely that the Native Americans established permanent settlements on Kioshk, since the island would have been submerged at high tide.In 1630, the Dutch bought Kioshk as a gift for Michael Reyniersz Pauw, who had helped found New Netherland.", "When the Dutch settled the area as part of New Netherland, the three islands in Upper New York Bay—Liberty, Black Tom, and Ellis Islands—were given the name Oyster Islands, alluding to the large oyster population nearby.", "The present-day Ellis Island was thus called \"Little Oyster Island\", a name that persisted through at least the early 1700s.", "Little Oyster Island was then sold to Captain William Dyre , then to Thomas Lloyd on April 23, 1686.The island was then sold several more times, including to Enoch and Mary Story.", "During colonial times, Little Oyster Island became a popular spot for hosting oyster roasts, picnics, and clambakes because of its rich oyster beds.", "Evidence of recreational uses on the island was visible by the mid-18th century with the addition of commercial buildings to the northeast shore.By the 1760s, Little Oyster Island became a public execution site for pirates, with executions occurring at one tree in particular, the \"Gibbet Tree\".", "However, there is scant evidence that this was common practice.", "Little Oyster Island was acquired by Samuel Ellis, a colonial New Yorker and merchant from Wrexham, Wales, in 1774.He unsuccessfully attempted to sell the island nine years later.", "Ellis died in 1794, and as per his will, the ownership of Ellis Island passed to his daughter Catherine Westervelt's unborn son, who was also named Samuel.", "When the junior Samuel died shortly after birth, ownership passed to the senior Samuel's other two daughters, Elizabeth Ryerson and Rachel Cooder.===Military use and Fort Gibson===Ellis Island was also used by the military for almost 80 years.", "By the mid-1790s, as a result of the United States' increased military tensions with Britain and France, a U.S. congressional committee drew a map of possible locations for the First System of fortifications to protect major American urban centers such as New York Harbor.A small part of Ellis Island from \"the soil from high to low waters mark around Ellis's Island\" was owned by the city.", "On April 21, 1794, the city deeded that land to the state for public defense purposes.", "The following year, the state allotted $100,000 for fortifications on Bedloe's, Ellis, and Governors Islands, as well as the construction of Castle Garden (now Castle Clinton) along the Battery on Manhattan island.", "Batteries and magazines were built on Ellis Island in preparation for a war.", "A jetty was added to the northwestern extremity of the island, possibly from soil excavated from an inlet at the northeastern corner; the inlet was infilled by 1813.Though the military threat never materialized, further preparations were made in the late 1790s, when the Quasi War sparked fears of war with France; these new preparations were supervised by Ebenezer Stevens.", "The military conflict also failed to occur, and by 1805, the fort had become rundown.Stevens, who observed that the Ellis family still owned most of the island, suggested selling off the land to the federal government.", "Samuel Ryerson, one of Samuel Ellis's grandsons, deeded the island to John A. Berry in 1806.The remaining portion of the island was acquired by condemnation the next year, and it was ceded to the United States on June 30, 1808, for $10,000.Lieutenant Colonel Jonathan Williams, placed in charge of New York Harbor defenses in the early 1800s, proposed several new fortifications around the harbor as part of the Second System of fortifications.", "The new fortifications included increased firepower and improved weaponry.", "The War Department established a circular stone 14-gun battery, a mortar battery (possibly of six mortars), magazine, and barracks.", "The fort was initially called Crown Fort, but by the end of the War of 1812 the battery was named Fort Gibson, in honor of Colonel James Gibson of the 4th Regiment of Riflemen, who was killed in the war during the Siege of Fort Erie.", "The fort was not used in combat during the war, and instead served as a barracks for the 11th Regiment, as well as a jail for British prisoners of war.Ellis Island buildings circa 1893Immediately after the end of the War of 1812, Fort Gibson was largely used as a recruiting depot.", "The fort went into decline due to under-utilization, and it was being jointly administered by the U.S. Army and Navy by the mid-1830s.", "Around this time, in 1834, the extant portions of Ellis Island was declared to be an exclave of New York within the waters of New Jersey.", "The era of joint administration was short-lived: the Army took over the fort's administration in 1841, demoted the fort to an artillery battery, and stopped garrisoning the fort, leaving a small Navy guard outside the magazine.", "By 1854, Battery Gibson contained an 11-gun battery, three naval magazines, a short railroad line, and several auxiliary structures such as a cookhouse, gun carriage house, and officers' quarters.", "The Army continued to maintain the fort until 1860, when it abandoned the weapons at Battery Gibson.", "The artillery magazine was expanded in 1861, during the American Civil War, and part of the parapet was removed.At the end of the Civil War, the fort declined again, this time to an extent that the weaponry was rendered unusable.", "Through the 1870s, the Navy built additional buildings for its artillery magazine on Ellis Island, eventually constructing 11 buildings in total.", "Complaints about the island's magazines started to form, and by the 1870s, ''The New York Sun'' was publishing \"alarming reports\" about the magazines.", "The guns were ordered removed in 1881, and the island passed under the complete control of the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance.===First immigration station===Judge'', March 22, 1890)''\"Mr. Windom, if you are going to make this island a garbage heap, I am returning to France\"''The Army had unsuccessfully attempted to use Ellis Island \"for the convalescence for immigrants\" as early as 1847.Across New York Harbor, Castle Clinton had been used as an immigration station since 1855, processing more than eight million immigrants during that time.", "The individual states had their own varying immigration laws until 1875, but the federal government regarded Castle Clinton as having \"varied charges of mismanagement, abuse of immigrants, and evasion of the laws\", and as such, wanted it to be completely replaced.", "The federal government assumed control of immigration in early 1890 and commissioned a study to determine the best place for the new immigration station in New York Harbor.", "Among members of the United States Congress, there were disputes about whether to build the station on Ellis, Governors, or Liberty Islands.", "Initially, Liberty Island was selected as the site for the immigration station, but due to opposition for immigration stations on both Liberty and Governors Islands, the committee eventually decided to build the station on Ellis Island.", "Since Castle Clinton's lease was about to expire, Congress approved a bill to build an immigration station on Ellis Island.On April 11, 1890, the federal government ordered the magazine at Ellis Island be torn down to make way for the U.S.'s first federal immigration station at the site.", "The Department of the Treasury, which was in charge of constructing federal buildings in the U.S., officially took control of the island that May 24.Congress initially allotted $75,000 () to construct the station and later doubled that appropriation.", "While the building was under construction, the Barge Office at the Battery was used for immigrant processing.", "During construction, most of the old Battery Gibson buildings were demolished, and Ellis Island's land size was almost doubled to .", "The main structure was a two-story structure of Georgia Pine, which was described in ''Harper's Weekly'' as \"a latterday watering place hotel\" measuring .", "Its outbuildings included a hospital, detention building, laundry building, and utility plant that were all made of wood.", "Some of the former stone magazine structures were reused for utilities and offices.", "Additionally, a ferry slip with breakwater was built to the south of Ellis Island.", "Following further expansion, the island measured by the end of 1892.First Ellis Island Immigrant Station, built in 1892 and destroyed 1897The station opened on January 1, 1892, and its first immigrant was Annie Moore, a 17-year-old girl from Cork, Ireland, who was traveling with her two brothers to meet their parents in the U.S. On the first day, almost 700 immigrants passed over the docks.", "Over the next year, over 400,000 immigrants were processed at the station.", "The processing procedure included a series of medical and mental inspection lines, and through this process, some 1% of potential immigrants were deported.", "Additional building improvements took place throughout the mid-1890s, and Ellis Island was expanded to by 1896.The last improvements, which entailed the installation of underwater telephone and telegraph cables to Governors Island, were completed in early June 1897.On June 15, 1897, the wooden structures on Ellis Island were razed in a fire of unknown origin.", "While there were no casualties, the wooden buildings had completely burned down after two hours, and all immigration records from 1855 had been destroyed.", "Over five years of operation, the station had processed 1.5 million immigrants.===Second immigration station=======Design and construction====Following the fire, passenger arrivals were again processed at the Barge Office, which was soon unable to handle the large volume of immigrants.", "Within three days of the fire, the federal government made plans to build a new, fireproof immigration station.", "Legislation to rebuild the station was approved on June 30, 1897, and appropriations were made in mid-July.", "By September, the Treasury's Supervising Architect, James Knox Taylor, opened an architecture competition to rebuild the immigration station.", "The competition was the second to be conducted under the Tarsney Act of 1893, which had permitted private architects to design federal buildings, rather than government architects in the Supervising Architect's office.", "The contest rules specified that a \"main building with annexes\" and a \"hospital building\", both made of fireproof materials, should be part of each nomination.", "Furthermore, the buildings had to be able to host a daily average of 1,000 and maximum of 4,000 immigrants.leftSeveral prominent architectural firms filed proposals, and by December, it was announced that Edward Lippincott Tilton and William A. Boring had won the competition.", "Tilton and Boring's plan called for four new structures: a main building in the French Renaissance style, as well as the kitchen/laundry building, powerhouse, and the main hospital building.", "The plan also included the creation of a new island called island 2, upon which the hospital would be built, south of the existing island (now Ellis Island's north side).", "A construction contract was awarded to the R. H. Hood Company in August 1898, with the expectation that construction would be completed within a year, but the project encountered delays because of various obstacles and disagreements between the federal government and the Hood Company.", "A separate contract to build the island 2 had to be approved by the War Department because it was in New Jersey's waters; that contract was completed in December 1898.The construction costs ultimately totaled $1.5 million.====Early expansions====European immigrants arriving at Ellis Island, 1915The new immigration station opened on December 17, 1900, without ceremony.", "On that day, 2,251 immigrants were processed.", "Almost immediately, additional projects commenced to improve the main structure, including an entrance canopy, baggage conveyor, and railroad ticket office.", "The kitchen/laundry and powerhouse started construction in May 1900 and were completed by the end of 1901.A ferry house was also built between islands 1 and 2 .", "The hospital, originally slated to be opened in 1899, was not completed until November 1901, mainly due to various funding delays and construction disputes.", "The facilities proved barely able to handle the flood of immigrants that arrived, and as early as 1903, immigrants had to remain in their transatlantic boats for several days due to inspection backlogs.", "Several wooden buildings were erected by 1903, including waiting rooms and a 700-bed barracks, and by 1904, over a million dollars' worth of improvements were proposed.", "The hospital was expanded from 125 to 250 beds in February 1907, and a new psychopathic ward debuted in November of the same year.", "Also constructed was an administration building adjacent to the hospital.Immigration commissioner William Williams made substantial changes to Ellis Island's operations, and during his tenure from 1902 to 1905 and 1909–1913, Ellis Island processed its peak number of immigrants.", "Williams also made changes to the island's appearance, adding plants and grading paths upon the once-barren landscape of Ellis Island.", "Under Williams's supervision, a third island was built to accommodate a proposed contagious-diseases ward, separated from existing facilities by of water.", "Island 3, as it was called, was located to the south of island 2 and separated from that island by a now-infilled ferry basin.", "The government bought the underwater area for island 3 from New Jersey in 1904, and a contract was awarded in April 1905.The islands were all connected via a cribwalk on their western sides (later covered with wood canopy), giving Ellis Island an overall \"E\"-shape.", "Upon the completion of island 3 in 1906, Ellis Island covered .", "A baggage and dormitory building was completed , and the main hospital was expanded in 1909.Alterations were made to the registry building and dormitories as well, but even this was insufficient to accommodate the high volume of immigrants.", "In 1911, Williams alleged that Congress had allocated too little for improvements to Ellis Island, even though the improvement budget that year was $868,000.The main building's registry roomAdditional improvements and routine maintenance work were completed in the early 1910s.", "A greenhouse was built in 1910, and the contagious-diseases ward on island 3 opened the following June.", "In addition, the incinerator was replaced in 1911, and a recreation center operated by the American Red Cross was also built on island 2 by 1915.These facilities generally followed the design set by Tilton and Boring.", "When the Black Tom explosion occurred on Black Tom Island in 1916, the complex suffered moderate damage; though all immigrants were evacuated safely, the main building's roof collapsed, and windows were broken.", "The main building's roof was replaced with a Guastavino-tiled arched ceiling by 1918.The immigration station was temporarily closed during World War I in 1917–1919, during which the facilities were used as a jail for suspected enemy combatants, and later as a treatment center for wounded American soldiers.", "Immigration inspections were conducted aboard ships or at docks.", "During the war, immigration processing at Ellis Island declined by 97%, from 878,000 immigrants per year in 1914 to 26,000 per year in 1919.Ellis Island's immigration station was reopened in 1920, and processing had rebounded to 560,000 immigrants per year by 1921.There were still ample complaints about the inadequate condition of Ellis Island's facilities.", "However, despite a request for $5.6 million in appropriations in 1921, aid was slow to materialize, and initial improvement work was restricted to smaller projects such as the infilling of the basin between islands 2 and 3.Other improvements included rearranging features such as staircases to improve pedestrian flow.", "These projects were supported by president Calvin Coolidge, who in 1924 requested that Congress approve $300,000 in appropriations for the island.", "The allocations were not received until the late 1920s.====Conversion to detention center====Reds, anarchists, radicals\"'' awaiting deportation, 1920With the passing of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, the number of immigrants being allowed into the United States declined greatly, ending the era of mass immigration.", "Following the Immigration Act of 1924, strict immigration quotas were enacted, and Ellis Island was downgraded from a primary inspection center to an immigrant-detention center, hosting only those that were to be detained or deported (see ).", "Final inspections were now instead conducted on board ships in New York Harbor.", "The Wall Street Crash of 1929 further decreased immigration, as people were now discouraged from immigrating to the U.S. Because of the resulting decline in patient counts, the hospital closed in 1930.Edward Corsi, who himself was an immigrant, became Ellis Island commissioner in 1931 and commenced an improvement program for the island.", "The initial improvements were utilitarian, focusing on such aspects as sewage, incineration, and power generation.", "In 1933, a federal committee led by the Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, was established to determine what operations and facilities needed improvement.", "The committee's report, released in 1934, suggested the construction of a new class-segregated immigration building, recreation center, ferry house, verandas, and doctors/nurses' quarters, as well as the installation of a new seawall around the island.", "These works were undertaken using Public Works Administration funding and Works Progress Administration labor, and were completed by the late 1930s.", "As part of the project, the surgeon's house and recreation center were demolished, and Edward Laning commissioned some murals for the island's buildings.", "Other improvements included the demolition of the greenhouse, the completion of the infilling of the basin between islands 2 and 3, and various landscaping activities such as the installation of walkways and plants.", "However, because of the steep decline in immigration, the immigration building went underused for several years, and it started to deteriorate.With the start of World War II in 1939, Ellis Island was again utilized by the military, this time being used as a United States Coast Guard base.", "As during World War I, the facilities were used to detain enemy soldiers in addition to immigrants, and the hospital was used for treating injured American soldiers.", "So many combatants were detained at Ellis Island that administrative offices were moved to mainland Manhattan in 1943, and Ellis Island was used solely for detainment.190pxBy 1947, shortly after the end of World War II, there were proposals to close Ellis Island due to the massive expenses needed for the upkeep of a relatively small detention center.", "The hospital was closed in 1950–1951 by the United States Public Health Service, and by the early 1950s, there were only 30 to 40 detainees left on the island.", "The island's closure was announced in mid-1954, when the federal government announced that it would construct a replacement facility on Manhattan.", "Ellis Island closed on November 12, 1954, with the departure of its last detainee, Norwegian merchant seaman Arne Pettersen, who had been arrested for overstaying his shore leave.", "At the time, it was estimated that the government would save $900,000 a year from closing the island.", "The ferryboat ''Ellis Island'', which had operated since 1904, stopped operating two weeks later.===Post-closure=======Initial redevelopment plans====Seen from east.", "From left to right: contagious diseases ward; lawn; hospital; ferry basin; main building, kitchen, dormitory, and immigration buildingAfter the immigration station closed, the buildings fell into disrepair and were abandoned, and the General Services Administration (GSA) took over the island in March 1955.The GSA wanted to sell off the island as \"surplus property\" and contemplated several options, including selling the island back to the city of New York or auctioning it to a private buyer.", "In 1959, real estate developer Sol Atlas unsuccessfully bid for the island, with plans to turn it into a $55 million resort with a hotel, marina, music shell, tennis courts, swimming pools, and skating rinks.", "The same year, Frank Lloyd Wright designed the $100 million \"Key Project\", which included housing, hotels, and large domes along the edges.", "However, Wright died before presenting the project.", "Other attempts at redeveloping the site, including a college, a retirement home, an alcoholics' rehabilitation center, and a world trade center were all unsuccessful.", "In 1963, the Jersey City Council voted to rezone the island's area within New Jersey for high-rise residential, monument/museum, or recreational use, though the new zoning ordinance banned \"Coney Island\"-style amusement parks.In June 1964, the National Park Service published a report that proposed making Ellis Island part of a national monument.", "This idea was approved by Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall in October 1964.Ellis Island was added to the Statue of Liberty National Monument on May 11, 1965, and that August, President Lyndon B. Johnson approved the redevelopment of the island as a museum and park.The initial master plan for the redevelopment of Ellis Island, designed by Philip Johnson, called for the construction of the Wall, a large \"stadium\"-shaped monument to replace the structures on the island's northwest side, while preserving the main building and hospital.", "However, no appropriations were immediately made, other than a $250,000 allocation for emergency repairs in 1967.By the late 1960s, the abandoned buildings were deteriorating severely.", "Johnson's plan was never implemented due to public opposition and a lack of funds.", "Another master plan was proposed in 1968, which called for the rehabilitation of the island's northern side and the demolition of all buildings, including the hospital, on the southern side.", "The Jersey City Jobs Corpsmen started rehabilitating part of Ellis Island the same year, in accordance with this plan.", "This was soon halted indefinitely because of a lack of funding.", "In 1970, a squatters' club called the National Economic Growth and Reconstruction Organization (NEGRO) started refurbishing buildings as part of a plan to turn the island into an addiction rehabilitation center, but were evicted after less than two weeks.", "NEGRO's permit to renovate the island were ultimately terminated in 1973.====Restoration and reopening of north side====Detail of ceiling of registry roomIn the 1970s, the NPS started restoring the island by repairing seawalls, eliminating weeds, and building a new ferry dock.", "Simultaneously, Peter Sammartino launched the Restore Ellis Island Committee to raise awareness and money for repairs.", "The north side of the island, comprising the main building and surrounding structures, was rehabilitated and partially reopened for public tours in May 1976.The plant was left unrepaired to show the visitors the extent of the deterioration.", "The NPS limited visits to 130 visitors per boat, or less than 75,000 visitors a year.", "Initially, only parts of three buildings were open to visitors.", "Further repairs were stymied by a lack of funding, and by 1982, the NPS was turning to private sources for funds.In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca with former President Gerald Ford as honorary chairman, to raise the funds needed to complete the work.", "The plan for Ellis Island was to cost $128 million, and by the time work commenced in 1984, about $40 million had been raised.", "Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group eventually raised more than $350 million in donations for the renovations of both the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island.", "Initial restoration plans included renovating the main building, baggage and dormitory building, and the hospital, as well as possibly adding a bandshell, restaurant, and exhibits.", "Two firms, Notter Finegold & Alexander and Beyer Blinder Belle, designed the renovation.", "In advance of the renovation, public tours ceased in 1984, and work started the following year.", "As part of the restoration, the powerhouse was renovated, while the incinerator, greenhouse, and water towers were removed.", "The kitchen/laundry and baggage/dormitory buildings were restored to their original condition while the main building was restored to its 1918–1924 appearance.The main building opened as a museum on September 10, 1990.Further improvements were made after the north side's renovation was completed.", "The Wall of Honor, a monument to raise money for the restoration, was completed in 1990 and reconstructed starting in 1993.A research facility with online database, the American Family Immigration History Center, was opened in April 2001.Subsequently, the ferry building was restored for $6.4 million and reopened in 2007.The north side was temporarily closed after being damaged in Hurricane Sandy in October 2012, though the island and part of the museum reopened exactly a year later, after major renovations.", "In March 2020, the island was closed temporarily due to the COVID-19 pandemic; it reopened in August 2020, initially with strict capacity limits." ], [ "Structures", "The current complex was designed by Edward Lippincott Tilton and William A. Boring, who performed the commission under the direction of the Supervising Architect for the U.S. Treasury, James Knox Taylor.", "Boring was responsible for the majority of the buildings.", "Tilton and Boring's plan, submitted in 1898, called for structures to be located on both the northern and southern portions of Ellis Island.", "The plan stipulated a large main building, a powerhouse, and a new baggage/dormitory and kitchen building on the north side of Ellis Island; a hospital on the south side; and a ferry dock with covered walkways at the head of the ferry basin, on the west side of the island.", "The plan roughly corresponds to what was ultimately built.===North side===The northern half of Ellis Island is composed of the former island 1.Only the areas associated with the original island, including much of the main building, are in New York; the remaining area is in New Jersey.====Main building====The present three-story main structure was designed in French Renaissance style.", "It is made of a steel frame, with a facade of red brick in Flemish bond ornamented with limestone trim.", "The structure is located above the mean waterline to prevent flooding.", "The building was initially composed of a three-story center section with two-story east and west wings, though the third stories of each wing were completed in the early 1910s.", "Atop the corners of the building's central section are four towers capped by cupolas of copper cladding.", "Some 160 rooms were included within the original design to separate the different functions of the building.", "Namely, the first floor was initially designed to handle baggage, detention, offices, storage and waiting rooms; the second floor, primary inspection; and the third floor, dormitories.", "However, in practice, these spaces generally served multiple functions throughout the immigration station's operating history.", "At opening, it was estimated that the main building could inspect 5,000 immigrants per day.", "The main building's design was highly acclaimed; at the 1900 Paris Exposition, it received a gold medal, and other architectural publications such as the ''Architectural Record'' lauded the design.alt=Entrance to the Main Building, seen from the south.", "The entrance canopy can be seen in the foreground, and the three arches of the south facade, as well as two of the ornamental towers, can be seen in the background.The first floor contained detention rooms, social service offices, and waiting rooms on its west wing, a use that remained relatively unchanged.", "The central space was initially a baggage room until 1907, but was subsequently subdivided and later re-combined into a single records room.", "The first floor's east wing also contained a railroad waiting room and medical offices, though much of the wing was later converted to record rooms.", "A railroad ticket office annex was added to the north side of the first floor in 1905–1906.The south elevation of the first floor contains the current immigration museum's main entrance, approached by a slightly sloped passageway covered by a glass canopy.", "Though the canopy was added in the 1980s, it evokes the design of an earlier glass canopy on the site that existed from 1902 to 1932.Italian family in the baggage room, 1905.Original caption:''Lost baggage is the cause of their worried expressions.", "At the height of immigration the entire first floor of the administration building was used to store baggage.", "''A registry room, with a ceiling, is located on the central section of the second floor.", "The room was used for primary inspections.", "Initially, there were handrails within the registry room that separated the primary inspection into several queues, but 1911 these were replaced with benches.", "A staircase from the first floor formerly rose into the middle of the registry room, but this was also removed around 1911.When the room's roof collapsed during the Black Tom explosion of 1916, the current Guastavino-tiled arched ceiling was installed, and the asphalt floor was replaced with red Ludowici tile.", "There are three large arched openings each on the northern and southern walls, filled-in with grilles of metal-and-glass.", "The southern elevation retains its original double-height arches, while the lower sections of the arches on the northern elevations were modified to make way for the railroad ticket office.", "On all four sides of the room, above the level of the third floor, is a clerestory of semicircular windows.", "The east wing of the second floor was used for administrative offices, while the west wing housed the special inquiry and deportation divisions, as well as dormitories.On the third floor is a balcony surrounding the entire registry room.", "There were also dormitories for 600 people on the third floor.", "Between 1914 and 1918, several rooms were added to the third floor.", "These rooms included offices as well as an assembly room that were later converted to detention.The remnants of Fort Gibson still exist outside the main building.", "Two portions are visible to the public, including the remnants of the lower walls around the fort.====Kitchen and laundry====Undated photo of southern facade of kitchen and laundryThe kitchen and laundry structure is a -story structure located west of the main building.", "It is made of a steel frame and terracotta blocks, with a granite base and a facade of brick in Flemish bond.", "Originally designed as two separate structures, it was redesigned in 1899 as a single structure with kitchen-restaurant and laundry-bathhouse components, and was subsequently completed in 1901.A -story ice plant on the northern elevation was built between 1903 and 1908, and was converted into a ticket office in 1935.It has a facade of brick in English and stretcher bond.", "Today, the kitchen and laundry contains NPS offices as well as the museum's ''Peopling of America'' exhibit.The building has a central portion with a narrow gable roof, as well as pavilions on the western and eastern sides with hip roofs; the roof tiling was formerly of slate and currently of Ludowici terracotta.", "The larger eastern pavilion, which contained the laundry-bathhouse, had hipped dormers.", "The exterior-facing window and door openings contain limestone features on the facade, while the top of the building has a modillioned copper cornice.", "Formerly, there was also a two-story porch on the southern elevation.", "Multiple enclosed passageways connect the kitchen and laundry to adjacent structures.====Bakery and carpentry shop====The bakery and carpentry shop is a two-story structure located west of the kitchen and laundry building.", "It is roughly rectangular and oriented north–south.", "It is made of a steel frame with a granite base, a flat roof, and a facade of brick in Flemish bond.", "The building was constructed in 1914–1915 to replace the separate wooden bakery and carpentry shop buildings, as well as two sheds and a frame waiting room.", "There are no exterior entrances, and the only access is via the kitchen and laundry.", "The first floor generally contained oven rooms, baking areas and storage while the second floor contained the carpentry shop.====Baggage and dormitory====View from the southeast; the baggage and dormitory (right) is east of the main building (left)The baggage and dormitory structure is a three-story structure located north of the main building.", "It is made of a steel frame and terracotta blocks, with a limestone base and a facade of brick in Flemish bond.", "Completed as a two-story structure , the baggage and dormitory building replaced a 700-bed wooden barracks nearby that operated between 1903 and 1911.The baggage and dormitory initially had baggage collection on its first floor, dormitories and detention rooms on its second floor, and a tiled garden on its roof.", "The building received a third story, and a two-story annex to the north side, in 1913–1914.Initially, the third floor included additional dormitory space while the annex provided detainees with outdoor porch space.", "A detainee dining room on the first floor was expanded in 1951.The building is mostly rectangular except for its northern annex and contains an interior courtyard, skylighted at the second floor.", "On its facade the first story has rectangular windows in arched window openings while the second and third stories have rectangular windows and window openings.", "There are cornices below the second and third stories.", "The annex contains wide window openings with narrow brick piers outside them.", "The roof's northwest corner contains a one-story extension.", "Multiple wings connect the baggage and laundry to its adjacent buildings.====Powerhouse====The powerhouse of Ellis Island is a two-story structure located north of the kitchen and laundry building and west of the baggage and dormitory building.", "It is roughly rectangular and oriented north–south.", "Like the kitchen and laundry, it was completed in 1901.It is made of a steel frame with a granite base, a facade of brick in Flemish bond, and decorative bluestone and limestone elements.", "The hip roof contains dormers and is covered with terracotta tiling.", "A brick smokestack rises from ground level.Formerly, the powerhouse provided almost all power for Ellis Island.", "A coal trestle at the northwest end was used to transport coal for power generation from 1901 to 1932, when the powerhouse started using fuel oil.", "The powerhouse also generated steam for the island.", "After the immigration station closed, the powerhouse deteriorated and was left unrepaired until the 1980s renovation.", "The powerhouse is no longer operational; instead, the island receives power from 13,200-volt cables that lead from a Public Service Electric & Gas substation in Liberty State Park.", "The powerhouse contains sewage pumps that can dispose of up to to the Jersey City Sewage Authority sewage system.", "A central heating plant was installed during the 1980s renovation.===South side===The southern side of Ellis Island, located across the ferry basin from the northern side, is composed of island 2 (created in 1899) and island 3 (created in 1906).", "The entire southern side of the island is in New Jersey, and the majority of the site is occupied by the hospital buildings.", "A central corridor runs southward from the ferry building on the west side of the island.", "Two additional corridors split eastward down the centers of islands 2 and 3.====Island 2====Island 2 comprises the northern part of Ellis Island's southern portion.", "The structures share the same design: a brick facade in Flemish bond, quoins, and limestone ornamentation.", "All structures were internally connected via covered passageways.A Smith Drum laundry machine in the outbuildingThe laundry-hospital outbuilding is south of the ferry terminal, and was constructed in 1900–1901 along with the now-demolished surgeon's house.", "The structure is one and a half stories tall with a hip roof and skylights facing to the north and south.", "Repaired repeatedly throughout its history, the laundry-outbuilding was last restored in 2002.It had linen, laundry, and disinfecting rooms; a boiler room; a morgue with autopsy room; and quarters for the laundry staff on the second floor.To the east is the psychopathic ward, a two-story building erected 1906–1907.The building is the only structure in the hospital complex to have a flat roof, and formerly also had a porch to its south.", "It housed 25 to 30 beds and was intended for the temporary treatment of immigrants suspected of being insane or having mental disorders, pending their deportation, hospitalization, or commitment to sanatoria.", "Male and female patients were segregated, and there were also a dayroom, veranda, nurse's office, and small pantry on each floor.", "In 1952 the psychopathic ward was converted into a Coast Guard brig.The main building is directly east of the psychopathic ward.", "It is composed of three similarly designed structures: from west to east, they are Hospital Building No.", "1 (built 1900–1901), the Administration Building (1905–1907), and Hospital Building No.", "2 (1908–1909).", "The 3.5-story building no.", "1 is shaped like an inverted \"C\" with two 2.5-story rectangular wings facing southward; the wings contain two-story-tall porches.", "The administration building is smaller but also 3.5 stories.", "The 3.5-story building no.", "2 is similar to building no.", "1, but also has a three-story porch at the south elevation of the central pavilion.", "All three buildings have stone-stoop entrances on their north facades and courtyards on their south.====Recreation hall====The recreation hall and one of the island's two recreation shelters are located between islands 2 and 3 on the western side of Ellis Island, at the head of the former ferry basin between the two landmasses.", "Built in 1937 in the Colonial Revival style, the structures replaced an earlier recreation building at the northeast corner of island 2.The recreation hall is a two-story building with a limestone base, a facade of brick in Flemish bond, a gable roof, and terracotta ornamentation.", "The first floor contained recreational facilities, while the second floor was used mostly for offices.", "It contains wings on the north, south, and west.", "The recreation shelter, a one-story brick pavilion, is located directly to the east.", "A second shelter of similar design was located adjacent to the power plant on the island's north side.====Island 3====Isolation ward on island 3As part of the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, the contagious disease hospital comprised 17 pavilions, connected with a central connecting corridor.", "Each pavilion contained separate hospital functions that could be sealed off from each other.", "Most of the structures were completed in 1911.The pavilions included eight measles wards, three isolation wards, a power house/sterilizer/autopsy theater, mortuary, laboratory, administration building, kitchen, and staff house.", "All structures were designed by James Knox Taylor in the Italian Renaissance style and are distinguished by red-tiled Ludowici hip roofs, roughcast walls of stucco, and ornamentation of brick and limestone.The office building and laboratory is a 2.5-story structure located at the west end of island 3.It housed doctors' offices and a dispensary on the first floor, along with a laboratory and pharmacists' quarters on the second floor.", "In 1924, the first floor offices were converted into male nurses' quarters.", "A one-story morgue is located east of the office building, and was converted to the \"Animal House\" circa 1919.An L-shaped powerhouse and laundry building, built in 1908, is also located on the west side of island 3.It has a square north wing with boiler, coal, and pump rooms, as well as a rectangular south wing with laundry and disinfection rooms, staff kitchen, and staff pantry.", "The powerhouse and laundry also had a distinctive yellow-brick smokestack.", "Part of the building was converted into a morgue and autopsy room in the 1930s.To the east are the eight measles pavilions (also known as wards A-H), built in phases from 1906 to 1909 and located near the center of island 3.There are four pavilions each to the west and east of island 3's administration building.", "All of the pavilions are identical, two-story rectangular structures.", "Each pavilion floor had a spacious open ward with large windows on three sides and independent ventilation ducts.", "A hall leading to the connecting corridor was flanked by bathrooms, nurses' duty room, offices, and a serving kitchen.Immigrants on a ferry, c. 1910sThe administration building is a 3.5-story structure located on the north side of island 3's connecting corridor, in the center of the landmass.", "It included reception rooms, offices, and a staff kitchen on the first floor; nurses' quarters and operating rooms on the second floor; and additional staff quarters on the third floor.", "A one-story kitchen with a smokestack is located opposite the administration building to the south.The eastern end of island 3 contained three isolation pavilions (wards I-K) and a staff building.", "The isolation pavilions were intended for patients for more serious diseases, including scarlet fever, diphtheria, and a combination of either of these diseases with measles and whooping cough.", "Each pavilion is a 1.5-story rectangular structure.", "Wards I and K are located to the south of the connecting corridor while ward J is located to the north; originally, all three pavilions were freestanding structures, but covered ways were built between wards I and K and the center corridor in 1914.There were also nurses' quarters in each attic.", "The staff building.", "located at the extreme east end of island 3's connecting corridor, is a 2.5-story building for high-ranking hospital staff.", "Living and dining rooms, a kitchen, and a library were located on the first floor while bedrooms were located on the second floor.===Ferry building===Ellis Island Ferry BuildingThe ferry building is at the western end of the ferry basin, within New Jersey.", "The current structure was built in 1936 and is the third ferry landing to occupy the site.", "It is made of a steel-and-concrete frame with a facade of red brick in Flemish bond, and limestone and terracotta ornamentation, in the Moderne architectural style.", "The building's central pavilion is mostly one story tall, except for a two-story central section that is covered by a hip roof with cupola.", "Two rectangular wings are located to the north and south and are oriented east–west.", "The south wing was originally reserved for U.S. Customs while the north wing contained a lunchroom and restrooms.", "A wooden dock extends east from the ferry building.", "The ferry building is connected to the kitchen and laundry to the north, and the hospital to the south, via covered walkways.", "The structure was completely restored in 2007." ], [ "<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Immigration center\"></span>Immigration procedures", "December 2014 aerial view of the area; in the foreground is Ellis Island, and behind it is Liberty State Park and Downtown Jersey CityExhausted Slavic immigrant, 1907.By the time Ellis Island's immigration station closed, almost 12 million immigrants had been processed by the U.S. Bureau of Immigration.", "It is estimated that 10.5 million immigrants departed for points across the United States from the Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal nearby.", "Others would have used one of the other terminals along the North River/Hudson River at that time.", "At the time of closure, it was estimated that closer to 20 million immigrants had been processed or detained at Ellis Island.Immigrants did not need a passport, visa, or any other document to enter the country.", "Transportation companies were in charge of all checks; if the entry was denied, the company was fined for a 100$ per each deported passenger, and covered the costs of their deportation.", "Initial immigration policy provided for the admission of most immigrants to the United States, other than those with mental or physical disabilities, or a moral, racial, religious, or economic reason for exclusion.", "At first, the majority of immigrants arriving were Northern and Western Europeans, with the largest numbers coming from the German Empire, the Russian Empire and Finland, the United Kingdom, and Italy.", "Eventually, these groups of peoples slowed in the rates that they were coming in, and immigrants came in from Southern and Eastern Europe, including Jews.", "These people immigrated for a variety of reasons including escaping political and economic oppression, as well as persecution, destitution, and violence.", "Often among these groups were Poles, Hungarians, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Greeks, Syrians, Turks, and Armenians.Italo-Albanian woman at Ellis Island, 1905.Original caption:''This woman is wearing her native costume.", "At times the Island looked like a costume ball with the multiculored, many-styled national costumes.", "''Immigration through Ellis Island peaked in the first decade of the 20th century.", "Between 1905 and 1914, an average of one million immigrants per year arrived in the United States.", "Immigration officials reviewed about 5,000 immigrants per day during peak times at Ellis Island.", "Two-thirds of those individuals emigrated from eastern, southern and central Europe.", "The peak year for immigration at Ellis Island was 1907, with 1,004,756 immigrants processed, and the all-time daily high occurred on April 17 of that year, when 11,747 immigrants arrived.", "Following the Immigration Act of 1924, which both greatly reduced immigration and allowed processing overseas, Ellis Island was only used by those who had problems with their immigration paperwork, as well as displaced persons and war refugees.", "This affected both nationwide and regional immigration processing: only 2.34 million immigrants passed through the Port of New York from 1925 to 1954, compared to the 12 million immigrants processed from 1900 to 1924.Average annual immigration through the Port of New York from 1892 to 1924 typically numbered in the hundreds of thousands, though after 1924, annual immigration through the port was usually in the tens of thousands.===Inspections=======Medical inspection====''\"1905.Here is a Slavic group waiting to get through entrance gate.", "Many lines like these were prevalent in the early days.", "There was no room to keep personal belongings, so the immigrants had to carry their baggage with them all the time.\"''", "(photo by Lewis Hine)Beginning in the 1890s, initial medical inspections were conducted by steamship companies at the European ports of embarkation; further examinations and vaccinations occurred on board ship during the voyage to New York.", "On arrival at the port of New York, ships halted at the New York state quarantine station near the Narrows.", "Those with serious contagious diseases (such as cholera and typhus) were quarantined at Hoffman Island or Swinburne Island, two artificial islands off the shore of Staten Island to the south.", "The islands ceased to be used for quarantine by the 1920s due to the decline in inspections at Ellis Island.", "For the vast majority of passengers, since most transatlantic ships could not dock at Ellis Island due to shallow water, the ships unloaded at Manhattan first, and steerage passengers were then taken to Ellis Island for processing.", "First- and second-class passengers typically bypassed the Ellis Island processing altogether.To support the activities of the United States Bureau of Immigration, the United States Public Health Service operated an extensive medical service.", "The medical force at Ellis Island started operating when the first immigration station opened in 1892, and was suspended when the station burned down in 1897.Between 1897 and 1902, medical inspections took place both at other facilities in New York City and on ships in the New York Harbor.", "A second hospital called U.S. Marine Hospital Number 43 or the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital was built in 1902 and operated through 1930.Uniformed military surgeons staffed the medical division, which was active in the hospital wards, the Battery's Barge Office, and Ellis Island's Main Building.", "Immigrants were brought to the island via barge from their transatlantic ships.A \"line inspection\" was conducted in the main building.", "In the line inspection, the immigrants were split into several single-file lines, and inspectors first checked for any visible physical disabilities.", "Each immigrant was inspected by two inspectors: one to catch any initial physical disabilities, and another to check for any other ailments that the first inspector did not notice.", "The doctors then observed immigrants as they walked, to determine any irregularities in their gait.", "Immigrants were asked to drop their baggage and walk up the stairs to the second floor.The line inspection at Ellis Island was unique because of the volume of people it processed, and as such, used several unconventional methods of medical examination.", "For example, after an initial check for physical disabilities, inspectors used special forceps or the buttonhook to examine immigrants for signs of eye diseases such as trachoma.", "Following each examination, inspectors used chalk to draw symbols on immigrants who were suspected to be sick.", "Some immigrants supposedly wiped the chalk marks off surreptitiously or inverted their clothes to avoid medical detention.", "Chalk-marked immigrants and those with suspected mental disabilities were then sent to rooms for further inspection, according to a 1917 account.The symbols used for chalk markings were:* '''B''' – Back* '''C''' – Conjunctivitis* '''TC''' – Trachoma* '''E''' – Eyes* '''F''' – Face* '''FT''' – Feet* '''G''' – Goiter* '''H''' – Heart* '''K''' – Hernia* '''L''' – Lameness* '''N''' – Neck* '''P''' – Physical and Lungs* '''PG''' – Pregnancy* '''S''' – Senility* '''SC''' – Scalp (favus)* '''X''' – Suspected mental defect* '''ⓧ''' – Definite signs of mental defect====Primary inspection====A Finnish stowaway, 1926.Original caption: ''The desire to come to America must have been very strong for this young man to face all sorts of uncertainties''.Once immigrants had completed and passed the medical examination, they were sent to the Registry Room to undergo what was called primary inspection.", "This consisted of interrogations conducted by U.S.", "Immigrant Inspectors to determine if each newcomer was eligible for admission.", "In addition, any medical certificates issued by physicians were taken into account.", "Aside from the U.S. immigrant inspectors, the Bureau of Immigration work force included interpreters, watchmen, matrons, clerks and stenographers.", "According to a reconstruction of immigration processes in 1907, immigrants who passed the initial inspections spent two to five hours at Ellis Island to do these interviews.", "Arrivals were asked a couple dozen questions, including name, occupation, and the amount of money they carried.", "The government wanted to determine whether new arrivals would be self-sufficient upon arrival, and on average, wanted the immigrants to have between $18 and $25 (worth between $ and $ as of ).", "Some immigrants were also given literacy tests in their native languages, though children under 16 were exempt.", "The determination of admissibility was relatively arbitrary and determined by the individual inspector.U.S.", "Immigrant Inspectors used some other symbols or marks as they interrogated immigrants in the Registry Room to determine whether to admit or detain them, including:* '''SI''' – Special Inquiry* '''IV''' – Immigrant Visa* '''LPC''' – Likely or Liable to become a Public Charge* '''Med.", "Cert.'''", "– Medical certificate issuedThose who were cleared were given a medical certificate or an affidavit.", "According to a 1912 account by physician Alfred C. Reed, immigrants were medically cleared only after three on-duty physicians signed an affidavit.", "Those with visible illnesses were deported or held in the island's hospital.", "Those who were admitted often met with relatives and friends at the Kissing Post, a wooden column outside the registry room.Between 1891 and 1930, Ellis Island reviewed over 25 million attempted immigrants, of which 700,000 were given certificates of disability or disease and of these 79,000 were barred from entry.", "Approximately 4.4% of immigrants between 1909 and 1930 were classified as disabled or diseased, and one percent of immigrants were deported yearly due to medical causes.", "The proportion of \"diseased\" increased to 8.0% during the Spanish flu of 1918–1919.More than 3,000 attempted immigrants died in the island's hospital.", "Some unskilled workers were deemed \"likely to become a public charge\" and so were rejected; about 2% of immigrants were deported.", "Immigrants could also be excluded if they were disabled and previously rejected; if they were Chinese, regardless of their citizenship status; or if they were contract laborers, stowaways, and workaways.", "However, immigrants were exempt from deportation if they had close family ties to a U.S. permanent resident or citizen, or if they were seamen.", "Ellis Island was sometimes known as the \"Island of Tears\" or \"Heartbreak Island\" for these deportees.", "If immigrants were rejected, appeals could be made to a three-member board of inquiry.===Mass detentions and deportations===Immigrants being inspected, 1904Ellis Island's use as a detention center dates from World War I, when it was used to house those who were suspected of being enemy soldiers.", "During the war, six classes of \"enemy aliens\" were established, including officers and crewmen from interned ships; three classes of Germans; and suspected spies.", "After the American entry into World War I, about 1,100 German and Austrian naval officers and crewmen in the Ports of New York and New London were seized and held in Ellis Island's baggage and dormitory building.", "A commodious stockade was built for the seized officers.", "A 1917 ''New York Times'' article depicted the conditions of the detention center as being relatively hospitable.Anti-immigrant sentiments developed in the U.S. during and after World War I, especially toward Southern and Eastern Europeans who were entering the country in large numbers.", "Following the Immigration Act of 1924, primary inspection was moved to New York Harbor, and Ellis Island only hosted immigrants that were to be detained or deported.", "After the passage of the 1924 act, the Immigration Service established multiple classes of people who were said to be \"deportable\".", "This included immigrants who entered in violation of previous exclusion acts; Chinese immigrants in violation of the 1924 act; those convicted of felonies or other \"crimes of moral turpitude\"; and those involved in prostitution.During and immediately following World War II, Ellis Island was used to hold German merchant mariners and \"enemy aliens\"—Axis nationals detained for fear of spying, sabotage, and other fifth column activity.", "When the U.S. entered the war in December 1941, Ellis Island held 279 Japanese, 248 Germans, and 81 Italians removed from the East Coast.", "Unlike other wartime immigration detention stations, Ellis Island was designated as a permanent holding facility and was used to hold foreign nationals throughout the war.", "A total of 7,000 Germans, Italians and Japanese were ultimately detained at Ellis Island.The Internal Security Act of 1950 barred members of communist or fascist organizations from immigrating to the United States.", "Two notable communists known to have been imprisoned on Ellis Island include Billy Strachan, a pioneer of black civil rights in Britain, and Ferdinand Smith who co-founded the first desegregated union in the history of the United States.", "Ellis Island saw detention peak at 1,500, but by 1952, after changes to immigration laws and policies, only 30 to 40 detainees remained.", "One of the last detainees was the Indonesian Aceh separatist Hasan di Tiro who, while a student in New York in 1953, declared himself the \"foreign minister\" of the rebellious Darul Islam movement and was subsequently stripped of his Indonesian citizenship and held as an \"illegal alien\".===Eugenic influence===Film by Edison Studios showing immigrants disembarking from the steam ferryboat ''William Myers'', July 9, 1903Dormitory room for detained immigrantsWhen immigration through Ellis Island peaked, eugenic ideals gained broad popularity and made heavy impact on immigration to the United States by way of exclusion of disabled and \"morally defective\" people.", "Eugenicists of the late 19th and early 20th century believed human reproductive selection should be carried out by the state as a collective decision.", "For many eugenicists, this was considered a patriotic duty as they held an interest in creating a greater national race.", "Henry Fairfield Osborn's opening words to the ''New York Evening Journal'' in 1911 were, \"As a biologist as well as a patriot...,\" on the subject on advocating for tighter inspections of immigrants of the United States.Eugenic selection occurred on two distinguishable levels:* State/Local levels which handles institutionalization and sterilization of those considered defective as well as the education of the public; marriage laws; and social pressures such as fitter-family and better-baby contests.", "* Immigration control, the screening of immigrants for defects, was notably supported by Harry Laughlin, superintendent of the Eugenics Record Office from 1910 to 1939, who stated that this was where the \"federal government must cooperate.", "\"At the time, it was a broadly popular idea that immigration policies had ought to be based on eugenics principles in order to help create a \"superior race\" in America.", "To do this, defective persons needed to be screened by immigration officials and denied entry on the basis of their disability.During the line inspection process, ailments were marked using chalk.", "There were three types of illness that were screened for:* Physical – people who had hereditary or acquired physical disability.", "These included sickness and disease, deformity, lack of limbs, being abnormally tall or short, feminization, and so forth.", "This was covered by most of the chalk indications.", "* Mental – people who showed signs or history of mental illness and intellectual disability.", "These included \"feeble-mindedness\", \"imbecility\", depression, and other illnesses that stemmed from the brain such as epilepsy and cerebral palsy.", "* Moral – people who had \"moral defects\".", "These included homosexuals, paraphiliacs, criminals, the impoverished, and other \"degenerates\" who deviated from what American society then considered normal.Colorized image of a tattooed German stowaway who was later deported.", "1 May 1911.Serbian Gypsy family who was later deported.", "1905.The people with moral or mental disability, who were of higher concern to officials and under the law, were required to be excluded from entry to the United States.", "Persons with physical disability were under higher inspection and could be turned away on the basis of their disability.", "Much of this came in part of the eugenicist belief that defects are hereditary, especially those of the moral and mental nature those these are often outwardly signified by physical deformity as well.", "As Chicago surgeon Eugene S. Talbot wrote in 1898, \"crime is hereditary, a tendency which is, in most cases, associated with bodily defects.\"", "Likewise, George Lydston, a medicine and criminal anthropology professor, wrote in 1906 that people with \"defective physique\" were not just criminally associated but that defectiveness was a primary factor \"in the causation of crime.", "\"===Leadership===Within the U.S. Bureau of Immigration, there were fifteen commissioners assigned to oversee immigration procedures at the Port of New York, and thus, operations at Ellis Island.", "The twelve commissioners through 1940 were political appointees selected by the U.S. president; the political parties listed are those of the president who appointed each commissioner.", "One man, William Williams, served twice as commissioner.# 1890–1893 John B. Weber (Republican)# 1893–1897 Joseph H. Senner (Democrat)# 1898–1902 Thomas Fitchie (Republican)# 1902–1905 William Williams (Republican)# 1905–1909 Robert Watchorn (Republican)# 1909–1913 William Williams (Republican)# 1914–1919 Frederic C. Howe (Democrat)# 1920–1921 Frederick A. Wallis (Democrat)# 1921–1923 Robert E. Tod (Republican)# 1923–1926 Henry H. Curran (Republican)# 1926–1931 Benjamin M. Day (Republican)# 1931–1934 Edward Corsi (Republican)# 1934–1940 Rudolph Reimer (Democrat)The final three commissioners held a non-partisan position of \"district director\".", "The district directors were:# 1933–1942 Byron H. Uhl# 1942–1949 W. Frank Watkins# 1949–1954 Edward J. Shaughnessy===Name-change myth===Scenes at the Immigration Depot and a nearby dock on Ellis Island, 1906According to a myth, immigrants were unwillingly forced to take new names, though there are no historical records of this.", "Rather, immigration officials simply used the names from the manifests of steamship companies, which served as the only immigration records for those entering the United States.", "Records show that immigration officials often actually corrected mistakes in immigrants' names, since inspectors knew three languages on average and each worker was usually assigned to process immigrants who spoke the same languages.Many immigrant families Americanized their surnames afterward, either immediately following the immigration process or gradually after assimilating into American culture.", "Because the average family changed their surname five years after immigration, the Naturalization Act of 1906 required documentation of name changes.", "The myth of name changes at Ellis Island still persists, likely because of the perception of the immigration center as a formidable port of arrival, and because it is used in popular books and movies like ''The Godfather II''." ], [ "Current use", "The island is administered by the National Park Service, though fire protection and medical services are also provided by the Jersey City Fire Department.", "In extreme medical emergencies, there is also a helicopter for medical evacuations.===Museum and Wall of Honor===Excerpt from a museum exhibitThe Ellis Island Immigration Museum opened on September 10, 1990, replacing the American Museum of Immigration on Liberty Island, which closed in 1991.The museum contains several exhibits across three floors of the main building, with a first-floor expansion into the kitchen-laundry building.", "The first floor houses the main lobby within the baggage room, the Family Immigration History Center, ''Peopling of America'', and ''New Eras of Immigration''.", "The second floor includes the registry room, the hearing room, ''Through America's Gate'', and ''Peak Immigration Years''.", "The third floor contains a dormitory room, ''Restoring a Landmark'', ''Silent Voices'', ''Treasures from Home'', and ''Ellis Island Chronicles'', as well as rotating exhibits.", "There are also three theaters used for film and live performances.", "The third floor contains a library, reading room, and \"oral history center\", while the theaters are located on the first and second floors.", "There are auditoriums on all floors.", "On the ground floor is a gift shop and bookstore, as well as a booth for audio tours.In 2008, by act of Congress and despite opposition from the NPS, the museum's library was officially renamed the Bob Hope Memorial Library in honor of one of the station's most famous immigrants, comedian Bob Hope.", "On May 20, 2015, the Ellis Island Immigration Museum was officially renamed the Ellis Island National Museum of Immigration, coinciding with the opening of the new Peopling of America galleries in the first floor of the kitchen-laundry building.", "The expansion tells the entire story of American immigration, including before and after the periods that Ellis Island processed immigrants.Wall of HonorThe Wall of Honor outside of the main building contains a list of 775,000 names inscribed on 770 panels, including slaves, Native Americans, and immigrants that were not processed on the island.", "The Wall of Honor originated in the late 1980s as a means to pay for Ellis Island's renovation, and initially included 75,000 names.", "The wall originally opened in 1990 and consisted of copper panels.", "Shortly afterward it was reconstructed in two phases: a circular portion that started in 1993, and a linear portion that was built between 1998 and 2001.The Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation requires potential honorees to pay a fee for inscription.", "By 2019, the wall was mostly full and only five panels remained to be inscribed.NPS offers several educational opportunities, including self-guided tours and immersive, role-playing activities.", "These educational programs and resources cater to over 650,000 students per year and aim to promote discussion while fostering a climate of tolerance and understanding.===South side===Ellis Island Immigrant HospitalThe south side of the island, home to the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is abandoned and remains unrenovated.", "Disagreements over its proposed use have precluded any development on the south side for several decades.", "The NPS held a competition for proposals to redevelop the south side in 1981 and ultimately selected a plan for a conference center and a 250-to-300-room Sheraton hotel on the site of the hospital.", "In 1985, while restoration of the north side of Ellis Island was underway, Interior Secretary Donald P. Hodel convened a long-inactive federal commission to determine how the south side of Ellis Island should be used.", "Though the hotel proposal was dropped in 1986 for lack of funds, the NPS allowed developer William Hubbard to redevelop the south side as a convention center, though Hubbard was not able to find investors.", "The south side was proposed for possible future development even through the late 1990s.Save Ellis Island led preservation efforts of the south side of the island.", "The ferry building remains only partially accessible to the general public.", "As part of the National Park Service's Centennial Initiative, the south side of the island was to be the target of a project to restore the 28 buildings that have not yet been rehabilitated.In 2014, the NPS started offering guided public tours of the south side as part of the \"Hard Hat Tour\", which charges an additional fee that is used to support Save Ellis Island's preservation efforts.", "The south side also includes \"Unframed – Ellis Island\", an art installation by the French street artist JR, which includes murals of figures who would have occupied each of the respective hospital buildings." ], [ "Cultural impact", "===Commemorations===Immigrants arriving at Ellis Island, 1902The Ellis Island Medal of Honor is awarded annually to American citizens, both native-born and naturalized.", "According to the award's sponsors, the medal is given to those who \"have distinguished themselves within their own ethnic groups while exemplifying the values of the American way of life.\"", "Past medalists include seven U.S. presidents, several world leaders, several Nobel Prize winners, and other leaders and pioneers.The USPS issued an Ellis Island commemorative stamp on February 3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series.===Historical designations===Ellis Island has been part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument, which also includes the Statue of Liberty and Liberty Island, since 1965.It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1966.Ellis Island has also been on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places since 1971, and the main building was made a New York City designated landmark in 1993.In addition, it was placed on UNESCO's list of tentative World Heritage Sites in 2017." ], [ "See also", "* Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal, in Jersey City, the departure point for immigrants heading to points west and south after processing through Ellis Island* Geography of New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary* List of Ellis Island immigrants – (Notable persons)* List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan on Islands* National Register of Historic Places listings in Hudson County, New Jersey* National Register of Historic Places listings in New York County, New York" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===# # # # # # # # # # ## ## ## :" ], [ "Further reading", "* Baur, J.", "\"Commemorating Immigration in the Immigrant Society.", "Narratives of Transformation at Ellis Island and the Lower East Side Tenement Museum\" , in M. König, and R. Ohliger, eds., ''Enlarging European Memory.", "Migration Movements in Historical Perspective'' (2006) pp. 137–146.", "* Baur, J.", "\"Ellis Island, Inc.: The Making of an American Site of Memory\" , in: H. J. Grabbe and S. Schindler, (eds.", "), ''The Merits of Memory.", "Concepts, Contexts, Debates'' (2008), pp. 185–196.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * Pitkin, T. M. ''Keepers of the Gate'', 1975.", "* * * Ellis Island: Blocks 9019 thru 9023, Block Group 9, Census Tract 47, Hudson County, NJ; and Block 1000, Block Group 1, Census Tract 1, New York County, New York; United States Census Bureau.", "* ===Videos===* * * ''Emigrants Landing at Ellis Island'', a film from 1903 by Alfred C. Abadie from the World Digital Library* , video celebrating immigrants at Ellis Island, c. 1900–1926* ===Other archives===* The Ellis Island Experience – Articles, Documents, and Images – Gjenvick-Gjønvik Archives* Newspaper articles and clippings about Ellis Island at Newspapers.com===Children's books===* *" ], [ "External links", "* * Ellis Island Visitor information* Liberty Ellis Foundation===Images===* Eerie Ellis Island, Then and Now – slideshow by NPR" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Euripides" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Euripides''' () was a tragedian of classical Athens.", "Along with Aeschylus and Sophocles, he is one of the three ancient Greek tragedians for whom any plays have survived in full.", "Some ancient scholars attributed ninety-five plays to him, but the ''Suda'' says it was ninety-two at most.", "Of these, eighteen or nineteen have survived more or less complete (''Rhesus'' is suspect).", "There are many fragments (some substantial) of most of his other plays.", "More of his plays have survived intact than those of Aeschylus and Sophocles together, partly because his popularity grew as theirs declinedhe became, in the Hellenistic Age, a cornerstone of ancient literary education, along with Homer, Demosthenes, and Menander.Euripides is identified with theatrical innovations that have profoundly influenced drama down to modern times, especially in the representation of traditional, mythical heroes as ordinary people in extraordinary circumstances.", "This new approach led him to pioneer developments that later writers adapted to comedy, some of which are characteristic of romance.", "He also became \"the most tragic of poets\", focusing on the inner lives and motives of his characters in a way previously unknown.", "He was \"the creator of ... that cage which is the theatre of Shakespeare's ''Othello'', Racine's ''Phèdre'', of Ibsen and Strindberg,\" in which \"imprisoned men and women destroy each other by the intensity of their loves and hates\".", "But he was also the literary ancestor of comic dramatists as diverse as Menander and George Bernard Shaw.His contemporaries associated him with Socrates as a leader of a decadent intellectualism.", "Both were frequently lampooned by comic poets such as Aristophanes.", "Socrates was eventually put on trial and executed as a corrupting influence.", "Ancient biographies hold that Euripides chose a voluntary exile in old age, dying in Macedonia, but recent scholarship casts doubt on these sources." ], [ "Life", "Traditional accounts of the author's life are found in many commentaries, and include details such as these: He was born on Salamis Island around 480 BC, with parents Cleito (mother) and Mnesarchus (father), a retailer from the deme of Phlya.", "On receiving an oracle that his son was fated to win \"crowns of victory\", Mnesarchus insisted that the boy should train for a career in athletics.", "But the boy was destined for a career on the stage (where he was to win only five victories, one of these posthumously).", "He served for a short time as both dancer and torch-bearer at the rites of Apollo Zosterius.", "His education was not confined to athletics, studying also painting and philosophy under the masters Prodicus and Anaxagoras.", "He had two disastrous marriages, and both his wivesMelite and Choerine (the latter bearing him three sons)were unfaithful.", "He became a recluse, making a home for himself in a cave on Salamis (the Cave of Euripides, where a cult of the playwright developed after his death).", "\"There he built an impressive library and pursued daily communion with the sea and sky\".", "The details of his death are uncertain.", "It was traditionally held that he retired to the \"rustic court\" of King Archelaus in Macedonia, where he died in 406 BC, but modern scholarship is sceptical of these claims.", "It is possible that in reality he never visited Macedonia at all, or if he did, he might have been drawn there by King Archelaus with incentives that were also offered to other artists.Such biographical details derive almost entirely from three unreliable sources:* folklore, employed by the ancients to lend colour to the lives of celebrated authors;* parody, employed by the comic poets to ridicule the tragic poets; and* 'autobiographical' clues gleaned from his extant plays (a mere fraction of his total output).The next three sections expand on the claims of each of these sources, respectively.2nd century AD statue of Euripides, Louvre, Paris 19th century statue of Euripides in a niche on the Semperoper, Germany===A fabled life===Euripides was the youngest in a group of three great tragedians, who were almost contemporaries: his first play was staged thirteen years after Sophocles' debut, and three years after Aeschylus's ''Oresteia''.", "The identity of the trio is neatly underscored by a patriotic account of their roles during Greece's great victory over Persia at the Battle of SalamisAeschylus fought there, Sophocles was just old enough to celebrate the victory in a boys' chorus, and Euripides was born on the very day of the battle.", "The apocryphal account, that he composed his works in a cave on Salamis island, was a late tradition, probably symbolizing the isolation of an intellectual ahead of his time.", "Much of his life, and his whole career, coincided with the struggle between Athens and Sparta for hegemony in Greece, but he did not live to see the final defeat of his city.", "It is said that he died in Macedonia after being attacked by the Molossian hounds of King Archelaus, and that his cenotaph near Piraeus was struck by lightningsigns of his unique powers, whether for good or ill (according to one modern scholar, his death might have been caused instead by the harsh Macedonian winter).", "In an account by Plutarch, the catastrophic failure of the Sicilian expedition led Athenians to trade renditions of Euripides' lyrics to their enemies in return for food and drink (''Life of Nicias'' 29).", "Plutarch also provides the story that the victorious Spartan generals, having planned the demolition of Athens and the enslavement of its people, grew merciful after being entertained at a banquet by lyrics from Euripides' play ''Electra'': \"they felt that it would be a barbarous act to annihilate a city which produced such men\" (''Life of Lysander'').===A comic life===Tragic poets were often mocked by comic poets during the dramatic festivals Dionysia and Lenaia, and Euripides was travestied more than most.", "Aristophanes scripted him as a character in at least three plays: ''The Acharnians'', ''Thesmophoriazusae'' and ''The Frogs''.", "But Aristophanes also borrowed, rather than merely satirized, some of the tragedian's methods; he was himself ridiculed by Cratinus, another comic poet, as: According to another comic poet, Teleclides, the plays of Euripides were co-authored by the philosopher Socrates:Aristophanes alleged that the co-author was a celebrated actor, Cephisophon, who also shared the tragedian's house and his wife, while Socrates taught an entire school of quibblers like Euripides:In ''The Frogs'', written when Euripides and Aeschylus were dead, Aristophanes has the god Dionysus venturing down to Hades in search of a good poet to bring back to Athens.", "After a debate between the shades of Aeschylus and Euripides, the god brings Aeschylus back to life, as more useful to Athens, for his wisdom, rejecting Euripides as merely clever.", "Such comic 'evidence' suggests that Athenians admired Euripides even while they mistrusted his intellectualism, at least during the long war with Sparta.", "Aeschylus had written his own epitaph commemorating his life as a warrior fighting for Athens against Persia, without any mention of his success as a playwright; and Sophocles was celebrated by his contemporaries for his social gifts, and contributions to public life as a state official; but there are no records of Euripides' public life except as a dramatist—he could well have been \"a brooding and bookish recluse\".", "He is presented as such in ''The Acharnians'', where Aristophanes shows him to be living morosely in a precarious house, surrounded by the tattered costumes of his disreputable characters (and yet Agathon, another tragic poet, is discovered in a later play, ''Thesmophoriazusae'', to be living in circumstances almost as bizarre).", "Euripides' mother was a humble vendor of vegetables, according to the comic tradition, yet his plays indicate that he had a liberal education and hence a privileged background.===A tragedian's life===Euripides first competed in the City Dionysia, the famous Athenian dramatic festival, in 455 BC, one year after the death of Aeschylus; and did not win first prize until 441 BC.", "His final competition in Athens was in 408 BC.", "''The Bacchae'' and ''Iphigenia in Aulis'' were performed in 405 BC, and first prize was awarded posthumously.", "He won first prize only five times.His plays, and those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, indicate a difference in outlook between the threea generation gap probably due to the Sophistic enlightenment in the middle decades of the 5th century: Aeschylus still looked back to the archaic period, Sophocles was in transition between periods, and Euripides was fully imbued with the new spirit of the classical age.", "When Euripides' plays are sequenced in time, they also reveal that his outlook might have changed, providing a \"spiritual biography\", along these lines:* an early period of high tragedy (''Medea'', ''Hippolytus'')* a patriotic period at the outset of the Peloponnesian War (''Children of Heracles'', ''The Suppliants'')* a middle period of disillusionment at the senselessness of war (''Hecuba'', ''The Trojan Women'')* an escapist period with a focus on romantic intrigue (''Ion'', ''Iphigenia in Tauris'', ''Helen'')* a final period of tragic despair (''Orestes'', ''Phoenician Women'', ''The Bacchae'')However, about 80% of his plays have been lost, and even the extant plays do not present a fully consistent picture of his 'spiritual' development (for example, ''Iphigenia in Aulis'' is dated with the 'despairing' ''Bacchae'', yet it contains elements that became typical of New Comedy).", "In the ''Bacchae'', he restores the chorus and messenger speech to their traditional role in the tragic plot, and the play appears to be the culmination of a regressive or archaizing tendency in his later works (for which see Chronology below).", "Believed to have been composed in the wilds of Macedonia, ''Bacchae'' also dramatizes a primitive side to Greek religion, and some modern scholars have interpreted this particular play biographically, therefore, as:* a kind of death-bed conversion or renunciation of atheism;* the poet's attempt to ward off the charge of impiety that was later to overtake his friend Socrates;* evidence of a new belief that religion cannot be analysed rationally.One of his earliest extant plays, ''Medea'', includes a speech that he seems to have written in defence of himself as an intellectual ahead of his time (spoken by Medea):" ], [ "Work", "Athenian tragedy in performance during Euripides' lifetime was a public contest between playwrights.", "The state funded it and awarded prizes.", "The language was metrical, spoken and sung.", "The performance area included a circular floor (called orchestra) where the chorus could dance, a space for actors (three speaking actors in Euripides' time), a backdrop or skene, and some special effects: an ekkyklema (used to bring the skene's \"indoors\" outdoors) and a mechane (used to lift actors in the air, as in deus ex machina).", "With the introduction of the third actor (attributed to Aeschylus by Themistius; to Sophocles by Aristotle), acting also began to be regarded as a skill worth prizes, requiring a long apprenticeship in the chorus.", "Euripides and other playwrights accordingly composed more and more arias for accomplished actors to sing, and this tendency became more marked in his later plays: tragedy was a \"living and ever-changing genre\" (cf.", "previous section, and Chronology; a list of his plays is below).The comic poet Aristophanes is the earliest known critic to characterize Euripides as a spokesman for destructive, new ideas associated with declining standards in both society and tragedy (see Reception for more).", "But fifth-century tragedy was a social gathering for \"carrying out quite publicly the maintenance and development of mental infrastructure\", and it offered spectators a \"platform for an utterly unique form of institutionalized discussion\".", "The dramatist's role was not only to entertain but also educate fellow citizenshe was expected to have a message.", "Traditional myth provided the subject matter, but the dramatist was meant to be innovative, which led to novel characterizations of heroic figures and use of the mythical past as a tool for discussing present issues.", "The difference between Euripides and his older colleagues was one of degree: his characters talked about the present more controversially and pointedly than those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, sometimes even challenging the democratic order.", "Thus, for example, Odysseus is represented in ''Hecuba'' (lines 131–32) as \"agile-minded, sweet-talking, demos-pleasing\", i.e.", "similar to the war-time demagogues that were active in Athens during the Peloponnesian War.", "Speakers in the plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles sometimes distinguish between slaves who are servile by nature and those servile by circumstance, but Euripides' speakers go further, positing an individual's mental, rather than social or physical, state as a true indication of worth.", "For example, in ''Hippolytus'', a love-sick queen rationalizes her position and, reflecting on adultery, arrives at this comment on intrinsic merit:Euripides' characters resembled contemporary Athenians rather than heroic figures of myth.As mouthpieces for contemporary issues, they \"all seem to have had at least an elementary course in public speaking\".", "The dialogue often contrasts so strongly with the mythical and heroic setting that it can seem like Euripides aimed at parody.", "For example, in ''The Trojan Women'', the heroine's rationalized prayer elicits comment from Menelaus:Athenian citizens were familiar with rhetoric in the assembly and law courts, and some scholars believe that Euripides was more interested in his characters as speakers with cases to argue than as characters with lifelike personalities.", "They are self-conscious about speaking formally, and their rhetoric is shown to be flawed, as if Euripides were exploring the problematical nature of language and communication: \"For speech points in three different directions at once, to the speaker, to the person addressed, to the features in the world it describes, and each of these directions can be felt as skewed\".", "For example, in the quotation above, Hecuba presents herself as a sophisticated intellectual describing a rationalized cosmos, but the speech is ill-suited to her audience, the unsophisticated listener Menelaus, and is found to not suit the cosmos either (her grandson is murdered by the Greeks).", "In ''Hippolytus'', speeches appear verbose and ungainly, as if to underscore the limitations of language.Ancient Roman wall painting from House of the Vettii in Pompeii, showing the death of Pentheus, as portrayed in Euripides's ''Bacchae''Like Euripides, both Aeschylus and Sophocles created comic effects, contrasting the heroic with the mundane, but they employed minor supporting characters for that purpose.", "Euripides was more insistent, using major characters as well.", "His comic touches can be thought to intensify the overall tragic effect, and his realism, which often threatens to make his heroes look ridiculous, marks a world of debased heroism: \"The loss of intellectual and moral substance becomes a central tragic statement\".", "Psychological reversals are common and sometimes happen so suddenly that inconsistency in characterization is an issue for many critics, such as Aristotle, who cited ''Iphigenia in Aulis'' as an example (''Poetics'' 1454a32).", "For others, psychological inconsistency is not a stumbling block to good drama: \"Euripides is in pursuit of a larger insight: he aims to set forth the two modes, emotional and rational, with which human beings confront their own mortality.\"", "Some think unpredictable behaviour realistic in tragedy: \"everywhere in Euripides a preoccupation with individual psychology and its irrational aspects is evident....In his hands tragedy for the first time probed the inner recesses of the human soul and let ''passions spin the plot''.\"", "The tension between reason and passion is symbolized by his characters' relationship with the gods: For example, Hecuba's prayer is answered not by Zeus, nor by the law of reason, but by Menelaus, as if speaking for the old gods.", "And the perhaps most famous example is in ''Bacchae'' where the god Dionysus savages his own converts.", "When the gods do appear (in eight of the extant plays), they appear \"lifeless and mechanical\".", "Sometimes condemned by critics as an unimaginative way to end a story, the spectacle of a \"god\" making a judgement or announcement from a theatrical crane might actually have been intended to provoke scepticism about the religious and heroic dimension of his plays.", "Similarly, his plays often begin in a banal manner that undermines theatrical illusion.", "Unlike Sophocles, who established the setting and background of his plays in the introductory dialogue, Euripides used a monologue in which a divinity or human character simply tells the audience all it needs to know to understand what follows.Aeschylus and Sophocles were innovative, but Euripides had arrived at a position in the \"ever-changing genre\" where he could easily move between tragic, comic, romantic, and political effects.", "This versatility appears in individual plays and also over the course of his career.", "Potential for comedy lay in his use of 'contemporary' characters, in his sophisticated tone, his relatively informal Greek (see In Greek below), and in his ingenious use of plots centred on motifs that later became standard in Menander's New Comedy (for example the 'recognition scene').", "Other tragedians also used recognition scenes, but they were heroic in emphasis, as in Aeschylus's ''The Libation Bearers'', which Euripides parodied in ''Electra'' (Euripides was unique among the tragedians in incorporating theatrical criticism in his plays).", "Traditional myth with its exotic settings, heroic adventures, and epic battles offered potential for romantic melodrama as well as for political comments on a war theme, so that his plays are an extraordinary mix of elements.", "''The Trojan Women'', for example, is a powerfully disturbing play on the theme of war's horrors, apparently critical of Athenian imperialism (it was composed in the aftermath of the Melian massacre and during the preparations for the Sicilian Expedition), yet it features the comic exchange between Menelaus and Hecuba quoted above, and the chorus considers Athens, the \"blessed land of Theus\", to be a desirable refugesuch complexity and ambiguity are typical both of his \"patriotic\" and \"anti-war\" plays.Tragic poets in the fifth century competed against one another at the City Dionysia, each with a tetralogy of three tragedies and a satyr play.", "The few extant fragments of satyr plays attributed to Aeschylus and Sophocles indicate that these were a loosely structured, simple, and jovial form of entertainment.", "But in ''Cyclops'' (the only complete satyr-play that survives), Euripides structured the entertainment more like a tragedy and introduced a note of critical irony typical of his other work.", "His genre-bending inventiveness is shown above all in ''Alcestis'', a blend of tragic and satyric elements.", "This fourth play in his tetralogy for 438 BC (i.e., it occupied the position conventionally reserved for satyr plays) is a \"tragedy\", featuring Heracles as a satyric hero in conventional satyr-play scenes: an arrival, a banquet, a victory over an ogre (in this case, death), a happy ending, a feast, and a departure for new adventures.", "Most of the big innovations in tragedy were made by Aeschylus and Sophocles, but \"Euripides made innovations on a smaller scale that have impressed some critics as cumulatively leading to a radical change of direction\".Euripides is also known for his use of irony.", "Many Greek tragedians make use of dramatic irony to bring out the emotion and realism of their characters or plays, but Euripides uses irony to foreshadow events and occasionally amuse his audience.", "For example, in his play ''Heracles'', Heracles comments that all men love their children and wish to see them grow.", "The irony here is that Heracles will be driven into madness by Hera and will kill his children.", "Similarly, in ''Helen'', Theoclymenus remarks how happy he is that his sister has the gift of prophecy and will warn him of any plots or tricks against him (the audience already knows that she has betrayed him).", "In this instance, Euripides uses irony not only for foreshadowing but also for comic effect—which few tragedians did.", "Likewise, in the ''Bacchae'', Pentheus's first threat to the god Dionysus is that if Pentheus catches him in his city, he will 'chop off his head', whereas it is Pentheus who is beheaded at the end of the play.=== In Greek ===''Medea About to Murder Her Children'' by Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix (1862)The spoken language of the plays is not fundamentally different in style from that of Aeschylus or Sophoclesit employs poetic meters, a rarefied vocabulary, fullness of expression, complex syntax, and ornamental figures, all aimed at representing an elevated style.", "But its rhythms are somewhat freer, and more natural, than that of his predecessors, and the vocabulary has been expanded to allow for intellectual and psychological subtleties.", "Euripides has been hailed as a great lyric poet.", "In ''Medea'', for example, he composed for his city, Athens, \"the noblest of her songs of praise\".", "His lyrical skills are not just confined to individual poems: \"A play of Euripides is a musical whole...one song echoes motifs from the preceding song, while introducing new ones.\"", "For some critics, the lyrics often seem dislocated from the action, but the extent and significance of this is \"a matter of scholarly debate\".", "See Chronology for details about his style." ], [ "Reception", "Euripides has aroused, and continues to arouse, strong opinions for and against his work:Aeschylus gained thirteen victories as a dramatist; Sophocles at least twenty; Euripides only four in his lifetime; and this has often been taken as indication of the latter's unpopularity.", "But a first place might not have been the main criterion for success (the system of selecting judges appears to have been flawed), and merely being chosen to compete was a mark of distinction.", "Moreover, to have been singled out by Aristophanes for so much comic attention is proof of popular interest in his work.", "Sophocles was appreciative enough of the younger poet to be influenced by him, as is evident in his later plays ''Philoctetes'' and ''Oedipus at Colonus''.", "According to Plutarch, Euripides had been very well received in Sicily, to the extent that after the failure of the Sicilian Expedition, many Athenian captives were released, simply for being able to teach their captors whatever fragments they could remember of his work.", "Less than a hundred years later, Aristotle developed an almost \"biological' theory of the development of tragedy in Athens: the art form grew under the influence of Aeschylus, matured in the hands of Sophocles, then began its precipitous decline with Euripides.", "However, \"his plays continued to be applauded even after those of Aeschylus and Sophocles had come to seem remote and irrelevant\"; they became school classics in the Hellenistic period (as mentioned in the introduction) and, due to Seneca's adaptation of his work for Roman audiences, \"it was Euripides, not Aeschylus or Sophocles, whose tragic muse presided over the rebirth of tragedy in Renaissance Europe.", "\"In the seventeenth century, Racine expressed admiration for Sophocles, but was more influenced by Euripides (''Iphigenia in Aulis'' and ''Hippolytus'' were the models for his plays ''Iphigénie'' and ''Phèdre'').", "Euripides' reputation was to take a beating in the early 19th century, when Friedrich Schlegel and his brother August Wilhelm Schlegel championed Aristotle's 'biological' model of theatre history, identifying Euripides with the moral, political, and artistic degeneration of Athens.", "August Wilhelm's Vienna lectures on dramatic art and literature went through four editions between 1809 and 1846; and, in them, he opined that Euripides \"not only destroyed the external order of tragedy but missed its entire meaning\".", "This view influenced Friedrich Nietzsche, who seems, however, not to have known the Euripidean plays well.", "But literary figures, such as the poet Robert Browning and his wife Elizabeth Barrett Browning, could study and admire the Schlegels, while still appreciating Euripides as \"our Euripides the human\" (''Wine of Cyprus'' stanza 12).", "Classicists such as Arthur Verrall and Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff reacted against the views of the Schlegels and Nietzsche, constructing arguments sympathetic to Euripides, which involved Wilamowitz in this restatement of Greek tragedy as a genre: \"A Greek tragedy does not have to end 'tragically' or be 'tragic'.", "The only requirement is a serious treatment.\"", "In the English-speaking world, the pacifist Gilbert Murray played an important role in popularizing Euripides, influenced perhaps by his anti-war plays.", "Today, as in the time of Euripides, traditional assumptions are constantly under challenge, and audiences therefore have a natural affinity with the Euripidean outlook, which seems nearer to ours, for example, than the Elizabethan.", "As stated above, however, opinions continue to diverge, so that modern readers might actually \"seem to feel a special affinity with Sophocles\"; one recent critic might dismiss the debates in Euripides' plays as \"self-indulgent digression for the sake of rhetorical display\"; and one spring to the defence: \"His plays are remarkable for their range of tones and the gleeful inventiveness, which morose critics call cynical artificiality, of their construction.", "\"Unique among writers of ancient Athens, Euripides demonstrated sympathy towards the underrepresented members of society.", "His male contemporaries were frequently shocked by the heresies he put into the mouths of characters, such as these words of his heroine Medea:" ], [ "Texts", "===Transmission===The textual transmission of the plays, from the 5th century BC, when they were first written, until the era of the printing press, was a largely haphazard process.", "Much of Euripides' work was lost and corrupted; but the period also included triumphs by scholars and copyists, thanks to whom much was recovered and preserved.", "Summaries of the transmission are often found in modern editions of the plays, three of which are used as sources for this summary.The plays of Euripides, like those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, circulated in written form.", "But literary conventions that we take for granted today had not been inventedthere was no spacing between words; no consistency in punctuation, nor elisions; no marks for breathings and accents (guides to pronunciation, and word recognition); no convention to denote change of speaker; no stage directions; and verse was written straight across the page, like prose.", "Possibly, those who bought texts supplied their own interpretative markings.", "Papyri discoveries have indicated, for example, that a change in speakers was loosely denoted with a variety of signs, such as equivalents of the modern dash, colon, and full-stop.", "The absence of modern literary conventions (which aid comprehension), was an early and persistent source of errors, affecting transmission.", "Errors were also introduced when Athens replaced its old Attic alphabet with the Ionian alphabet, a change sanctioned by law in 403–402 BC, adding a new complication to the task of copying.", "Many more errors came from the tendency of actors to interpolate words and sentences, producing so many corruptions and variations that a law was proposed by Lycurgus of Athens in 330 BC \"that the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides should be written down and preserved in a public office; and that the town clerk should read the text over with the actors; and that all performances which did not comply with this regulation should be illegal.\"", "The law was soon disregarded, and actors continued to make changes until about 200 BC, after which the habit ceased.", "It was about then that Aristophanes of Byzantium compiled an edition of all the extant plays of Euripides, collated from pre-Alexandrian texts, furnished with introductions and accompanied by a commentary that was \"published\" separately.", "This became the \"standard edition\" for the future, and it featured some of the literary conventions that modern readers expect: there was still no spacing between words; little or no punctuation; and no stage directions; but abbreviated names denoted changes of speaker; lyrics were broken into \"cola\" and \"strophai\", or lines and stanzas; and a system of accentuation was introduced.Fragment of a vellum codex from the fourth or fifth centuries AD, showing choral anapaests from ''Medea'', lines 1087–91; tiny though it is, the fragment influences modern editions of the playAfter this creation of a standard edition, the text was fairly safe from errors, besides slight and gradual corruption introduced with tedious copying.", "Many of these trivial errors occurred in the Byzantine period, following a change in script (from uncial to minuscule), and many were \"homophonic\" errorsequivalent, in English, to substituting \"right\" for \"write\"; except that there were more opportunities for Byzantine scribes to make these errors, because η, ι, οι and ει, were pronounced similarly in the Byzantine period.Around 200 AD, ten of the plays of Euripides began to be circulated in a select edition, possibly for use in schools, with some commentaries or scholia recorded in the margins.", "Similar editions had appeared for Aeschylus and Sophoclesthe only plays of theirs that survive today.", "Euripides, however, was more fortunate than the other tragedians, with a second edition of his work surviving, compiled in alphabetical order as if from a set of his collect works; but without scholia attached.", "This \"Alphabetical\" edition was combined with the \"Select\" edition by some unknown Byzantine scholar, bringing together all the nineteen plays that survive today.", "The \"Select\" plays are found in many medieval manuscripts, but only two manuscripts preserve the \"Alphabetical\" playsoften denoted L and P, after the Laurentian Library at Florence, and the Bibliotheca Palatina in the Vatican, where they are stored.", "It is believed that P derived its Alphabet plays and some Select plays from copies of an ancestor of L, but the remainder is derived from elsewhere.", "P contains all the extant plays of Euripides, L is missing ''The Trojan Women'' and latter part of ''The Bacchae''.MS.", "Barocci 120, fol.", "32r (early 14th century)In addition to L, P, and many other medieval manuscripts, there are fragments of plays on papyrus.", "These papyrus fragments are often recovered only with modern technology.", "In June 2005, for example, classicists at the University of Oxford worked on a joint project with Brigham Young University, using multi-spectral imaging technology to retrieve previously illegible writing (see References).", "Some of this work employed infrared technology—previously used for satellite imaging—to detect previously unknown material by Euripides, in fragments of the Oxyrhynchus papyri, a collection of ancient manuscripts held by the university.It is from such materials that modern scholars try to piece together copies of the original plays.", "Sometimes the picture is almost lost.", "Thus, for example, two extant plays, ''The Phoenician Women'' and ''Iphigenia in Aulis'', are significantly corrupted by interpolations (the latter possibly being completed post mortem by the poet's son); and the very authorship of ''Rhesus'' is a matter of dispute.", "In fact, the very existence of the Alphabet plays, or rather the absence of an equivalent edition for Sophocles and Aeschylus, could distort our notions of distinctive Euripidean qualitiesmost of his least \"tragic\" plays are in the Alphabet edition; and, possibly, the other two tragedians would appear just as genre-bending as this \"restless experimenter\", if we possessed more than their \"select\" editions.", "''See Extant plays below for listing of \"Select\" and \"Alphabetical\" plays.", "''===Chronology===Original production dates for some of Euripides' plays are known from ancient records, such as lists of prize-winners at the Dionysia; and approximations are obtained for the remainder by various means.", "Both the playwright and his work were travestied by comic poets such as Aristophanes, the known dates of whose own plays can serve as a terminus ad quem for those of Euripides (though the gap can be considerable: twenty-seven years separate ''Telephus'', known to have been produced in 438 BC, from its parody in ''Thesmophoriazusae'' in 411 BC.).", "References in Euripides' plays to contemporary events provide a terminus a quo, though sometimes the references might even precede a datable event (e.g.", "lines 1074–89 in ''Ion'' describe a procession to Eleusis, which was probably written before the Spartans occupied it during the Peloponnesian War).", "Other indications of dating are obtained by stylometry.Greek tragedy comprised lyric and dialogue, the latter mostly in iambic trimeter (three pairs of iambic feet per line).", "Euripides sometimes 'resolved' the two syllables of the iamb (˘¯) into three syllables (˘˘˘), and this tendency increased so steadily over time that the number of resolved feet in a play can indicate an approximate date of composition (see Extant plays below for one scholar's list of resolutions per hundred trimeters).", "Associated with this increase in resolutions was an increasing vocabulary, often involving prefixes to refine meanings, allowing the language to assume a more natural rhythm, while also becoming ever more capable of psychological and philosophical subtlety.The trochaic tetrameter catalecticfour pairs of trochees per line, with the final syllable omittedwas identified by Aristotle as the original meter of tragic dialogue (''Poetics'' 1449a21).", "Euripides employs it here and there in his later plays, but seems not to have used it in his early plays at all, with ''The Trojan Women'' being the earliest appearance of it in an extant play—it is symptomatic of an archaizing tendency in his later works.The later plays also feature extensive use of stichomythia (i.e.", "a series of one-liners).", "The longest such scene comprises one hundred and five lines in ''Ion'' (lines 264–369).", "In contrast, Aeschylus never exceeded twenty lines of stichomythia; Sophocles' longest such scene was fifty lines, and that is interrupted several times by αντιλαβή (''Electra'', lines 1176–1226).Euripides' use of lyrics in sung parts shows the influence of Timotheus of Miletus in the later playsthe individual singer gained prominence, and was given additional scope to demonstrate his virtuosity in lyrical duets, as well as replacing some of the chorus's functions with monodies.", "At the same time, choral odes began to take on something of the form of dithyrambs reminiscent of the poetry of Bacchylides, featuring elaborate treatment of myths.", "Sometimes these later choral odes seem to have only a tenuous connection with the plot, linked to the action only in their mood.", "The ''Bacchae'', however, shows a reversion to old forms, possibly as a deliberate archaic effect, or because there were no virtuoso choristers in Macedonia (where it is said to have been written).===Extant plays===+Estimated chronological order Play Date BC Prize Lineage Resolutions Genre (and notes) ''Alcestis'' 438 2nd '''S''' 6.2 tragedy with elements of a satyr play ''Medea'' 431 3rd '''S''' 6.6 tragedy ''Heracleidae'' '''A''' 5.7 political/patriotic drama ''Hippolytus'' 428 1st '''S''' 4.3 tragedy ''Andromache'' '''S''' 11.3 tragedy (not produced in Athens) ''Hecuba'' '''S''' 12.7 tragedy ''The Suppliants'' '''A''' 13.6 political/patriotic drama ''Electra'' '''A''' 16.9 engages \"untragically\" with the traditional myth and with other dramatizations of it ''Herakles'' '''A''' 21.5 tragedy ''The Trojan Women'' 415 2nd '''S''' 21.2 tragedy ''Iphigenia in Tauris'' '''A''' 23.4 romantic drama ''Ion'' '''A''' 25.8 romantic drama ''Helen'' 412 '''A''' 27.5 romantic drama ''Phoenician Women'' 2nd '''S''' 25.8 tragedy (extensive interpolations) ''Orestes'' 408 '''S''' 39.4 tragedy ''Bacchae'' 405 1st '''S''' 37.6 tragedy (posthumously produced) ''Iphigenia in Aulis'' 405 1st '''A''' 34.7 tragedy (posthumously produced with extensive interpolations); also known as ''Iphigenia at Aulis'' ''Rhesus'' ?", "'''S''' 8.1 tragedy (authorship disputed) ''Cyclops'' ?", "'''A''' satyr play (the only fully extant example of this genre)Key::'''Date''' indicates date of first production.", ":'''Prize''' indicates a place known to have been awarded in festival competition.", ":'''Lineage''': '''S''' denotes plays surviving from a 'Select' or 'School' edition, '''A''' plays surviving from an 'Alphabetical' editionsee Transmission above for details.", ":'''Resolutions''': Number of resolved feet per 100 trimeters, Ceadel's listsee Chronology above for details.", ":'''Genre''': Generic orientation (see 'Transmission' section) with additional notes in brackets.===Lost and fragmentary plays===The following plays have come down to us in fragmentary form, if at all.", "They are known through quotations in other works (sometimes as little as a single line); pieces of papyrus; partial copies in manuscript; part of a collection of hypotheses (or summaries); and through being parodied in the works of Aristophanes.", "Some of the fragments, such as those of ''Hypsipyle'', are extensive enough to allow tentative reconstructions to be proposed.A two-volume selection from the fragments, with facing-page translation, introductions, and notes, was published by Collard, Cropp, Lee, and Gibert; as were two Loeb Classical Library volumes derived from them; and there are critical studies in T. B. L. Webster's older ''The Tragedies of Euripides'', based on what were then believed to be the most likely reconstructions of the plays.The following lost and fragmentary plays can be dated, and are arranged in roughly chronological order:* ''Peliades'' (455 BC)* ''Telephus'' (438 BC with ''Alcestis'')* ''Alcmaeon in Psophis'' (438 BC with ''Alcestis'')* ''Cretan Women'' (438 with ''Alcestis'')* ''Cretans'' ()* ''Philoctetes'' (431 BC with ''Medea'')* ''Dictys'' (431 BC with ''Medea'')* ''Theristai'' (''Reapers'', satyr play, 431 BC with ''Medea'')* ''Stheneboea'' (before 429 BC)* ''Bellerophon'' ()* ''Cresphontes'' ()* ''Erechtheus'' (422 BC)* ''Phaethon'' ()* ''Wise Melanippe'' ()* ''Alexandros'' (415 BC with ''Trojan Women'')* ''Palamedes'' (415 BC with ''Trojan Women'')* ''Sisyphus'' (satyr play, 415 BC with ''Trojan Women'')* ''Captive Melanippe'' ()* ''Andromeda'' (412 BC with ''Helen'')* ''Antiope'' ()* ''Archelaus'' ()* ''Hypsipyle'' ()* ''Alcmaeon in Corinth'' () Won first prize as part of a trilogy with ''The Bacchae'' and ''Iphigenia in Aulis''The following lost and fragmentary plays are of uncertain date, and are arranged in English alphabetical order.", "* ''Aegeus''* ''Aeolus''* ''Alcmene''* ''Alope'', or ''Cercyon''* ''Antigone''* ''Auge''* ''Autolycus''* ''Busiris''* ''Cadmus''* ''Chrysippus''* ''Danae''* ''Epeius''* ''Eurystheus''* ''Hippolytus Veiled''* ''Ino''* ''Ixion''* ''Lamia''* ''Licymnius''* ''Meleager''* ''Mysians''* ''Oedipus''* ''Oeneus''* ''Oenomaus''* ''Peirithous''* ''Peleus''* ''Phoenix''* ''Phrixus''* ''Pleisthenes''* ''Polyidus''* ''Protesilaus''* ''Rhadamanthys''* ''Sciron''* ''Scyrians''* ''Syleus''* ''Temenidae''* ''Temenos''* ''Tennes''* ''Theseus''* ''Thyestes''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources" ], [ "Further reading", "* ** * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * ''Euripides with an English translation by Arthur S. Way.", "D. Lit.", "in four volumes'', London, William Heinemann; New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, vol.", "1, vol.", "2, vol.", "3, vol.", "4.", "* Encarta's entry for Euripides ( Archived 2009-10-31)* Euripides-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library* Useful summaries of Euripides' life, works, and other relevant topics of interest at TheatreHistory.com.", "* Fordham.edu* AC-Strasbourg.fr * Imagi-nation.com* IMDBs List of movies based on Euripides plays* Staging of Euripides' fragmentary ''Hypsipyle''* Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Euripides, Trojan Women, 740–79; read by Stephen Daitz* ''Euripidis opera omnia ex editionibus praestantissimis fideliter recusa, latina interpretatione, scholiis antiquis et eruditorum observationibus illustrata'', 9 voll., Glasguae cura et typis Andreae et Joannis M. Duncan, 1821: vol.", "1, vol.", "2, vol.", "3, vol.", "4, vol.", "5, vol.", "6, vol.", "7, vol.", "8, vol.", "9.", "* Scholia of Euripides :** '' Scholia in Euripidem'', Eduardus Schwartz (ed.", "), 2 voll., Berolini tyois et impensis Georgii Reimer, 1887–91.", "* A Commentary on Euripides' ''Bacchae'', Academia.edu" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Emily Brontë" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Emily Jane Brontë''' (, commonly ; 30 July 1818 – 19 December 1848) was an English novelist and poet who is best known for her only novel, ''Wuthering Heights'', now considered a classic of English literature.", "She also published a book of poetry with her sisters Charlotte and Anne titled ''Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell'' with her own poems finding regard as poetic genius.", "Emily was the second-youngest of the four surviving Brontë siblings, between the youngest Anne and her brother Branwell.", "She published under the pen name '''Ellis Bell'''." ], [ "Early life", "The three Brontë sisters, in an 1834 painting by their brother Branwell Brontë.", "From left to right: Anne, Emily and Charlotte.", "(Branwell used to be between Emily and Charlotte, but subsequently painted himself out.", ")Emily Brontë was born on 30 July 1818 to Maria Branwell and an Irish father, Patrick Brontë.", "The family was living on Market Street, in a house now known as the Brontë Birthplace in the village of Thornton on the outskirts of Bradford, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England.", "Emily was the second youngest of six siblings, preceded by Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte and Branwell.", "In 1820, Emily's younger sister Anne, the last Brontë child, was born.", "Shortly thereafter, the family moved eight miles away to Haworth, where Patrick was employed as perpetual curate.", "In Haworth, the children would have opportunities to develop their literary talents.When Emily was only three, and all six children under the age of eight, she and her siblings lost their mother, Maria, to cancer on 15 September 1821.The younger children were to be cared for by Elizabeth Branwell, their aunt and Maria's sister.Emily's three elder sisters, Maria, Elizabeth, and Charlotte were sent to the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge.", "At the age of six, on 25 November 1824, Emily joined her sisters at school for a brief period.", "At school, however, the children suffered abuse and privations, and when a typhoid epidemic swept the school, Maria and Elizabeth became ill. Maria, who may actually have had tuberculosis, was sent home, where she died.", "Elizabeth died shortly after.The four youngest Brontë children, all under ten years of age, had suffered the loss of the three eldest women in their immediate family.Charlotte maintained that the school's poor conditions permanently affected her health and physical development and that it had hastened the deaths of Maria (born 1814) and Elizabeth (born 1815), who both died in 1825.After the deaths of his older daughters, Patrick removed Charlotte and Emily from the school.", "Charlotte would use her experiences and knowledge of the school as the basis for Lowood School in ''Jane Eyre''.The three remaining sisters and their brother Branwell were thereafter educated at home by their father and aunt Elizabeth Branwell.", "A shy girl, Emily was very close to her siblings and was known as a great animal lover, especially for befriending stray dogs she found wandering around the countryside.", "Despite the lack of formal education, Emily and her siblings had access to a wide range of published material; favourites included Sir Walter Scott, Byron, Shelley, and ''Blackwood's Magazine''.Gondal poemsInspired by a box of toy soldiers Branwell had received as a gift, the children began to write stories, which they set in a number of invented imaginary worlds populated by their soldiers as well as their heroes, the Duke of Wellington and his sons, Charles and Arthur Wellesley.", "Little of Emily's work from this period survives, except for poems spoken by characters.", "Initially, all four children shared in creating stories about a world called Angria.However, when Emily was 13, she and Anne withdrew from participation in the Angria story and began a new one about Gondal, a fictional island whose myths and legends were to preoccupy the two sisters throughout their lives.", "With the exception of their Gondal poems and Anne's lists of Gondal's characters and placenames, Emily and Anne's Gondal writings were largely not preserved.", "Among those that did survive are some \"diary papers\", written by Emily in her twenties, which describe current events in Gondal.", "The heroes of Gondal tended to resemble the popular image of the Scottish Highlander, a sort of British version of the \"noble savage\": romantic outlaws capable of more nobility, passion, and bravery than the denizens of \"civilization\".", "Similar themes of romanticism and noble savagery are apparent across the Brontës' juvenilia, notably in Branwell's ''The Life of Alexander Percy'', which tells the story of an all-consuming, death-defying, and ultimately self-destructive love and is generally considered an inspiration for ''Wuthering Heights''.At seventeen, Emily began to attend the Roe Head Girls' School, where Charlotte was a teacher, but suffered from extreme homesickness and left after only a few months.", "Charlotte wrote later that \"Liberty was the breath of Emily's nostrils; without it, she perished.", "The change from her own home to a school and from her own very noiseless, very secluded but unrestricted and unartificial mode of life, to one of disciplined routine (though under the kindest auspices), was what she failed in enduring...", "I felt in my heart she would die if she did not go home, and with this conviction obtained her recall.\"", "Emily returned home and Anne took her place.", "At this time, the girls' objective was to obtain sufficient education to open a small school of their own." ], [ "Adulthood", "Constantin Héger, teacher of Charlotte and Emily during their stay in Brussels, on a daguerreotype dated  1865Emily became a teacher at Law Hill School in Halifax beginning in September 1838, when she was twenty.", "Her always fragile health soon broke under the stress of the 17-hour workday, and she returned home in April 1839.Thereafter she remained at home, doing most of the cooking, ironing, and cleaning at Haworth.", "She taught herself German out of books and also practised the piano.In 1842, Emily accompanied Charlotte to the Héger Pensionnat in Brussels, Belgium, where they attended the girls' academy run by Constantin Héger in the hope of perfecting their French and German before opening their school.", "Unlike Charlotte, Emily was uncomfortable in Brussels, and refused to adopt Belgian fashions, saying \"I wish to be as God made me\", which rendered her something of an outcast.", "Nine of Emily's French essays survive from this period.", "Héger seems to have been impressed with the strength of Emily's character, writing that:She should have been a man – a great navigator.", "Her powerful reason would have deduced new spheres of discovery from the knowledge of the old; and her strong imperious will would never have been daunted by opposition or difficulty, never have given way but with life.", "She had a head for logic, and a capability of argument unusual in a man and rarer indeed in a woman... impairing this gift was her stubborn tenacity of will which rendered her obtuse to all reasoning where her own wishes, or her own sense of right, was concerned.The two sisters were committed to their studies and by the end of the term had become so competent in French that Madame Héger proposed that they both stay another half-year, even, according to Charlotte, offering to dismiss the English master so that she could take his place.", "Emily had, by this time, become a competent pianist and teacher and it was suggested that she might stay on to teach music.", "However, the illness and death of their aunt drove them to return to their father and Haworth.", "In 1844, the sisters attempted to open a school in their house, but their plans were stymied by an inability to attract students to the remote area.In 1844, Emily began going through all the poems she had written, recopying them neatly into two notebooks.", "One was labelled \"Gondal Poems\"; the other was unlabelled.", "Scholars such as Fannie Ratchford and Derek Roper have attempted to piece together a Gondal storyline and chronology from these poems.In the autumn of 1845, Charlotte discovered the notebooks and insisted that the poems be published.", "Emily, furious at the invasion of her privacy, at first refused but relented when Anne brought out her own manuscripts and revealed to Charlotte that she had been writing poems in secret as well.", "As co-authors of Gondal stories, Anne and Emily were accustomed to read their Gondal stories and poems to each other, while Charlotte was excluded from their privacy.", "Around this time Emily had written one of her most famous poems \"No coward soul is mine\", probably as an answer to the violation of her privacy and her own transformation into a published writer.", "Despite Charlotte's later claim, it was not her last poem.In 1846, the sisters' poems were published in one volume as ''Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell''.", "The Brontë sisters had adopted pseudonyms for publication, preserving their initials: Charlotte was \"Currer Bell\", Emily was \"Ellis Bell\" and Anne was \"Acton Bell\".", "Charlotte wrote in the 'Biographical Notice of Ellis and Acton Bell' that their \"ambiguous choice\" was \"dictated by a sort of conscientious scruple at assuming Christian names positively masculine, while we did not like to declare ourselves women, because... we had a vague impression that authoresses are liable to be looked on with prejudice\".", "Charlotte contributed 19 poems, and Emily and Anne each contributed 21.Although the sisters were told several months after publication that only two copies had sold, they were not discouraged (of their two readers, one was impressed enough to request their autographs).", "''The Athenaeum'' reviewer praised Ellis Bell's work for its music and power, singling out his poems as the best: \"Ellis possesses a fine, quaint spirit and an evident power of wing that may reach heights not here attempted\", and ''The Critic'' reviewer recognised \"the presence of more genius than it was supposed this utilitarian age had devoted to the loftier exercises of the intellect.\"" ], [ "Personality and character", "Portrait painted by Branwell Brontë in 1833; sources are in disagreement over whether this image is of Emily or Anne.Emily Brontë's solitary and reclusive nature has made her a mysterious figure and a challenge for biographers to assess.", "Except for Ellen Nussey and Louise de Bassompierre, Emily's fellow student in Brussels, she does not seem to have made any friends outside her family.", "Her closest friend was her sister Anne.", "Together they shared their own fantasy world, Gondal, and, according to Ellen Nussey, in childhood they were \"like twins\", \"inseparable companions\" and \"in the very closest sympathy which never had any interruption\".", "In 1845 Anne took Emily to visit some of the places she had come to know and love in the five years she spent as governess.", "A plan to visit Scarborough fell through and instead the sisters went to York where Anne showed Emily York Minster.", "During the trip the sisters acted out some of their Gondal characters.Charlotte Brontë remains the primary source of information about Emily, although as an elder sister, writing publicly about her only shortly after her death, she is considered by certain scholars not to be a neutral witness.", "Stevie Davies believes that there is what might be called \"Charlotte's smoke-screen\", and argues that Emily evidently shocked her, to the point where she may even have doubted her sister's sanity.", "After Emily's death, Charlotte rewrote her character, history and even poems on a more acceptable (to her and the bourgeois reading public) model.", "Biographer Claire O'Callaghan suggests that the trajectory of Brontë's legacy was altered significantly by Elizabeth Gaskell's biography of Charlotte, concerning not only because Gaskell did not visit Haworth until after Emily's death, but also because Gaskell admits to disliking what she did know of Emily in her biography of Charlotte.", "As O'Callaghan and others have noted, Charlotte was Gaskell's primary source of information on Emily's life and may have exaggerated or fabricated Emily's frailty and shyness to cast herself in the role of maternal saviour.Charlotte presented Emily as someone whose \"natural\" love of the beauties of nature had become somewhat exaggerated owing to her shy nature, portraying her as too fond of the Yorkshire moors, and homesick whenever she was away.", "According to Lucasta Miller, in her analysis of Brontë biographies, \"Charlotte took on the role of Emily's first mythographer.\"", "In the ''Preface'' to the Second Edition of ''Wuthering Heights'', in 1850, Charlotte wrote:My sister's disposition was not naturally gregarious; circumstances favoured and fostered her tendency to seclusion; except to go to church or take a walk on the hills, she rarely crossed the threshold of home.", "Though her feeling for the people round was benevolent, intercourse with them she never sought; nor, with very few exceptions, ever experienced.", "And yet she knew them: knew their ways, their language, their family histories; she could hear of them with interest, and talk of them with detail, minute, graphic, and accurate; but WITH them, she rarely exchanged a word.Emily's unsociability and extremely shy nature have subsequently been reported many times.", "According to Norma Crandall, her \"warm, human aspect\" was \"usually revealed only in her love of nature and of animals\".", "In a similar description, ''Literary news'' (1883) states: \"Emily loved the solemn moors, she loved all wild, free creatures and things\", and critics attest that her love of the moors is manifest in ''Wuthering Heights''.", "Over the years, Emily's love of nature has been the subject of many anecdotes.", "A newspaper dated 31 December 1899, gives the folksy account that \"with bird and beast Emily had the most intimate relations, and from her walks she often came with fledgling or young rabbit in hand, talking softly to it, quite sure, too, that it understood\".", "Elizabeth Gaskell, in her biography of Charlotte, told the story of Emily's punishing her pet dog Keeper for lying \"on the delicate white counterpane\" that covered one of the beds in the Parsonage.", "According to Gaskell, she struck him with her fists until he was \"half-blind\" with his eyes \"swelled up\".", "This story is apocryphal, and contradicts the following account of Emily's and Keeper's relationship:Poor old Keeper, Emily's faithful friend and worshipper, seemed to understand her like a human being.", "One evening, when the four friends were sitting closely round the fire in the sitting-room, Keeper forced himself in between Charlotte and Emily and mounted himself on Emily's lap; finding the space too limited for his comfort he pressed himself forward on to the guest's knees, making himself quite comfortable.", "Emily's heart was won by the unresisting endurance of the visitor, little guessing that she herself, being in close contact, was the inspiring cause of submission to Keeper's preference.", "Sometimes Emily would delight in showing off Keeper—make him frantic in action, and roar with the voice of a lion.", "It was a terrifying exhibition within the walls of an ordinary sitting-room.", "Keeper was a solemn mourner at Emily's funeral and never recovered his cheerfulness.", "Keeper, watercolour by Emily Brontë, 24 April 1838In ''Queens of Literature of the Victorian Era'' (1886), Eva Hope summarises Emily's character as \"a peculiar mixture of timidity and Spartan-like courage\", and goes on to say, \"She was painfully shy, but physically she was brave to a surprising degree.", "She loved few persons, but those few with a passion of self-sacrificing tenderness and devotion.", "To other people's failings she was understanding and forgiving, but over herself she kept a continual and most austere watch, never allowing herself to deviate for one instant from what she considered her duty.", "\"Emily Brontë has often been characterised as a devout if somewhat unorthodox Christian, a heretic and a visionary \"mystic of the moors\"." ], [ "''Wuthering Heights''", "Title page of the original edition of ''Wuthering Heights'' (1847)Emily Brontë's ''Wuthering Heights'' was first published in London in 1847 by Thomas Cautley Newby, appearing as the first two volumes of a three-volume set that included Anne Brontë's ''Agnes Grey''.", "The authors were printed as being Ellis and Acton Bell; Emily's real name did not appear until 1850, when it was printed on the title page of an edited commercial edition.", "The novel's innovative structure somewhat puzzled critics.", "''Wuthering Heights''s violence and passion led the Victorian public and many early reviewers to think that it had been written by a man.", "According to Juliet Gardiner, \"the vivid sexual passion and power of its language and imagery impressed, bewildered and appalled reviewers.\"", "Literary critic Thomas Joudrey further contextualizes this reaction: \"Expecting in the wake of Charlotte Brontë's ''Jane Eyre'' to be swept up in an earnest Bildungsroman, they were instead shocked and confounded by a tale of unchecked primal passions, replete with savage cruelty and outright barbarism.\"", "Even though the novel received mixed reviews when it first came out, and was often condemned for its portrayal of amoral passion, the book subsequently became an English literary classic.", "Emily Brontë never knew the extent of fame she achieved with her only novel, as she died a year after its publication, aged 30.Although a letter from her publisher indicates that Emily had begun to write a second novel, the manuscript has never been found.", "Perhaps Emily or a member of her family eventually destroyed the manuscript, if it existed, when she was prevented by illness from completing it.", "It has also been suggested that, though less likely, the letter could have been intended for Anne Brontë, who was already writing ''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall'', her second novel." ], [ "Death", "Emily's health was probably weakened by the harsh local climate and by unsanitary conditions at home, where water was contaminated by run off from the church's graveyard.", "Branwell died suddenly, on Sunday, 24 September 1848.At his funeral service, a week later, Emily caught a severe cold that quickly developed into inflammation of the lungs and led to tuberculosis.", "Though her condition worsened steadily, she rejected medical help and all offered remedies, saying that she would have \"no poisoning doctor\" near her.", "On the morning of 19 December 1848, Charlotte, fearing for her sister, wrote:She grows daily weaker.", "The physician's opinion was expressed too obscurely to be of use – he sent some medicine which she would not take.", "Moments so dark as these I have never known – I pray for God's support to us all.At noon, Emily was worse; she could only whisper in gasps.", "With her last audible words, she said to Charlotte, \"If you will send for a doctor, I will see him now\", but it was too late.", "She died that same day at about two in the afternoon.", "According to Mary Robinson, an early biographer of Emily, it happened while she was sitting on the sofa.", "However, Charlotte's letter to William Smith Williams where she mentions Emily's dog, Keeper, lying at the side of her dying-bed, makes this statement seem unlikely.It was less than three months after Branwell's death, which led Martha Brown, a housemaid, to declare that \"Miss Emily died of a broken heart for love of her brother\".", "Emily had grown so thin that her coffin measured only 16 inches (40 centimeters) wide.", "The carpenter said he had never made a narrower one for an adult.", "Her remains were interred in the family vault in St Michael and All Angels' Church, Haworth.===Legacy===The English folk group The Unthanks released ''Lines'', a trilogy of short albums, which includes settings of Brontë's poems to music and was recorded at the Brontës' parsonage home, using their own Regency era piano, played by Adrian McNally.In the 2019 film ''How to Build a Girl'', Emily and Charlotte Brontë are among the historical figures in Johanna's wall collage.In May 2021, the contents of the Honresfield library, a collection of rare books and manuscripts first assembled by Rochdale mill owners Alfred and William Law, re-emerged after being out of public view for nearly a century.", "In the collection were handwritten poems by Emily Brontë, as well as the Brontë family edition of Bewick's 'History of British Birds.'", "The collection was to be auctioned off at Sotheby's and was estimated to sell for £1 million.The 1946 film ''Devotion'' was a highly fictionalized account of the lives of the Brontë sisters.In the 2022 film ''Emily'', written and directed by Frances O'Connor, Emma Mackey plays Emily before the publication of ''Wuthering Heights''.", "The film mixes known biographical details with imagined situations and relationships.Norwegian composer Ola Gjeilo set select Emily Brontë poems to music with SATB chorus, string orchestra, and piano, a work commissioned and premiered by the San Francisco Choral Society in a series of concerts in Oakland and San Francisco." ], [ "Works", "***===Electronic editions===* * * *" ], [ "See also", "* Walterclough Hall – a residence north-east of the village of Southowram* \"To a Wreath of Snow\" – a poem by Emily published in 1837* \"Come hither child\" – a poem by Emily published in 1839* \"A Death-Scene\" – a poem by Emily published in 1846* ''Emily'' (2022 film)" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===********* **" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Emily Brontë'', Charles Simpson* ''In the Footsteps of the Brontës'', Ellis Chadwick* ''Last Things: Emily Brontë's Poems'', Janet Gezari* ''The Oxford Reader's Companion to the Brontës'', Christine Alexander & Margaret Smith* ''The Brontë Myth'', Lucasta Miller* ''Emily'', Daniel Wynne* ''Emily Brontë'', Winifred Gerin* ''A Chainless Soul: A Life of Emily Brontë'', Katherine Frank* ''Emily Brontë.", "Her Life and Work'', Muriel Spark and Derek Stanford* * L. P. Hartley, 'Emily Brontë In Gondal And Galdine', in L. P. Hartley, ''The Novelist's Responsibility'' (1967), p. 35–53* ''Emily's Ghost: A Novel of the Brontë Sisters'', Denise Giardina* ''Charlotte and Emily: A Novel of the Brontës'', Jude Morgan* ''Dark Quartet'', Lynne Reid Banks* ''Literature and Evil'', Georges Bataille" ], [ "External links", "* Emily Brontë papers, 1830s-1990s, held by the Berg Collection, New York Public Library* The Brontë Society and Brontë Parsonage Museum in Haworth* Locations associated with ''Wuthering Heights'' and Emily Brontë — Google Maps* Emily Brontë at the British Library* Poems by Emily Jane Brontë at English-Poetry.RU" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Extinction event" ], [ "Introduction", "genera at times of extinction events.An '''extinction event''' (also known as a '''mass extinction''' or '''biotic crisis''') is a widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth.", "Such an event is identified by a sharp fall in the diversity and abundance of multicellular organisms.", "It occurs when the rate of extinction increases with respect to the background extinction rate and the rate of speciation.", "Estimates of the number of major mass extinctions in the last 540 million years range from as few as five to more than twenty.", "These differences stem from disagreement as to what constitutes a \"major\" extinction event, and the data chosen to measure past diversity." ], [ "The \"Big Five\" mass extinctions", "In a landmark paper published in 1982, Jack Sepkoski and David M. Raup identified five particular geological intervals with excessive diversity loss.", "They were originally identified as outliers on a general trend of decreasing extinction rates during the Phanerozoic, but as more stringent statistical tests have been applied to the accumulating data, it has been established that in the current, Phanerozoic Eon, multicellular animal life has experienced at least five major and many minor mass extinctions.", "The \"Big Five\" cannot be so clearly defined, but rather appear to represent the largest (or some of the largest) of a relatively smooth continuum of extinction events.", "An earlier (first?)", "event at the end of the Ediacaran is speculated, and all are preceded by the presumed far more extensive mass extinction of microbial life during the Oxygen Catastrophe early in the Proterozoic Eon.# '''Ordovician–Silurian extinction events''' (End Ordovician or O–S): 445–444 Ma, just prior to and at the Ordovician–Silurian transition.", "Two events occurred that killed off 27% of all families, 57% of all genera and 85% of all species.", "Together they are ranked by many scientists as the second-largest of the five major extinctions in Earth's history in terms of percentage of genera that became extinct.", "In May 2020, studies suggested that the causes of the mass extinction were global warming, related to volcanism, and anoxia, and not, as considered earlier, cooling and glaciation.", "However, this is at odds with numerous previous studies, which have indicated global cooling as the primary driver.", "Most recently, the deposition of volcanic ash has been suggested to be the trigger for reductions in atmospheric carbon dioxide leading to the glaciation and anoxia observed in the geological record.", "# '''Late Devonian extinctions''': 372–359 Ma, occupying much of the Late Devonian up to the Devonian–Carboniferous transition.", "The Late Devonian was an interval of high diversity loss, concentrated into two extinction events.", "The largest extinction was the ''Kellwasser Event'' (Frasnian-Famennian, or F-F, 372 Ma), an extinction event at the end of the Frasnian, about midway through the Late Devonian.", "This extinction annihilated coral reefs and numerous tropical benthic (seabed-living) animals such as jawless fish, brachiopods, and trilobites.", "Another major extinction was the ''Hangenberg Event'' (Devonian-Carboniferous, or D-C, 359 Ma), which brought an end to the Devonian as a whole.", "This extinction wiped out the armored placoderm fish and nearly led to the extinction of the newly evolved ammonoids.", "These two closely-spaced extinction events collectively eliminated about 19% of all families, 50% of all genera and at least 70% of all species.", "Sepkoski and Raup (1982) did not initially consider the Late Devonian extinction interval (Givetian, Frasnian, and Famennian stages) to be statistically significant.", "Regardless, later studies have affirmed the strong ecological impacts of the Kellwasser and Hangenberg Events.# Trilobites were highly successful marine animals until the Permian–Triassic extinction event wiped them all out.", "'''Permian–Triassic extinction event''' (End Permian): 252 Ma, at the Permian–Triassic transition.", "Phanerozoic Eon's largest extinction killed 53% of marine families, 84% of marine genera, about 81% of all marine species and an estimated 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species.", "This is also the largest known extinction event for insects.", "The highly successful marine arthropod, the trilobite, became extinct.", "The evidence regarding plants is less clear, but new taxa became dominant after the extinction.", "The \"Great Dying\" had enormous evolutionary significance: On land, it ended the primacy of early synapsids.", "The recovery of vertebrates took 30 million years, but the vacant niches created the opportunity for archosaurs to become ascendant.", "In the seas, the percentage of animals that were sessile (unable to move about) dropped from 67% to 50%.", "The whole late Permian was a difficult time, at least for marine life, even before the P–T boundary extinction.", "More recent research has indicated that the End-Capitanian extinction event that preceded the \"Great Dying\" likely constitutes a separate event from the P–T extinction; if so, it would be larger than some of the \"Big Five\" extinction events, and perhaps merit a separate place in this list immediately before this one.# '''Triassic–Jurassic extinction event''' (End Triassic): 201.3 Ma, at the Triassic–Jurassic transition.", "About 23% of all families, 48% of all genera (20% of marine families and 55% of marine genera) and 70% to 75% of all species became extinct.", "Most non-dinosaurian archosaurs, most therapsids, and most of the large amphibians were eliminated, leaving dinosaurs with little terrestrial competition.", "Non-dinosaurian archosaurs continued to dominate aquatic environments, while non-archosaurian diapsids continued to dominate marine environments.", "The Temnospondyl lineage of large amphibians also survived until the Cretaceous in Australia (e.g., ''Koolasuchus'').# Badlands near Drumheller, Alberta, where erosion has exposed the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary.", "'''Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event''' (End Cretaceous, K–Pg extinction, or formerly K–T extinction):  Ma, at the Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) – Paleogene (Danian) transition.", "The event was formerly called the Cretaceous-Tertiary or K–T extinction or K–T boundary; it is now officially named the Cretaceous–Paleogene (or K–Pg) extinction event.", "About 17% of all families, 50% of all genera and 75% of all species became extinct.", "In the seas all the ammonites, plesiosaurs and mosasaurs disappeared and the percentage of sessile animals was reduced to about 33%.", "All non-avian dinosaurs became extinct during that time.", "The boundary event was severe with a significant amount of variability in the rate of extinction between and among different clades.", "Mammals and birds, the former descended from the synapsids and the latter from theropod dinosaurs, emerged as dominant terrestrial animals.Despite the popularization of these five events, there is no definite line separating them from other extinction events; using different methods of calculating an extinction's impact can lead to other events featuring in the top five.Older fossil records are more difficult to interpret.", "This is because:* Older fossils are harder to find as they are usually buried at a considerable depth.", "* Dating of older fossils is more difficult.", "* Productive fossil beds are researched more than unproductive ones, therefore leaving certain periods unresearched.", "* Prehistoric environmental events can disturb the deposition process.", "* The preservation of fossils varies on land, but marine fossils tend to be better preserved than their more sought-after land-based counterparts.It has been suggested that the apparent variations in marine biodiversity may actually be an artifact, with abundance estimates directly related to quantity of rock available for sampling from different time periods.", "However, statistical analysis shows that this can only account for 50% of the observed pattern, and other evidence such as fungal spikes (geologically rapid increase in fungal abundance) provides reassurance that most widely accepted extinction events are real.", "A quantification of the rock exposure of Western Europe indicates that many of the minor events for which a biological explanation has been sought are most readily explained by sampling bias." ], [ "Sixth mass extinction", "Research completed after the seminal 1982 paper (Sepkoski and Raup) has concluded that a sixth mass extinction event is ongoing due to human activities:: 6.", "'''Holocene extinction''' currently ongoing.", "Extinctions have occurred at over 1,000 times the background extinction rate since 1900, and the rate is increasing.", "The mass extinction is a result of human activity (an ecocide) driven by population growth and overconsumption of the earth's natural resources.", "The 2019 global biodiversity assessment by IPBES asserts that out of an estimated 8 million species, 1 million plant and animal species are currently threatened with extinction.", "In late 2021, WWF Germany suggested that over a million species could go extinct within a decade in the \"largest mass extinction event since the end of the dinosaur age.\"", "A 2023 study published in ''PNAS'' concluded that at least 73 genera of animals have gone extinct since 1500.If humans had never existed, it would have taken 18,000 years for the same genera to have disappeared naturally, the report states." ], [ "Extinctions by severity", "Extinction events can be tracked by several methods, including geological change, ecological impact, extinction vs. origination (speciation) rates, and most commonly diversity loss among taxonomic units.", "Most early papers used families as the unit of taxonomy, based on compendiums of marine animal families by Sepkoski (1982, 1992).", "Later papers by Sepkoski and other authors switched to genera, which are more precise than families and less prone to taxonomic bias or incomplete sampling relative to species.", "These are several major papers estimating loss or ecological impact from fifteen commonly-discussed extinction events.", "Different methods used by these papers are described in the following section.", "The \"Big Five\" mass extinctions are bolded.+Extinction proportions (diversity loss) of marine genera or ecological impact in estimates of mass extinction severityExtinction nameAge(Ma)Sepkoski (1996)Multiple-intervalgeneraBambach(2006)McGhee ''et al''.", "(2013)Stanley (2016)TaxonomiclossEcologicalranking'''Late Ordovician (Ashgillian / Hirnantian)'''445-444~49%57%(40%, 31%)52%742–46%Lau event (Ludfordian)424~23% –9%9 –Kačák Event (Eifelian)388~~24% –32%9 –Taghanic Event (Givetian)384~~30%28.5%36%8 –'''Late Devonian/Kellwasser event (Frasnian)'''372~35%34.7%40%416–20%End-Devonian/Hangenberg event (Famennian)359~28%31%50%7 At the time considered continuous with the end-Permian mass extinction Includes late Norian time slices Diversity loss of both pulses calculated together Pulses extend over adjacent time slices, calculated separately Considered ecologically significant, but not analyzed directly Excluded due to a lack of consensus on Late Triassic chronology" ], [ "The study of major extinction events", "=== Breakthrough studies in the 1980s–1990s ===Luis (left) and Walter Alvarez (right) at the K-Pg boundary in Gubbio, Italy in 1981.This team discovered geological evidence for an asteroid impact causing the K-Pg extinction, spurring a wave of public and scientific interest in mass extinctions and their causesFor much of the 20th century, the study of mass extinctions was hampered by insufficient data.", "Mass extinctions, though acknowledged, were considered mysterious exceptions to the prevailing gradualistic view of prehistory, where slow evolutionary trends define faunal changes.", "The first breakthrough was published in 1980 by a team led by Luis Alvarez, who discovered trace metal evidence for an asteroid impact at the end of the Cretaceous period.", "The Alvarez hypothesis for the end-Cretaceous extinction gave mass extinctions, and catastrophic explanations, newfound popular and scientific attention.Changes in diversity among genera and families, according to Sepkoski (1997).", "The \"Big Five\" mass extinctions are labelled with arrows, and taxa are segregated into Cambrian- (Cm), Paleozoic- (Pz), and Modern- (Md) type faunas.Another landmark study came in 1982, when a paper written by David M. Raup and Jack Sepkoski was published in the journal ''Science''.", "This paper, originating from a compendium of extinct marine animal families developed by Sepkoski, identified five peaks of marine family extinctions which stand out among a backdrop of decreasing extinction rates through time.", "Four of these peaks were statistically significant: the Ashgillian (end-Ordovician), Late Permian, Norian (end-Triassic), and Maastrichtian (end-Cretaceous).", "The remaining peak was a broad interval of high extinction smeared over the later half of the Devonian, with its apex in the Frasnian stage.Through the 1980s, Raup and Sepkoski continued to elaborate and build upon their extinction and origination data, defining a high-resolution biodiversity curve (the \"Sepkoski curve\") and successive evolutionary faunas with their own patterns of diversification and extinction.", "Though these interpretations formed a strong basis for subsequent studies of mass extinctions, Raup and Sepkoski also proposed a more controversial idea in 1984: a 26-million-year periodic pattern to mass extinctions.", "Two teams of astronomers linked this to a hypothetical brown dwarf in the distant reaches of the solar system, inventing the \"Nemesis hypothesis\" which has been strongly disputed by other astronomers.Around the same time, Sepkoski began to devise a compendium of marine animal genera, which would allow researchers to explore extinction at a finer taxonomic resolution.", "He began to publish preliminary results of this in-progress study as early as 1986, in a paper which identified 29 extinction intervals of note.", "By 1992, he also updated his 1982 family compendium, finding minimal changes to the diversity curve despite a decade of new data.", "In 1996, Sepkoski published another paper which tracked marine genera extinction (in terms of net diversity loss) by stage, similar to his previous work on family extinctions.", "The paper filtered its sample in three ways: all genera (the entire unfiltered sample size), multiple-interval genera (only those found in more than one stage), and \"well-preserved\" genera (excluding those from groups with poor or understudied fossil records).", "Diversity trends in marine animal families were also revised based on his 1992 update.Revived interest in mass extinctions led many other authors to re-evaluate geological events in the context of their effects on life.", "A 1995 paper by Michael Benton tracked extinction and origination rates among both marine and continental (freshwater & terrestrial) families, identifying 22 extinction intervals and no periodic pattern.", "Overview books by O.H.", "Wallister (1996) and A. Hallam and P.B.", "Wignall (1997) summarized the new extinction research of the previous two decades.", "One chapter in the former source lists over 60 geological events which could conceivably be considered global extinctions of varying sizes.", "These texts, and other widely circulated publications in the 1990s, helped to establish the popular image of mass extinctions as a \"big five\" alongside many smaller extinctions through prehistory.=== New data on genera: Sepkoski's compendium ===Major Phanerozoic extinctions tracked via proportional genera extinctions by Bambach (2006)Though Sepkoski passed away in 1999, his marine genera compendium was formally published in 2002.This prompted a new wave of studies into the dynamics of mass extinctions.", "These papers utilized the compendium to track origination rates (the rate that new species appear or speciate) parallel to extinction rates in the context of geological stages or substages.", "A review and re-analysis of Sepkoski's data by Bambach (2006) identified 18 distinct mass extinction intervals, including 4 large extinctions in the Cambrian.", "These fit Sepkoski's definition of extinction, as short substages with large diversity loss and overall high extinction rates relative to their surroundings.Bambach et al.", "(2004) considered each of the \"Big Five\" extinction intervals to have a different pattern in the relationship between origination and extinction trends.", "Moreover, background extinction rates were broadly variable and could be separated into more severe and less severe time intervals.", "Background extinctions were least severe relative to the origination rate in the middle Ordovician-early Silurian, late Carboniferous-Permian, and Jurassic-recent.", "This argues that the Late Ordovician, end-Permian, and end-Cretaceous extinctions were statistically significant outliers in biodiversity trends, while the Late Devonian and end-Triassic extinctions occurred in time periods which were already stressed by relatively high extinction and low origination.Computer models run by Foote (2005) determined that abrupt pulses of extinction fit the pattern of prehistoric biodiversity much better than a gradual and continuous background extinction rate with smooth peaks and troughs.", "This strongly supports the utility of rapid, frequent mass extinctions as a major driver of diversity changes.", "Pulsed origination events are also supported, though to a lesser degree which is largely dependent on pulsed extinctions.Similarly, Stanley (2007) used extinction and origination data to investigate turnover rates and extinction responses among different evolutionary faunas and taxonomic groups.", "In contrast to previous authors, his diversity simulations show support for an overall exponential rate of biodiversity growth through the entire Phanerozoic.=== Tackling biases in the fossil record ===Signor-Lipps effect, a geological bias which posits that increased fossil sampling would help to better constrain the exact time when an organism truly goes extinct.As data continued to accumulate, some authors began to re-evaluate Sepkoski's sample using methods meant to account for sampling biases.", "As early as 1982, a paper by Phillip W. Signor and Jere H. Lipps noted that the true sharpness of extinctions was diluted by the incompleteness of the fossil record.", "This phenomenon, later called the Signor-Lipps effect, notes that a species' true extinction must occur after its last fossil, and that origination must occur before its first fossil.", "Thus, species which appear to die out just prior to an abrupt extinction event may instead be a victim of the event, despite an apparent gradual decline looking at the fossil record alone.", "A model by Foote (2007) found that many geological stages had artificially inflated extinction rates due to Signor-Lipps \"backsmearing\" from later stages with extinction events.Estimated extinction rates among genera through time.", "From Foote (2007), top, and Kocsis et al.", "(2019), bottomOther biases include the difficulty in assessing taxa with high turnover rates or restricted occurrences, which cannot be directly assessed due to a lack of fine-scale temporal resolution.", "Many paleontologists opt to assess diversity trends by randomized sampling and rarefaction of fossil abundances rather than raw temporal range data, in order to account for all of these biases.", "But that solution is influenced by biases related to sample size.", "One major bias in particular is the \"Pull of the recent\", the fact that the fossil record (and thus known diversity) generally improves closer to the modern day.", "This means that biodiversity and abundance for older geological periods may be underestimated from raw data alone.Alroy (2010) attempted to circumvene sample size-related biases in diversity estimates using a method he called \"shareholder quorum subsampling\" (SQS).", "In this method, fossils are sampled from a \"collection\" (such as a time interval) to assess the relative diversity of that collection.", "Every time a new species (or other taxon) enters the sample, it brings over all other fossils belonging to that species in the collection (its \"share\" of the collection).", "For example, a skewed collection with half its fossils from one species will immediately reach a sample share of 50% if that species is the first to be sampled.", "This continues, adding up the sample shares until a \"coverage\" or \"quorum\" is reached, referring to a pre-set desired sum of share percentages.", "At that point, the number of species in the sample are counted.", "A collection with more species is expected to reach a sample quorum with more species, thus accurately comparing the relative diversity change between two collections without relying on the biases inherent to sample size.Alroy also elaborated on three-timer algorithms, which are meant to counteract biases in estimates of extinction and origination rates.", "A given taxon is a \"three-timer\" if it can be found before, after, and within a given time interval, and a \"two-timer\" if it overlaps with a time interval on one side.", "Counting \"three-timers\" and \"two-timers\" on either end of a time interval, and sampling time intervals in sequence, can together be combined into equations to predict extinction and origination with less bias.", "In subsequent papers, Alroy continued to refine his equations to improve lingering issues with precision and unusual samples.McGhee et al.", "(2013), a paper which primarily focused on ecological effects of mass extinctions, also published new estimates of extinction severity based on Alroy's methods.", "Many extinctions were significantly more impactful under these new estimates, though some were less prominent.Stanley (2016) was another paper which attempted to remove two common errors in previous estimates of extinction severity.", "The first error was the unjustified removal of \"singletons\", genera unique to only a single time slice.", "Their removal would mask the influence of groups with high turnover rates or lineages cut short early in their diversification.", "The second error was the difficulty in distinguishing background extinctions from brief mass extinction events within the same short time interval.", "To circumvent this issue, background rates of diversity change (extinction/origination) were estimated for stages or substages without mass extinctions, and then assumed to apply to subsequent stages with mass extinctions.", "For example, the Santonian and Campanian stages were each used to estimate diversity changes in the Maastrichtian prior to the K-Pg mass extinction.", "Subtracting background extinctions from extinction tallies had the effect of reducing the estimated severity of the six sampled mass extinction events.", "This effect was stronger for mass extinctions which occurred in periods with high rates of background extinction, like the Devonian." ], [ "Uncertainty in the Proterozoic and earlier eons", "Because most diversity and biomass on Earth is microbial, and thus difficult to measure via fossils, extinction events placed on-record are those that affect the easily observed, biologically complex component of the biosphere rather than the total diversity and abundance of life.", "For this reason, well-documented extinction events are confined to the Phanerozoic eon—with the sole exception of the '''Oxygen Catastrophe''' in the Proterozoic—since before the Phanerozoic, all living organisms were either microbial, or if multicellular then soft-bodied.", "Perhaps due to the absence of a robust microbial fossil record, mass extinctions might only ''seem'' to be mainly a Phanerozoic phenomenon, with merely the ''observable'' extinction rates appearing low before large complex organisms arose.Extinction occurs at an uneven rate.", "Based on the fossil record, the background rate of extinctions on Earth is about two to five taxonomic families of marine animals every million years.", "Marine fossils are mostly used to measure extinction rates because of their superior fossil record and stratigraphic range compared to land animals.The Oxygen Catastrophe, which occurred around 2.45 billion years ago in the Paleoproterozoic, is plausible as the first-ever major extinction event.", "It was perhaps also the worst-ever, in some sense, but with the Earth's ecology just before that time so poorly understood, and the concept of prokaryote genera so different from genera of complex life, that it would be difficult to meaningfully compare it to any of the \"Big Five\" even if Paleoproterozoic life were better known.", "Since the Cambrian explosion, five further major mass extinctions have significantly exceeded the background extinction rate.", "The most recent and best-known, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately  Ma (million years ago), was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically short period of time.", "In addition to the five major Phanerozoic mass extinctions, there are numerous lesser ones, and the ongoing mass extinction caused by human activity is sometimes called the sixth mass extinction." ], [ "Evolutionary importance", "Mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on Earth.", "When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another, it is rarely because the newly dominant group is \"superior\" to the old but usually because an extinction event eliminates the old, dominant group and makes way for the new one, a process known as adaptive radiation.For example, mammaliaformes (\"almost mammals\") and then mammals existed throughout the reign of the dinosaurs, but could not compete in the large terrestrial vertebrate niches that dinosaurs monopolized.", "The end-Cretaceous mass extinction removed the non-avian dinosaurs and made it possible for mammals to expand into the large terrestrial vertebrate niches.", "The dinosaurs themselves had been beneficiaries of a previous mass extinction, the end-Triassic, which eliminated most of their chief rivals, the crurotarsans.Another point of view put forward in the Escalation hypothesis predicts that species in ecological niches with more organism-to-organism conflict will be less likely to survive extinctions.", "This is because the very traits that keep a species numerous and viable under fairly static conditions become a burden once population levels fall among competing organisms during the dynamics of an extinction event.Furthermore, many groups that survive mass extinctions do not recover in numbers or diversity, and many of these go into long-term decline, and these are often referred to as \"Dead Clades Walking\".However, clades that survive for a considerable period of time after a mass extinction, and which were reduced to only a few species, are likely to have experienced a rebound effect called the \"push of the past\".Darwin was firmly of the opinion that biotic interactions, such as competition for food and space – the 'struggle for existence' – were of considerably greater importance in promoting evolution and extinction than changes in the physical environment.", "He expressed this in ''The Origin of Species'':: \"Species are produced and exterminated by slowly acting causes ... and the most import of all causes of organic change is one which is almost independent of altered ... physical conditions, namely the mutual relation of organism to organism – the improvement of one organism entailing the improvement or extermination of others\"." ], [ "Patterns in frequency", "Various authors have suggested that extinction events occurred periodically, every 26 to 30 million years, or that diversity fluctuates episodically about every 62 million years.", "Various ideas, mostly regarding astronomical influences, attempt to explain the supposed pattern, including the presence of a hypothetical companion star to the Sun, oscillations in the galactic plane, or passage through the Milky Way's spiral arms.", "However, other authors have concluded that the data on marine mass extinctions do not fit with the idea that mass extinctions are periodic, or that ecosystems gradually build up to a point at which a mass extinction is inevitable.", "Many of the proposed correlations have been argued to be spurious or lacking statistical significance.", "Others have argued that there is strong evidence supporting periodicity in a variety of records, and additional evidence in the form of coincident periodic variation in nonbiological geochemical variables such as Strontium isotopes, flood basalts, anoxic events, orogenies, and evaporite deposition.", "One explanation for this proposed cycle is carbon storage and release by oceanic crust, which exchanges carbon between the atmosphere and mantle.Mass extinctions are thought to result when a long-term stress is compounded by a short-term shock.", "Over the course of the Phanerozoic, individual taxa appear to have become less likely to suffer extinction, which may reflect more robust food webs, as well as fewer extinction-prone species, and other factors such as continental distribution.", "However, even after accounting for sampling bias, there does appear to be a gradual decrease in extinction and origination rates during the Phanerozoic.", "This may represent the fact that groups with higher turnover rates are more likely to become extinct by chance; or it may be an artefact of taxonomy: families tend to become more speciose, therefore less prone to extinction, over time; and larger taxonomic groups (by definition) appear earlier in geological time.It has also been suggested that the oceans have gradually become more hospitable to life over the last 500 million years, and thus less vulnerable to mass extinctions,but susceptibility to extinction at a taxonomic level does not appear to make mass extinctions more or less probable." ], [ "Causes", "There is still debate about the causes of all mass extinctions.", "In general, large extinctions may result when a biosphere under long-term stress undergoes a short-term shock.", "An underlying mechanism appears to be present in the correlation of extinction and origination rates to diversity.", "High diversity leads to a persistent increase in extinction rate; low diversity to a persistent increase in origination rate.", "These presumably ecologically controlled relationships likely amplify smaller perturbations (asteroid impacts, etc.)", "to produce the global effects observed.===Identifying causes of specific mass extinctions===A good theory for a particular mass extinction should: * explain all of the losses, not just focus on a few groups (such as dinosaurs); * explain why particular groups of organisms died out and why others survived;* provide mechanisms that are strong enough to cause a mass extinction but not a total extinction; * be based on events or processes that can be shown to have happened, not just inferred from the extinction.It may be necessary to consider combinations of causes.", "For example, the marine aspect of the end-Cretaceous extinction appears to have been caused by several processes that partially overlapped in time and may have had different levels of significance in different parts of the world.Arens and West (2006) proposed a \"press / pulse\" model in which mass extinctions generally require two types of cause: long-term pressure on the eco-system (\"press\") and a sudden catastrophe (\"pulse\") towards the end of the period of pressure.Their statistical analysis of marine extinction rates throughout the Phanerozoic suggested that neither long-term pressure alone nor a catastrophe alone was sufficient to cause a significant increase in the extinction rate.===Most widely supported explanations===MacLeod (2001) summarized the relationship between mass extinctions and events that are most often cited as causes of mass extinctions, using data from Courtillot, Jaeger & Yang ''et al.''", "(1996), Hallam (1992) and Grieve & Pesonen (1992):* Flood basalt events (giant volcanic eruptions): 11 occurrences, all associated with significant extinctions But Wignall (2001) concluded that only five of the major extinctions coincided with flood basalt eruptions and that the main phase of extinctions started before the eruptions.", "* Sea-level falls: 12, of which seven were associated with significant extinctions.", "* Asteroid impacts: one large impact is associated with a mass extinction, that is, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event; there have been many smaller impacts but they are not associated with significant extinctions, or cannot be dated precisely enough.", "The impact that created the Siljan Ring either was just before the Late Devonian Extinction or coincided with it.The most commonly suggested causes of mass extinctions are listed below.====Flood basalt events====The scientific consensus is that the main cause of the End-Permian extinction event was the large amount of carbon dioxide emitted by the volcanic eruptions that created the Siberian Traps, which elevated global temperatures.The formation of large igneous provinces by flood basalt events could have:* produced dust and particulate aerosols, which inhibited photosynthesis and thus caused food chains to collapse both on land and at sea* emitted sulfur oxides that were precipitated as acid rain and poisoned many organisms, contributing further to the collapse of food chains* emitted carbon dioxide and thus possibly causing sustained global warming once the dust and particulate aerosols dissipated.Flood basalt events occur as pulses of activity punctuated by dormant periods.", "As a result, they are likely to cause the climate to oscillate between cooling and warming, but with an overall trend towards warming as the carbon dioxide they emit can stay in the atmosphere for hundreds of years.Flood basalt events have been implicated as the cause of many major extinction events.", "It is speculated that massive volcanism caused or contributed to the Kellwasser Event, the End-Guadalupian Extinction Event, the End-Permian Extinction Event, the Smithian-Spathian Extinction, the Triassic-Jurassic Extinction Event, the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event, the Cenomanian-Turonian Oceanic Anoxic Event, the Cretaceous-Palaeogene Extinction Event, and the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum.", "The correlation between gigantic volcanic events expressed in the large igneous provinces and mass extinctions was shown for the last 260 million years.", "Recently such possible correlation was extended across the whole Phanerozoic Eon.====Sea-level fall====These are often clearly marked by worldwide sequences of contemporaneous sediments that show all or part of a transition from sea-bed to tidal zone to beach to dry land – and where there is no evidence that the rocks in the relevant areas were raised by geological processes such as orogeny.", "Sea-level falls could reduce the continental shelf area (the most productive part of the oceans) sufficiently to cause a marine mass extinction, and could disrupt weather patterns enough to cause extinctions on land.", "But sea-level falls are very probably the result of other events, such as sustained global cooling or the sinking of the mid-ocean ridges.Sea-level falls are associated with most of the mass extinctions, including all of the \"Big Five\"—End-Ordovician, Late Devonian, End-Permian, End-Triassic, and End-Cretaceous, along with the more recently recognised Capitanian mass extinction of comparable severity to the Big Five.A 2008 study, published in the journal ''Nature'', established a relationship between the speed of mass extinction events and changes in sea level and sediment.", "The study suggests changes in ocean environments related to sea level exert a driving influence on rates of extinction, and generally determine the composition of life in the oceans.====Extraterrestrial threats========= Impact events =====An artist's rendering of an asteroid a few kilometers across colliding with the Earth.", "Such an impact can release the equivalent energy of several million nuclear weapons detonating simultaneously.The impact of a sufficiently large asteroid or comet could have caused food chains to collapse both on land and at sea by producing dust and particulate aerosols and thus inhibiting photosynthesis.", "Impacts on sulfur-rich rocks could have emitted sulfur oxides precipitating as poisonous acid rain, contributing further to the collapse of food chains.", "Such impacts could also have caused megatsunamis and/or global forest fires.Most paleontologists now agree that an asteroid did hit the Earth about 66 Ma, but there is lingering dispute whether the impact was the sole cause of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.", "Nonetheless, in October 2019, researchers reported that the Cretaceous Chicxulub asteroid impact that resulted in the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs 66 Ma, also rapidly acidified the oceans, producing ecological collapse and long-lasting effects on the climate, and was a key reason for end-Cretaceous mass extinction.The Permian-Triassic extinction event has also been hypothesised to have been caused by an asteroid impact that formed the Araguainha crater due to the estimated date of the crater's formation overlapping with the end-Permian extinction event.", "However, this hypothesis has been widely challenged, with the impact hypothesis being rejected by most researchers.According to the Shiva hypothesis, the Earth is subject to increased asteroid impacts about once every 27 million years because of the Sun's passage through the plane of the Milky Way galaxy, thus causing extinction events at 27 million year intervals.", "Some evidence for this hypothesis has emerged in both marine and non-marine contexts.", "Alternatively, the Sun's passage through the higher density spiral arms of the galaxy could coincide with mass extinction on Earth, perhaps due to increased impact events.", "However, a reanalysis of the effects of the Sun's transit through the spiral structure based on maps of the spiral structure of the Milky Way in CO molecular line emission has failed to find a correlation.===== A nearby nova, supernova or gamma ray burst =====A nearby gamma-ray burst (less than 6000 light-years away) would be powerful enough to destroy the Earth's ozone layer, leaving organisms vulnerable to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.", "Gamma ray bursts are fairly rare, occurring only a few times in a given galaxy per million years.It has been suggested that a gamma ray burst caused the End-Ordovician extinction, while a supernova has been proposed as the cause of the Hangenberg event.====Global cooling====Sustained and significant global cooling could kill many polar and temperate species and force others to migrate towards the equator; reduce the area available for tropical species; often make the Earth's climate more arid on average, mainly by locking up more of the planet's water in ice and snow.", "The glaciation cycles of the current ice age are believed to have had only a very mild impact on biodiversity, so the mere existence of a significant cooling is not sufficient on its own to explain a mass extinction.It has been suggested that global cooling caused or contributed to the End-Ordovician, Permian–Triassic, Late Devonian extinctions, and possibly others.", "Sustained global cooling is distinguished from the temporary climatic effects of flood basalt events or impacts.====Global warming====This would have the opposite effects: expand the area available for tropical species; kill temperate species or force them to migrate towards the poles; possibly cause severe extinctions of polar species; often make the Earth's climate wetter on average, mainly by melting ice and snow and thus increasing the volume of the water cycle.", "It might also cause anoxic events in the oceans (see below).Global warming as a cause of mass extinction is supported by several recent studies.The most dramatic example of sustained warming is the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, which was associated with one of the smaller mass extinctions.", "It has also been suggested to have caused the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, during which 20% of all marine families became extinct.", "Furthermore, the Permian–Triassic extinction event has been suggested to have been caused by warming.===== Clathrate gun hypothesis =====Clathrates are composites in which a lattice of one substance forms a cage around another.", "Methane clathrates (in which water molecules are the cage) form on continental shelves.", "These clathrates are likely to break up rapidly and release the methane if the temperature rises quickly or the pressure on them drops quickly—for example in response to sudden global warming or a sudden drop in sea level or even earthquakes.", "Methane is a much more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, so a methane eruption (\"clathrate gun\") could cause rapid global warming or make it much more severe if the eruption was itself caused by global warming.The most likely signature of such a methane eruption would be a sudden decrease in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 in sediments, since methane clathrates are low in carbon-13; but the change would have to be very large, as other events can also reduce the percentage of carbon-13.It has been suggested that \"clathrate gun\" methane eruptions were involved in the end-Permian extinction (\"the Great Dying\") and in the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, which was associated with one of the smaller mass extinctions.====Anoxic events====Anoxic events are situations in which the middle and even the upper layers of the ocean become deficient or totally lacking in oxygen.", "Their causes are complex and controversial, but all known instances are associated with severe and sustained global warming, mostly caused by sustained massive volcanism.It has been suggested that anoxic events caused or contributed to the Ordovician–Silurian, late Devonian, Capitanian, Permian–Triassic, and Triassic–Jurassic extinctions, as well as a number of lesser extinctions (such as the Ireviken, Lundgreni, Mulde, Lau, Smithian-Spathian, Toarcian, and Cenomanian–Turonian events).", "On the other hand, there are widespread black shale beds from the mid-Cretaceous that indicate anoxic events but are not associated with mass extinctions.The bio-availability of essential trace elements (in particular selenium) to potentially lethal lows has been shown to coincide with, and likely have contributed to, at least three mass extinction events in the oceans, that is, at the end of the Ordovician, during the Middle and Late Devonian, and at the end of the Triassic.", "During periods of low oxygen concentrations very soluble selenate (Se6+) is converted into much less soluble selenide (Se2-), elemental Se and organo-selenium complexes.", "Bio-availability of selenium during these extinction events dropped to about 1% of the current oceanic concentration, a level that has been proven lethal to many extant organisms.British oceanologist and atmospheric scientist, Andrew Watson, explained that, while the Holocene epoch exhibits many processes reminiscent of those that have contributed to past anoxic events, full-scale ocean anoxia would take \"thousands of years to develop\".====Hydrogen sulfide emissions from the seas====Kump, Pavlov and Arthur (2005) have proposed that during the Permian–Triassic extinction event the warming also upset the oceanic balance between photosynthesising plankton and deep-water sulfate-reducing bacteria, causing massive emissions of hydrogen sulfide, which poisoned life on both land and sea and severely weakened the ozone layer, exposing much of the life that still remained to fatal levels of UV radiation.====Oceanic overturn====Oceanic overturn is a disruption of thermo-haline circulation that lets surface water (which is more saline than deep water because of evaporation) sink straight down, bringing anoxic deep water to the surface and therefore killing most of the oxygen-breathing organisms that inhabit the surface and middle depths.", "It may occur either at the beginning or the end of a glaciation, although an overturn at the start of a glaciation is more dangerous because the preceding warm period will have created a larger volume of anoxic water.Unlike other oceanic catastrophes such as regressions (sea-level falls) and anoxic events, overturns do not leave easily identified \"signatures\" in rocks and are theoretical consequences of researchers' conclusions about other climatic and marine events.It has been suggested that oceanic overturn caused or contributed to the late Devonian and Permian–Triassic extinctions.====Geomagnetic reversal====One theory is that periods of increased geomagnetic reversals will weaken Earth's magnetic field long enough to expose the atmosphere to the solar winds, causing oxygen ions to escape the atmosphere in a rate increased by 3–4 orders, resulting in a disastrous decrease in oxygen.====Plate tectonics====Movement of the continents into some configurations can cause or contribute to extinctions in several ways: by initiating or ending ice ages; by changing ocean and wind currents and thus altering climate; by opening seaways or land bridges that expose previously isolated species to competition for which they are poorly adapted (for example, the extinction of most of South America's native ungulates and all of its large metatherians after the creation of a land bridge between North and South America).", "Occasionally continental drift creates a super-continent that includes the vast majority of Earth's land area, which in addition to the effects listed above is likely to reduce the total area of continental shelf (the most species-rich part of the ocean) and produce a vast, arid continental interior that may have extreme seasonal variations.Another theory is that the creation of the super-continent Pangaea contributed to the End-Permian mass extinction.", "Pangaea was almost fully formed at the transition from mid-Permian to late-Permian, and the \"Marine genus diversity\" diagram at the top of this article shows a level of extinction starting at that time, which might have qualified for inclusion in the \"Big Five\" if it were not overshadowed by the \"Great Dying\" at the end of the Permian.====Other hypotheses====destruction of the Amazon rainforestMany other hypotheses have been proposed, such as the spread of a new disease, or simple out-competition following an especially successful biological innovation.", "But all have been rejected, usually for one of the following reasons: they require events or processes for which there is no evidence; they assume mechanisms that are contrary to the available evidence; they are based on other theories that have been rejected or superseded.The Late Pleistocene saw extinctions of numerous predominantly megafaunal species, coinciding in time with the early human migrations across continents.Scientists have been concerned that human activities could cause more plants and animals to become extinct than any point in the past.", "Along with human-made changes in climate (see above), some of these extinctions could be caused by overhunting, overfishing, invasive species, or habitat loss.", "A study published in May 2017 in ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'' argued that a \"biological annihilation\" akin to a sixth mass extinction event is underway as a result of anthropogenic causes, such as over-population and over-consumption.", "The study suggested that as much as 50% of the number of animal individuals that once lived on Earth were already extinct, threatening the basis for human existence too.====Future biosphere extinction/sterilization====The eventual warming and expanding of the Sun, combined with the eventual decline of atmospheric carbon dioxide, could actually cause an even greater mass extinction, having the potential to wipe out even microbes (in other words, the Earth would be completely sterilized): rising global temperatures caused by the expanding Sun would gradually increase the rate of weathering, which would in turn remove more and more CO2 from the atmosphere.", "When CO2 levels get too low (perhaps at 50 ppm), most plant life will die out, although simpler plants like grasses and mosses can survive much longer, until levels drop to 10 ppm.With all photosynthetic organisms gone, atmospheric oxygen can no longer be replenished, and it is eventually removed by chemical reactions in the atmosphere, perhaps from volcanic eruptions.", "Eventually the loss of oxygen will cause all remaining aerobic life to die out via asphyxiation, leaving behind only simple anaerobic prokaryotes.", "When the Sun becomes 10% brighter in about a billion years, Earth will suffer a moist greenhouse effect resulting in its oceans boiling away, while the Earth's liquid outer core cools due to the inner core's expansion and causes the Earth's magnetic field to shut down.", "In the absence of a magnetic field, charged particles from the Sun will deplete the atmosphere and further increase the Earth's temperature to an average of around 420 K (147 °C, 296 °F) in 2.8 billion years, causing the last remaining life on Earth to die out.", "This is the most extreme instance of a climate-caused extinction event.", "Since this will only happen late in the Sun's life, it would represent the final mass extinction in Earth's history (albeit a very long extinction event)." ], [ "Effects and recovery", "The effects of mass extinction events varied widely.", "After a major extinction event, usually only weedy species survive due to their ability to live in diverse habitats.", "Later, species diversify and occupy empty niches.", "Generally, it takes millions of years for biodiversity to recover after extinction events.", "In the most severe mass extinctions it may take 15 to 30 million years.The worst Phanerozoic event, the Permian–Triassic extinction, devastated life on Earth, killing over 90% of species.", "Life seemed to recover quickly after the P-T extinction, but this was mostly in the form of disaster taxa, such as the hardy ''Lystrosaurus''.", "The most recent research indicates that the specialized animals that formed complex ecosystems, with high biodiversity, complex food webs and a variety of niches, took much longer to recover.", "It is thought that this long recovery was due to successive waves of extinction that inhibited recovery, as well as prolonged environmental stress that continued into the Early Triassic.", "Recent research indicates that recovery did not begin until the start of the mid-Triassic, four to six million years after the extinction;and some writers estimate that the recovery was not complete until 30 million years after the P-T extinction, that is, in the late Triassic.", "Subsequent to the P-T extinction, there was an increase in provincialization, with species occupying smaller ranges – perhaps removing incumbents from niches and setting the stage for an eventual rediversification.The effects of mass extinctions on plants are somewhat harder to quantify, given the biases inherent in the plant fossil record.", "Some mass extinctions (such as the end-Permian) were equally catastrophic for plants, whereas others, such as the end-Devonian, did not affect the flora." ], [ "See also", "* Bioevent* Elvis taxon* Endangered species* Geologic time scale* Global catastrophic risk* Holocene extinction* Human extinction* Kačák Event* Lazarus taxon* List of impact craters on Earth* List of largest volcanic eruptions* List of possible impact structures on Earth* Medea hypothesis* Rare species* Signor–Lipps effect* Snowball Earth* Speculative evolution* ''The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History'' (nonfiction book)* Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene* Quaternary extinction event" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * – nonprofit organization producing a documentary about mass extinction titled ''\"Call of Life: Facing the Mass Extinction\"'' * * – Calculate extinction rates for yourself!" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "E. E. Smith" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Elmer Smith''' (May 2, 1890 – August 31, 1965) was an American food engineer (specializing in doughnut and pastry mixes) and science-fiction author, best known for the ''Lensman'' and ''Skylark'' series.", "He is sometimes called the father of space opera." ], [ "Biography", "===Family and education===Edward Elmer Smith was born in Sheboygan, Wisconsin, on May 2, 1890, to Fred Jay Smith and Caroline Mills Smith, both staunch Presbyterians of British ancestry.", "His mother was a teacher born in Michigan in February 1855; his father was a sailor, born in Maine in January 1855 to an English father.", "They moved to Spokane, Washington, the winter after Edward Elmer was born, where Mr. Smith was working as a contractor in 1900.In 1902, the family moved to Seneaquoteen, near the Pend Oreille River, in Kootenai County, Idaho.", "He had four siblings, Rachel M. born September 1882, Daniel M. born January 1884, Mary Elizabeth born February 1886 (all of whom were born in Michigan), and Walter E. born July 1891 in Washington.", "In 1910, Fred and Caroline Smith and their son Walter were living in the Markham Precinct of Bonner County, Idaho; Fred is listed in census records as a farmer.Smith worked mainly as a manual laborer until he injured his wrist while fleeing from a fire at the age of 19.He attended the University of Idaho.", "(Many years later he would be installed in the 1984 Class of the University of Idaho Alumni Hall of Fame.)", "He entered its prep school in 1907, and graduated with two degrees in chemical engineering in 1914.He was president of the Chemistry Club, the Chess Club, and the Mandolin and Guitar Club, and captain of the Drill and Rifle Team; he also sang the bass lead in Gilbert and Sullivan operettas.", "His undergraduate thesis was ''Some Clays of Idaho'', co-written with classmate Chester Fowler Smith, who died in California of tuberculosis the following year, after taking a teaching fellowship at Berkeley.", "Whether the two were related is not known.On October 5, 1915, in Boise, Idaho he married Jeanne Craig MacDougall, the sister of his college roommate, Allen Scott (Scotty) MacDougall.", "(Her sister was named Clarissa MacLean MacDougall; the heroine of the ''Lensman'' novels would later be named Clarissa MacDougall.)", "Jeanne MacDougall was born in Glasgow, Scotland; her parents were Donald Scott MacDougall, a violinist, and Jessica Craig MacLean.", "Her father had moved to Boise when the children were young, and later sent for his family; he died while they were en route in 1905.Jeanne's mother, who remarried businessman and retired politician John F. Kessler in 1914 worked at, and later owned, a boarding house on Ridenbaugh Street.The Smiths had three children:* Roderick N., born June 3, 1918, in the District of Columbia, was employed as a design engineer at Lockheed Aircraft.", "* Verna Jean (later Verna Smith Trestrail), born August 25, 1920, in Michigan, was his literary executor until her death in 1994.", "(Her son Kim Trestrail is now the executor.)", "Robert A. Heinlein in part dedicated his 1982 novel ''Friday'' to Verna.", "* Clarissa M. (later Clarissa Wilcox), was born December 13, 1921, in Michigan.===Early chemical career and the beginning of ''Skylark''===A scene from the first installment of '' The Skylark of Space'', August 1928After college, Smith was a junior chemist for the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C., developing standards for butter and for oysters, while studying food chemistry at George Washington University.", "During World War I, he \"wanted to fly a Jenny, but chemists were too scarce.", "(Or were Jennies too valuable?)\"", "He ended up being sent to the Commission for Relief in Belgium headed by Herbert Hoover.", "His draft card, partly illegible, seems to show that Smith requested exemption from military service, based on his wife's dependence and on his contribution to the war effort as a civilian chemist.One evening in 1915, the Smiths were visiting a former classmate from the University of Idaho, Dr. Carl Garby (1890-1928) who had also moved to Washington, D.C.", "He lived nearby in the Seaton Place Apartments with his wife, Lee Hawkins Garby.", "A long discussion about journeys into outer space ensued, and it was suggested that Smith should write down his ideas and speculations as a story about interstellar travel.", "Although he was interested, Smith believed after some thought that some romantic elements would be required and he was uncomfortable with that.Lee Garby offered to take care of the love interest and the romantic dialogue, and Smith decided to give it a try.", "The sources of inspirations for the main characters in the novel were themselves; the \"Seatons\" and \"Cranes\" were based on the Smiths and Garbys, respectively.", "About one third of ''The Skylark of Space'' was completed by the end of 1916, when Smith and Garby gradually abandoned work on it.Smith earned his master's degree in chemistry from the George Washington University in 1917, studying under Dr. Charles E. Munroe, whom Smith called \"probably the greatest high-explosives man yet to live\".", "Smith completed his PhD in chemical engineering in 1918, with a food engineering focus.", "His dissertation, ''The effect of bleaching with oxides of nitrogen upon the baking quality and commercial value of wheat flour'', was published in 1919.The serial novel ''Skylark Three'' began as ''Amazing Stories'' cover story (August 1930)''Spacehounds of IPC'' was also serialized in ''Amazing Stories''.", "''Triplanetary'' was the last of Smith's 1930s novels to be serialized in ''Amazing Stories''; his ''Lensman'' novels were published in ''Astounding Stories''.Smith's novelette \"Lord Tedric\", the cover story in the March 1954 issue of ''Universe Science Fiction'', was novelized by Gordon Eklund nearly 25 years later.Smith's novel ''The Galaxy Primes'' was serialized in ''Amazing Stories'' in 1959.After E. Everett Evans died in 1958, Smith completed his unfinished novel, ''Masters of Space''.", "The novel was serialized in ''If''.===Writing ''Skylark''===In 1919, Smith was hired as chief chemist for F. W. Stock & Sons of Hillsdale, Michigan, at one time the largest family-owned mill east of the Mississippi, working on doughnut mixes.One evening late in 1919, after moving to Michigan, Smith was baby-sitting (presumably for Roderick) while his wife attended a movie.", "He resumed work on ''The Skylark of Space'', finishing it in the spring of 1920.He submitted it to many book publishers and magazines, spending more in postage than he would eventually receive for its publication.", "Bob Davis, editor of ''Argosy'', sent an encouraging rejection letter in 1922, saying that he liked the novel personally, but that it was too far out for his readers.", "Finally, upon seeing the April 1927 issue of ''Amazing Stories'', he submitted it to that magazine.", "It was accepted, initially for $75, later raised to $125.It was published as a three-part serial in the August to October 1928 issues and it was such a success that associate editor Sloane requested a sequel before the second installment had been published.", "(According to Warner, but no other source, Smith began work on the sequel, ''Skylark Three'', before the first book was accepted.", ")Garby, whose husband died in 1928, was not interested in further collaboration, so Smith began work on ''Skylark Three'' alone.", "It was published as another three-part serial, in the August to October 1930 issues of ''Amazing'', introduced as the cover story for August.", "This was as far as he had planned to take the ''Skylark'' series.", "It was praised in ''Amazing''s letter column, and he was paid ¾¢ per word, surpassing ''Amazing''s previous record of half a cent.===The early 1930s: between ''Skylark'' and ''Lensman''===Smith then began work on what he intended as a new series, starting with ''Spacehounds of IPC,'' which he finished in the autumn of 1930.In this novel, he took pains to avoid the scientific impossibilities which had bothered some readers of the ''Skylark'' novels.", "Even in 1938, after he had written ''Galactic Patrol'', Smith considered it his finest work.", "He later said of it, \"This was really scientific fiction; not, like the Skylarks, pseudo-science\".", "Even at the end of his career, he considered it his only work of true science fiction.", "It was published in the July through September 1931 issues of ''Amazing,'' with Sloane making unauthorized changes.", "Fan letters in the magazine complained about the novel's containment within the Solar System, and Sloane sided with the readers.", "So when Harry Bates, editor of ''Astounding Stories'', offered Smith 2¢/word—payable on publication—for his next story, he agreed.", "This meant that it could not be a sequel to ''Spacehounds.", "''This book would be ''Triplanetary'', \"in which scientific detail would not be bothered about, and in which his imagination would run riot.\"", "Indeed, characters within the story point out its psychological and scientific implausibilities, and sometimes even seem to suggest self-parody.", "At other times, they are conspicuously silent about obvious implausibilities.", "The January 1933 issue of ''Astounding'' announced that ''Triplanetary'' would appear in the March issue, and that issue's cover illustrated a scene from the story, but ''Astounding''s financial difficulties prevented the story from appearing.", "Smith then submitted the manuscript to ''Wonder Stories'', whose new editor, 17-year-old Charles D. Hornig, rejected it, later boasting about the rejection in a fanzine.", "He finally submitted it to ''Amazing'', which published it beginning in January 1934, but for only half a cent a word.", "Shortly after it was accepted, F. Orlin Tremaine, the new editor of the revived ''Astounding'', offered one cent a word for ''Triplanetary''.", "When he learned that he was too late, he suggested a third ''Skylark'' novel instead.In the winter of 1933–34, Smith worked on ''The Skylark of Valeron'', but he felt that the story was getting out of control.", "He sent his first draft to Tremaine, with a distraught note asking for suggestions.", "Tremaine accepted the rough draft for $850, and announced it in the June 1934 issue, with a full-page editorial and a three-quarter-page advertisement.", "The novel was published in the August 1934 through February 1935 issues.", "''Astounding'''s circulation rose by 10,000 for the first issue, and its two main competitors, ''Amazing'' and ''Wonder Stories'', fell into financial difficulties, both skipping issues within a year.===The ''Lensman'' series===In January 1936, a time period where he was already an established science-fiction writer, he took a job for salary plus profit-sharing, as production manager at Dawn Donut Co. of Jackson, Michigan.", "This initially entailed almost a year's worth of 18-hour days and seven-day workweeks.", "Individuals who knew Smith confirmed that he had a role in developing mixes for doughnuts and other pastries, but the contention that he developed the first process for making powdered sugar adhere to doughnuts cannot be substantiated.", "Smith was reportedly dislocated from his job at Dawn Donuts by prewar rationing in early 1940.Smith had been contemplating writing a \"space-police novel\" since early 1927; once he had \"the Lensmen's universe fairly well set up\", he reviewed his science-fiction collection for \"cops-and-robbers\" stories.", "He cites Clinton Constantinescue's \"War of the Universe\" as a negative example, and Starzl and Williamson as positive ones.", "Tremaine responded extremely positively to a brief description of the idea.Once Dawn Donuts became profitable in late 1936, Smith wrote an 85-page outline for what became the four core ''Lensman'' novels.", "In early 1937, Tremaine committed to buying them.", "Segmenting the story into four novels required considerable effort to avoid dangling loose ends.", "Smith cited Edgar Rice Burroughs as a negative example.", "After the outline was complete, he wrote a more detailed outline of ''Galactic Patrol'', plus a detailed graph of its structure, with \"peaks of emotional intensity and the valleys of characterization and background material.\"", "He notes, however, that he was never able to follow any of his outlines at all closely, as the \"characters get away from me and do exactly as they damn please.\"", "After completing the rough draft of ''Galactic Patrol'', he wrote the concluding chapter of the last book in the series, ''Children of the Lens.''", "''Galactic Patrol'' was published in the September 1937 through February 1938 issues of ''Astounding''.", "Unlike the revised book edition, it was not set in the same universe as ''Triplanetary''.", "''Gray Lensman'', the fourth book in the series, appeared in ''Astounding''s October 1939 through January 1940 issues.", "''Gray Lensman'' was extremely well received, as was its cover illustration.", "Campbell's editorial in the December issue suggested that the October issue was the best issue of ''Astounding'' ever, and ''Gray Lensman'' was first place in the Analytical Laboratory statistics \"by a lightyear\", with three runners-up in a distant tie for second place.", "The cover was also praised by readers in ''Brass Tacks'', and Campbell noted, \"We got a letter from E. E. Smith saying he and cover artist Hubert Rogers agreed on how Kinnison looked.", "\"Smith was the guest of honor at Chicon I, the second World Science Fiction Convention, held in Chicago over Labor Day weekend 1940, giving a speech on the importance of science fiction fandom entitled \"What Does This Convention Mean?\"", "He attended the convention's masquerade as C. L. Moore's Northwest Smith, and met fans living near him in Michigan, who would later form the Galactic Roamers, which previewed and advised him on his future work.After Pearl Harbor, Smith discovered he \"was one year over age for reinstatement\" into the US Army.", "Instead he worked on high explosives at the Kingsbury Ordnance Plant in La Port, Indiana, at first as a chemical engineer, but gradually worked his way up to chief.", "In late 1943 he became head of the Inspection Division, and was fired in early 1944.An extended segment in the novel version of ''Triplanetary'', set during World War II, suggests intimate familiarity with explosives and munitions manufacturing.", "Some biographers cite as fact that, just as Smith's protagonist in this segment lost his job over failure to approve substandard munitions, Smith did as well.Smith spent the next few years working on \"light farm machinery and heavy tanks for Allis-Chalmers,\" after which he was hired as manager of the Cereal Mix Division of J. W. Allen & Co., where he worked until his professional retirement in 1957.===Retirement and late writing===After Smith retired, he and his wife lived in Clearwater, Florida in the fall and winter, driving the smaller of their two trailers to Seaside, Oregon, each April, often stopping at science fiction conventions on the way.", "(Smith did not like to fly.)", "In 1963, he was presented the inaugural First Fandom Hall of Fame award at the 21st World Science Fiction Convention in Washington, D.C.", "Some of his biography is captured in an essay by Robert A. Heinlein, which was reprinted in the collection ''Expanded Universe'' in 1980.A more detailed, although allegedly error-ridden biography is in Sam Moskowitz's ''Seekers of Tomorrow.", "''Robert Heinlein and Smith were friends.", "(Heinlein dedicated his 1958 novel ''Methuselah's Children'' \"To Edward E. Smith, PhD\".)", "Heinlein reported that E. E. Smith perhaps took his \"unrealistic\" heroes from life, citing as an example the extreme competence of the hero of ''Spacehounds of IPC''.", "He reported that E. E. Smith was a large, blond, athletic, very intelligent, very gallant man, married to a remarkably beautiful, intelligent, red-haired woman named MacDougal (thus perhaps the prototypes of 'Kimball Kinnison' and 'Clarissa MacDougal').", "In Heinlein's essay, he reports that he began to suspect Smith might be a sort of \"superman\" when he asked Smith for help in purchasing a car.", "Smith tested the car by driving it on a back road at illegally high speeds with their heads pressed tightly against the roof columns to listen for chassis squeaks by bone conduction—a process apparently improvised on the spot.In his nonseries novels written after his professional retirement, ''Galaxy Primes'', ''Subspace Explorers'', and ''Subspace Encounter'', E. E. Smith explores themes of telepathy and other mental abilities collectively called \"psionics\", and of the conflict between libertarian and socialistic/communistic influences in the colonization of other planets.", "''Galaxy Primes'' was written after critics such as Groff Conklin and P. Schuyler Miller in the early '50s accused his fiction of being passé, and he made an attempt to do something more in line with the concepts about which ''Astounding'' editor John W. Campbell encouraged his writers to make stories.", "Despite this, it was rejected by Campbell, and it was eventually published by ''Amazing Stories'' in 1959.His late story \"The Imperial Stars\" (1964), featuring a troupe of circus performers involved in sabotage in a galactic empire, recaptured some of the atmosphere from his earlier works and was intended as the first in a new series, with outlines of later parts rumored to still exist.", "In fact, the Imperial Stars characters and concepts were continued by author Stephen Goldin as the \"Family D'Alembert series\".", "While the book covers indicate the series was written by Smith and Goldin together, Goldin only ever had Smith's original novella to expand upon.The fourth ''Skylark'' novel, ''Skylark DuQuesne'', ran in the June to October 1965 issues of ''If'', beginning once again as the cover story.", "Editor Frederik Pohl introduced it with a one-page summary of the previous stories, which were all at least 30 years old.===Lord Tedric===Smith published two novelettes entitled \"Tedric\" in ''Other Worlds Science Fiction Stories'' (1953) and \"Lord Tedric\" in ''Universe Science Fiction'' (1954).", "These were almost completely forgotten until after Smith's death.", "In 1975, a compendium of Smith's works was published, entitled ''The Best of E. E. \"Doc\" Smith'', containing these two short stories, excerpts from several of his major works, and another short story first published in ''Worlds of If'' in 1964 entitled \"The Imperial Stars\".In Smith's original short stories, Tedric was a smith (both blacksmith and whitesmith) residing in a small town near a castle in a situation roughly equivalent to England of the 1200s.", "He received instruction in advanced metallurgy from a time-traveler who wanted to change the situation in his own time by modifying certain events of the past.", "From this instruction, he was able to build better suits of armor and help defeat the villains of the piece.", "Unlike Eklund's later novels based on these short stories, the original Tedric never left his own time or planet, and fought purely local enemies of his own time period.A few years later and 13 years after Smith's death, Verna Smith arranged with Gordon Eklund to publish another novel of the same name about the same fictional character, introducing it as \"a new series conceived by E. E. 'Doc' Smith\".", "Eklund later went on to publish the other novels in the series, one or two under the pseudonym \"E. E. 'Doc' Smith\" or \"E. E. Smith\".", "The protagonist possesses heroic qualities similar to those of the heroes in Smith's original novels and can communicate with an extra-dimensional race of beings known as the Scientists, whose archenemy is Fra Villion, a mysterious character described as a dark knight, skilled in whip-sword combat, and evil genius behind the creation of a planetoid-sized \"iron sphere\" armed with a weapon capable of destroying planets.", "As a result, Smith is believed by many to be the unacknowledged progenitor of themes that would appear in ''Star Wars''.", "In fact, however, these appear in the sequels written by others after Smith's death." ], [ "Critical opinion", "Smith's novels are generally considered to be classic space operas, and he is sometimes called the first of the three \"novas\" of 20th-century science fiction (with Stanley G. Weinbaum and Robert A. Heinlein as the second and third novas).Heinlein credited him for being his main influence:I have learned from many writers—from Verne and Wells and Campbell and Sinclair Lewis, et al.—but I have learned more from you than from any of the others and perhaps more than for all the others put together...Smith expressed a preference for inventing fictional technologies that were not strictly impossible (so far as the science of the day was aware) but highly unlikely: \"the more highly improbable a concept is—short of being contrary to mathematics whose fundamental operations involve no neglect of infinitesimals—the better I like it\" was his phrase.", "''Lensman'' was one of five finalists when the 1966 World Science Fiction Convention judged Isaac Asimov's ''Foundation'' the Best All-Time Series.The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Smith in 2004." ], [ "Extending the ''Lensman'' universe", "''Vortex Blasters'' (also known as ''Masters of the Vortex'') is set in the same universe as the ''Lensman'' novels.", "It is an extension to the main storyline which takes place between ''Galactic Patrol'' and ''Children of the Lens'', and introduces a different type of psionics from that used by the Lensmen.", "''Spacehounds of IPC'' is not a part of the series, despite occasional erroneous statements to the contrary.", "(It is listed as a novel in the series in some paperback editions of the 1970s.)" ], [ "Influence on science and the military", "Smith was widely read by scientists and engineers from the 1930s into the 1970s.", "Literary precursors of ideas which arguably entered the military-scientific complex include SDI (''Triplanetary''), stealth (''Gray Lensman''), the OODA loop, C3-based warfare, and the AWACS (''Gray Lensman'').An inarguable influence was described in a June 11, 1947, letter to Smith from John W. Campbell (the editor of ''Astounding'', where much of the ''Lensman'' series was originally published).", "In it, Campbell relayed Captain Cal Laning's acknowledgment that he had used Smith's ideas for displaying the battlespace situation (called the \"tank\" in the stories) in the design of the United States Navy's ships' Combat Information Centers.", "\"The entire set-up was taken specifically, directly, and consciously from the ''Directrix''.", "In your story, you reached the situation the Navy was in—more communication channels than integration techniques to handle it.", "You proposed such an integrating technique and proved how advantageous it could be.", "You, sir, were 100% right.", "As the Japanese Navy—not the hypothetical Boskonian fleet—learned at an appalling cost.", "\"One underlying theme of the later ''Lensman'' novels was the difficulty in maintaining military secrecy—as advanced capabilities are revealed, the opposing side can often duplicate them.", "This point was also discussed extensively by John Campbell in his letter to Smith.", "Also in the later ''Lensman'' novels, and particular after the \"Battle of Klovia\" broke the Boskonian's power base at the end of ''Second Stage Lensmen'', the Boskonian forces and particularly Kandron of Onlo reverted to terroristic tactics to attempt to demoralize Civilization, thus providing an early literary glimpse into this modern problem of both law enforcement and military response.", "The use of \"Vee-two\" gas by the pirates attacking the ''Hyperion'' in ''Triplanetary'' (in both magazine and book appearances) also suggests anticipation of the terrorist uses of poison gases.", "However, Smith lived through WWI, when the use of poison gas on troops was well known to the populace; extending the assumption that pirates might use it if they could obtain it was no great extension of the present-day knowledge.The beginning of the story ''Skylark of Space'' describes in relative detail the protagonist's research into separation of platinum group residues, subsequent experiments involving electrolysis, and the discovery of a process evocative of cold fusion (over 50 years before Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann).", "He describes a nuclear process yielding large amounts of energy and producing only negligible radioactive waste—which then goes on to form the basis of the adventures in the Skylark books.", "Smith's general description of the process of discovery is highly evocative of Röntgen's descriptions of his discovery of the X-ray.Another theme of the ''Skylark'' novels involves precursors of modern information technology.", "The humanoid aliens encountered in the first novel have developed a primitive technology called the \"mechanical educator\", which allows direct conversion of brain waves into intelligible thought for transmission to others or for electrical storage.", "By the third novel in the series, ''Skylark of Valeron'', this technology has grown into an \"Electronic Brain\" which is capable of computation on all \"bands\" of energy—electromagnetism, gravity, and \"tachyonic\" energy and radiation bands included.", "This is itself derived from a discussion of reductionist atomic theory in the second novel, ''Skylark Three'', which brings to mind modern quark and sub-quark theories of elementary particle physics." ], [ "Literary influences", "In his 1947 essay \"The Epic of Space\", Smith listed (by last name only) authors he enjoyed reading: John W. Campbell, L. Sprague de Camp, Robert A. Heinlein, Murray Leinster, H. P. Lovecraft, and A. Merritt (specifically ''The Ship of Ishtar'', ''The Moon Pool'', ''The Snake Mother'', and ''Dwellers in the Mirage'', as well as the character John Kenton), C. L. Moore (specifically \"Jirel of Joiry\"), Roman Frederick Starzl, John Taine, A. E. van Vogt, Stanley G. Weinbaum (specifically \"Tweerl\"), and Jack Williamson.", "In a passage on his preparation for writing the ''Lensman'' novels, he notes that Clinton Constantinescu's \"War of the Universe\" was not a masterpiece, but says that Starzl and Williamson were masters; this suggests that Starzl's Interplanetary Flying Patrol may have been an influence on Smith's Triplanetary Patrol, later the ''Galactic Patrol''.", "The feeding of the Overlords of Delgon upon the life-force of their victims at the end of chapter five of ''Galactic Patrol'' seems a clear allusion to chapter 29 of ''The Moon Pool'', Merritt's account of the Taithu and the power of love in chapters 29 and 34 also bear some resemblance to the end of ''Children of the Lens.''", "Smith also mentions Edgar Rice Burroughs, complaining about loose ends at the end of one of his novels.Smith acknowledges the help of the Galactic Roamers writers' workshop, plus E. Everett Evans, Ed Counts, an unnamed aeronautical engineer, Dr. James Enright, and Dr. Richard W. Dodson.", "Smith's daughter, Verna, lists the following authors as visitors to the Smith household in her youth: Lloyd Arthur Eshbach, Heinlein, Dave Kyle, Bob Tucker, Williamson, Pohl, Merritt, and the Galactic Roamers.", "Smith cites Bigelow's ''Theoretical Chemistry–Fundamentals'' as a justification for the possibility of the inertialess drive.", "Also, an extended reference is made to Rudyard Kipling's \" Ballad of Boh Da Thone \" in ''Gray Lensman'' (chapter 22, \"Regeneration\", in a conversation between Kinnison and MacDougall).", "Again in ''Gray Lensman'', Smith quotes from Merritt's ''Dwellers in the Mirage'', even name-checking the author:Sam Moskowitz's biographical essay on Smith in ''Seekers of Tomorrow'' states that he regularly read ''Argosy'' magazine, and everything by H. G. Wells, Jules Verne, H. Rider Haggard, Edgar Allan Poe, and Edgar Rice Burroughs.", "Moskowitz also notes that Smith's \"reading enthusiasms included poetry, philosophy, ancient and medieval history, and all of English literature\".", "(Smith's grandson notes that he spoke, and sang, German.)", "The influence of these is not readily apparent, except in the Roman section of ''Triplanetary'', and in the impeccable but convoluted grammar of Smith's narration.", "Some influence of 19th-century philosophy of language may be detectable in the account in ''Galactic Patrol'' of the Lens of Arisia as a universal translator, which is reminiscent of Frege's strong realism about ''Sinn'', that is, thought or sense.Both Moskowitz and Smith's daughter Verna Smith Trestrail report that Smith had a troubled relationship with John Campbell, the editor of ''Astounding''.", "Smith's most successful works were published under Campbell, but the degree of influence is uncertain.", "The original outline for the ''Lensman'' series had been accepted by F. Orlin Tremaine, and Smith angered Campbell by showing loyalty to Tremaine at his new magazine, ''Comet'', when he sold him \"The Vortex Blaster\" in 1941.Campbell's announcement of ''Children of the Lens'', in 1947, was less than enthusiastic.", "Campbell later said that he published it only reluctantly, though he praised it privately, and bought little from Smith thereafter." ], [ "Derivative works and influence on popular culture", "* Randall Garrett wrote a parody entitled ''Backstage Lensman'' which Smith reportedly enjoyed.", "Harry Harrison also parodied Smith's work in the novel ''Star Smashers of the Galaxy Rangers'' and the short story ''Space Rats of the CCC''.", "* Sir Arthur C. Clarke's space battle in ''Earthlight'' was based on the attack on the Mardonalian fortress in chapter seven of ''Skylark Three''.", "* Steve 'Slug' Russell wrote one of the first computer games, ''Spacewar!", "'', with inspiration from the space battles from the Lensman series.", "* The Japanese ''Lensman'' anime is more an imitation of ''Star Wars'' than a translation of the ''Lensman'' novels.", "Efforts to print translations of the associated manga in the United States in the early 1990s without payment of royalties to the Smith family were successfully blocked in court by Verna Smith Trestrail with the help of several California science-fiction authors and fans.", "* In his biography, George Lucas reveals that the ''Lensman'' novels were a major influence on his youth.", "J. Michael Straczynski, creator of the science-fiction television series ''Babylon 5'', also has acknowledged the influence of the ''Lensman'' books.", "* Superman creator Jerry Siegel was impressed, at an early age, with the optimistic vision of the future presented in ''Skylark of Space''.", "* An attempt to create a feature film based on the ''Lensman'' series by Ron Howard's Imagine Entertainment and Universal Studios began in 2008 with J. Michael Straczynski, the creator of ''Babylon 5'', as writer, but in 2014 the project was scrapped because of budget limitations.", "* In her short \"Pliocene Companion\" book, author Julian May explained that a major character in her Exile series written in the early 1980s, Marc Remillard, was strongly influenced by Smith's villain character from Skylark DuQuesne, Marc DuQuesne.", "This was somewhat of a tribute to Smith.", "May had written an early SF work called Dune Roller in 1950, and had attended several Science Fiction Conventions in the early '50's, where she met and came to know Smith personally.", "* The 2019 album ''All Aboard the Skylark'' by Hawkwind is named after the stories." ], [ "Fictional appearances", "Smith himself appears as a character in the 2006 novel ''The Chinatown Death Cloud Peril'' by Paul Malmont.", "The novel describes friendship and rivalry among pulp writers of the 1930s.", "He also appears as \"Lensman Ted Smith\" in the 1980 novel ''The Number of the Beast'' and as \"Commander Ted Smith\" in the 1985 novel ''The Cat Who Walks Through Walls'', both by Robert A. Heinlein.", "It is also suggested that he was one of the inspirations for Heinlein's character Lazarus Long.", "Christopher Nuttall incorporates a fictional quote from “Edward E. Smith, Professor of Sociology” in his military science fiction book, “No Worse Enemy”." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Lensman===# ''Triplanetary'' (1948)# ''First Lensman'' (1950)# ''Galactic Patrol'' (1950)# ''Gray Lensman'' (1951)# ''Second Stage Lensmen'' (1953)# ''The Vortex Blaster'' (1960) # ''Children of the Lens'' (1954)===Skylark===# ''The Skylark of Space'' (1946)# ''Skylark Three'' (1948)# ''Skylark of Valeron'' (1949)# ''Skylark DuQuesne'' (1966)===Subspace===# ''Subspace Explorers'' (1965) # ''Subspace Encounter'' (1983)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * ** ''Skylark Three'' (original magazine version)* ''Spacehounds of IPC'' (original magazine version)* ''Some Clays of Idaho'' , Smith's bachelor's thesis, from the University of Idaho" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Évariste Galois" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Évariste Galois''' (; ; 25 October 1811 – 31 May 1832) was a French mathematician and political activist.", "While still in his teens, he was able to determine a necessary and sufficient condition for a polynomial to be solvable by radicals, thereby solving a problem that had been open for 350 years.", "His work laid the foundations for Galois theory and group theory, two major branches of abstract algebra.Galois was a staunch republican and was heavily involved in the political turmoil that surrounded the French Revolution of 1830.As a result of his political activism, he was arrested repeatedly, serving one jail sentence of several months.", "For reasons that remain obscure, shortly after his release from prison, Galois fought in a duel and died of the wounds he suffered." ], [ "Life", "=== Early life ===Galois was born on 25 October 1811 to Nicolas-Gabriel Galois and Adélaïde-Marie (née Demante).", "His father was a Republican and was head of Bourg-la-Reine's liberal party.", "His father became mayor of the village after Louis XVIII returned to the throne in 1814.His mother, the daughter of a jurist, was a fluent reader of Latin and classical literature and was responsible for her son's education for his first twelve years.The Cour d'honneur of the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, which Galois attended as a boy.In October 1823, he entered the Lycée Louis-le-Grand where his teacher Louis Paul Émile Richard recognized his brilliance.", "At the age of 14, he began to take a serious interest in mathematics.Galois found a copy of Adrien-Marie Legendre's ''Éléments de Géométrie'', which, it is said, he read \"like a novel\" and mastered at the first reading.", "At 15, he was reading the original papers of Joseph-Louis Lagrange, such as the ''Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations'' which likely motivated his later work on equation theory, and ''Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions'', work intended for professional mathematicians, yet his classwork remained uninspired and his teachers accused him of putting on the airs of a genius.=== Budding mathematician ===In 1828, Galois attempted the entrance examination for the École Polytechnique, the most prestigious institution for mathematics in France at the time, without the usual preparation in mathematics, and failed for lack of explanations on the oral examination.", "In that same year, he entered the École Normale (then known as l'École préparatoire), a far inferior institution for mathematical studies at that time, where he found some professors sympathetic to him.Augustin-Louis Cauchy reviewed Galois's early mathematical papers.In the following year Galois's first paper, on continued fractions, was published.", "It was at around the same time that he began making fundamental discoveries in the theory of polynomial equations.", "He submitted two papers on this topic to the Academy of Sciences.", "Augustin-Louis Cauchy refereed these papers, but refused to accept them for publication for reasons that still remain unclear.", "However, in spite of many claims to the contrary, it is widely held that Cauchy recognized the importance of Galois's work, and that he merely suggested combining the two papers into one in order to enter it in the competition for the academy's Grand Prize in Mathematics.", "Cauchy, an eminent mathematician of the time though with political views that were diametrically opposed to those of Galois, considered Galois's work to be a likely winner.On 28 July 1829, Galois's father died by suicide after a bitter political dispute with the village priest.", "A couple of days later, Galois made his second and last attempt to enter the Polytechnique and failed yet again.", "It is undisputed that Galois was more than qualified; accounts differ on why he failed.", "More plausible accounts state that Galois made too many logical leaps and baffled the incompetent examiner, which enraged Galois.", "The recent death of his father may have also influenced his behavior.Having been denied admission to the École polytechnique, Galois took the Baccalaureate examinations in order to enter the École normale.", "He passed, receiving his degree on 29 December 1829.His examiner in mathematics reported, \"This pupil is sometimes obscure in expressing his ideas, but he is intelligent and shows a remarkable spirit of research.", "\"Galois submitted his memoir on equation theory several times, but it was never published in his lifetime.", "Though his first attempt was refused by Cauchy, in February 1830 following Cauchy's suggestion he submitted it to the academy's secretary Joseph Fourier, to be considered for the Grand Prix of the academy.", "Unfortunately, Fourier died soon after, and the memoir was lost.", "The prize would be awarded that year to Niels Henrik Abel posthumously and also to Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi.", "Despite the lost memoir, Galois published three papers that year.", "One laid the foundations for Galois theory.", "The second was about the numerical resolution of equations (root finding in modern terminology).", "The third was an important one in number theory, in which the concept of a finite field was first articulated.=== Political firebrand ===''Battle for the Town Hall'' by Jean-Victor Schnetz.", "Galois, as a staunch republican, would have wanted to participate in the July Revolution of 1830 but was prevented by the director of the École Normale.Galois lived during a time of political turmoil in France.", "Charles X had succeeded Louis XVIII in 1824, but in 1827 his party suffered a major electoral setback and by 1830 the opposition liberal party became the majority.", "Charles, faced with political opposition from the chambers, staged a coup d'état, and issued his notorious July Ordinances, touching off the July Revolution which ended with Louis Philippe becoming king.", "While their counterparts at the Polytechnique were making history in the streets, Galois, at the École Normale, was locked in by the school's director.", "Galois was incensed and wrote a blistering letter criticizing the director, which he submitted to the ''Gazette des Écoles'', signing the letter with his full name.", "Although the ''Gazette''s editor omitted the signature for publication, Galois was expelled.Although his expulsion would have formally taken effect on 4 January 1831, Galois quit school immediately and joined the staunchly Republican artillery unit of the National Guard.", "He divided his time between his mathematical work and his political affiliations.", "Due to controversy surrounding the unit, soon after Galois became a member, on 31 December 1830, the artillery of the National Guard was disbanded out of fear that they might destabilize the government.", "At around the same time, nineteen officers of Galois's former unit were arrested and charged with conspiracy to overthrow the government.In April 1831, the officers were acquitted of all charges, and on 9 May 1831, a banquet was held in their honor, with many illustrious people present, such as Alexandre Dumas.", "The proceedings grew riotous.", "At some point, Galois stood and proposed a toast in which he said, \"To Louis Philippe,\" with a dagger above his cup.", "The republicans at the banquet interpreted Galois's toast as a threat against the king's life and cheered.", "He was arrested the following day at his mother's house and held in detention at Sainte-Pélagie prison until 15 June 1831, when he had his trial.", "Galois's defense lawyer cleverly claimed that Galois actually said, \"To Louis-Philippe, ''if he betrays'',\" but that the qualifier was drowned out in the cheers.", "The prosecutor asked a few more questions, and perhaps influenced by Galois's youth, the jury acquitted him that same day.On the following Bastille Day (14 July 1831), Galois was at the head of a protest, wearing the uniform of the disbanded artillery, and came heavily armed with several pistols, a loaded rifle, and a dagger.", "He was again arrested.", "During his stay in prison, Galois at one point drank alcohol for the first time at the goading of his fellow inmates.", "One of these inmates, François-Vincent Raspail, recorded what Galois said while drunk in a letter from 25 July.", "Excerpted from the letter:Raspail continues that Galois, still in a delirium, attempted suicide, and that he would have succeeded if his fellow inmates hadn't forcibly stopped him.", "Months later, when Galois's trial occurred on 23 October, he was sentenced to six months in prison for illegally wearing a uniform.", "While in prison, he continued to develop his mathematical ideas.", "He was released on 29 April 1832.=== Final days ===Siméon Denis Poisson reviewed Galois's paper on equation theory and declared it \"incomprehensible\".Galois returned to mathematics after his expulsion from the École Normale, although he continued to spend time in political activities.", "After his expulsion became official in January 1831, he attempted to start a private class in advanced algebra which attracted some interest, but this waned, as it seemed that his political activism had priority.", "Siméon Denis Poisson asked him to submit his work on the theory of equations, which he did on 17 January 1831.Around 4 July 1831, Poisson declared Galois's work \"incomprehensible\", declaring that \"Galois's argument is neither sufficiently clear nor sufficiently developed to allow us to judge its rigor\"; however, the rejection report ends on an encouraging note: \"We would then suggest that the author should publish the whole of his work in order to form a definitive opinion.\"", "While Poisson's report was made before Galois's 14 July arrest, it took until October to reach Galois in prison.", "It is unsurprising, in the light of his character and situation at the time, that Galois reacted violently to the rejection letter, and decided to abandon publishing his papers through the academy and instead publish them privately through his friend Auguste Chevalier.", "Apparently, however, Galois did not ignore Poisson's advice, as he began collecting all his mathematical manuscripts while still in prison, and continued polishing his ideas until his release on 29 April 1832, after which he was somehow talked into a duel.Galois's fatal duel took place on 30 May.", "The true motives behind the duel are obscure.", "There has been much speculation about them.", "What is known is that, five days before his death, he wrote a letter to Chevalier which clearly alludes to a broken love affair.Some archival investigation on the original letters suggests that the woman of romantic interest was Stéphanie-Félicie Poterin du Motel, the daughter of the physician at the hostel where Galois stayed during the last months of his life.", "Fragments of letters from her, copied by Galois himself (with many portions, such as her name, either obliterated or deliberately omitted), are available.", "The letters hint that Poterin du Motel had confided some of her troubles to Galois, and this might have prompted him to provoke the duel himself on her behalf.", "This conjecture is also supported by other letters Galois later wrote to his friends the night before he died.", "Galois's cousin, Gabriel Demante, when asked if he knew the cause of the duel, mentioned that Galois \"found himself in the presence of a supposed uncle and a supposed fiancé, each of whom provoked the duel.\"", "Galois himself exclaimed: \"I am the victim of an infamous coquette and her two dupes.", "\"Much more detailed speculation based on these scant historical details has been interpolated by many of Galois's biographers, such as the frequently repeated speculation that the entire incident was stage-managed by the police and royalist factions to eliminate a political enemy.As to his opponent in the duel, Alexandre Dumas names Pescheux d'Herbinville, who was actually one of the nineteen artillery officers whose acquittal was celebrated at the banquet that occasioned Galois's first arrest.", "However, Dumas is alone in this assertion, and if he were correct it is unclear why d'Herbinville would have been involved.", "It has been speculated that he was Poterin du Motel's \"supposed fiancé\" at the time (she ultimately married someone else), but no clear evidence has been found supporting this conjecture.", "On the other hand, extant newspaper clippings from only a few days after the duel give a description of his opponent (identified by the initials \"L.D.\")", "that appear to more accurately apply to one of Galois's Republican friends, most probably Ernest Duchatelet, who was imprisoned with Galois on the same charges.", "Given the conflicting information available, the true identity of his killer may well be lost to history.Whatever the reasons behind the duel, Galois was so convinced of his impending death that he stayed up all night writing letters to his Republican friends and composing what would become his mathematical testament, the famous letter to Auguste Chevalier outlining his ideas, and three attached manuscripts.", "Mathematician Hermann Weyl said of this testament, \"This letter, if judged by the novelty and profundity of ideas it contains, is perhaps the most substantial piece of writing in the whole literature of mankind.\"", "However, the legend of Galois pouring his mathematical thoughts onto paper the night before he died seems to have been exaggerated.", "In these final papers, he outlined the rough edges of some work he had been doing in analysis and annotated a copy of the manuscript submitted to the academy and other papers.The Galois memorial in the cemetery of Bourg-la-Reine.", "Évariste Galois was buried in a common grave and the exact location is unknown.Early in the morning of 30 May 1832, he was shot in the abdomen, was abandoned by his opponents and his own seconds, and was found by a passing farmer.", "He died the following morning at ten o'clock in the Hôpital Cochin (probably of peritonitis), after refusing the offices of a priest.", "His funeral ended in riots.", "There were plans to initiate an uprising during his funeral, but during the same time the leaders heard of General Jean Maximilien Lamarque's death and the rising was postponed without any uprising occurring until 5 June.", "Only Galois's younger brother was notified of the events prior to Galois's death.", "Galois was 20 years old.", "His last words to his younger brother Alfred were:On 2 June, Évariste Galois was buried in a common grave of the Montparnasse Cemetery whose exact location is unknown.", "In the cemetery of his native town – Bourg-la-Reine – a cenotaph in his honour was erected beside the graves of his relatives.Évariste Galois died in 1832.Joseph Liouville began studying Galois's unpublished papers in 1842 and acknowledged their value in 1843.It is not clear what happened in the 10 years between 1832 and 1842 nor what eventually inspired Joseph Liouville to begin reading Galois's papers.", "Jesper Lützen explores this subject at some length in Chapter XIV ''Galois Theory'' of his book about Joseph Liouville without reaching any definitive conclusions.It is certainly possible that mathematicians (including Liouville) did not want to publicize Galois's papers because Galois was a republican political activist who died 5 days before the June Rebellion, an unsuccessful anti-monarchist insurrection of Parisian republicans.", "In Galois's obituary, his friend Auguste Chevalier almost accused academicians at the École Polytechnique of having killed Galois since, if they had not rejected his work, he would have become a mathematician and would not have devoted himself to the republican political activism for which some believed he was killed.Given that France was still living in the shadow of the Reign of Terror and the Napoleonic era, Liouville might have waited until the June Rebellion's political turmoil subsided before turning his attention to Galois's papers.Liouville finally published Galois's manuscripts in the October–November 1846 issue of the ''Journal de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées''.", "Galois's most famous contribution was a novel proof that there is no quintic formula – that is, that fifth and higher degree equations are not generally solvable by radicals.", "Although Niels Henrik Abel had already proved the impossibility of a \"quintic formula\" by radicals in 1824 and Paolo Ruffini had published a solution in 1799 that turned out to be flawed, Galois's methods led to deeper research into what is now called Galois Theory, which can be used to determine, for ''any'' polynomial equation, whether it has a solution by radicals." ], [ "Contributions to mathematics", "The final page of Galois's mathematical testament, in his own hand.", "The phrase \"to decipher all this mess\" (\"déchiffrer tout ce gâchis\") is on the second to the last line.From the closing lines of a letter from Galois to his friend Auguste Chevalier, dated 29 May 1832, two days before Galois's death:Within the 60 or so pages of Galois's collected works are many important ideas that have had far-reaching consequences for nearly all branches of mathematics.", "His work has been compared to that of Niels Henrik Abel (1802–1829), a contemporary mathematician who also died at a very young age, and much of their work had significant overlap.=== Algebra ===While many mathematicians before Galois gave consideration to what are now known as groups, it was Galois who was the first to use the word ''group'' (in French ''groupe'') in a sense close to the technical sense that is understood today, making him among the founders of the branch of algebra known as group theory.", "He called the decomposition of a group into its left and right cosets a ''proper decomposition'' if the left and right cosets coincide, which is what today is known as a normal subgroup.", "He also introduced the concept of a finite field (also known as a Galois field in his honor) in essentially the same form as it is understood today.In his last letter to Chevalier and attached manuscripts, the second of three, he made basic studies of linear groups over finite fields:*He constructed the general linear group over a prime field, GL(''ν'', ''p'') and computed its order, in studying the Galois group of the general equation of degree ''pν''.", "*He constructed the projective special linear group PSL(2,''p'').", "Galois constructed them as fractional linear transforms, and observed that they were simple except if ''p'' was 2 or 3.These were the second family of finite simple groups, after the alternating groups.", "*He noted the exceptional fact that PSL(2,''p'') is simple and acts on ''p'' points if and only if ''p'' is 5, 7, or 11.=== Galois theory ===Galois's most significant contribution to mathematics is his development of Galois theory.", "He realized that the algebraic solution to a polynomial equation is related to the structure of a group of permutations associated with the roots of the polynomial, the Galois group of the polynomial.", "He found that an equation could be solved in radicals if one can find a series of subgroups of its Galois group, each one normal in its successor with abelian quotient, that is, its Galois group is solvable.", "This proved to be a fertile approach, which later mathematicians adapted to many other fields of mathematics besides the theory of equations to which Galois originally applied it.=== Analysis ===Galois also made some contributions to the theory of Abelian integrals and continued fractions.As written in his last letter, Galois passed from the study of elliptic functions to consideration of the integrals of the most general algebraic differentials, today called Abelian integrals.", "He classified these integrals into three categories.=== Continued fractions ===In his first paper in 1828, Galois proved that the regular continued fraction which represents a quadratic surd ''ζ'' is purely periodic if and only if ''ζ'' is a reduced surd, that is, and its conjugate satisfies .In fact, Galois showed more than this.", "He also proved that if ''ζ'' is a reduced quadratic surd and ''η'' is its conjugate, then the continued fractions for ''ζ'' and for (−1/''η'') are both purely periodic, and the repeating block in one of those continued fractions is the mirror image of the repeating block in the other.", "In symbols we have:where ''ζ'' is any reduced quadratic surd, and ''η'' is its conjugate.From these two theorems of Galois a result already known to Lagrange can be deduced.", "If ''r'' > 1 is a rational number that is not a perfect square, then:In particular, if ''n'' is any non-square positive integer, the regular continued fraction expansion of √''n'' contains a repeating block of length ''m'', in which the first ''m'' − 1 partial denominators form a palindromic string." ], [ "See also", "* List of things named after Évariste Galois" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* – Reprinting of second revised edition of 1944, The University of Notre Dame Press.**.", "Still in print.", "** – This textbook explains Galois Theory with historical development and includes an English translation of Galois's memoir.", "** – Classic fictionalized biography by physicist Infeld.", "** – This biography challenges the common myth concerning Galois's duel and death.", "* – This comprehensive text on Galois Theory includes a brief biography of Galois himself.", "* – Historical development of Galois theory.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * ** The Galois Archive (biography, letters and texts in various languages)* Two Galois articles, online and analyzed on ''BibNum'' : \"Mémoire sur les conditions de résolubilité des équations par radicaux\" (1830) ( link)for English analysis, click 'A télécharger'; \"Démonstration d'un théorème sur les fractions continues périodiques\" (1829) ( link) for English analysis, click 'A télécharger'** La vie d'Évariste Galois by Paul Dupuy The first and still one of the most extensive biographies, referred to by every other serious biographer of Galois* Œuvres Mathématiques published in 1846 in the ''Journal de Liouville'', converted to Djvu format by Prof. Antoine Chambert-Loir at the University of Rennes.", "* Alexandre Dumas, Mes Mémoires, the relevant chapter of Alexandre Dumas' memoires where he mentions Galois and the banquet.", "** Theatrical trailer of University College Utrecht's \"Évariste – En Garde\"*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ennius" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Quintus Ennius''' (; ) was a writer and poet who lived during the Roman Republic.", "He is often considered the father of Roman poetry.", "He was born in the small town of Rudiae, located near modern Lecce, Apulia (ancient Calabria, today Salento), a town founded by the Messapians, and could speak Greek as well as Latin and Oscan (his native language).", "Although only fragments of his works survive, his influence in Latin literature was significant, particularly in his use of Greek literary models." ], [ "Biography", "Very little is reliably known about the life of Ennius.", "His contemporaries hardly mentioned him and much that is related about him could have been embroidered from references to himself in his now fragmentary writings.", "Some lines of the ''Annales'', as well as ancient testimonies, for example, suggest that Ennius opened his epic with a recollection of a dream in which the ancient epic-writer Homer informed him that his spirit had been reborn into Ennius.", "It is true that the doctrine of the transmigration of souls once flourished in the areas of Italy settled by Greeks, but the statement might have been no more than a literary flourish.", "Ennius seems to have been given to making large claims, as in the report by Maurus Servius Honoratus that he claimed descent from Messapus, the legendary king of his native district.", "The partially Hellenised city of Rudiae, his place of birth, was certainly in the area settled by the Messapians.", "And this, he used to say, according to Aulus Gellius, had endowed him with a triple linguistic and cultural heritage, fancifully described as \"three hearts… Greek, Oscan and Latin\".The public career of Ennius first really emerges in middle life, when he was serving in the army with the rank of centurion during the Second Punic War.", "While in Sardinia in the year 204 BC, he is said to have attracted the attention of Cato the Elder and was taken by him to Rome.", "There he taught Greek and adapted Greek plays for a livelihood, and by his poetical compositions gained the friendship of some of the greatest men in Rome whose achievements he praised.", "Amongst these were Scipio Africanus and Fulvius Nobilior, whom he accompanied on his Aetolian campaign (189).", "Afterwards he made the capture of Ambracia, at which he was present, the subject of a play and of an episode in the ''Annales''.", "It was through the influence of Nobilior's son Quintus that Ennius subsequently obtained Roman citizenship.", "But he himself lived plainly and simply in the literary quarter on the Aventine Hill with the poet Caecilius Statius, a fellow adapter of Greek plays.At about the age of 70 Ennius died, immediately after producing his tragedy ''Thyestes''.", "In the last book of his epic poem, in which he seems to have given various details of his personal history, he mentioned that he was in his 67th year at the date of its composition.", "He compared himself, in contemplation of the close of the great work of his life, to a gallant horse which, after having often won the prize at the Olympic Games, obtained his rest when weary with age.", "A similar feeling of pride at the completion of a great career is expressed in the memorial lines which he composed to be placed under his bust after death: \"Let no one weep for me, or celebrate my funeral with mourning; for I still live, as I pass to and fro through the mouths of men.\"" ], [ "Literature", "Ennius continued the nascent literary tradition by writing plays in Greek and Roman style (praetextae and palliatae), as well as his most famous work, a historical epic in hexameters called the ''Annales''.", "Other minor works include the ''Epicharmus'', ''Epigrammata'', the ''Euhemerus'', the ''Hedyphagetica'', ''Praecepta''/''Protrepticus'', ''Saturae'' (or ''Satires''), ''Scipio'', and ''Sota''.===The ''Annales''===The ''Annales'' was an epic poem in fifteen books, later expanded to eighteen, covering Roman history from the fall of Troy in 1184 BC down to the censorship of Cato the Elder in 184 BC.", "It was the first Latin poem to adopt the dactylic hexameter metre used in Greek epic and didactic poetry, leading it to become the standard metre for these genres in Latin poetry.", "The ''Annals'' became a school text for Roman schoolchildren, eventually supplanted by Virgil's ''Aeneid''.", "About 600 lines survive.===Minor works===The ''Epicharmus'' was inspired by the philosophical hypotheses developed by the Sicilian poet and philosopher Epicharmus of Kos, after which Ennius's work took its name.", "In the ''Epicharmus'', the poet describes a dream he had in which he died and was transported to some place of heavenly enlightenment.", "Here, he met Epicharmus, who explained the nature of the gods and taught Ennius the physics of the universe.The ''Euhemerus'' presented a theological doctrine based on the ideas Greek of Euhemerus of Messene, who argued that the gods of Olympus were not supernatural powers that interference in the lives of humans, but rather heroes of old who after death were eventually regarded as deities due to their valor, bravery, or cultural impact (this belief is now known as euhemerism).", "Both Cicero and Lactantius write that the ''Euhemerus'' was a \"translation and a recounting\" of Euhemerus's original work the ''Sacred History'', but it is unclear if this means Ennius simply translated the original from Greek into Latin, or added in his own elements.", "Most of what is preserved of this work comes to us from Lactantius, and these snippets suggest that the ''Euhemerus'' was a prose text.The ''Hedyphagetica'' took much of its substance from the gastronomical epic of Archestratus of Gela.", "The extant portions of Ennius's poem discuss where a reader might find the best type of fish.", "Most of the fragments, replete with unique terms for fish and numerous place names, are corrupt or damaged.", "The ''Hedyphagetica'' is written in hexameters, but differs from the ''Annales'' in regards to \"metrical practices\"; this difference is largely due to each works' distinct subject matter.The titles ''Praecepta'' and ''Protrepticus'' were likely used to refer to the same (possibly exhortatory) work.", "However, given this work's almost non-existent nature (only the word ''pannibus''an \"unusual\" form of the word ''pannis'', meaning \"rags\"is preserved in the work of the Latin grammarian Charisius), this position is extremely difficult to verify.The ''Saturae'' is a collection of about thirty lines from satirical poemsmaking it the first extant instance of Roman satire.", "These lines are written in a variety of poetic metres.", "The poems in this collection \"were mostly concerned with practical wisdom, often driving home a lesson with the help of a fable.", "\"Ennius's ''Scipio'' was a work (possibly a panegyric poem) that apparently celebrated the life and deeds of Scipio Africanus.", "Hardly anything remains of this work, and what is preserved is embedded in the works of others.", "Unfortunately, \"no quotation of ''Scipio'' supplies a context\".", "Some have proposed that the work was written before the ''Annales'', and others have said that the work was written after Scipio's 201 BC triumph that followed the Battle of Zama (202 BC).The ''Sota'' was a poem, potentially of some length, named after the Greek poet Sotades.", "The work, which followed a metre established by Sotades known as the \"Sotadeus\", concerned itself with a number of disparate topics and ideas." ], [ "Editions", "* Quinto Ennio.", "''Le opere minori, Vol.", "I. Praecepta, Protrepticus, Saturae, Scipio, Sota''.", "Ed., tr., comm.", "Alessandro Russo.", "Pisa: Edizioni ETS, 2007 (Testi e studi di cultura classica, 40).", "* Warmington, E. H. (1935).", "Ennius (Q. Ennius).", "''Remains of Old Latin.''", "Edited by Eric Herbert Warmington.", "Vol.", "2: Ennius and Caecilius.", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press." ], [ "See also", "*Latin literature*List of ancient Romans*Prosody (Latin)" ], [ "Footnotes", "===Bibliography===* * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Elliott, J.", "(2010).", "\"Ennius as Universal Historian: The Case of the Annales.\"", "''Historiae Mundi: Studies in Universal History.''", "Ed.", "Peter Liddel and Andrew Fear.", "London: Bloomsbury Academic, 148–161.", "* * Fisher, J.", "(2014).", "The 'Annals' of Quintus Ennius and the Italic Tradition.", "Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.", "* Fitzgerald, W., and Emily Gowers, eds.", "(2007).", "Ennius Perennis.", "The Annals and Beyond.", "Proceedings of the Cambridge Philolological Society, Supplementary Volume 31.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "** * * *Jocelyn, H. D. Ennius (Q. Ennius).", "(1967).", "''The Tragedies of Ennius: The Fragments''.", "Edited by Henry David Jocelyn.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "* * * *Skutsch, O.", "(1968).", "''Studia Enniana''.", "London: Athlone.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Fragments of Ennius' ''Annals'' at The Latin Library; text from Wordsworth (1874), line numbering from Warmington (1935)* Ennius' ''Annales'': text and translation of all fragments at ''attalus.org''; adapted from Warmington (1935)* Ennius: translation of selected fragments at ''elfinspell.com''; from ''Specimens of the Poets and Poetry of Greece and Rome by Various Translators'' (1847)* ''Remains of old latin.", "Vol.", "1: Aennius and Caecilius'', E. H. Warmington (a cura di), Cambridge-London, 1935, pagg.", "1–465.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electronic" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Electronic''' may refer to:*Electronics, the science of how to control electric energy in semiconductor*''Electronics'' (magazine), a defunct American trade journal*Electronic storage, the storage of data using an electronic device*Electronic commerce or e-commerce, the trading in products or services using computer networks, such as the Internet*Electronic publishing or e-publishing, the digital publication of books and magazines using computer networks, such as the Internet*Electronic engineering, an electrical engineering discipline" ], [ "Entertainment", "*Electronic (band), an English alternative dance band**''Electronic'' (album), the self-titled debut album by British band Electronic*Electronic music, a music genre*Electronic musical instrument*Electronic game, a game that employs electronics" ], [ "See also", "*Electronica, an electronic music genre*Consumer electronics, devices including active (amplifying) electrical components" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eris (mythology)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eris''' (; '''', \"Strife\") is the Greek goddess of strife and discord.", "Her Roman equivalent is '''Discordia''', which means the same.", "Eris's Greek opposite is Harmonia, whose Roman counterpart is Concordia, though she is also described as opposing Nike, counterpart of the Roman Victoria.", "Homer equated her with the war-goddess Enyo, whose Roman counterpart is Bellona.", "The dwarf planet Eris is named after the goddess.She had no temples in ancient Greece and functions essentially as a personification, as which she appears in Homer and many later works." ], [ "Etymology", "''Eris'' is of uncertain etymology; connections with the verb , 'to raise, stir, excite', and the proper name have been suggested.", "R. S. P. Beekes rejects these derivations and suggested a Pre-Greek origin." ], [ "Characteristics in Greek mythology", "In Hesiod's ''Works and Days'' 11–24, two different goddesses named Eris are distinguished:So, after all, there was not one kind of Strife alone, but all over the earth there are two.", "As for the one, a man would praise her when he came to understand her; but the other is blameworthy: and they are wholly different in nature.", "For one fosters evil war and battle, being cruel: her no man loves; but perforce, through the will of the deathless gods, men pay harsh Strife her honour due.", "(Nyx), and the son of Cronus i.e.", "Zeus who sits above and dwells in the aether, set her in the roots of the earth: and she is far kinder to men.", "She stirs up even the shiftless to toil; for a man grows eager to work when he considers his neighbour, a rich man who hastens to plough and plant and put his house in good order; and neighbour vies with his neighbour as he hurries after wealth.", "This Strife is wholesome for men.", "And potter is angry with potter, and craftsman with craftsman and beggar is jealous of beggar, and minstrel of minstrel.In Hesiod's ''Theogony'' (226–232), Eris, the daughter of Night, is less kindly spoken of as she brings forth other personifications as her children:The other Eris is presumably she who appears in Homer's ''Iliad'' Book IV; equated with Enyo as sister of Ares and so presumably daughter of Zeus and Hera:... and Discord ''Ἔρις'' that rageth incessantly, sister and comrade of man-slaying Ares; she at the first rears her crest but little, yet thereafter planteth her head in heaven, while her feet tread on earth.", "She it was that now cast evil strife into their midst as she fared through the throng, making the groanings of men to wax.She also has a son whom she named Strife.Enyo is mentioned in Book 5, and Zeus sends Strife to rouse the Achaeans in Book 11, of the same work.The most famous tale of Eris recounts her initiating the Trojan War by causing the Judgement of Paris.", "The goddesses Hera, Athena and Aphrodite had been invited along with the rest of Olympus to the forced wedding of Peleus and Thetis, who would become the parents of Achilles, but Eris had been snubbed because of her troublemaking inclinations.She therefore (as mentioned at the ''Kypria'' according to Proclus as part of a plan hatched by Zeus and Themis) tossed into the party the Apple of Discord, a golden apple inscribed  – \"For the most beautiful one\", or \"To the Fairest One\" – provoking the goddesses to begin quarreling about the appropriate recipient.", "The hapless Paris, Prince of Troy, was appointed to select the fairest by Zeus.", "The goddesses stripped naked to try to win Paris's decision, and also attempted to bribe him.", "Hera offered political power, while Athena promised infinite wisdom.", "But Aphrodite tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world: Helen, wife of Menelaus of Sparta, and Paris chose to award the apple to Aphrodite, thereby dooming his city, which was destroyed in the war that ensued.Eris is also mentioned in Nonnus's ''Dionysiaca'', when Typhon prepares to battle with Zeus:Eris (\"Strife\") was Typhon's escort in the mellay, Nike (\"Victory\") led Zeus into battle.Another story of Eris includes Hera, and the love of Polytechnus and Aedon.", "They claimed to love each other more than Hera and Zeus were in love.", "This angered Hera, so she sent Eris to wreak discord upon them.", "Polytekhnos was finishing off a chariot board, and Aedon a web she had been weaving.", "Eris said to them, \"Whosoever finishes thine task last shall have to present the other with a female servant!\"", "Aedon won.", "But Polytekhnos was not happy by his defeat, so he came to Khelidon, Aedon's sister, and raped her.", "He then disguised her as a slave, presenting her to Aedon.", "When Aedon discovered this was indeed her sister, she chopped up Polytekhnos's son and fed him to Polytekhnos.", "The gods were not pleased, so they were transformed into birds.File:Golden Apple of Discord by Jacob Jordaens.jpg|''Golden apple of discord'' by Jakob Jordaens, 1633File:The Wedding of Peleus and Thetis Miniature in Jean Miélot's adaptation of Christine de Pisan, L'Epître d'Othéa , ca.", "1460.gif|Manuscript illustration of Eris at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis from Jean Miélot's ''L'Epître d'Othéa'' File:Mengs, Urteil des Paris.jpg|''Das Urteil des Paris'' by Anton Raphael Mengs, File:Enrique Simonet - El Juicio de Paris 1904.jpg|''El Juicio de Paris'' by Enrique Simonet, 1904" ], [ "Cultural influences", "The \"Five-Fingered Hand of Eris,\" a holy symbol in Discordianism originally derived from the crescent shape of the Greek Epsilon===Discordianism===Eris has been adopted as the patron deity of the modern Discordian religion, which was begun in the late 1950s by Gregory Hill and Kerry Wendell Thornley under the pen names of \"Malaclypse the Younger\" and \"Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst\".", "The Discordian version of Eris is considerably lighter in comparison to the rather malevolent Graeco-Roman original, wherein she is depicted as a positive (albeit mischievous) force of chaotic creation.", "''Principia Discordia'', the first holy book of Discordianism, states:The story of Eris being snubbed and indirectly starting the Trojan War is recorded in the ''Principia'', and is referred to as the Original Snub.", "The ''Principia Discordia'' states that her parents may be as described in Greek legend, or that she may be the daughter of Void.", "She is the Goddess of Disorder and Being, whereas her sister Aneris (called the equivalent of Harmonia by the Mythics of Harmonia) is the goddess of Order and Non-Being.", "Their brother is Spirituality.Discordian Eris is looked upon as a foil to the preoccupation of western philosophy in attempting find order in the chaos of reality, in prescribing order to be synonymous with truth.", "Discordian Eris teaches us that the only truth is chaos, and that order and disorder are simply temporary filters applied to the lenses we view the chaos through.", "This is known as the Aneristic Illusion.In this telling, Eris becomes something of a patron saint of chaotic creation:The concept of Eris as developed by the ''Principia Discordia'' is used and expanded upon in the science fiction work ''The Illuminatus!", "Trilogy'' by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson (in which characters from ''Principia Discordia'' appear).", "In this work, Eris is a major character.===Other===The classic fairy tale \"Sleeping Beauty\" references what appears to be Eris's role in the wedding of Peleus and Thetis.", "Like Eris, a malevolent fairy curses a princess after not being invited to the princess's christening.The New Zealand moth species ''Ichneutica eris'' was named in honour of Eris.The dwarf planet Eris was named after this Greek goddess in 2006." ], [ "See also", "* Aneris* Eristic" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Caldwell, Richard (June 1, 1987).", "''Hesiod's Theogony''.", "Focus Publishing/R.", "Pullins Company.", ".", "* Hesiod, ''Theogony'', in ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd., 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Homer, ''The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Nonnus, ''Dionysiaca, Volume I: Books 1–15'', translated by W. H. D. Rouse, Loeb Classical Library No.", "344, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1940 (revised 1984).", ".", "Online version at Harvard University Press.", "Internet Archive (1940).", "* Parada, Carlos, ''Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology'', Jonsered, Paul Åströms Förlag, 1993.." ], [ "External links", "* Hesiod's ''Works and Days''* Hesiod's ''Theogony''* Homer's ''Iliad''* Homer's ''Iliad'' at Gutenberg (there are many different translations at Gutenberg)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Edna St. Vincent Millay" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edna St. Vincent Millay''' (February 22, 1892 – October 19, 1950) was an American lyrical poet and playwright.", "Millay was a renowned social figure and noted feminist in New York City during the Roaring Twenties and beyond.", "She wrote much of her prose and hackwork verse under the pseudonym '''Nancy Boyd'''.Millay won the 1923 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for her poem \"Ballad of the Harp-Weaver\"; she was the first woman and second person to win the award.", "In 1943, Millay was the sixth person and the second woman to be awarded the Frost Medal for her lifetime contribution to American poetry.Millay was highly regarded during much of her lifetime, with the prominent literary critic Edmund Wilson calling her \"one of the only poets writing in English in our time who have attained to anything like the stature of great literary figures.", "By the 1930s, her critical reputation began to decline, as modernist critics dismissed her work for its use of traditional poetic forms and subject matter, in contrast to modernism's exhortation to \"make it new.\"", "However, the rise of feminist literary criticism in the 1960s and 1970s revived an interest in Millay's works." ], [ "Early life", "Millay was born in Rockland, Maine, on February 22, 1892.Her parents were Cora Lounella Buzelle, a nurse, and Henry Tolman Millay, a schoolteacher who would later become a superintendent of schools.", "Her middle name derives from St. Vincent's Hospital in New York City, where her uncle's life had been saved just before her birth.", "Encouraged to read the classics at home, she was too rebellious to make a success of formal education, but she won poetry prizes from an early age.Edna's mother attended a Congregational church.", "In 1904, Cora officially divorced Millay's father for financial irresponsibility and domestic abuse, however, they had already been separated for some years.", "Henry and Edna kept a letter correspondence for many years, but he never re-entered the family.", "Cora and her three daughters – Edna (who called herself \"Vincent\"), Norma Lounella, and Kathleen Kalloch (born 1896) – moved from town to town, living in poverty and surviving various illnesses.", "Cora travelled with a trunk full of classic literature, including Shakespeare and Milton, which she read to her children.", "The family settled in a small house on the property of Cora's aunt in Camden, Maine, where Millay would write the first of the poems that would bring her literary fame.", "The family's house in Camden was \"between the mountains and the sea where baskets of apples and drying herbs on the porch mingled their scents with those of the neighboring pine woods.", "\"The three sisters were independent and outspoken, which did not always sit well with the authority figures in their lives.", "Millay's grade school principal, offended by her frank attitudes, refused to call her Vincent.", "Instead, he called her by any woman's name that started with a V. At Camden High School, Millay began developing her literary talents, starting at the school's literary magazine, ''The Megunticook''.", "At 14, she won the ''St.", "Nicholas'' Gold Badge for poetry, and by 15, she had published her poetry in the popular children's magazine ''St.", "Nicholas'', the ''Camden Herald'', and the high-profile anthology ''Current Literature''." ], [ "Emerging fame and college education", "Millay photographed by Arnold Genthe in 1914 in Mamaroneck, New York |leftMillay's fame began in 1912 when, at the age of 20, she entered her poem \"Renascence\" in a poetry contest in ''The Lyric Year''.", "The backer of the contest, Ferdinand P. Earle, chose Millay as the winner after sorting through thousands of entries, reading only two lines apiece.", "Earle sent a letter informing Millay of her win before consulting with the other judges, who had previously and separately agreed on a criterion for a winner to winnow down the massive flood of entrants.", "According to the remaining judges, the winning poem had to exhibit social relevance and \"Renascence\" did not.", "The entry of Orrick Glenday Johns, \"Second Avenue,\" was about the \"squalid scenes\" Johns saw on Eldridge Street and lower Second Avenue on New York's Lower East Side.", "Millay ultimately placed fourth.", "The press drew attention to the fact that the Millays were a family of working-class women living in poverty.", "Because the three winners were all men, some felt that sexism and classism were a factor in Millay's poem coming in fourth place.Controversy in newspaper columns and editorial pages launched the careers of both Millay and Johns.", "Johns, who was receiving hate mail, conceded that he thought her poem was the better one.", "\"The award was as much an embarrassment to me as a triumph,\" he said, Johns did not attend the awards banquet.", "Additionally, the second-prize winner offered Millay his $250 prize money.", "In the immediate aftermath of the ''Lyric Year'' controversy, wealthy arts patron Caroline B. Dow heard Millay reciting her poetry and playing the piano at the Whitehall Inn in Camden, Maine, and was so impressed that she offered to pay for Millay's education at Vassar College.Millay entered Vassar College in 1913 at age 21, later than is typical.", "Her attendance at Vassar, which she called a \"hell-hole\", became a strain to her due to its strict nature.", "Before she attended the college, Millay had a liberal home life that included smoking, drinking, playing gin rummy, and flirting with men.", "Vassar, on the other hand, expected its students to be refined and live according to their status as young ladies.", "Millay often wouldn't be formally reprimanded out of respect of her work.", "At the end of her senior year in 1917, the faculty voted to suspend Millay indefinitely; however, in response to a petition by her peers, she was allowed to graduate.", "She was a prominent campus writer, becoming a regular contributor to ''The Vassar Miscellany''.", "She had relationships with many fellow students during her time there and kept scrapbooks including drafts of plays written during the period.", "While at school, she had several romantic relationships with women, including Edith Wynne Matthison, who would go on to become an actress in silent films." ], [ "Move to Greenwich Village", "410x410pxAfter her graduation from Vassar in 1917, Millay moved to New York City.", "She lived in Greenwich Village just as it was becoming known as a bohemian writer's haven.", "She resided in a number of places, including a house owned by the Cherry Lane Theatre and 75½ Bedford Street, renowned for being the narrowest in New York City.While in New York City, Millay was openly bisexual, developing passing relationships with both men and women'''.'''", "The critic Floyd Dell wrote that Millay was \"a frivolous young woman, with a brand-new pair of dancing slippers and a mouth like a valentine.\"", "She maintained relationships with ''The Masses-''editor Floyd Dell and critic Edmund Wilson, both of whom proposed marriage to her and were refused.", "Counted among Millay's close friends were the writers Witter Bynner, Arthur Davison Ficke, and Susan Glaspell.In 1919, she wrote the anti-war play ''Aria da Capo'', which starred her sister Norma Millay at the Provincetown Playhouse in New York City.", "In 1921, Millay would write ''The Lamp and the Bell,'' her first verse drama, at the request of the drama department of Vassar.", "While establishing her career as a poet, Millay initially worked with the Provincetown Players on Macdougal Street and the Theatre Guild.", "In 1923, Millay and others founded the Cherry Lane Theatre \"to continue the staging of experimental drama.", "\"During her stay in Greenwich Village, Millay learned to use her poetry for her feminist activism.", "She often went into detail about topics others found taboo, such as a wife leaving her husband in the middle of the night.", "Millay's 1920 collection ''A Few Figs From Thistles'' drew controversy for its exploration of female sexuality and feminism.", "She engaged in highly successful nationwide tours in which she offered public readings of her poetry.To support her days in the Village, Millay wrote short stories for ''Ainslee's Magazine''.", "As an aesthete and a canny protector of her identity as a poet, she insisted on publishing this more mass-appeal work under the pseudonym Nancy Boyd." ], [ "Pulitzer Prize, marriage, and purchase of Steepletop", "Millay, In January 1921, Millay traveled to Paris, where she met and befriended the sculptors Thelma Wood and Constantin Brâncuși, photographer Man Ray, had affairs with journalists George Slocombe and John Carter, and became pregnant by a man named Daubigny.", "She secured a marriage license but instead returned to New England where her mother Cora helped induce an abortion with alkanet, as recommended in her old copy of Culpeper's ''Complete Herbal''.", "Possibly as a result, Millay was frequently ill and weak for much of the next four years.Millay won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1923 for \"The Ballad of the Harp-Weaver.\"", "She was the first woman to win the poetry prize, though two women (Sara Teasdale in 1918 and Margaret Widdemer in 1919) won special prizes for their poetry prior to the establishment of the award.", "In 1924, literary critic Harriet Monroe labeled Millay “the greatest woman poet since Sappho.", "\"After experiencing his remarkable attention to her during her illness, she married 43-year-old Eugen Jan Boissevain in 1923.Boissevain was the widower of labor lawyer and war correspondent Inez Milholland, a political icon Millay had met during her time at Vassar.", "A self-proclaimed feminist, Boissevain supported Millay's career and took primary care of domestic responsibilities.", "Both Millay and Boissevain had other lovers throughout their 26-year marriage.", "For Millay, one such significant relationship was with the poet George Dillon, a student 14 years her junior, whom she met in 1928 at one of her readings at the University of Chicago.", "Their relationship inspired the sonnets in the collection ''Fatal Interview'', which she published in 1931.Main house at Steepletop, where Millay spent the last 25 years of her lifeIn 1925, Boissevain and Millay bought Steepletop near Austerlitz, New York, which had once been a blueberry farm.", "They built a barn (from a Sears Roebuck kit), and then a writing cabin and a tennis court.", "Millay grew her own vegetables in a small garden.", "Later, they bought Ragged Island in Casco Bay, Maine, as a summer retreat.", "Frequently having trouble with the servants they employed, Millay wrote, \"The only people I really hate are servants.", "They are not really human beings at all.", "\"Millay was commissioned by the Metropolitan Opera House to write a libretto for an opera composed by Deems Taylor.", "The result, ''The King's Henchman'', drew on the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle's'' account of Eadgar, King of Wessex.", "The opera began its production in 1927 to high praise; ''The New York Times'' described it as \"the most effectively and artistically wrought American opera that has reached the stage.", "\"In August 1927, Millay, along with a number of other writers, was arrested for protesting the impending executions of the Italian American anarchist duo Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti.", "Due to her status, she was able to meet with the governor of Massachusetts, Alvan T. Fuller, to plead for a retrial.", "Her failure to prevent the executions would be a catalyst for her politicization in her later works, beginning with the poem \"Justice Denied In Massachusetts\" about the case." ], [ "Accident and war effort", "Millay in 1930Millay was staying at the Sanibel Palms Hotel when, on May 2, 1936, a fire started after a kerosene heater on the second floor exploded.", "Everything was destroyed, including the only copy of Millay's long verse poem, ''Conversation at Midnight'', and a 1600s poetry collection written by the Roman poet Catullus of the first century BC.", "She would go on to rewrite ''Conversation at Midnight'' from memory and release it the following year.In the summer of 1936, Millay was riding in a station wagon when the door suddenly swung open, and Millay “was hurled out into the pitch-darkness...and rolled for some distance down a rocky gully.\"", "The accident severely damaged nerves in her spine, requiring frequent surgeries and hospitalizations, and at least daily doses of morphine.", "Millay lived the rest of her life in \"constant pain\".Despite her accident, Millay was sufficiently alarmed by the rise of fascism to write against it.", "During World War I, she had been a dedicated and active pacifist; however, in 1940, she advocated for the U.S. to enter the war against the Axis and became an ardent supporter of the war effort.", "She later worked with the Writers' War Board to create propaganda, including poetry.", "Millay's reputation in poetry circles was damaged by her war work.", "Merle Rubin noted, \"She seems to have caught more flak from the literary critics for supporting democracy than Ezra Pound did for championing fascism.", "\"In 1942 in ''The New York Times Magazine'', Millay mourned the destruction of the Czech village Lidice.", "Nazi forces had razed Lidice, slaughtered its male inhabitants and scattered its surviving residents in retaliation for the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich.", "Millay wrote: \"The whole world holds in its arms today / The murdered village of Lidice, / Like the murdered body of a little child.\"", "This article would serve as the basis of her 32-page work \"Murder of Lidice,\" published by Harper and Brothers in 1942.The poem loosely served as the basis of the 1943 MGM movie ''Hitler's Madman''.Millay was critical of capitalism and sympathetic to socialist ideals, which she labeled as \"of a free and equal society\", but she did not identify as a communist.", "She told Grace Hamilton King in 1941 that she had been \"almost a fellow-traveller with the communist idea as far as it went along with the socialist idea.", "\"Despite the excellent sales of her books in the 1930s, her declining reputation, constant medical bills, and frequent demands from her mentally ill sister Kathleen meant that for most of her last years, Millay was in debt to her own publisher.", "Author Daniel Mark Epstein also concludes from her correspondence that Millay developed a passion for thoroughbred horse-racing, and spent much of her income investing in a racing stable of which she had quietly become an owner." ], [ "Post-war and death", "Although her work and reputation declined during the war years, possibly due to a morphine addiction she acquired following her accident, she subsequently sought treatment for it and was successfully rehabilitated.", "Boissevain died in 1949 of lung cancer, leaving Millay to live alone for the last year of her life.", "Her final collection of poems was published posthumously as the volume \"Mine the Harvest.\"", "The title sonnet recalls her career:Those hours when happy hours were my estate, —Entailed, as proper, for the next in line,Yet mine the harvest, and the title mine —Those acres, fertile, and the furrows straight,From which the lark would rise — all of my lateEnchantments, still, in brilliant colours, shine,Millay and Boissevain's gravestone at SteepletopMillay died at her home on October 19, 1950, at age 58.She had fallen down the stairs and was found with a broken neck approximately eight hours after her death.", "Her physician reported that she had suffered a heart attack following a coronary occlusion.", "She is buried alongside her husband at Steepletop, Austerlitz, New York." ], [ "Legacy", "After her death, ''The New York Times'' described her as \"an idol of the younger generation during the glorious early days of Greenwich Village\" and as \"one of the greatest American poets of her time.\"", "Thomas Hardy said that America had two great attractions: the skyscraper and the poetry of Edna St. Vincent Millay.", "The poet Richard Wilbur asserted that Millay \"wrote some of the best sonnets of the century.", "\"A ''New York Times'' review of Milford noted that \"readers of poetry probably dismiss Millay as mediocre,\" and noted that within 20 years of Millay's death, \"the public was impatient with what had come to seem a poised, genteel emotionalism.\"", "However, it concludes that \"readers should come away from Milford's book with their understanding of Millay deepened and charged.\"", "The New York Review of Books called Milford's biography \"the story of the life that eclipsed the work,\" and dismissed much of Millay's work as \"soggy\" and \"doggerel.", "\"Nancy Milford published a biography of the poet in 2001, ''Savage Beauty: The Life of Edna St Vincent Millay.''", "Millay's sister, Norma Millay (then her only living relative), offered Milford access to the poet's papers based on her successful biography of F. Scott Fitzgerald's wife, ''Zelda''.", "Milford also edited and wrote an introduction for a collection of Millay's poems called ''The Selected Poetry of Edna St. Vincent Millay.''", "Milford would label Millay as \"the herald of the New Woman.", "\"Millay was named by Equality Forum as one of their \"31 Icons\" of the 2015 LGBT History Month.=== Properties, conservation, and memorials ===Millay's sister Norma and her husband, the painter and actor Charles Frederick Ellis, moved to Steepletop after Millay's death.", "In 1973, they established the Millay Colony for the Arts on seven acres near the house and barn.", "After the death of her husband in 1976, Norma continued to run the program until her death in 1986.At 17, the poet Mary Oliver visited Steepletop and became a close friend of Norma.", "She would later live at Steepletop off-and-on for seven years and helped to organize Millay's papers.", "Mary Oliver herself went on to become a Pulitzer Prize-winning poet, greatly inspired by Millay's work.", "In 2006, the state of New York paid $1.69 million to acquire of Steepletop, to add the land to a nearby state forest preserve.", "The proceeds of the sale were used by the Edna St. Vincent Millay Society to restore the farmhouse and grounds and turn it into a museum.", "The museum opened to the public in the summer of 2010.Conservation of the house has been ongoing.Conservation of Millay's birthplace began in 2015 with the purchase of the double-house at 198–200 Broadway, Rockland, Maine.", "Built in 1891, Henry T. and Cora B. Millay were the first tenants of the north side, where Cora gave birth to her first of three daughters during a February 1892 squall.", "Identified as the Singhi Double House, the home was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2019 not as the poet's birthplace, but as a \"good example\" of the \"modest double houses\" that made up almost 10% of residences in the largely working-class city between 1837 and the early 1900s.", "When fully restored by 2023, half the house will be dedicated to honoring Millay's legacy with workshops and classes, while the other half will be rented for income to sustain conservation and programs.", "A writer-in-residence will be funded by the Ellis Beauregard Foundation and the Millay House Rockland.Edna St. Vincent Millay portrait (undated, likely c. 1914–1915)Millay is also memorialized in Camden, Maine, where she lived beginning in 1900.A statue of the poet stands in Harbor Park, which shares with Mt.", "Battie the view of Penobscot Bay that opens \"Renascence\", the poem that launched Millay's career.", "Camden Public Library also shares Mt.", "Battie's view.", "It has the first couplets of \"Renascence\" inscribed along the perimeter of a large skylight: \"All I could see from where I stood / Was three long mountains and a wood; / I turned and looked another way, / And saw three islands in a bay.\"", "The library's Walsh History Center collection contains the scrapbooks created by Millay's high-school friend, Corinne Sawyer, as well as photos, letters, newspaper clippings, and other ephemera.=== In popular culture ===Millay has been referenced in popular culture, and her work has been the inspiration for music and drama:* In 1972, Millay's poem \"Conscientious Objector\" was put to music by Mary Travers (of Peter, Paul and Mary) on her album ''Morning Glory''.", "* In 1978, American composer Ivana Marburger Themmen used Millay's text for her composition ''Shelter This Candle from the Wind''.", "* In July 1981, the United States Postal Service issued an 18-cent stamp depicting Millay.", "* Annette Meyers' mystery series character Olivia Brown was inspired by Millay.", "* In October 2020, Scottish harpist Maeve Gilchrist produced an album entitled ''The Harpweaver'', which owes its origin to Millay's poem \"The Ballad of the Harp-Weaver\".", "* In 2017 Laura Prepon read \"Dirge Without Music\" in the movie \"The Hero\" * In 2021, Hildegard Publishing released ''Six Songs on Poems of Edna St. Vincent Millay'' by American composer Margaret Bonds.", "*In 2023, Meryl Streep recites one of her poems “Recuerdo” in season 3 episode 5 of Only Murders in the Building as her character “Loretta”." ], [ "Works", "Millay wrote six verse dramas early in her career.", "\"Euclid alone has looked on Beauty bare\" (1922) is an homage to the geometry of Euclid.", "\"Renascence\" and \"The Ballad of the Harp-Weaver\" are considered her finest poems." ], [ "See also", "* 75½ Bedford Street — Millay's residence in New York City from 1923 to 1924* Boissevain family — relatives of Millay's husband, Eugen Jan Boissevain* Greenwich Village — Millay's neighborhood from 1917 to 1921, 1923 to 1924* Inez Milholland — first wife of Eugen Jan Boissevain and fellow Vassar alumna* List of English-language poets* List of poets portraying sexual relations between women* Modernist poetry* Nancy Milford — biographer of Millay* Norma Millay — sister of Edna St. Vincent Millay* Vassar College — Millay's alma mater" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Atkins, Elizabeth (1936).", "''Edna St. Vincent Millay and Her Times''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "* * * Freedman, Diane P. (editor of this collection of essays) (1995).", "''Millay at 100: A Critical Reappraisal''.", "Southern Illinois University Press.", "* Gould, Jean (1969).", "''The Poet and Her Book: A Biography of Edna St. Vincent Millay''.", "Dodd, Mead & Company.", "* Gurko, Miriam (1962).", "''Restless Spirit: The Life of Edna St. Vincent Millay''.", "Thomas Y. Crowell Company.", "* * Sheean, Vincent (1951).", "''The Indigo Bunting: A Memoir of Edna St. Vincent Millay''.", "Harper." ], [ "External links", "* Edna St. Vincent Millay Society* Edna St. Vincent Millay at the Poetry Foundation.", "* Works by Edna St. Vincent Millay at the Academy of American Poets* Selected poetry of Edna St. Vincent Millay at the University of Toronto Libraries* * * * * * Archive and images at the Smithsonian Institution — * Miriam Gurko-Floyd Dell Papers at The Newberry Library* Guide to the Edna St. Vincent Millay Collection at Vassar College Archives and Special Collections Library* Edna St. Vincent Millay papers, 1928–1941, at Columbia University.", "Rare Book & Manuscript Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Enlightenment" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enlightenment''' or '''enlighten''' may refer to:" ], [ "Age of Enlightenment", "* Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture):** England: Midlands Enlightenment, period in 18th-century England** Greece: Modern Greek Enlightenment, an 18th-century national revival and educational movement in Greece** Italy: Italian Enlightenment, period in 18th-century Italy** Jewish: Haskalah, Jewish Enlightenment, movement among European Jews in the late 18th century** Poland: Enlightenment in Poland, ideas of the Age of Enlightenment in Poland** Russia: Russian Enlightenment, 18th-century period of active government encouragement of proliferation of arts and sciences in Russia** Scotland: Scottish Enlightenment, period in 18th-century Scotland** Spain: Enlightenment in Spain, came to Spain with a new dynasty, the Bourbons, subsequent reform and 'enlightened despotism'** USA: American Enlightenment, intellectual culture of the British North American colonies and the early United States" ], [ "Religion", "* Kevala jnana, awakened knowledge in Jainism* Enlightenment in Buddhism, translation of the term ''bodhi'' (\"awakening\"}* Moksha* Moksha (Jainism)* Divine illumination" ], [ "Computing", "*Enlightenment (software), an X Window System window manager*Enlighten (radiosity engine), code to do real-time calculation of indirect lighting (\"radiosity\") in video*Enlightenment Foundation Libraries, a set of graphics libraries" ], [ "Events", "* Enlighten Canberra, an annual arts and cultural festival in Canberra, Australia* \"Enlightenment\", the main artistic performance in the 2012 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony" ], [ "Film and television", "*''Enlightenment'' (Doctor Who), a 1983 ''Doctor Who'' serial" ], [ "Music", "*''Enlightenment'' (Van Morrison album), 1990*''Enlightenment'' (McCoy Tyner album), 1973*\"Enlightenment\" (Van Morrison song), 1990*''Enlightenment'' (soundtrack album), the soundtrack of the 2012 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony" ], [ "Other uses", "*Ionian Enlightenment, the origin of ancient Greek advances in philosophy and science*Dark Enlightenment, an anti-democratic and reactionary movement that broadly rejects egalitarianism and Whig historiography*Enlightenment Intensive, a group retreat designed to enable a spiritual enlightenment*Enlightenment Movement (Afghanistan), a Hazara grassroots civil disobedience group created in Afghanistan in 2016*Project Enlightenment, an educational program" ], [ "See also", "* Counter-Enlightenment, a term used by some 20th century commentators to describe contemporary reasoned opposition to the Age of Enlightenment* *Enlightened (disambiguation)*Illumination (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ethnocentrism" ], [ "Introduction", "Polish sociologist Ludwig Gumplowicz is believed to have coined the term \"ethnocentrism\" in the 19th century, although he may have merely popularized it.", "'''Ethnocentrism''' in social science and anthropology—as well as in colloquial English discourse—means to apply one's own culture or ethnicity as a frame of reference to judge other cultures, practices, behaviors, beliefs, and people, instead of using the standards of the particular culture involved.", "Since this judgment is often negative, some people also use the term to refer to the belief that one's culture is superior to, or more correct or normal than, all others—especially regarding the distinctions that define each ethnicity's cultural identity, such as language, behavior, customs, and religion.", "In common usage, it can also simply mean any culturally biased judgment.", "For example, ethnocentrism can be seen in the common portrayals of the Global South and the Global North.Ethnocentrism is sometimes related to racism, stereotyping, discrimination, or xenophobia.", "However, the term \"ethnocentrism\" does not necessarily involve a negative view of the others' race or indicate a negative connotation.", "The opposite of ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, a guiding philosophy stating the best way to understand a different culture is through their perspective rather than judging them from the subjective viewpoints shaped by one's own cultural standards.The term \"ethnocentrism\" was first applied in the social sciences by American sociologist William G. Sumner.", "In his 1906 book, ''Folkways,'' Sumner describes ethnocentrism as \"the technical name for the view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it.\"", "He further characterized ethnocentrism as often leading to pride, vanity, the belief in one's own group's superiority, and contempt for outsiders.Over time, ethnocentrism developed alongside the progression of social understandings by people such as social theorist Theodore W. Adorno.", "In Adorno's ''The Authoritarian Personality'', he and his colleagues of the Frankfurt School established a broader definition of the term as a result of \"in group-out group differentiation\", stating that ethnocentrism \"combines a positive attitude toward one's own ethnic/cultural group (the in-group) with a negative attitude toward the other ethnic/cultural group (the out-group).\"", "Both of these juxtaposing attitudes are also a result of a process known as ''social identification'' and ''social counter-identification.", "''__TOC__" ], [ "Origins and development", "The term ethnocentrism derives from two Greek words: \"ethnos\", meaning nation, and \"kentron\", meaning center.", "Scholars believe this term was coined by Polish sociologist Ludwig Gumplowicz in the 19th century, although alternate theories suggest that he only popularized the concept as opposed to inventing it.", "He saw ethnocentrism as a phenomenon similar to the delusions of geocentrism and anthropocentrism, defining Ethnocentrism as \"the reasons by virtue of which each group of people believed it had always occupied the highest point, not only among contemporaneous peoples and nations, but also in relation to all peoples of the historical past.", "\"Subsequently, in the 20th century, American social scientist William G. Sumner proposed two different definitions in his 1906 book ''Folkways.''", "Sumner stated that \"Ethnocentrism is the technical name for this view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it.\"", "In the ''War and Other Essays (1911)'', he wrote that \"the sentiment of cohesion, internal comradeship, and devotion to the in-group, which carries with it a sense of superiority to any out-group and readiness to defend the interests of the in-group against the out-group, is technically known as ethnocentrism.\"", "According to Boris Bizumic it is a popular misunderstanding that Sumner originated the term ethnocentrism, stating that in actuality he brought ethnocentrism into the mainstreams of anthropology, social science, and psychology through his English publications.Several theories have been reinforced through the social and psychological understandings of ethnocentrism including T.W Adorno's Authoritarian Personality Theory (1950), Donald T. Campbell's Realistic Group Conflict Theory (1972), and Henri Tajfel's Social identity theory (1986).", "These theories have helped to distinguish ethnocentrism as a means to better understand the behaviors caused by in-group and out-group differentiation throughout history and society." ], [ "Ethnocentrism in social sciences", "William Graham SumnerIn social sciences, ethnocentrism means to judge another culture based on the standard of one's own culture instead of the standard of the other particular culture.", "When people use their own culture as a parameter to measure other cultures, they often tend to think that their culture is superior and see other cultures as inferior and bizarre.", "Ethnocentrism can be explained at different levels of analysis.", "For example, at an intergroup level, this term is seen as a consequence of a conflict between groups; while at the individual level, in-group cohesion and out-group hostility can explain personality traits.", "Also, ethnocentrism can helps us to explain the construction of identity.", "Ethnocentrism can explain the basis of one's identity by excluding the outgroup that is the target of ethnocentric sentiments and used as a way of distinguishing oneself from other groups that can be more or less tolerant.", "This practice in social interactions creates social boundaries, such boundaries define and draw symbolic boundaries of the group that one wants to be associated with or belong to.", "In this way, ethnocentrism is a term not only limited to anthropology but also can be applied to other fields of social sciences like sociology or psychology.", "Ethnocentrism may be particularly enhanced in the presence of interethnic competition or hostility.", "On the other hand, ethnocentrism may negatively influence expatriate worker's performance.A more recent interpretation of ethnocentrism, which expands upon the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss, highlights its positive dimension.", "Political sociologist Audrey Alejandro of the London School of Economics argues that, while ethnocentrism does produce social hierarchies, it also produces diversity by maintaining the different dispositions, practices, and knowledge of identity groups.", "Diversity is both fostered and undermined by ethnocentrism.", "Ethnocentrism, for Alejandro, is therefore neither something to be suppressed nor celebrated uncritically.", "Rather, observers can cultivate a 'balanced ethnocentrism', allowing themselves to be challenged and transformed by difference whilst still protecting difference." ], [ "Anthropology", "The classifications of ethnocentrism originate from the studies of anthropology.", "With its omnipresence throughout history, ethnocentrism has always been a factor in how different cultures and groups related to one another.", "Examples including how historically, foreigners would be characterized as \"Barbarians\".", "These trends exist in complex societies, e.g., \"the Jews consider themselves to be the 'chosen people', and the Greeks defend all foreigners as 'barbarians'\", and how China believed their country to be \"the centre of the world\".", "However, the anthropocentric interpretations initially took place most notably in the 19th century when anthropologists began to describe and rank various cultures according to the degree to which they had developed significant milestones, such as monotheistic religions, technological advancements, and other historical progressions.Most rankings were strongly influenced by colonization and the belief to improve societies they colonized, ranking the cultures based on the progression of their western societies and what they classified as milestones.", "Comparisons were mostly based on what the colonists believed as superior and what their western societies have accomplished.", "Victorian era politician and historian Thomas Macaulay once claimed that \"one shelf of a Western library\" had more knowledge than the centuries of text and literature written by Asian cultures.", "Ideas developed by Western scientists such as Herbert Spencer, including the concept of the \"survival of the fittest\", contained ethnocentric ideals; influencing the belief that societies which were 'superior' were most likely to survive and prosper.", "Edward Said's concept of Orientalism represented how Western reactions to non-Western societies were based on an \"unequal power relationship\" that the Western world developed due to its history of colonialism and the influence it held over non-Western societies.The ethnocentric classification of \"primitive\" were also used by 19th and 20th century anthropologists and represented how unawareness in cultural and religious understanding changed overall reactions to non-Western societies.", "19th-century anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor wrote about \"primitive\" societies in ''Primitive Culture'' (1871), creating a \"civilization\" scale where it was implied that ethnic cultures preceded civilized societies.", "The use of \"savage\" as a classification is modernly known as \"tribal\" or \"pre-literate\" where it was usually referred as a derogatory term as the \"civilization\" scale became more common.", "Examples that demonstrate a lack of understanding include when European travelers judged different languages based on the fact that they could not understand it and displayed a negative reaction, or the intolerance displayed by Westerners when exposed to unknown religions and symbolisms.", "Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, a German philosopher, justified Western imperialism by reasoning that since the non-Western societies were \"primitive\" and \"uncivilized\", their culture and history was not worth conserving and thus should welcome Westernization.Anthropologist Franz Boas saw the flaws in this formulaic approach to ranking and interpreting cultural development and committed himself to overthrowing this inaccurate reasoning due to many factors involving their individual characteristics.", "With his methodological innovations, Boas sought to show the error of the proposition that race determined cultural capacity.", "In his 1911 book ''The Mind of Primitive Man'', Boas wrote that:It is somewhat difficult for us to recognize that the value which we attribute to our own civilization is due to the fact that we participate in this civilization, and that it has been controlling all our actions from the time of our birth; but it is certainly conceivable that there may be other civilizations, based perhaps on different traditions and on a different equilibrium of emotion and reason, which are of no less value than ours, although it may be impossible for us to appreciate their values without having grown up under their influence.Together, Boas and his colleagues propagated the certainty that there are no inferior races or cultures.", "This egalitarian approach introduced the concept of cultural relativism to anthropology, a methodological principle for investigating and comparing societies in as unprejudiced a way as possible and without using a developmental scale as anthropologists at the time were implementing.", "Boas and anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski argued that any human science had to transcend the ethnocentric views that could blind any scientist's ultimate conclusions.Both had also urged anthropologists to conduct ethnographic fieldwork to overcome their ethnocentrism.", "To help, Malinowski would develop the theory of functionalism as guides for producing non-ethnocentric studies of different cultures.", "Classic examples of anti-ethnocentric anthropology include Margaret Mead's ''Coming of Age in Samoa'' (1928), which in time has met with severe criticism for its incorrect data and generalisations, Malinowski's ''The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia'' (1929), and Ruth Benedict's ''Patterns of Culture'' (1934).", "Mead and Benedict were two of Boas's students.Scholars generally agree that Boas developed his ideas under the influence of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant.", "Legend has it that, on a field trip to the Baffin Islands in 1883, Boas would pass the frigid nights reading Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.", "In that work, Kant argued that human understanding could not be described according to the laws that applied to the operations of nature, and that its operations were therefore free, not determined, and that ideas regulated human action, sometimes independent of material interests.", "Following Kant, Boas pointed out the starving Eskimos who, because of their religious beliefs, would not hunt seals to feed themselves, thus showing that no pragmatic or material calculus determined their values." ], [ "Causes", "Ethnocentrism is believed to be a learned behavior embedded into a variety of beliefs and values of an individual or group.Due to enculturation, individuals in in-groups have a deeper sense of loyalty and are more likely to following the norms and develop relationships with associated members.", "Within relation to enculturation, ethnocentrism is said to be a transgenerational problem since stereotypes and similar perspectives can be enforced and encouraged as time progresses.", "Although loyalty can increase better in-grouper approval, limited interactions with other cultures can prevent individuals to have an understanding and appreciation towards cultural differences resulting in greater ethnocentrism.The social identity approach suggests that ethnocentric beliefs are caused by a strong identification with one's own culture that directly creates a positive view of that culture.", "It is theorized by Henri Tajfel and John C. Turner that to maintain that positive view, people make social comparisons that cast competing cultural groups in an unfavorable light.Alternative or opposite perspectives could cause individuals to develop naïve realism and be subject to limitations in understandings.", "These characteristics can also lead to individuals to become subject to ethnocentrism, when referencing out-groups, and black sheep effect, where personal perspectives contradict those from fellow in-groupers.Realistic conflict theory assumes that ethnocentrism happens due to \"real or perceived conflict\" between groups.", "This also happens when a dominant group may perceive the new members as a threat.", "Scholars have recently demonstrated that individuals are more likely to develop in-group identification and out-group negatively in response to intergroup competition, conflict, or threat.Although the causes of ethnocentric beliefs and actions can have varying roots of context and reason, the effects of ethnocentrism has had both negative and positive effects throughout history.", "The most detrimental effects of ethnocentrism resulting into genocide, apartheid, slavery, and many violent conflicts.", "Historical examples of these negative effects of ethnocentrism are The Holocaust, the Crusades, the Trail of Tears, and the internment of Japanese Americans.", "These events were a result of cultural differences reinforced inhumanely by a superior, majority group.", "In his 1976 book on evolution, ''The Selfish Gene'', evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins writes that \"blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretative in terms of Hamilton's genetic theory.\"", "Simulation-based experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.The positive examples of ethnocentrism throughout history have aimed to prohibit the callousness of ethnocentrism and reverse the perspectives of living in a single culture.", "These organizations can include the formation of the United Nations; aimed to maintain international relations, and the Olympic Games; a celebration of sports and friendly competition between cultures." ], [ "Effects", "A study in New Zealand was used to compare how individuals associate with in-groups and out-groupers and has a connotation to discrimination.", "Strong in-group favoritism benefits the dominant groups and is different from out-group hostility and/or punishment.", "A suggested solution is to limit the perceived threat from the out-group that also decreases the likeliness for those supporting the in-groups to negatively react.Ethnocentrism also influences consumer preference over which goods they purchase.", "A study that used several in-group and out-group orientations have shown a correlation between national identity, consumer cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism, and the methods consumers choose their products, whether imported or domestic.", "Consumer Ethnocentrism in which beliefs held by consumers in which they determine which they determine what foreign goods to consume.", "A study based on the study of consumers was used to determine that Chinese, we skeptical about purchasing product from Japan, due to the deaths created by World War II.", "Ethnocentrism not only causes effects upon a product" ], [ "Ethnocentrism and racism", "Ethnocentrism is usually associated with racism.", "However, as mentioned before, ethnocentrism does not necessarily implicate a negative connotation.", "In European research, the term racism is not linked to ethnocentrism because Europeans avoid applying the concept of race to humans; meanwhile, using this term is not a problem for American researchers.", "Since ethnocentrism implicated a strong identification with one's in-group, it mostly automatically leads to negative feelings and stereotyping to the members of the outgroup, which can be confused with racism.", "Finally, scholars agree that avoiding stereotypes is an indispensable prerequisite to overcome ethnocentrism; and mass media play a key role regarding this issue.", "The differences that each culture possess causes could hinder one another leading to ethnocentrism and racism.", "A Canadian study established the differences among French Canadian and English Canadian respondents based on products that would be purchased due to ethnocentrism and racism.", "Due to how diverse the world has become, society has begun to misinterpret the term cultural diversity, by using ethnocentrism to create controversy among all cultures." ], [ "Effects of ethnocentrism in the media", "Ethnocentrism in Western filmsMass media plays an important role in our current society.", "We are constantly exposed to media content every day.", "Researchers had found that ethnocentrism is dysfunctional in communication and similar fields because the lack of acceptance of other cultures leads to the creation of barriers for people of different backgrounds to interact with each other.", "The presence of ethnocentrism in media content creates an issue in the exchange of messages in the communication process.", "The media industry is dominated by the Global North, so Western ethnocentrism tends to be exposed in the media.", "This can be seen in the predominance of Western content in TV shows, film, and other forms of mass media.", "Some shows tend to depict foreign cultures as inferior or strange in contrast to their own culture.=== Film ===Aladdin from Disney as an example of ethnocentrismCinema has been around in our society since the beginning of the 20th century, and it is an important tool made to entertain and/or educate the viewer.", "Western companies are usually the leaders of the film industry.", "Thus, it is common to be exposed to content based on Westerners' point of view.", "Examples of ethnocentrism are constantly seen in films, whether intentionally or unintentionally.", "An example of this can be seen on the American animated film ''Aladdin'' by Disney in 1992; the opening song of the movie is \"Arabian Nights\", it is mentioned in the lyrics that \"it's barbaric, hey, but it's home,\" which had caused debates among the audience because it could lead to thinking that the Arabic culture is barbaric.", "Examples like this are numerous, featuring in many Hollywood films.", "Experts in the field propose that a way of overcoming ethnocentrism is to avoid the use of stereotypes in films.", "Therefore, the presence of ethnocentrism in cinema leads to stereotypical images of cultures that differ from the creators'.", "Another film example is a 2018 film named \"Crazy Rich Asians\", based on the book by Kevin Kwan.=== Social media ===A considerable number of people are exposed to social media, whose purpose is to encourage interaction among users.", "Social media has become a reliant source, to be able to interact among others across the world.", "The most common and popular social media platforms are Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, YouTube, and TikTok.", "Social media tends to play a positively constructive role within a society in which it educates, guides/entertain the public, and the bring more awareness towards other cultures by illustrating how each one is different from one another.", "Even though social media can produce positive outcomes within ethnocentrism, there are also negatives in which it allows for other cultures to judge one another and create controversy.", "Someone who is ethnocentric may hinder the exchange of information by diminishing the interest of interacting with people from other cultures." ], [ "See also", "* Afrocentrism* Afrophobia* American exceptionalism* Americentrism* Anglo-Saxonism* Asiocentrism* Barbarian* Chosen people * Chronocentrism* Collective narcissism* Consumer ethnocentrism* Cross-cultural communication* Cultural bias* Cultural diversity* Cultural racism* Cultural relativism* Endogamy* Ethnic nationalism* Eurocentrism* Hellenocentrism* Imperialism* Indocentrism* In-group–out-group bias* Intercultural communication principles* Intercultural competence* Nationalism* Nordicism* Pseudospeciation* Racism* Relativism* Religiocentrism* Sinocentrism* Little China * Supremacism* Structural violence* Tribalism* Universalism in geography* Xenocentrism* Zionism" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Further reading'''* Allfrey, F. Ethnonationalism and medievalism: reading affective ‘Anglo-Saxonism’ today with the discovery of Sutton Hoo.", "''Postmedieval'' 12, 75–99 (2021).", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Group Processes and Intergroup Relations* Examples of ethnocentric maps: select \"Ethnocentrism\" subject at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Execution unit" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer engineering, an '''execution unit''' ('''E-unit''' or '''EU''') is a part of the central processing unit (CPU) or graphics processing unit (GPU) that performs the operations and calculations forwarded from the instruction unit.", "It may have its own internal control sequence unit (not to be confused with the CPU's main control unit), some registers, and other internal units such as an arithmetic logic unit, address generation unit, floating-point unit, load–store unit, branch execution unit or some smaller and more specific components.It is common for modern CPUs to have multiple parallel functional units within its execution units, which is referred to as superscalar design.", "The simplest arrangement is to use a single bus manager unit to manage the memory interface, and the others to perform calculations.", "Additionally, modern CPUs' execution units are usually pipelined." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eskilstuna Municipality" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eskilstuna Municipality''' () is a municipality in Södermanland County in southeast Sweden, between Lake Mälaren and Lake Hjälmaren.", "The seat of the municipality is in the city of Eskilstuna.The present municipality was formed in 1971 by the merger of the City of Eskilstuna, the City of Torshälla and five rural municipalities.", "It is the largest municipality in the Sörmland region in terms of population, having more than 1/3 of the overall county population." ], [ "Geography", "Eskilstuna Municipality is an inland municipality, although the low-lying Mälaren renders the lengthy lakeshore to be at above sea level.", "The highest point is at ''Tyckenhed'' in the southwest of the municipality at above sea level." ], [ "Localities", "*Alberga*Ärla*Borsökna*Bälgviken*Eskilstuna (seat)*Hållsta*Hällberga*Hällbybrunn*Kjulaås*Kvicksund (partly in Västerås Municipality)*Mesta*Skiftinge*Skogstorp*Torshälla*Tumbo*Västra Borsökna" ], [ "Demographics", "This is a demographic table based on Eskilstuna Municipality's electoral districts in the 2022 Swedish general election sourced from SVT's election platform, in turn taken from SCB official statistics.In total there were 78,420 Swedish citizens of voting age resident in the municipality.", "47.5% voted for the left coalition and 51.0% for the right coalition.", "Indicators are in percentage points except population totals and income.Location % % Balsta-Eskilshem Ö 1,529 1,191 51.0 47.6 74 66 34 20,021 35Barva-Jäder 1,483 1,153 32.9 66.0 88 91 9 27,985 37Borsökna V 1,348 936 42.0 56.9 87 80 20 30,866 49Borsökna Ö 1,179 874 41.4 58.3 86 81 19 30,534 47Edvardslund-Haga 1,770 1,355 48.6 50.2 82 75 25 25,389 39Ekbacken 1,800 1,688 44.6 54.3 78 59 41 24,215 41Ekeby-Brottsta 1,957 1,444 47.2 51.8 83 78 22 27,332 42Eskilsparken 1,560 1,323 47.1 52.0 85 82 18 27,525 48Eskilstuna Centrum N 1,592 1,593 45.0 52.6 73 61 39 24,920 45Eskilstuna Centrum S 1,728 1,403 54.1 44.3 72 62 38 24,174 43Forsbomsvreten 1,551 915 53.4 43.5 57 34 66 16,053 33Fröslunda-Björkhultsvägen 1,998 1,060 72.4 23.2 42 19 81 12,134 16Fröslunda-Tallåsparken 2,195 1,244 65.6 29.8 52 24 76 13,779 23Gillberga-Lista 1,642 1,293 34.1 64.6 85 90 10 26,909 31Gökstensparken 1,792 1,373 50.8 48.3 75 67 33 22,102 28Hammarby-Vallby 1,355 1,120 35.5 63.8 86 86 14 30,153 42Hisingsbacke 1,643 1,273 43.5 55.1 78 70 30 25,566 45Holmberget-Rådhustorget 1,896 1,316 46.0 53.3 69 68 32 20,958 31Hållsta 1,523 1,153 44.8 54.4 84 83 17 26,229 36Hällbybrunns N 1,643 1,235 46.0 53.5 82 79 21 26,809 38Hällbybrunns S-Råby Rekarne 2,047 1,531 40.8 58.5 86 80 20 28,024 40Kjula 1,667 1,225 41.0 58.1 88 86 14 27,700 36Krusgårdsberget 1,534 1,082 47.2 50.9 59 57 43 16,751 22Köpmangatsområdet 1,556 1,350 52.2 47.0 83 81 19 25,805 46Lindhaga 1,922 1,348 45.9 53.4 88 71 29 29,754 46Lundby-Gredby 2,081 1,538 50.2 48.6 85 71 29 28,009 46Lustigbacke 1,459 1,165 53.7 44.7 75 73 27 21,506 40Mesta 1,849 1,437 50.0 49.1 86 72 28 26,898 41Munktellstaden-Valhalla 1,890 1,522 49.1 49.5 78 64 36 25,731 42Myrtorp 1,574 1,103 51.0 47.3 74 60 40 20,664 35Mälarbaden-Mälby-Ängsholmen 1,606 1,237 35.1 64.5 85 85 15 31,296 50Nyfors C 2,041 1,201 59.6 37.4 58 32 68 15,610 30Nyfors Ö 1,629 1,287 51.2 47.4 72 60 40 22,735 39Nyforstorget 1,544 1,031 56.4 41.1 55 24 76 14,496 33Näshulta 1,002 825 46.5 53.4 83 91 9 26,350 33Odlaren-Hagnesta 2,022 1,566 42.2 56.7 89 80 20 31,804 55Råbergstorp-Lagersberg 3,056 1,506 63.5 31.3 38 14 86 9,689 20Röksta-Eskilshem V 1,564 1,141 54.6 43.0 75 53 47 24,161 40Skiftinge N 1,695 1,075 54.2 43.2 64 34 66 19,281 36Skiftinge S 1,647 1,062 48.8 49.2 56 40 60 16,897 20Skogstorp N 1,631 1,206 47.9 51.8 87 84 16 30,049 49Skogstorp S 1,318 986 46.7 52.4 91 86 14 31,758 51Slagsta S-Helgestahill 1,627 1,235 50.6 48.7 85 78 22 26,922 41Slagsta-Måsta 1,146 884 43.6 55.4 82 57 43 25,223 35Slottsbacken 1,452 1,223 44.6 54.0 80 71 29 23,172 35Snopptorp-Skogsängen 1,678 1,314 51.0 47.4 79 73 27 24,201 48Solvik-Kogne-Roxnäs 1,468 1,076 40.9 58.1 84 75 25 28,841 42Stadsparken 1,683 1,420 51.6 46.7 76 66 34 21,685 38Stenby 1,690 1,230 46.6 51.1 80 51 49 25,760 41Stenkvista 1,317 970 37.1 61.8 86 84 16 27,526 38Sundbyholm-Ostra 1,263 921 42.9 56.9 88 87 13 30,407 43Sveaplan-Sjukhusområdet 1,363 1,101 43.6 55.0 77 69 31 24,345 37Söderängsparken 1,818 1,380 46.8 50.9 76 72 28 23,208 42Tumbo 1,815 1,372 32.4 66.3 88 87 13 32,233 48Tunavallen 1,448 1,174 52.3 47.1 85 67 33 28,129 51Viptorp 2,079 1,305 58.8 39.4 56 45 55 16,808 24Västermalm 2,116 1,303 58.6 37.8 52 33 67 14,291 26Västermarksparken 1,562 1,189 56.0 42.6 73 59 41 21,443 34Årby-Navigatören 1,527 911 59.5 38.0 53 28 72 15,679 24Årby-Notarien 1,505 724 73.2 22.1 41 12 88 9,958 21Ärla 2,268 1,733 37.9 61.2 84 90 10 26,463 31Ärsta 1,877 1,166 49.6 48.3 60 36 64 17,694 34Öja-Västermo 1,604 1,279 41.8 57.1 83 92 8 23,672 28Östermalm 1,550 1,144 46.5 52.7 77 69 31 24,292 35Source: SVT" ], [ "Elections", "===Riksdag===These are the results of the Riksdag elections of Eskilstuna Municipality since the 1972 municipality reform.", "The results of the Sweden Democrats were not published by SCB between 1988 and 1998 at a municipal level to the party's small nationwide size at the time.", "\"Votes\" denotes valid votes, whereas \"Turnout\" denotes also blank and invalid votes.", "Year Turnout Votes V S MP C L KD M SD ND 1973 91.5 55,242 4.5 52.3 0.0 19.9 11.0 1.6 10.3 0.0 0.0 1976 92.2 57,466 3.4 51.8 0.0 18.5 12.6 1.3 12.1 0.0 0.0 1979 91.1 56,858 4.0 53.6 0.0 13.1 12.0 1.1 15.6 0.0 0.0 1982 91.9 57,768 4.1 56.0 1.6 10.9 6.8 1.5 18.9 0.0 0.0 1985 89.9 57,305 4.4 54.9 1.3 8.1 14.1 0.0 16.9 0.0 0.0 1988 85.0 54,494 4.9 52.3 4.5 7.4 13.3 2.3 14.1 0.0 0.0 1991 85.3 54,763 4.0 46.4 2.7 5.7 9.8 5.9 17.5 0.0 7.2 1994 85.9 55,238 5.6 54.2 4.5 4.8 7.1 3.2 17.8 0.0 1.3 1998 79.7 50,641 11.5 44.9 4.8 3.5 4.3 10.0 18.9 0.0 0.0 2002 77.4 50,404 7.7 47.7 4.9 4.4 12.6 7.5 12.2 1.3 0.0 2006 79.6 53,595 5.4 44.1 5.4 6.0 6.9 5.8 21.6 2.8 0.0 2010 83.3 58,588 5.4 35.9 7.9 4.6 6.7 4.4 26.2 7.9 0.0 2014 84.0 61,217 5.4 35.5 6.1 4.3 4.4 3.6 21.3 16.6 0.0'''Blocs'''This lists the relative strength of the socialist and centre-right blocs since 1973, but parties not elected to the Riksdag are inserted as \"other\", including the Sweden Democrats results from 1988 to 2006, but also the Christian Democrats pre-1991 and the Greens in 1982, 1985, and 1991.The sources are identical to the table above.", "The coalition or government mandate marked in bold formed the government after the election.", "New Democracy got elected in 1991 but is still listed as \"other\" due to the short lifespan of the party.", "\"Elected\" is the total number of percentage points from the municipality that went to parties who were elected to the Riksdag.", "Year Turnout Votes Left Right SD Other Elected 1973 91.5 55,242 '''56.8''' 41.2 0.0 2.0 98.0 1976 92.2 57,466 55.2 '''43.2''' 0.0 1.6 98.4 1979 91.1 56,858 57.6 '''40.7''' 0.0 1.7 98.3 1982 91.9 57,768 '''60.1''' 36.6 0.0 3.3 96.7 1985 89.9 57,305 '''59.3''' 39.1 0.0 1.6 98.4 1988 85.0 54,494 '''61.7''' 34.8 0.0 3.5 96.5 1991 85.3 54,763 50.4 '''38.9''' 0.0 11.7 96.5 1994 85.9 55,238 '''64.3''' 32.9 0.0 2.8 97.2 1998 79.7 50,641 '''61.2''' 36.7 0.0 2.1 97.9 2002 77.4 50,404 '''60.3''' 36.7 0.0 3.0 97.0 2006 79.6 53,595 54.9 '''40.3''' 0.0 4.8 95.2 2010 83.3 58,588 49.2 '''41.9''' 7.9 1.0 99.0 2014 84.0 61,217 '''47.0''' 33.6 16.6 2.8 97.2" ], [ "Twin towns - Sister cities", "Eskilstuna is twinned with:* Bridgeton, New Jersey, United States* Erlangen, Germany* Esbjerg, Denmark* Fjarðabyggð, Iceland* Gatchina, Russia* Haapsalu, Estonia* Jūrmala, Latvia* Jyväskylä, Finland* Linyi, China* Luton, United Kingdom* Lviv, Ukraine* Stavanger, Norway* Usangi, Tanzania" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Eskilstuna Municipality - Official site" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "European Convention on Human Rights" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Convention on Human Rights''' ('''ECHR'''; formally the '''Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms''') is an international convention to protect human rights and political freedoms in Europe.", "Drafted in 1950 by the then newly formed Council of Europe, the convention entered into force on 3 September 1953.All Council of Europe member states are party to the convention and new members are expected to ratify the convention at the earliest opportunity.The convention established the European Court of Human Rights (generally referred to by the initials ECtHR).", "Any person who feels their rights have been violated under the convention by a state party can take a case to the court.", "Judgments finding violations are binding on the states concerned and they are obliged to execute them.", "The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe monitors the execution of judgments, particularly to ensure payments awarded by the court appropriately compensate applicants for the damage they have sustained.The convention has eleven protocols, which amend the convention framework.The convention has had a significant influence on the law in Council of Europe member countries and is widely considered the most effective international treaty for human rights protection." ], [ "History", "Ukrainian stamp, commemorating 60 years of the European Convention on Human RightsThe European Convention on Human Rights has played an important role in the development and awareness of human rights in Europe.", "The development of a regional system of human rights protections operating across Europe can be seen as a direct response to twin concerns.", "First, in the aftermath of the Second World War, the convention, drawing on the inspiration of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, can be seen as part of a wider response from the Allied powers in delivering a human rights agenda to prevent the most serious human rights violations which had occurred during the Second World War from happening again.Second, the convention was a response to the growth of Stalinism in Central and Eastern Europe and was designed to protect the member states of the Council of Europe from communist subversion.", "This, in part, explains the constant references to values and principles that are \"necessary in a democratic society\" throughout the convention, despite the fact that such principles are not in any way defined within the convention itself.From 7 to 10 May 1948, politicians including Winston Churchill, François Mitterrand, and Konrad Adenauer; civil society representatives; academics; business leaders; trade unionists; and religious leaders convened the Congress of Europe in The Hague.", "At the end of the Congress, a declaration and following pledge to create the convention was issued.", "The second and third articles of the pledge state: \"We desire a Charter of Human Rights guaranteeing liberty of thought, assembly and expression as well as right to form a political opposition.", "We desire a Court of Justice with adequate sanctions for the implementation of this Charter.", "\"The convention was drafted by the Council of Europe after the Second World War and Hague Congress.", "Over 100 parliamentarians from the twelve member states of the Council of Europe gathered in Strasbourg in the summer of 1949 for the first-ever meeting of the Council's Consultative Assembly to draft a \"charter of human rights\" and to establish a court to enforce it.", "British MP and lawyer Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe, the chair of the Assembly's Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, was one of its leading members and guided the drafting of the convention, based on an earlier draft produced by the European Movement.", "As a prosecutor at the Nuremberg Trials, he had seen first-hand how international justice could be effectively applied.", "French former minister and Resistance fighter Pierre-Henri Teitgen submitted a report to the Assembly proposing a list of rights to be protected, selecting a number from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that had recently been agreed to in New York, and defining how the enforcing judicial mechanism might operate.", "After extensive debates, the Assembly sent its final proposal to the Council's Committee of Ministers, which convened a group of experts to draft the convention itself.The convention was designed to incorporate a traditional civil liberties approach to securing \"effective political democracy\", from the strongest traditions in the United Kingdom, France and other member states of the fledgling Council of Europe, as said by Guido Raimondi, President of the European Court of Human Rights:The convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome.", "It was ratified and entered into force on 3 September 1953.It is overseen and enforced by the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, and the Council of Europe.", "Until procedural reforms in the late 1990s, the convention was also overseen by a European Commission on Human Rights.Proposals for reform of the ECHR have been put forward, for example by UK Prime Minister Rishi Sunak, and other UK politicians." ], [ "Drafting", "The convention is drafted in broad terms, in a similar (albeit more modern) manner to the 1689 Scottish Claim of Right Act 1689, to the 1689 English Bill of Rights, the 1791 U.S. Bill of Rights, the 1789 French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, or the first part of the German Basic Law.", "Statements of principle are, from a legal point of view, not determinative and require extensive interpretation by courts to bring out meaning in particular factual situations." ], [ "Convention articles", "As amended by Protocol 11, the convention consists of three parts.", "The main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18.Section II (Articles 19 to 51) sets up the court and its rules of operation.", "Section III contains various concluding provisions.Before the entry into force of Protocol 11, Section II (Article 19) set up the Commission and the court, Sections III (Articles 20 to 37) and IV (Articles 38 to 59) included the high-level machinery for the operation of, respectively, the Commission and the court, and Section V contained various concluding provisions.Many of the articles in Section I are structured in two paragraphs: the first sets out a basic right or freedom (such as Article 2(1) – the right to life) but the second contains various exclusions, exceptions or limitations on the basic right (such as Article 2(2) – which excepts certain uses of force leading to death).===Article 1 – respecting rights===Article 1 simply binds the signatory parties to secure the rights under the other articles of the convention \"within their jurisdiction\".", "In exceptional cases, \"jurisdiction\" may not be confined to a contracting state's own national territory; the obligation to secure convention rights then also extends to foreign territories, such as occupied land in which the state exercises effective control.In ''Loizidou v Turkey'', the European Court of Human Rights ruled that jurisdiction of member states to the convention extended to areas under that state's effective control as a result of military action.===Article 2 – life===In 2019, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands cited the article 2 of the ECHR to say that the government must limit climate change to protect human health.Article 2 protects the right of every person to their life.", "The right to life extends only to human beings, not to animals, or to \"legal persons\" such as corporations.", "In ''Evans v United Kingdom'', the court ruled that the question of whether the right to life extends to a human embryo fell within a state's margin of appreciation.", "In ''Vo v France'', the court declined to extend the right to life to an unborn child, while stating that \"it is neither desirable, nor even possible as matters stand, to answer in the abstract the question whether the unborn child is a person for the purposes of Article 2 of the Convention\".The court has ruled that states have three main duties under Article 2:# a duty to refrain from unlawful killing,# a duty to investigate suspicious deaths, and# in certain circumstances, a positive duty to prevent foreseeable loss of life.The first paragraph of the article contains an exception for lawful executions, although this exception has largely been superseded by Protocols 6 and 13.Protocol 6 prohibits the imposition of the death penalty in peacetime, while Protocol 13 extends the prohibition to all circumstances.", "(For more on Protocols 6 and 13, see below).The second paragraph of Article 2 provides that death resulting from defending oneself or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, or suppressing riots or insurrections, will not contravene the Article when the use of force involved is \"no more than absolutely necessary\".Signatory states to the convention can only derogate from the rights contained in Article 2 for deaths which result from lawful acts of war.The European Court of Human Rights did not rule upon the right to life until 1995, when in ''McCann and Others v United Kingdom'' it ruled that the exception contained in the second paragraph does not constitute situations when it is permitted to kill, but situations where it is permitted to use force which might result in the deprivation of life.===Article 3 – torture===Article 3 prohibits torture and \"inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment\".", "There are no exceptions or limitations on this right.", "This provision usually applies, apart from torture, to cases of severe police violence and poor conditions in detention.The court has emphasised the fundamental nature of Article 3 in holding that the prohibition is made in \"absolute terms ... irrespective of the victim's conduct\".", "The court has also held that states cannot deport or extradite individuals who might be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the recipient state.The first case to examine Article 3 was the Greek case, which set an influential precedent.", "In ''Ireland v. United Kingdom'' (1979–1980) the court ruled that the five techniques developed by the United Kingdom (wall-standing, hooding, subjection to noise, deprivation of sleep, and deprivation of food and drink), as used against fourteen detainees in Northern Ireland by the United Kingdom were \"inhuman and degrading\" and breached the European Convention on Human Rights, but did not amount to \"torture\".In ''Aksoy v. Turkey'' (1997) the court found Turkey guilty of torture in 1996 in the case of a detainee who was suspended by his arms while his hands were tied behind his back.", "''Selmouni v. France'' (2000) the court has appeared to be more open to finding states guilty of torture ruling that since the convention is a \"living instrument\", treatment which it had previously characterized as inhuman or degrading treatment might in future be regarded as torture.In 2014, after new information was uncovered that showed the decision to use the five techniques in Northern Ireland in 1971–1972 had been taken by British ministers, the Irish Government asked the European Court of Human Rights to review its judgement.", "In 2018, by six votes to one, the court declined.===Article 4 – servitude===Article 4 prohibits slavery, servitude and forced labour but exempts labour:* done as a normal part of imprisonment,* in the form of compulsory military service or work done as an alternative by conscientious objectors,* required to be done during a state of emergency, and* considered to be a part of a person's normal \"civic obligations\".===Article 5 – liberty and security===Article 5 provides that everyone has the right to liberty and security of person.", "Liberty and security of the person are taken as a \"compound\" concept – security of the person has not been subject to separate interpretation by the court.Article 5 provides the right to liberty, subject only to lawful arrest or detention under certain other circumstances, such as arrest on reasonable suspicion of a crime or imprisonment in fulfilment of a sentence.", "The article also provides those arrested with the right to be informed, in a language they understand, of the reasons for the arrest and any charge they face, the right of prompt access to judicial proceedings to determine the legality of the arrest or detention, to trial within a reasonable time or release pending trial, and the right to compensation in the case of arrest or detention in violation of this article.", "* ''Assanidze v. Georgia'', App.", "No.", "71503/01 (Eur.", "Ct. H.R.", "8 April 2004)===Article 6 – fair trial===Article 6 provides a detailed right to a fair trial, including the right to a public hearing before an independent and impartial tribunal within reasonable time, the presumption of innocence, and other minimum rights for those charged with a criminal offence (adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence, access to legal representation, right to examine witnesses against them or have them examined, right to the free assistance of an interpreter).The majority of convention violations that the court finds today are excessive delays, in violation of the \"reasonable time\" requirement, in civil and criminal proceedings before national courts, mostly in Italy and France.", "Under the \"independent tribunal\" requirement, the court has ruled that military judges in Turkish state security courts are incompatible with Article 6.In compliance with this Article, Turkey has now adopted a law abolishing these courts.Another significant set of violations concerns the \"confrontation clause\" of Article 6 (i.e.", "the right to examine witnesses or have them examined).", "In this respect, problems of compliance with Article 6 may arise when national laws allow the use in evidence of the testimonies of absent, anonymous and vulnerable witnesses.", "* ''Steel v. United Kingdom'' (1998) 28 EHRR 603* ''Assanidze v. Georgia'' 2004 ECHR 140* ''Othman (Abu Qatada) v. United Kingdom'' (2012) – Abu Qatada could not be deported to Jordan as that would be a violation of Article 6 \"given the real risk of the admission of evidence obtained by torture\".", "This was the first time the court ruled that such an expulsion would be a violation of Article 6.===Article 7 – retroactivity===Article 7 prohibits the retroactive criminalisation of acts and omissions.", "No person may be punished for an act that was not a criminal offence at the time of its commission.", "The article states that a criminal offence is one under either national or international law, which would permit a party to prosecute someone for a crime which was not illegal under domestic law at the time, so long as it was prohibited by international law.", "The Article also prohibits a heavier penalty being imposed than was applicable at the time when the criminal act was committed.Article 7 incorporates the legal principle ''nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege'' (no crime, no penalty without law) into the convention.Relevant cases are:* ''Kokkinakis v. Greece'' 1993 ECHR 20* ''S.A.S.", "v. France'' 2014 ECHR 69===Article 8 – privacy===Article 8 provides a right to respect for one's \"private and family life, his home and his correspondence\", subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\".", "This article clearly provides a right to be free of unlawful searches, but the court has given the protection for \"private and family life\" that this article provides a broad interpretation, taking for instance that prohibition of private consensual homosexual acts violates this article.", "There have been cases discussing consensual familial sexual relationships, and how the criminalisation of this may violate this article.", "However, the ECHR still allows such familial sexual acts to be criminal.", "This may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which has also adopted a somewhat broad interpretation of the right to privacy.", "Furthermore, Article 8 sometimes comprises positive obligations: whereas classical human rights are formulated as prohibiting a state from interfering with rights, and thus ''not'' to do something (e.g.", "not to separate a family under family life protection), the effective enjoyment of such rights may also include an obligation for the state to become active, and to ''do'' something (e.g.", "to enforce access for a divorced parent to his/her child).Notable cases:* ''Zakharov v. Russia'' 2015 EHCR 47143/06* ''Malone v. United Kingdom'' 1984 ECHR 10, (1984) 7 EHRR 14* ''Oliari and Others v. Italy'' (2015)* ''Vavřička and Others v. the Czech Republic'' (ECtHR April 8, 2021), holding that the nation of the Czech Republic did not violate the European Convention on Human Rights by imposing a vaccination mandate on children in that country===Article 9 – conscience and religion===Article 9 provides a right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.", "This includes the freedom to change a religion or belief, and to manifest a religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\".Relevant cases are:* ''Kokkinakis v. Greece'' 1993 ECHR 20* ''Universelles Leben e.V.", "v. Germany'' 1996 (app.", "no.", "29745/96)* ''Buscarini and Others v. San Marino'' 1999 ECHR 7 * ''Pichon and Sajous v. France'' 2001 ECHR 898* ''Leyla Şahin v. Turkey'' 2004 ECHR 299* ''Leela Förderkreis E.V.", "and Others v. Germany'' 2008 ECHR* ''Lautsi v. Italy'' 2011 ECHR 2412* ''S.A.S.", "v. France'' 2014 ECHR 695* ''Eweida v. United Kingdom'' 2013 ECHR 2013===Article 10 – expression===Article 10 provides the right to freedom of expression, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\".", "This right includes the freedom to hold opinions, and to receive and impart information and ideas, but allows restrictions for:* interests of national security* territorial integrity or public safety* prevention of disorder or crime* protection of health or morals* protection of the reputation or the rights of others* preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence* maintaining the authority and impartiality of the judiciaryRelevant cases are:* ''Lingens v. Austria'' (1986) 8 EHRR 407* ''The Observer and The Guardian v. United Kingdom'' (1991) 14 EHRR 153, the \"Spycatcher\" case.", "* ''Bowman v. United Kingdom'' 1998 ECHR 4, (1998) 26 EHRR 1, distributing vast quantities of anti-abortion material in contravention of election spending laws* ''Communist Party v. Turkey'' (1998) 26 EHRR 1211* ''Appleby v. United Kingdom'' (2003) 37 EHRR 38, protests in a private shopping centre* ''TV Vest and Rogaland Pensioners Party v. Norway'' (2008)===Article 11 – association===Article 11 protects the right to freedom of assembly and association, including the right to form trade unions, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\".", "* ''Vogt v. Germany'' (1995)* ''Yazar, Karatas, Aksoy and Hep v. Turkey'' (2003) 36 EHRR 59* ''Bączkowski v. Poland'' (2005)===Article 12 – marriage===Article 12 provides a right for women and men of marriageable age to marry and establish a family.Despite a number of invitations, the court has so far refused to apply the protections of this article to same-sex marriage.", "The court has defended this on the grounds that the article was intended to apply only to different-sex marriage, and that a wide margin of appreciation must be granted to parties in this area.In ''Goodwin v. United Kingdom'' the court ruled that a law which still classified post-operative transsexual persons under their pre-operative sex violated article 12 as it meant that transsexual persons were unable to marry individuals of their post-operative opposite sex.", "This reversed an earlier ruling in ''Rees v. United Kingdom''.", "This did not, however, alter the Court's understanding that Article 12 protects only different-sex couples.The European Court of Human Rights ruled in ''Schalk and Kopf v. Austria'' that countries are not required to provide marriage licenses for same-sex couples; however, if a country allows same-sex couple marriage it must be done under the same conditions that opposite-sex couples marriage face, in order to prevent a breach of article 14 – the prohibition of discrimination.", "Additionally, the court ruled in the 2015 case of ''Oliari and Others v. Italy'' that states have a positive obligation to ensure there is a specific legal framework for the recognition and protection of same-sex couples.===Article 13 – effective remedy===Article 13 provides for the right for an effective remedy before national authorities for violations of rights under the convention.", "The inability to obtain a remedy before a national court for an infringement of a Convention right is thus a free-standing and separately actionable infringement of the convention.===Article 14 – discrimination===Article 14 contains a prohibition of discrimination.", "This prohibition is broad in some ways and narrow in others.", "It is broad in that it prohibits discrimination under a potentially unlimited number of grounds.", "While the article specifically prohibits discrimination based on \"sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status\", the last of these allows the court to extend to Article 14 protection to other grounds not specifically mentioned such as has been done regarding discrimination based on a person's sexual orientation.At the same time, the article's protection is limited in that it only prohibits discrimination with respect to rights under the convention.", "Thus, an applicant must prove discrimination in the enjoyment of a specific right that is guaranteed elsewhere in the convention (e.g.", "discrimination based on sex – Article 14 – in the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression – Article 10).Protocol 12 extends this prohibition to cover discrimination in any legal right, even when that legal right is not protected under the convention, so long as it is provided for in national law.===Article 15 – derogations===Article 15 allows contracting states to derogate from certain rights guaranteed by the convention in a time of \"war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation\".", "Permissible derogations under article 15 must meet three substantive conditions:# there must be a public emergency threatening the life of the nation;# any measures taken in response must be \"strictly required by the exigencies of the situation\"; and# the measures taken in response to it must be in compliance with a state's other obligations under international law.In addition to these substantive requirements, the derogation must be procedurally sound.", "There must be some formal announcement of the derogation and notice of the derogation and any measures adopted under it, and the ending of the derogation must be communicated to the Secretary-General of the Council of Europe.As of 2016, only eight member states had ever invoked derogations.", "The court is quite permissive in accepting a state's derogations from the convention but applies a higher degree of scrutiny in deciding whether measures taken by states under a derogation are, in the words of Article 15, \"strictly required by the exigencies of the situation\".", "Thus in ''A v United Kingdom'', the court dismissed a claim that a derogation lodged by the British government in response to the September 11 attacks was invalid, but went on to find that measures taken by the United Kingdom under that derogation were disproportionate.Examples of such derogations include:* In the 1969 Greek case, the European Commission of Human Rights ruled that the derogation was invalid because the alleged Communist subversion did not pose a sufficient threat.", "This is the only time to date that the convention system has rejected an attempted derogation.", "* Operation Demetrius—Internees arrested without trial pursuant to \"Operation Demetrius\" could not complain to the European Commission of Human Rights about breaches of Article 5 because on 27 June 1957, the UK lodged a notice with the Council of Europe declaring that there was a \"public emergency within the meaning of Article 15(1) of the Convention\".===Article 16 – foreign parties===Article 16 allows states to restrict the political activity of foreigners.", "The court has ruled that European Union member states cannot consider the nationals of other member states to be aliens.===Article 17 – abuse of rights===Article 17 provides that no one may use the rights guaranteed by the convention to seek the abolition or limitation of rights guaranteed in the convention.", "This addresses instances where states seek to restrict a human right in the name of another human right, or where individuals rely on a human right to undermine other human rights (for example where an individual issues a death threat).", "* ''Communist Party of Germany v. the Federal Republic of Germany'' (1957), the Commission refused to consider the appeal by the Communist Party of Germany, stating that the communist doctrine advocated by them is incompatible with the convention, citing article 17's limitations on the rights to the extent necessarily to prevent their subversion by adherents of a totalitarian doctrine.===Article 18 – permitted restrictions===Article 18 provides that any limitations on the rights provided for in the convention may be used only for the purpose for which they are provided.", "For example, Article 5, which guarantees the right to personal freedom, may be explicitly limited in order to bring a suspect before a judge.", "To use pre-trial detention as a means of intimidation of a person under a false pretext is, therefore, a limitation of right (to freedom) which does not serve an explicitly provided purpose (to be brought before a judge), and is therefore contrary to Article 18." ], [ "Convention protocols", ", fifteen protocols to the convention have been opened for signature.", "These can be divided into two main groups: those amending the framework of the convention system, and those expanding the rights that can be protected.", "The former require unanimous ratification by member states before coming into force, while the latter require a certain number of states to sign before coming into force.===Protocol 1===This Protocol contains three different rights which the signatories could not agree to place in the convention itself.", "Monaco and Switzerland have signed but never ratified Protocol 1.====Article 1 – property====Article 1 (\"A1P1\") provides that \"every natural or legal person is entitled to the peaceful enjoyment of his possessions\".", "The European Court of Human Rights acknowledged a violation of the fair balance between the demands of the general interest of the community and the requirements of the protection of the individual's fundamental rights, also, in the uncertainty – for the owner – about the future of the property, and in the absence of an allowance.In the case of ''Mifsud and others v Malta'' (38770/17) the Maltese state was found to have violated Article 1 of Protocol No.", "1 to the convention.", "The case involved a plot of land owned by the Mifsud family and their heirs which was expropriated twice (in 1984 and in 2012).", "The court, in its judgment, stated that \"the (Maltese) Constitutional Court had no basis on which to ground its finding.", "The Court is disconcerted by the circumstances of the present case which led to an expropriation of property being endorsed without anyone being able to assert the reasons behind such an expropriation.", "\"====Article 2 – education====Article 2 provides for the right not to be denied an education and the right for parents to have their children educated in accordance with their religious and other views.", "It does not however guarantee any particular level of education of any particular quality.Although phrased in the Protocol as a negative right, in ''Şahin v. Turkey'' the court ruled that:====Article 3 – elections====Article 3 provides for the right to elections performed by secret ballot, that are also free and that occur at regular intervals.", "* ''Matthews v. United Kingdom'' (1999) 28 EHRR 361===Protocol 4 – civil imprisonment, free movement, expulsion===Article 1 prohibits the imprisonment of people for inability to fulfil a contract.", "Article 2 provides for a right to freely move within a country once lawfully there and for a right to leave any country.", "Article 3 prohibits the expulsion of nationals and provides for the right of an individual to enter a country of their nationality.", "Article 4 prohibits the collective expulsion of foreigners.Turkey and the United Kingdom have signed but never ratified Protocol 4.Greece and Switzerland have neither signed nor ratified this protocol.The United Kingdom's failure to ratify this protocol is due to concerns over the interaction of Article 2 and Article 3 with British nationality law.", "Specifically, several classes of \"British national\" (such as British National (Overseas)) do not have the right of abode in the United Kingdom and are subject to immigration control there.", "In 2009, the UK government stated that it had no plans to ratify Protocol 4 because of concerns that those articles could be taken as conferring that right.===Protocol 6 – restriction of death penalty===Requires parties to restrict the application of the death penalty except for \"acts committed in time of war\" or of \"imminent threat of war\".Every Council of Europe member state has signed and ratified Protocol 6.===Protocol 7 – crime and family===* Article 1 provides for a right to fair procedures for lawfully resident foreigners facing expulsion.", "* Article 2 provides for the right to appeal in criminal matters.", "* Article 3 provides for compensation for the victims of miscarriages of justice.", "* Article 4 prohibits the re-trial of anyone who has already been finally acquitted or convicted of a particular offence (double jeopardy).", "* Article 5 provides for equality between spouses.Despite having signed the protocol more than thirty years ago Germany and the Netherlands have never ratified it.", "Turkey, which signed the protocol in 1985, ratified it in 2016, becoming the latest member state to do so.", "The United Kingdom has neither signed nor ratified the protocol.===Protocol 12 – discrimination===Protocol 12 applies the current expansive and indefinite grounds of prohibited discrimination in Article 14 to the exercise of any legal right and to the actions (including the obligations) of public authorities.The Protocol entered into force on 1 April 2005 and has () been ratified by 20 member states.", "Several member states—Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Lithuania, Monaco, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom—have not signed the protocol.The United Kingdom government has declined to sign Protocol 12 on the basis that they believe the wording of protocol is too wide and would result in a flood of new cases testing the extent of the new provision.", "They believe that the phrase \"rights set forth by law\" might include international conventions to which the UK is not a party, and would result in incorporation of these instruments by stealth.It has been suggested that the protocol is therefore in a catch-22, since the UK will decline to either sign or ratify the protocol until the European Court of Human Rights has addressed the meaning of the provision, while the court is hindered in doing so by the lack of applications to the court concerning the protocol caused by the decisions of Europe's most populous states—including the UK—not to ratify the protocol.", "The UK government, nevertheless, stated in 2004 that it \"agrees in principle that the ECHR should contain a provision against discrimination that is free-standing and not parasitic on the other Convention rights\".", "The first judgment that found a violation of Protocol No.", "12, ''Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina'', was delivered in 2009.===Protocol 13 – complete abolition of death penalty===Protocol 13 provides for the total abolition of the death penalty.", "Currently all Council of Europe member states but two have ratified Protocol 13.Armenia and Azerbaijan have signed but not ratified the protocol.===Procedural and institutional protocols===The Convention's provisions affecting institutional and procedural matters have been altered several times by means of protocols.", "These amendments have, with the exception of Protocol 2, amended the text of the convention.", "Protocol 2 did not amend the text of the convention as such but stipulated that it was to be treated as an integral part of the text.", "All of these protocols have required the unanimous ratification of all the member states of the Council of Europe to enter into force.====Protocol 11====Protocols 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 have now been superseded by Protocol 11 which entered into force on 1 November 1998.It established a fundamental change in the machinery of the convention.", "It abolished the Commission, allowing individuals to apply directly to the court, which was given compulsory jurisdiction and altered the latter's structure.", "Previously states could ratify the convention without accepting the jurisdiction of the Court of Human Rights.", "The protocol also abolished the judicial functions of the Committee of Ministers.====Protocol 14====Protocol 14 follows on from Protocol 11 in proposing to further improve the efficiency of the court.", "It seeks to \"filter\" out cases that have less chance of succeeding along with those that are broadly similar to cases brought previously against the same member state.", "Furthermore, a case will not be considered admissible where an applicant has not suffered a \"significant disadvantage\".", "This latter ground can only be used when an examination of the application on the merits is not considered necessary and where the subject-matter of the application had already been considered by a national court.A new mechanism was introduced by Protocol 14 to assist enforcement of judgements by the Committee of Ministers.", "The committee can ask the court for an interpretation of a judgement and can even bring a member state before the court for non-compliance of a previous judgement against that state.", "Protocol 14 also allows for European Union accession to the convention.", "The protocol has been ratified by every Council of Europe member state, Russia being last in February 2010.It entered into force on 1 June 2010.A provisional '''Protocol 14bis''' had been opened for signature in 2009.Pending the ratification of Protocol 14 itself, 14bis was devised to allow the court to implement revised procedures in respect of the states which have ratified it.", "It allowed single judges to reject manifestly inadmissible applications made against the states that have ratified the protocol.", "It also extended the competence of three-judge chambers to declare applications made against those states admissible and to decide on their merits where there already is a well-established case law of the court.", "Now that all Council of Europe member states have ratified Protocol 14, Protocol 14bis has lost its ''raison d'être'' and according to its own terms ceased to have any effect when Protocol 14 entered into force on 1 June 2010." ], [ "See also", "* Strasbourg Observers* Capital punishment in Europe* Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union* European Social Charter* Human Rights Act 1998 for how the convention has been incorporated into the law of the United Kingdom.", "* Human rights in Europe* Territorial scope of European Convention on Human Rights* European Convention on Human Rights Act 2003 Irish Act similar to the British Human Rights Act 1998.", "* International Institute of Human Rights* United Kingdom constitutional law" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * Kälin W., Künzli J.", "(2019).", "The Law of International Human Rights Protection.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Official text of the European Convention on Human Rights* Protocols to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms* Database of European Human Rights Court (Strasbourg) judgments*" ] ]
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[ [ "Ecclesia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ecclesia''' (Greek: ἐκκλησία ''ekklēsia'') may refer to:" ], [ "Organizations", "* Ecclesia (ancient Greece) or Ekklēsia, the principal assembly of ancient Greece during its Golden Age* Ecclesia (Sparta), the citizens' assembly of Sparta, often wrongly called apella* The Greek and Latin term for the Christian Church as a whole* Ekklesia (think tank), a British think tank examining the role of religion in public life* Ecclesia College, a four-year Christian work college in Springdale, Arkansas* Ekklesia Project, an ecumenical Christian network to promote a more active and God-centered faith* Qahal or ''Ekklesia'', a theocratic organisational structure in ancient Israelite society" ], [ "Religion", "* Ecclesia Dei, a statement or ''motu proprio'' issued by Pope John Paul II in 1988* Ecclesiae Regimen, a reformation declaration against the Church in England of the Late Middle Ages* Ecclesia and Synagoga, a pair of figures personifying the Roman Catholic Church and the Jewish synagogue found in medieval Christian art* Church militant and church triumphant (''ecclesia militans'', ''ecclesia triumphans''), Christians who are living on earth and those who are in heaven* Mater Ecclesiae, a monastery inside Vatican City* Mother Church (Latin ''Mater Ecclesiae''), a reference to the Roman Catholic Church, or to other Christian churches or movements* Nea Ekklesia, a church built by Byzantine Emperor Basil I the Macedonian in Constantinople between the years 876–80* Christian Church, the whole Christian religious tradition throughout history* Congregation is a large gathering of people, often for the purpose of worship.", "* In the sociological classifications of religious movements, a religion less pervasive in a society than a ''church'' but more so than a ''sect''" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Ekklesia'', a 2008 album by For Today* ''Castlevania: Order of Ecclesia'', a 2008 Nintendo DS video game* Mount Ecclesia, nature grounds in Oceanside, California with the international headquarters of The Rosicrucian Fellowship* The bi-annual international convention and governing body of the Fraternity of Phi Gamma Delta* The seventh song on Kamelot's album \"Haven\" is titled \"Ecclesia\"" ], [ "See also", "* Ecclesia Catholica (disambiguation)* Ecclesiastes (disambiguation)* Ad Universalis Ecclesiae, an 1862 papal constitution by Pope Pius IX dealing with the conditions for admission to Catholic religious orders*Advocatus Ecclesiae, lay persons of noble birth who defended a particular church or monastery during the Middle Ages*De triumphis ecclesiae, a Latin epic written c. 1250 by Johannes de Garlandia*Ecclesiam a Jesu Christo, a Papal constitution promulgated by Pius VII in 1821*''Ecclesiam suam'', a 1964 encyclical of Pope Paul VI on the Catholic Church*Ex Corde Ecclesiae, a 1990 apostolic constitution written by Pope John Paul II regarding Catholic colleges and universities*''Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus'', a Latin phrase meaning \"Outside the Church there is no salvation\"*Fasti Ecclesiae Scoticanae, a list of ministers from the Established Church of Scotland*Fabrica ecclesiae, a Roman Catholic Latin term for the funds necessary for the construction of a church*Lamentatio sanctae matris ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae, a motet by the Renaissance composer Guillaume Dufay*Libertas ecclesiae, emancipation from ecclesiastical authority, which guided the movement of Reform begun in the 11th century*Ordinarium Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae, a document that established a voting procedure for the papal conclave*Regimini militantis Ecclesiae, a papal bull promulgated by Pope Paul III in 1540 establishing the Jesuits*Universalis Ecclesiae, an 1850 bull of Pope Pius IX that recreated the Roman Catholic hierarchy in England*" ] ]
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[ [ "Eureka Rebellion" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Eureka Rebellion''' was a series of events involving gold miners who revolted against the British administration of the colony of Victoria, Australia during the Victorian gold rush.", "It culminated in the Battle of the Eureka Stockade, which took place on 3 December 1854 at Ballarat between the rebels and the colonial forces of Australia.", "The fighting left at least 27 dead and many injured, most of the casualties being rebels.", "There was a preceding period beginning in 1851 of peaceful demonstrations and civil disobedience on the Victorian goldfields.", "The miners had various grievances, chiefly the cost of mining permits and the officious way the system was enforced.Tensions began in 1851 with the introduction of a tax on the occupation of the gold fields.", "Miners began to organise and protest the taxes; miners stopped paying the taxes en masse.", "The October 1854 murder of a gold miner, and the burning of a local hotel, which miners blamed on the government, ended the previously peaceful nature of the miners' dispute.", "Open rebellion broke out on November 29, 1854, as a crowd of some 10,000 swore allegiance to the Eureka Flag.", "Gold miner Peter Lalor became the de facto leader of the rebellion, as he had initiated the swearing of allegiance.", "The '''Eureka Stockade''' was overrun by government forces on 3 December 1854, after a brief early morning siege, ending the armed uprising.", "A group of thirteen captured rebels, not including Lalor, who was in hiding, was put on trial for high treason in Melbourne.", "Mass public support led to their acquittal.The legacy of the Eureka Rebellion is contested.", "Rebel leader Peter Lalor was elected to the parliament in 1856, though he proved to be less of an ally to the common man than expected.", "Several reforms sought by the rebels were implemented, including legislation providing for universal adult male suffrage for Legislative Assembly elections and the removal of property qualifications for Legislative Assembly members.", "The rebellion is controversially identified with the birth of democracy in Australia and interpreted by many as a political revolt." ], [ "Origins in the Victorian gold rush", "The Eureka rebellion found its origins in the Australian gold rush of 1851.Following the separation of Victoria from New South Wales on 1 July 1851, gold prospectors were offered 200 guineas for making discoveries within of Melbourne.", "In August 1851, the news was received around the world that, on top of several earlier finds, Thomas Hiscock had found still more deposits west of Buninyong.", "This led to gold fever taking hold as the colony's population increased from 77,000 in 1851 to 198,496 in 1853.In three years, the total number of people living in and around the Victorian goldfields stood at a 12-month average of 100,351.In 1851 the Australian population was 430,000.In 1871 it was 1.7 million.", "Among this number was \"a heavy sprinkling of ex-convicts, gamblers, thieves, rogues and vagabonds of all kinds.\"", "The local authorities soon found themselves with fewer police and lacked the infrastructure needed to support the expansion of the mining industry.", "The number of public servants, factory and farm workers leaving for the goldfields to seek their fortune made for chronic labour shortages that needed to be resolved.=== Protests on the goldfields: 1851–1854 =======La Trobe introduces monthly mining tax as protests begin====A gold mining licence issued to Raffaello CarboniOn 16 August 1851, just days after Hiscock's lucky strike, Lieutenant-Governor Charles La Trobe issued two proclamations that reserved to the crown all land rights to the goldfields and introduced a mining licence (tax) of 30 shillings per month, effective 1 September.", "The universal mining tax was based on time stayed rather than what was seen as the more equitable option, an export duty levied only on gold found, meaning it was always designed to make life unprofitable for most prospectors.There were several mass public meetings and miners' delegations in the years leading up to the armed revolt.", "The earliest rally was held on 26 August 1851 at Hiscock's Gully in Buninyong and attracted 40–50 miners protesting the new mining regulations, and four resolutions to this end were passed.", "From the outset, there was a division between the \"moral force\" activists who favoured lawful, peaceful and democratic means and those who advocated \"physical force\", with some in attendance suggesting that the miners take up arms against the lieutenant governor, who was irreverently viewed as a feather-wearing, effeminate fop.", "This first meeting was followed by ongoing protests across all the colony's mining settlements in the years leading up to the 1854 armed uprising at Ballarat.====First gold commissioner arrives in Ballarat====''Great Meeting of Gold Diggers Dec 15th 1851'' engraved by Thomas Ham and drawn by D. Tulloch, 1851In mid-September 1851, D. C. Doveton, the first local gold commissioner appointed by La Trobe, arrived in Ballarat.", "At the beginning of December, there was discontent when it was announced that the licence fee would be raised to 3 pounds a month, a 200 per cent increase, effective 1 January 1852.In Ballarat, some miners became so agitated that they began to gather arms.", "On 8 December, the rebellion continued to build momentum with an anti-mining tax banner put on public display at Forrest Creek.", "After remonstrations, particularly in Melbourne and Geelong, on 13 December 1851, the previous increase was rescinded.", "The Forest Creek Monster Meeting took place at Mount Alexander on 15 December 1851.This was the first truly mass demonstration of the Eureka Rebellion.", "According to high-end estimates, up to 20,000 miners turned out in a massive display of support for repealing the mining tax.", "Two days later, it was announced that La Trobe had reversed the planned increase in the mining tax.", "The oppressive licence hunts continued and increased in frequency, causing general dissent among the diggers.", "There was strong opposition to the strict prohibition of liquor imposed by the government at the goldfields settlements, whereby the sale and consumption of alcohol were restricted to licensed hotels.Despite the high turnover in population on the goldfields, discontent continued to simmer throughout 1852.La Trobe received a petition from the people of Bendigo on 2 September 1862, drawing attention to the need for improvements in the road from Melbourne.", "The lack of police protection was also a major issue for the protesting miners.", "On 14 August 1852, a fight broke out among 150 men over land rights in Bendigo.", "An inquiry recommended increasing police numbers in the colony's mining settlements.", "Around this time, the first gold deposits at the Eureka lead in Ballarat were found.", "In October 1852, at Lever Flat near Bendigo, the miners attempted to respond to rising crime levels by forming a \"Mutual Protection Association.\"", "They pledged to withhold the licence fee, build detention centres, and begin nightly armed patrols, with vigilantes dispensing summary justice to those suspected of criminal activities.", "That month, Government House received a petition from Lever Flat, Forrest Creek and Mount Alexander about policing levels as the colony continued to strain due to the gold rush.", "On 25 November 1852, a police patrol was attacked by a mob of miners who wrongly believed they were obliged to take out a whole month's subscription for seven days at Oven's goldfield in Bendigo.In 1852, it was decided by the UK government that the Australian colonies should each draft their own constitutions, pending final approval by the Imperial parliament.====Bendigo Petition and the Red Ribbon Movement====The disquiet on the goldfields continued in 1853, with public meetings held in Castlemaine, Heathcote and Bendigo.", "On 3 February 1853, a policeman accidentally caused the death of William Guest at Reid's Creek.", "Assistant Commissioner James Clow had to defuse a difficult situation with a promise to conduct an inquiry into the circumstances.", "A group of one thousand angry miners overran the government camp and relieved the police of their sidearms and weapons, destroying a cache of weapons.", "George Black assisted Dr John Owens in chairing a public meeting held at Ovens field on 11 February 1853 that called for the death of Guest to be fully investigated.The Anti-Gold Licence Association was formed in June at a meeting in Bendigo, where 23,000 signatures were collected for a mass petition, including 8,000 from the mining settlement at McIvor.There was an incident on 2 July 1853 in which police were assaulted in the vicinity of an anti-licence meeting at the Sandhurst goldfield in Bendigo, with rocks being thrown as they escorted an intoxicated miner to the holding cells.", "On 16 July 1853, an anti-licence demonstration in Sandhurst attracted 6,000 people, who also raised the issue of lack of electoral rights.", "The high commissioner of the goldfields, William Wright, advised La Trobe of his support for an export duty on gold found rather than the existing universal tax on all prospectors based on time stayed.On 3 August, the Bendigo petition was placed before La Trobe, who refused to act on a request to suspend the mining tax again and give the miners the right to vote.", "The next day, there was a meeting held at Protestant Hall in Melbourne where the delegation reported on the exchange with La Trobe.", "The crowd reacted with \"loud disapprobation and showers of hisses\" when the lieutenant governor was mentioned.", "Manning Clark speaks of one of the leaders of the \"moral force\" faction, George Thompson, who returned to Bendigo, where he attended another meeting on 28 July.", "Formerly there was very much talk of \"moral suasion\" and \"the genius of the English people to compose their differences without resort to violence.\"", "Now the emphasis had shifted to \"loyalty.\"", "Thompson pointed to the Union Jack and jokingly said that \"if the flag went, it would be replaced by a diggers' flag.", "\"The Bendigo \"diggers flag\" was unfurled at a rally at View Point, Sandhurst, on 12 August.", "It was reported that the miners paraded under the flags of several nations, including the Irish tricolour, the saltire of Scotland, the Union Jack, revolutionary French and German flags, and the Stars and Stripes.", "The delegates returned from Melbourne with news of the failure of the Bendigo petition.", "During the winter of 1853, the Red Ribbon Movement was active across the goldfields.", "Supporters wore red ribbons in their hats and were determined to hand over only 10 shillings for the licence fee and allow the sheer numbers in custody to cause an administrative meltdown.", "Clark states that:On 20 August 1853, just as an angry mob of 500–600 miners went to assemble outside the government camp at Waranga, the authorities found a convenient legal technicality to release some mining tax evaders.", "A meeting in Beechworth called for reducing the licence fee to ten shillings and voting rights for the mining settlements.", "A larger rally attended by 20,000 people was held at Hospital Hill in Bendigo on 23 August 1853, which resolved to support a mining tariff fixed at 10 shillings a month.", "There was a second multinational-style assembly at View Point on 27 August.", "The next day a procession of miners passed by the government camp with the sounds of bands and shouting and fifty pistol rounds as an assembly of about 2,000 miners took place.", "On 29 August 1853, assistant commissioner Robert William Rede at Jones Creek, which along with Sandhurst were known hotbeds of activity for the Red Ribbon Movement, counselled that a peaceful, political solution could still be found.", "In Ballarat, miners offered to surround the guard tent to protect gold reserves amid rumours of a planned robbery.A sitting of the goldfields committee of the Legislative Council in Melbourne on 6 September 1853 heard from goldfields activists Dr William Carr, W Fraser and William Jones.", "''An Act for the Better Management of the Goldfields'' was passed, which upon receiving royal assent on 1 December, reduced the licence fee to 40 shillings for every three months.", "The act featured increasing fines in the order of 5, 10 and 15 pounds for repeat offenders, with goldfields residents required to carry their permits, which had to be available for inspection at all times.", "The malcontents welcomed the fee reduction, temporarily relieving tensions in the colony.", "In November, the select committee bill proposed a licence fee of 1 pound for one month, 2 pounds for three months, 3 for six months and 5 pounds for 12 months, along with extending the voting franchise and land rights to the miners.", "La Trobe amended the scheme by increasing the six months licence to 4 pounds, with a fee of 8 pounds for 12 months.On 3 December 1853, a crowd of 2,000–3,000 attended an anti-licence rally at View Point .", "On 31 December 1854, about 500 people gathered to elect a so-called \"Diggers Congress.", "\"====Legislative Council calls for Commission of Inquiry====La Trobe decided to cancel the September 1853 mining tax collections.", "The Legislative Council supported a Commission of Inquiry into goldfields grievances.", "It also considered a proposal to abolish the licence fee in return for a royalty on the gold and a nominal charge for maintaining the police service.", "In November, it was resolved by the Legislative Council that the licence fee be reinstated on a sliding scale of 1 pound per month, 2 pounds per three months, 4 pounds for six months, and 8 pounds for 12 months.", "License evasion was punishable by increasing fines of 5, 15 and 30 pounds, with serial offenders liable to be sentenced to imprisonment.", "Licence inspections, treated as a great sport and \"carried out in the style of an English fox-hunt\" by mounted officials, known to the miners by the warning call \"Traps\" or \"Joes,\" were henceforth able to take place at any time without notice.", "The latter sobriquet was a reference to La Trobe, whose proclamations posted around the goldfields were signed and sealed \"Walter Joseph Latrobe.\"", "Many of the police were former convicts from Tasmania and prone to brutal means.", "They would get a fifty per cent commission from all fines imposed on unlicensed miners and sly grog sellers.", "Plainclothes officers enforced prohibition, and those involved in the illegal sale of alcohol were initially handed 50-pound fines.", "There was no profit for police from subsequent offences, that were instead punishable by months of hard labour.", "This led to the corrupt practice of police demanding blackmail of 5 pounds from repeat offenders.", "Miners were arrested for not carrying licences on their person, as they often left them in their tents due to the typically wet and dirty conditions in the mines, then subjected to such indignities as being chained to trees and logs overnight.", "The impost was most felt by a greater number of miners, who were finding the mining tax untenable without any more significant gold discoveries.In March 1854, La Trobe sent a reform package to the Legislative Council, which was adopted and sent to London for the approval of the Imperial parliament.", "The voting franchise would be extended to all miners upon purchasing a 12-month permit.====Hotham replaces La Trobe====La Trobe's successor as lieutenant-governor, Sir Charles Hotham, who would have preferred to be serving in the Crimean War, took up his commission in Victoria on 22 June 1854.He instructed Rede to introduce a strict enforcement system and conduct a weekly cycle of licence hunts, which it was hoped, would cause the exodus to the goldfields to be reversed.", "In August 1854, Hotham and his wife were well received in Ballarat during a tour of the Victorian goldfields.", "In September, Hotham imposed more frequent twice-weekly licence hunts, with more than half of the prospectors on the goldfields remaining non-compliant with the regulations.On law enforcement in Ballarat, Carboni states that:The miners in Bendigo responded to the increase in the frequency of licence hunts with threats of armed rebellion." ], [ "Tensions escalate", "=== Murder of James Scobie and the burning of Bentley's Hotel ===Charles Doudiet's sketch of the burning of Bentley's Hotel, entitled ''Eureka Riot 17th October (1854)''In October 1854, the murder of gold miner James Scobie outside the Eureka Hotel, along with the prosecution of Johannes Gregorius, was the beginning of the end for those opposed to physical force in the mining tax protest movement.", "A discredited colonial inquest found no evidence of culpability by the Bentley Hotel owners for the fatal injuries, amid allegations that Magistrate D'Ewes had a conflict of interest presiding over a case involving the prosecution of Bentley, said to be a friend and indebted business partner.", "Gregorius, a physically disabled servant who worked for Father Smyth of St Alipius chapel, was subjected to police brutality and false arrest for licence evasion, even though he was exempt from the requirement.", "On 15 October, a mass meeting of predominantly Catholic miners took place on Bakery Hill in protest over the treatment of Gregorius.", "Two days later, amid the uproar over the acquittal, a meeting of approximately 10,000 men occurred near the Eureka Hotel in protest.", "Gold receiver John Green initially tried to read the riot act, but was too over-awed.", "The hotel was set alight as Rede was pelted with eggs.", "The available security forces were unable to restore order.In a despatch dated 18 November 1854, Hotham stated that:On 21 October, Andrew McIntyre and Thomas Fletcher were arrested for the arson attack.", "A third man, John Westerby, was also indicted.", "A committee meeting of miners on Bakery Hill agreed to indemnify the bail sureties for McIntyre and Fletcher.", "As a large mob approached the government camp, the two men were hurriedly released under their own recognisance and whisked away to the sound of gunfire from pistols.As if to stir the pot further, Carboni recalls that around this time, the following two reward notices were plastered around Ballarat.", "One offered a 500-pound reward for information leading to an arrest in the James Scobie case.", "The other announced the reward for more information about the Bank of Victoria heist in Ballarat that was carried out by robbers wearing black crepe-paper masks had been increased from 500 to 1,600 pounds.", "Rede received a miner's delegation on 23 October, who heard that the police officers involved in the arrest of Gregorius should be dismissed.", "Two days later, a meeting led by Timothy Hayes and John Manning heard reports from the deputies sent to negotiate with Rede.", "The meeting resolved to petition Hotham for a retrial of Gregorius and the reassignment of the reviled assistant commissioner Johnston away from Ballarat.On 27 October, Captain John Wellesley Thomas laid contingency plans for the defence of the government outpost.", "In the weeks leading up to the battle, the men of violence had already been aiming musket balls at the barely fortified barracks during the night.", "On 30 October, Hotham appointed a board of enquiry into the murder of James Scobie, to sit in Ballarat on 2 and 10 November.", "The panel included Melbourne magistrate Evelyn Sturt, assisted by his local magistrate Charles Hackett and William McCrea.", "After receiving representations from the US consul, Hotham released James Tarleton from custody.", "The inquiry into the Ballarat rioting concluded with a statement being made on 10 November in the name of the Ballarat Reform League—which by this stage had a steering committee for some weeks—that was signed by John Basson Humffray, Fredrick Vern, Henry Ross and Samuel Irwin of the ''Geelong Advertiser''.", "The final report agreed with the League's submission, blaming the government camp for the unsatisfactory state of affairs.", "The recommendation that Magistrate Dewes and Sergeant Major-Milne of the constabulary should be dismissed was acted upon.On 1 November, around 5,000 miners gathered in Bendigo, as a plan was drawn up to organise the diggers at all the mining settlements, as speakers openly advocating physical force addressed the crowd.=== Ballarat Reform League meetings ===The Ballarat Reform League sought to negotiate with Sir Charles Hotham ''(pictured)''.Robert Rede was resident gold commissioner during the armed uprising in Ballarat.", "He is seen here as commander of the Geelong (Volunteer) Rifles Corps (right).On 11 November 1854, a crowd of more than 10,000 gathered at Bakery Hill, directly opposite the government encampment.", "At this meeting, the Ballarat Reform League was formally established under the chairmanship of Chartist John Humffray.", "Several other reform league leaders, including George Black, Henry Holyoake, and Tom Kennedy, are also believed to have been Chartists.", "It was reported by the ''Ballarat Times'' that at the appointed hour, the \"Union Jack and the American ensign were hoisted as signals for the people to assemble.", "\"The Ballarat Reform League charter was inspired by the one ratified at the 1839 Chartist National Convention held in London.", "The charter contains five of the same demands.", "The league did not adopt or agitate for the Chartist's sixth demand, secret ballots.", "The meeting passed a resolution \"that it is the inalienable right of every citizen to have a voice in making the laws he is called on to obey, that taxation without representation is tyranny.\"", "The meeting resolved to secede from the United Kingdom if the situation did not improve.Throughout the following weeks, the league sought to negotiate with Rede and Hotham on the specific matters relating to Bentley and the death of Scobie, the men being tried for the burning of the Eureka Hotel, the broader issues of the abolition of the licence, suffrage and democratic representation of the goldfields, and disbanding of the gold commission.Hotham sent a message to England on 16 November, which revealed his intention to establish an inquiry into goldfields grievances.", "Notes to the royal commissioners had already been made on 6 November, where Hotham stated his opposition to an export duty on gold replacing the universal mining tax.", "W. C. Haines MLC was to be the chairman, serving alongside lawmakers John Fawkner, John O'Shanassy, William Westgarth, as well as chief gold commissioner William Wright.", "Geoffrey Blainey has stated that: \"It was perhaps the most generous concession offered by a governor to a major opponent in the history of Australia up to that time.", "The members of the commission were appointed before Eureka ... they were men who were likely to be sympathetic to the diggers.", "\"Rather than hear the Ballarat Reform League's grievances, Rede increased the police presence on the Ballarat goldfields and summoned reinforcements from Melbourne.", "Many historians, most notably Manning Clark, attribute this to his belief in his right to exert authority over the \"rabble.\"", "Rede told one deputation that their campaign against \"The licence is a mere cloak to cover a democratic revolution,\" and the day before the battle reported to the chief gold commissioner that the government forces stood ready to \"crush them and the democratic agitation at one blow.", "\"The James Scobie murder trial ended on 18 November 1854, with the accused, James Bentley, Thomas Farrell and William Hance, being convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to three years of hard labour on a road crew.", "Catherine Bentley was acquitted.", "Two days later, the miners Westerby, Fletcher and McIntyre were convicted for burning the Eureka Hotel and were sentenced to jail terms of six, four and three months.", "The jury recommended the prerogative of mercy be evoked and noted that they held the local authorities in Ballarat responsible for the loss of property.", "One week later, a reform league delegation, including Humffray, met with Hotham, Stawell and Foster to negotiate the release of the three Eureka Hotel rioters.", "Hotham declared that he would take a stand on the word \"demand,\" satisfied that due process had been observed.", "Father Smyth informed Rede in confidence that he believed the miners might be about to march on the government outpost.=== Escalating violence as military convoy looted ===Foot police reinforcements arrived in Ballarat on 19 October 1854.A further detachment of the 40th (2nd Somersetshire) Regiment of Foot arrived a few days behind.", "On 28 November, the 12th (East Suffolk) Regiment of Foot arrived to reinforce the government camp in Ballarat.", "As they moved alongside where the Eureka Stockade was about to be erected, there was a clash, where a drummer boy John Egan and several other members of the convoy were attacked by a mob looking to loot the wagons.", "Tradition variously had it that Egan either was killed there and then, or was the first casualty of the fighting on the day of the battle.", "However, his grave in Old Ballarat Cemetery was removed in 2001 after research carried out by Dorothy Wickham showed that Egan had survived and died in Sydney in 1860.By the beginning of December, the police contingent at Ballarat had been surpassed by the number of soldiers from the 12th and 40th regiments.", "The strength of the various units in the government camp was: 40th regiment (infantry): 87 men; 40th regiment (mounted): 30 men; 12th regiment (infantry): 65 men; mounted police: 70 men; and the foot police: 24 men." ], [ "Open rebellion", "=== Paramilitary mobilisation and swearing allegiance to the Southern Cross ===''Swearing Allegiance to the Southern Cross'' by Charles Doudiet, 1854On 29 November, a mass meeting involving a crowd of around 10,000 was held at Bakery Hill.", "The aggrieved miners heard from their deputies news of the unsuccessful outcome of their meeting with Hotham, as the Eureka Flag flew over the platform for the first time.", "Samuel Douglas Smyth Huyghue, who lived through the rebellion, recalled it as \"the symbol of the revolutionary League.\"", "The crowd was incited by Timothy Hayes shouting, \"Are you ready to die?\"", "and Fredrick Vern, who had been accused of abandoning the garrison four days later as soon as the danger arrived, with suspicions of being a double agent.", "Wesleyan minister Reverend Theophilus Taylor wrote in his diary that:Rede responded by ordering police to conduct a provocative licence search on 30 November.", "There was further rioting where missiles were once again directed at military and law enforcement by the protesting miners who had henceforth refused to cooperate with licence inspections ''en masse''.", "Eight defaulters were arrested, and most of the military resources available had to be summoned to extricate the arresting officers from the angry mob that had assembled.There was another spontaneous gathering on Bakery Hill.", "With none of the other leading lights in the protest movement in attendance, amid the rising tide of anger and resentment amongst the miners, a more militant leader, Peter Lalor, who, at his first public appearance, acted as secretary for the 17 November meeting, and moved that a central rebel executive be formed, took the initiative and mounted a stump armed with a rifle.", "He proclaimed \"liberty\" and called for volunteers to step forward and be sworn into companies and captains to be appointed.", "Near the base of the flagpole, Lalor knelt with his head uncovered, pointed his right hand to the Eureka Flag and swore to the affirmation of his fellow demonstrators: \"We swear by the Southern Cross to stand truly by each other and fight to defend our rights and liberties.", "\"In a dispatch dated 20 December 1854, Hotham reported: \"The disaffected miners ... held a meeting whereat the Australian flag of independence was solemnly consecrated and vows offered for its defence.", "\"==== Fortification of the Eureka lead ====A plan of the Eureka Stockade as an exhibit in the 1855 Victorian High Treason trialsAfter the oath swearing ceremony, about 1,000 rebels marched in double file from Bakery Hill to the Eureka lead behind the Eureka Flag being carried by Henry Ross, where construction of the stockade took place between 30 November and 2 December.", "The stockade was a ramshackle affair described in Carboni's 1855 memoirs as \"higgledy piggledy.\"", "There were existing mines within the stockade, and it consisted of diagonal wooden spikes made from materials including pit props and overturned horse carts.", "It encompassed an area said to be one acre.", "That is difficult to reconcile with other estimates that have the dimensions of the stockade as being around x .", "Contemporaneous descriptions and representations vary and have the stockade as either rectangular or semi-circular.", "Lalor later said the stockade \"was nothing more than an enclosure to keep our own men together, and was never erected with an eye to military defence.\"", "Peter FitzSimons asserts that Lalor may have downplayed the fact that the Eureka Stockade was intended as something of a fortress at a time when \"it was very much in his interests\" to do so.", "The construction work was overseen by Vern, who had apparently received instruction in military methods.", "John Lynch wrote that his \"military learning comprehended the whole system of warfare ... fortification was his strong point.\"", "Les Blake has noted how other descriptions of the stockade \"rather contradicted\" Lalor's recollection of it being a simple fence after the fall of the stockade.", "Testimony was heard at the high treason trials for the Eureka rebels that the stockade was four to seven feet high in places and was unable to be negotiated on horseback without being reduced.Hotham feared that the \"network of rabbit burrows\" on the goldfields would prove readily defensible as his forces \"on the rough pot-holed ground would be unable to advance in regular formation and would be picked off easily by snipers,\" considerations that were part of the reasoning behind the decision to move into position in the early morning for a surprise attack.", "Carboni details the rebel dispositions:However, the location of the stockade has been described as \"appalling from a defensive point of view,\" as it was situated on \"a gentle slope, which exposed a sizeable portion of its interior to fire from nearby high ground.\"", "A detachment of 800 men, which included \"two field pieces and two howitzers\" under the commander in chief of the British forces in Australia, Major General Sir Robert Nickle, who had seen action during the 1798 Irish rebellion, arrived after the insurgency had been put down.", "In 1860, Withers stated in a lecture that \"The site was most injudicious for any purpose of defence as it was easily commanded from adjacent spots, and the ease with which the place could be taken was apparent to the most unprofessional eye.", "\"At 4 am on the morning of 1 December, the rebels were observed to be massing on Bakery Hill, but a government raiding party found the area vacated.", "Again Rede ordered the riot act read to a mob that had gathered around Bath's Hotel, with mounted police breaking up the unlawful assembly.", "Raffaello Carboni, George Black and Father Smyth meet with Rede to present a peace proposal.", "Rede was suspicious of the chartist undercurrent of the anti-mining tax movement and rejected the proposals.The rebels sent out scouts and established picket lines in order to have advance warning of Rede's movements.", "Messengers were dispatched to other mining settlements, including Bendigo and Creswick, requesting reinforcements for the Eureka Stockade.", "The \"moral force\" faction, led by Humffray, withdrew from the protest movement the previous day, as the men of violence moved into the ascendancy.", "The rebels continued to fortify their position as 300–400 men arrived from Creswick's Creek to join the struggle.", "Carboni recalls they were: \"dirty and ragged, and proved the greatest nuisance.", "One of them, Michael Tuohy, behaved valiantly.\"", "The arrival of these reinforcements required the dispatch of foraging parties, leaving a garrison of around 200 men behind.", "Teddy Shanahan, a merchant whose store on the Eureka lead had been engulfed by the stockade, said the rebels immediately became very short on food, drink, and accommodation and that by the evening before the battle:===== Vinegar Hill blunder: Irish dimension factors in dwindling numbers at stockade =====Eureka Stockade'' featuring the Union Jack beneath the Eureka FlagAn extract of an ''Argus'' report, 4 December 1854An extract of an affidavit by Hugh King, 7 December 1854''The Argus'' newspaper of 4 December 1854 reported that the Union Jack \"had\" to be hoisted underneath the Eureka Flag at the stockade and that both flags were in possession of the foot police.", "Peter FitzSimons has questioned whether this contemporaneous report of the otherwise unaccounted-for Union Jack known as the Eureka Jack being present is accurate.", "Among those willing to credit the first report of the battle as being true and correct it has been theorised that the hoisting of a Union Jack at the stockade was possibly an 11th-hour response to the divided loyalties among the heterogeneous rebel force which was in the process of dissipating.", "At one point up to 1,500 of 17,280 men in Ballarat were garrisoning the stockade, with as few as 120 taking part in the battle.", "Lalor's choice of password for the night of 2 December—\"Vinegar Hill\"—caused support for the rebellion to fall away among those who were otherwise disposed to resist the military, as word spread that the question of Irish home rule had become involved.", "One survivor of the battle stated that \"the collapse of the rising at Ballarat may be regarded as mainly attributable to the password given by Lalor on the night before the assault.\"", "Asked by one of his subordinates for the \"night pass,\" he gave \"Vinegar Hill,\" the site of a battle during the 1798 Irish rebellion.", "The 1804 Castle Hill uprising, also known as the second battle of Vinegar Hill, was the site of a convict rebellion in the colony of New South Wales, involving mainly Irish transportees, some of whom were at Vinegar Hill.", "William Craig recalled that \"Many at Ballaarat, who were disposed before that to resist the military, now quietly withdrew from the movement.\"", "In his memoirs, Lynch states: \"On the afternoon of Saturday we had a force of seven hundred men on whom we thought we could rely.\"", "There was a false alarm from the picket line during the night.", "The subsequent roll call revealed there had been a sizable desertion that Lynch says \"ought to have been seriously considered, but it was not.\"", "There were rebellious miners converging on Ballarat from Bendigo, Forrest Creek, and Creswick to take part in the armed struggle.", "The latter contingent was said to number a thousand men, \"but when the news circulated that Irish independence had crept into the movement, almost all turned back.\"", "FitzSimons points out that although the number of reinforcements converging on Ballarat was probably closer to 500, there is no doubt that as a result of the choice of password \"the Stockade is denied many strong-armed men because of the feeling that the Irish have taken over.\"", "Withers states that:It is certain that Irish-born people were strongly represented at the Eureka Stockade.", "Most of the rebels inside the stockade at the time of the battle were Irish, and the area where the defensive position was established was overwhelmingly populated by Irish miners.", "Blainey has advanced the view that the white cross of the Eureka Flag is \"really an Irish cross rather than being a configuration of the Southern Cross.", "\"There is another theory advanced by Gregory Blake, military historian and author of ''Eureka Stockade: A Ferocious and Bloody Battle'', who concedes that two flags may have been flown on the day of the battle, as the miners were claiming to be defending their British rights.In a signed contemporaneous affidavit dated 7 December 1854, Private Hugh King, who was at the battle serving with the 40th regiment, recalled that:There was a further report in ''The Argus'', 9 December 1854 edition, stating that Hugh King had given live testimony at the committal hearings for the Eureka rebels where he stated that the flag was found:Blake leaves open the possibility that the flag being carried by the prisoner had been souvenired from the flag pole as the routed garrison was fleeing the stockade.===== Departing detachment of Independent Californian Rangers leaves small garrison behind =====Amid the rising number of rebels absent without leave throughout 2 December, a contingent of 200 Americans under James McGill arrived at 4 pm.", "Styled as \"The Independent Californian Rangers' Revolver Brigade,\" they had horses and were equipped with sidearms and Mexican knives.", "In a fateful decision, McGill took most of his two hundred Californian Rangers away from the stockade to intercept rumoured British reinforcements from Melbourne.", "Many Saturday night revellers within the rebel garrison returned to their own tents, assuming that the government camp would not attack on the Sabbath day.", "A small contingent of miners remained at the stockade overnight, which the spies reported to Rede.", "Common estimates for the size of the garrison at the time of the attack on 3 December range from 120 to 150 men.According to Lalor's reckoning: \"There were about 70 men possessing guns, 30 with pikes and 30 with pistols, but many had no more than one or two rounds of ammunition.", "Their coolness and bravery were admirable when it is considered that the odds were 3 to 1 against.\"", "Lalor's command was riddled with informants, and Rede was kept well advised of his movements, particularly through the work of government agents Henry Goodenough and Andrew Peters, who were embedded within the rebel garrison.", "Initially outnumbering the government camp considerably, Lalor had already devised a strategy where \"if the government forces come to attack us, we should meet them on the Gravel Pits, and if compelled, we should retreat by the heights to the old Canadian Gully, and there we shall make our final stand.\"", "On being brought to battle that day, Lalor stated: \"we would have retreated, but it was then too late.", "\"On the eve of the battle, Father Smyth issued a plea for Catholics to down their arms and attend mass the following day.=== Battle of the Eureka Stockade ===The 40th regiment arrives in Ballarat from Melbourne.", "''Eureka Slaughter'' by Charles Doudiet, 1854A map of the stockade and opposing forcesRede planned to send the combined military police formation of 276 men under the command of Captain Thomas to attack the Eureka Stockade when the rebel garrison was observed to be at a low watermark.", "The police and military had the element of surprise and timed their assault on the stockade for dawn on Sunday, the Christian Sabbath day of rest.", "The soldiers and police marched off in silence at around 3:30 am Sunday morning after the troopers had drunk the traditional tot of rum.", "The British commander used bugle calls to coordinate his forces.", "The 40th regiment provided covering fire from one end, with mounted police covering the flanks.", "Enemy contact began at approximately 150 yards as the two columns of regular infantry and the contingent of foot police moved into position.", "Although Lalor claimed that the government forces fired the first shot, it appears from all the other remaining accounts as if it came from the rebel garrison.According to Gregory Blake, the fighting in Ballarat on 3 December 1854 was not one-sided and full of indiscriminate murder by the colonial forces.", "In his memoirs, one of Lalor's captains, John Lynch, mentions \"some sharp shooting.\"", "For at least 10 minutes, the rebels offered stiff resistance, with ranged fire coming from the Eureka Stockade garrison such that Thomas's best formation, the 40th regiment, wavered and had to be rallied.", "Blake says this is \"stark evidence of the effectiveness of the defender's fire.", "\"Eventually, the rebels started to run short of ammunition, and the government advance resumed.", "The Victorian police contingent led the way over the top as the forlorn hope in a bayonet charge.", "Lalor had his arm shattered by a musket ball and was secreted away by supporters, with his arm later requiring amputation.", "The Eureka flag was captured by Constable John King, who volunteered to scale the flagpole, which then snapped.", "The exact number of casualties cannot be determined.", "After the battle, the registrar of Ballarat entered the names of 27 people into the Victorian death register.", "Lalor lists 34 rebel casualties, of which 22 died.", "In his report, Captain Thomas states that one soldier was killed in action, two died of wounds, and fourteen were wounded." ], [ "Aftermath", "Blainey has commented that \"Every government in the world would probably have counter-attacked in the face of the building of the stockade.\"", "Hotham would receive the news that the government forces had been victorious the same day, with Stawell waiting outside Saint James church, where Hotham was attending a service with Foster.", "He immediately set about firing up the government printing press to put out placards calling for support from among the colonists.", "A state of martial law was proclaimed with no lights allowed in any tent after 8 pm \"even though the legal basis for it was dubious.\"", "It was around this time that a number of unprovoked shots were fired from the government camp toward the diggings.", "Unrelated first-hand accounts variously state that a woman, her infant child and several men were killed or wounded in an episode of indiscriminate shooting.News of the battle spread quickly to Melbourne and across the goldfields, turning a perceived government military victory in repressing a minor insurrection into a public relations disaster.", "On 5 December, reinforcements under Major General Nickle arrived at the government camp in Ballarat.", "Reverend Taylor expected further repression, stating that:As it happened, Nickle proved to be a wise, considered and even-handed military commander who calmed the tensions and Taylor \"found him to be a very affable and kind gentleman.\"", "Evans' diary records the effect of his conduct as follows:The same day several thousand people attended a public meeting held in Swanston Street, Melbourne.", "There were howls of anger when several pro-government motions were proposed.", "When the seconder of one motion, which called for the maintenance of law and order, framed the issue as \"would they support the flag of old England...or the new flag of the Southern Cross,\" the speaker was drowned out by groans from the crowd.", "In response, it was then proposed that restoring order required removing the government that caused the disorder in the first place.", "Amid cheers from the crowd, the mayor of Melbourne as chairman declared the pro-government motions carried and hastily adjourned the meeting.", "However, a new chairman was elected, and motions condemning the government and calling for the resignation of Foster were passed.", "Foster had acted as the temporary administrator of Victoria during the transition from La Trobe to Hotham.", "As colonial secretary to the lieutenant governor, he rigorously enforced the mining licence requirement amid the colony's budget and labour crisis.", "Foster had already offered his resignation on 4 December as the protests began, which Hotham accepted a week later.", "On 6 December 1854, a 6,000-strong crowd gathered at Saint Paul's Cathedral protesting against the government's response to the Eureka Rebellion, as a group of 13 rebel prisoners were indicted for treason.", "Newspapers in the colony characterised it as a brutal overuse of force, in a situation brought about by the actions of government officials, and public condemnation became insurmountable.", "Letters Patent formally appointing the members of the Royal Commission were signed and sealed on 7 December 1854.Hotham managed to have an auxiliary force of 1,500 special constables from Melbourne sworn in along with others from Geelong, with his resolve that further \"rioting and sedition would be speedily put down\", undeterred by the rebuff his policies had received from the general public.", "In Ballarat, only one man stepped forward and answered the call to enlist.", "By the beginning of 1855, normalcy had returned to the streets of Ballarat, with mounted patrols no longer being a feature of daily life.Among the government officials, although Foster was made a scapegoat for the affair at Eureka, he remained a member of the Legislative Council.", "He briefly served on the parliamentary executive as treasurer before returning to England in 1857, where he published his speeches on the Eureka Rebellion.", "Rede was recalled from Ballarat and kept on full pay until 1855.He served as the sheriff at Geelong (1857), Ballarat (1868), and Melbourne (1877) and was the Commandant of the Volunteer Rifles, being the second-in-command at Port Phillip.In 1880 Rede was sheriff at the trial of Ned Kelly and an official witness to his execution.", "Hotham was promoted on 22 May 1855 when the title of the colony's chief executive was changed from lieutenant governor to governor.", "He died in Melbourne on New Year's Eve 1855, while in a coma after suffering from a severe cold.=== Trials for sedition and high treason ===An 1855 engraving in ''The Age'' of some of the rebels on trialThe first trial relating to the rebellion was a charge of sedition against Henry Seekamp of the ''Ballarat Times''.", "Seekamp was tried and convicted of seditious libel by a Melbourne jury on 23 January 1855 and, after a series of appeals, sentenced to six months imprisonment on 23 March.", "He was released from prison on 28 June 1855, three months early.", "During Seekamp's absence, Clara served as editor of the ''Ballarat Times''.Of the approximately 120 individuals detained after the battle, thirteen were put on trial for high treason.", "There were: Timothy Hayes, Raffaello Carboni, John Manning, John Joseph, Jan Vennick, James Beattie, Henry Reid, Michael Tuohy, James Macfie Campbell, William Molloy, Jacob Sorenson, Thomas Dignum, John Phelan.The African American John Joseph was the first rebel put on trial.", "Matters of fact were decided by a lay juries drawn from a general public that was largely sympathetic to the rebel cause.", "One of the junior counsels for Joseph was Butler Cole Aspinall, who appeared pro bono.", "Formerly chief of parliamentary reporting for ''The Argus'' before returning to practice, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly in the wake of the Eureka trials.", "He received many other criminal briefs later in his legal career, including that of Henry James O’Farrell, who was indicted for an 1868 assassination attempt on the Duke of Edinburgh in Sydney.", "Gavan Duffy said of Aspinall that he was: \"one of the half-dozen men whose undoubted genius gave the Parliament of Victoria a first place among colonial legislatures.", "\"The jury's verdict of not guilty was greeted by applause, with two men being sentenced to a week in prison for contempt of court.", "Over 10,000 people had come to hear the jury's verdict.", "Joseph was carried around the streets of Melbourne in a chair in triumph, according to ''The Ballarat Star''.Manning's case was heard next.", "The indicted rebels were acquitted in quick succession, with the last five all being tried together on 27 March.", "The lead defence counsel Archibald Michie observed that the proceedings had become \"weary, stale, flat, dull and unprofitable.\"", "The trials have, on several occasions, been described as a farce.Thousands of Melbourne residents celebrated the acquittal of the rebels, and paraded them through the streets upon their release from the Victorian Supreme Court.As Molony points out, the legality of putting a foreign national on trial for treason had been settled as far back as 1649.A difficulty the Crown prosecutor faced regarding the mens rea was that:The Colonial Secretary Lord John Russell rebuked Hotham over the decision to prosecute the captured rebels, saying in a despatch:=== Commission of Inquiry report ===On 14 December 1854, the goldfields commission sat for the first time.", "The first Ballarat session was held four days later at Bath's Hotel.", "In a meeting with Hotham on 8 January 1855, the goldfields commissioners made an interim recommendation that the mining tax be scrapped, and two days later made a submission advising a general amnesty be granted for all those rebels on the run from the Eureka Stockade.The commission's final report into the Victorian goldfields was presented to Hotham on 27 March 1855.It was scathing in its assessment of the administration of the goldfields, particularly the Eureka Stockade affair.", "Within 12 months, all but one of the demands of the Ballarat Reform League were implemented.", "The changes included the abolition of gold licences to be replaced with an export duty.", "An annual 1-pound miner's right that entitles the holder to voting rights for the lower house and a land deed was introduced.", "Mining wardens replaced the gold commissioners, and there was a reduction in police numbers.", "The Legislative Council was reconstituted to provide representation for the major gold field settlements.Concerning the tensions caused by the Chinese presence on the goldfields, the report states inter alia:The legislative remedy came in the form of a poll tax, assented to on 12 June 1855, made payable by Chinese immigrants.Humffray commended the report in a letter to the editor, saying:=== Peter Lalor enters parliament ===Rebel leader Peter Lalor in later life as Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of VictoriaLalor, in his letter to the colonists of Victoria, lamented that:In July 1855, the Victorian Constitution received royal assent, which provided for a fully elected bicameral parliament, with a new Legislative Assembly of 60 seats and a reformed Legislative Council of 30 seats.", "The franchise was available to all holders of the miner's right for the inaugural Legislative Assembly election, with members of parliament themselves subject to property qualifications.", "In the interim, five representatives from the mining settlements were appointed to the old part elected Legislative Council, including Lalor and Hummfray in Ballarat.Lalor is said to have \"aroused hostility among his digger constituents\" by not supporting the principle of one vote, one value.", "He instead preferred the existing property-based franchise and plural voting, where ownership of a certain number of holdings conferred the right to cast multiple ballots.", "In the event when the ''Electoral Act of 1856'' (Vic) was enacted, these provisions were not carried forward.", "Universal adult male suffrage was then introduced in 1857 for Legislative Assembly elections.On another occasion, there were 17,745 signatures from Ballarat residents on a petition against a regressive land ownership bill Lalor supported that favoured the \"squattocracy,\" who came from pioneering families who had acquired their prime agricultural land through occupation and were not of a mind to give up their monopoly on the countryside, nor political representation.", "He is on record as having been opposed to payment for members of the Legislative Council, which had been another key demand of the Ballarat Reform League.", "In November 1855, under the new constitutional arrangements, Lalor was elected unopposed to the Legislative Assembly for the seat of North Grenville, which he held from 1856 to 1859.Withers and others have noted that those who considered Lalor a legendary folk hero were surprised that was more concerned with accumulating styles and estates than securing any gains from the Eureka Rebellion.", "Lalor was found wanting by a critical mass of his supporters, who had hitherto sustained his political career.", "Lynch recalls that:Under pressure from constituents to clarify his position, in a letter dated 1 January 1857 published in the ''Ballarat Star'', Lalor described his political ideology in the following terms:From there on, he never represented a Ballarat-based constituency again.", "He successfully contested the Melbourne seat of South Grant in the Legislative Assembly in 1859, until being twice defeated at the polls in 1871, on the second occasion contesting the seat of North Melbourne.", "In 1874 he was again elected as the member for South Grant, which he represented in parliament until he died in 1889.Lalor served as chairman of committees from 1859 to 1868, before being sworn into the ministry.", "He was first appointed as Commissioner of Trade and Customs in 1875, an office he held throughout 1877-1880, riding the fortunes of his parliamentary faction.", "He was briefly Postmaster-General of Victoria from May to July 1877.Lalor served as the speaker from 1880 and 1887.When his health situation forced him to step down, parliament awarded him a sum of 4,000 pounds.", "Lalor twice refused to accept the highest Imperial honour of a British knighthood." ], [ "Location of Bakery Hill and the Eureka Stockade", "In 1931, R. S. Reed claimed that \"an old tree stump on the south side of Victoria Street, near Humffray Street, is the historic tree at which the pioneer diggers gathered in the days before the Eureka Stockade to discuss their grievances against the officialdom of the time.\"", "Reed called for the formation of a committee of citizens to \"beautify the spot, and to preserve the tree stump\" upon which Lalor addressed the assembled rebels during the oath swearing ceremony.", "It was also reported the stump \"has been securely fenced in, and the enclosed area is to be planted with floriferous trees.", "The spot is adjacent to Eureka, which is famed alike for the stockade fight and for the fact that the Welcome Nugget.", "(sold for £10,500) was discovered in 1858 within a stone's throw of it.\"", "A 2015 report commissioned by the City of Ballarat found that given documentary evidence and its elevation, the most likely location of the oath swearing ceremony is 29 St. Paul's Way, Bakery Hill.", "As of 2016, the area was a car park awaiting residential development.As the materials used by the rebels to fortify the Eureka lead were quickly removed and the landscape altered by mining, the exact location of the Eureka Stockade is unknown.", "Various studies have been undertaken that have arrived at different conclusions.", "In 1994, Jack Harvey conducted an exhaustive survey and concluded that the Eureka Stockade Memorial is situated within the confines of the historical Eureka Stockade." ], [ "Political legacy", "The actual political significance of the Eureka Rebellion is contested.", "It has been variously interpreted as a revolt of free men against imperial tyranny, of independent free enterprise against burdensome taxation, of labour against a privileged ruling class, or as an expression of republicanism.", "Some historians believe that the prominence of the event in the public record has come about because Australian history does not include a major armed rebellion phase equivalent to the French Revolution, the English Civil War, or the American War of Independence, making the Eureka story inflated well beyond its real importance.", "Others maintain that Eureka was a seminal event and that it marked a major change in the course of Australian history.In modern times, there have been calls for the official Australian national flag to be replaced by the Eureka Flag.In his eyewitness account, Carboni stated that \"amongst the foreigners ... there was no democratic feeling, but merely a spirit of resistance to the licence fee.\"", "He also disputes the accusations \"that have branded the miners of Ballarat as disloyal to their QUEEN.", "\"American author Mark Twain, who journeyed to Ballarat, noted how the Eureka Rebellion was well remembered by locals, likening it to the battles of Concord and Battle of Lexington in his 1897 travel book ''Following the Equator''.", "Concerning the legacy of the battle, he stated: H. V. Evatt, leader of the ALP, wrote that \"Australian democracy was born at Eureka.\"", "Liberal Prime Minister Robert Menzies said, \"the Eureka revolution was an earnest attempt at democratic government.\"", "Ben Chifley, former ALP Prime Minister, believed the Eureka Rebellion was not just a \"short-lived revolt against tyrannical authority\" and expressed the view that it was consequential in terms of Australia's development as a nation in that \"it was the first real affirmation of our determination to be masters of our own political destiny.", "\"Blainey has described Evatt's view as \"slightly inflammatory\" for such reasons as the first parliamentary elections in Australian history actually took place in South Australia, albeit according to a more limited property-based franchise, observing that it had been a battle cry for nationalists, republicans, liberals, radicals, and communists with \"each creed finding in the rebellion the lessons they liked to see.\"", "He acknowledged that the inaugural parliament that convened under Victoria's revised constitution \"was alert to the democratic spirit of the goldfields.\"", "The parliament eventually passed laws that enabled all adult males to vote by secret ballot and contest Legislative Assembly elections.Blainey also drew attention to the fact that many miners were temporary migrants from Britain and the United States, who did not intend to settle permanently in Australia, saying:In 1999, the Premier of New South Wales, Bob Carr, dismissed the Eureka Stockade as a \"protest without consequence.\"", "Deputy Prime Minister John Anderson made the Eureka Flag a federal election campaign issue in 2004 saying \"I think people have tried to make too much of the Eureka Stockade ... trying to give it a credibility and standing that it probably doesn't enjoy.\"", "In the opening address of the Eureka 150 Democracy Conference in 2004, the Premier of Victoria, Steve Bracks, said \"that Eureka was about the struggle for basic democratic rights.", "It was not about a riot—it was about rights.\"" ], [ "Commemoration", "The Eureka Stockade Monument in Ballarat, erected in 1884''Eureka Stockade'' by Beryl Ireland 1890–1900.This artwork is believed to be an over-painted photographic print of a painted canvas by Izett Watson and Thaddeus Welch exhibited as part of a cyclorama in Fitzroy around 1891.===19th century===Following an earlier meeting on 22 November 1855 held at the location of the stockade where calls for compensation were made, Carboni returned to the rebel burial ground for the first anniversary of the battle and remained for the day selling copies of his self-published memoirs.", "In 1856, for the second anniversary, veteran John Lynch gave a speech as several hundred people gathered at the Eureka lead before a march to the local cemetery to remember the fall of the Eureka Stockade.", "There was a collection to building railings around the Eureka burial ground.On 22 March 1856, a diggers' memorial was erected in the Ballaarat Old Cemetery near marked graves.", "Sculpted in stone from the Barrabool Hills by James Leggatt in Geelong, it features a pillar with the names of the deceased miners and the inscription \"Sacred to the memory of those who fell on the memorable 3 December 1854 in resisting the unconstitutional proceedings of the Victorian Government.", "\"In 1857, the anniversary was much more low-key and was marked by \"some of the friends of those who fell to decorate their tombs with flowers ... the occasion will be passed over without any public demonstrations...\" In 1858, at the appointed time, there was only a crowd of seven people at the cemetery, two of whom were journalists.", "The ''Ballarat Star'' report \"deplored the general lack of interest and neglected condition of the graves.", "\"The soldiers were buried in the same cemetery as the rebels.", "In August 1872, the area surrounding the soldiers' graves was enclosed with a fence.", "A soldiers' memorial was constructed in 1879, an obelisk constructed of limestone sourced from Waurn Ponds with the words \"Victoria\" and \"Duty\" carved in its north and south faces, respectively.In the 1860s and 1870s, press interest in the events that had taken place at the Eureka Stockade dwindled, with the anniversary rating the occasional reference in the ''Courier'' and ''Star''.", "Eureka was kept alive at the campfires, pubs, and at memorial events in Ballarat.", "Key living figures such as Lalor and Humffray were still in the public eye.The Eureka Stockade Monument located within the Eureka Stockade Gardens dates from 1884 and has been added to the Australian National Heritage List.", "A meeting was held at the partially completed monument on 3 December 1884.It appears there were no further gatherings at the Eureka Stockade Monument until the 50th-anniversary commemorations in 1904.For at least ten years, beginning in 1884, the Old Colonists' Association held a service on or around the anniversary at Ballarat's Eastern Oval in conjunction with its annual charity appeal.", "There was some reference made to the Eureka Stockade.", "It was sometimes preceded by a march from the Old Colonists' Hall in Lydiard Street.Some of the earliest recorded examples of the Eureka Flag being used as a symbol of white nationalism and trade unionism are from the late 19th century.", "According to an oral tradition, the Eureka Flag was displayed at a seaman's union protest against using cheap Asian labour on ships at Circular Quay in 1878.In August 1890, the Eureka Flag was draped from a platform in front of a crowd of 30,000 protesters assembled at the Yarra Bank in Melbourne in a show of solidarity with maritime workers.", "There was a similar flag flown prominently above the camp at Barcaldine during the 1891 Australian shearers' strike.In 1889, Melbourne businessmen employed renowned American cyclorama artist Thaddeus Welch, who teamed up with local artist Izett Watson to paint a canvas of the Eureka Stockade, wrapped around a wooden structure.", "When it opened in Melbourne, the exhibition was an instant hit.", "''The Age'' reported in 1891 that \"it afforded a very good opportunity for people to see what it might have been like at Eureka.\"", "''The Australasian'' stated, \"that many persons familiar with the incidents depicted, were able to testify to the fidelity of the painted scene.\"", "The people of Melbourne flocked to the cyclorama, paid up and had their picture taken before it.", "Eventually, it was dismantled and disappeared from sight.===20th century===The Eureka Flag fragments donated by the King family to the Art Gallery of BallaratA 1954 handbill for a Eureka Stockade centenary commemoration event in SydneyThe 150th commemorations at the Eureka Centre, 3 December 2004For the 50th anniversary in 1904, around sixty veterans gathered for a reunion at the Eureka Stockade memorial with large crowds in attendance.", "According to one report, there was a procession and \"much cheering and enthusiasm along the line of route, and the old pioneers received a very hearty greeting.\"", "The crowd heard from several speakers, including Ballarat-born Richard Crouch MP, who \"was not at all satisfied that the necessity for revolt had at all ended; in fact, he rather advocated a revolt against conventionalism and political cant.", "\"In 1954 a committee of Ballarat locals was formed to coordinate events to mark the centenary of the Eureka Stockade.", "Historian Geoffrey Blainey, who was in Ballarat, recalls attending one function and finding that no one apart from a small group of communists was there.", "There was an oration at the Peter Lalor statue, a procession, a pageant at Sovereign Hill, a concert and dance, a dawn service, and a pilgrimage to the Eureka graves.", "The procession was headed by mounted police and servicemen from the Royal Australian Airforce base at Ballarat dressed in 1850s soldiers' uniforms.", "There were centenary commemoration events around Australia held under the auspices of the Communist Party of Australia, which in the 1940s named their youth organisation the Eureka Youth League.", "Catholic Church affiliates also endorsed a Eureka centenary supplement with commemorative events.Ballarat's best-known tourist destination, Sovereign Hill, was opened in November 1970 as an open-air museum set in the gold rush period.", "Since 1992, in commemoration of the Eureka Stockade, Sovereign Hill has featured a 90-minute son et lumière \"Blood Under the Southern Cross,\" a sound and light show attraction played under the night skies.", "It was revised and expanded in 2003.The Eureka Flag was temporarily on display at Sovereign Hill during 1987, while renovation work was being carried out at the Art Gallery of Ballarat.In 1973, Gough Whitlam gave a speech, to mark the largest and most celebrated fragments of the Eureka Flag donated by the descendants of John King going on permanent display at the Art Gallery of Ballarat.", "He predicted that: \"an event like Eureka, with all its associations, with all its potent symbolism, will acquire an aura of excitement and romance, and stir the imagination of the Australian people.", "\"A purpose-built interpretation centre was erected at the cost of $4 million in March 1998 in the suburb of Eureka near the Eureka Stockade memorial.", "Designed to be a new landmark for Ballarat, it was known as the Eureka Stockade Centre and then the Eureka Centre.", "The building originally featured an enormous sail emblazoned with the Eureka Flag.", "Before its development there was considerable debate over whether a replica or reconstruction of wooden structures was appropriate.", "It was eventually decided against, and this is seen by many as a reason for the apparent failure of the centre to draw significant tourist numbers.", "Due primarily to falling visitor numbers the \"controversial\" Eureka Centre was redeveloped between 2009 and 2011.In 2013 it was relaunched as the Museum of Australian Democracy at Eureka with the aid of a further $5 million in funding from both the Australian and Victorian governments and $1.1 million from the City of Ballarat.", "The centrepiece of MADE's collection was the \"King\" fragments of the Eureka Flag made available on loan from the Art Gallery of Ballarat, that represent 69.01% of the original specimen.", "In 2018, the City of Ballarat council resolved to assume responsibility for managing the facility.", "MADE was closed and since being reopened has been called the Eureka Centre Ballarat.===21st century===Melbourne's Eureka Tower has design features symbolic of the Eureka Rebellion.In 2004, the 150th anniversary of the Eureka Stockade was commemorated.", "In November, the Premier of Victoria Steve Bracks announced that the Ballarat V/Line rail service would be renamed the ''Eureka Line'' to mark the 150th anniversary, taking effect from late 2005 at the same time as the renaming of Spencer Street railway station to Southern Cross.", "The proposal was criticised by community groups including the Public Transport Users Association.", "Renaming of the line did not go ahead.", "The Spencer Street Station redesignation was announced in December 2005.Bracks stated that the change would resonate with Victorians because the Southern Cross \"stands for democracy and freedom because it flew over the Eureka Stockade.\"", "An Australian postage stamp featuring the Eureka Flag was released along with a set of commemorative coins.", "A ceremony in Ballarat known as the lantern walk was held at dawn.", "Prime Minister John Howard did not attend any commemorative events and refused to allow the Eureka Flag to fly over Parliament House.The Eureka Tower in Melbourne, completed in 2006, is named in honour of the rebellion and features symbolic aspects such as blue glass and white stripes in reference to both the Eureka Flag and a surveyor's measuring staff and a crown of gold glass with a red stripe to represent the blood spilled on the goldfields.In 2014, to mark the 160th anniversary of the Eureka Rebellion, the Australian Flag Society released a commemorative folk cartoon entitled ''Fall Back with the Eureka Jack'' that was inspired by the Eureka Jack mystery.In June 2022, the City of Ballarat, in conjunction with Eureka Australia, unveiled a new Pathway of Remembrance at the Eureka Stockade Memorial Park commemorating the \"35 men who lost their lives during the Eureka Stockade in 1854\"." ], [ "Popular culture", "The Eureka Rebellion has been the inspiration for numerous novels, poems, films, songs, plays and artworks.", "Much of the Eureka folklore relies heavily on Raffaello Canboni's 1855 book, ''The Eureka Stockade,'' which was the first and only comprehensive eyewitness account of the Eureka rebellion.", "Henry Lawson wrote a number of poems about Eureka, as have many novelists.", "There have been four motion pictures based on the uprising in Ballarat.", "The first was ''Eureka Stockade'', a 1907 silent film, the second feature film produced in Australia.", "There have been a number of plays and songs about the rebellion.", "The folk song ''German Teddy'' concerns Edward Thonen, one of the rebels who dies defending the Eureka Stockade." ], [ "See also", "* Eureka Flag* Republicanism and the Eureka Rebellion'''Australian rebellions:'''* Castle Hill convict rebellion* Darwin Rebellion* Rum Rebellion'''General:'''* History of Victoria" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Historiography=======Modern====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Primary sources===* * Ballarat Reform League Charter, 11 November 1854, VPRS 4066/P Unit 1, November no.", "69, VA 466 Governor (including Lieutenant Governor 1851–1855 and Governor's Office), ''Public Record Office Victoria''.", "* * * Evans, Charles, diary, 24 September 1853 – 21 January 1855, SLV, MS 11484, Box 1777/4 (formerly known as the \"Samuel Lazarus\" diary).", "* Huyghue, Samuel Douglas Smyth ''The Ballarat Riots'', 1854 held at the Mitchell Library, Sydney.", "* * Nicholls, H. R. (May 1890).", "''Reminiscences of the Eureka Stockade''.", "The Centennial Magazine: An Australian Monthly.", "II: August 1889 to July 1890 (available in an annual compilation).", "* Pierson, Thomas, diary, SLV, MS 11646, Box 2178/4-5.", "* R. E. Johns Papers, MS10075, Manuscript Collection, La Trobe Library, State Library of Victoria.", "* Taylor, Theophilus, diary, 23 September 1853 – 1 August 1856, Ballarat Genealogy Society.", "* * * ====Other contemporaneous reports====* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Eureka on Trial – Public Record Office Victoria* Eurekapedia* Eureka Stockade timeline – State Library of Victoria* Eureka Stockade – Australian Government* Heretic Press – Ballarat 3rd Dec 1854* The Australian Gold Rush – Australian Government* The Eureka Flag, 1854 NSW Migration Heritage Centre statement of historical significance* The Eureka Rebellion Radical nationalist database* 150th Anniversary of the Eureka Stockade – Official site" ], [ "External links", "* Art Gallery of Ballarat* Ballarat and District Genealogical Society* Ballarat Heritage Services* Ballarat Historical Society* Ballarat Reform League Inc.* Eureka Australia* Eureka Centre Ballarat* Public Record Office Victoria* Sovereign Hill/Gold Museum* State Library of Victoria* The C. J.", "La Trobe Society" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Escape from New York" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Escape from New York''''' is a 1981 American science fiction action film co-written, co-scored and directed by John Carpenter, and starring Kurt Russell, Lee Van Cleef, Ernest Borgnine, Donald Pleasence, Isaac Hayes, Adrienne Barbeau and Harry Dean Stanton.The film's storyline, set in the near-future world of 1997, concerns a crime-ridden United States, which has converted Manhattan Island in New York City into the country's sole maximum security prison.", "Air Force One is hijacked by anti-government insurgents who deliberately crash it into the walled borough.", "Ex-soldier and current federal prisoner Snake Plissken (Russell) is given just 24 hours to go in and rescue the President of the United States, after which, if successful, he will be pardoned.Carpenter wrote the film in the mid-1970s in reaction to the Watergate scandal.", "After the success of ''Halloween'' (1978), he had enough influence to begin production and filmed it mainly in St. Louis, Missouri, on an estimated budget of $6 million.", "Debra Hill and Larry J. Franco served as the producers.", "The film was co-written by Nick Castle, who had collaborated with Carpenter by portraying Michael Myers in ''Halloween''.Released in the United States on July 10, 1981, the film received positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success, grossing more than $25.2 million at the box office.", "The film was nominated for four Saturn Awards, including Best Science Fiction Film and Best Direction.", "The film became a cult classic and was followed by a sequel, ''Escape from L.A.'' (1996), which was also directed and written by Carpenter and starred Russell." ], [ "Plot", "In a dystopian 1988, amidst war against an alliance of China and the Soviet Union, the United States government has turned Manhattan into a maximum security prison to address a 400% increase in crime.", "The island is walled off from the outside world and under heavy police surveillance.In 1997, while flying President John Harker to a peace summit in Hartford, Air Force One is hijacked by a terrorist.", "The President is handcuffed with a briefcase and put into an escape pod that drops into Manhattan as the aircraft crashes.Police are dispatched to rescue the President.", "Romero, the right-hand man of the Duke of New York, a powerful crime boss, warns them that the President has been captured and will be killed if any further rescue attempts are made.", "Meanwhile, former Special Forces soldier Snake Plissken is about to be sent into Manhattan after being convicted of robbing the Federal Reserve.", "Police Commissioner Bob Hauk offers a deal to Snake: if he rescues the President in time for the summit, Hauk will arrange a presidential pardon for Snake.", "To ensure Snake's compliance, Hauk has him injected with micro-explosives that will sever his carotid arteries in 22 hours.", "If Snake is successful, Hauk will neutralize the explosives.Snake uses a stealth glider to land atop the World Trade Center, then follows the signal of the President's tracking device to a vaudeville theater, only to find that the tracker now hangs from the wrist of a deluded vagrant.", "Convinced the President is dead, Snake radios Hauk but is told he will be killed if he returns without the President.", "Inspecting the escape pod, Snake is ambushed by dozens of starving \"crazies\" and his radio is destroyed.", "He is rescued by \"Cabbie\", a jovial character who drives a yellow taxi.Cabbie takes Snake to Harold \"Brain\" Hellman, an adviser to the Duke and a former associate of Snake's.", "A skilled engineer, Brain has established a small gasoline refinery fueling the city's remaining cars; he tells Snake that the Duke plans to lead a mass escape across the 69th Street Bridge by using the President as a human shield.", "Snake forces Brain and his girlfriend Maggie to lead him to the Duke's hideout at Grand Central Terminal.", "Snake finds the President but gets shot in the leg with a crossbow bolt and is overpowered by the Duke's men.While Snake is forced to fight against Duke's champion Slag in a deathmatch, Brain and Maggie kill Romero and flee with the President.", "Snake kills Slag and finds the trio trying to escape in the glider.", "Inmates drop the glider off the roof, following which the group returns to street level and encounters Cabbie, who offers to take them across the bridge.", "Cabbie reveals that he bartered with Romero for a cassette tape that contains information about nuclear fusion, intended to be an international peace offering.", "The President demands the cassette, but Snake retains it.The Duke pursues them onto the bridge in his customized Cadillac, setting off mines as he tries to catch up.", "Brain guides Snake, but they hit a mine and Cabbie is killed.", "As they continue on foot, Brain accidentally stumbles onto another mine.", "A distraught Maggie sacrifices herself to slow down the Duke.", "Snake and the President reach the containment wall and guards hoist the President up.", "The Duke opens fire with Snake's MAC-10, killing the guards before Snake subdues him.", "As Snake is being lifted up by the rope the Duke attempts to shoot him, but the President takes up a dead guard's rifle and kills the Duke.", "Snake is hoisted to safety and Hauk's doctor removes the explosives with seconds to spare.As the President prepares for a televised speech to the leaders at the summit meeting, he thanks Snake for saving him but offers only half-hearted regret for the deaths of his colleagues; Snake walks away in disgust.", "Hauk offers Snake a job as his deputy but he keeps walking.", "The President's speech commences and he plays the cassette.", "To his embarrassment, it only plays Cabbie's favorite song, \"Bandstand Boogie\".", "As Snake walks away a free man, he pulls the real cassette from his pocket and destroys it." ], [ "Cast", "In addition, frequent Carpenter collaborators Nancy Stephens appeared as the \"Hijacker\" and Buck Flower appeared as the \"Drunk with the president's tracker\", respectively, while then-active professional wrestler Ox Baker played \"Slag\".", "The narrator was voiced by an uncredited Jamie Lee Curtis.", "Actor Joe Unger filmed scenes as Snake's partner-in-crime Bill Taylor, but they were cut from the final film." ], [ "Production", "===Development and writing===Carpenter originally wrote the screenplay for ''Escape from New York'' in 1976, in the aftermath of Nixon's Watergate scandal.", "Carpenter said, \"The whole feeling of the nation was one of real cynicism about the president.\"", "He wrote the screenplay, but no studio wanted to make it because, according to Carpenter, \"it was too violent, too scary, and too weird\".", "He had been inspired by the film ''Death Wish'', which was very popular at the time.", "He did not agree with this film's philosophy, but liked how it conveyed \"the sense of New York as a kind of jungle, and I wanted to make a science-fiction film along these lines\".International Film Investors agreed to provide 50% of the budget, and Goldcrest Films signed a co-financing deal with them.", "They ended up providing £720,000 of the budget and making a profit of £672,000 from their investment after earning £1,392,000.===Casting===AVCO Embassy Pictures, the film's financial backer, preferred Charles Bronson, Tommy Lee Jones or Chuck Norris to play the role of Snake Plissken to Carpenter's choice of Kurt Russell, who was trying to overcome the \"lightweight\" screen image conveyed by his roles in several Disney comedies.", "Carpenter refused to cast Bronson on the grounds that he was too old, and because he worried that he could lose directorial control over the film with an experienced actor.", "At the time, Russell described his character as \"a mercenary, and his style of fighting is a combination of Bruce Lee, The Exterminator, and Darth Vader, with Eastwood's vocal-ness.\"", "Russell suggested that the character should wear an eyepatch.", "All that matters to Snake, according to the actor, is \"the next 60 seconds.", "Living for exactly that next minute is all there is.\"", "Russell used a rigorous diet and exercise program to develop a lean and muscular build.", "He also endeavored to stay in character between takes and throughout the shooting, as he welcomed the opportunity to get away from the Disney comedies he had done previously.", "He did find it necessary to remove the eyepatch between takes, as wearing it constantly seriously affected his depth perception.===Pre-production===Carpenter had just made ''Dark Star'', but no one wanted to hire him as a director, so he assumed he would make it in Hollywood as a screenwriter.", "The filmmaker went on to do other films with the intention of making ''Escape'' later.", "After the success of ''Halloween'', Avco-Embassy signed producer Debra Hill and him to a two-picture deal.", "The first film from this contract was ''The Fog''.", "Initially, the second film he was going to make to finish the contract was ''The Philadelphia Experiment'', but because of script-writing problems, Carpenter rejected it in favor of this project.", "However, Carpenter felt something was missing and recalls, \"This was basically a straight action film.", "And at one point, I realized it really doesn't have this kind of crazy humor that people from New York would expect to see.\"", "He brought in Nick Castle, a friend from his film-school days at University of Southern California, who played \"The Shape\" in ''Halloween''.", "Castle invented the Cabbie character and came up with the film's ending.The film's setting proved to be a potential problem for Carpenter, who needed to create a decaying, semi-destroyed version of New York City on a shoestring budget.", "The film's production designer Joe Alves and he rejected shooting on location in New York City because it would be too hard to make it look like a destroyed city.", "Carpenter suggested shooting on a movie back lot, but Alves nixed that idea \"because the texture of a real street is not like a back lot.\"", "They sent Barry Bernardi, their location manager (and associate producer), \"on a sort of all-expense-paid trip across the country looking for the worst city in America,\" producer Debra Hill remembers.Bernardi suggested East St. Louis, Illinois because it was filled with old buildings \"that exist in New York now, and that have that seedy run-down quality\" that the team was looking for.", "East St. Louis, sitting across the Mississippi River from the more prosperous St. Louis, Missouri, had entire neighborhoods burned out in 1976 during a massive urban fire.", "Hill said in an interview, \"block after block was burnt-out rubble.", "In some places, there was absolutely nothing, so that you could see three and four blocks away.\"", "Also, Alves found an old bridge to serve as the \"69th St. Bridge\".", "The filmmaker purchased the Old Chain of Rocks Bridge for one dollar from the government and then gave it back to them, for the same amount, once production was completed, \"so that they wouldn't have any liability,\" Hill remembers.", "Locations across the river in St. Louis were used, including Union Station and the Fox Theatre, both of which have since been renovated, as well as the building that would eventually become the Schlafly Tap Room microbrewery.===Filming===Carpenter and his crew persuaded the city to shut off the electricity to 10 blocks at a time at night.", "The film was shot from August to November 1980.It was a tough and demanding shoot for the filmmaker as he recalls.", "\"We'd finish shooting at about 6 am and I'd just be going to sleep at 7 when the sun would be coming up.", "I'd wake up around 5 or 6 pm, depending on whether or not we had dailies, and by the time I got going, the sun would be setting.", "So for about two and a half months I never saw daylight, which was really strange.\"", "The gladiatorial fight to the death scene between Snake and Slag (played by professional wrestler Ox Baker) was filmed in the Grand Hall at St. Louis Union Station.", "Russell has stated, \"That day was a nightmare.", "All I did was swing a spiked bat at that guy and get swung at in return.", "He threw a trash can in my face about five times ...", "I could have wound up in pretty bad shape.\"", "In addition to shooting on location in St. Louis, Carpenter shot parts of the film in Los Angeles.", "Various interior scenes were shot on a sound stage; the final scenes were shot at the Sepulveda Dam in Sherman Oaks.", "New York served as a location, as did Atlanta, to use their futuristic-looking rapid-transit system (the latter scenes were cut from the final film).", "In New York City, Carpenter persuaded federal officials to grant access to Liberty Island.", "\"We were the first film company in history allowed to shoot on Liberty Island at the Statue of Liberty at night.", "They let us have the whole island to ourselves.", "We were lucky.", "It wasn't easy to get that initial permission.", "They'd had a bombing three months earlier and were worried about trouble\".The simulated wire-frame effectCarpenter was interested in creating two distinct looks for the movie.", "\"One is the police state, high tech, lots of neon, a United States dominated by underground computers.", "That was easy to shoot compared to the Manhattan Island prison sequences, which had few lights, mainly torch lights, like feudal England\".", "Certain matte paintings were rendered by James Cameron, who was at the time a special-effects artist with Roger Corman's New World Pictures.", "Cameron was also one of the directors of photography on the film.", "As Snake pilots the glider into the city, three screens on his control panel display wireframe animations of the landing target on the World Trade Center and surrounding buildings.", "Carpenter initially wanted high-tech computer graphics, which were very expensive, even for such a simple animation.", "The effects crew filmed the miniature model set of New York City they used for other scenes under black light, with reflective tape placed along every edge of the model buildings.", "Only the tape is visible and appears to be a three-dimensional wireframe animation." ], [ "Music", "===Soundtrack===" ], [ "Release", "===Home media=======LaserDisc releases====''Escape from New York'' was released on LaserDisc 10 times between 1983 and 1998.A 1994 Collector's Edition includes a commentary track by John Carpenter and Kurt Russell that is still included on more recent DVD releases of the film.====DVD releases====''Escape from New York'' was released on DVD twice by MGM (USA), and once by Momentum Pictures (UK).", "One MGM release is a barebones edition containing just the theatrical trailer.", "Another version is the Collector's Edition, a two-disc set featuring a high definition remastered transfer with a 5.1 stereo audio track, two commentaries (one by John Carpenter and Kurt Russell, another by producer Debra Hill and Joe Alves), a making-of featurette, the first issue of a comic book series titled ''John Carpenter's Snake Plissken Chronicles'', and the 10-minute Colorado bank robbery deleted opening sequence.MGM's special edition of the 1981 film was not released until 2003 because the original negative had gone missing.", "The workprint containing deleted scenes finally turned up in the Hutchinson, Kansas, salt-mine film depository.", "The excised scenes feature Snake Plissken robbing a bank, introducing the character of Plissken and establishing a backstory.", "Director John Carpenter decided to add the original scenes into the special edition release as an extra only: \"After we screened the rough cut, we realized that the movie didn't really start until Snake got to New York.", "It wasn't necessary to show what sent him there.\"", "The film has been released on the UMD format for Sony's PlayStation Portable.====Blu-ray release====On August 3, 2010, MGM Home Entertainment released ''Escape From New York'' as a bare-bones Blu-ray.", "Scream Factory, in association with Shout!", "Factory, released the film on a special edition Blu-ray on April 21, 2015." ], [ "Reception", "===Box office===''Escape from New York'' opened in New York and Los Angeles July 10, 1981.The film grossed $25.2 million in American theaters in summer 1981.===Critical response===The film received generally positive reviews.", "''Newsweek'' magazine wrote of Carpenter: \"He has a deeply ingrained B-movie sensibility – which is both his strength and limitation.", "He does clean work, but settles for too little.", "He uses Russell well, however\".", "In ''Time'' magazine, Richard Corliss wrote, \"John Carpenter is offering this summer's moviegoers a rare opportunity: to escape from the air-conditioned torpor of ordinary entertainment into the hothouse humidity of their own paranoia.", "It's a trip worth taking\".", "Vincent Canby, in his review for ''The New York Times'', wrote, \"The film is not to be analyzed too solemnly, though.", "It's a toughly told, very tall tale, one of the best escape (and escapist) movies of the season\".", "On the other hand, in his negative review for the ''Chicago Reader'', critic Dave Kehr, wrote \"it fails to satisfy – it gives us too little of too much\".Christopher John reviewed ''Escape from New York'' in ''Ares Magazine'' #10 and commented that \"It is solid summer entertainment of unusually high caliber.", "By not pretending to be more than it is, but by also not settling for any ''less'' than it could be, ''Escape'' becomes an exciting, fast-moving drama, the likes of which we haven't seen in years.", "\"On Rotten Tomatoes it received an 86% positive rating based on reviews from 66 critics, with an average score of 7.20/10.The site's critical consensus was: \"Featuring an atmospherically grimy futuristic metropolis, ''Escape from New York'' is a strange, entertaining jumble of thrilling action and oddball weirdness\".", "On Metacritic it has a score of 76% based on reviews from 12 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".===Legacy===Cyberpunk pioneer William Gibson credits the film as an influence on his 1984 science fiction novel ''Neuromancer''.", "\"I was intrigued by the exchange in one of the opening scenes where the Warden says to Snake 'You flew the Gullfire over Leningrad, didn't you?'", "It turns out to be just a throwaway line, but for a moment it worked like the best SF where a casual reference can imply a lot\".", "Popular video game director Hideo Kojima copied aspects of the film for his ''Metal Gear'' series.", "Solid Snake heavily resembles the character Snake Plissken.", "In ''Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty'', Snake even uses the alias \"Pliskin\" to hide his real identity during most of the game.", "J. J. Abrams, producer of the 2008 film ''Cloverfield'', mentioned that a scene in his film, which shows the head of the Statue of Liberty crashing into a New York street, was inspired by the poster for ''Escape from New York''.", "''Empire'' magazine ranked Snake Plissken number 29 in their \"The 100 Greatest Movie Characters\" poll." ], [ "Other media", "===Sequels===A sequel, ''Escape from L.A.'', was released in 1996, with Carpenter returning along with Russell, now also acting as producer and co-writer.A remake for ''Escape from New York'' began development in 2007, when New Line Cinema won the rights to remake in a bidding war.", "Gerard Butler was attached to play Snake Plissken, Neal H. Moritz would produce through his Original Film company, and Ken Nolan would be in charge of the screenplay.", "Len Wiseman was announced to direct, but was later replaced by Brett Ratner, who also stepped off the project.", "In April 2010, Variety reported that Breck Eisner was being looked at to direct a remake of ''Escape from New York'', with David Kajganich and Allan Loeb providing revisions to the script.", "It was later announced in 2011 that New Line had dropped the remake completely.", "In January 2015, 20th Century Fox purchased the remake rights, with The Picture Company producing.", "In March 2017, it was announced that Robert Rodriguez would direct a remake of the film with Carpenter producing it.", "In February 2019, it was reported that Leigh Whannell will be writing the script after ''Luther'' creator Neil Cross completed a recent iteration of the project.", "Wyatt Russell, son of Kurt, was considered to portray Snake Plissken, but he expressed no interest in playing the role, considering it \"career suicide.\"", "On November 17, 2022, it was revealed that Radio Silence would be directing the film, with Andrew Rona, Alex Heineman, and Radio Silence producing, and Carpenter serving as an executive producer.", "They are currently searching for a writer.", "In December 2022, the film was confirmed to be a sequel, rather than a remake.===Novelization===In 1981, Bantam Books published a movie tie-in novelization written by Mike McQuay that adopts a lean, humorous style reminiscent of the film.", "The novel includes significant scenes that were cut from the film, such as the Federal Reserve Depository robbery that results in Snake's incarceration.", "The novel provides background on the relationship between Snake and Hauk—presenting the characters as disillusioned war veterans, and deepening the relationship that was only hinted in the film.", "The novel also explains how Snake lost his eye during the Battle for Leningrad in World War III, how Hauk became warden of New York, and Hauk's quest to find his crazed son, who lives somewhere in the prison.", "The novel gives greater detail on the world in which these characters live, at times presenting a future even bleaker than the one depicted in the film.", "It explains that the West Coast is a no-man's land, and the nation's population is gradually being driven insane by nerve gas as a result of World War III.", "The novel also clarifies that the president's plan for the cassette tape is not benevolent.", "Rather than presenting to the world a new energy source in the form of nuclear fusion (as claimed in the film), the tape actually reveals the successful development of a \"fallout-free thermonuclear weapon, which would grant the US supremacy in the global conflict.===Comic books===Marvel Comics released the one-shot ''The Adventures of Snake Plissken'' in January 1997.The story takes place sometime between ''Escape from New York'' and before his famous Cleveland escape mentioned in ''Escape from L.A.'' Snake has robbed Atlanta's Centers for Disease Control of some engineered metaviruses and is looking for buyers in Chicago.", "Finding himself in a deal that is really a set-up, he makes his getaway and exacts revenge on the buyer for ratting him out to the United States Police Force.", "In the meantime, a government lab has built a robot called ATACS (Autonomous Tracking And Combat System) that can catch criminals by imprinting their personalities upon its program to predict and anticipate a specific criminal's every move.", "The robot's first test subject is America's public enemy number one, Snake Plissken.", "After a brief battle, the tide turns when ATACS copies Snake to the point of fully becoming his personality.", "Now recognizing the government as the enemy, ATACS sides with Snake.", "Unamused, Snake sucker punches the machine and destroys it.", "As ATACS shuts down, it can only ask him, \"Why?\"", "Snake just walks off, answering, \"I don't need the competition\".In 2003, CrossGen published ''John Carpenter's Snake Plissken Chronicles'', a four-part comic book miniseries.", "The story takes place a day or so after the events of ''Escape from New York''.", "Snake has been given a military Humvee after his presidential pardon and makes his way to Atlantic City.", "Although the director's cut of ''Escape from New York'' shows Snake was caught after a bank job, this story has Snake finishing up a second heist that was planned before his capture.", "The job entails stealing the car in which John F. Kennedy was assassinated from a casino before delivering it to a buyer in the Gulf of Mexico.", "Snake partners with a man named Marrs who ends up double-crossing him.", "Left for dead in a sinking crab cage, Snake escapes and is saved by a passing fisherman named Captain Ron (an in-joke referring to Kurt Russell's 1992 comedy, ''Captain Ron'').", "When Ron denies Snake's request to use his boat to beat Marrs to the robbery, Snake decides to kill him.", "When Snake ends up saving Ron from the Russian mob, who wants money, Ron changes his mind and helps Snake.", "Once at the casino, Snake comes face-to-face with Marrs and his men, who arrive at the same time, ending in a high-speed shootout.", "Snake gets away with the car and its actress portraying Jackie Kennedy, leaving Marrs to be caught by the casino owner, who cuts him a deal to bring his car back and live.", "After some trouble, Snake manages to finally get the car to the buyer's yacht, using Ron's boat, and is then attacked by Marrs.", "Following the firefight, the yacht and car are destroyed, Marrs and Captain Ron are dead, and Snake makes his escape in a helicopter with the 30 million credits owed to him for the job.In 2014, BOOM!", "Studios began publishing an ''Escape from New York'' comic book by writer, Christopher Sebela.", "The first issue of the series was released on December 3, 2014, and the story picks up moments after the end of the film.BOOM!", "released a crossover comics miniseries between Snake and Jack Burton titled ''Big Trouble in Little China/ Escape from New York'' in October 2016.===Board games===An ''Escape from New York'' board game was released in 1981 by TSR, Inc. Another board game was crowd-funded in 2022.===Cancelled anime===In 2003, Carpenter was planning an anime spin-off of ''Escape from New York'', with ''Outlaw Star''s Mitsuru Hongo slated to direct.===Cancelled video game===A video game adaptation was in development in 2004-2005." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*John Walsh,''Escape From New York: The Official Story of the Film'', Titan Books, December 14, 2021." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * ''Escape from New York'' at John Carpenter's official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ethylene" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ethylene''' (IUPAC name: '''ethene''') is a hydrocarbon which has the formula or .", "It is a colourless, flammable gas with a faint \"sweet and musky\" odour when pure.", "It is the simplest alkene (a hydrocarbon with carbon–carbon double bonds).", "Ethylene is widely used in the chemical industry, and its worldwide production (over 150 million tonnes in 2016) exceeds that of any other organic compound.", "Much of this production goes toward creating polyethylene, which is a widely used plastic containing polymer chains of ethylene units in various chain lengths.", "Production emits greenhouse gas: including methane from feedstock production and carbon dioxide from any non-sustainable energy used.Ethylene is also an important natural plant hormone and is used in agriculture to induce the ripening of fruits.", "The hydrate of ethylene is ethanol." ], [ "Structure and properties", "Orbital description of bonding between ethylene and a transition metalThis hydrocarbon has four hydrogen atoms bound to a pair of carbon atoms that are connected by a double bond.", "All six atoms that comprise ethylene are coplanar.", "The H-C-H angle is 117.4°, close to the 120° for ideal sp² hybridized carbon.", "The molecule is also relatively weak: rotation about the C-C bond is a very low energy process that requires breaking the π-bond by supplying heat at 50 °C.The π-bond in the ethylene molecule is responsible for its useful reactivity.", "The double bond is a region of high electron density, thus it is susceptible to attack by electrophiles.", "Many reactions of ethylene are catalyzed by transition metals, which bind transiently to the ethylene using both the π and π* orbitals.Being a simple molecule, ethylene is spectroscopically simple.", "Its UV-vis spectrum is still used as a test of theoretical methods." ], [ "Uses", "Diagram of uses of etheneMajor industrial reactions of ethylene include in order of scale: 1) polymerization, 2) oxidation, 3) halogenation and hydrohalogenation, 4) alkylation, 5) hydration, 6) oligomerization, and 7) hydroformylation.", "In the United States and Europe, approximately 90% of ethylene is used to produce ethylene oxide, ethylene dichloride, ethylbenzene and polyethylene.", "Most of the reactions with ethylene are electrophilic addition.Main industrial uses of ethylene.", "Clockwise from the upper right: its conversions to ethylene oxide, precursor to ethylene glycol; to ethylbenzene, precursor to styrene; to various kinds of polyethylene; to ethylene dichloride, precursor to vinyl chloride.===Polymerization===Polyethylene production uses more than half of the world's ethylene supply.", "Polyethylene, also called ''polyethene'' and ''polythene'', is the world's most widely used plastic.", "It is primarily used to make films in packaging, carrier bags and trash liners.", "Linear alpha-olefins, produced by oligomerization (formation of short polymers) are used as precursors, detergents, plasticisers, synthetic lubricants, additives, and also as co-monomers in the production of polyethylenes.===Oxidation===Ethylene is oxidized to produce ethylene oxide, a key raw material in the production of surfactants and detergents by ethoxylation.", "Ethylene oxide is also hydrolyzed to produce ethylene glycol, widely used as an automotive antifreeze as well as higher molecular weight glycols, glycol ethers, and polyethylene terephthalate.Ethylene oxidation in the presence of a palladium catalyst can form acetaldehyde.", "This conversion remains a major industrial process (10M kg/y).", "The process proceeds via the initial complexation of ethylene to a Pd(II) center.===Halogenation and hydrohalogenation===Major intermediates from the halogenation and hydrohalogenation of ethylene include ethylene dichloride, ethyl chloride, and ethylene dibromide.", "The addition of chlorine entails \"oxychlorination\", i.e.", "chlorine itself is not used.", "Some products derived from this group are polyvinyl chloride, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, methyl chloroform, polyvinylidene chloride and copolymers, and ethyl bromide.===Alkylation===Major chemical intermediates from the alkylation with ethylene is ethylbenzene, precursor to styrene.", "Styrene is used principally in polystyrene for packaging and insulation, as well as in styrene-butadiene rubber for tires and footwear.", "On a smaller scale, ethyltoluene, ethylanilines, 1,4-hexadiene, and aluminium alkyls.", "Products of these intermediates include polystyrene, unsaturated polyesters and ethylene-propylene terpolymers.===Oxo reaction===The hydroformylation (oxo reaction) of ethylene results in propionaldehyde, a precursor to propionic acid and n-propyl alcohol.===Hydration===Ethylene has long represented the major nonfermentative precursor to ethanol.", "The original method entailed its conversion to diethyl sulfate, followed by hydrolysis.", "The main method practiced since the mid-1990s is the direct hydration of ethylene catalyzed by solid acid catalysts::C2H4 + H2O → CH3CH2OH===Dimerization to butenes===Ethylene is dimerized by hydrovinylation to give ''n''-butenes using processes licensed by Lummus or IFP.", "The Lummus process produces mixed ''n''-butenes (primarily 2-butenes) while the IFP process produces 1-butene.", "1-Butene is used as a comonomer in the production of certain kinds of polyethylene.===Fruit and flowering===Ethylene is a hormone that affects the ripening and flowering of many plants.", "It is widely used to control freshness in horticulture and fruits.", "The scrubbing of naturally occurring ethylene delays ripening.===Niche uses===An example of a niche use is as an anesthetic agent (in an 85% ethylene/15% oxygen ratio).", "Another use is as a welding gas.", "It is also used as a refrigerant gas for low temperature application under the name R-1150." ], [ "Production", "Global ethylene production was 107 million tonnes in 2005, 109 million tonnes in 2006, 138 million tonnes in 2010, and 141 million tonnes in 2011.By 2013, ethylene was produced by at least 117 companies in 32 countries.", "To meet the ever-increasing demand for ethylene, sharp increases in production facilities are added globally, particularly in the Mideast and in China.", "Production emits greenhouse gas, namely significant amounts of carbon dioxide.===Industrial process===Ethylene is produced by several methods in the petrochemical industry.", "A primary method is steam cracking (SC) where hydrocarbons and steam are heated to 750–950 °C.", "This process converts large hydrocarbons into smaller ones and introduces unsaturation.", "When ethane is the feedstock, ethylene is the product.", "Ethylene is separated from the resulting mixture by repeated compression and distillation.", "In Europe and Asia, ethylene is obtained mainly from cracking naphtha, gasoil and condensates with the coproduction of propylene, C4 olefins and aromatics (pyrolysis gasoline).", "Other technologies employed for the production of ethylene include Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and methanol-to-olefins (MTO).===Laboratory synthesis===Although of great value industrially, ethylene is rarely synthesized in the laboratory and is ordinarily purchased.", "It can be produced via dehydration of ethanol with sulfuric acid or in the gas phase with aluminium oxide or activated alumina.===Biosynthesis===Ethylene is produced from methionine in nature.", "The immediate precursor is 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid." ], [ "Ligand", "Chlorobis(ethylene)rhodium dimer is a well-studied complex of ethylene.Ethylene is a fundamental ligand in transition metal alkene complexes.", "One of the first organometallic compounds, Zeise's salt is a complex of ethylene.", "Useful reagents containing ethylene include Pt(PPh3)2(C2H4) and Rh2Cl2(C2H4)4.The Rh-catalysed hydroformylation of ethylene is conducted on an industrial scale to provide propionaldehyde." ], [ "History", "Some geologists and scholars believe that the famous Greek Oracle at Delphi (the Pythia) went into her trance-like state as an effect of ethylene rising from ground faults.Ethylene appears to have been discovered by Johann Joachim Becher, who obtained it by heating ethanol with sulfuric acid; he mentioned the gas in his ''Physica Subterranea'' (1669).", "Joseph Priestley also mentions the gas in his ''Experiments and observations relating to the various branches of natural philosophy: with a continuation of the observations on air'' (1779), where he reports that Jan Ingenhousz saw ethylene synthesized in the same way by a Mr. Enée in Amsterdam in 1777 and that Ingenhousz subsequently produced the gas himself.", "The properties of ethylene were studied in 1795 by four Dutch chemists, Johann Rudolph Deimann, Adrien Paets van Troostwyck, Anthoni Lauwerenburgh and Nicolas Bondt, who found that it differed from hydrogen gas and that it contained both carbon and hydrogen.", "This group also discovered that ethylene could be combined with chlorine to produce the ''oil of the Dutch chemists'', 1,2-dichloroethane; this discovery gave ethylene the name used for it at that time, ''olefiant gas'' (oil-making gas.)", "The term olefiant gas is in turn the etymological origin of the modern word \"olefin\", the class of hydrocarbons in which ethylene is the first member.In the mid-19th century, the suffix ''-ene'' (an Ancient Greek root added to the end of female names meaning \"daughter of\") was widely used to refer to a molecule or part thereof that contained one fewer hydrogen atoms than the molecule being modified.", "Thus, ''ethylene'' () was the \"daughter of ethyl\" ().", "The name ethylene was used in this sense as early as 1852.In 1866, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann proposed a system of hydrocarbon nomenclature in which the suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine, -one, and -une were used to denote the hydrocarbons with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 fewer hydrogens than their parent alkane.", "In this system, ethylene became ''ethene''.", "Hofmann's system eventually became the basis for the Geneva nomenclature approved by the International Congress of Chemists in 1892, which remains at the core of the IUPAC nomenclature.", "However, by that time, the name ethylene was deeply entrenched, and it remains in wide use today, especially in the chemical industry.Following experimentation by Luckhardt, Crocker, and Carter at the University of Chicago, ethylene was used as an anesthetic.", "It remained in use through the 1940s use even while chloroform was being phased out.", "Its pungent odor and its explosive nature limit its use today.===Nomenclature===The 1979 IUPAC nomenclature rules made an exception for retaining the non-systematic name ''ethylene''; however, this decision was reversed in the 1993 rules, and it remains unchanged in the newest 2013 recommendations, so the IUPAC name is now ''ethene''.", "In the IUPAC system, the name ''ethylene'' is reserved for the divalent group -CH2CH2-.", "Hence, names like ''ethylene oxide'' and ''ethylene dibromide'' are permitted, but the use of the name ''ethylene'' for the two-carbon alkene is not.", "Nevertheless, use of the name ''ethylene'' for H2C=CH2 (and propylene for H2C=CHCH3) is still prevalent among chemists in North America." ], [ "Greenhouse gas emissions", "“A key factor affecting petrochemicals life-cycle emissions is the methane intensity of feedstocks, especially in the production segment.” Emissions from cracking of naptha and natural gas(common in the US as gas is cheap there) depend a lot on the source of energy (for example gas burnt to provide high temperatures) but that from naptha is certainly more per kg of feedstock.", "Both steam cracking and production from natural gas via ethane are estimated to emit 1.8 to 2kg of CO2 per kg ethylene produced, totalling over 260 million tonnes a year.", "This is more than all other manufactured chemicals except cement and ammonia.", "According to a 2022 report using renewable or nuclear energy could cut emissions by almost half." ], [ "Safety", "Like all hydrocarbons, ethylene is a combustible asphyxiant.", "It is listed as an IARC class 3 carcinogen, since there is no current evidence that it causes cancer in humans." ], [ "See also", "*RediRipe, an ethylene detector in fruit." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* International Chemical Safety Card 0475* MSDS" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eiffel (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eiffel''' is an object-oriented programming language designed by Bertrand Meyer (an object-orientation proponent and author of ''Object-Oriented Software Construction'') and Eiffel Software.", "Meyer conceived the language in 1985 with the goal of increasing the reliability of commercial software development; the first version becoming available in 1986.In 2005, Eiffel became an ISO-standardized language.The design of the language is closely connected with the Eiffel programming method.", "Both are based on a set of principles, including design by contract, command–query separation, the uniform-access principle, the single-choice principle, the open–closed principle, and option–operand separation.Many concepts initially introduced by Eiffel later found their way into Java, C#, and other languages.", "New language design ideas, particularly through the Ecma/ISO standardization process, continue to be incorporated into the Eiffel language." ], [ "Characteristics", "The key characteristics of the Eiffel language include:* An object-oriented program structure in which a class serves as the basic unit of decomposition.", "* Design by contract tightly integrated with other language constructs.", "* Automatic memory management, typically implemented by garbage collection.", "* Inheritance, including multiple inheritance, renaming, redefinition, \"select\", non-conforming inheritance, and other mechanisms intended to make inheritance safe.", "* Constrained and unconstrained generic programming* A uniform type system handling both value and reference semantics in which all types, including basic types such as INTEGER, are class-based.", "* Static typing* Void safety, or static protection against calls on null references, through the attached-types mechanism.", "* Agents, or objects that wrap computations, closely connected with closures and lambda calculus.", "* ''Once'' routines, or routines evaluated only once, for object sharing and decentralized initialization.", "* Keyword-based syntax in the ALGOL/Pascal tradition but separator-free, insofar as semicolons are optional, with operator syntax available for routines.", "* Case insensitivity* Simple Concurrent Object-Oriented Programming (SCOOP) facilitates creation of multiple, concurrently active execution vehicles at a level of abstraction above the specific details of these vehicles (e.g.", "multiple threads without specific mutex management)." ], [ "Design goals", "Eiffel emphasizes declarative statements over procedural code and attempts to eliminate the need for bookkeeping instructions.Eiffel shuns coding tricks or coding techniques intended as optimization hints to the compiler.", "The aim is not only to make the code more readable, but also to allow programmers to concentrate on the important aspects of a program without getting bogged down in implementation details.", "Eiffel's simplicity is intended to promote simple, extensible, reusable, and reliable answers to computing problems.", "Compilers for computer programs written in Eiffel provide extensive optimization techniques, such as automatic in-lining, that relieve the programmer of part of the optimization burden.===Background===Eiffel was originally developed by Eiffel Software, a company founded by Bertrand Meyer.", "''Object-Oriented Software Construction'' contains a detailed treatment of the concepts and theory of the object technology that led to Eiffel's design.The design goal behind the Eiffel language, libraries, and programming methods is to enable programmers to create reliable, reusable software modules.", "Eiffel supports multiple inheritance, genericity, polymorphism, encapsulation, type-safe conversions, and parameter covariance.", "Eiffel's most important contribution to software engineering is design by contract (DbC), in which assertions, preconditions, postconditions, and class invariants are employed to help ensure program correctness without sacrificing efficiency.Eiffel's design is based on object-oriented programming theory, with only minor influence of other paradigms or concern for support of legacy code.", "Eiffel formally supports abstract data types.", "Under Eiffel's design, a software text should be able to reproduce its design documentation from the text itself, using a formalized implementation of the \"Abstract Data Type\".===Implementations and environments===EiffelStudio is an integrated development environment available under either an open source or a commercial license.", "It offers an object-oriented environment for software engineering.", "EiffelEnvision is a plug-in for Microsoft Visual Studio that allows users to edit, compile, and debug Eiffel projects from within the Microsoft Visual Studio IDE.", "Five other open source implementations are available: \"The Eiffel Compiler\" tecomp; Gobo Eiffel; SmartEiffel, the GNU implementation, based on an older version of the language; LibertyEiffel, based on the SmartEiffel compiler; and Visual Eiffel.Several other programming languages incorporate elements first introduced in Eiffel.", "Sather, for example, was originally based on Eiffel but has since diverged, and now includes several functional programming features.", "The interactive-teaching language Blue, forerunner of BlueJ, is also Eiffel-based.", "The Apple Media Tool includes an Eiffel-based Apple Media Language.===Specifications and standards===The Eiffel language definition is an international standard of the ISO.", "The standard was developed by ECMA International, which first approved the standard on 21 June 2005 as Standard ECMA-367, Eiffel: Analysis, Design and Programming Language.", "In June 2006, ECMA and ISO adopted the second version.", "In November 2006, ISO first published that version.", "The standard can be found and used free of charge on the ECMA site.", "The ISO version is identical in all respects except formatting.Eiffel Software, \"The Eiffel Compiler\" tecomp and Eiffel-library-developer Gobo have committed to implementing the standard; Eiffel Software's EiffelStudio 6.1 and \"The Eiffel Compiler\" tecomp implement some of the major new mechanisms—in particular, inline agents, assigner commands, bracket notation, non-conforming inheritance, and attached types.", "The SmartEiffel team has turned away from this standard to create its own version of the language, which they believe to be closer to the original style of Eiffel.", "Object Tools has not disclosed whether future versions of its Eiffel compiler will comply with the standard.", "LibertyEiffel implements a dialect somewhere in between the SmartEiffel language and the standard.The standard cites the following, predecessor Eiffel-language specifications:* Bertrand Meyer: ''Eiffel: The Language'', Prentice Hall, second printing, 1992 (first printing: 1991)* Bertrand Meyer: ''Standard Eiffel'' (revision of preceding entry), ongoing, 1997–present, at Bertrand Meyer's ETL3 page, and* Bertrand Meyer: ''Object-Oriented Software Construction'', Prentice Hall: first edition, 1988; second edition, 1997.", "* Bertrand Meyer: ''Touch of Class: Learning to Program Well with Objects and Contracts'', Springer-Verlag, 2009 lxiv + 876 pages Full-color printing, numerous color photographsThe current version of the standard from June 2006 contains some inconsistencies (e.g.", "covariant redefinitions).", "The ECMA committee has not yet announced any timeline and direction on how to resolve the inconsistencies." ], [ "Syntax and semantics", "===Overall structure===An Eiffel \"system\" or \"program\" is a collection of ''classes''.", "Above the level of classes, Eiffel defines ''cluster'', which is essentially a group of classes, and possibly of ''subclusters'' (nested clusters).", "Clusters are not a syntactic language construct, but rather a standard organizational convention.", "Typically an Eiffel program will be organized with each class in a separate file, and each cluster in a directory containing class files.", "In this organization, subclusters are subdirectories.", "For example, under standard organizational and casing conventions, x.e might be the name of a file that defines a class called X.A class contains ''features'', which are similar to \"routines\", \"members\", \"attributes\" or \"methods\" in other object-oriented programming languages.", "A class also defines its invariants, and contains other properties, such as a \"notes\" section for documentation and metadata.", "Eiffel's standard data types, such as INTEGER, STRING and ARRAY, are all themselves classes.Every system must have a class designated as \"root\", with one of its creation procedures designated as \"root procedure\".", "Executing a system consists of creating an instance of the root class and executing its root procedure.", "Generally, doing so creates new objects, calls new features, and so on.Eiffel has five basic executable instructions: assignment, object creation, routine call, condition, and iteration.", "Eiffel's control structures are strict in enforcing structured programming: every block has exactly one entry and exactly one exit.====Scoping====Unlike many object-oriented languages, but like Smalltalk, Eiffel does not permit any assignment into attributes of objects, except within the features of an object, which is the practical application of the principle of information hiding or data abstraction, requiring formal interfaces for data mutation.", "To put it in the language of other object-oriented programming languages, all Eiffel attributes are \"protected\", and \"setters\" are needed for client objects to modify values.", "An upshot of this is that \"setters\" can and normally do, implement the invariants for which Eiffel provides syntax.While Eiffel does not allow direct access to the features of a class by a client of the class, it does allow for the definition of an \"assigner command\", such as: some_attribute: SOME_TYPE assign set_some_attribute set_some_attribute (v: VALUE_TYPE) -- Set value of some_attribute to `v'.", "do some_attribute := v endWhile a slight bow to the overall developer community to allow something looking like direct access (e.g.", "thereby breaking the Information Hiding Principle), the practice is dangerous as it hides or obfuscates the reality of a \"setter\" being used.", "In practice, it is better to redirect the call to a setter rather than implying a direct access to a feature like some_attribute as in the example code above.Unlike other languages, having notions of \"public\", \"protected\", \"private\" and so on, Eiffel uses an exporting technology to more precisely control the scoping between client and supplier classes.", "Feature visibility is checked statically at compile-time.", "For example, (below), the \"{NONE}\" is similar to \"protected\" in other languages.", "Scope applied this way to a \"feature set\" (e.g.", "everything below the 'feature' keyword to either the next feature set keyword or the end of the class) can be changed in descendant classes using the \"export\" keyword.feature {NONE} -- Initialization\tdefault_create\t\t\t-- Initialize a new `zero' decimal instance.", "do\t\t\tmake_zero\t\tendAlternatively, the lack of a {x} export declaration implies {ANY} and is similar to the \"public\" scoping of other languages.feature -- ConstantsFinally, scoping can be selectively and precisely controlled to any class in the Eiffel project universe, such as:feature {DECIMAL, DCM_MA_DECIMAL_PARSER, DCM_MA_DECIMAL_HANDLER} -- AccessHere, the compiler will allow only the classes listed between the curly braces to access the features within the feature group (e.g.", ").====\"Hello, world!", "\"====A programming language's look and feel is often conveyed using a \"Hello, world!\"", "program.", "Such a program written in Eiffel might be:class HELLO_WORLDcreate makefeature make do print (\"Hello, world!%N\") endend This program contains the class HELLO_WORLD.", "The constructor (create routine) for the class, named make, invokes the print system library routine to write a \"Hello, world!\"", "message to the output.===Design by contract===The concept of Design by Contract is central to Eiffel.", "The contracts assert what must be true before a routine is executed (precondition) and what must hold to be true after the routine finishes (post-condition).", "Class Invariant contracts define what assertions must hold true both before and after any feature of a class is accessed (both routines and attributes).", "Moreover, contracts codify into executable code developer and designers assumptions about the operating environment of the features of a class or the class as a whole by means of the invariant.The Eiffel compiler is designed to include the feature and class contracts in various levels.", "EiffelStudio, for example, executes all feature and class contracts during execution in the \"Workbench mode.\"", "When an executable is created, the compiler is instructed by way of the project settings file (e.g.", "ECF file) to either include or exclude any set of contracts.", "Thus, an executable file can be compiled to either include or exclude any level of contract, thereby bringing along continuous levels of unit and integration testing.", "Moreover, contracts can be continually and methodically exercised by way of the Auto-Test feature found in EiffelStudio.The Design by Contract mechanisms are tightly integrated with the language and guide redefinition of features in inheritance:* Routine precondition: The precondition may only be weakened by inheritance; any call that meets the requirements of the ancestor meets those of the descendant.", "* Routine postcondition: The postcondition can only be strengthened by inheritance; any result guaranteed by the ancestor is still provided by the descendant.", "* Class invariant: Conditions that must hold true after the object's creation and after any call to an exported class routine.", "Because the invariant is checked so often, it makes it simultaneously the most expensive and most powerful form of condition or contract.In addition, the language supports a \"check instruction\" (a kind of \"assert\"), loop invariants, and loop variants (which guarantee loop termination).===Void-safe capability===Void-safe capability, like static typing, is another facility for improving software quality.", "Void-safe software is protected from run time errors caused by calls to void references, and therefore will be more reliable than software in which calls to void targets can occur.", "The analogy to static typing is a useful one.", "In fact, void-safe capability could be seen as an extension to the type system, or a step beyond static typing, because the mechanism for ensuring void safety is integrated into the type system.The guard against void target calls can be seen by way of the notion of attachment and (by extension) detachment (e.g.", "detachable keyword).", "The void-safe facility can be seen in a short re-work of the example code used above: some_attribute: detachable SOME_TYPE use_some_attribute -- Set value of some_attribute to `v'.", "do if attached some_attribute as l_attribute then do_something (l_attribute) end end do_something (a_value: SOME_TYPE) -- Do something with `a_value'.", "do ... doing something with `a_value' ... endThe code example above shows how the compiler can statically address the reliability of whether some_attribute will be attached or detached at the point it is used.", "Notably, the attached keyword allows for an \"attachment local\" (e.g.", "l_attribute), which is scoped to only the block of code enclosed by the if-statement construct.", "Thus, within this small block of code, the local variable (e.g.", "l_attribute) can be statically guaranteed to be non-void (i.e.", "void safe).===Features: commands and queries===The primary characteristic of a class is that it defines a set of features: as a class represents a set of run-time objects, or \"instances\", a feature is an operation on these objects.", "There are two kinds of features: queries and commands.", "A query provides information about an instance.", "A command modifies an instance.The command-query distinction is important to the Eiffel method.", "In particular:* Uniform-Access Principle: from the point of view of a software client making a call to a class feature, whether a query is an attribute (field value) or a function (computed value) should not make any difference.", "For example, a_vehicle.speed could be an attribute accessed on the object a_vehicle, or it could be computed by a function that divides distance by time.", "The notation is the same in both cases, so that it is easy to change the class's implementation without affecting client software.", "* Command-Query Separation Principle: Queries must not modify the instance.", "This is not a language rule but a methodological principle.", "So in good Eiffel style, one does not find \"get\" functions that change something and return a result; instead there are commands (procedures) to change objects, and queries to obtain information about the object, resulting from preceding changes.===Overloading===Eiffel does not allow argument overloading.", "Each feature name within a class always maps to a specific feature within the class.", "One name, within one class, means one thing.", "This design choice helps the readability of classes, by avoiding a cause of ambiguity about which routine will be invoked by a call.", "It also simplifies the language mechanism; in particular, this is what makes Eiffel's multiple inheritance mechanism possible.Names can, of course, be reused in different classes.", "For example, the feature (along with its infix alias ) is defined in several classes: , , , etc.===Genericity===A generic class is a class that varies by type (e.g.", "LIST PHONE, a list of phone numbers; ACCOUNT G->ACCOUNT_TYPE, allowing for ACCOUNT SAVINGS and ACCOUNT CHECKING, etc.).", "Classes can be generic, to express that they are parameterized by types.", "Generic parameters appear in square brackets:class LIST G ...G is known as a \"formal generic parameter\".", "(Eiffel reserves \"argument\" for routines, and uses \"parameter\" only for generic classes.)", "With such a declaration G represents within the class an arbitrary type; so a function can return a value of type G, and a routine can take an argument of that type:item: G do ... endput (x: G) do ... endThe LIST INTEGER and LIST WORD are \"generic derivations\" of this class.", "Permitted combinations (with n: INTEGER, w: WORD, il: LIST INTEGER, wl: LIST WORD) are:n := il.itemwl.put (w)INTEGER and WORD are the \"actual generic parameters\" in these generic derivations.It is also possible to have 'constrained' formal parameters, for which the actual parameter must inherit from a given class, the \"constraint\".", "For example, in class HASH_TABLE G, KEY -> HASHABLEa derivation HASH_TABLE INTEGER, STRING is valid only if STRING inherits from HASHABLE (as it indeed does in typical Eiffel libraries).", "Within the class, having KEY constrained by HASHABLE means that for x: KEY it is possible to apply to x all the features of HASHABLE, as in x.hash_code.===Inheritance basics===To inherit from one or more others, a class will include an inherit clause at the beginning:class C inherit A B-- ... Rest of class declaration ...The class may redefine (override) some or all of the inherited features.", "This must be explicitly announced at the beginning of the class through a redefine subclause of the inheritance clause, as inclass C inherit A redefine f, g, h end B redefine u, v endSee for a complete discussion of Eiffel inheritance.===Deferred classes and features===Classes may be defined with deferred class rather than with class to indicate that the class may not be directly instantiated.", "Non-instantiatable classes are called abstract classes in some other object-oriented programming languages.", "In Eiffel parlance, only an \"effective\" class can be instantiated (it may be a descendant of a deferred class).", "A feature can also be deferred by using the deferred keyword in place of a do clause.", "If a class has any deferred features it must be declared as deferred; however, a class with no deferred features may nonetheless itself be deferred.Deferred classes play some of the same role as interfaces in languages such as Java, though many object-oriented programming theorists believe interfaces are themselves largely an answer to Java's lack of multiple inheritance (which Eiffel has).===Renaming===A class that inherits from one or more others gets all its features, by default under their original names.", "It may, however, change their names through rename clauses.", "This is required in the case of multiple inheritance if there are name clashes between inherited features; without renaming, the resulting class would violate the no-overloading principle noted above and hence would be invalid.===Tuples===Tuples types may be viewed as a simple form of class, providing only attributes and the corresponding \"setter\" procedure.", "A typical tuple type reads TUPLE name: STRING; weight: REAL; date: DATEand could be used to describe a simple notion of birth record if a class is not needed.", "An instance of such a tuple is simply a sequence of values with the given types, given in brackets, such as \"Brigitte\", 3.5, Last_nightComponents of such a tuple can be accessed as if the tuple tags were attributes of a class, for example if t has been assigned the above tuple then t.weight has value 3.5.Thanks to the notion of assigner command (see below), dot notation can also be used to assign components of such a tuple, as in t.weight := t.weight + 0.5The tuple tags are optional, so that it is also possible to write a tuple type as TUPLE STRING, REAL, DATE.", "(In some compilers this is the only form of tuple, as tags were introduced with the ECMA standard.", ")The precise specification of e.g.", "TUPLE A, B, C is that it describes sequences of ''at least'' three elements, the first three being of types A, B, C respectively.", "As a result, TUPLE A, B, C conforms to (may be assigned to) TUPLE A, B, to TUPLE A and to TUPLE (without parameters), the topmost tuple type to which all tuple types conform.===Agents===Eiffel's \"agent\" mechanism wraps operations into objects.", "This mechanism can be used for iteration, event-driven programming, and other contexts in which it is useful to pass operations around the program structure.", "Other programming languages, especially ones that emphasize functional programming, allow a similar pattern using continuations, closures, or generators; Eiffel's agents emphasize the language's object-oriented paradigm, and use a syntax and semantics similar to code blocks in Smalltalk and Ruby.For example, to execute the my_action block for each element of my_list, one would write: my_list.do_all (agent my_action)To execute my_action only on elements satisfying my_condition, a limitation/filter can be added: my_list.do_if (agent my_action, agent my_condition)In these examples, my_action and my_condition are routines.", "Prefixing them with agent yields an object that represents the corresponding routine with all its properties, in particular the ability to be called with the appropriate arguments.", "So if a represents that object (for example because a is the argument to do_all), the instruction a.call (x)will call the original routine with the argument x, as if we had directly called the original routine: my_action (x).", "Arguments to call are passed as a tuple, here x.It is possible to keep some arguments to an agent '''open''' and make others '''closed'''.", "The open arguments are passed as arguments to call: they are provided at the time of ''agent use''.", "The closed arguments are provided at the time of agent ''definition''.", "For example, if action2 has two arguments, the iteration my_list.do_all (agent action2 (?, y))iterates action2 (x, y) for successive values of x, where the second argument remains set to y.", "The question mark ?", "indicates an open argument; y is a closed argument of the agent.", "Note that the basic syntax agent f is a shorthand for agent f (?, ?, ...) with all arguments open.", "It is also possible to make the ''target'' of an agent open through the notation {T}?", "where T is the type of the target.The distinction between open and closed operands (operands = arguments + target) corresponds to the distinction between bound and free variables in lambda calculus.", "An agent expression such as action2 (?, y) with some operands closed and some open corresponds to a version of the original operation ''curried'' on the closed operands.The agent mechanism also allows defining an agent without reference to an existing routine (such as my_action, my_condition, action2), through inline agents as inmy_list.do_all (agent (s: STRING) require not_void: s /= Void do s.append_character (',') ensure appended: s.count = old s.count + 1 end)The inline agent passed here can have all the trappings of a normal routine, including precondition, postcondition, rescue clause (not used here), and a full signature.", "This avoids defining routines when all that's needed is a computation to be wrapped in an agent.", "This is useful in particular for contracts, as in an invariant clause that expresses that all elements of a list are positive: my_list.for_all (agent (x: INTEGER): BOOLEAN do Result := (x > 0) end)The current agent mechanism leaves a possibility of run-time type error (if a routine with ''n'' arguments is passed to an agent expecting ''m'' arguments with ''m'' valid_arguments of call.", "Several proposals for a purely static correction of this problem are available, including a language change proposal by Ribet et al.===Once routines===A routine's result can be cached using the once keyword in place of do.", "Non-first calls to a routine require no additional computation or resource allocation, but simply return a previously computed result.", "A common pattern for \"once functions\" is to provide shared objects; the first call will create the object, subsequent ones will return the reference to that object.", "The typical scheme is:shared_object: SOME_TYPE once create Result.make (args) -- This creates the object and returns a reference to it through `Result'.", "endThe returned object—Result in the example—can itself be mutable, but its reference remains the same.Often \"once routines\" perform a required initialization: multiple calls to a library can include a call to the initialization procedure, but only the first such call will perform the required actions.", "Using this pattern initialization can be decentralized, avoiding the need for a special initialization module.", "\"Once routines\" are similar in purpose and effect to the singleton pattern in many programming languages, and to the Borg pattern used in Python.By default, a \"once routine\" is called ''once per thread''.", "The semantics can be adjusted to ''once per process'' or ''once per object'' by qualifying it with a \"once key\", e.g.", "once (\"PROCESS\").===Conversions===Eiffel provides a mechanism to allow conversions between various types.", "The mechanisms coexists with inheritance and complements it.", "To avoid any confusion between the two mechanisms, the design enforces the following principle:: '''(Conversion principle) A type may not both conform and convert to another.", "'''For example, NEWSPAPER may conform to PUBLICATION, but INTEGER converts to REAL (and does not inherit from it).The conversion mechanism simply generalizes the ad hoc conversion rules (such as indeed between INTEGER and REAL) that exist in most programming languages, making them applicable to any type as long as the above principle is observed.", "For example, a DATE class may be declared to convert to STRING; this makes it possible to create a string from a date simply through my_string := my_dateas a shortcut for using an explicit object creation with a conversion procedure: create my_string.make_from_date (my_date)To make the first form possible as a synonym for the second, it suffices to list the creation procedure (constructor) make_from_date in a convert clause at the beginning of the class.As another example, if there is such a conversion procedure listed from TUPLE day: INTEGER; month: STRING; year: INTEGER, then one can directly assign a tuple to a date, causing the appropriate conversion, as in Bastille_day := 14, \"July\", 1789===Exception handling===Exception handling in Eiffel is based on the principles of design by contract.", "For example, an exception occurs when a routine's caller fails to satisfy a precondition, or when a routine cannot ensure a promised postcondition.", "In Eiffel, exception handling is not used for control flow or to correct data-input mistakes.An Eiffel exception handler is defined using the keyword.", "Within the section, the keyword executes the routine again.", "For example, the following routine tracks the number of attempts at executing the routine, and only retries a certain number of times:connect_to_server (server: SOCKET) -- Connect to a server or give up after 10 attempts.", "require server /= Void and then server.address /= Void local attempts: INTEGER do server.connect ensure connected: server.is_connected rescue if attempts This example is arguably flawed for anything but the simplest programs, however, because connection failure is to be expected.", "For most programs a routine name like would be better, and the postcondition would not promise a connection, leaving it up to the caller to take appropriate steps if the connection was not opened.===Concurrency===A number of networking and threading libraries are available, such as EiffelNet and EiffelThreads.", "A concurrency model for Eiffel, based on the concepts of design by contract, is SCOOP, or ''Simple Concurrent Object-Oriented Programming'', not yet part of the official language definition but available in EiffelStudio.", "CAMEO is an (unimplemented) variation of SCOOP for Eiffel.", "Concurrency also interacts with exceptions.", "Asynchronous exceptions can be troublesome (where a routine raises an exception after its caller has itself finished).===Operator and bracket syntax, assigner commands===Eiffel's view of computation is completely object-oriented in the sense that every operation is relative to an object, the \"target\".", "So for example an addition such asa + bis conceptually understood as if it were the method calla.plus (b)with target a, feature plus and argument b.Of course, the former is the conventional syntax and usually preferred.", "Operator syntax makes it possible to use either form by declaring the feature (for example in INTEGER, but this applies to other basic classes and can be used in any other for which such an operator is appropriate):plus alias \"+\" (other: INTEGER): INTEGER -- ... Normal function declaration... endThe range of operators that can be used as \"alias\" is quite broad; they include predefined operators such as \"+\" but also \"free operators\" made of non-alphanumeric symbols.", "This makes it possible to design special infix and prefix notations, for example in mathematics and physics applications.Every class may in addition have ''one'' function aliased to \"\", the \"bracket\" operator, allowing the notation a i, ... as a synonym for a.f (i, ...) where f is the chosen function.", "This is particularly useful for container structures such as arrays, hash tables, lists etc.", "For example, access to an element of a hash table with string keys can be written number := phone_book \"JILL SMITH\"\"Assigner commands\" are a companion mechanism designed in the same spirit of allowing well-established, convenient notation reinterpreted in the framework of object-oriented programming.", "Assigner commands allow assignment-like syntax to call \"setter\" procedures.", "An assignment proper can never be of the form a.x := v as this violates information hiding; you have to go for a setter command (procedure).", "For example, the hash table class can have the function and the procedureitem alias \"\" (key: STRING): ELEMENT 3 -- The element of key `key'.", "-- (\"Getter\" query) do ... endput (e: ELEMENT; key: STRING) -- Insert the element `e', associating it with the key `key'.", "-- (\"Setter\" command) do ... endThen to insert an element you have to use an explicit call to the setter command: 4 phone_book.put (New_person, \"JILL SMITH\")It is possible to write this equivalently as 5 phone_book \"JILL SMITH\" := New_person(in the same way that phone_book \"JILL SMITH\" is a synonym for number := phone_book.item (\"JILL SMITH\")), provided the declaration of item now starts (replacement for 3) with item alias \"\" (key: STRING): ELEMENT assign putThis declares put as the assigner command associated with item and, combined with the bracket alias, makes 5 legal and equivalent to 4.", "(It could also be written, without taking advantage of the bracket, as phone_book.item (\"JILL SMITH\") := New_person.Note: The argument list of a's assigner is constrained to be: (a's return type;all of a's argument list...)===Lexical and syntax properties===Eiffel is not case-sensitive.", "The tokens make, maKe and MAKE all denote the same identifier.", "See, however, the \"style rules\" below.Comments are introduced by -- (two consecutive dashes) and extend to the end of the line.The semicolon, as instruction separator, is optional.", "Most of the time the semicolon is just omitted, except to separate multiple instructions on a line.", "This results in less clutter on the program page.There is no nesting of feature and class declarations.", "As a result, the structure of an Eiffel class is simple: some class-level clauses (inheritance, invariant) and a succession of feature declarations, all at the same level.It is customary to group features into separate \"feature clauses\" for more readability, with a standard set of basic feature tags appearing in a standard order, for example:class HASH_TABLE ELEMENT, KEY -> HASHABLE inherit TABLE ELEMENT feature -- Initialization -- ...", "Declarations of initialization commands (creation procedures/constructors) ... feature -- Access -- ...", "Declarations of non-boolean queries on the object state, e.g.", "item ... feature -- Status report -- ...", "Declarations of boolean queries on the object state, e.g.", "is_empty ... feature -- Element change -- ...", "Declarations of commands that change the structure, e.g.", "put ... -- etc.endIn contrast to most curly bracket programming languages, Eiffel makes a clear distinction between expressions and instructions.", "This is in line with the Command-Query Separation principle of the Eiffel method.===Style conventions===Much of the documentation of Eiffel uses distinctive style conventions, designed to enforce a consistent look-and-feel.", "Some of these conventions apply to the code format itself, and others to the standard typographic rendering of Eiffel code in formats and publications where these conventions are possible.While the language is case-insensitive, the style standards prescribe the use of all-capitals for class names (LIST), all-lower-case for feature names (make), and initial capitals for constants (Avogadro).", "The recommended style also suggests underscore to separate components of a multi-word identifier, as in average_temperature.The specification of Eiffel includes guidelines for displaying software texts in typeset formats: keywords in bold, user-defined identifiers and constants are shown in ''italics'', comments, operators, and punctuation marks in Roman, with program text in blue as in the present article to distinguish it from explanatory text.", "For example, the \"Hello, world!\"", "program given above would be rendered as below in Eiffel documentation:class HELLO_WORLDcreate makefeature make do print (\"Hello, world!\")", "endend===Interfaces to other tools and languages===Eiffel is a purely object-oriented language but provides an open architecture for interfacing with \"external\" software in any other programming language.It is possible for example to program machine- and operating-system level operations in C. Eiffel provides a straightforward interface to C routines, including support for \"inline C\" (writing the body of an Eiffel routine in C, typically for short machine-level operations).Although there is no direct connection between Eiffel and C, many Eiffel compilers (Visual Eiffel is one exception) output C source code as an intermediate language, to submit to a C compiler, for optimizing and portability.", "As such, they are examples of transcompilers.", "The Eiffel Compiler tecomp can execute Eiffel code directly (like an interpreter) without going via an intermediate C code or emit C code which will be passed to a C compiler in order to obtain optimized native code.", "On .NET, the EiffelStudio compiler directly generates CIL (Common Intermediate Language) code.", "The SmartEiffel compiler can also output Java bytecode." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Eiffel Software web site of the company that introduced Eiffel, was Interactive Software Engineering (ISE).", "* LibertyEiffel web site of the free GNU Eiffel development system." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ezra" ], [ "Introduction", "Painting of Ezra on wood panel from the Dura-Europos synagogue (3rd century AD)'''Ezra''' or '''Esdras''' (; , ''''; fl.", "480–440 BCE), also called '''Ezra the Scribe''' ( '''') in Chazalic literature and '''Ezra the Priest''', was an important Jewish scribe (''sofer'') and priest (''kohen'') in the early Second Temple period.", "In Greco-Latin Ezra is called Esdras ().", "His name is probably a shortened Aramaic translation of the Hebrew name '''', \"Yah helps\".", "In the Greek Septuagint the name is rendered '''' (), from which the Latin name comes.In the Hebrew Bible, or the Christian Old Testament, Ezra is an important figure in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, which he is said to have written and edited, respectively.", "According to tradition, Ezra was also the author of the Books of Chronicles and the Book of Malachi.", "Ezra was instrumental in restoring the Jewish scriptures and religion to the people after the return from the Babylonian Captivity, and is a highly respected figure in Judaism.", "He is regarded as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, which sets his feast day as July 13, the same as that of his contemporary, Nehemiah.", "He is also venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, which sets his feast day as December 11." ], [ "Life", "===In the Hebrew Bible===The canonical Book of Ezra and Book of Nehemiah are the oldest sources for the activity of Ezra, whereas many of the other books ascribed to Ezra (First Esdras, 3–6 Ezra) are later literary works dependent on the canonical books of Ezra and Nehemiah.", "The book of Ezra–Nehemiah was always written as one scroll.", "In late medieval Christian bibles, the single book was divided in two, as First and Second Ezra; and this division became Jewish practice in the first printed Hebrew bibles.", "Modern Hebrew Bibles call the two books Ezra and Nehemiah, as do other modern Bible translations.", "A few parts of the Book of Ezra (4:8 to 6:18 and 7:12–26) were written in Aramaic, and the majority in Hebrew, Ezra himself being skilled in both languages.According to the Hebrew Bible he was a descendant of Seraiah, the last High Priest to serve in Solomon's Temple, and a close relative of Joshua, the first High Priest of the Second Temple.", "He returned from Babylonian exile and reintroduced the Torah in Jerusalem.", "According to 1 Esdras, a Greek translation of the Book of Ezra still in use in Eastern Orthodox Church, he was also a High Priest.", "Rabbinic tradition holds that he was an ordinary member of the priesthood.", "Ezra was living in Babylon when in the seventh year of Artaxerxes I, the Achaemenid emperor (), the emperor sent him to Jerusalem to teach the laws of God to any who did not know them.", "The Book of Ezra describes how he led a group of Judean exiles living in Babylon to their home city of Jerusalem where he is said to have enforced observance of the Torah.When Ezra discovered that Jewish men had been marrying foreign pagan women, he tore his garments in despair and confessed the sins of Israel before God, then braved the opposition of some of his own countrymen to purify the community by enforcing the dissolution of the sinful marriages.", "He was described as exhorting the Israelite people to be sure to follow the Torah Law so as not to intermarry with people of particular different religions, a set of commandments described in the Pentateuch.", "Some years later, Artaxerxes sent Nehemiah (a Jewish noble in his personal service) to Jerusalem as governor with the task of rebuilding the city walls.", "Once this task was completed Nehemiah had Ezra read the Torah to the assembled Israelites, and the people and priests entered into a covenant to keep the law and separate themselves from all other peoples.===Burial place===Several traditions have developed over his place of burial.", "One tradition says that he is buried in al-Uzayr near Basra (Iraq), while another tradition alleges that he is buried in Tadif near Aleppo, in northern Syria.According to Josephus, Ezra died and was buried \"in a magnificent manner in Jerusalem.\"", "If the tradition that Ezra wrote under the pen name ''Malachi'' is correct, then he was probably buried in the Tomb of the Prophets, the traditional resting place of Malachi, along with two other prophets from Ezra's lifetime, Haggai and Zechariah." ], [ "In later Second Temple period literature", "===1 Esdras===1 Esdras, probably from the late 2nd/early 1st centuries BCE, preserves a Greek text of Ezra and a part of Nehemiah distinctly different from that of Ezra–Nehemiah – in particular it eliminates Nehemiah from the story and gives some of his deeds to Ezra, as well as telling events in a different order.", "Scholars are divided on whether it is based on Ezra–Nehemiah, or reflects an earlier literary stage before the combination of Ezra and Nehemiah accounts.===Josephus===The first-century Jewish historian Josephus deals with Ezra in his ''Antiquities of the Jews''.", "He uses the name Xerxes for Artaxerxes I reserving the name Artaxerxes for the later Artaxerxes II whom he identifies as the Ahasuerus of Esther, thus placing Ezra before the events of the book of Esther.", "Josephus' account of the deeds of Ezra derives entirely from 1 Esdras, which he cites as the 'Book of Ezra' in his numeration of the Hebrew bible.", "Contrariwise, Josephus does not appear to recognise Ezra-Nehemiah as a biblical book, does not quote from it, and relies entirely on other traditions in his account of the deeds of Nehemiah.===The apocalyptic Ezra traditions===The apocalyptic fourth book of Ezra (also sometimes called the 'second book of Esdras' or the 'third book of Esdras') was written c. CE 100, probably in Judeo-Aramaic, but now survives in Latin, Slavonic and Ethiopic.", "In this book, Ezra has a seven part prophetic revelation, converses with an angel of God three times and has four visions.", "Ezra, thirty years into the Babylonian Exile (4 Ezra 3:1 / 2 Esdras 1:1), recounts the siege of Jerusalem and the destruction of Solomon's Temple.", "The central theological themes are \"the question of theodicy, God's justness in the face of the triumph of the heathens over the pious, the course of world history in terms of the teaching of the four kingdoms, the function of the law, the eschatological judgment, the appearance on Earth of the heavenly Jerusalem, the Messianic Period, at the end of which the Messiah will die, the end of this world and the coming of the next, and the Last Judgment.\"", "Ezra restores the law that was destroyed with the burning of the Temple in Jerusalem.", "He dictates 24 books for the public (i.e.", "the Hebrew Bible) and another 70 for the wise alone (70 unnamed revelatory works).", "At the end, he is taken up to heaven like Enoch and Elijah.", "Ezra is seen as a new Moses in this book.There is also another work, thought to be influenced by this one, known as the ''Greek Apocalypse of Ezra''." ], [ "In rabbinic literature", "The return from exile is depicted in this woodcut for ''Die Bibel in Bildern'', 1860, by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld.Traditionally Judaism credits Ezra with establishing the Great Assembly of scholars and prophets, the forerunner of the Sanhedrin, as the authority on matters of religious law.", "The Great Assembly is credited with establishing numerous features of contemporary traditional Judaism in something like their present form, including Torah reading, the Amidah, and celebration of the feast of Purim.In Rabbinic traditions, Ezra is metaphorically referred to as the \"flowers that appear on the earth\" signifying the springtime in the national history of Judaism.", "A disciple of Baruch ben Neriah, he favored study of the Law over the reconstruction of the Temple and thus because of his studies, he did not join the first party returning to Jerusalem in the reign of Cyrus.", "According to another opinion, he did not join the first party so as not to compete, even involuntarily, with Jeshua ben Jozadak for the office of chief priest.According to Jewish tradition, Ezra was the writer of the Books of Chronicles, and is the same prophet known also as Malachi.", "There is a slight controversy within rabbinic sources as to whether or not Ezra had served as High Priest of Israel.According to the Babylonian Talmud, Ezra the Scribe is said to have enacted ten standing laws and orders, which are as follows:# That the public come together to read from the sefer Torah on Shabbatot during the time of the afternoon oblation (Minchah), because of those travelling merchants who loiter in the closed shops in the street corners, and who may have missed the biblical lections that were read during the weekdays.# That the courts be opened throughout the Jewish townships on Mondays and Thursdays.# That women would not wait beyond Thursday to launder their clothes, because of the honor due to the Sabbath day.# That men would accustom themselves to eat cooked garlic on the eve of the Sabbath (believed to enhance love between a man and his wife).# That women would rise up early on Friday mornings to bake bread, so that a piece of bread would be available for the poor.# That Jewish women in every place be girded with a wide belt (waist band), whether from the front or from behind, out of modesty.# That Jewish women, during their menses, wash and comb their hair three days prior to their purification in a ritual bath.# That the traveling merchants make regular rounds into the Jewish villages and townships because of the honor due to the daughters of Israel (''viz''., so that jewelry can be purchased by the daughters of Israel).# That Jewish women and/or girls, as a precautionary measure, be accustomed to conversing with one another while one of their party goes out to relieve herself in the outhouse.# That men who may have suffered a seminal emission (especially after accompanying with their wives) be required to immerse themselves in a mikveh before being permitted to read from the scroll of the Law.In the Syrian village of Tedef, a synagogue said to be the place where Ezra stopped over has been venerated by Jews for centuries.", "Another tradition locates his tomb near Basra, Iraq." ], [ "In Christian traditions", "In Christian tradition, Ezra is considered to be the author of the book of Ezra and 1 and 2 Chronicles.", "Due to the strong similarity between the books of Malachi and Ezra, some Christian traditions adopt the Jewish view that Ezra was Malachi, and St. Jerome was one prominent Christian who held this view.", "Early Christian writers occasionally cited Ezra as author of the apocalyptic books attributed to him.", "Clement of Alexandria in his ''Stromata'' referred to Ezra as an example of prophetic inspiration, quoting a section from 2 Esdras.", "Where early Christian writers refer to the 'Book of Ezra' it is always the text of 1 Esdras that is being cited." ], [ "In Islam", "In Islam, he is known as Uzair ().", "He was mentioned in the Qur'an.", "Although he was not mentioned as one of the Prophets of Islam, he is considered one of them by some Muslim scholars, based on Islamic traditions.", "His tomb at Al-ʻUzer on the banks of the Tigris near Basra, Iraq, is a pilgrimage site for the local Marsh Arabs.", "Many Islamic scholars and modern Western academics do not view Uzer as \"Ezra\"; for example, Professor Gordon Darnell Newby associates Uzer with Enoch and Metatron." ], [ "Academic view", "===Timeline===Scholars are divided over the chronological sequence of the activities of Ezra and Nehemiah.", "Ezra came to Jerusalem \"in the seventh year of Artaxerxes the King\".", "The text does not specify whether the king in the passage refers to Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE) or to Artaxerxes II (404–359 BCE).", "Most scholars hold that Ezra lived during the rule of Artaxerxes I, though some have difficulties with this assumption: Nehemiah and Ezra \"seem to have no knowledge of each other; their missions do not overlap\", however, in Nehemiah 12, both are leading processions on the wall as part of the wall dedication ceremony.", "So, they clearly were contemporaries working together in Jerusalem at the time the wall and the city of Jerusalem was rebuilt in contrast to the previously stated viewpoint.;.\"", "These difficulties have led many scholars to assume that Ezra arrived in the seventh year of the rule of Artaxerxes II, i.e.", "some 50 years after Nehemiah.", "This assumption would imply that the biblical account is not chronological.", "The last group of scholars regard \"the seventh year\" as a scribal error and hold that the two men were contemporaries.===Historicity===tomb of Ezra at Al-Uzayr near Basra, IraqMary Joan Winn Leith in ''The Oxford History of the Biblical World'' believes that Ezra was a historical figure whose life was enhanced in the scripture and given a theological buildup.", "Gosta W. Ahlstrom argues the inconsistencies of the biblical tradition are insufficient to say that Ezra, with his central position as the 'father of Judaism' in the Jewish tradition, has been a later literary invention.", "Those who argue against the historicity of Ezra argue that the presentation style of Ezra as a leader and lawgiver resembles that of Moses.", "There are also similarities between Ezra the priest-scribe (but not high priest) and Nehemiah the secular governor on the one hand and Joshua and Zerubbabel on the other hand.", "The early 2nd-century BCE Jewish author Ben Sira praises Nehemiah, but makes no mention of Ezra.Richard Friedman argues in his book ''Who Wrote the Bible?''", "that Ezra is the one who redacted the Torah, and in fact effectively produced the first Torah.", "It has been argued that even if one does not accept the documentary hypothesis, Ezra was instrumental in the start of the process of bringing the Torah together.One particular aspect of Ezra's story considered dubious historically is the account in Ezra 7 of his commission.", "According to it, Ezra was given truly exalted status by the king: he was seemingly put in charge of the entire western half of the Persian Empire, a position apparently above even the level of the satraps (regional governors).", "Ezra was given vast hoards of treasure to take with him to Jerusalem as well as a letter where the king seemingly acknowledges the sovereignty of the God of Israel.", "Yet, his actions in the story do not appear to be that of someone with near unlimited government power, and the alleged letter from a Persian king is written with Hebraisms and Jewish idiom.Israel Finkelstein has recently argued that the Book of Ezra is suffused with late second century BCE “Hasmonean realities,” casting doubt on the historicity of Ezra.", "Other scholars find this theory problematic." ], [ "See also", "*Esdras – about the classification of the books ascribed to Ezra*Ezra (name)*Book of Ezra and Book of Nehemiah – the non-rabbinical tradition*Ezra–Nehemiah – the combination of the above two books*1 Esdras and 2 Esdras – the Greek version of the texts (Meir)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*****" ], [ "External links", "* Jewish Encyclopedia: Ezra the Scribe* Catholic Encyclopedia: Esdras*category:People whose existence is disputed" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Elijah" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elijah''' ( ; , meaning \"My God is Yahweh/YHWH\"; Greek form: Elias ) was, according to the Books of Kings in the Hebrew Bible, a prophet and a miracle worker who lived in the northern kingdom of Israel during the reign of King Ahab (9th century BC).", "In 1 Kings 18, Elijah defended the worship of the Hebrew God over that of the Canaanite deity Baal.", "God also performed many miracles through Elijah, including resurrection, bringing fire down from the sky, and entering heaven alive \"by fire.\"", "He is also portrayed as leading a school of prophets known as \"the sons of the prophets.\"", "Following his ascension, Elisha, his disciple and most devoted assistant, took over his role as leader of this school.", "The Book of Malachi prophesies Elijah's return \"before the coming of the great and terrible day of the ,\" making him a harbinger of the Messiah and of the eschaton in various faiths that revere the Hebrew Bible.", "References to Elijah appear in Sirach, the New Testament, the Mishnah and Talmud, the Quran, the Book of Mormon, and Baháʼí writings.In Judaism, Elijah's name is invoked at the weekly Havdalah rite that marks the end of Shabbat, and Elijah is invoked in other Jewish customs, among them the Passover Seder and the brit milah (ritual circumcision).", "He appears in numerous stories and references in the Haggadah and rabbinic literature, including the Babylonian Talmud.", "According to some Jewish interpretations, Elijah will return during the End of Times.The Christian New Testament notes that some people thought that Jesus was, in some sense, Elijah, but it also makes clear that John the Baptist is \"the Elijah\" who was promised to come in Malachi 3:1; 4:5.According to accounts in all three of the Synoptic Gospels, Elijah appeared with Moses during the Transfiguration of Jesus.Elijah in Islam appears in the Quran as a prophet and messenger of God, where his biblical narrative of preaching against the worshipers of Baal is recounted in a concise form.Due to his importance to Muslims, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians, Elijah has been venerated as the patron saint of Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1752." ], [ "Biblical accounts", "Map of Israel as it was in the 9th century BC.", "'''Blue''' is the Kingdom of Israel.", "'''Golden yellow''' is the Kingdom of Judah.According to the Bible, by the 9th century BC, the Kingdom of Israel, once united under Solomon, had been divided into the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah (which retained the historical capital of Jerusalem along with its Temple).", "Omri, King of Israel, continued policies dating from the reign of Jeroboam, contrary to religious law, that were intended to reorient religious focus away from Jerusalem: encouraging the building of local temple altars for sacrifices, appointing priests from outside the family of the Levites, and allowing or encouraging temples dedicated to Baal, an important deity in ancient Canaanite religion.", "Omri achieved domestic security with a marriage alliance between his son Ahab and princess Jezebel, a worshipper of Baal and the daughter of the king of Sidon in Phoenicia.", "These solutions brought security and economic prosperity to Israel for a time, but did not bring peace with the Israelite prophets, who advocated a strict deuteronomic interpretation of the religious law.Under Ahab's kingship tensions exacerbated.", "Ahab built a temple for Baal, and his wife Jezebel brought a large entourage of priests and prophets of Baal and Asherah into the country.", "In this context Elijah is introduced in 1 Kings 17:1 as Elijah \"the Tishbite.\"", "He warns Ahab that there will be years of catastrophic drought so severe that not even dew will form, because Ahab and his queen stand at the end of a line of kings of Israel who are said to have \"done evil in the sight of the Lord.", "\"=== Books of Kings ===No background for the person of Elijah is given except for his brief characterization as a Tishbite.", "His name in Hebrew means \"My God is Yahweh,\" and may be a title applied to him because of his challenge to worship of Baal.As told in the Hebrew Bible, Elijah's challenge is bold and direct.", "Baal was the Canaanite god responsible for rain, thunder, lightning, and dew.Elijah thus, when he initially announces the drought, not only challenges Baal on behalf of God himself, but he also challenges Jezebel, her priests, Ahab and the people of Israel.", "''Elijah in the wilderness'', by Washington Allston==== Widow of Zarephath ====After Elijah's confrontation with Ahab, God tells him to flee out of Israel, to a hiding place by the brook Chorath, east of the Jordan, where he will be fed by ravens.", "When the brook dries up, God sends him to a widow living in the town of Zarephath in Phoenicia.When Elijah finds her, he asks her for some water and a piece of bread, but she says that she does not have sufficient food to keep her and her own son alive.", "Elijah tells her that God will not allow her supply of flour or oil to run out, saying, \"Do not be afraid ... For thus says the Lord the God of Israel: The jar of flour will not be used up, and the jug of oil will not run dry until the day the Lord sends rain on the land.\"", "She feeds him the last of their food, and Elijah's promise miraculously comes true.Zarephath'' by Louis HersentSome time later the widow's son dies and the widow cries, \"You have come to me to bring my sin to remembrance, and to cause the death of my son!\"", "Elijah prays that God might restore her son so that the trustworthiness of God's word might be demonstrated, and \"God listened to the voice of Elijah; the life of the child came into him again, and he revived.\"", "This is the first instance of raising the dead recorded in Scripture.", "The widow cried, \"the word of the Lord in your mouth is truth.", "\"After more than three years of drought and famine, God tells Elijah to return to Ahab and announce the end of the drought.", "While on his way, Elijah meets Obadiah, the head of Ahab's household, who had hidden a hundred Jewish prophets from Jezebel's violent purge.", "Obadiah fears that when he reports to Ahab about Elijah's whereabouts, Elijah would disappear, provoking Ahab to execute him.", "Elijah reassures Obadiah and sends him to Ahab.==== Challenge to Baal ====Elijah's offering is consumed by fire from heaven in a stained glass window at St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in Charleston, South Carolina.When Ahab confronts Elijah, he denounces him as being the \"troubler of Israel\" but Elijah retorts that Ahab himself is the one who troubled Israel by allowing the worship of false gods (shedim).At Elijah's instruction, Ahab summons the people of Israel, 450 prophets of Baal, and 400 prophets of Asherah to Mount Carmel.", "Elijah then berates the people for their acquiescence in Baal worship: \"How long will you go limping with two different opinions?", "If the is God, follow him; but if Baal, then follow him.", "\"Elijah proposes a direct test of the powers of Baal and Yahweh (both Asherah and her prophets disappear from the story entirely): he and Baal's prophets will each take one of two bulls, prepare it for sacrifice and lay it on wood, but put no fire to it.", "The prophets of Baal choose and prepare a bull accordingly.", "Elijah then invites them to pray for fire to light the sacrifice.", "They pray from morning to noon without success.", "Elijah ridicules their efforts.", "\"At noon Elijah mocked them, saying, 'Cry aloud!", "Surely he is a god; either he is meditating, or he has wandered away, or he is on a journey, or perhaps he is asleep and must be awakened.'\"", "They respond by shouting louder and slashing themselves with swords and spears.", "They continue praying until evening without success.Elijah then repairs Yahweh's altar with twelve stones, representing the twelve tribes of Israel.", "Elijah digs a trench around it and prepares the other bull for sacrifice as before.", "He then orders that the sacrifice and altar be drenched with water from \"four large jars\" poured three times, filling also the trench.", "He asks Yahweh to accept the sacrifice.", "Fire falls from the sky, consuming the sacrifice, the stones of the altar itself, the earth and the water in the trench as well.", "When the people see this, they declare, \"The he is God; the he is God.\"", "Elijah then orders them to seize the prophets of Baal, which they do, and Elijah kills them beside the River Kishon, at which the rains begin, signaling the end of the famine.==== Mount Horeb ====Jezebel, enraged that Elijah has killed the prophets of Baal, threatens to kill him.", "Elijah flees to Beersheba in Judah, continues alone into the wilderness, and finally sits down under a shrub, praying for death and eventually falling asleep.", "At length an angel of the Lord rouses him gently, telling him to wake up and eat.", "When he awakens he finds bread and a jar of water, eats, drinks, and goes back to sleep.", "The angel then comes to him a second time, telling him to eat and drink afresh, because he has a long journey ahead of him.Elijah travels for forty days and forty nights to Mount Horeb, where Moses had received the Ten Commandments.", "Elijah is the only person described in the Bible as returning to Horeb, after Moses and his generation had left Horeb several centuries before.", "He seeks shelter in a cave.", "Elijah is told to \"Go out and stand on the mountain in the presence of the , for the is about to pass by.\"", "There comes a mighty wind, then an earthquake and then fire, but Yahweh is not in any of these, choosing to come instead as a still, small voice, which bids Elijah go forth again - this time to Damascus to anoint Hazael as king of Aram, Jehu as king of Israel, and Elisha as the old prophet’s successor.File:JPF-Cave Of Elijah.JPG|A statue of Elijah in the Cave of Elijah, Mount Carmel, IsraelFile:Elijah's cave P3160005.JPG|The Cave of Elijah, Mount Carmel, Israel==== Vineyard of Naboth ====Elijah encounters Ahab again in 1 Kings 21, after Ahab has acquired possession of a vineyard by murder.", "Ahab desires to have the vineyard of Naboth of Jezreel.", "He offers a better vineyard or a fair price for the land.", "But Naboth tells Ahab that God has told him not to part with the land.", "Ahab accepts this answer with sullen bad grace.", "Jezebel, however, plots a method for acquiring the land.", "She sends letters, in Ahab's name, to the elders and nobles who lived near Naboth.", "They are to arrange a feast and invite Naboth.", "At the feast, false charges of cursing God and Ahab are to be made against him.", "The plot is carried out and Naboth is stoned to death.", "When word comes that Naboth is dead, Jezebel tells Ahab to take possession of the vineyard.God again speaks to Elijah and sends him to confront Ahab with a question and a prophecy: \"Have you killed, and also taken possession?\"", "and, \"In the place where dogs licked up the blood of Naboth, dogs will also lick up your blood.\"", "Ahab begins the confrontation by calling Elijah his enemy.", "Elijah responds by throwing the charge back at him, telling him that he has made himself the enemy of God by his own actions.", "Elijah tells Ahab that his entire kingdom will reject his authority; that Jezebel will be eaten by dogs within Jezreel; and that his family will be consumed by dogs as well (if they die in a city) or by birds (if they die in the country).", "When Ahab hears this he repents so sincerely that God stays his hand in punishing Ahab, choosing instead to vent his wrath upon Jezebel and her son by Ahab, Ahaziah.==== Ahaziah ====Elijah destroying the messengers of Ahaziah (illustration by 278x278pxElijah's story continues now from Ahab to an encounter with Ahaziah (2 Kings 1).", "The scene opens with Ahaziah seriously injured in a fall.", "He sends to the priests of Baalzebub in Ekron, outside the kingdom of Israel, to know if he will recover.", "Elijah intercepts his messengers and sends them back to Ahaziah with a message \"Is it because there is no God in Israel that you are sending to inquire of Baal-zebub, the god of Ekron?\"", "Ahaziah asks the messengers to describe the person who gave them this message.", "They tell him he was a hairy man with a leather belt around his waist and he instantly recognizes the description as Elijah the Tishbite.Ahaziah sends out three groups of soldiers to arrest Elijah.", "The first two are destroyed by fire which Elijah calls down from heaven.", "The leader of the third group asks for mercy for himself and his men.", "Elijah agrees to accompany this third group to Ahaziah, where he gives his prophecy in person.", "Ahaziah dies without recovering from his injuries in accordance with Elijah's word.==== Departure ====''Elijah Taken Up in a Chariot of Fire'' by Giuseppe Angeli, c. 1740Elijah's chariot in the whirlwind.", "Fresco, 224x224pxAccording to 2 Kings 2:3–9, Elisha (Eliseus) and \"the sons of the prophets\" knew beforehand that Elijah would one day be assumed into heaven.", "Elisha asked Elijah to \"let a double portion\" of Elijah's \"spirit\" be upon him.", "Elijah agreed, with the condition that Elisha would see him be \"taken\".Elijah, in company with Elisha, approaches the Jordan.", "He rolls up his mantle and strikes the water.", "The water immediately divides and Elijah and Elisha cross on dry land.", "Suddenly, a chariot of fire and horses of fire appear and Elijah is lifted up in a whirlwind.", "As Elijah is lifted up, his mantle falls to the ground and Elisha picks it up.=== Books of Chronicles ===Elijah is mentioned once more in 2 Chronicles 21:12, which will be his final mention in the Hebrew Bible.", "A letter is sent under the prophet's name to Jehoram of Judah.", "It tells him that he has led the people of Judah astray in the same way that Israel was led astray.", "The prophet ends the letter with a prediction of a painful death.This letter is a puzzle to readers for several reasons.", "First, it concerns a king of the southern kingdom, while Elijah concerned himself with the kingdom of Israel.", "Second, the message begins with \"Thus says YHVH, God of your father David...\" rather than the more usual \"...in the name of YHVH the God of Israel.\"", "Also, this letter seems to come after Elijah's ascension into the whirlwind.Michael Wilcock, formerly of Trinity College, Bristol, suggests a number of possible reasons for this letter, among them that it may be an example of a better known prophet's name being substituted for that of a lesser known prophet.", "John Van Seters, however, rejects the letter as having any connection with the Elijah tradition.", "However, Wilcock argues that Elijah's letter \"does address a very 'northern' situation in the southern kingdom\", and thus is authentic.=== In Malachi ===While the final mention of Elijah in the Hebrew Bible is in the Book of Chronicles, the Christian Bible’s reordering places the Book of Malachi (which prophesies a messiah) as the final book of the Old Testament, before the New Testament gospels.", "Thus, Elijah's final Old Testament appearance is in the Book of Malachi, where it is written, \"Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and awesome day of the Lord comes.", "And he will turn the hearts of fathers to their children and the hearts of children to their fathers, lest I come and strike the land with a decree of utter destruction.\"" ], [ "Historicity", "Scholars generally agree that a prophet named Elijah existed in the Kingdom of Israel during the reigns of Kings Ahab and Ahaziah, that he was a religious figure of great personal dynamism and conservative zeal and the leader of resistance to the rise of Baal worship in Israel in the ninth century BC.In the opinion of some scholars, however, the biblical presentation of the prophet cannot be taken as historical documentation of his activity.", "The biblical texts present his career through the eyes of popular legend and subsequent theological reflection, which consider him a personality of heroic proportions.", "In this process his actions and relations to the people and the King became stereotyped, and the presentation of his behavior paradigmatic." ], [ "In the Aggadah, Talmud, and extra-canonical books", "Jewish legends about Elijah abound in the Aggadah, which is found throughout various collections of rabbinic literature, including the Babylonian Talmud.", "This varied literature does not merely discuss his life, but has created a new history of him, which, beginning with his deathor \"translation\"ends only with the close of the history of the human race.", "The volume of references to Elijah in Jewish Tradition stands in marked contrast to that in the Canon.", "As in the case of most figures of Jewish legend, so in the case of Elijah, the biblical account became the basis of later legend.", "Elijah the precursor of the Messiah, Elijah zealous in the cause of God, Elijah the helper in distress: these are the three leading notes struck by the Aggadah, endeavoring to complete the biblical picture with the Elijah legends.", "His career is extensive, colorful, and varied.", "He has appeared the world over in the guise of a beggar and scholar.From the time of Malachi, who says of Elijah that God will send him before \"the great and dreadful day\", down to the later stories of the Chasidic rabbis, reverence and love, expectation and hope, were always connected in the Jewish consciousness with Elijah.=== Origin ===Three different theories regarding Elijah's origin are presented in the Aggadah literature:(1) he belonged to the tribe of Gad,(2) he was a Benjamite from Jerusalem, identical with the Elijah mentioned in 1 Chronicles 8:27, and(3) he was a priest.Many Christian Church fathers also have stated that Elijah was a priest.", "Some rabbis have speculated that he should be identified with Phinehas.According to later Kabbalistic literature, Elijah was really an angel in human form, so that he had neither parents nor offspring.The Midrash Rabbah Exodus 4:2 states \"Elijah should have revived his parents as he had revived the son of the Zarephathite\" indicating he surely had parents.The Talmud states \"Said he Rabbah to him (Elijah): Art thou not a priest: why then dost thou stand in a cemetery?", "\"=== Zeal for God ===The statue of Elijah at the Saint Elias Cathedral, Aleppo, SyriaA midrash tells that they even abolished the sign of the covenant, and the prophet had to appear as Israel's accuser before God.In the same cave where God once appeared to Moses and revealed Himself as gracious and merciful, Elijah was summoned to appear before God.", "By this summons he perceived that he should have appealed to God's mercy, instead of becoming Israel's accuser.", "The prophet, however, remained relentless in his zeal and severity, so that God commanded him to appoint his successor.The vision in which God revealed Himself to Elijah gave him at the same time a picture of the destinies of man, who has to pass through \"four worlds.\"", "This world was shown to the prophet by God through symbolism: in the form of the wind, since the world disappears as the wind; storm is the day of death, before which man trembles; fire is the judgment in Gehenna; and the stillness is the last day.Three years after this vision, Elijah was \"translated.\"", "Concerning the place to which Elijah was transferred, opinions differ among Jews and Christians, but the old view was that Elijah was received among the heavenly inhabitants, where he records the deeds of men.But as early as the middle of the 2nd century, when the notion of translation to heaven underwent divergent possible interpretations by Christian theologians, the assertion was made that Elijah never entered into heaven proper.", "In later literature paradise is generally designated as the abode of Elijah, but since the location of paradise is itself uncertain, the last two statements may be identical.=== Ecclesiasticus === — A line in the Book of Sirach describing Elijah's mission (Ecclesiasticus 48:10).Elijah's glory is honoured in the Book of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus).", "His designated tasks are altered to:*calming God's fury,*restoring familial peace, and*restoring the Twelve Tribes of Israel." ], [ "In Judaism", "=== Elijah's chair ===\"Chair of Elijah\" used during the brit milah (circumcision) ceremony.", "The Hebrew inscription reads \"This is the chair of Elijah, remembered for Good.", "\"At Jewish circumcision ceremonies, a chair is set aside for the use of the prophet Elijah.", "Elijah is said to be a witness at all circumcisions when the sign of the covenant is placed upon the body of the child.", "This custom stems from the incident at Mount Horeb: Elijah had arrived at Mount Horeb after the demonstration of God's presence and power on Mount Carmel.", "God asks Elijah to explain his arrival, and Elijah replies: \"I have been very jealous for the Lord, the God of hosts; for the people of Israel have forsaken thy covenant, thrown down thy altars, and slain thy prophets with the sword; and I, even I only, am left; and they seek my life, to take it away\".", "According to Rabbinic tradition, Elijah's words were patently untrue, and since Elijah accused Israel of failing to uphold the covenant, God would require Elijah to be present at every covenant of circumcision.=== Elijah's cup ===In the Talmudic literature, Elijah would visit rabbis to help solve particularly difficult legal problems.", "Malachi had cited Elijah as the harbinger of the eschaton.", "Thus, when confronted with reconciling impossibly conflicting laws or rituals, the rabbis would set aside any decision \"until Elijah comes\".One such decision was whether the Passover Seder required four or five cups of wine.", "Each serving of wine corresponds to one of the \"four expressions of redemption\" in the Book of Exodus:I am the Lord, and ''I will bring you out'' from under the burdens of the Egyptians, and ''I will deliver you'' from their bondage, and ''I will redeem you'' with an out-stretched arm and with great acts of judgment, and ''I will take you'' for my people, and I will be your God; and you shall know that I am the Lord your God, who has brought you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians.", "\"The next verse, \"And ''I will bring you'' into the land which I swore to give to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob; I will give it to you for a possession.", "I am the Lord.\"", "was not fulfilled until the generation following the Passover story, and the rabbis could not decide whether this verse counted as part of the Passover celebration (thus deserving of another serving of wine).", "Thus, a cup was left for the arrival of Elijah.In practice the fifth cup has come to be seen as a celebration of future redemption.", "Today, a place is reserved at the seder table and a cup of wine is placed there for Elijah.", "During the seder, the door of the house is opened and Elijah is invited in.", "Traditionally, the cup is viewed as Elijah's and is used for no other purpose.=== Havdalah ===Havdalah is the ceremony that concludes the Sabbath Day (Saturday evening in Jewish tradition).", "As part of the concluding hymn, an appeal is made to God that Elijah will come during the following week.", "\"Elijah the Prophet, Elijah the Tishbite, Elijah from Gilead.", "Let him come quickly, in our day with the messiah, the son of David.\"" ], [ "In Jewish folklore", "The volume of references to Elijah in folklore stands in marked contrast to that in the canon.", "Elijah's miraculous transferral to heaven led to speculation as to his true identity.", "Louis Ginzberg equates him with Phinehas the grandson of Aaron.", "Because of Phinehas' zealousness for God, he and his descendants were promised, \"a covenant of lasting priesthood.\"", "Therefore, Elijah is a priest as well as a prophet.", "Elijah is also equated with the Archangel Sandalphon, whose four wing beats will carry him to any part of the earth.", "When forced to choose between death and dishonor, Rabbi Kahana chose to leap to his death.", "Before he could strike the ground, Elijah/Sandalphon had appeared to catch him.", "Yet another name for Elijah is \"Angel of the Covenant\"=== Rabbi Joshua ben Levi ===References to Elijah in Jewish folklore range from short observations (e. g. It is said that when dogs are happy for no reason, it is because Elijah is in the neighborhood) to lengthy parables on the nature of God's justice.One such story is that of Rabbi Joshua ben Levi.", "The rabbi, a friend of Elijah's, was asked what favor he might wish.", "The rabbi answered only that he be able to join Elijah in his wanderings.", "Elijah granted his wish only if he refrained from asking any questions about any of the prophet's actions.", "He agreed and they began their journey.", "The first place they came to was the house of an elderly couple who were so poor they had only one old cow.", "The old couple gave of their hospitality as best they could.", "The next morning, as the travelers left, Elijah prayed that the old cow would die and it did.", "The second place they came to was the home of a wealthy man.", "He had no patience for his visitors and chased them away with the admonition that they should get jobs and not beg from honest people.", "As they were leaving, they passed the man's wall and saw that it was crumbling.", "Elijah prayed that the wall be repaired and it was so.", "Next, they came to a wealthy synagogue.", "They were allowed to spend the night with only the smallest of provisions.", "When they left, Elijah prayed that every member of the synagogue might become a leader.Finally, they came to a very poor synagogue.", "Here they were treated with great courtesy and hospitality.", "When they left, Elijah prayed that God might give them a single wise leader.", "At this Rabbi Joshua could no longer hold back.", "He demanded of Elijah an explanation of his actions.", "At the house of the old couple, Elijah knew that the Angel of Death was coming for the old woman.", "So he prayed that God might have the angel take the cow instead.", "At the house of the wealthy man, there was a great treasure hidden in the crumbling wall.", "Elijah prayed that the wall be restored thus keeping the treasure away from the miser.", "The story ends with a moral: A synagogue with many leaders will be ruined by many arguments.", "A town with a single wise leader will be guided to success and prosperity.", "\"Know then, that if thou seest an evil-doer prosper, it is not always unto his advantage, and if a righteous man suffers need and distress, think not God is unjust.", "\"=== Rabbi Eliezer ===The Elijah of legend did not lose any of his ability to afflict the comfortable.", "The case of Rabbi Eliezer son of Rabbi Simon ben Yohai is illustrative.", "Once, when walking on a beach, he came upon a hideously ugly man—the prophet in disguise.", "The man greeted him courteously, \"Peace be with thee, Rabbi.\"", "Instead of returning the greeting, the rabbi could not resist an insult, \"How ugly you are!", "Is there anyone as ugly as you in your town?\"", "Elijah responded with, \"I don't know.", "Perhaps you should tell the Master Architect how ugly is this, His construction.\"", "The rabbi realized his wrong and asked for pardon.", "But Elijah would not give it until the entire city had asked for forgiveness for the rabbi and the rabbi had promised to mend his ways.=== Lilith ===Elijah was always seen as deeply pious, it seems only natural that he would be pitted against an equally evil individual.", "This was found in the person of Lilith.", "Lilith in legend was the first wife of Adam.", "She rebelled against Adam, the angels, and even God.", "She came to be seen as a demon and a witch.Elijah encountered Lilith and instantly recognized and challenged her, \"Unclean one, where are you going?\"", "Unable to avoid or lie to the prophet, she admitted she was on her way to the house of a pregnant woman.", "Her intention was to kill the woman and eat the child.Elijah pronounced his malediction, \"I curse you in the Name of the Lord.", "Be silent as a stone!\"", "But, Lilith was able to make a bargain with Elijah.", "She promises to \"forsake my evil ways\" if Elijah will remove his curse.", "To seal the bargain she gives Elijah her names so that they can be posted in the houses of pregnant women or new born children or used as amulets.", "Lilith promises, \"where I see those names, I shall run away at once.", "Neither the child nor the mother will ever be injured by me.\"" ], [ "In Christianity", "=== New Testament ===A Northern Russian icon from ca.", "1290 showing the ascent of Elijah toward heavenIn the New Testament, Jesus would say for those who believed, John the Baptist was Elijah, who would come before the \"great and terrible day\" as predicted by Malachi.Some English translations of the New Testament use Elias, a Greek form of the name.", "In the King James Version, \"Elias\" appears only in the texts translated from Greek.==== John the Baptist ====John the Baptist preached a message of repentance and baptism.", "He predicted the day of judgment using imagery similar to that of Malachi.", "He also preached that the Messiah was coming.", "All of this was done in a style that immediately recalled the image of Elijah to his audience.", "He wore a coat of camel's hair secured with a leather girdle.", "He also frequently preached in wilderness areas near the Jordan River.In the Gospel of John, when John the Baptist was asked by a delegation of priests (present tense) \"Art thou Elias\", he replied \"I am not\".", "Matthew 11:14 and Matthew 17:10–13 however, make it clear that John was the spiritual successor to Elijah.", "In the Nativity of St. John the Baptist in Luke, Gabriel appears to Zechariah, John's father, and told him that John \"will turn many of the sons of Israel to the Lord their God,\" and that he will go forth \"in the spirit and power of Elijah.", "\"Elijah appears at the Transfiguration of Jesus (as recounted in , , )==== Transfiguration ====Elijah makes an appearance in the New Testament during an incident known as the Transfiguration.At the summit of an unnamed mount, Jesus' face begins to shine.", "The disciples who are with Him hear the voice of God announce that Jesus is \"My beloved Son.\"", "The disciples also see Moses and Elijah appear and talk with Jesus.", "This apparently relates to how both Elijah and Moses, the latter according to tradition but not the Bible, both were translated to heaven instead of dying.", "Peter is so struck by the experience that he asks Jesus if they should build three \"tabernacles\": one for Elijah, one for Jesus and one for Moses.There is agreement among some Christian theologians that Elijah appears to hand over the responsibility of the prophets to Jesus as the woman by the well said to Jesus \"I perceive thou art a prophet.\"", "Moses also likewise came to hand over the responsibility of the law for the divinely announced Son of God.==== Other references ====Elijah is mentioned four more times in the New Testament: in Luke, Romans, Hebrews, and James.", "In Luke 4:24–27, Jesus uses Elijah as an example of rejected prophets.", "Jesus says, \"No prophet is accepted in his own country,\" and then mentions Elijah, saying that there were many widows in Israel, but Elijah was sent to one in Phoenicia.", "In Romans 11:1–6, Paul cites Elijah as an example of God's never forsaking his people (the Israelites).", "Hebrews 11:35 (\"Women received their dead raised to life again...\") refers to both Elijah raising the son of the widow of Zarephath and Elisha raising the son of the woman of Shunem, citing both Elijah and Elisha as Old Testament examples of faith.", "In James 5:16–18, James says, \"The effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much,\" and then cites Elijah's prayers which started and ended the famine in Israel as examples.=== Prophet saint ===In Western Christianity, Elijah is commemorated as a saint with a feast day on 20 July by the Roman Catholic Church and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod.", "Catholics believe that he was unmarried and celibate.In the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, he is commemorated on the same date (in the 21st century, Julian Calendar 20 July corresponds to Gregorian Calendar 2 August).", "He is greatly revered among the Orthodox as a model of the contemplative life.", "He is also commemorated on the Orthodox liturgical calendar on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord).Elijah has been venerated as the patron saint of Bosnia and Herzegovina since 26 August 1752, replacing George of Lydda at the request of Bishop Pavao Dragičević.", "The reasons for the replacement are unclear.", "It has been suggested that Elijah was chosen because of his importance to all three main religious groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina—Catholics, Muslims and Orthodox Christians.", "Pope Benedict XIV is said to have approved Bishop Dragičević's request with the remark that a wild nation deserved a wild patron.Prophet Elias is commemorated by the Catholic Church on 17 June.", "He is also commemorated by Eastern Orthodox Church on April 14 with all saint Sinai monks.==== Carmelite tradition ====1690 Musée des AugustinsElijah is revered as the spiritual Father and traditional founder of the Catholic religious Order of Carmelites.", "In addition to taking their name from Mt.", "Carmel where the first hermits of the order established themselves, the Calced Carmelite and Discalced Carmelite traditions pertaining to Elijah focus upon the prophet's withdrawal from public life.", "The medieval Carmelite Book of the First Monks offers some insight into the heart of the Orders' contemplative vocation and reverence for the prophet.In the 17th century the Bollandist Society, whose declared aim was to search out and classify materials concerning the saints venerated by the Church, and to print what seemed to be the most reliable sources of information entered into controversy with the Carmelites on this point.", "In writing of St. Albert, Patriarch of Jerusalem and author of the Carmelite rule, the Bollandist Daniel Papebroch stated that the attribution of Carmelite origin to Elijah was insufficiently grounded.", "The Carmelites reacted strongly.", "From 1681 to 1698 a series of letters, pamphlets and other documents was issued by each side.", "The Carmelites were supported by a Spanish tribunal, while the Bollandists had the support of Jean de Launoy and the Sorbonne.", "In November 1698, Pope Innocent XII ordered an end to the controversy.==== Liturgical commemorations ====Elias on Mount Horeb, as depicted in a Greek Orthodox iconSince most Eastern Churches either use Greek as their liturgical language or translated their liturgies from the Greek, ''Elias'' (or its modern iotacized form ''Ilias'') is the form of the prophet's name used among most members of the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite.The feast day of Saint Elias falls on 20 July of the Orthodox liturgical calendar (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, 20 July currently falls on 2 August of the modern Gregorian Calendar).", "This day is a major holiday in Lebanon and is one of a handful of holidays there whose celebration is accompanied by a launching of fireworks by the general public.", "The full name of St. Elias in Lebanon translates to St. Elias the Living because it is believed that he did not die but rode his fiery chariot to heaven.", "The reference to the fiery chariot is likely why the Lebanese celebrate this holiday with fireworks.Elias is also commemorated, together with all of the righteous persons of the Old Testament, on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord).The Apolytikion in the Fourth Tone for St. Elias:The incarnate Angel, the Cornerstone of the Prophets, the second Forerunner of the Coming of Christ, the glorious Elias, who from above, sent down to Elisha the grace to dispel sickness and cleanse lepers, abounds therefore in healing for those who honor him.The Kontakion in the Second Tone for St. Elias:O Prophet and foreseer of the great works of God, O greatly renowned Elias, who by your word held back the clouds of rain, intercede for us to the only Loving One.==== Pagan associations and mountaintops ====Starting in the fifth century, Elias is often connected with Helios, the Sun.", "The two words have very similar pronunciations in post-classical Greek; Elijah rode in his chariot of fire to heaven just as Helios drove the chariot of the sun across the sky; and the holocaust sacrifice offered by Elijah and burned by fire from heaven corresponds to the sun warming the earth.Sedulius writes poetically in the fifth century that the \"bright path to glittering heaven\" suits Elias both \"in merits and name\", as changing one letter makes his name \"Helios\"; but he does not identify the two.", "A homily entitled ''De ascensione Heliae'', misattributed to Chrysostom, claims that poets and painters use the ascension of Elijah as a model for their depictions of the sun, and says that \"Elijah is really Helios\".", "Saint Patrick appears to conflate Helios and Elias.", "In modern times, much Greek folklore also connects Elias with the sun.In Greece, chapels and monasteries dedicated to Prophet Elias (Προφήτης Ηλίας) are often found on mountaintops, which themselves are often named after him.", "Since Wachsmuth (1864), the usual explanation for this has been that Elias was identified with Helios, who had mountaintop shrines.", "But few shrines of Helios were on mountaintops, and sun-worship was subsumed by Apollo-worship by Christian times, and so could not be confused with Elias.", "The modern folklore is not good evidence for the ''origin'' of the association of the sun, Elias, and mountaintops.", "Perhaps Elias is simply a \"natural patron of high places\".The association of Elias with mountaintops seems to come from a different pagan tradition: Elias took on the attributes and the locales associated with Zeus, especially his associations with mountains and his powers over rain, thunder, lightning, and wind.", "When Elias prevailed over the priests of Baal, it was on Mount Carmel which later became known as Mount St. Elias.", "When he spent forty days in a cave, it was on Mount Horeb.", "When Elias confronted Ahab, he stopped the rains for three years.A map of mountain-cults of Zeus shows that most of these sites are now dedicated to Elias, including Mount Olympus, Mount Lykaion, Mount Arachnaion, and Mount Taleton on the mainland, and Mount Kenaion, Mount Oche, and Mount Kynados in the islands.", "Of these, the only one with a recorded tradition of a Helios cult is Mount Taleton.Elias is associated with pre-Christian lightning gods in many other European traditions.Among Albanians, pilgrimages are made to mountaintops to ask for rain during the summer.", "One such tradition that is gaining popularity is the 2 August pilgrimage to Ljuboten on the Sharr mountains.", "Muslims refer to this day as ''Aligjyn'' (\"Ali Day\"), and it is believed that Ali becomes Elias at midday.syncretistic folklore among the Slavs incorporating pre-Christian motifs in the beliefs and rites regarding him in Slavic culture.As Elijah was described as ascending into heaven in a fiery chariot, the Christian missionaries who converted Slavic tribes likely found him an ideal analogy for Perun, the supreme Slavic god of storms, thunder and lightning bolts.", "In many Slavic countries Elijah is known as Elijah the Thunderer (''Ilija Gromovnik''), who drives the heavens in a chariot and administers rain and snow, thus actually taking the place of Perun in popular beliefs.", "Perun is also sometimes conflated with the legendary hero Elijah of Murom.", "The feast of St. Elias is known as ''Ilinden'' in South Slavic, and was chosen as the day of the Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising in 1903; it is now the holiday of Republic Day in North Macedonia.In Estonian folklore Elijah is considered to be the successor of Ukko, the lightning spirit.In Georgian mythology, he replaces Elwa.", "A Georgian story about Elijah:Once Jesus, the prophet Elijah, and St. George were going through Georgia.", "When they became tired and hungry they stopped to dine.", "They saw a Georgian shepherd and decided to ask him to feed them.", "First, Elijah went up to the shepherd and asked him for a sheep.", "After the shepherd asked his identity Elijah said that, he was the one who sent him rain to get him a good profit from farming.", "The shepherd became angry at him and told him that he was the one who also sent thunderstorms, which destroyed the farms of poor widows.", "(After Elijah, Jesus and St. George attempt to get help and eventually succeed).Among other peoples of the Caucasus, including the Ossetians and Kabardians, Elijah is understood as a kind of thunder-divinity named Uac-illa, Ilia, or Yeli, and was traditionally invoked in \"choppa\" ritual associated with lightning strikes and certain mental illnesses.", "If a person or animal was struck by lightning, a circle dance was performed immediately around the site, even if the storm was still ongoing, and Elijah's name was invoked alongside a nonsense word \"choppa\" or \"coppay\".", "If the victim had died, their family were forbidden from grieving and were required to bury them where they fell instead of in the village cemetery.", "If the victim survived, their lives were dedicated to Elijah: human survivors were prophets, while animals were released with a mark so that others would know not to take them home.", "In other versions of this tradition, the one venerated was not Elijah, but other traditional thunder-divinities like Shyble (Щыблэ), Afy (Афы), or Antswa (Анцуа).Elias has other pagan associations: a modern legend about Elias mirrors precisely the legend of Odysseus seeking a place where the locals would not recognize an oar—hence the mountaintops.=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints===The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints acknowledges Elijah as a prophet.", "The Church teaches that the Malachi prophecy of the return of Elijah was fulfilled on 3 April 1836, when Elijah visited the prophet and founder of the church, Joseph Smith, along with Oliver Cowdery, in the Kirtland Temple as a resurrected being.", "This event is chronicled in .", "This experience forms the basis for the church's focus on genealogy and family history and belief in the eternal nature of marriage and families.In Latter-day Saint theology, the name-title Elias is not always synonymous with Elijah and is often used for people other than the biblical prophet.", "According to Joseph Smith,The spirit of Elias is first, Elijah second, and Messiah last.", "Elias is a forerunner to prepare the way, and the spirit and power of Elijah is to come after, holding the keys of power, building the Temple to the capstone, placing the seals of the Melchizedek Priesthood upon the house of Israel, and making all things ready; then Messiah comes to His Temple, which is last of all.People to whom the title Elias is applied in Mormonism include Noah, the angel Gabriel (who is considered to be the same person as Noah in Mormon doctrine), Elijah, John the Baptist, John the Apostle, and an unspecified man who was a contemporary of Abraham.Detractors of Mormonism have often alleged that Smith, in whose time and place the King James Version was the only available English translation of the Bible, simply failed to grasp the fact that the Elijah of the Old Testament and the Elias of the New Testament are the same person.", "Latter-day Saints deny this and say that the difference they make between the two is deliberate and prophetic.", "The names Elias and Elijah refer to one who prepares the way for the coming of the Lord.", "This is applicable to John the Baptist coming to prepare the way for the Lord and His baptism; it also refers to Elijah appearing during the transfiguration to prepare for Jesus by restoring keys of sealing power.", "Jesus then gave this power to the Twelve saying, \"Verily I say unto you, Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and whatsoever ye shall loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.\"" ], [ "In Islam", "Khizr and Elijah Praying in Mecca''; Persian miniature from an illuminated manuscript of ''Stories of the Prophets'' (c. 427 AH/ 1036 AD)Elijah () is mentioned as a prophet in .", "Elijah's narrative in the Quran and later Muslim tradition resembles closely that in the Hebrew Bible and Muslim literature records Elijah's primary prophesying as taking place during the reign of Ahab and Jezebel as well as Ahaziah.", "He is seen by Muslims to be the prophetic predecessor to Elisha.", "While neither the Bible nor the Quran mentions the genealogy of Elijah, some scholars of Islam believe he may have come from the priestly family of the prophet Aaron.", "While Elijah is associated with Islamic eschatology, Islam views Jesus as the Messiah.", "However, Elijah is expected to come back along with the mysterious figure known as Khidr during the Last Judgment.", "Elijah's figure has been identified with a number of other prophets and saints, including Idris, which is believed by some scholars to have been another name for Elijah, and Khidr.", "Islamic legend later developed the figure of Elijah, greatly embellishing upon his attributes, and some apocryphal literature gave Elijah the status of a half-human, half-angel.", "Elijah also appears in later works of literature, including the ''Hamzanama''.=== Quran ===Elijah is mentioned in the Quran, where his preaching is recounted in a concise manner.", "The Quran narrates that Elijah told his people to come to the worship of God and to leave the worship of Baal, the primary idol of the area.", "The Quran states, \"And Elias was indeed one of the messengers.", "˹Remember˺ when he said to his people, “Will you not fear ˹Allah˺?", "Do you call upon ˹the idol of˺ Ba’l and abandon the Best of Creators— Allah, your Lord and the Lord of your forefathers?” \" The Quran makes it clear that the majority of Elijah's people denied the prophet and continued to follow idolatry.", "However, it mentions that a small number of devoted servants of God among them followed Elijah and believed in and worshiped God.", "The Quran states, \"But they rejected him, so they will certainly be brought ˹for punishment˺.", "But not the chosen servants of Allah.", "We blessed him ˹with honourable mention˺ among later generations: \"In the Quran, God praises Elijah in two places:Numerous commentators, including Abdullah Yusuf Ali, have offered commentary on VI: 85 saying that Elijah, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus were all spiritually connected.", "Abdullah Yusuf Ali says, \"The third group consists not of men of action, but Preachers of Truth, who led solitary lives.", "Their epithet is: \"the Righteous.\"", "They form a connected group round Jesus.", "Zachariah was the father of John the Baptist, who is referenced as \"Elias, which was for to come\" (Matt 11:14); and Elias is said to have been present and talked to Jesus at the Transfiguration on the Mount (Matt.", "17:3).", "\"=== Literature and tradition ===Muslim literature and tradition recounts that Elijah preached to the Kingdom of Israel, ruled over by Ahab and later his son Ahaziah.", "He is believed to have been a \"prophet of the desert—like John the Baptist\".", "Elijah is believed to have preached with zeal to Ahab and his wife Jezebel, who according to Muslim tradition was partly responsible for the worship of false idols in this area.", "Muslims believe that it was because the majority of people refused to listen to Elijah that Elisha had to continue preaching the message of God to Israel after him.Elijah has been the subject of legends and folktales in Muslim culture, usually involving his meeting with Khidr, and in one legend, with Muhammad himself.", "In Islamic mysticism, Elijah is associated closely with the sage Khidr.", "One hadith reported that Elijah and Khidr met together every year in Jerusalem to go on the pilgrimage to Mecca.", "Elijah appears also in the ''Hamzanama'' numerous times, where he is spoken of as being the brother of Khidr as well as one who drank from the Fountain of Youth.Further, It is narrated in Kitab al-Kafi that Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq was reciting the prostration of Ilyas (Elijah) in the Syrian language and began to weep.", "He then translated the supplication in Arabic to a group of visiting scholars: \"O Lord, will I find that you punish me although you know of my thirst in the heat of midday?", "Will I find that you punish me although you know that I rub my face on Earth to worship you?", "Will I find that you punish me although you know that I give up sins for you?", "Will I find that you punish me although you know that I stay awake all night just for you?\"", "To which Allah then inspired to Ilyas, \"Raise your head from the Earth for I will not punish you\".Although most Muslim scholars believed that Elijah preached in Israel, some early commentators on the Quran stated that Elijah was sent to Baalbek, in Lebanon.", "Modern scholars have rejected this claim, stating that the connection of the city with Elijah would have been made because of the first half of the city's name, that of ''Baal'', which was the deity that Elijah exhorted his people to stop worshiping.", "Scholars who reject identification of Elijah's town with Baalbek further argue that the town of Baalbek is not mentioned with the narrative of Elijah in either the Quran or the Hebrew Bible." ], [ "In Druze Faith", "The Druze maqam Al-Khidr in Kafr Yasif, Israel.Druze tradition honors several “mentors” and “prophets”, and Elijah is honored as a prophet.", "Druze venerate Elijah, and he is considered a central figure in Druzism.", "And due to his importance in Druzism, the settlement of Druze on Mount Carmel had partly to do with Elijah's story and devotion.", "There are two large Druze towns on the eastern slopes of Mount Carmel: Daliyat al-Karmel and Isfiya.", "The Druze regard the Cave of Elijah as holy, and they identify Elijah as \"al-Khidr\", the green prophet who symbolizes water and life, a miracle who cures the sick.", "He and Jethro (Shuaib) are considered patron saints of the Druze people.", "Druze, like some Christians, believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist, since they believe in reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul, Druze believe that El Khidr and John the Baptist are one and the same; along with Saint George.Due to the Christian influnce on the Druze faith, two Christian saints become the Druze's favorite venerated figures: Saint George and Saint Elijah.", "Thus, in all the villages inhabited by Druze and Christians in central Mount Lebanon a Christian church or Druze maqam is dedicated to either one of them.", "According to scholar Ray Jabre Mouawad the Druze appreciated the two saints for their bravery: Saint George because he confronted the dragon and Saint Elijah because he competed with the pagan priests of Baal and won over them.", "In both cases the explanations provided by Christians is that Druzes were attracted to warrior saints that resemble their own militarized society." ], [ "In Baháʼí Faith", "In the Baháʼí Faith, the Báb, founder of the Bábí Faith, is believed to be the return of Elijah and John the Baptist.", "Both Elijah and John the Baptist are considered to be Lesser Prophets, whose stations are below that of a Manifestation of God like Jesus Christ, Buddha, the Báb or Bahá'u'lláh.", "The Báb is buried on Mount Carmel, where Elijah had his confrontation with the prophets of Baal." ], [ "Controversies", "=== Miracle of the ravens ===''Elijah fed by the ravens'', by Giovanni Lanfranco, Musée des beaux-arts de MarseilleThat ravens fed Elijah by the brook Chorath has been questioned.", "The Hebrew text at 1 Kings 17:4–6 uses the word ''`ōrvīm'', which means ''ravens'', but with a different vocalization might equally mean ''Arabs''.", "The Septuagint has , ''ravens'', and other traditional translations followed.Alternatives have been proposed for many years; for example Adam Clarke (d. 1832) treated it as a discussion already of long standing.", "Objections to the traditional translation are that ravens are ritually unclean as well as physically dirty; it is difficult to imagine any method of delivery of the food which is not disgusting.", "The parallelism with the incident that follows, where Elijah is fed by the widow, also suggests a human, if mildly improbable, agent.Prof.", "John Gray chooses ''Arabs'', saying \"We adopt this reading solely because of its congruity with the sequel, where Elijah is fed by an alien Phoenician woman.\"", "His translation of the verses in question is:And the word of YHWH came to Elijah saying, Go hence and turn eastward and hide thyself in the Wadi Chorath east of the Jordan, and it shall be that thou shalt drink of the wadi, and I have commanded the Arabs to feed thee there.", "And he went and did according to the word of YHWH and went and dwelt in the Wadi Chorath east of the Jordan.", "And the Arabs brought him bread in the morning and flesh in the evening and he would drink of the wadi.===Fire on Mount Carmel===The challenge to the priests of Baal had the two-fold purpose of demonstrating that the God of Israel was greater than Baal, and that it was he who was the giver of rain.", "According to J. Robinson, \"Some scholars have suggested that the pouring of water was a piece of sympathetic magic.", "\"Hugo Gressmann suggested that the fire that destroyed the offering and altar was lightning, while Ferdinand Hitzig and others thought the water poured on the sacrifice and into the ditch might have been flammable naphtha.", "Baptist scholar H. H. Rowley rejects both views.", "Robinson dismisses the suggestion of naphtha with the view that the priests of Baal would have been aware of the properties of naphtha.", "Julian Morgenstern rejects the idea of sympathetic magic, but supports the interpretation of white naphtha possibly ignited by a glass or mirror to focus the sun's rays, citing other mentions of sacred fire, as in 2 Maccabees 1:18–22.=== Ascension into the heavens ===Elijah's name typically occurs in Jewish lists of those who have entered heaven alive.In the Gospel of John, Jesus says: \"And no man hath ascended up to heaven, but he that came down from heaven, ''even'' the Son of man which is in heaven.\"", "Traditionally Christianity interprets the \"Son of Man\" as a title of Jesus, but this has never been an article of faith and there are other interpretations.", "Further interpreting this quote, some Christians believe that Elijah was not assumed into heaven but simply transferred to another assignment either in heaven or with King Jehoram of Judah.The question of whether Elijah was in heaven or elsewhere on earth depends partly on the view of the letter Jehoram received from Elijah in 2 Chronicles 21:12 after Elijah had ascended.", "Some have suggested that the letter was written before Elijah ascended, but only delivered later.", "The rabbinical Seder Olam explains that the letter was delivered seven years after his ascension.", "This is also a possible explanation for some variation in manuscripts of Josephus' ''Antiquities of the Jews'' when dealing with this issue.", "Others have argued that Elijah was only \"caught away\" such as Philip in Acts 8 John Lightfoot reasoned that it must have been a different Elijah.=== Return ===The Jewish nation awaits the coming of Elijah to precede the coming of the Messiah.", "For Christians this prophecy was fulfilled in the gospel.", "After Elijah appears during the Transfiguration alongside Moses, Jesus explains to his disciples that John the Baptist, recently beheaded by Herod Antipas, had been Elijah reincarnate.", "Commentators have said that Moses' appearance represented the law, while Elijah's appearance represented the prophets.", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believes that Elijah returned on 3 April 1836 in an appearance to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery, fulfilling the prophecy in Malachi.The Baháʼí Faith believes Elijah returned as the biblical prophet John the Baptist and as the Báb who founded the Bábí Faith in 1844.Druze, like Baháʼí Faith believes, believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist,The American founded Nation of Islam believes Elijah returned as Elijah Muhammad, black separatist religious leader (who claimed to be a \"messenger\", not a prophet).", "This is considered less important than their belief that Allah himself showed up in the person of Fard Muhammad, the founder of the group.", "It differs notably from most beliefs about Elijah, in that his re-appearance is usually the precursor to a greater one's appearance, rather than an afterthought." ], [ "In arts and literature", "* Perhaps the best-known representation of the story of Elijah is Felix Mendelssohn's oratorio \"Elijah\".", "The oratorio chronicles many episodes of Elijah's life, including his challenge to Ahab and the contest of the gods, the miracle of raising the dead, and his ascension into heaven.", "Composed and premiered in 1846, the oratorio was criticized by members of the New German School but nonetheless remains one of the most popular Romantic choral-orchestral works in the repertoire.", "* In his ethnography '' Waiting for Elijah: Time and Encounter in a Bosnian Landscape'', anthropologist Safet HadžiMuhamedović discusses the syncretic harvest feast of Elijah's Day (''Ilindan/Aliđun''), shared by Christians and Muslims throughout Bosnia.", "He focuses on the Field of Gacko in the southeastern Bosnian highlands.", "Starting with a well-known Bosnian proverb about Elijah's two names \"Ilija until noon - Alija after noon\" (''Do podne Ilija, od podne Alija''), HadžiMuhamedović discusses the traditional and postwar waiting for Elijah, as well as the plethora of other characters he merges with (e.g.", "Slavic deity Perun and prophet Khidr).", "As the central trope in the book, the waiting for Elijah becomes the waiting for the restoration of home and cosmology after nationalist violence.", "The absence of Elijah is reminiscent of the one in Jewish rituals and HadžiMuhamedović discovers an imaginative form of political resistance in the waiting for Elijah's return.", "* In ''Orlando Furioso'', the English knight Astolfo flies up to the moon in Elijah's flaming chariot.", "* Elijah Rock is a traditional Christian spiritual about Elijah, also sometimes used by Jewish youth groups.", "* \"Go Like Elijah\" is a song by the American rock-pop-jazz songwriter Chi Coltrane.", "* Lorenzetto created a statue of Elijah with assistance of the young sculptor Raffaello da Montelupo, using designs by Raphael.", "* ''The Fifth Mountain'' by Paulo Coelho is based on the story of Elijah.", "* Christian metal band Disciple released the song \"God of Elijah\" on their 2001 album By God.", "The theme of the song is the challenge Elijah placed against Ahab between Baal and the god of Israel.", "* The roots-fusion band Seatrain records, on the albums of the same name (1970), band member Peter Rowans song \"Waiting for Elijah\", alluding to Elijah's second coming.", "* From 1974 to 1976 Philip K. Dick believed himself to be possessed by the spirit of Elijah.", "He later included Elijah (as Elias Tate) in his novel ''The Divine Invasion''.", "* On Ryan Adams' 2005 album ''29'', the song \"Voices\" speaks of Elijah, alluding to Elijah being the prophet of destruction.", "*''Journeys With Elijah: Eight Tales of the Prophet'', book by Barbara Goldin and illustrated by Jerry Pinkney* In 1996, Robin Mark created a praise song entitled ''Days of Elijah''.", "* Cormac McCarthy's post-apocalyptic novel ''The Road'' (2006) features an old man who ambiguously refers to himself as Ely.", "* Elijah (\"Lije\") is the name of the protagonist in three novels of Isaac Asimov's ''Robot'' series.", "He is familiar with biblical stories and sometimes relates them in the narrative or in discussion with his robot partner who was built on a world devoid of religion.", "His wife is ironically named Jezebel.", "* The popular movie ''Chariots of Fire'' alludes to the William Blake poem And did those feet in ancient time, which in turn alludes to the Elijah story.", "* Elijah was played by John Hoyt in the 1953 film ''Sins of Jezebel''.", "* A series of paintings by Clive Hicks-Jenkins around 2003–07 depicted Elijah being fed by a raven, inspired by fragments of a Tuscan altarpiece in Christ Church Picture Gallery in Oxford.", "* Referenced in the song \"It Was Written\", by Damian Marley, featuring Capleton and Drag-On.", "* Referenced in the movie ''The Book of Eli'', starring Denzel Washington in the title role as the man on a mission in a post-apocalyptic world to deliver the Bible for safe-keeping.", "* I. L. Peretz wrote ''The Magician'', which was illustrated by Marc Chagall in 1917, about Elijah.", "* Early in ''Moby-Dick'', Ishmael and Queequeg run into a scarred and deformed man named Elijah, a prophet (or perhaps merely a frightening stranger) who hints to them the perils of signing aboard Ahab's ship, the ''Pequod''.", "* Elijah appears in psychologist Carl Jung's \"Red Book\" as one of central book heroes.", "* The song \"Eliyahu\" by Brooklyn folk-punk band Out Of System Transfer is about the story of Elijah through Passover." ], [ "See also", "* Biblical narratives and the Quran* Eli (name)* Legends and the Quran* Prophets of Islam* Qisas Al-Anbiya (''Stories of The Prophets'')* St. Elijah's Church (disambiguation), for churches dedicated to Elijah* Theophoric name* Two witnesses" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''Elijah: Prophet of Carmel'', by Jane Ackerman, ICS Publications, 2003.=== Anthropology ===* HadžiMuhamedović, S. '' Waiting for Elijah: Time and Encounter in a Bosnian Landscape''.", "New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books.", "=== History ===* Miller, J. M. and J. H. Hayes.", "''A History of Ancient Israel and Judah.''", "Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004.=== Folklore and tradition ===* Bialik, H. N. and Y. H Ravnitzky.", "eds.", "''The Book of Legends: Sefer Ha-Aggadah.''", "New York: Schocken Books, 1992.", "* Ginzberg, Lewis.", "''Legends of the Bible.''", "Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956.", "* Schwartz, Howard.", "''Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism.''", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.", "* Wolfson, Ron and Joel L. Grishaver.", "''Passover: The Family Guide to Spiritual Celebration.''", "Woodstock, VT: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2003.=== Children's literature ===* Aronin, Ben and Shay Rieger.", "''The Secret of the Sabbath Fish.''", "Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1978.", "* Goldin, Barbara.", "''Journeys with Elijah: Eight Tales of the Prophet.''", "New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999.", "* Jaffe, Nina.", "''The Mysterious Visitor: Stories of the Prophet Elijah.''", "New York: Scholastic Press, 1997.", "* Jaffe, Nina.", "''The Way Meat Loves Salt: A Cinderella Tale from the Jewish Tradition.''", "New York: Holt Publishing, 1998.", "* Silverman, Erica.", "''Gittel's Hands.''", "Mahwah, NJ: BridgeWater Books, 1996.", "* Sydelle, Pearl.", "''Elijah's Tears: Stories for the Jewish Holidays.''", "New York: Holt Publishing, 1996.", "* Thaler, Mike.", "''Elijah, Prophet Sharing: and Other Bible Stories to Tickle Your Soul.''", "Colorado Springs, CO: Faith Kids Publishing, 2000.", "* Scheck, Joann.", "''The Water That Caught On Fire.''", "St. Louis, Missouri: Concordia Publishing House: ARCH Books, 1969.", "(59-1159)=== Christian literature===*=== References in the Qur'an ===* Mission of Elijah: , * Praise for Elijah: ," ], [ "External links", "* Legends of the Jews by Louis Ginzberg.", "The legends of Elijah.", "* ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Cosmic Voyages'' - Mentions (in passing) the story of Elijah being carried up to heaven in a flaming chariot as an inspiration for human flight* ''Elijah'' by Rob Bradshaw Extensive dictionary style article.", "* LDS Bible Dictionary Entry on Elijah* Founder Statue in St Peter's Basilica* Holy, Glorious Prophet Elijah Orthodox icon and synaxarion* Prophet Ilyas* The Story of Ilyas (Elias)* Holy, Glorious Prophet Elijah Orthodox icon and synaxarion* * category:Book of Malachi people" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Expressive aphasia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Expressive aphasia''', also known as '''Broca's aphasia''', is a type of aphasia characterized by partial loss of the ability to produce language (spoken, manual, or written), although comprehension generally remains intact.", "A person with expressive aphasia will exhibit effortful speech.", "Speech generally includes important content words but leaves out function words that have more grammatical significance than physical meaning, such as prepositions and articles.", "This is known as \"telegraphic speech\".", "The person's intended message may still be understood, but their sentence will not be grammatically correct.", "In very severe forms of expressive aphasia, a person may only speak using single word utterances.", "Typically, comprehension is mildly to moderately impaired in expressive aphasia due to difficulty understanding complex grammar.It is caused by acquired damage to the anterior regions of the brain, such as Broca's area.", "It is one subset of a larger family of disorders known collectively as aphasia.", "Expressive aphasia contrasts with receptive aphasia, in which patients are able to speak in grammatical sentences that lack semantic significance and generally also have trouble with comprehension.", "Expressive aphasia differs from dysarthria, which is typified by a patient's inability to properly move the muscles of the tongue and mouth to produce speech.", "Expressive aphasia also differs from apraxia of speech, which is a motor disorder characterized by an inability to create and sequence motor plans for speech." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Broca's (expressive) aphasia is a type of non-fluent aphasia in which an individual's speech is halting and effortful.", "Misarticulations or distortions of consonants and vowels, namely phonetic dissolution, are common.", "Individuals with expressive aphasia may only produce single words, or words in groups of two or three.", "Long pauses between words are common and multi-syllabic words may be produced one syllable at a time with pauses between each syllable.", "The prosody of a person with Broca's aphasia is compromised by shortened length of utterances and the presence of self-repairs and disfluencies.", "Intonation and stress patterns are also deficient.For example, in the following passage, a patient with Broca's aphasia is trying to explain how he came to the hospital for dental surgery:The speech of a person with expressive aphasia contains mostly content words such as nouns, verbs, and some adjectives.", "However, function words like conjunctions, articles, and prepositions are rarely used except for \"and\" which is prevalent in the speech of most patients with aphasia.", "The omission of function words makes the person's speech agrammatic.", "A communication partner of a person with aphasia may say that the person's speech sounds telegraphic due to poor sentence construction and disjointed words.", "For example, a person with expressive aphasia might say \"Smart... university... smart... good... good...\"Self-monitoring is typically well preserved in patients with Broca's aphasia.", "They are usually aware of their communication deficits, and are more prone to depression and outbursts from frustration than are patients with other forms of aphasia.In general, word comprehension is preserved, allowing patients to have functional receptive language skills.", "Individuals with Broca's aphasia understand most of the everyday conversation around them, but higher-level deficits in receptive language can occur.", "Because comprehension is substantially impaired for more complex sentences, it is better to use simple language when speaking with an individual with expressive aphasia.", "This is exemplified by the difficulty to understand phrases or sentences with unusual structure.", "A typical patient with Broca's aphasia will misinterpret \"the man is bitten by the dog\" by switching the subject and object to \"the dog is bitten by the man.", "\"Typically, people with expressive aphasia can understand speech and read better than they can produce speech and write.", "The person's writing will resemble their speech and will be effortful, lacking cohesion, and containing mostly content words.", "Letters will likely be formed clumsily and distorted and some may even be omitted.", "Although listening and reading are generally intact, subtle deficits in both reading and listening comprehension are almost always present during assessment of aphasia.Because Broca's area is anterior to the primary motor cortex, which is responsible for movement of the face, hands, and arms, a lesion affecting Broca's areas may also result in hemiparesis (weakness of both limbs on the same side of the body) or hemiplegia (paralysis of both limbs on the same side of the body).", "The brain is wired contralaterally, which means the limbs on right side of the body are controlled by the left hemisphere and vice versa.", "Therefore, when Broca's area or surrounding areas in the left hemisphere are damaged, hemiplegia or hemiparesis often occurs on the right side of the body in individuals with Broca's aphasia.Severity of expressive aphasia varies among patients.", "Some people may only have mild deficits and detecting problems with their language may be difficult.", "In the most extreme cases, patients may be able to produce only a single word.", "Even in such cases, over-learned and rote-learned speech patterns may be retained– for instance, some patients can count from one to ten, but cannot produce the same numbers in novel conversation.===Manual language and aphasia===In deaf patients who use manual language (such as American Sign Language), damage to the left hemisphere of the brain leads to disruptions in their signing ability.", "Paraphasic errors similar to spoken language have been observed; whereas in spoken language a phonemic substitution would occur (e.g.", "\"tagle\" instead of \"table\"), in ASL case studies errors in movement, hand position, and morphology have been noted.", "Agrammatism, or the lack of grammatical morphemes in sentence production, has also been observed in lifelong users of ASL who have left hemisphere damage.", "The lack of syntactic accuracy shows that the errors in signing are not due to damage to the motor cortex, but rather area manifestation of the damage to the language-producing area of the brain.", "Similar symptoms have been seen in a patient with left hemisphere damage whose first language was British Sign Language, further showing that damage to the left hemisphere primarily hinders linguistic ability, not motor ability.", "In contrast, patients who have damage to non-linguistic areas on the left hemisphere have been shown to be fluent in signing, but are unable to comprehend written language.===Overlap with receptive aphasia===In addition to difficulty expressing oneself, individuals with expressive aphasia are also noted to commonly have trouble with comprehension in certain linguistic areas.", "This agrammatism overlaps with receptive aphasia, but can be seen in patients who have expressive aphasia without being diagnosed as having receptive aphasia.", "The most well-noted of these are object-relative clauses, object Wh- questions, and topicalized structures (placing the topic at the beginning of the sentence).", "These three concepts all share phrasal movement, which can cause words to lose their thematic roles when they change order in the sentence.", "This is often not an issue for people without agrammatic aphasias, but many people with aphasia rely heavily on word order to understand roles that words play within the sentence." ], [ "Causes", "=== More common ===* Stroke or brain anoxia.", "* Brain tumor* Brain trauma=== Less common ===* Autoimmune disease* Paraneoplastic syndrome* Micrometastasis* neurodegenerative disorders* Certain infections (e.g., ''Bartonella henselae'')* Metabolic disease (e.g., hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state)==== Common causes ====The most common cause of expressive aphasia is stroke.", "A stroke is caused by hypoperfusion (lack of oxygen) to an area of the brain, which is commonly caused by thrombosis or embolism.", "Some form of aphasia occurs in 34 to 38% of stroke patients.", "Expressive aphasia occurs in approximately 12% of new cases of aphasia caused by stroke.In most cases, expressive aphasia is caused by a stroke in Broca's area or the surrounding vicinity.", "Broca's area is in the lower part of the premotor cortex in the language dominant hemisphere and is responsible for planning motor speech movements.", "However, cases of expressive aphasia have been seen in patients with strokes in other areas of the brain.", "Patients with classic symptoms of expressive aphasia in general have more acute brain lesions, whereas patients with larger, widespread lesions exhibit a variety of symptoms that may be classified as global aphasia or left unclassified.Expressive aphasia can also be caused by trauma to the brain, tumor, cerebral hemorrhage and by extradural abscess.Understanding lateralization of brain function is important for understanding which areas of the brain cause expressive aphasia when damaged.", "In the past, it has been believed that the area for language production differs between left and right-handed individuals.", "If this were true, damage to the homologous region of Broca's area in the right hemisphere should cause aphasia in a left-handed individual.", "More recent studies have shown that even left-handed individuals typically have language functions only in the left hemisphere.", "However, left-handed individuals are more likely to have a dominance of language in the right hemisphere.==== Uncommon causes ====Less common causes of expressive aphasia include primary autoimmune phenomenon and autoimmune phenomenon that are secondary to cancer (as a paraneoplastic syndrome) have been listed as the primary hypothesis for several cases of aphasia, especially when presenting with other psychiatric disturbances and focal neurological deficits.", "Many case reports exist describing paraneoplastic aphasia, and the reports that are specific tend to describe expressive aphasia.", "Although most cases attempt to exclude micro-metastasis, it is likely that some cases of paraneoplastic aphasia are actually extremely small metastasis to the vocal motor regions.Neurodegenerative disorders may present with aphasia.", "Alzheimer's disease may present with either fluent aphasia or expressive aphasia.", "There are case reports of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease presenting with expressive aphasia." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Expressive aphasia is classified as non-fluent aphasia, as opposed to fluent aphasia.", "Diagnosis is done on a case-by-case basis, as lesions often affect the surrounding cortex and deficits are highly variable among patients with aphasia.A physician is typically the first person to recognize aphasia in a patient who is being treated for damage to the brain.", "Routine processes for determining the presence and location of lesion in the brain include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) scans.", "The physician will complete a brief assessment of the patient's ability to understand and produce language.", "For further diagnostic testing, the physician will refer the patient to a speech-language pathologist, who will complete a comprehensive evaluation.In order to diagnose a patient with Broca's aphasia, there are certain commonly used tests and procedures.", "The Western Aphasia Battery (WAB) classifies individuals based on their scores on the subtests; spontaneous speech, auditory comprehension, repetition, and naming.", "The Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination (BDAE) can inform users what specific type of aphasia they may have, infer the location of lesion, and assess current language abilities.", "The Porch Index of Communication Ability (PICA) can predict potential recovery outcomes of the patients with aphasia.", "Quality of life measurement is also an important assessment tool.", "Tests such as the Assessment for Living with Aphasia (ALA) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) allow for therapists to target skills that are important and meaningful for the individual.In addition to formal assessments, patient and family interviews are valid and important sources of information.", "The patient's previous hobbies, interests, personality, and occupation are all factors that will not only impact therapy but may motivate them throughout the recovery process.", "Patient interviews and observations allow professionals to learn the priorities of the patient and family and determine what the patient hopes to regain in therapy.", "Observations of the patient may also be beneficial to determine where to begin treatment.", "The current behaviors and interactions of the patient will provide the therapist with more insight about the client and their individual needs.", "Other information about the patient can be retrieved from medical records, patient referrals from physicians, and the nursing staff.In non-speaking patients who use manual languages, diagnosis is often based on interviews from the patient's acquaintances, noting the differences in sign production pre- and post-damage to the brain.", "Many of these patients will also begin to rely on non-linguistic gestures to communicate, rather than signing since their language production is hindered." ], [ "Treatment", "Currently, there is no standard treatment for expressive aphasia.", "Most aphasia treatment is individualized based on a patient's condition and needs as assessed by a speech language pathologist.", "Patients go through a period of spontaneous recovery following brain injury in which they regain a great deal of language function.In the months following injury or stroke, most patients receive traditional treatment for a few hours per day.", "Among other exercises, patients practice the repetition of words and phrases.", "Mechanisms are also taught in traditional treatment to compensate for lost language function such as drawing and using phrases that are easier to pronounce.Emphasis is placed on establishing a basis for communication with family and caregivers in everyday life.", "Treatment is individualized based on the patient's own priorities, along with the family's input.A patient may have the option of individual or group treatment.", "Although less common, group treatment has been shown to have advantageous outcomes.", "Some types of group treatments include family counseling, maintenance groups, support groups and treatment groups.===Augmentative and Alternative Communication===Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) refers to a set of tools and strategies that support or replace verbal communication for individuals with communication disorders, such as Broca's aphasia or other conditions that affect speech and language abilities.", "AAC is designed to enhance communication and may be used as a temporary or permanent solution, depending on the individual's needs.", "Here are some key aspects of AAC:1.Communication Aids: - Low-Tech AAC: This includes simple, non-electronic communication aids such as communication boards, picture books, or communication charts.", "Users can point to or select symbols or pictures to convey their messages - High-Tech AAC: Involves electronic devices such as speech-generating devices (SGDs) or tablet-based communication apps.", "These devices use synthesized speech or recorded messages to facilitate communication.", "Users can select words, phrases, or symbols on a screen to express themselves.2.Symbols and Representations: - Symbols used in AAC can vary and may include pictures, icons, words, or a combination of these.", "Symbols are chosen based on the individual's cognitive and language abilities.3.Types of AAC Systems: - Unaided AAC: Relies on the user's body to convey messages without external tools, such as using gestures, facial expressions, or sign language.", "- Aided AAC: Involves external tools or devices, such as communication boards, speech-generating devices, or computer-based systems.4.Vocabulary and Language Systems: - **Core Vocabulary:** Focuses on essential words that are frequently used across various contexts.", "Core vocabulary systems aim to provide users with a versatile set of words to express a wide range of messages.", "- Fringe Vocabulary: Includes specific words related to an individual's unique needs, interests, or daily activities.", "Fringe vocabulary supplements core vocabulary to make communication more personalized.5.Customization and Individualization: - AAC systems are highly customizable to meet the unique needs of each user.", "Therapists work with individuals and their families to tailor the system to the user's abilities, preferences, and communication goals.6.Training and Support: - Users of AAC systems, as well as their caregivers and support networks, receive training to effectively use the communication tools.", "Training may involve learning how to navigate electronic devices, program personalized messages, or understand the meaning of symbols.7.Integration with Therapy: - AAC is often integrated into speech and language therapy sessions.", "Therapists use AAC tools to facilitate communication practice and help individuals with communication disorders improve their language skills.8.Social and Emotional Aspects: - AAC not only addresses the functional aspects of communication but also considers the social and emotional dimensions.", "It plays a crucial role in helping individuals with communication disorders participate more fully in social interactions and express their thoughts and feelings.AAC is a dynamic and evolving field, and advancements in technology continue to enhance the range and effectiveness of communication tools available for individuals with speech and language challenges.", "The selection of AAC strategies depends on factors such as the individual's abilities, preferences, and the specific nature of their communication disorder.===Melodic intonation therapy===Melodic intonation therapy was inspired by the observation that individuals with non-fluent aphasia sometimes can sing words or phrases that they normally cannot speak.", "\"Melodic Intonation Therapy was begun as an attempt to use the intact melodic/prosodic processing skills of the right hemisphere in those with aphasia to help cue retrieval words and expressive language.\"", "It is believed that this is because singing capabilities are stored in the right hemisphere of the brain, which is likely to remain unaffected after a stroke in the left hemisphere.", "However, recent evidence demonstrates that the capability of individuals with aphasia to sing entire pieces of text may actually result from rhythmic features and the familiarity with the lyrics.The goal of Melodic Intonation Therapy is to utilize singing to access the language-capable regions in the right hemisphere and use these regions to compensate for lost function in the left hemisphere.", "The natural musical component of speech was used to engage the patients' ability to produce phrases.", "A clinical study revealed that singing and rhythmic speech may be similarly effective in the treatment of non-fluent aphasia and apraxia of speech.", "Moreover, evidence from randomized controlled trials is still needed to confirm that Melodic Intonation Therapy is suitable to improve propositional utterances and speech intelligibility in individuals with (chronic) non-fluent aphasia and apraxia of speech.Melodic Intonation Therapy appears to work particularly well in patients who have had a unilateral, left hemisphere stroke, show poor articulation, are non-fluent or have severely restricted speech output, have moderately preserved auditory comprehension, and show good motivation.", "MIT therapy on average lasts for 1.5 hours per day for five days per week.", "At the lowest level of therapy, simple words and phrases (such as \"water\" and \"I love you\") are broken down into a series of high- and low-pitch syllables.", "With increased treatment, longer phrases are taught and less support is provided by the therapist.", "Patients are taught to say phrases using the natural melodic component of speaking and continuous voicing is emphasized.", "The patient is also instructed to use the left hand to tap the syllables of the phrase while the phrases are spoken.", "Tapping is assumed to trigger the rhythmic component of speaking to utilize the right hemisphere.FMRI studies have shown that Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT) uses both sides of the brain to recover lost function, as opposed to traditional therapies that utilize only the left hemisphere.", "In MIT, individuals with small lesions in the left hemisphere seem to recover by activation of the left hemisphere perilesional cortex.", "Meanwhile, individuals with larger left-hemisphere lesions show a recruitment of the use of language-capable regions in the right hemisphere.", "The interpretation of these results is still a matter of debate.", "For example, it remains unclear whether changes in neural activity in the right hemisphere result from singing or from the intensive use of common phrases, such as \"thank you\", \"how are you?\"", "or \"I am fine.\"", "This type of phrases falls into the category of formulaic language and is known to be supported by neural networks of the intact right hemisphere.A pilot study reported positive results when comparing the efficacy of a modified form of MIT to no treatment in people with nonfluent aphasia with damage to their left-brain.", "A randomized controlled trial was conducted and the study reported benefits of utilizing modified MIT treatment early in the recovery phase for people with nonfluent aphasia.Melodic Intonation Therapy is used by music therapists, board-certified professionals that use music as a therapeutic tool to effect certain non-musical outcomes in their patients.", "Speech language pathologists can also use this therapy for individuals who have had a left hemisphere stroke and non-fluent aphasias such as Broca's or even apraxia of speech.===Constraint-induced therapy===Constraint-induced aphasia therapy (CIAT) is based on similar principles as constraint-induced movement therapy developed by Dr. Edward Taub at the University of Alabama at Birmingham.", "Constraint-induced movement therapy is based on the idea that a person with an impairment (physical or communicative) develops a \"learned nonuse\" by compensating for the lost function with other means such as using an unaffected limb by a paralyzed individual or drawing by a patient with aphasia.", "In constraint-induced movement therapy, the alternative limb is constrained with a glove or sling and the patient is forced to use the affected limb.", "In constraint-induced aphasia therapy the interaction is guided by communicative need in a language game context, picture cards, barriers making it impossible to see other players' cards, and other materials, so that patients are encouraged (\"constrained\") to use the remaining verbal abilities to succeed in the communication game.Two important principles of constraint-induced aphasia therapy are that treatment is very intense, with sessions lasting for up to 6 hours over the course of 10 days and that language is used in a communication context in which it is closely linked to (nonverbal) actions.", "These principles are motivated by neuroscience insights about learning at the level of nerve cells (synaptic plasticity) and the coupling between cortical systems for language and action in the human brain.", "Constraint-induced therapy contrasts sharply with traditional therapy by the strong belief that mechanisms to compensate for lost language function, such as gesturing or writing, should not be used unless absolutely necessary, even in everyday life.It is believed that CIAT works by the mechanism of increased neuroplasticity.", "By constraining an individual to use only speech, it is believed that the brain is more likely to reestablish old neural pathways and recruit new neural pathways to compensate for lost function.The strongest results of CIAT have been seen in patients with chronic aphasia (lasting over 6 months).", "Studies of CIAT have confirmed that further improvement is possible even after a patient has reached a \"plateau\" period of recovery.", "It has also been proven that the benefits of CIAT are retained long term.", "However, improvements only seem to be made while a patient is undergoing intense therapy.", "Recent work has investigated combining constraint-induced aphasia therapy with drug treatment, which led to an amplification of therapy benefits.===Medication===In addition to active speech therapy, pharmaceuticals have also been considered as a useful treatment for expressive aphasia.", "This area of study is relatively new and much research continues to be conducted.The following drugs have been suggested for use in treating aphasia and their efficacy has been studied in control studies.", "* Bromocriptine – acts on Catecholamine Systems* Piracetam – mechanism not fully understood, but most likely interacts with cholinergic and glutamatergic receptors, among others* Cholinergic drugs (Donepezil, Aniracetam, Bifemelane) – acts on acetylcholine systems* Dopaminergic psychostimulants: (Dexamphetamine, Methylphenidate)The most effect has been shown by piracetam and amphetamine, which may increase cerebral plasticity and result in an increased capability to improve language function.", "It has been seen that piracetam is most effective when treatment is begun immediately following stroke.", "When used in chronic cases it has been much less efficient.Bromocriptine has been shown by some studies to increase verbal fluency and word retrieval with therapy than with just therapy alone.", "Furthermore, its use seems to be restricted to non-fluent aphasia.Donepezil has shown a potential for helping chronic aphasia.No study has established irrefutable evidence that any drug is an effective treatment for aphasia therapy.", "Furthermore, no study has shown any drug to be specific for language recovery.", "Comparison between the recovery of language function and other motor function using any drug has shown that improvement is due to a global increase plasticity of neural networks.===Transcranial magnetic stimulation===In transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), magnetic fields are used to create electrical currents in specified cortical regions.", "The procedure is a painless and noninvasive method of stimulating the cortex.", "TMS works by suppressing the inhibition process in certain areas of the brain.", "By suppressing the inhibition of neurons by external factors, the targeted area of the brain may be reactivated and thereby recruited to compensate for lost function.", "Research has shown that patients can demonstrate increased object naming ability with regular transcranial magnetic stimulation than patients not receiving TMS.", "Furthermore, research suggests this improvement is sustained upon the completion of TMS therapy.", "However, some patients fail to show any significant improvement from TMS which indicates the need for further research of this treatment.===Treatment of underlying forms===Described as the linguistic approach to the treatment of expressive aphasia, treatment begins by emphasizing and educating patients on the thematic roles of words within sentences.", "Sentences that are usually problematic will be reworded into active-voiced, declarative phrasings of their non-canonical counterparts.", "The simpler sentence phrasings are then transformed into variations that are more difficult to interpret.", "For example, many individuals who have expressive aphasia struggle with Wh- sentences.", "\"What\" and \"who\" questions are problematic sentences that this treatment method attempts to improve, and they are also two interrogative particles that are strongly related to each other because they reorder arguments from the declarative counterparts.", "For instance, therapists have used sentences like, \"Who is the boy helping?\"", "and \"What is the boy fixing?\"", "because both verbs are transitive- they require two arguments in the form of a subject and a direct object, but not necessarily an indirect object.", "In addition, certain question particles are linked together based on how the reworded sentence is formed.", "Training \"who\" sentences increased the generalizations of non-trained \"who\" sentences as well as untrained \"what\" sentences, and vice versa.", "Likewise, \"where\" and \"when\" question types are very closely linked.", "\"What\" and \"who\" questions alter placement of arguments, and \"where\" and \"when\" sentences move adjunct phrases.", "Training is in the style of: \"The man parked the car in the driveway.", "What did the man park in the driveway?\"", "Sentence training goes on in this manner for more domains, such as clefts and sentence voice.Results: Patients' use of sentence types used in the TUF treatment will improve, subjects will generalize sentences of similar category to those used for treatment in TUF, and results are applied to real-world conversations with others.", "Generalization of sentence types used can be improved when the treatment progresses in the order of more complex sentences to more elementary sentences.", "Treatment has been shown to affect on-line (real-time) processing of trained sentences and these results can be tracked using fMRI mappings.", "Training of Wh- sentences has led improvements in three main areas of discourse for aphasics: increased average length of utterances, higher proportions of grammatical sentences, and larger ratios of numbers of verbs to nouns produced.", "Patients also showed improvements in verb argument structure productions and assigned thematic roles to words in utterances with more accuracy.", "In terms of on-line sentence processing, patients having undergone this treatment discriminate between anomalous and non-anomalous sentences with more accuracy than control groups and are closer to levels of normalcy than patients not having participated in this treatment.===Mechanisms of recovery===Mechanisms for recovery differ from patient to patient.", "Some mechanisms for recovery occur spontaneously after damage to the brain, whereas others are caused by the effects of language therapy.", "FMRI studies have shown that recovery can be partially attributed to the activation of tissue around the damaged area and the recruitment of new neurons in these areas to compensate for the lost function.", "Recovery may also be caused in very acute lesions by a return of blood flow and function to damaged tissue that has not died around an injured area.", "It has been stated by some researchers that the recruitment and recovery of neurons in the left hemisphere opposed to the recruitment of similar neurons in the right hemisphere is superior for long-term recovery and continued rehabilitation.", "It is thought that, because the right hemisphere is not intended for full language function, using the right hemisphere as a mechanism of recovery is effectively a \"dead-end\" and can lead only to partial recovery.There is evidence to support that, among all types of therapies, one of the most important factors and best predictors for a successful outcome is the intensity of the therapy.", "By comparing the length and intensity of various methods of therapies, it was proven that intensity is a better predictor of recovery than the method of therapy used." ], [ "Prognosis", "In most individuals with expressive aphasia, the majority of recovery is seen within the first year following a stroke or injury.", "The majority of this improvement is seen in the first four weeks in therapy following a stroke and slows thereafter.", "However, this timeline will vary depending upon the type of stroke experienced by the patient.", "Patients who experienced an ischemic stroke may recover in the days and weeks following the stroke, and then experience a plateau and gradual slowing of recovery.", "On the contrary, patients who experienced a hemorrhagic stroke experience a slower recovery in the first 4–8 weeks, followed by a faster recovery which eventually stabilizes.Numerous factors impact the recovery process and outcomes.", "Site and extent of lesion greatly impacts recovery.", "Other factors that may affect prognosis are age, education, gender, and motivation.", "Occupation, handedness, personality, and emotional state may also be associated with recovery outcomes.Studies have also found that prognosis of expressive aphasia correlates strongly with the initial severity of impairment.", "However, it has been seen that continued recovery is possible years after a stroke with effective treatment.", "Timing and intensity of treatment is another factor that impacts outcomes.", "Research suggests that even in later stages of recovery, intervention is effective at improving function, as well as, preventing loss of function.Unlike receptive aphasia, patients with expressive aphasia are aware of their errors in language production.", "This may further motivate a person with expressive aphasia to progress in treatment, which would affect treatment outcomes.", "On the other hand, awareness of impairment may lead to higher levels of frustration, depression, anxiety, or social withdrawal, which have been proven to negatively affect a person's chance of recovery." ], [ "History", "Expressive aphasia was first identified by the French neurologist Paul Broca.", "By examining the brains of deceased individuals having acquired expressive aphasia in life, he concluded that language ability is localized in the ventroposterior region of the frontal lobe.", "One of the most important aspects of Paul Broca's discovery was the observation that the loss of proper speech in expressive aphasia is due to the brain's loss of ability to produce language, as opposed to the mouth's loss of ability to produce words.The discoveries of Paul Broca were made during the same period of time as the German Neurologist Carl Wernicke, who was also studying brains of aphasiacs post-mortem and identified the region now known as Wernicke's area.", "Discoveries of both men contributed to the concept of localization, which states that specific brain functions are all localized to a specific area of the brain.", "While both men made significant contributions to the field of aphasia, it was Carl Wernicke who realized the difference between patients with aphasia that could not produce language and those that could not comprehend language (the essential difference between expressive and receptive aphasia)." ], [ "See also", "* Broca's area* Transcortical sensory aphasia* Wernicke's aphasia* Word salad" ], [ "References", "* ASHA Glossary: Broca's Aphasia.", "(n.d.).", "Retrieved November 18, 2015, from http://www.asha.org/Glossary/Brocas-Aphasia/" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* National Aphasia Association* Aphasia Center of California in Oakland, CA, U.S.* video of person with Broca's Aphasia* \"Broca's aphasia.", "Discovery of the area of the brain governing articulated language\", analysis of Broca's 1861 article, on '' BibNum'' click 'à télécharger' for English version.", "* Appendix: Common Classifications of Aphasia.", "(n.d.).", "Retrieved from http://www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Clinical-Topics/Aphasia/Common-Classifications-of-Aphasia/" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ephesus" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Ephesus''' (; ; ; may ultimately derive from ) was a city in Ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey.", "It was built in the 10th century BC on the site of Apasa, the former Arzawan capital, by Attic and Ionian Greeks.", "During the Classical Greek era, it was one of twelve cities that were members of the Ionian League.", "The city came under the control of the Roman Republic in 129 BC.The city was famous in its day for the nearby Temple of Artemis (completed around 550 BC), which has been designated one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.", "Its many monumental buildings included the Library of Celsus and a theatre capable of holding 24,000 spectators.Ephesus was a recipient city of one of the Pauline epistles and one of the seven churches of Asia addressed in the Book of Revelation.", "The Gospel of John may have been written there.", "and it was the site of several 5th-century Christian Councils (see Council of Ephesus).", "The city was destroyed by the Goths in 263.Although it was afterwards rebuilt, its importance as a commercial centre declined as the harbour was slowly silted up by the Küçükmenderes River.", "In 614, it was partially destroyed by an earthquake.Today, the ruins of Ephesus are a favourite international and local tourist attraction, being accessible from Adnan Menderes Airport and from the resort town Kuşadası.", "In 2015, the ruins were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site." ], [ "History", "=== Neolithic age ===Humans had begun inhabiting the area surrounding Ephesus by the Neolithic Age (about 6000 BC), as shown by evidence from excavations at the nearby ''höyük'' (artificial mounds known as tells) of Arvalya and Cukurici.=== Bronze Age ===Excavations in recent years have unearthed settlements from the early Bronze Age at Ayasuluk Hill.", "According to Hittite sources, the capital of the kingdom of Arzawa (another independent state in Western and Southern Anatolia/Asia Minor) was Apasa (or ''Abasa''), and some scholars suggest that this is the same place the Greeks later called Ephesus.", "In 1954, a burial ground from the Mycenaean era (1500–1400 BC), which contained ceramic pots, was discovered close to the ruins of the basilica of St. John.", "This was the period of the Mycenaean expansion, a process that continued into the 13th century BC.", "The names ''Apasa'' and ''Ephesus'' appear to be cognate, and recently found inscriptions seem to pinpoint the places in the Hittite record.===Period of Greek migrations===Site of the Temple of Artemis in the town of Selçuk, near Ephesus.Ephesus was founded as an Attic-Ionian colony in the 10th century BC on a hill (now known as the Ayasuluk Hill), three kilometers () from the centre of ancient Ephesus (as attested by excavations at the Seljuk castle during the 1990s).", "The mythical founder of the city was a prince of Athens named Androklos, who had to leave his country after the death of his father, King Kodros.", "According to the legend, he founded Ephesus on the place where the oracle of Delphi became reality (\"A fish and a boar will show you the way\").", "He was a successful warrior, and as a king he was able to join the twelve cities of Ionia together into the Ionian League.", "During his reign the city began to prosper.", "He died in a battle against the Carians when he came to the aid of Priene, another city of the Ionian League.", "Androklos and his dog are depicted on the Hadrian temple frieze, dating from the 2nd century.", "Later, Greek historians such as Pausanias, Strabo and Herodotos and the poet Kallinos reassigned the city's mythological foundation to Ephos, queen of the Amazons.The Greek goddess Artemis and the great Anatolian goddess Kybele were identified together as ''Artemis of Ephesus''.", "The many-breasted \"Lady of Ephesus\", identified with Artemis, was venerated in the Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the World and the largest building of the ancient world according to Pausanias (4.31.8).", "Pausanias mentions that the temple was built by Ephesus, son of the river god Caystrus, before the arrival of the Ionians.", "Of this structure, scarcely a trace remains.Ancient sources seem to indicate that an older name of the place was '''Alope''' ().=== Archaic period ===Street scene at the archeological excavations at Ephesus.About 650 BC, Ephesus was attacked by the Cimmerians who razed the city, including the temple of Artemis.", "After the Cimmerians had been driven away, the city was ruled by a series of tyrants.", "Following a revolt by the people, Ephesus was ruled by a council.", "The city prospered again under a new rule, producing a number of important historical figures such as the elegiac poet Callinus and the iambic poet Hipponax, the philosopher Heraclitus, the great painter Parrhasius and later the grammarian Zenodotos and physicians Soranus and Rufus.Electrum coin from Ephesus, 620–600 BC.", "Obverse: Forepart of stag.", "Reverse: Square incuse punch.About 560 BC, Ephesus was conquered by the Lydians under king Croesus, who, though a harsh ruler, treated the inhabitants with respect and even became the main contributor to the reconstruction of the temple of Artemis.", "His signature has been found on the base of one of the columns of the temple (now on display in the British Museum).", "Croesus made the populations of the different settlements around Ephesus regroup (''synoikismos'') in the vicinity of the Temple of Artemis, enlarging the city.Later in the same century, the Lydians under Croesus invaded Persia.", "The Ionians refused a peace offer from Cyrus the Great, siding with the Lydians instead.", "After the Persians defeated Croesus, the Ionians offered to make peace, but Cyrus insisted that they surrender and become part of the empire.", "They were defeated by the Persian army commander Harpagos in 547 BC.", "The Persians then incorporated the Greek cities of Asia Minor into the Achaemenid Empire.", "Those cities were then ruled by satraps.Ephesus has intrigued archaeologists because for the Archaic Period there is no definite location for the settlement.", "There are numerous sites to suggest the movement of a settlement between the Bronze Age and the Roman period, but the silting up of the natural harbours as well as the movement of the Kayster River meant that the location never remained the same.=== Classical period ===Ephesus continued to prosper, but when taxes were raised under Cambyses II and Darius, the Ephesians participated in the Ionian Revolt against Persian rule in the Battle of Ephesus (498 BC), an event which instigated the Greco-Persian wars.", "In 479 BC, the Ionians, together with Athens, were able to oust the Persians from the shores of Asia Minor.", "In 478 BC, the Ionian cities with Athens entered into the Delian League against the Persians.", "Ephesus did not contribute ships but gave financial support.During the Peloponnesian War, Ephesus was first allied to Athens but in a later phase, called the Decelean War, or the Ionian War, sided with Sparta, which also had received the support of the Persians.", "As a result, rule over the cities of Ionia was ceded again to Persia.These wars did not greatly affect daily life in Ephesus.", "The Ephesians were surprisingly modern in their social relations: they allowed strangers to integrate and education was valued.", "In later times, Pliny the Elder mentioned having seen at Ephesus a representation of the goddess Diana by Timarete, the daughter of a painter.In 356 BC the temple of Artemis was burnt down, according to legend, by a lunatic called Herostratus.", "The inhabitants of Ephesus at once set about restoring the temple and even planned a larger and grander one than the original.=== Hellenistic period ===Historical map of Ephesus, from ''Meyers Konversationslexikon'', 1888When Alexander the Great defeated the Persian forces at the Battle of Granicus in 334 BC, the Greek cities of Asia Minor were liberated.", "The pro-Persian tyrant Syrpax and his family were stoned to death, and Alexander was greeted warmly when he entered Ephesus in triumph.", "When Alexander saw that the temple of Artemis was not yet finished, he proposed to finance it and have his name inscribed on the front.", "But the inhabitants of Ephesus demurred, claiming that it was not fitting for one god to build a temple to another.", "After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Ephesus in 290 BC came under the rule of one of Alexander's generals, Lysimachus.As the river Cayster (Grk.", "name Κάϋστρος) silted up the old harbour, the resulting marshes caused malaria and many deaths among the inhabitants.", "Lysimachus forced the people to move from the ancient settlement around the temple of Artemis to the present site two kilometres () away, when as a last resort the king flooded the old city by blocking the sewers.", "The new settlement was officially called ''Arsinoea'' ( or Ἀρσινοΐα) or '''Arsinoe''' (Ἀρσινόη), after the king's second wife, Arsinoe II of Egypt.", "After Lysimachus had destroyed the nearby cities of Lebedos and Colophon in 292 BC, he relocated their inhabitants to the new city.Ephesus revolted after the treacherous death of Agathocles, giving the Hellenistic king of Syria and Mesopotamia Seleucus I Nicator an opportunity for removing and killing Lysimachus, his last rival, at the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC.", "After the death of Lysimachus the town again was named Ephesus.Thus Ephesus became part of the Seleucid Empire.", "After the murder of king Antiochus II Theos and his Egyptian wife in 246 BC, pharaoh Ptolemy III invaded the Seleucid Empire and the Egyptian fleet swept the coast of Asia Minor.", "Ephesus was betrayed by its governor Sophron into the hands of the Ptolemies who ruled the city for half a century until 197 BC.The Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great tried to regain the Greek cities of Asia Minor and recaptured Ephesus in 196 BC but he then came into conflict with Rome.", "After a series of battles, he was defeated by Scipio Asiaticus at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC.", "As a result of the subsequent Treaty of Apamea, Ephesus came under the rule of Eumenes II, the Attalid king of Pergamon, (ruled 197–159 BC).", "When his grandson Attalus III died in 133 BC without male children of his own, he left his kingdom to the Roman Republic, on condition that the city of Pergamon be kept free and autonomous.=== Classical Roman period (129 BC–395 AD) ===The Temple of HadrianEphesus, as part of the kingdom of Pergamon, became a subject of the Roman Republic in 129 BC after the revolt of Eumenes III was suppressed.The Theatre of Ephesus with harbour street.", "Due to ancient and subsequent deforestation, overgrazing (mostly by goat herds), erosion and soil degradation, the Mediterranean coast is now away from the site, sediment having filled the plain and the coast.", "In the background can be seen the muddy remains of the former harbour, barren hill ridges and maquis shrubland.Stone carving of the goddess NikeThe city felt Roman influence at once; taxes rose considerably, and the treasures of the city were systematically plundered.", "Hence in 88 BC Ephesus welcomed Archelaus, a general of Mithridates, king of Pontus, when he conquered Asia (the Roman name for western Anatolia).", "From Ephesus, Mithridates ordered every Roman citizen in the province to be killed which led to the Asiatic Vespers, the slaughter of 80,000 Roman citizens in Asia, or any person who spoke with a Latin accent.", "Many had lived in Ephesus, and statues and monument of Roman citizens in Ephesus were also destroyed.", "But when they saw how badly the people of Chios had been treated by Zenobius, a general of Mithridates, they refused entry to his army.", "Zenobius was invited into the city to visit Philopoemen, the father of Monime, the favourite wife of Mithridates, and the overseer of Ephesus.", "As the people expected nothing good of him, they threw him into prison and murdered him.", "Mithridates took revenge and inflicted terrible punishments.", "However, the Greek cities were given freedom and several substantial rights.", "Ephesus became, for a short time, self-governing.", "When Mithridates was defeated in the First Mithridatic War by the Roman consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Ephesus came back under Roman rule in 86 BC.", "Sulla imposed a huge indemnity, along with five years of back taxes, which left Asian cities heavily in debt for a long time to come.King Ptolemy XII Auletes of Egypt retired to Ephesus in 57 BCE, passing his time in the sanctuary of the temple of Artemis when the Roman Senate failed to restore him to his throne.Mark Antony was welcomed by Ephesus for periods when he was proconsul and in 33 BC with Cleopatra when he gathered his fleet of 800 ships before the battle of Actium with Octavius.When Augustus became emperor in 27 BCE, the most important change was when he made Ephesus the capital of proconsular Asia (which covered western Asia Minor) instead of Pergamum.", "Ephesus then entered an era of prosperity, becoming both the seat of the governor and a major centre of commerce.", "According to Strabo, it was second in importance and size only to Rome.The city and temple were destroyed by the Goths in 263 CE.", "This marked the decline of the city's splendour.", "However emperor Constantine the Great rebuilt much of the city and erected new public baths.====The Roman population====The 'terrace houses' at Ephesus, showing how the wealthy lived during the Roman period.", "Eventually the harbour became silted up, and the city lost its natural resources.Until recently, the population of Ephesus in Roman times was estimated to number up to 225,000 people by Broughton.", "More recent scholarship regards these estimates as unrealistic.", "Such a large estimate would require population densities seen in only a few ancient cities, or extensive settlement outside the city walls.", "This would have been impossible at Ephesus because of the mountain ranges, coastline and quarries which surrounded the city.The wall of Lysimachus has been estimated to enclose an area of .", "Not all of this area was inhabited due to public buildings and spaces in the city center and the steep slope of the Bülbül Dağı mountain, which was enclosed by the wall.", "Ludwig Burchner estimated this area with the walls at 1000 acres.", "Jerome Murphy-O'Connor uses an estimate of 345 hectares for the inhabited land or 835 acres (Murphey cites Ludwig Burchner).", "He cites Josiah Russell using 832 acres and Old Jerusalem in 1918 as the yardstick estimated the population at 51,068 at 148.5 persons per hectare.", "Using 510 persons per hectare, he arrives at a population between 138,000 and 172,500 .", "J.W.", "Hanson estimated the inhabited space to be smaller, at .", "He argues that population densities of 150~250 people per hectare are more realistic, which gives a range of 33,600–56,000 inhabitants.", "Even with these much lower population estimates, Ephesus was one of the largest cities of Roman Asia Minor, ranking it as the largest city after Sardis and Alexandria Troas.", "Hanson and Ortman (2017) estimate an inhabited area to be 263 hectares and their demographic model yields an estimate of 71,587 inhabitants, with a population density of 276 inhabitants per hectare.", "By contrast, Rome within the walls encompassed 1,500 hectares and as over 400 built-up hectares were left outside the Aurelian Wall, whose construction was begun in 274 CE and finished in 279 CE, the total inhabited area plus public spaces inside the walls consisted of ca.", "1,900 hectares.", "Imperial Rome had a population estimated to be between 750,000 and one million (Hanson and Ortman's (2017) model yields an estimate of 923,406 inhabitants), which imply in a population density of 395 to 526 inhabitants per hectare, including public spaces.=== Byzantine Roman period (395–1308) ===Ephesus remained the most important city of the Byzantine Empire in Asia after Constantinople in the 5th and 6th centuries.", "Emperor Flavius Arcadius raised the level of the street between the theatre and the harbour.", "The basilica of St. John was built during the reign of emperor Justinian I in the 6th century.Excavations in 2022 indicate that large parts of the city were destroyed in 614/615 by a military conflict, most likely during the Sasanian War, which initiated a drastic decline in the city's population and standard of living.The importance of the city as a commercial centre further declined as the harbour, today 5 kilometres inland, was slowly silted up by the river (today, Küçük Menderes) despite repeated dredging during the city's history.", "The loss of its harbour caused Ephesus to lose its access to the Aegean Sea, which was important for trade.", "People started leaving the lowland of the city for the surrounding hills.", "The ruins of the temples were used as building blocks for new homes.", "Marble sculptures were ground to powder to make lime for plaster.Sackings by the Arabs first in the year 654–655 by caliph Muawiyah I, and later in 700 and 716 hastened the decline further.When the Seljuk Turks conquered Ephesus in 1090, it was a small village.", "The Byzantines resumed control in 1097 and changed the name of the town to Hagios Theologos.", "They kept control of the region until 1308.Crusaders passing through were surprised that there was only a small village, called Ayasalouk, where they had expected a bustling city with a large seaport.", "Even the temple of Artemis was completely forgotten by the local population.", "The Crusaders of the Second Crusade fought the Seljuks just outside the town in December 1147.=== Pre-Ottoman period (1304–1390) ===The İsa Bey Mosque constructed in 1374–75, is one of the oldest and most impressive remains from the Anatolian beyliks.The town surrendered, on 24 October 1304, to Sasa Bey, a Turkish warlord of the Menteşoğulları principality.", "Nevertheless, contrary to the terms of the surrender the Turks pillaged the church of Saint John and deported most of the local population to Thyrea, Greece when a revolt seemed probable.", "During these events many of the remaining inhabitants were massacred.Shortly afterwards, Ephesus was ceded to the Aydinid principality that stationed a powerful navy in the harbour of Ayasuluğ (the present-day Selçuk, next to Ephesus).", "Ayasoluk became an important harbour, from which piratical raids to the surrounding Christian regions were organised, both official by the state and private.The town knew again a short period of prosperity during the 14th century under these new Seljuk rulers.", "They added important architectural works such as the İsa Bey Mosque, caravansaries and Turkish bathhouses (hamam).Ruins of the baths at Ephesus, by Luigi Mayer=== Ottoman period ===Ephesians were incorporated as vassals into the Ottoman Empire for the first time in 1390.The Central Asian warlord Tamerlane defeated the Ottomans in Anatolia in 1402, and the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I died in captivity.", "The region was restored to the Anatolian beyliks.", "After a period of unrest, the region was again incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1425.Ephesus was completely abandoned by the 15th century.", "Nearby Ayasuluğ (''Ayasoluk'' being a corrupted form of the original Greek name) was turkified to Selçuk in 1914." ], [ "Ephesus and Christianity", "Saint Paul at Ephesus'', Eustache Le Sueur, 1649Ephesus was an important centre for Early Christianity from the AD 50s.", "From AD 52–54, the apostle Paul lived in Ephesus, working with the congregation and apparently organizing missionary activity into the hinterlands.", "Initially, according to the Acts of the Apostles, Paul attended the Jewish synagogue in Ephesus, but after three months he became frustrated with the stubbornness of some of the Jews, and moved his base to the school of Tyrannus.", "The Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary reminds readers that the unbelief of \"some\" () implies that \"others, probably a large number, believed\" and therefore there must have been a community of Jewish Christians in Ephesus.", "Paul introduced about twelve men to the 'baptism with the Holy Spirit' who had previously only experienced the baptism of John the Baptist.", "Later a silversmith named Demetrios stirred up a mob against Paul, saying that he was endangering the livelihood of those making silver Artemis shrines.", "Demetrios in connection with the temple of Artemis mentions some object (perhaps an image or a stone) \"fallen from Zeus\".", "Between 53 and 57 AD Paul wrote the letter 1 Corinthians from Ephesus (possibly from the 'Paul tower' near the harbour, where he was imprisoned for a short time).", "Later, Paul wrote the Epistle to the Ephesians while he was in prison in Rome (around 62 AD).Roman Asia was associated with John, one of the chief apostles, and the Gospel of John might have been written in Ephesus, ''c'' 90–100.Ephesus was one of the seven cities addressed in the Book of Revelation, indicating that the church at Ephesus was strong.According to Eusebius of Caesarea, Saint Timothy was the first bishop of Ephesus.Polycrates of Ephesus () was a bishop at the Church of Ephesus in the 2nd century.", "He is best known for his letter addressed to the Pope Victor I, Bishop of Rome, defending the Quartodeciman position in the Easter controversy.In the early 2nd century, the church at Ephesus was still important enough to be addressed by a letter written by Bishop Ignatius of Antioch to the Ephesians which begins with \"Ignatius, who is also called Theophorus, to the Church which is at Ephesus, in Asia, deservedly most happy, being blessed in the greatness and fullness of God the Father, and predestinated before the beginning of time, that it should be always for an enduring and unchangeable glory\" (''Letter to the Ephesians'').", "The church at Ephesus had given their support for Ignatius, who was taken to Rome for execution.House of the Virgin MaryA legend, which was first mentioned by Epiphanius of Salamis in the 4th century, purported that Mary, the mother of Jesus, may have spent the last years of her life in Ephesus.", "The Ephesians derived the argument from John's presence in the city, and Jesus' instructions to John to take care of his mother, Mary, after his death.", "Epiphanius, however, was keen to point out that, while the Bible says John was leaving for Asia, it does not say specifically that Mary went with him.", "He later stated that she was buried in Jerusalem.", "Since the 19th century, The House of the Virgin Mary, about from Selçuk, has been considered to have been the last home of Mary, mother of Jesus before her assumption into heaven in the Roman Catholic tradition, based on the visions of Augustinian sister the Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich (1774–1824).", "It is a popular place of Catholic pilgrimage which has been visited by three recent popes.The Church of Mary near the harbour of Ephesus was the setting for the Third Ecumenical Council in 431, which resulted in the condemnation of Nestorius.", "A Second Council of Ephesus was held in 449, but its controversial acts were never approved by the Catholics.", "It came to be called the Robber Council of Ephesus or Robber Synod of Latrocinium by its opponents.=== Seven Sleepers ===Image of Ephesus on the reverse of the 20 new lira banknote (2005–2008)Ephesus is believed to be the city of the Seven Sleepers, who were persecuted by the Roman emperor Decius because of their Christianity, and they slept in a cave for three centuries, outlasting their persecution.They are considered saints by Catholics and Orthodox Christians and whose story is also mentioned in the Qur'an." ], [ "Main sites", "The Gate of Augustus in Ephesus was built to honor the Emperor Augustus and his family.Ephesus is one of the largest Roman archaeological sites in the eastern Mediterranean.", "The visible ruins still give some idea of the city's original splendour, and the names associated with the ruins are evocative of its former life.", "The theatre dominates the view down Harbour Street, which leads to the silted-up harbour.The Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, once stood 418' by 239' with over 100 marble pillars each 56' high.", "The temple earned the city the title \"Servant of the Goddess\".", "Pliny tells us that the magnificent structure took 120 years to build but is now represented only by one inconspicuous column, revealed during an archaeological excavation by the British Museum in the 1870s.", "Some fragments of the frieze (which are insufficient to suggest the form of the original) and other small finds were removed – some to London and some to the İstanbul Archaeology Museums.Library of Celsus, side viewThe Library of Celsus, the façade of which has been carefully reconstructed from original pieces, was originally built in memory of Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, an Ancient Greek who served as governor of Roman Asia (105–107) in the Roman Empire.", "Celsus paid for the construction of the library with his own personal wealth and is buried in a sarcophagus beneath it.", "The library was mostly built by his son Gaius Julius Aquila and once held nearly 12,000 scrolls.", "Designed with an exaggerated entrance — so as to enhance its perceived size, speculate many historians — the building faces east so that the reading rooms could make best use of the morning light.The interior of the library measured roughly 180 square metres (2,000 square feet) and may have contained as many as 12,000 scrolls.", "By the year 400 C.E.", "the library was no longer in use after being damaged in 262 C.E.", "The facade was reconstructed during 1970 to 1978 using fragments found on site or copies of fragments that were previously removed to museums.At an estimated 25,000 seating capacity, the theatre is believed to be the largest in the ancient world.", "This open-air theatre was used initially for drama, but during later Roman times gladiatorial combats were also held on its stage; the first archaeological evidence of a gladiator graveyard was found in May 2007.There were two agoras, one for commercial and one for state business.Aqueduct near Ephesus – Mayer Luigi – 1810Ephesus also had several major bath complexes, built at various times while the city was under Roman rule.The city had one of the most advanced aqueduct systems in the ancient world, with at least six aqueducts of various sizes supplying different areas of the city.", "They fed a number of water mills, one of which has been identified as a sawmill for marble.The Odeon was a small roofed theatre constructed by Publius Vedius Antoninus and his wife around 150 AD.", "It was a small salon for plays and concerts, seating about 1,500 people.", "There were 22 stairs in the theatre.", "The upper part of the theatre was decorated with red granite pillars in the Corinthian style.", "The entrances were at both sides of the stage and reached by a few steps.Tomb of John the Apostle at the Basilica of St. John.The Temple of Hadrian dates from the 2nd century but underwent repairs in the 4th century and has been reerected from the surviving architectural fragments.", "The reliefs in the upper sections are casts, the originals now being exhibited in the Ephesus Archaeological Museum.", "A number of figures are depicted in the reliefs, including the emperor Theodosius I with his wife and eldest son.", "The temple was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 20 million lira banknote of 2001–2005 and of the 20 new lira banknote of 2005–2009.Announcement on the Withdrawal of E8 New Turkish Lira Banknotes from Circulation , 8 May 2007.– Retrieved on 20 April 2009.The Temple of the Sebastoi (sometimes called the Temple of Domitian), dedicated to the Flavian dynasty, was one of the largest temples in the city.", "It was erected on a pseudodipteral plan with 8 × 13 columns.", "The temple and its statue are some of the few remains connected with Domitian.The Tomb/Fountain of Pollio was erected in 97 AD in honour of C. Sextilius Pollio, who constructed the Marnas aqueduct, by Offilius Proculus.", "It has a concave façade.A part of the site, Basilica of St. John, was built in the 6th century, under emperor Justinian I, over the supposed site of the apostle's tomb.", "It is now surrounded by Selçuk." ], [ "Archaeology", "Historical topography of EphesosHistorical topography of EphesosThe history of archaeological research in Ephesus stretches back to 1863, when British architect John Turtle Wood, sponsored by the British Museum, began to search for the Artemision.", "In 1869 he discovered the pavement of the temple, but since further expected discoveries were not made the excavations stopped in 1874.In 1895 German archaeologist Otto Benndorf, financed by a 10,000 guilder donation made by Austrian Karl Mautner Ritter von Markhof, resumed excavations.", "In 1898 Benndorf founded the Austrian Archaeological Institute, which plays a leading role in Ephesus today.Finds from the site are exhibited notably in the Ephesos Museum in Vienna, the Ephesus Archaeological Museum in Selçuk and in the British Museum.In October 2016, Turkey halted the works of the archeologists, which had been ongoing for more than 100 years, due to tensions between Austria and Turkey.", "In May 2018, Turkey allowed Austrian archeologists to resume their excavations." ], [ "Notable people", "*Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC), Presocratic philosopher *Hipponax (6th Century BC), poet*Zeuxis (5th century BC), painter*Parrhasius (5th century BC), painter*Herostratus (d 356 BC), criminal*Zenodotus (fl.", "280 BC), grammarian and literary critic, first librarian of the Library of Alexandria*Agasias (2nd century BC), Greek sculptor*Menander (early 2nd century BC), historian*Artemidorus Ephesius (), geographer*Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus ( – before ), founder of the Celsus library*Publius Hordeonius Lollianus (1st century), sophist*Rufus (1st century), physician*Polycrates of Ephesus (130 – 196), bishop*Soranus of Ephesus (1st–2nd century), physician*Artemidorus (2nd century AD), diviner and author*Xenophon (2nd–3rd century), novelist*Maximus (4th century), Neoplatonic philosopher*Sosipatra (4th century), Neoplatonic philosopher*Manuel Philes (c. 1275 – 1345), Byzantine poet" ], [ "See also", "* Ancient settlements in Turkey* Christianity in the 1st century* Christianity in the 2nd century* Christianity in the 3rd century* Early centers of Christianity* Early Christian art and architecture* Early Christianity* Nea Efesos" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*Foss, Clive.", "1979.", "\"Ephesus After Antiquity.\"", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "*Athas, Daphne.", "1991.", "''Entering Ephesus.''", "Sag Harbor, NY: Second Chance Press.", "*Oster, Richard.", "1987.", "''A Bibliography of Ancient Ephesus.''", "Philadelphia: American Theological Library Association.", "*Scherrer, Peter, Fritz Krinzinger, and Selahattin Erdemgil.", "2000.", "''Ephesus: The New Guide.''", "Rev.", "ed.", "2000.Turkey: Ege Yayinlari (Zero Prod.", "Ltd.).", "*Leloux, Kevin.", "2018.", "\"The Campaign Of Croesus Against Ephesus: Historical & Archaeological Considerations\", in Polemos 21–2, p. 47–63." ], [ "External links", "* Official website* Official website of the terrace houses of Ephesus* Coinage of Ephesus* The Theatre at Ephesus* Photos from Ephesus (2015)* This Is What The Ancient Greek City Ephesus Most Probably Looked Like (''The Mind Circle,'' Alpix, 2022)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "JavaScript" ], [ "Introduction", "'''JavaScript''' (), often abbreviated as '''JS''', is a programming language and core technology of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and CSS.", ", 98.9% of websites use JavaScript on the client side for webpage behavior, often incorporating third-party libraries.", "All major web browsers have a dedicated JavaScript engine to execute the code on users' devices.JavaScript is a high-level, often just-in-time compiled language that conforms to the ECMAScript standard.", "It has dynamic typing, prototype-based object-orientation, and first-class functions.", "It is multi-paradigm, supporting event-driven, functional, and imperative programming styles.", "It has application programming interfaces (APIs) for working with text, dates, regular expressions, standard data structures, and the Document Object Model (DOM).The ECMAScript standard does not include any input/output (I/O), such as networking, storage, or graphics facilities.", "In practice, the web browser or other runtime system provides JavaScript APIs for I/O.JavaScript engines were originally used only in web browsers, but are now core components of some servers and a variety of applications.", "The most popular runtime system for this usage is Node.js.Although Java and JavaScript are similar in name, syntax, and respective standard libraries, the two languages are distinct and differ greatly in design." ], [ "History", "===Creation at Netscape===The first popular web browser with a graphical user interface, Mosaic, was released in 1993.Accessible to non-technical people, it played a prominent role in the rapid growth of the early World Wide Web.", "The lead developers of Mosaic then founded the Netscape corporation, which released a more polished browser, Netscape Navigator, in 1994.This quickly became the most-used.During these formative years of the Web, web pages could only be static, lacking the capability for dynamic behavior after the page was loaded in the browser.", "There was a desire in the flourishing web development scene to remove this limitation, so in 1995, Netscape decided to add a scripting language to Navigator.", "They pursued two routes to achieve this: collaborating with Sun Microsystems to embed the Java programming language, while also hiring Brendan Eich to embed the Scheme language.The original goal was a \"language for the masses\", \"to help nonprogrammers create dynamic, interactive Web sites\".", "In this vein, Netscape management soon decided that the best option was for Eich to devise a new language, with syntax similar to Java and less like Scheme or other extant scripting languages.", "Although the new language and its interpreter implementation were called LiveScript when first shipped as part of a Navigator beta in September 1995, the name was changed to JavaScript for the official release in December.The choice of the JavaScript name has caused confusion, implying that it is directly related to Java.", "At the time, the dot-com boom had begun and Java was a popular new language, so Eich considered the JavaScript name a marketing ploy by Netscape.===Adoption by Microsoft===Microsoft debuted Internet Explorer in 1995, leading to a browser war with Netscape.", "On the JavaScript front, Microsoft reverse-engineered the Navigator interpreter to create its own, called JScript.Microsoft first released JScript in 1996, alongside initial support for CSS and extensions to HTML.", "Each of these implementations was noticeably different from their counterparts in Navigator.", "These differences made it difficult for developers to make their websites work well in both browsers, leading to widespread use of \"best viewed in Netscape\" and \"best viewed in Internet Explorer\" logos for several years.===The rise of JScript===In November 1996, Netscape submitted JavaScript to Ecma International, as the starting point for a standard specification that all browser vendors could conform to.", "This led to the official release of the first ECMAScript language specification in June 1997.The standards process continued for a few years, with the release of ECMAScript 2 in June 1998 and ECMAScript 3 in December 1999.Work on ECMAScript 4 began in 2000.Meanwhile, Microsoft gained an increasingly dominant position in the browser market.", "By the early 2000s, Internet Explorer's market share reached 95%.", "This meant that JScript became the de facto standard for client-side scripting on the Web.Microsoft initially participated in the standards process and implemented some proposals in its JScript language, but eventually it stopped collaborating on Ecma work.", "Thus ECMAScript 4 was mothballed.===Growth and standardization===During the period of Internet Explorer dominance in the early 2000s, client-side scripting was stagnant.", "This started to change in 2004, when the successor of Netscape, Mozilla, released the Firefox browser.", "Firefox was well received by many, taking significant market share from Internet Explorer.In 2005, Mozilla joined ECMA International, and work started on the ECMAScript for XML (E4X) standard.", "This led to Mozilla working jointly with Macromedia (later acquired by Adobe Systems), who were implementing E4X in their ActionScript 3 language, which was based on an ECMAScript 4 draft.", "The goal became standardizing ActionScript 3 as the new ECMAScript 4.To this end, Adobe Systems released the Tamarin implementation as an open source project.", "However, Tamarin and ActionScript 3 were too different from established client-side scripting, and without cooperation from Microsoft, ECMAScript 4 never reached fruition.Meanwhile, very important developments were occurring in open-source communities not affiliated with ECMA work.", "In 2005, Jesse James Garrett released a white paper in which he coined the term Ajax and described a set of technologies, of which JavaScript was the backbone, to create web applications where data can be loaded in the background, avoiding the need for full page reloads.", "This sparked a renaissance period of JavaScript, spearheaded by open-source libraries and the communities that formed around them.", "Many new libraries were created, including jQuery, Prototype, Dojo Toolkit, and MooTools.Google debuted its Chrome browser in 2008, with the V8 JavaScript engine that was faster than its competition.", "The key innovation was just-in-time compilation (JIT), so other browser vendors needed to overhaul their engines for JIT.In July 2008, these disparate parties came together for a conference in Oslo.", "This led to the eventual agreement in early 2009 to combine all relevant work and drive the language forward.", "The result was the ECMAScript 5 standard, released in December 2009.===Reaching maturity===Ambitious work on the language continued for several years, culminating in an extensive collection of additions and refinements being formalized with the publication of ECMAScript 6 in 2015.The creation of Node.js in 2009 by Ryan Dahl sparked a significant increase in the usage of JavaScript outside of web browsers.", "Node combines the V8 engine, an event loop, and I/O APIs, thereby providing a stand-alone JavaScript runtime system.", "As of 2018, Node had been used by millions of developers, and npm had the most modules of any package manager in the world.The ECMAScript draft specification is currently maintained openly on GitHub, and editions are produced via regular annual snapshots.", "Potential revisions to the language are vetted through a comprehensive proposal process.", "Now, instead of edition numbers, developers check the status of upcoming features individually.The current JavaScript ecosystem has many libraries and frameworks, established programming practices, and substantial usage of JavaScript outside of web browsers.", "Plus, with the rise of single-page applications and other JavaScript-heavy websites, several transpilers have been created to aid the development process." ], [ "Trademark", "\"JavaScript\" is a trademark of Oracle Corporation in the United States.", "The trademark was originally issued to Sun Microsystems on 6 May 1997, and was transferred to Oracle when they acquired Sun in 2009." ], [ "Website client-side usage", "JavaScript is the dominant client-side scripting language of the Web, with 98% of all websites using it for this purpose.", "Scripts are embedded in or included from HTML documents and interact with the DOM.", "All major web browsers have a built-in JavaScript engine that executes the code on the user's device.===Examples of scripted behavior===* Loading new web page content without reloading the page, via Ajax or a WebSocket.", "For example, users of social media can send and receive messages without leaving the current page.", "* Web page animations, such as fading objects in and out, resizing, and moving them.", "* Playing browser games.", "* Controlling the playback of streaming media.", "* Generating pop-up ads or alert boxes.", "* Validating input values of a web form before the data is sent to a web server.", "* Logging data about the user's behavior then sending it to a server.", "The website owner can use this data for analytics, ad tracking, and personalization.", "*Redirecting a user to another page.", "* Storing and retrieving data on the user's device, via the storage or IndexedDB standards.=== Web libraries and frameworks===By 2012, over 80% of websites used a third-party JavaScript library or web framework for their client-side scripting.==== React ======== Angular ======== jQuery ====In 2012, jQuery was by far the most popular client-side library, used by over 75% of websites.", "While still in widespread use, its popularity has been surpassed by newer libraries and frameworks.==== Vanilla JS ====The framework-like moniker \"Vanilla JS\" is just another name for plain old JavaScript.", "It has been coined for websites not using any libraries or frameworks at all, instead relying entirely on standard JavaScript functionality.", "Example of usage: \"What framework do you use?\"", "\"Oh, we use Vanilla JS.\"", "The term is included here to avoid confusion." ], [ "Other usage{{anchor|Server-side_JavaScript|Uses_outside_web_pages}}", "The use of JavaScript has expanded beyond its web browser roots.", "JavaScript engines are now embedded in a variety of other software systems, both for server-side website deployments and non-browser applications.Initial attempts at promoting server-side JavaScript usage were Netscape Enterprise Server and Microsoft's Internet Information Services, but they were small niches.", "Server-side usage eventually started to grow in the late 2000s, with the creation of Node.js and other approaches.Electron, Cordova, React Native, and other application frameworks have been used to create many applications with behavior implemented in JavaScript.", "Other non-browser applications include Adobe Acrobat support for scripting PDF documents and GNOME Shell extensions written in JavaScript.JavaScript has recently begun to appear in some embedded systems, usually by leveraging Node.js." ], [ "Execution system", "===Just-in-time compilation=======JavaScript engine======= Run-time environment ===JavaScript typically relies on a run-time environment (e.g., a web browser) to provide objects and methods by which scripts can interact with the environment (e.g., a web page DOM).", "These environments are single-threaded.", "JavaScript also relies on the run-time environment to provide the ability to include/import scripts (e.g., HTML elements).", "This is not a language feature per se, but it is common in most JavaScript implementations.", "JavaScript processes messages from a queue one at a time.", "JavaScript calls a function associated with each new message, creating a call stack frame with the function's arguments and local variables.", "The call stack shrinks and grows based on the function's needs.", "When the call stack is empty upon function completion, JavaScript proceeds to the next message in the queue.", "This is called the event loop, described as \"run to completion\" because each message is fully processed before the next message is considered.", "However, the language's concurrency model describes the event loop as non-blocking: program input/output is performed using events and callback functions.", "This means, for instance, that JavaScript can process a mouse click while waiting for a database query to return information.====Examples=========Node.js==========Deno=====" ], [ "Features", "The following features are common to all conforming ECMAScript implementations unless explicitly specified otherwise.===Imperative and structured===JavaScript supports much of the structured programming syntax from C (e.g., if statements, while loops, switch statements, do while loops, etc.).", "One partial exception is scoping: originally JavaScript only had function scoping with var; block scoping was added in ECMAScript 2015 with the keywords let and const.", "Like C, JavaScript makes a distinction between expressions and statements.", "One syntactic difference from C is automatic semicolon insertion, which allow semicolons (which terminate statements) to be omitted.===Weakly typed===JavaScript is weakly typed, which means certain types are implicitly cast depending on the operation used.", "* The binary + operator casts both operands to a string unless both operands are numbers.", "This is because the addition operator doubles as a concatenation operator* The binary - operator always casts both operands to a number* Both unary operators (+, -) always cast the operand to a numberValues are cast to strings like the following:* Strings are left as-is* Numbers are converted to their string representation* Arrays have their elements cast to strings after which they are joined by commas (,)* Other objects are converted to the string object Object where Object is the name of the constructor of the objectValues are cast to numbers by casting to strings and then casting the strings to numbers.", "These processes can be modified by defining toString and valueOf functions on the prototype for string and number casting respectively.JavaScript has received criticism for the way it implements these conversions as the complexity of the rules can be mistaken for inconsistency.", "For example, when adding a number to a string, the number will be cast to a string before performing concatenation, but when subtracting a number from a string, the string is cast to a number before performing subtraction.+JavaScript type conversionsleft operandoperatorright operandresult (empty array)+ (empty array)\"\" (empty string) (empty array)+{} (empty object)\"object Object\" (string)false (boolean)+ (empty array)\"false\" (string)\"123\"(string)+1 (number)\"1231\" (string)\"123\" (string)1 (number)122 (number)\"123\" (string)\"abc\" (string)NaN (number)Often also mentioned is {} + resulting in 0 (number).", "This is misleading: the {} is interpreted as an empty code block instead of an empty object, and the empty array is cast to a number by the remaining unary + operator.", "If you wrap the expression in parentheses ({} + ) the curly brackets are interpreted as an empty object and the result of the expression is \"object Object\" as expected.===Dynamic======= Typing ====JavaScript is dynamically typed like most other scripting languages.", "A type is associated with a value rather than an expression.", "For example, a variable initially bound to a number may be reassigned to a string.", "JavaScript supports various ways to test the type of objects, including duck typing.==== Run-time evaluation ====JavaScript includes an eval function that can execute statements provided as strings at run-time.===Object-orientation (prototype-based)===Prototypal inheritance in JavaScript is described by Douglas Crockford as:In JavaScript, an object is an associative array, augmented with a prototype (see below); each key provides the name for an object property, and there are two syntactical ways to specify such a name: dot notation (obj.x = 10) and bracket notation (obj'x' = 10).", "A property may be added, rebound, or deleted at run-time.", "Most properties of an object (and any property that belongs to an object's prototype inheritance chain) can be enumerated using a for...in loop.==== Prototypes ====JavaScript uses prototypes where many other object-oriented languages use classes for inheritance.", "It is possible to simulate many class-based features with prototypes in JavaScript.==== Functions as object constructors ==== Functions double as object constructors, along with their typical role.", "Prefixing a function call with ''new'' will create an instance of a prototype, inheriting properties and methods from the constructor (including properties from the Object prototype).", "ECMAScript 5 offers the Object.create method, allowing explicit creation of an instance without automatically inheriting from the Object prototype (older environments can assign the prototype to null).", "The constructor's prototype property determines the object used for the new object's internal prototype.", "New methods can be added by modifying the prototype of the function used as a constructor.", "JavaScript's built-in constructors, such as Array or Object, also have prototypes that can be modified.", "While it is possible to modify the Object prototype, it is generally considered bad practice because most objects in JavaScript will inherit methods and properties from the Object prototype, and they may not expect the prototype to be modified.==== Functions as methods ====Unlike in many object-oriented languages, in JavaScript there is no distinction between a function definition and a method definition.", "Rather, the distinction occurs during function calling.", "When a function is called as a method of an object, the function's local ''this'' keyword is bound to that object for that invocation.===Functional===JavaScript functions are first-class; a function is considered to be an object.", "As such, a function may have properties and methods, such as .call() and .bind().", "==== Lexical closure ====A ''nested'' function is a function defined within another function.", "It is created each time the outer function is invoked.", "In addition, each nested function forms a lexical closure: the lexical scope of the outer function (including any constant, local variable, or argument value) becomes part of the internal state of each inner function object, even after execution of the outer function concludes.", "==== Anonymous function ====JavaScript also supports anonymous functions.===Delegative===JavaScript supports implicit and explicit delegation.==== Functions as roles (Traits and Mixins) ====JavaScript natively supports various function-based implementations of Role patterns like Traits and Mixins.", "Such a function defines additional behavior by at least one method bound to the this keyword within its function body.", "A Role then has to be delegated explicitly via call or apply to objects that need to feature additional behavior that is not shared via the prototype chain.==== Object composition and inheritance ====Whereas explicit function-based delegation does cover composition in JavaScript, implicit delegation already happens every time the prototype chain is walked in order to, e.g., find a method that might be related to but is not directly owned by an object.", "Once the method is found it gets called within this object's context.", "Thus inheritance in JavaScript is covered by a delegation automatism that is bound to the prototype property of constructor functions.===Miscellaneous======= Zero-based numbering ====JavaScript is a zero-index language.==== Variadic functions ====An indefinite number of parameters can be passed to a function.", "The function can access them through formal parameters and also through the local arguments object.", "Variadic functions can also be created by using the bind method.==== Array and object literals ====Like in many scripting languages, arrays and objects (associative arrays in other languages) can each be created with a succinct shortcut syntax.", "In fact, these literals form the basis of the JSON data format.==== Regular expressions ====In a manner similar to Perl, JavaScript also supports regular expressions, which provide a concise and powerful syntax for text manipulation that is more sophisticated than the built-in string functions.==== Promises and Async/await ====JavaScript supports promises and Async/await for handling asynchronous operations.", "===== Promises =====A built-in Promise object provides functionality for handling promises and associating handlers with an asynchronous action's eventual result.", "Recently, the JavaScript specification introduced combinator methods, which allow developers to combine multiple JavaScript promises and do operations based on different scenarios.", "The methods introduced are: Promise.race, Promise.all, Promise.allSettled and Promise.any.===== Async/await =====Async/await allows an asynchronous, non-blocking function to be structured in a way similar to an ordinary synchronous function.", "Asynchronous, non-blocking code can be written, with minimal overhead, structured similarly to traditional synchronous, blocking code.===Vendor-specific extensions===Historically, some JavaScript engines supported these non-standard features:* conditional catch clauses (like Java)* array comprehensions and generator expressions (like Python)* concise function expressions (function(args) expr; this experimental syntax predated arrow functions)* ECMAScript for XML (E4X), an extension that adds native XML support to ECMAScript (unsupported in Firefox since version 21)" ], [ "Syntax", "===Simple examples===Variables in JavaScript can be defined using either the var, let or const keywords.", "Variables defined without keywords will be defined at the global scope.// Declares a function-scoped variable named `x`, and implicitly assigns the// special value `undefined` to it.", "Variables without value are automatically// set to undefined.// var is generally considered bad practice and let and const are usually preferred.var x;// Variables can be manually set to `undefined` like solet x2 = undefined;// Declares a block-scoped variable named `y`, and implicitly sets it to// `undefined`.", "The `let` keyword was introduced in ECMAScript 2015.let y;// Declares a block-scoped, un-reassignable variable named `z`, and sets it to// a string literal.", "The `const` keyword was also introduced in ECMAScript 2015,// and must be explicitly assigned to.// The keyword `const` means constant, hence the variable cannot be reassigned// as the value is `constant`.const z = \"this value cannot be reassigned!", "\";// Declares a global-scoped variable and assigns 3.This is generally considered// bad practice, and will not work if strict mode is on.t = 3;// Declares a variable named `myNumber`, and assigns a number literal (the value// `2`) to it.let myNumber = 2;// Reassigns `myNumber`, setting it to a string literal (the value `\"foo\"`).// JavaScript is a dynamically-typed language, so this is legal.myNumber = \"foo\";Note the comments in the examples above, all of which were preceded with two forward slashes.There is no built-in Input/output functionality in JavaScript, instead it is provided by the run-time environment.", "The ECMAScript specification in edition 5.1 mentions that \"there are no provisions in this specification for input of external data or output of computed results\".However, most runtime environments have a console object that can be used to print output.", "Here is a minimalist \"Hello, World!\"", "program in JavaScript in a runtime environment with a console object:console.log(\"Hello, World!", "\");In HTML documents, a program like this is required for an output:// Text nodes can be made using the \"write\" method.// This is frowned upon, as it can overwrite the document if the document is fully loaded.document.write('foo');// Elements can be made too.", "First, they have to be created in the DOM.const myElem = document.createElement('span');// Attributes like classes and the id can be set as wellmyElem.classList.add('foo');myElem.id = 'bar';// After setting this, the tag will look like this: ``myElem.setAttribute('data-attr', 'baz'); // Which could also be written as `myElem.dataset.attr = 'baz'`// Finally append it as a child element to the in the HTMLdocument.body.appendChild(myElem);// Elements can be imperatively grabbed with querySelector for one element, or querySelectorAll for multiple elements that can be looped with forEachdocument.querySelector('.class'); // Selects the first element with the \"class\" classdocument.querySelector('#id'); // Selects the first element with an `id` of \"id\"document.querySelector('data-other'); // Selects the first element with the \"data-other\" attributedocument.querySelectorAll('.multiple'); // Returns an Array-like NodeList of all elements with the \"multiple\" classA simple recursive function to calculate the factorial of a natural number:function factorial(n) { // Checking the argument for legitimacy.", "Factorial is defined for positive integers.", "if (isNaN(n)) { console.error(\"Non-numerical argument not allowed.", "\"); return NaN; // The special value: Not a Number } if (n === 0) return 1; // 0!", "= 1 if (n a > 1 ?", "a * recursivelyCompute(a - 1) : 1; // Note the use of the ternary operator `?`.", "return recursivelyCompute(n);}factorial(3); // Returns 6An anonymous function (or lambda):const counter = function() { let count = 0; return function() { return ++count; }};const x = counter();x(); // Returns 1x(); // Returns 2x(); // Returns 3This example shows that, in JavaScript, function closures capture their non-local variables by reference.Arrow functions were first introduced in 6th Edition - ECMAScript 2015.They shorten the syntax for writing functions in JavaScript.", "Arrow functions are anonymous, so a variable is needed to refer to them in order to invoke them after their creation, unless surrounded by parenthesis and executed immediately.Example of arrow function:// Arrow functions let us omit the `function` keyword.// Here `long_example` points to an anonymous function value.const long_example = (input1, input2) => { console.log(\"Hello, World!", "\"); const output = input1 + input2; return output;};// If there are no braces, the arrow function simply returns the expression// So here it's (input1 + input2)const short_example = (input1, input2) => input1 + input2;long_example(2, 3); // Prints \"Hello, World!\"", "and returns 5short_example(2, 5); // Returns 7// If an arrow function has only one parameter, the parentheses can be removed.const no_parentheses = input => input + 2;no_parentheses(3); // Returns 5// An arrow function, like other function definitions, can be executed in the same statement as they are created.// This is useful when writing libraries to avoid filling the global scope, and for closures.let three = ((a, b) => a + b) (1, 2);const generate_multiplier_function = a => (b => isNaN(b) b ?", "a : a*=b);const five_multiples = generate_multiplier_function(5); // The supplied argument \"seeds\" the expression and is retained by a.five_multiples(1); // Returns 5five_multiples(3); // Returns 15five_multiples(4); // Returns 60In JavaScript, objects can be created as instances of a class.Object class example:class Ball { constructor(radius) { this.radius = radius; this.area = Math.PI * ( radius ** 2 ); } // Classes (and thus objects) can contain functions known as methods show() { console.log(this.radius); }};const myBall = new Ball(5); // Creates a new instance of the ball object with radius 5myBall.radius++; // Object properties can usually be modified from the outsidemyBall.show(); // Using the inherited \"show\" function logs \"6\"In JavaScript, objects can be instantiated directly from a function.Object functional example:function Ball(radius) { const area = Math.PI * ( radius ** 2 ); const obj = { radius, area }; // Objects are mutable, and functions can be added as properties.", "obj.show = () => console.log(obj.radius); return obj;};const myBall = Ball(5); // Creates a new ball object with radius 5.No \"new\" keyword needed.myBall.radius++; // The instance property can be modified.myBall.show(); // Using the \"show\" function logs \"6\" - the new instance value.Variadic function demonstration (arguments is a special variable):function sum() { let x = 0; for (let i = 0; i a + b);}sum(1, 2); // Returns 3sum(1, 2, 3); // Returns 6Immediately-invoked function expressions are often used to create closures.", "Closures allow gathering properties and methods in a namespace and making some of them private:let counter = (function() { let i = 0; // Private property return { // Public methods get: function() { alert(i); }, set: function(value) { i = value; }, increment: function() { alert(++i); } };})(); // Modulecounter.get(); // Returns 0counter.set(6);counter.increment(); // Returns 7counter.increment(); // Returns 8 \tGenerator objects (in the form of generator functions) provide a function which can be called, exited, and re-entered while maintaining internal context (statefulness).function* rawCounter() { yield 1; yield 2;}function* dynamicCounter() { let count = 0; while (true) { // It is not recommended to utilize while true loops in most cases.", "yield ++count; }}// Instancesconst counter1 = rawCounter();const counter2 = dynamicCounter();// Implementationcounter1.next(); // {value: 1, done: false}counter1.next(); // {value: 2, done: false}counter1.next(); // {value: undefined, done: true}counter2.next(); // {value: 1, done: false}counter2.next(); // {value: 2, done: false}counter2.next(); // {value: 3, done: false}// ...infinitelyJavaScript can export and import from modules:Export example:/* mymodule.js */// This function remains private, as it is not exportedlet sum = (a, b) => { return a + b;}// Export variablesexport let name = 'Alice';export let age = 23;// Export named functionsexport function add(num1, num2) { return num1 + num2;}// Export classexport class Multiplication { constructor(num1, num2) { this.num1 = num1; this.num2 = num2; } add() { return sum(this.num1, this.num2); }}Import example:// Import one propertyimport { add } from './mymodule.js';console.log(add(1, 2));//> 3// Import multiple propertiesimport { name, age } from './mymodule.js';console.log(name, age);//> \"Alice\", 23// Import all properties from a moduleimport * from './module.js'console.log(name, age);//> \"Alice\", 23console.log(add(1,2));//> 3===More advanced example===This sample code displays various JavaScript features./* Finds the lowest common multiple (LCM) of two numbers */function LCMCalculator(x, y) { // constructor function if (isNaN(x*y)) throw new TypeError(\"Non-numeric arguments not allowed.", "\"); const checkInt = function(x) { // inner function if (x % 1 !== 0) throw new TypeError(x + \"is not an integer\"); return x; }; this.a = checkInt(x) // semicolons ^^^^ are optional, a newline is enough this.b = checkInt(y);}// The prototype of object instances created by a constructor is// that constructor's \"prototype\" property.LCMCalculator.prototype = { // object literal constructor: LCMCalculator, // when reassigning a prototype, set the constructor property appropriately gcd: function() { // method that calculates the greatest common divisor // Euclidean algorithm: let a = Math.abs(this.a), b = Math.abs(this.b), t; if (a a.lcm() - b.lcm()) // sort with this comparative function; => is a shorthand form of a function, called \"arrow function\" .forEach(printResult);function printResult(obj) { output(obj + \", gcd = \" + obj.gcd() + \", lcm = \" + obj.lcm());}The following output should be displayed in the browser window.LCMCalculator: a = 28, b = 56, gcd = 28, lcm = 56LCMCalculator: a = 21, b = 56, gcd = 7, lcm = 168LCMCalculator: a = 25, b = 55, gcd = 5, lcm = 275LCMCalculator: a = 22, b = 58, gcd = 2, lcm = 638" ], [ "Security", "JavaScript and the DOM provide the potential for malicious authors to deliver scripts to run on a client computer via the Web.", "Browser authors minimize this risk using two restrictions.", "First, scripts run in a sandbox in which they can only perform Web-related actions, not general-purpose programming tasks like creating files.", "Second, scripts are constrained by the same-origin policy: scripts from one website do not have access to information such as usernames, passwords, or cookies sent to another site.", "Most JavaScript-related security bugs are breaches of either the same origin policy or the sandbox.There are subsets of general JavaScript—ADsafe, Secure ECMAScript (SES)—that provide greater levels of security, especially on code created by third parties (such as advertisements).", "Closure Toolkit is another project for safe embedding and isolation of third-party JavaScript and HTML.Content Security Policy is the main intended method of ensuring that only trusted code is executed on a Web page.===Cross-site vulnerabilities=======Cross-site scripting====A common JavaScript-related security problem is cross-site scripting (XSS), a violation of the same-origin policy.", "XSS vulnerabilities occur when an attacker can cause a target Website, such as an online banking website, to include a malicious script in the webpage presented to a victim.", "The script in this example can then access the banking application with the privileges of the victim, potentially disclosing secret information or transferring money without the victim's authorization.", "A solution to XSS vulnerabilities is to use ''HTML escaping'' whenever displaying untrusted data.Some browsers include partial protection against ''reflected'' XSS attacks, in which the attacker provides a URL including malicious script.", "However, even users of those browsers are vulnerable to other XSS attacks, such as those where the malicious code is stored in a database.", "Only correct design of Web applications on the server-side can fully prevent XSS.XSS vulnerabilities can also occur because of implementation mistakes by browser authors.====Cross-site request forgery====Another cross-site vulnerability is cross-site request forgery (CSRF).", "In CSRF, code on an attacker's site tricks the victim's browser into taking actions the user did not intend at a target site (like transferring money at a bank).", "When target sites rely solely on cookies for request authentication, requests originating from code on the attacker's site can carry the same valid login credentials of the initiating user.", "In general, the solution to CSRF is to require an authentication value in a hidden form field, and not only in the cookies, to authenticate any request that might have lasting effects.", "Checking the HTTP Referrer header can also help.", "\"JavaScript hijacking\" is a type of CSRF attack in which a tag on an attacker's site exploits a page on the victim's site that returns private information such as JSON or JavaScript.", "Possible solutions include:* requiring an authentication token in the POST and GET parameters for any response that returns private information.===Misplaced trust in the client===Developers of client-server applications must recognize that untrusted clients may be under the control of attackers.", "The application author cannot assume that their JavaScript code will run as intended (or at all) because any secret embedded in the code could be extracted by a determined adversary.", "Some implications are:* Website authors cannot perfectly conceal how their JavaScript operates because the raw source code must be sent to the client.", "The code can be obfuscated, but obfuscation can be reverse-engineered.", "* JavaScript form validation only provides convenience for users, not security.", "If a site verifies that the user agreed to its terms of service, or filters invalid characters out of fields that should only contain numbers, it must do so on the server, not only the client.", "* Scripts can be selectively disabled, so JavaScript cannot be relied on to prevent operations such as right-clicking on an image to save it.", "* It is considered very bad practice to embed sensitive information such as passwords in JavaScript because it can be extracted by an attacker.===Misplaced trust in developers===Package management systems such as npm and Bower are popular with JavaScript developers.", "Such systems allow a developer to easily manage their program's dependencies upon other developers' program libraries.", "Developers trust that the maintainers of the libraries will keep them secure and up to date, but that is not always the case.", "A vulnerability has emerged because of this blind trust.", "Relied-upon libraries can have new releases that cause bugs or vulnerabilities to appear in all programs that rely upon the libraries.", "Inversely, a library can go unpatched with known vulnerabilities out in the wild.", "In a study done looking over a sample of 133,000 websites, researchers found 37% of the websites included a library with at least one known vulnerability.", "\"The median lag between the oldest library version used on each website and the newest available version of that library is 1,177 days in ALEXA, and development of some libraries still in active use ceased years ago.\"", "Another possibility is that the maintainer of a library may remove the library entirely.", "This occurred in March 2016 when Azer Koçulu removed his repository from npm.", "This caused tens of thousands of programs and websites depending upon his libraries to break.===Browser and plugin coding errors===JavaScript provides an interface to a wide range of browser capabilities, some of which may have flaws such as buffer overflows.", "These flaws can allow attackers to write scripts that would run any code they wish on the user's system.", "This code is not by any means limited to another JavaScript application.", "For example, a buffer overrun exploit can allow an attacker to gain access to the operating system's API with superuser privileges.These flaws have affected major browsers including Firefox, Internet Explorer, and Safari.Plugins, such as video players, Adobe Flash, and the wide range of ActiveX controls enabled by default in Microsoft Internet Explorer, may also have flaws exploitable via JavaScript (such flaws have been exploited in the past).In Windows Vista, Microsoft has attempted to contain the risks of bugs such as buffer overflows by running the Internet Explorer process with limited privileges.", "Google Chrome similarly confines its page renderers to their own \"sandbox\".===Sandbox implementation errors===Web browsers are capable of running JavaScript outside the sandbox, with the privileges necessary to, for example, create or delete files.", "Such privileges are not intended to be granted to code from the Web.Incorrectly granting privileges to JavaScript from the Web has played a role in vulnerabilities in both Internet Explorer and Firefox.", "In Windows XP Service Pack 2, Microsoft demoted JScript's privileges in Internet Explorer.Microsoft Windows allows JavaScript source files on a computer's hard drive to be launched as general-purpose, non-sandboxed programs (see: Windows Script Host).", "This makes JavaScript (like VBScript) a theoretically viable vector for a Trojan horse, although JavaScript Trojan horses are uncommon in practice.===Hardware vulnerabilities===In 2015, a JavaScript-based proof-of-concept implementation of a rowhammer attack was described in a paper by security researchers.In 2017, a JavaScript-based attack via browser was demonstrated that could bypass ASLR.", "It is called \"ASLR⊕Cache\" or AnC.In 2018, the paper that announced the Spectre attacks against Speculative Execution in Intel and other processors included a JavaScript implementation." ], [ "Development tools", "Important tools have evolved with the language.", "* Every major web browser has built-in web development tools, including a JavaScript debugger.", "* Static program analysis tools, such as ESLint and JSLint, scan JavaScript code for conformance to a set of standards and guidelines.", "* Some browsers have built-in profilers.", "Stand-alone profiling libraries have also been created, such as benchmark.js and jsbench.", "* Many text editors have syntax highlighting support for JavaScript code.===Static program analysis=======ESLint========JSLint====" ], [ "Code incompatibility", "Being a just-in-time compiled, or even an interpreted language, JavaScript code does not run in all types of runtime environments.", "Depending on the browser and JavaScript-engine support for the many editions of the ECMAScript standard, there are as many variations of the JavaScript language.", "Since HTML 4's deprecation of the ''language-''attribute of ''script''-tags, code can no longer detect JavaScript version support.", "Instead the User-Agent String recognizes the specific browser in use, although often this is not sufficient to ensure compatibility.", "Developers are expected to gracefully degrade incompatible code and use feature detection techniques per normative programming guidelines.", "This is especially important when compatibility with the previous standardization of ES5.1 is not established(ISO/IEC 16262:2011, withdrawn in May 2018).", "Transpiler-preprocessors like Babel are also available for automated conversion of ES6+ code.", "Certain browsers, runtime environments or even installed versions may be designated as a system requirement for specific implementations." ], [ "Related technologies", "===Java===A common misconception is that JavaScript is the same as Java.", "Both indeed have a C-like syntax (the C language being their most immediate common ancestor language).", "They are also typically sandboxed (when used inside a browser), and JavaScript was designed with Java's syntax and standard library in mind.", "In particular, all Java keywords were reserved in original JavaScript, JavaScript's standard library follows Java's naming conventions, and JavaScript's and objects are based on classes from Java 1.0.Java and JavaScript both first appeared in 1995, but Java was developed by James Gosling of Sun Microsystems and JavaScript by Brendan Eich of Netscape Communications.The differences between the two languages are more prominent than their similarities.", "Java has static typing, while JavaScript's typing is dynamic.", "Java is loaded from compiled bytecode, while JavaScript is loaded as human-readable source code.", "Java's objects are class-based, while JavaScript's are prototype-based.", "Finally, Java did not support functional programming until Java 8, while JavaScript has done so from the beginning, being influenced by Scheme.===JSON======TypeScript===TypeScript (TS) is a strictly-typed variant of JavaScript.", "TS differs by introducing type annotations to variables and functions, and introducing a type language to describe the types within JS.", "Otherwise TS shares much the same featureset as JS, to allow it to be easily transpiled to JS for running client-side, and to interoperate with other JS code.===WebAssembly===Since 2017, web browsers have supported WebAssembly, a binary format that enables a JavaScript engine to execute performance-critical portions of web page scripts close to native speed.", "WebAssembly code runs in the same sandbox as regular JavaScript code.asm.js is a subset of JavaScript that served as the forerunner of WebAssembly.===Transpilers===JavaScript is the dominant client-side language of the Web, and many websites are script-heavy.", "Thus transpilers have been created to convert code written in other languages, which can aid the development process.===Ajax===" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Flanagan, David.", "''JavaScript: The Definitive Guide''.", "7th edition.", "Sebastopol, California: O'Reilly, 2020..* Haverbeke, Marijn.", "''Eloquent JavaScript''.", "3rd edition.", "No Starch Press, 2018.472 pages.", ".", "''(download)''* Zakas, Nicholas.", "''Principles of Object-Oriented JavaScript'', 1st edition.", "No Starch Press, 2014.120 pages.", "." ], [ "External links", "* The Modern JavaScript Tutorial.", "A community maintained continuously updated collection of tutorials on the entirety of the language.", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Elbing (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elbing''' is the German name of Elbląg, a city in northern Poland which until 1945 was a German city in the province of East Prussia.", "'''Elbing''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Elbląg (river), on which the city of Elbląg is located* Elbing, Kansas, a city in the US" ], [ "Ships", "* SMS ''Elbing'', light cruiser of the Imperial Germany Navy* Elbing class torpedo boat, in the German Kriegsmarine during World War II* SS ''Elbing'', a cargo ship in service 1934-45" ], [ "See also", "* Treaty of Elbing, signed between the Dutch Republic and the Swedish Empire in 1656* ''Switzman v Elbling'', a landmark 1957 Supreme Court of Canada decision* Elbling, a grape variety" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Exile" ], [ "Introduction", "''Napoleon's Exile on Saint Helena'' by Franz Josef Sandman (1820)''The First Night in Exile'' – This painting comes from a celebrated series illustrating one of Hinduism's great epics, the ''Ramayana''.", "It tells the story of prince Rama, who is wrongly exiled from his father's kingdom, accompanied only by his wife and brother.", "''Dante in Exile'' by Domenico Petarlini'''Exile''' or '''banishment''', is primarily penal expulsion from one's native country, and secondarily expatriation or prolonged absence from one's homeland under either the compulsion of circumstance or the rigors of some high purpose.", "Usually persons and peoples suffer exile, but sometimes social entities like institutions (e.g.", "the papacy or a government) are forced from their homeland.In Roman law, denoted both voluntary exile and banishment as a capital punishment alternative to death.", "Deportation was forced exile, and entailed the lifelong loss of citizenship and property.", "Relegation was a milder form of deportation, which preserved the subject's citizenship and property.The term diaspora describes group exile, both voluntary and forced.", "\"Government in exile\" describes a government of a country that has relocated and argues its legitimacy from outside that country.", "Voluntary exile is often depicted as a form of protest by the person who claims it, to avoid persecution and prosecution (such as tax or criminal allegations), an act of shame or repentance, or isolating oneself to be able to devote time to a particular pursuit.Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that \"No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.\"" ], [ "Internal exile", "Internal exile is a form of banishment within the boundaries of one's homeland, but far away from home." ], [ "For individuals", "===Exiled heads of state===In some cases the deposed head of state is allowed to go into exile following a coup or other change of government, allowing a more peaceful transition to take place or to escape justice.=== Avoiding tax or legal matters ===A wealthy citizen who moves to a jurisdiction with lower taxes is termed a ''tax exile''.", "Creative people such as authors and musicians who achieve sudden wealth sometimes choose this.", "Examples include the British-Canadian writer Arthur Hailey, who moved to the Bahamas to avoid taxes following the runaway success of his novels ''Hotel'' and ''Airport'', and the English rock band the Rolling Stones who, in the spring of 1971, owed more in taxes than they could pay and left Britain before the government could seize their assets.", "Members of the band all moved to France for a period of time where they recorded music for the album that came to be called ''Exile on Main Street'', the Main Street of the title referring to the French Riviera.", "In 2012, Eduardo Saverin, one of the founders of Facebook, made headlines by renouncing his U.S. citizenship before his company's IPO.", "The dual Brazilian/U.S.", "citizen's decision to move to Singapore and renounce his citizenship spurred a bill in the U.S. Senate, the Ex-PATRIOT Act, which would have forced such wealthy ''tax exiles'' to pay a special tax in order to re-enter the United States.In some cases a person voluntarily lives in exile to avoid legal issues, such as litigation or criminal prosecution.", "An example of this is Asil Nadir, who fled to the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus for 17 years rather than face prosecution in connection with the failed £1.7 bn company Polly Peck in the United Kingdom.=== Avoiding violence or persecution, or in the aftermath of war ===Examples include:* Iraqi academics asked to return home \"from exile\" to help rebuild Iraq in 2009* People undertaking a religious or civil liberties role in society may be forced into exile due to threat of persecution.", "For example, nuns were exiled following the Communist coup d'état of 1948 in Czechoslovakia.=== Euphemism for convict ===Exile, government man and assigned servant were all euphemisms used in the 19th century for convicts under sentence who had been transported from Britain to Australia." ], [ "For groups, nations, and governments", "=== Comfortable exile ===Comfortable exile is an alternative theory recently developed by anthropologist Binesh Balan in 2018.According to him, comfortable exile is a \"social exile of people who have been excluded from the mainstream society.", "Such people are considered 'aliens' or internal 'others' on the grounds of their religious, racial, ethnic, linguistic or caste-based identity and therefore they migrate to a comfortable space elsewhere after having risked their lives to restore representation, identity and civil rights in their own country and often capture a comfortable identity to being part of a dominant religion, society or culture.", "\"=== Nation in exile ===When a large group, or occasionally a whole people or nation is exiled, it can be said that this nation is in exile, or \"diaspora\".", "Nations that have been in exile for substantial periods include the Israelites by the Assyrian king Sargon II in 720 BCE, the Judeans who were deported by Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II in 586 BC, and the Jews following the destruction of the second Temple in Jerusalem in AD 70.Many Jewish prayers include a yearning to return to Jerusalem and Judea.After the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century, and following the uprisings (like Kościuszko Uprising, November Uprising and January Uprising) against the partitioning powers (Russia, Prussia and Austria), many Poles have chosen – or been forced – to go into exile, forming large diasporas (known as Polonia), especially in France and the United States.", "The entire population of Crimean Tatars (numbering 200,000 in all) that remained in their homeland of Crimea was exiled on 18 May 1944 to Central Asia as a form of ethnic cleansing and collective punishment on false accusations.Since the Cuban Revolution, over a million Cubans have left Cuba.", "Most of these self-identified as exiles as their motivation for leaving the island is political in nature.", "At the time of the Cuban Revolution, Cuba only had a population of 6.5 million, and was not a country that had a history of significant emigration, it being the sixth largest recipient of immigrants in the world as of 1958.Most of the exiles' children also consider themselves to be Cuban exiles.", "Under Cuban law, children of Cubans born abroad are considered Cuban citizens.", "An extension of colonial practices, Latin America saw widespread exile, of a political variety, during the 19th and 20th century.=== Government in exile ===During a foreign occupation or after a coup d'état, a ''government in exile'' of a such afflicted country may be established abroad.", "One of the most well-known instances of this is the Polish government-in-exile, a government in exile that commanded Polish armed forces operating outside Poland after German occupation during World War II.", "Other examples include the Free French Forces government of Charles de Gaulle of the same time, and the Central Tibetan Administration, commonly known as the Tibetan government-in-exile, and headed by the 14th Dalai Lama.=== For inanimate objects ===Ivan the Terrible once exiled to Siberia an inanimate object: a bell.", "\"When the inhabitants of the town of Uglich rang their bell to rally a demonstration against Ivan the Terrible, the cruel Czar executed two hundred (nobles), and exiled the Uglich bell to Siberia, where it remained for two hundred years.\"" ], [ "In popular culture", "=== Drama ===''Jason and Medea'', by John William Waterhouse, 1907Exile is an early motif in ancient Greek tragedy.", "In the ancient Greek world, this was seen as a fate worse than death.", "The motif reaches its peak on the play ''Medea'', written by Euripides in the fifth century BC, and rooted in the very old oral traditions of Greek mythology.", "Euripides' ''Medea'' has remained the most frequently performed Greek tragedy through the 20th century.=== Art ===Exiled Klaus Mann as Staff Sergeant of the 5th US Army, Italy 1944Cover of Anna Seghers' After Medea was abandoned by Jason and had become a murderess out of revenge, she fled to Athens and married king Aigeus there, and became the stepmother of the hero Theseus.", "Due to a conflict with him, she must leave the Polis and go away into exile.", "John William Waterhouse (1849–1917), the English Pre-Raphaelite painter's famous picture ''Jason and Medea'' shows a key moment before, when Medea tries to poison Theseus.=== Literature ===In ancient Rome, the Roman Senate had the power to declare the exile to individuals, families or even entire regions.", "One of the Roman victims was the poet Ovid, who lived during the reign of Augustus.", "He was forced to leave Rome and move away to the city of Tomis on the Black Sea, now Constanța.", "There he wrote his famous work ''Tristia'' (Sorrows) about his bitter feelings in exile.Another, at least in a temporary exile, was Dante.The German-language writer Franz Kafka described the exile of Karl Rossmann in the posthumously published novel .During the period of National Socialism in the first few years after 1933, many Jews, as well as a significant number of German artists and intellectuals fled into exile; for instance, the authors Klaus Mann and Anna Seghers.", "So Germany's own exile literature emerged and received worldwide credit.", "Klaus Mann finished his novel (''The Volcano: A Novel Among Emigrants'') in 1939 describing the German exile scene, \"to bring the rich, scattered and murky experience of exile into epic form\", as he wrote in his literary balance sheet.", "At the same place and in the same year, Anna Seghers published her famous novel (''The Seventh Cross'', published in the United States in 1942).Important exile literature in recent years include that of the Caribbean, many of whose artists emigrated to Europe or the United States for political or economic reasons.", "These writers include Nobel Prize winners V. S. Naipaul and Derek Walcott as well as the novelists Edwidge Danticat and Sam Selvon." ], [ "See also", "* Banishment in the Torah* Ban (law)* Defection* Émigré* Minus six – form of exile in the Soviet Union* Ostracism – procedure under the Athenian democracy* Outlawry* Penal colony* Petalism* Porcian Laws, the Roman laws granting citizens the right to voluntary exile in place of capital punishment* Refugee* Right of asylum (political asylum)* Shimanagashi* :Category:Exiles by nationality" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Without a Country Varied experiences of American and British exiles in the 20th century.", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Elbląg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elbląg''' (; ; ) is a city in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland, located in the eastern edge of the Żuławy region with 117,390 inhabitants, as of December 2021.It is the capital of Elbląg County.Elbląg is one of the oldest cities in the province.", "Its history dates back to 1237, when the Teutonic Order constructed their fortified stronghold on the banks of a nearby river.", "The castle subsequently served as the official seat of the Teutonic Order Masters.Elbląg became part of the Hanseatic League, which contributed much to the city's wealth.", "Through the Hanseatic League, the city was linked to other major ports like Gdańsk, Lübeck and Amsterdam.", "Elbląg joined Poland in 1454 and after the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in the Thirteen Years’ War was recognized as part of Poland in 1466.It then flourished and turned into a significant trading point, but its growth was eventually hindered by the Second Northern War and the Swedish Deluge.The city was transferred to Prussia after the first partition of Poland in 1772.Its trading role greatly weakened, until the era of industrialization, which occurred in the 19th century.", "It was then that the famous Elbląg Canal was commissioned.", "A tourist site and important engineering monument, it has been named one of the Seven Wonders of Poland and a Historic Monument of Poland.After World War II the city again became part of Poland.", "The war casualties were catastrophic – especially the severe destruction of the Old Town district, one of the grandest in Prussia.Today, Elbląg has over 120,000 inhabitants and is a \"vibrant city with an attractive tourist base\".", "It serves as an academic and financial center and among its numerous historic monuments is the Market Gate from 1309 and St. Nicholas Cathedral.", "Elbląg is also known for its archaeological sites, museums and the largest brewery in the country." ], [ "Etymology", "''Elbląg'' derives from the earlier German-language ''Elbing'', which is the name by which the Teutonic Knights knew both the river here and the citadel they established on its banks in 1237.The purpose of the citadel was to prevent the Old Prussian settlement of Truso from being reoccupied, the German crusaders being at war with the pagan Prussians.", "The citadel was named after the river, itself of uncertain etymology.", "One traditional etymology connects it to the name of the Helveconae, a Germanic tribe mentioned in Ancient Greek and Latin sources, but the etymology or language of the tribal name remains unknown.", "The oldest known mention of the river or town Elbląg is in the form ''Ylfing'' in the report of a sailor Wulfstan from the end of the 9th century, in ''The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan'' which was written in Anglo-Saxon in King Alfred's reign." ], [ "Modern city", "Aerial view of the Old TownThe city was almost completely destroyed at the end of World War II.", "Parts of the inner city were gradually rebuilt, and around 2000 rebuilding was begun in a style emulating the previous architecture, in many cases over the same foundations and utilizing old bricks and portions of the same walls.", "The western suburbs of the old city have not been reconstructed.The modern city adjoins about half the length of the river between Lake Drużno and Elbląg Bay (''Zatoka Elbląska'', an arm of the Vistula Lagoon), and spreads out on both banks, though mainly on the eastern side.", "To the east is the Elbląg Upland (''Wysoczyzna Elbląska''), a dome pushed up by glacial compression, 390 km2 in diameter and high at its greatest elevation.Views to the west show flat fields extending to the horizon; this part of the Vistula Delta (''Żuławy Wiślane'') is used mainly for agricultural purposes.", "To the south are the marshes and swamps of Drużno.", "The Elbląg River has been left in a more natural state through the city, but elsewhere it is a controlled channel with branches.", "One of them, the Jagiellonski Channel (''Kanał Jagielloński''), leads to the Nogat River, along which navigation to Gdańsk is common.", "The Elbląg Canal (''Kanał Elbląski'') connecting Lake Drużno with Drwęca River and Lake Jeziorak is a tourist site." ], [ "Port of Elbląg", "Elbląg is not a deep-water port.", "The draft of vessels using its waterways must be no greater than by law.", "The turning area at Elbląg is diameter and a pilot is required for large vessels.", "Deep water vessels cannot manoeuvre; in that sense, Elbląg has become a subsidiary port of Gdańsk.", "Traffic of smaller vessels at Elbląg is within the river and very marginal, while larger vessels were unable to reach the open Baltic Sea after 1945 without crossing into Russian territory.", "Construction of the Vistula Spit canal was completed in September 2022, allowing vessels access to the Baltic Sea while remaining within Polish territory.", "The city features three quay complexes, movable cranes, and railways." ], [ "Geography", "=== Geographical location ===Elbląg is located about south-east of Gdańsk and south-west of Kaliningrad, Russia.The city is a port on the river Elbląg, which flows into the Vistula Lagoon about to the north, thus giving the city access to the Baltic Sea via the Russian-controlled Strait of Baltiysk.", "The Old Town () is located on the river Elbląg connecting Lake Drużno to the Vistula Lagoon, about from the lagoon and from Gdańsk.===Climate===The climate of Elbląg is an oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfb'') closely bordering on a humid continental climate (Köppen ''Dfb''), owing to its position of the Baltic Sea, which moderates the temperatures, compared to the interior of Poland.", "The climate is cool throughout the year and there is a somewhat uniform precipitation throughout the year.", "Typical of Northern Europe, there is little sunshine during the year." ], [ "History", "===Truso===St.", "Nicholas Cathedral before 1945The settlement was first mentioned as \"Ilfing\" in ''The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan'', an Anglo-Saxon chronicle written in King Alfred's reign using information from a Viking who had visited the area.During the Middle Ages, the Viking settlement of Truso was located on Lake Drużno, near the current site of Elbląg in historical Pogesania; the settlement burned down in the 10th century.", "Early in the 13th century the Teutonic Knights conquered the region, built a castle, and founded Elbing on the lake, with a population mostly from Lübeck (today the lake, now much smaller, no longer reaches the city).", "After the uprising against the Teutonic Knights and the destruction of the castle by the inhabitants, the city successively came under the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Poland (1454), the Kingdom of Prussia (1772), and Germany (1871).", "Elbing was heavily damaged in World War II, and its remaining German citizens were expelled upon the war's end in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement.", "The city became again part of Poland in 1945 and was repopulated with Polish citizens.The seaport of '''Truso''' was first mentioned by Wulfstan of Hedeby, an Anglo-Saxon sailor, travelling on the south coast of the Baltic Sea at the behest of King Alfred the Great of England.", "The exact location of Truso was not known for a long time, as the seashore has significantly changed, but most historians trace the settlement inside or near to modern Elbląg on Lake Drużno.", "Truso was located at territory already known to the Roman Empire and earlier.It was an important seaport serving the Vistula River bay on the early medieval Baltic Sea trade routes which led from Birka in the north to the island of Gotland and to Visby in the Baltic Sea.", "From there, traders continued further south to Carnuntum along the Amber Road.", "The ancient Amber Road led further southwest and southeast to the Black Sea and eventually to Asia.", "The east–west trade route went from Truso, along the Baltic Sea to Jutland, and from there inland by river to Hedeby, a large trading center in Jutland.", "The main goods of Truso were amber, furs, and slaves.Archaeological finds in 1897 and diggings in the 1920s placed Truso at Gut Hansdorf.", "A large burial field was also found at Elbląg.", "Recent Polish diggings have found burned beams and ashes and thousand-year-old artifacts in an area of about 20 hectares.", "Many of these artifacts are now displayed at the Muzeum w Elblągu.=== Prussian Crusade ===Brick manors, built in the Neogothic style, can be seen in the outer suburbs of ElblągHoly Ghost Street, ''ulica Świętego Ducha'', possesses several pre-war examples of social housingAttempts to conquer Prussian land began in 997, when Bolesław I the Brave, at the urging of the Pope, sent a contingent of soldiers and a missionary (Adalbert of Prague) to the pagan Prussians, a non-Slavic people, on a crusade of conquest and conversion.", "The crusade encompassed much of the Baltic Sea coast east of the Polish city of Gdańsk, up to Sambia.", "Starting in 1209 additional crusades were called for by Konrad of Masovia, who mainly sought to conquer Prussian territory, rather than actually convert the indigenous Prussians.", "Despite heroic efforts, Old Prussian sovereignty would eventually collapse after a succession of wars instigated by Pope Honorius III and his frequent calls for crusade.Before the Prussians were finally brought to heel, Polish rulers and the Duchy of Masovia, both by then Christianised peoples, would be continually frustrated in their attempts at northern expansion.", "Aside from minor border raids, major campaigns against the Prussians would be launched in 1219, 1220, and 1222.After a particularly sound defeat by Prussian forces in 1223, Polish forces in Chełmno, the seat of Christian of Oliva and the Duchy of Masovia, were forced onto the defensive.In 1226 Duke Konrad I of Masovia summoned the Teutonic Knights for assistance; by 1230 they had secured Chełmno (Culm) and begun claiming conquered territories for themselves under the authority of the Holy Roman Empire, although these claims were rejected by the Poles, whose ambition had been to conquer Prussia all along.", "The Teutonic Order's strategy was to move down the Vistula and secure the delta, establishing a barrier between the Prussians and Gdańsk.", "The victorious Teutonic Knights built a castle at Elbing.The Chronicon terrae Prussiae describes the conflict in the vicinity of Lake Drużno shortly before the founding of Elbing:::\"All the little redoubts that they had in that place, which are said to be (list) ... and around the Drusine marsh ... he (frater Hermannus magister) assaulted and levelled by rendering them into ash, after the infidels had been killed or captured.", "\"Truso did not disappear suddenly to be replaced with the citadel and town of Elbing during the Prussian Crusade.", "It had already burned down in the tenth century, with the population dispersed in the area.=== Teutonic Order ===The Chronicon terrae Prussiae describes the founding of Elbing under the leadership of Hermann Balk.", "After building two ships, the Pilgerim (Pilgrim) and the Vridelant (Friedland), with the assistance of Margrave Henry III of Margraviate of Meissen, the Teutonic Knights used them to clear the Vistula Lagoon (''Frisches Haff'') and the Vistula Spit of Prussians::... ...:... \"and the Vistula Spit was purged of the insult of the infidels...\"Apparently the river was in Pomesania, which the knights had just finished clearing, but the bay was in Pogesania.", "The first Elbing was placed in Pogesania:::\"The master ... came to the region of Pogesania, to that island which is in the middle of the Elbing river, in that place where the Elbing enters the Vistula Lagoon, and built there a fort, which he called by the name of the Elbing River, in the year of the incarnation of the Lord, 1237.Others report that the same fort was attacked by the infidels and then was moved to the place where it is now situated, and the city gathered around it.", "\"Medieval Church Path between tenements connecting the churches of the Old TownBoth landings were amphibious operations conducted from the ships.", "The ''Chronicon'' relates that they were in use for many years and then were sunk in Lake Drużno.", "In 1238 the Dominican Order was invited to build a monastery on a grant of land.", "Pomesania was not secured, however, and from 1240 to 1242 the order began building a brick castle on the south side of the settlement.", "It may be significant that Elbing's first industry was the same as Truso's had been: manufacture of amber and bone artifacts for export.", "In 1243 William of Modena created the Diocese of Pomesania and three others.", "They were at first only ideological constructs, but the tides of time turned them into reality in that same century.The foundation of Elbing was perhaps not the end of the Old Prussian story in the region.", "In 1825 a manuscript listing a vocabulary of the Baltic Old Prussian language, commonly known in English as ''Elbing Vocabulary'', was found among some manuscripts from a merchant's house.", "It contained 802 words in a dialect now termed Pomesanian with their equivalents in an early form of High German.The origin of the vocabulary remains unknown.", "Its format is like that of modern travel dictionaries; i.e., it may have been used by German speakers to communicate with Old Prussians, but the specific circumstances are only speculative.", "The manuscript became the Codex Neumannianus.", "It disappeared after a British bombing raid destroyed the library at Elbing but before then facsimiles had been made.", "The date of the MSS was estimated at ca.", "1400, but it was a copy.", "There is no evidence concerning the provenance of the original, except that it must have been in Pomesanian.Seal of the city from 1350In 1246 the town was granted a constitution under Lübeck law, used in maritime circumstances, instead of Magdeburg rights common in other cities in Central Europe.", "This decision of the Order was in keeping with its general strategy of espousing the trade association that in 1358 would become the Hanseatic League.", "The Order seized on this association early and used it to establish bases throughout the Baltic.", "The Order's involvement in the League was somewhat contradictory.", "In whatever cities they founded the ultimate authority was the commander of the town, who kept office in the citadel, typically used as a prison.", "Lübeck law, on the other hand, provided for self-government of the town.Membership in the Hanseatic League meant having important trading contacts with England, Flanders, France, and the Netherlands.", "The city received numerous merchant privileges from the rulers of England, Poland, Pomerania, and the Teutonic Order.", "For instance, the privilege of the Old Town was upgraded in 1343, while in 1393 it was granted an emporium privilege for grains, metals, and forest products.Except for the citadel and churches, Elbing at the time was more of a small village by modern standards.", "Its area was .", "It featured a wharf, a marketplace and five streets, as well as a number of churches.", "The castle was completed in 1251.In 1288 fire destroyed the entire settlement except for the churches, which were of brick.", "A new circuit wall was started immediately.", "From 1315 to 1340 Elbląg was rebuilt.", "A separate settlement called New Town was founded ca.", "1337 and received Lübeck rights in 1347.In 1349 the Black Death struck the town, toward the end of the European plague.", "After the population recovered it continued building up the city and in 1364 a crane was built for the port.The German-language ''Elbinger Rechtsbuch'', written in Elbing documented among other laws for the first time Polish common law.", "The German-language Polish laws are based on the Sachsenspiegel and were written down to aid the judges.", "It is thus the oldest source for documented Polish common law and is in Polish referred to as the ''Księga Elbląska'' (Book of Elbląg).", "It was written down in the second half of the 13th century.In 1410, during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War, the inhabitants of the city rebelled against the Teutonic Knights and expelled them, while welcoming Polish troops and paying homage to Polish King Władysław II Jagiełło, who afterwards vested Elbląg with new privileges.", "As the castle was lightly defended by a Polish garrison, the Teutonic Knights managed to retake it, promising the Polish defenders that they will be given free passage back to Poland.", "After the castle was taken, the Knights broke their promise and subsequently murdered a number of the captured defenders while imprisoning the rest.===Kingdom of Poland===Preserved tenements often resemble Amsterdam and GdańskIn February 1440, the city hosted a convention at which delegates from various cities (including Elbing itself) and nobility from the region decided to establish the anti-Teutonic Prussian Confederation.", "In April and May 1440, further meetings were held in Elbing, at which more towns and noblemen joined the organisation.", "In 1454, the organisation led the revolt against the rule of the Teutonic Knights, and then its delegation submitted a petition to King Casimir IV of Poland asking him to include the region within the Kingdom of Poland.", "The King agreed and signed the act of incorporation of the region (including Elbing) to the Kingdom of Poland in March 1454 in Kraków, which sparked the Thirteen Years' War, the longest of all Polish–Teutonic wars.", "The local mayor pledged allegiance to the Polish King during the incorporation in March 1454, and the burghers of Elbląg recognized Casimir IV as rightful ruler.", "After paying homage to the King, the city was granted great privileges, similar to those of Toruń and Gdańsk.", "Since 1454, the city was authorized by King Casimir IV to mint Polish coins.", "The war ended in a Polish victory in 1466, with the Second Peace of Thorn, in which the Teutonic Order renounced any claims to the city and recognised it as part of Poland.Within the Kingdom of Poland, the city was administratively part of the Malbork Voivodeship in the newly established autonomous province of Royal Prussia, later also within the larger Greater Poland Province.", "The city was known to the Polish crown by its Polish name '''Elbląg'''.", "With the creation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, the city was brought under direct control of the Polish crown.", "As one of the largest and most influential cities of Poland, it enjoyed voting rights during the royal election period in Poland.Elbląg was often visited by Nicolaus Copernicus between 1504 and 1530.With the 16th century Protestant Reformation the burghers became Lutherans and the first Lutheran Gymnasium was established in Elbląg in 1535.From 1579 Elbląg had close trade relations with England, to which the city accorded free trade.", "English, Scottish, and Irish merchants settled in the city.", "They formed the Scottish Reformed Church of Elbląg and became Elbląg citizens, aiding Lutheran Sweden in the Thirty Years' War.", "The rivalry of nearby Gdańsk interrupted trading links several times.", "By 1618 Elbląg had left the Hanseatic League owing to its close business dealings with England.Famous inhabitants of the city at that time included native sons Hans von Bodeck and Samuel Hartlib.", "During the Thirty Years' War, Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna brought the Moravian Brethren refugee John Amos Comenius to Elbląg for six years (1642–1648).", "In 1642 Johann Stobäus, who composed with Johann Eccard, published the '' Preussische Fest-Lieder'', a number of evangelical Prussian songs.", "In 1646 the city recorder Daniel Barholz noted that the city council employed ''Bernsteindreher'', or ''Paternostermacher'', licensed and guilded amber craftsmen who worked on prayer beads, rosaries, and many other items made of amber.", "Members of the Barholz family became mayors and councillors.View of Elbląg from a 1720 atlas by Pieter van der Aa, based on an earlier print by Matthäus MerianDuring the Thirty Years' War, the Vistula Lagoon was the main southern Baltic base of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who was hailed as the protector of the Protestants.", "By 1660 the Vistula Lagoon had gone to Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg-Prussia, but was returned in 1700.The poet Christian Wernicke was born in 1661 in Elbląg, while Gottfried Achenwall became famous for his teachings in natural law and human rights law.", "In 1700–1710 it was occupied by Swedish troops.", "In 1709 it was besieged, taken by storm on February 2, 1710, by Russian troops with support of Prussian artillery.", "The city was handed over to Polish King Augustus II in 1712.The Royal-Polish mathematician and cartographer Johann Friedrich Endersch completed a map of Warmia in 1755 and also made a copper etching of the galley named \"The City of Elbing\" .During the War of the Polish Succession in 1734, Elbląg was placed under military occupation by Russia and Saxony.", "The town came again under occupation by Russia from 1758 to 1762 during the Seven Years' War.===Kingdom of Prussia===During the First Partition of Poland in 1772 Elbląg was annexed by King Frederick the Great of the Kingdom of Prussia.", "Elbing became part of the newly established province of West Prussia in 1773.In the 1815 provincial reorganization following the Napoleonic Wars, Elbing and its hinterland were included within Regierungsbezirk Danzig in West Prussia.In October and November 1831, various Polish infantry, cavalry and artillery units, engineer corps and sappers of the November Uprising stopped in the city and its environs on the way to their internment locations, whereas the general staff with Commander-in-Chief General Maciej Rybiński and generals Józef Bem, Marcin Klemensowski, Kazimierz Małachowski, Ludwik Michał Pac and Antoni Wroniecki was interned in the city.", "On December 22, 1831, the Prussian army attempted to pacify the Polish insurgents and launched a charge on the disarmed Poles, who resisted relocation, fearing deportation to the Russian Partition of Poland.", "Some insurgents eventually left partitioned Poland for the Great Emigration, including Józef Bem, who was expelled by the Prussians in December 1831, and Maciej Rybiński, who left the city in February 1832.Timber-framed Holy Trinity ChurchElbing industrialized.", "In 1828 the first steamship was built by Ignatz Grunau.", "In 1837 Ferdinand Schichau started the Schichau-Werke company in Elbing as well as another shipyard in Danzig (Gdańsk) later on.", "Schichau constructed the ''Borussia'', the first screw-vessel in Germany.", "Schichau-Werke built hydraulic machinery, ships, steam engines, and torpedoes.", "After the inauguration of the railway to Königsberg in 1853, Elbing's industry began to grow.", "Schichau worked together with his son-in-law Carl H. Zise, who continued the industrial complex after Schichau's death.", "Schichau erected large complexes for his many thousands of workers.Georg Steenke, an engineer from Königsberg, connected Elbing near the Baltic Sea with the southern part of Prussia by building the Oberländischer Kanal (Elbląg Canal).Elbing became part of the Prussian-led German Empire in 1871 during the unification of Germany.", "As Elbing became an industrial city, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) frequently received the majority of votes; in the 1912 Reichstag elections the SPD received 51% of the vote.", "After World War I, as most of the province of West Prussia was reintegrated with the reborn Polish Republic, Elbing was joined to the German province of East Prussia, and was separated from Weimar Germany by the so-called Polish Corridor.===Nazi Germany===Memorial at the site of a subcamp of the Stutthof concentration campDuring World War II, under Nazi Germany, a Nazi prison, a forced labour subcamp of the Stalag I-A POW camp, a forced labour subcamp of the Stalag XX-B POW camp, and three subcamps of the Stutthof concentration camp were operated in the city.", "The Germans also enslaved Poles as forced labour in the city.", "The Polish resistance was active and infiltrated the German arms industry.", "Dozens of Polish resistance members were held in the local prison, and at least 15 were sentenced to death in the city in 1942.The prison and forced labour camps were closed and many of the German inhabitants forced to flee as the Soviet Red Army approached the city toward the end of the war.", "Laid under siege since January 23, 1945, about 65% of the city infrastructure was destroyed, including most of the historical city center.", "The town was captured by the Soviet Red Army during the night of February 9/10, 1945.During the first days of the siege most of the population of approximately 100,000 persons fled.", "After the end of war, in spring 1945, the region together with the city became again part of Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s, as a result of the Potsdam Conference.", "The area was settled by Poles after remaining Germans were either transferred or fled to Germany.", "As of 1 November 1945 16.838 Germans remained in the town.===History after 1945===Elbląg was part of the so-called Recovered Territories and out of the new inhabitants, 98% were Poles expelled from former eastern Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union.", "Parts of the damaged historical city center were completely demolished, with the bricks being used to rebuild Warsaw and Gdańsk.", "The Communist authorities had originally planned that the Old Town, utterly destroyed during the fighting since January 23, 1945, would be built over with blocks of flats; however, economic difficulties thwarted this effort.", "Two churches were reconstructed and the remaining ruins of the old town were torn down in the 1960s.EB, Polish beer produced by the Elbrewery Company in ElblągAlong with Tricity and Szczecin, Elbląg was the scene of the Polish 1970 protests.", "Since 1990 the German minority population has had a modest resurgence, with the Elbinger Deutsche Minderheit Organization counting around 450 members in 2000.Restoration of the Old Town began after 1989.Since the beginning of the restoration, an extensive archaeological programme has been carried out.", "Most of the city's heritage was destroyed during the construction of basements in the 19th century or during World War II, but the backyards and latrines of the houses remained largely unchanged, and have provided information on the city's history.", "In some instances, private investors have incorporated parts of preserved stonework into new architecture.", "By 2006, approximately 75% of the Old Town had been reconstructed.Elbląg is also home to the Elbrewery, Poland's largest brewery, which belongs to the Żywiec Group (Heineken).", "The history of the Elblag Brewing Tradition dates back to 1309, when Teutonic Master Siegfried von Leuchtwangen granted brewing privileges to the city.", "The present brewery was founded in 1872 as the Elbinger Aktien-Brauerei.", "In the early 1900s, the brewery was the exclusive supplier of Pilsner beer to the court of German Emperor Wilhelm II." ], [ "Historic buildings", "''Brama Targowa'' (Market Gate)Postmodern Old Town City HallUntil World War II there were many Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque houses in Elbląg's Old Town; some of them are reconstructed.", "Other preserved buildings are:*St. Nicholas Cathedral - a monumental 13th-century Gothic church (cathedral only from 1992, before it was a parochial church), destroyed by fire in the late 18th century, then damaged in World War II and repaired*''Brama Targowa'' (Market Gate) - erected in 1319*St. Mary's Church - former Dominican church, erected in the 13th century, rebuilt in the 14th and 16th centuries; damaged in World War II and reconstructed in 1961 as an art gallery; remnants of cloister are partially preserved*Holy Ghost church with hospital, from the 14th century*Corpus Christi church from the 14th century*''Ścieżka kościelna'' (Church Path) - medieval path between tenements connecting the churches of the Old Town*Gothic houses at 13 Świętego Ducha Street and 34 Studzienna Street (reconstruction)*Mannierist houses of the Old Town, eg.", "Jost van Kampen House at 12 Garbary Street*Postmodern reconstruction of the Old Town with new Old Town City Hall*Church of Good Shepherd - originally Mennonite, now Polish Old Catholic church from 1890The Elbląg Canal, built in 1825–44, is a tourist site of Elbląg.", "The canal is believed to be one of the most important monuments related to the history of engineering, and has been named one of the Seven Wonders of Poland.", "The canal was also named one of Poland's official national Historic Monuments (''Pomnik historii'') in 2011.Its listing is maintained by the National Heritage Board of Poland." ], [ "Culture", "Cyprian Norwid Elbląg LibraryThe primary cultural institutions in Elbląg are the Archaeological and Historical Museum, the Cyprian Norwid Elbląg Library, the EL Gallery Art Center and the Aleksander Sewruk Theater.", "The museum presents many pieces of art and items of everyday use, including the only 15th century binoculars preserved in Europe." ], [ "Population" ], [ "Institutions of higher education", "Elbląg Higher School of Arts and EconomicsTheological Seminary in Elbląg* Elbląg Higher School of Arts and Economics ()** Faculty of Pedagogy** Faculty of Administration** Faculty of Health Sciences** Faculty of Economics and Politics* Elbląg Higher State College of Vocational Education (''Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa'')** Faculty of Pedagogy and Foreign Languages** Faculty of Economics** Faculty of Applied Computer Science** Faculty of Technical Sciences* Bogdan Jański Higher School, Faculty in Elbląg (''Szkoła Wyższa im.", "Bogdana Jańskiego'')** Faculty of Management and Land Management* Elbląg Diocese Theological Seminary (''Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne Diecezji Elbląskiej'')* Regent College - Foreign Language Teacher Training College (''Regent College - Nauczycielskie Kolegium Języków Obcych'')** Faculty of English Studies" ], [ "Sports", "* EB Start Elbląg - women's handball team playing in the Polish Women's Superliga (top division; as of 2022–23)* Basketball Elbląg - men's basketball club* Olimpia Elbląg - men's football club" ], [ "Politics", "===Constituency===Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Elbląg constituency.", "* Jan Antochowski, SLD-UP* Danuta Ciborowska, SLD-UP* Witold Gintowt-Dziewałtowski, SLD-UP* Stanisław Gorczyca, PO* Jerzy Müller, SLD-UP* Adam Ołdakowski, Samoobrona* Andrzej Umiński, SLD-UP* Stanisław Żelichowski, PSL" ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns — sister cities===Elbląg is twinned with:* Ternopil, Ukraine ''(since 1992)''* Leer, Lower Saxony, Germany ''(since June 23, 2001)''* Ronneby, Sweden ''(since 1991)''* Druskininkai, Lithuania ''(since 1996)''* Liepāja, Latvia ''(since 1991)''* Compiègne, France ''(since 2002)''* Trowbridge, West Wiltshire, UK ''(since March 31, 2000)''* Coquimbo, Chile ''(since 1995)''* Baoji, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China ''(since 1997)''* Tainan, Taiwan ''(since April 29, 2004)''* Nowy Sącz, Poland===Former twin towns===* Kaliningrad, Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia ''(since 1994 until 2022)''* Baltiysk, Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia ''(since 1994 until 2022)''* Novogrudok, Belarus ''(since 1995 until 2022)''On 28 February 2022, Elbląg ended its partnership with the Russian cities of Kaliningrad and Baltiysk and the Belarusian city of Novogrudok as a response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and its active support by the Republic of Belarus." ], [ "Notable people", "* Georg Kleefeld (1522–1576), mayor of Danzig* Hans von Bodeck (1582–1658), diplomat and Chancellor of Brandenburg* John Amos Comenius (1592–1670), educator* Samuel Hartlib (), teacher and scientist* Christian Wernicke (1661–1725), epigrammist and diplomat* Charles Aloysius Ramsay (1677–1680) Scottish-Prussian writer on stenography and translator * Johann Friedrich Endersch (1705–1769), mathematician geographer* Gottfried Achenwall (1719–1772), statistician* Eberhard Gottlieb Graff (1780–1841) German philologist.", "* Wilhelm Baum (1799–1883) a German surgeon * Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht (1800–1876), lawyer, member of Göttinger Sieben* Bruno Erhard Abegg (1803–1848), statesman of Königsberg* Ferdinand Schichau (1814–1896), founder of the ''Schichau-Werke'' in Elbing and Danzig* John Prince-Smith (1809–1874), liberal economist and politician in Germany* Johannes Kohtz (1843–1918), German chess player* Reinhold Felderhoff (1865–1919) German sculptor.", "* Maximilian Consbruch (1866–1927), German classical philologist and gymnasium principal * Hermann Schulz (1872–1929), German politician * Paul Pulewka (1896–1989) German pharmacologist* Max Reimann (1898–1977), president of the Communist Party of Germany* Erich Brost (1903–1995) publisher* Günter Kuhnke (1912–1990), Admiral* Hans-Dieter Lange (1926–2012), journalist* Hans-Jürgen Krupp (born 1933) German politician, economist and University professor * Brigitte Birnbaum (born 1938) German author of books, mainly for children and young people* Ursula Karusseit (1939–2019), German actress* Bernd Neumann (born 1942), German politician* Ortwin Runde (born 1944), mayor of Hamburg from 1997 to 2001.", "* Andrzej Sakson (born 1950), sociologist and director of the Western Institute* Henryk Iwaniec (born 1947), mathematician* Wojciech Cejrowski (born 1964), journalist, writer* Adam Fedoruk (born 1966), footballer* Ewa Białołęcka (born 1967), fantasy writer* Piotr Wadecki (born 1973), cyclist* Maciej Bykowski (born 1977), footballer* Adam Wadecki (born 1977), cyclist* Dominika Figurska (born 1978), actress* Radosław Wojtaszek (born 1987), chess grandmaster* Krzysztof Jotko (born 1989), MMA fighter* Joanna Wołosz (born 1990), volleyball player" ], [ "See also", "* EB - Polish beer produced by the Elbrewery Company" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "=== Government websites ===* Municipal website* Gmina of Elbląg * Elbląg County === Tourism and historical sites ===* CastlesOfPoland.com* Interactive map of Elbląg * Tourism information * Elbing Vocabulary, presentation by Dr. Letis Palmaitis* Jewish community of Elbląg on Virtual Shtetl=== Web portals ===* Wirtualny Elbląg - portal * Elbląska Gazeta Internetowa - portal * Elblag24 - portal * info.elblag.pl - portal * Nocny Elbląg - portal * Dziennik Elbląski newspaper * Extensive East & West Prussian Historical Materials" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "ESR" ], [ "Introduction", "'''ESR''' may refer to:" ], [ "Organizations", "* Earlham School of Religion, at Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, US* E.S.R., Inc., a former American toy manufacturer* ESR Rīga, a Soviet Latvian football club, active from 1966 to 1991* ESR Technology, a UK company* e-Shang Redwood, an Asia focused Real Estate services and investment firm* ''Ethnikó Simvúlio Radhiotileórasis'', the Greek National Council for Radio and Television* European Society of Radiology* Institute of Environmental Science and Research, a New Zealand scientific institute" ], [ "Science", "* EISCAT Svalbard radar, UHF-band radar at Longyearbyen, Norway* Electron spin resonance, a technique used in chemical spectroscopy to identify unpaired electrons and free radicals* Electron spin resonance dating, a dating technique used in archaeology and geology* Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, the rate at which red blood cells sediment* Estrogen receptor, a group of proteins* European Sociological Review, sociological scientific journal" ], [ "Technology", "* Electro-slag remelting, an alloy remelting and refining process* Electronic Staff Record, a human resources and payroll system of the UK National Health Service* Equivalent series resistance, the resistive parts of the impedance of certain electrical components* Emergency sun reacquisition, an attitude control mode of the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory* Extended-support release, software that receives official security updates for an extended period of time* M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle, a sniper rifle used by the US Army" ], [ "Transportation", "* East Somerset Railway, a heritage railway in the UK* Eastar Jet (ICAO code), a Korean airline* Eastern Suburbs Railway, a railway line in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia* Ricardo García Posada Airport (IATA code), Chile* Emergency speed restriction, a UK railway speed reduction" ], [ "Other uses", "* Eric S. Raymond (born 1957), American computer programmer, author and open source software advocate* Emile Smith Rowe, English professional footballer for Arsenal FC* Effort Sharing Regulation a European regulation designed to allocate the Green House Gases reduction objectives among European Union Member States" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Europe of Democracies and Diversities" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Europe of Democracies and Diversities''' (EDD) was an Eurosceptic political group with seats in the European Parliament between 1999 and 2004.Following the 2004 European elections, the group reformed as Independence/Democracy (IND/DEM)." ], [ "Members", " Country Name Ideology Membership MEPs Hunting, Fishing, Nature, Tradition CPNT AgrarianismEuroscepticism 1999–2004 June Movement JB Euroscepticism 1999–2004 Christian Union – Reformed Political Party CU–SGP Christian democracyEuroscepticism 1999–2004 UK Independence Party UKIP Right-wing populismEuroscepticism 1999–2004 People's Movement against the EU FmEU Euroscepticism 1999–2004 Combats Souverainistes CS ConservatismEuroscepticism 2001–2004 League of Polish Families LPR National conservatismEuroscepticism May–July 2004" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* European Parliament Annual Accounts of Political Groups* Europe Politique* European Parliament profile of Jens-Peter Bonde* Entry on Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "European Free Alliance" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Free Alliance''' ('''EFA''') is a European political party that consists of various regionalist, separatist and ethnic minority political parties in Europe.", "Member parties advocate either for full political independence and sovereignty, or some form of devolution or self-governance for their country or region.", "The party has generally limited its membership to centre-left and left-wing parties; therefore, only a fraction of European regionalist parties are members of the EFA.Since 1999, the EFA and the European Green Party (EGP) have joined forces within Greens–European Free Alliance (Greens/EFA) group in the European Parliament, although some EFA members have joined other groups from time to time.The EFA's youth wing is the European Free Alliance Youth (EFAY), founded in 2000.As of 2024, four European regions are led by EFA politicians: Scotland with Humza Yousaf of the Scottish National Party, Flanders with Jan Jambon of the New Flemish Alliance, Corsica with Gilles Simeoni of For Corsica, and Catalonia with Pere Aragonès of the Republican Left of Catalonia." ], [ "History", "Regionalists have long been represented in the European Parliament.", "In the 1979 election four regionalist parties obtained seats: the Scottish National Party (SNP), the Flemish People's Union (VU), the Brussels-based Democratic Front of Francophones (FDF) and the South Tyrolean People's Party (SVP).", "The SNP, although being predominantly social-democratic, joined the European Progressive Democrats, a conservative group led by the French Rally for the Republic.", "The VU and the FDF joined the heterogeneous Technical Group of Independents, while the SVP joined the European People's Party group.In 1981, six parties (VU, the Frisian National Party, Independent Fianna Fáil, the Party of German-speaking Belgians, the Party for the Organization of a Free Brittany and the Alsace-Lorraine National Association), plus three observers (the Union of the Corsican People, UPC, the Occitan Party and the Democratic Convergence of Catalonia, CDC), joined forces to form the '''European Free Alliance'''.", "Regionalist MEPs continued, however, to sit in different groups also after the 1984 election: the SNP in the Gaullist-dominated European Democratic Alliance; the VU, the Sardinian Action Party (PSd'Az) and Basque Solidarity (EA) in the Rainbow Group, together with Green parties; the SVP in the European People's Party group; the CDC with the Liberal Democrats; and Herri Batasuna among Non-Inscrits.Only after the 1989 European Parliament election did EFA members form a united group, called Rainbow like its green predecessor.", "It consisted of three Italian MEPs (two for Lega Lombarda and one for the PSd'Az), two Spanish MEPs (one each for the PNV and the Andalusian Party, PA), one Belgian MEP (for VU), one French MEP (UPC), one British MEP (SNP) and one independent MEP from Ireland.", "They were joined by 4 MEPs from the Danish left-wing Eurosceptic People's Movement against the EU, while the other regionalist parties, including the SVP, Batasuna and the Convergence and Union of Catalonia (CiU) declined to join.In the 1994 European Parliament election, the regionalists lost many seats.", "Moreover, the EFA had suspended its major affiliate, Lega Nord, for having joined forces in government with the post-fascist National Alliance.", "Also, the PNV chose to switch to the European People's Party (EPP).", "The three remaining EFA MEPs (representing the SNP, the VU and the Canarian Coalition) formed a group with the French ''Énergie Radicale'' list and the Italian Pannella List: the European Radical Alliance.Following the 1999 European Parliament election, in which EFA parties did quite well, EFA elected MEPs formed a joint group with the European Green Party, under the name Greens–European Free Alliance (Greens/EFA).", "In the event the EFA supplied ten members: two each from the Scottish SNP, the Welsh Plaid Cymru, and the Flemish VU, and one each from the Basque PNV and EA, the Andalusian PA and the Galician Nationalist Bloc (BNG).In the 2004 European Parliament election, the EFA, which had formally become a European political party, was reduced to four MEPs: two from the SNP (Ian Hudghton and Alyn Smith), one from Plaid Cymru (Jill Evans) and one from the Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC; Bernat Joan i Marí, replaced at the mid-term by MEP Mikel Irujo of the Basque EA).", "They were joined by two associate members: Tatjana Ždanoka of For Human Rights in United Latvia (PCTVL) and László Tőkés, an independent MEP and former member of the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (UMDR).", "Co-operation between the EFA and the Greens continued.Following the 2008 revision of the EU Regulation that governs European political parties allowing the creation of European foundations affiliated to European political parties, the EFA established its official foundation/think tank, the Coppieters Foundation (CF), in September 2007.In the 2009 European Parliament election, six MEPs were returned for the EFA: two from the SNP (Ian Hudghton and Alyn Smith), one from Plaid Cymru (Jill Evans), one from the Party of the Corsican Nation (PNC; François Alfonsi), one from the ERC (Oriol Junqueras), and Tatjana Ždanoka, an individual member of the EFA from Latvia.", "After the election, the New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) also joined the EFA.", "The EFA subgroup thus counted seven MEPs.In the 2014 European Parliament election, EFA-affiliated parties returned twelve seats to the Parliament: four for the N-VA, two for the SNP, two for \"The Left for the Right to Decide\" (an electoral list primarily composed of the ERC), one for \"The Peoples Decide\" (an electoral list mainly comprising EH Bildu, a Basque coalition including EA), one for \"European Spring\" (an electoral list comprising the Valencian Nationalist Bloc, BNV, and the Aragonese Union, ChA), one from Plaid Cymru, and one from the Latvian Russian Union (LKS).", "Due to ideological divergences with the Flemish Greens, the N-VA defected to the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) group and the EH Bildu MEP joined the European United Left–Nordic Green Left (GUE/NGL) group.", "Thus, EFA had seven members in the Greens/EFA group and four within ECR.In the 2019 European Parliament election the EFA gained a fourth seat in the United Kingdom, due to the SNP gaining a third seat to add to Plaid's one.", "However, the EFA suffered the loss of these seats in January 2020 due to Brexit, which meant SNP and PC MEPs had to leave." ], [ "Ideology", "In the Brussels declaration of 2000, the EFA codified its political principles.", "The EFA stands for \"a Europe of Free Peoples based on the principle of subsidiarity, which believe in solidarity with each other and the peoples of the world.\"", "The EFA sees itself as an alliance of stateless peoples, striving towards recognition, autonomy, independence or wanting a proper voice in Europe.", "It supports European integration on basis of the subsidiarity-principle.", "It believes also that Europe should move away from further centralisation and works towards the formation of a \"Europe of regions\".", "It believes that regions should have more power in Europe, for instance participating in the Council of the European Union, when matters within their competence are discussed.", "It also wants to protect the linguistic and cultural diversity within the EU.The EFA broadly stands on the left wing of the political spectrum.", "EFA members are generally progressive, although there are some notable exceptions as the conservative New Flemish Alliance, Bavaria Party, Democratic Party of Artsakh, Schleswig Party and Future of Åland, the Christian-democratic Slovene Union and the far right South Tyrolean Freedom." ], [ "Organisation", "The main organs of the EFA organisation are the General Assembly, the Bureau and the Secretariat.===General Assembly===In the General Assembly, the supreme council of the EFA, every member party has one vote.===Bureau and Secretariat===The Bureau takes care of daily affairs.", "It is chaired by Lorena Lopez de Lacalle (Basque Solidarity), president of the EFA, while Jordi Solé (Republican Left of Catalonia) is secretary-general and Anke Spoorendonk (South Schleswig Voters' Association) treasurer.The Bureau is completed by ten vice-presidents: Peggy Eriksson (Future of Åland), Jill Evans (Plaid Cymru), Fernando Fuente Cortina (More—Commitment), David Grosclaude (Occitan Party), Wouter Patho (New Flemish Alliance), Frank de Boer (Frisian National Party), Patrik Peroša (The Olive Tree – Slovene Istria Party) and Livia Ceccaldi-Volpei (Femu à Corsica).===Member parties===Before becoming a member party, an organisation needs to have been an observer of the EFA for at least one year.", "Only one member party per region is allowed.", "If a second party from a region wants to join the EFA, the first party needs to agree, at which point these two parties will then form a common delegation with one vote.", "The EFA also recognises friends of the EFA, a special status for regionalist parties outside of the European Union.The following is the list of EFA members and former members.====Full members====Country Party Region / Constituency MPs MEPs Democratic Party of Artsakh / Ethnic Armenians Unity List Ethnic Slovenes – – New Flemish Alliance United Macedonian Organization Ilinden–Pirin Ethnic Macedonians – – Moravian Land Movement Moravia – – Schleswig Party Ethnic Germans – – Future of Åland – – Breton Democratic Union – Catalan Unity Catalan Countries – – Let's Make Corsica Occitan Party – – Our Land – – Party of the Corsican Nation – Savoy Region Movement Savoy – – Bavaria Party – – South Schleswig Voters' Association Ethnic Danes / Frisians – Party of Friendship, Equality and Peace Ethnic Turks – – Pact for Autonomy Friuli-Venezia Giulia – – South Tyrolean Freedom – – Tuscany Freedom Committee Tuscany – – Valdostan Alliance – – Valdostan Union – Free Sicilians – – Latvian Russian Union Ethnic Russians / Latgalians – Frisian National Party Frisians / – – Hungarian Alliance of Transylvania Ethnic Hungarians – – League of Social Democrats of Vojvodina / Ethnic Hungarians – The Olive Tree – Slovene Istria Party Slovene Istria – – Andalusia by Herself – – Aragonese State Aragon – – Basque Solidarity Basque Country – – Galician Nationalist Bloc More for Menorca – – New Canaries – – Republican Left of Catalonia / Catalan Countries Socialist Party of Majorca / Catalan Countries – – More–Commitment – Mebyon Kernow – Plaid Cymru Scottish National Party Yorkshire Party – ====Individual Members==== Country MEPs Party Manuela Ripa Ecological Democratic Party François Alfonsi Régions et Peuples Solidaires(Party of the Corsican Nation,Femu a Corsica) Piernicola Pedicini —====Former members====Country Party Region / Constituency Notes Party of German-speaking Belgians German Community People's Union Pro German-speaking Community German Community Social Liberal Party Walloon Popular Rally List for Rijeka Rijeka Moravané Moravia Alsace-Lorraine National Association / Savoyan League Savoy Party for the Organization of a Free Brittany Union of the Corsican People The Frisians Frisians / East Frisia Lusatian Alliance Lusatia / Sorbs Rainbow Ethnic Macedonians Romani people Independent Fianna Fáil United Ireland Autonomy Liberty Participation Ecology Citizens' Union for South Tyrol Emilian Free Alliance Emilia Friulian Homeland Friuli Lombard League Lombardy Movement for the Independence of Sicily Northern League Pro Lombardy Independence Lombardy Sardinian Action Party Slovene Union Ethnic Slovenes The Other South Southern Italy Venetian League Venetian Republic League Ethnic Poles Kashubian Association / Kashubians Silesian Autonomy Movement Upper Silesia / Silesians Transylvania–Banat League Transylvania (incl.", "Banat) Ethnic Hungarians Hungarian Federalist Party Ethnic Hungarians Andalusian Party Aragonese Union Aralar Party Basque Country Basque Nationalist Party Basque Country Canarian Coalition Democratic Convergence of Catalonia / Catalan Countries" ], [ "See also", "*List of regional and minority parties in Europe*List of active separatist movements in Europe*Political parties of minorities*Regionalism (politics)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** The Greens/EFA official website* EFA in the European Parliament* European Free Alliance Youth* Declaration of Brussels of 9 November 2000* Toward a Europe of diversity – Manifesto for the 2004 EP election* Vision for a People's Europe – Manifesto for the 2009 EP election* It's time for self-determination for all the peoples of Europe – Manifesto for the 2014 EP election*Eric Defoort (editor), '' The European Free Alliance: The voice of nations and peoples of Europe.", "30 years EFA'', 2011*Tudi Kernalegenn, '' The internationalism of the EFA'', European Free Alliance, 2011*Peter Lynch, '' Organising for a Europe of the Regions: The European Free Alliance-DPPE and Political Representation in the European Union'', 2007" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party''' ('''ALDE Party''') is a European political party composed of 60 national-level parties from across Europe, mainly active in the European Union.", "The ALDE Party is affiliated with Liberal International and a recognised European political party, incorporated as a non-profit association under Belgian law.It was founded on 26 March 1976 in Stuttgart as a confederation of national political parties under the name \"Federation of Liberal and Democrat Parties in Europe\" and renamed \"European Liberals and Democrats\" (ELD) in 1977 and \"European Liberal Democrats and Reformists\" (ELDR) in 1986.On 30 April 2004, the ELDR was reformed as an official European party, the \"European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party\" (ELDR Party).On 10 November 2012, the party chose its current name ALDE Party, taken from its then-European Parliament group, the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE), which had been formed on 20 July 2004 in conjunction with the European Democratic Party (EDP).", "Prior to the 2004 European election, the European party had been represented through its own group, the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party Group (ELDR) Group.", "In June 2019, the ALDE group was succeeded by Renew Europe., ALDE is represented in European Union institutions, with 70 MEPs and five members of the European Commission.", "Of the 27 EU member states, there are four with ALDE-affiliated Prime Ministers: Mark Rutte (VVD) in the Netherlands, Xavier Bettel (DP) in Luxembourg, Kaja Kallas (Estonian Reform Party) in Estonia and Alexander De Croo (Open VLD) in Belgium.", "ALDE member parties are also in governments in seven other EU member states: Croatia, Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Slovenia, Lithuania and Germany.", "Some other ALDE member parties offer parliamentary support to governments in Croatia, Denmark, Italy, Romania and Sweden.", "Charles Michel, former Belgian Prime Minister, is the current President of the European Council.ALDE's think tank is the European Liberal Forum, led by Hilde Vautmans, MEP, and gathers 46 member organisations.", "The youth wing of ALDE is the European Liberal Youth (LYMEC), which is predominantly based upon youth and student liberal organisations but contains also a small number of individual members.", "LYMEC is led by Dan-Aria Sucuri.In 2011, the ALDE Party became the first pan-European party to create the status of individual membership.", "Since then, between 1000 and close to 3000 members (the numbers fluctuate annually) have maintained direct membership in the ALDE Party from several EU countries.", "Over 40 coordinators mobilise liberal ideas, initiatives and expertise across the continent under the leadership of the Steering Committee, which was first chaired by Julie Cantalou.", "The ALDE Party took a step further in the direction of becoming a truly pan-European party when granting voting rights to individual members’ delegates at the Party Congress." ], [ "Structure", "=== Bureau ===The day-to-day management of the ALDE Party is handled by the Bureau, the members of which are:OfficeNameState memberParty memberCo-PresidentsSenator Timmy DooleyFFIlhan Kyuchyuk MEPMRFVice-PresidentsHenrik Bach MortensenVenstreDita Charanzová MEPANOBaroness Sal BrintonLibDemDaniel BergMAnnelou van EgmondD66Svenja Hahn MEPFDPKira Rudik MPHolosTreasurerDavid BurkeFF ''Ex officio'' membersALDE Party Secretary-GeneralDidrik de SchaetzenPresident of Liberal InternationalHakima El Haite''''/ ''(MP)''Group Chair in the PACEIulian Bulai''''/ ''(USR)''Leader in the European ParliamentStéphane Séjourné MEPLREMLeader in the European Committee of the RegionsFrançois Decoster''''/President of the European Liberal ForumHilde Vautmans''''Open VLDPresident of the European Liberal YouthDan-Aria Sucuri''''Liberalerna" ], [ "Presidents", "* 1978–1981: Gaston Thorn* 1981–1985: Willy De Clercq* 1985–1990: Colette Flesch* 1990–1995: Willy De Clercq* 1995–2000: Uffe Ellemann-Jensen* 2000–2005: Werner Hoyer* 2005–2011: Annemie Neyts-Uyttebroeck* 2011–2015: Graham Watson* 2015–2021: Hans van Baalen* 2021–2024: co-Presidents Timmy Dooley Ilhan Kyuchyuk" ], [ "History of pan-European liberalism", "ELDR Party logo (2009–2012).Pan-European liberalism has a long history dating back to the foundation of Liberal International in April 1947.On 26 March 1976, the Federation of Liberal and Democrat Parties in Europe was established in Stuttgart.", "The founding parties of the federation were the Free Democratic Party of Germany, Radical Party of France, Venstre of Denmark, Italian Liberal Party, Dutch People's Party for Freedom and Democracy and Democratic Party of Luxembourg.", "Observer members joining later in 1976 were the Danish Social Liberal Party, French Radical Party of the Left and Independent Republicans, British Liberal Party, and Italian Republican Party.", "In 1977, the federation was renamed European Liberals and Democrats, in 1986, European Liberal Democrats and Reformists.It evolved into the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party (ELDR Party) in 2004, when it was founded as an official European party under that name and incorporated under Belgian law at an extraordinary Congress in Brussels, held on 30 April 2004 the day before the enlargement of the European Union.", "At the same time the matching group in the European Parliament, the European Liberal Democrats and Reformists Group allied with the members of the newly elected European Democratic Party, forming the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) with a matching ALDE Group in the European Parliament.On 10 November 2012, the ELDR Party adopted the name of the alliance between the two parties, to match the parliamentary group and the alliance.On 12 June 2019, the ALDE group was succeeded by a new enlarged group, Renew Europe, which primarily consists of ALDE and EDP member parties and France's La République En Marche!", "(LREM)." ], [ "European Commissioners", "ALDE Member Parties contribute five out of the 27 members of the European Commission: State Commissioner Portfolio Political party Photo Denmark'''Margrethe Vestager'''A Europe Fit for the Digital Age,Executive Vice PresidentCompetition,CommissionerRV136x136px'''Věra Jourová'''Values and Transparency,Vice PresidentANO150x150px Slovenia'''Janez Lenarčič'''Crisis Management,CommissionerInd.132x132px'''Kadri Simson'''Energy,CommissionerKESK133x133px'''Didier Reynders'''Justice,CommissionerMR112x112px" ], [ "Elected representatives of member parties", "=== European institutions ===Organisation Institution Number of seats European Commission European Council Council of the EU European Parliament Parliamentary Assembly === European Council === Member Representative Political party Member since Photo European UnionPresident'''Charles Michel'''MR1 December 2019150x150px BelgiumPrime Minister'''Alexander De Croo'''Open VLD100x100px BulgariaPrime Minister'''Nikolay Denkov'''PP100px EstoniaPrime Minister'''Kaja Kallas'''Reform Party100px NetherlandsPrime Minister'''Mark Rutte'''VVD100px SloveniaPrime Minister'''Robert Golob'''GS100px=== National parliaments of European Union member states === Country Institution Number of seats Member partiesStatusNational Council|NEOSFederal CouncilNEOSChamber of RepresentativesMROpen VldSenateMROpen VldNational Assembly|MRFSaborHNSHSLSGlasIDS-DDICentreHouse of RepresentativesDemocratic AlignmentChamber of Deputies|ANOSenate|ANOFolketingRVVRiigikoguEKERParliamentKeskSFPNational AssemblyUDIPRSenateUDIPRBundestag|FDPOrszággyűlés|MomentumDáil|FFSeanad|FFChamber of DeputiesARI, +ESenate of the Republic|ASeimasLRLSLPSaeima|A/Par!Chamber of Deputies|DPHouse of RepresentativesVVDD66SenateVVDD66SejmPL2050.NSenatePL2050.NAssembly of the Republic|ILChamber of Deputies|USRSenate|USRNational Council|PSCongress of Deputies|CsSenate|CsRiksdagCL=== National parliaments outside the European Union === Country Institution Number of seats Member parties General Council PLA National Assembly ANC, Bright Armenia National Assembly Musavat House of Representatives Our Party Parliament Republican, FD, SA, Lelo, Girchi MF Althing Viðreisn Parliament PL Assembly LPCG Storting Venstre National Council FDP, GLP Council of States FDP Verkhovna Rada Servant of the People, VoiceHouse of Commons|Liberal Democrats, AllianceHouse of Lords|Liberal DemocratsGibraltar Parliament|Libs" ], [ "Member parties", " Country or Region Party MEPsNEOS – The New Austria and Liberal Forum Open Flemish Liberals and DemocratsReformist MovementMovement for Rights and Freedoms Croatian People's Party – Liberal DemocratsCentreCivic Liberal AllianceCroatian Social Liberal PartyFocusIstrian Democratic AssemblyDemocratic AlignmentUnited DemocratsANO 2011Social Liberal PartyVenstreEstonian Centre PartyEstonian Reform PartyCentre PartySwedish People's Party of FinlandRadical PartyUnion of Democrats and IndependentsFree Democratic PartyHungarian Liberal PartyMomentum MovementFianna FáilActionEuropean Liberal DemocratsItalian RadicalsMore EuropeTeam KFor Latvia's DevelopmentMovement For!Freedom PartyLiberals' MovementDemocratic PartyDemocrats 66People's Party for Freedom and Democracy.NowoczesnaLiberal InitiativeSave Romania UnionProgressive SlovakiaCitizensCentre PartyLiberals=== Outside the EU ===" ], [ "See also", "* European Liberal Forum* European Liberal Youth* Liberal International* Political parties of the world" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * European Liberal Youth (LYMEC)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "European People's Party Group" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European People's Party Group''' ('''EPP Group''') is a centre-right political group of the European Parliament consisting of deputies (MEPs) from the member parties of the European People's Party (EPP).", "Sometimes it also includes independent MEPs and/or deputies from unaffiliated national parties.", "The EPP Group comprises politicians of Christian-democratic, conservative and liberal-conservative orientation.The European People's Party was officially founded as a European political party in 1976.However, the European People's Party Group in the European Parliament has existed in one form or another since June 1953, from the Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community, making it one of the oldest European-level political groups.", "It has been the largest political group in the European Parliament since 1999." ], [ "History", "The Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community (the predecessor of the present day European Parliament) first met on 10 September 1952 and the first '''Christian Democratic Group''' was unofficially formed the next day, with Maan Sassen as president.", "The group held 38 of the 78 seats, two short of an absolute majority.", "On 16 June 1953, the Common Assembly passed a resolution enabling the official formation of political groups; further, on 23 June 1953 the constituent declaration of the group was published and the group was officially formed.The Christian Democrat group was the biggest group at formation, but as time wore on, it lost support and was the second-biggest group by the time of the 1979 elections.", "As the European Community expanded into the European Union, the dominant centre-right parties in the new member states were not necessarily Christian democratic, and the EPP (European People's Party, the pan-continental political party founded in 1976, to which all group members are now affiliated) feared being sidelined.", "To counter this, the EPP expanded its remit to cover the centre-right regardless of tradition and pursued a policy of integrating liberal-conservative parties.This policy led to Greek New Democracy and Spanish People's Party MEPs joining the EPP Group.", "The British Conservative Party and Danish Conservative People's Party tried to maintain a group of their own, named the ''European Democrats'' (ED), but lack of support and the problems inherent in maintaining a small group forced ED's collapse in the 1990s, and its members crossed the floor to join the EPP Group.", "The parties of these MEPs also became full members of the EPP (with the exception of the British Conservative Party, which did not join) and this consolidation process of the European centre-right continued during the 1990s with the acquisition of members from the Italian party .", "However, the consolidation was not unalloyed and a split emerged with the Eurosceptic MEPs who congregated in a subgroup within the Group, also called the ''European Democrats'' (ED).Nevertheless, the consolidation held through the 1990s, assisted by the group being renamed the ''European People's Party – European Democrats'' (EPP-ED) Group, and after the 1999 European elections the EPP-ED reclaimed its position as the largest group in the Parliament from the Party of European Socialists (PES) Group.Size was not enough, however: the group did not have a majority.", "It continued therefore to engage in the ''Grand Coalition'' (a coalition with the PES Group, or occasionally the Liberals) to generate the majorities required by the cooperation procedure under the Single European Act.Meanwhile, the parties in the European Democrats subgroup were growing restless, with the establishment in July 2006 of the Movement for European Reform, and finally left following the 2009 elections, when the Czech Civic Democratic Party and British Conservative Party formed their own right-wing ''European Conservatives and Reformists'' (ECR) group on 22 June 2009, abolishing the European Democrats subgroup from that date.", "The EPP-ED Group reverted to its original name – the EPP Group – immediately.In the 7th European Parliament the EPP Group remained the largest parliamentary group with 275 MEPs.", "It is currently the only political group in the European parliament to fully represent its corresponding European political party, i.e.", "the European People's Party.", "The United Kingdom was the only member state to not be represented in the group; this state of affairs ceased temporarily on 28 February 2018, when two MEPs suspended from the British Conservative Party left the ECR group and joined the EPP.", "The two MEPs later joined a breakaway political party in the UK, The Independent Group.After twelve member parties in the EPP called for Hungary's Fidesz's expulsion or suspension, Fidesz's membership was suspended with a common agreement on 20 March 2019.The suspension was applied only to the EPP but not to its group in the Parliament.", "On 3 March 2021, Fidesz decided to leave the EPP group, after the group's new rules, however still kept their membership in the party.", "On 18 March 2021, Fidesz decided to leave the European People's Party.Logo of European People's Party Group from 1999 to 2015.In the 9th European Parliament the EPP won 182 seats out of a total of 751.They formed a coalition with Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats and Renew Europe to elect Ursula von der Leyen as president of the European Commission.===Membership at formation===The 38 members in the group on 11 September 1952 were as follows: Member state MEPs Party MEPs Notes SourcesBelgium5Christian Social Party5*Théodore Lefevre*Paul Struye*Pierre Wigny*Pierre De Smet*Alfred BertrandFrance5Christian People's Party (Saar)2* Franz Singer* Erwin MuellerRepublican People's Movement3* François de Menthon* Pierre-Henri Teitgen* Alain PoherGermany8Christian Democratic Unionand Christian Social Union7* Günter Henle* Eugen Gerstenmaier* Heinrich von Brentano* Hermann Pünder* Franz Josef Strauss* Georg Pelster* Hermann KopfFederal Union Party1* Helmut BertramItaly12Christian Democracy12*Pietro Campilli*Antonio Azara*Lodovico Benvenuti*Mario Cingolani*Francesco Dominedo*Lodovico Montini*Angelo Giacomo Mott*Italo Mario Sacco*Vinicio Ziino*Giuseppe Togni*Antonio Boggiano-Pico*Armando SabatiniLuxembourg2Christian Social People's Party2*Fernand Loesch*Nicolas MargueNetherlands6Anti-Revolutionary Party2*J.", "A. H. J. S. Bruins Slot*W. RipCatholic People's Party3*M. A. M. Klompé*E. M. J.", "A. Sassen*P. A. BlaisseChristian Historical Union1*G. Vixseboxe" ], [ "Structure", "===Organisation===The EPP Group is governed by a collective (referred to as the ''Presidency'') that allocates tasks.", "The Presidency consists of the Group Chair and a maximum of ten Vice-Chairs, including the Treasurer.", "The day-to-day running of the EPP Group is performed by its secretariat in the European Parliament, led by its Secretary-General.", "The Group runs its own think-tank, the European Ideas Network, which brings together opinion-formers from across Europe to discuss issues facing the European Union from a centre-right perspective.The EPP Group Presidency includes:NamePositionSourcesManfred WeberChairArnaud DanjeanVice-ChairFrances FitzgeraldVice-ChairEsteban González PonsVice-ChairRasa JuknevičienėVice-ChairEsther de LangeVice-ChairVangelis MeimarakisVice-ChairSiegfried MureşanVice-ChairJan OlbrychtVice-ChairPaulo RangelVice-ChairŽeljana ZovkoVice-ChairThe chairs of the group and its predecessors from 1952 to 2020 are as follows:ChairTook officeLeft officeCountry(Constituency)Party'''Maan Sassen'''70px1953195850pxCatholic People's Party'''Pierre Wigny'''70px1958195850pxChristian Social Party'''Alain Poher'''70px19581966Popular Republican Movement'''Joseph Illerhaus'''1966196950x50pxChristian Democratic Union'''Hans Lücker'''1969197550x50pxChristian Democratic Union'''Alfred Bertrand'''1975197750pxChristian People's Party'''Egon Klepsch'''70px1977198250pxChristian Democratic Union'''Paolo Barbi'''1982198450pxChristian Democracy'''Egon Klepsch'''70px19841992/50x50pxChristian Democratic Union'''Leo Tindemans'''70px19921994(Dutch)50pxChristian People's Party'''Wilfried Martens'''70px19941999(Dutch)50pxChristian People's Party'''Hans-Gert Pöttering'''70px1999200750x50pxChristian Democratic Union'''Joseph Daul'''70px20072014(East)Union for a Popular Movement'''Manfred Weber'''70px2014present50pxChristian Social Union" ], [ "Membership", "===9th European Parliament=== State National party MEPs Austrian People's Party''Österreichische Volkspartei (ÖVP)'' EPP Christian Democratic and Flemish''Christen-Democratisch & Vlaams (CD&V)'' EPP The Committed Ones''Les Engagés (LE)'' EPP Christian Social Party''Christlich Soziale Partei (CSP)'' ''None'' Citizens for European Development of Bulgaria''Граждани за европейско развитие на България (GERB)'' EPP Union of Democratic Forces''Съюз на демократичните сили (SDS)'' EPP Democrats for a Strong Bulgaria''Демократи за силна България (DSB)'' EPP Croatian Democratic Union''Hrvatska demokratska zajednica (HDZ)'' EPP Democratic Rally''Δημοκρατικός Συναγερμός (DISY)'' EPP KDU-ČSL''KDU–ČSL'' EPP TOP 09''TOP 09'' EPP Mayors and Independents''Starostové a nezávislí (STAN)'' ''None'' Conservative People's Party''Konservative Folkeparti (KF)'' EPP Fatherland''Isamaa'' EPP National Coalition Party''Kansallinen Kokoomus (KK)'' EPP The Republicans''Les Républicains (LR)'' EPP The Centrists''Les Centristes (LC)'' ''None'' Christian Democratic Union''Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands (CDU)'' EPP Christian Social Union in Bavaria''Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern e.V.", "(CSU)'' EPP New Democracy''Νέα Δημοκρατία (ND)'' EPP Christian Democratic People's Party''Kereszténydemokrata Néppárt (KDNP)'' EPP Fine Gael''Fine Gael (FG)'' EPP Forward Italy (''FI'') EPP South Tyrolean People's Party''Südtiroler Volkspartei (SVP)'' EPP Unity''Vienotība'' EPP Homeland Union''Tėvynės Sąjunga (TS-LKD)'' EPP Independent''Aušra Maldeikienė'' Independent Christian Social People's Party''Chrëschtlech Sozial Vollekspartei (CSV)'' EPP Nationalist Party''Partit Nazzjonalista (PN)'' EPP Christian Democratic Appeal''Christen-Democratisch Appèl (CDA)'' EPP Christian Union''ChristenUnie (CU)'' ECPM Civic Platform''Platforma Obywatelska (PO)'' EPP Polish People's Party''Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe (PSL)'' EPP Independents''Magdalena Adamowicz'', ''Janina Ochojska'' Independent Social Democratic Party''Partido Social Democrata (PSD)'' EPP Democratic and Social Centre – People's Party''Centro Democrático e Social – Partido Popular (CDS–PP)'' EPP National Liberal Party''Partidul Național Liberal (PNL)'' EPP Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania''Romániai Magyar Demokrata Szövetség'' ''(RMDSZ)''''Uniunea Democrată Maghiară din România (UDMR)'' EPP People's Movement Party''Partidul Mișcarea Populară (PMP)'' EPP Christian Democratic Movement''Kresťanskodemokratické Hnutie (KDH)'' EPP Democrats''Demokrati (D)'' EPP Slovakia''Slovensko'' EPP Slovenian Democratic Party''Slovenska Demokratska Stranka (SDS)'' EPP New Slovenia – Christian Democrats''Nova Slovenija – Krščanski demokrati (NSi)'' EPP Slovenian People's Party''Slovenska ljudska stranka (SLS)'' EPP People's Party''Partido Popular (PP)'' EPP Moderate Party''Moderata Samlingspartiet (M)'' EPP Christian Democrats''Kristdemokraterna (KD)'' EPP Total ====Former members==== Country PartyEuropean partyMEPs Fidesz None 50PLUS ''(50+)'' None === 7th and 8th European Parliament === Country Names Names (English)MEPs 2009–14MEPs 2014–19''''Austrian People's Party 6 5Christian Democratic and Flemish 3 2Humanist Democratic Centre 1 1Christian Social Party 1 1('''')Citizens for European Development of Bulgaria 5 6('''')Union of Democratic Forces 1 0('''')Democrats for a Strong Bulgaria 1 1''''Croatian Democratic Union 4 4''''Croatian Peasant Party 1 1('''')Democratic Rally 2 1''''Christian and Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party 2 3 TOP 09TOP 09 — 3''''Mayors and Independents — 1''''Conservative People's Party 1 1''''Pro Patria 1 1''''National Coalition Party 3 3''''Christian Democrats 1 0''''The Republicans 27 18''''Union of Democrats and Independents 6 0 — Independent — 2''''Christian Democratic Union 34 29''''Christian Social Union of Bavaria 8 5('''')New Democracy 7 5''''Christian Democratic People's Party 1 1Fine Gael 4 4Forza Italia 19 12''''Popular Alternative — 1''''Union of the Centre 6 1South Tyrolean People's Party 1 1''''Unity 4 4''''Homeland Union – Lithuanian Christian Democrats 4 2 — Independent — 1Christian Social People's Party 3 3''''Nationalist Party 2 3''''Christian Democratic Appeal 5 5''''Civic Platform 25 18''''Polish People's Party 4 4''''Social Democratic Party 8 6''''Democratic and Social Centre – People's Party 2 1''''National Liberal Party 12 8Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania 3 2''''People's Movement Party — — — Independent — 2''''Christian Democratic Movement 2 3''''Party of the Hungarian Community 2 1Most–Híd — 1 — Independent — 1''''Slovenian Democratic Party 3 3''''New Slovenia – Christian People's Party 1 1''''Slovenian People's Party — 1People's Party 24 16 — Independent — 1''''Moderate Party 4 3''''Christian Democrats 1 1''Change UK''Change UK (defection from Conservative Party/ECR) 0 1 —Renew Party (defection from Conservative Party/ECR) 0 1 Total 274 219" ], [ "Activities", "===In the news===Activities performed by the group in the period between June 2004 and June 2008 include monitoring elections in Palestine and Ukraine; encouraging transeuropean rail travel, telecoms deregulation, energy security, a common energy policy, the accession of Bulgaria and Romania to the Union, partial reform of the CAP and attempts to tackle illegal immigration; denouncing Russian involvement in South Ossetia; supporting the Constitution Treaty and the Lisbon Treaty; debating globalisation, relations with China, and Taiwan; backing plans to outlaw Holocaust denial; nominating Anna Politkovskaya for the 2007 Sakharov Prize; expelling Daniel Hannan from the Group; the discussion about whether ED MEPs should remain within EPP-ED or form a group of their own; criticisms of the group's approach to tackling low turnout for the 2009 elections; the group's use of the two-President arrangement; and the group's proposal to ban the Islamic Burka dress across the EU.===Parliamentary activity profile===description for sources).The debates and votes in the European Parliament are tracked by its website and categorised by the groups that participate in them and the rule of procedure that they fall into.", "The results give a profile for each group by category and the total indicates the group's level of participation in Parliamentary debates.", "The activity profile for each group for the period 1 August 2004 to 1 August 2008 in the Sixth Parliament is given on the diagram on the right.", "The group is denoted in blue.The website shows the group as participating in 659 motions, making it the third most active group during the period.===Publications===The group produces many publications, which can be found on its website.", "Documents produced in 2008 cover subjects such as dialogue with the Orthodox Church, study days, its strategy for 2008–09, Euro-Mediterranean relations, and the Lisbon Treaty.", "It also publishes a yearbook and irregularly publishes a presentation, a two-page summary of the group." ], [ "Academic analysis", "The group has been characterised as a three-quarters-male group that, prior to ED's departure, was only 80% cohesive and split between centre-right Europhiles (the larger EPP subgroup) and right-wing Eurosceptics (the smaller ED subgroup).", "The group as a whole is described as ambiguous on hypothetical EU taxes, against taxation, environmental issues, social issues (LGBT rights, abortion, euthanasia) and full Turkish accession to the European Union, and for a deeper Federal Europe, deregulation, the Common Foreign and Security Policy and controlling migration into the EU." ], [ "See also", "* European People's Party* Members of the European Parliament 2019-2024" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** European People's Party (EPP)" ] ]
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[ [ "The Left in the European Parliament – GUE/NGL" ], [ "Introduction", "'''The Left in the European Parliament – GUE/NGL''' is a left-wing political group of the European Parliament established in 1995.Before January 2021, it was named the '''European United Left/Nordic Green Left''' (, '''GUE/NGL''').The group comprises political parties with democratic socialist, communist, and eurosceptic orientation." ], [ "History", "In 1995, the enlargement of the European Union led to the creation of the Nordic Green Left group of parties.", "The Nordic Green Left (NGL) merged with the Confederal Group of the European United Left (GUE) on 6 January 1995, forming the Confederal Group of the European United Left/Nordic Green Left.", "The NGL suffix was added to the name of the expanded group on insistence of Swedish and Finnish MEPs.", "The group initially consisted of MEPs from the Finnish Left Alliance, the Swedish Left Party, the Danish Socialist People's Party, the United Left of Spain (including the Spanish Communist Party), the Synaspismos of Greece, the French Communist Party, the Portuguese Communist Party, the Communist Party of Greece, and the Communist Refoundation Party of Italy.In 1998, Ken Coates, an expelled MEP from the British Labour Party who co-founded the Independent Labour Network, joined the group.In 1999, the German Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) and the Greek Democratic Social Movement (DIKKI) joined as full members, while the five MEPs elected from the list of the French Trotskyist alliance LO–LCR and the one MEP for the Dutch Socialist Party joined as associate members.In 2002, four MEPs from the French Citizen and Republican Movement and one from the Danish People's Movement against the EU also joined the group.In 2004, no MEPs were elected from LO–LCR and DIKKI — which was undergoing a dispute with its leader over the party constitution — , as well as the French Citizen and Republican Movement, did not put forward candidates.", "MEPs from the Portuguese Left Block, the Irish Sinn Féin, the Progressive Party of Working People of Cyprus, and the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia joined the group.", "The Danish Socialist People's Party, a member of the Nordic Green Left, left the group to instead sit in the Greens–European Free Alliance group.In 2009, no MEPs were elected from the Italian Communist Refoundation Party and the Finnish Left Alliance.", "MEPs from the Irish Socialist Party, the Socialist Party of Latvia, and the French Left Party joined the group.In 2013, one MEP from the Croatian Labourists – Labour Party also joined the group.In 2014, no MEPs were elected from the Irish Socialist Party, the Socialist Party of Latvia, and the Croatian Labourists – Labour Party.", "MEPs from the Spanish Podemos as well as EH Bildu and the Dutch Party for the Animals joined the group, while MEPs from the Italian Communist Refoundation Party and the Finnish Left Alliance re-entered parliament and rejoined.", "The Communist Party of Greece, a founding member of the group, decided to leave and instead sit as Non-Inscrits.In 2019, no MEPs were elected from the French Communist Party, the Danish People's Movement against the EU, the Dutch Socialist Party, and from the Italian parties The Left and the Communist Refoundation Party.", "MEPs from the French La France insoumise, the Belgian Workers' Party of Belgium, the German Human Environment Animal Protection, the Irish Independents 4 Change, and the Danish Red-Green Alliance joined the group." ], [ "Chairpeople", "ChairpersonTook officeLeft officeCountry(Constituency)Party'''Alonso Puerta'''70px1995199950pxUnited Left'''Francis Wurtz'''70px19992009(Île-de-France)50pxCommunist Party'''Lothar Bisky'''70px2009201250pxThe Left'''Gabi Zimmer'''70px2012201950pxThe Left'''Manon Aubry'''*70px2019present50pxLa France Insoumise'''Martin Schirdewan'''*70px2019present50pxThe Left*Since 2019 The Left group has had two co-chairpeople." ], [ "Position", "According to its 1994 constituent declaration, the group is opposed to the present European Union political structure, but it is committed to integration.", "That declaration sets out three aims for the construction of another European Union, the total change of institutions to make them fully democratic, breaking with neoliberal monetarist policies, and a policy of co-development and equitable cooperation.", "The group wants to disband the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and strengthen the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).The group is ambivalent between reformism and revolution, leaving it up to each party to decide on the manner they deem best suited to achieve these aims.", "As such, it has simultaneously positioned itself as insiders within the European institutions, enabling it to influence the decisions made by co-decision; and as outsiders by its willingness to seek another Europe, which would abolish the Maastricht Treaty." ], [ "Organisation", "The GUE/NGL is a confederal group that is composed of MEPs from national parties.", "Those national parties must share common political objectives with the group, as specified in the group's constituent declaration.", "Nevertheless, those national parties, and not the group, retain control of their MEPs; therefore, the group may be divided on certain issues.Members of the group meet regularly to prepare for meetings, debate on policies, and vote on resolutions.", "The group also publishes reports on various topics.=== Member parties ===MEPs may be full or associate members.", "* Full members must accept the constitutional declaration of the group.", "* Associate members need not fully do so, but they may sit with the full members.National parties may be full or associate members.", "* Full member parties must accept the constitutional declaration of the group.", "* Associate member parties may include parties that do not have MEPs (e. g., French Trotskyist parties which did not get elected in the 2004 European elections), are from states that are not part of the European Union, or do not wish to be full members." ], [ "Membership", "Map of Left MEPs by member state.", "Red indicates member states sending multiple Left MEPs, light red indicates member states sending a single Left MEP.=== 9th European Parliament === State National party Ideology MEPs Workers' Party of Belgium''Partij van de Arbeid van België (PVDA)''''Parti du Travail de Belgique (PTB)'' CommunismMarxism ''None'' Progressive Party of Working People''Ανορθωτικό Κόμμα Εργαζόμενου Λαού (ΑΚΕΛ)'' CommunismMarxism–Leninism PEL (observer) Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia''Komunistická strana Čech a Moravy (KSČM)'' Communism PEL (observer) Red-Green Alliance''Enhedslisten – De Rød-Grønne (Ø)'' Socialism PEL / MLP / NGLA Left Alliance''Vasemmistoliitto (vas.", ")''''Vänsterförbundet'' Democratic socialism PEL / MLP / NGLA La France Insoumise''(LFI)'' Democratic socialismLeft-wing populism MLP / PEL (observer) Republican and Socialist Left''Gauche Républicaine et Socialiste (GRS)'' Socialism PEL (observer) The Left''Die Linke'' Democratic socialismLeft-wing populism PEL Syriza''Συνασπισμός Ριζοσπαστικής Αριστεράς (ΣΥΡΙΖΑ)'' Social democracy PEL New Left''Νέα Αριστερά (NA)'' Democratic socialism ''None'' Independent''Stelios Kouloglou'' Independent Independents 4 Change ''Neamhspleáigh ar son an Athraithe'' Socialism ''None'' Sinn Féin''(SF)'' Democratic socialismIrish republicanism ''None'' Independents''Luke 'Ming' Flanagan'' Independent Party for the Animals''Partij voor de Dieren (PvdD)'' EnvironmentalismSoft Euroscepticism APEU Left Bloc''Bloco de Esquerda (BE)'' Democratic socialismLeft-wing populism PEL / MLP Portuguese Communist Party''Partido Comunista Português (PCP)'' CommunismMarxism–Leninism ''None'' Podemos Democratic socialismSpanish republicanism MLP United Left''Izquierda Unida (IU)'' CommunismSocialism PEL Anticapitalistas SocialismTrotskyism ''None'' Left Party''Vänsterpartiet (V)'' SocialismSoft Euroscepticism MLP / NGLA Total The initial member parties for the 9th European Parliament was determined at the first meeting on 29 May 2019.=== 8th European Parliament ===CountryNational partyEuropean partyMEPsProgressive Party of Working PeoplePEL (observer)Communist Party of Bohemia and MoraviaPEL (observer)People's Movement against the EUEUD Left AlliancePEL/MLPLeft FrontFrench Communist PartyPELLeft PartyLa France InsoumiseMLPAlliance of the OverseasCommunist Party of RéunionThe LeftPELStefan Eck (independent)Syriza (Coalition of the Radical Left)PELPopular UnityKostas Chrysogonos (independent)MeRA25 Sinn FéinLuke 'Ming' Flanagan (independent)The LeftItalian LeftPEL (observer)Communist Refoundation PartyPELBarbara Spinelli (independent)Socialist PartyParty for the Animals (Partij voor de Dieren)Euro Animal 7Left BlocPEL/MLPUnitary Democratic CoalitionPortuguese Communist PartyPlural LeftUnited LeftPELAnova-Nationalist BrotherhoodPodemos (We Can)MLPThe Peoples Decide (Los Pueblos Deciden)Left PartyMLPSinn Féin=== 7th European Parliament ===CountryNational partyEuropean partyMEPsProgressive Party of Working PeoplePEL (observer)Communist Party of Bohemia and MoraviaPEL (observer)People's Movement against the EUEUD Left FrontFrench Communist PartyPELLeft PartyPELCommunist Party of RéunionIndependentThe LeftPELCommunist Party of GreeceCoalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA)Socialist PartyHarmony CentreSocialist PartySocialist PartyLeft BlocPELDemocratic Unity CoalitionPortuguese Communist PartyUnited LeftCommunist Party of SpainPELLeft PartySinn Féin (Contests elections in Northern Ireland only)=== 6th European Parliament ===CountryNational partyEuropean partyMEPsProgressive Party of Working PeoplePEL (observer)Communist Party of Bohemia and MoraviaPEL (observer)People's Movement against the EUEUD Left AllianceFrench Communist PartyPELThe LeftPELCommunist Party of GreeceSynaspismosPELSinn FéinCommunist Refoundation PartyPELParty of Italian CommunistsPEL (observer)Socialist PartyPortuguese Communist PartyLeft BlocUnited LeftPELLeft PartySinn Féin (Contests elections in Northern Ireland only)" ], [ "European Parliament results", "Election yearNo.", "ofoverall seats won+/–199519998 20041 20096 201417 201911" ], [ "See also", "* European Anticapitalist Left* Initiative of Communist and Workers' Parties* List of communist parties represented in European Parliament* Maintenant le Peuple* Party of the European Left" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "European Democrats" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Democrats''' were a loose association of conservative political parties in Europe.", "It was a political group in the European Parliament from 1979 until 1992, when it became a subgroup of the European People's Party–European Democrats (EPP-ED) group.", "The European Democrats continued to exist as a political group in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) until 2014, when it became the European Conservatives Group." ], [ "European Democrats in the European Parliament", "===1979–1992===The European Democratic Group (ED) was formed on 17 July 1979 by British Conservative Party, Danish Conservative People's Party and other MEPs after their success in the 1979 elections.", "It supplanted the earlier European Conservative Group.In the late seventies and early eighties, the ED was the third-largest political group in the European Parliament.However, the group saw its membership fall sharply in the late 1980s, as many centre-right members moved to the rival European People's Party (EPP), dominated by the Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU), Italian Christian Democrats and the ideology of Christian democracy in general.", "The ED had been somewhat further from the political centre and less pro-European than the EPP.", "Largely isolated, even hardline eurosceptics like Margaret Thatcher conceded that the British Conservatives could not be effectively heard from such a peripheral group.===1992–1999===On 1 May 1992, the ED (now largely composed of UK Conservative Party members) dissolved, and its remaining members were accorded \"associated party\" status in the European People's Party Group; that is, being part of the parliamentary group without retaining actual membership in the EPP Europarty organisation.", "This was considered essential for the Conservatives, as the EPP was generally seen as quite favourable to European integration, a stance at odds with their core ideology.", "The Conservatives' relationship to the EPP would become a sore point in the following years, particularly for the eurosceptic general membership in Britain.", "Then-leader of the British Conservative Party William Hague hoped to put the issue to rest by negotiating a new arrangement in 1999 by which the EPP's parliamentary group would rebrand itself as the European People's Party–European Democrats (EPP-ED), with the \"European Democrat\" nomenclature returning after a seven-year hiatus.", "This was intended to nominally underscore the Conservatives' status apart from the rest of EPP, and it was hoped that with the coming enlargement of the European Union numerous newly involved right-wing parties, averse to the EPP proper for its perceived European federalism, would be willing to instead enter the ED subgroup, growing the overall alignment.===1999–2009===The arrangement proved to do little to appease opposition.", "Hague's successor, Iain Duncan Smith, made a concerted drive at one point to resurrect the European Democratic Group, but backed off when it became clear that Conservative MEPs would not move voluntarily.", "The hope that multiple Central and European parties would join ED also proved to be dubious, as only the Czech Civic Democratic Party took up the offer, with the remainder joining EPP proper or other groups such as Union for Europe of the Nations (UEN) or Independence and Democracy (IND/DEM).", "Meanwhile, the ED remained a more eurosceptic subgroup within the broader EPP-ED bloc that contributed slightly more than 10% of its total MEPs.", "It resisted the trend of incorporating as a European political party.During the 2005 Conservative leadership contest, eventual winner David Cameron pledged to withdraw the Conservatives from the EPP-ED group, while opponent David Davis argued in a letter to the editor of ''The Daily Telegraph'' that the current ED arrangement allowed the Conservatives to maintain suitable distance from EPP while still having influence in the largest parliamentary grouping.", "Conservative/EPP-ED MEP Martin Callanan responded in that paper the following day:The Czech Civic Democratic Party (ODS), the Law and Justice (PiS) of Poland and the Rally For France party were among the first to discuss forming a breakaway group under the Movement for European Reform.", "Sir Reg Empey, Leader of the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) has committed his party thereunto Its position would be that the European Union should exist, but as a looser supranational organisation than at present, making the group less eurosceptic than the UEN and IND/DEM groups.", "Some members from the above parties founded a new organization, the Alliance for an Open Europe, in the midst of this debate, with broadly similar objectives.Cameron initially intended to form the new group in 2006, though this aspiration had to be cancelled due to their main prospective partners, the ODS and PiS, being unable or unwilling to break away from their then-groupings; the new grouping was put on hiatus until the 2009 European elections.", "By then, new factors—including the collapse of the UEN group—made conditions for forming a new political grouping much more favourable.", "On 22 June 2009, the founder members of the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) group, all signatories of the Prague Declaration announced that they were to leave the EPP-ED, and in virtue of that fact, the European Democrats movement.", "This announcement ended the 30-year existence of the European Democrats in the European Parliament.===Former member parties===The following political parties were associated with the European Democrats at some point: Party Abbr.", "Country From To Civic Democratic Party ODS 14 July 2004 22 June 2009 Conservative People's Party K 17 July 1979 1 May 1992 Pensioners' Party PP 20 July 1999 14 July 2009 Democratic and Social Centre – People's Party CDS–PP 20 July 2004 2006 People's Alliance AP 10 June 1987 25 July 1989 Conservative Party 17 July 1979 22 June 2009 Ulster Unionist Party UUP 20 July 1999 22 June 2009" ], [ "European Democrats in PACE (Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe)", "The European Democrat Group in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe was founded as the '''Group of Independent Representatives''' in 1970 by British and Scandinavian members of PACE, having about 35–40 members from the UK, Ireland, Norway, Denmark, Turkey, Sweden and Switzerland.", "It adopted the European Democrats Group name in September 1980, later becoming the European Conservatives Group in 2014." ], [ "Sources", "* Political Groups of the European Parliament* Development of Political Groups in the European Parliament * Europe Politique* European Parliament MEP Archives* Democracy in the European Parliament" ], [ "See also", "* Alliance for an Open Europe* Movement for European Reform* European People's Party–European Democrats" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* European Democrats official website * European Democrat Group in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe" ] ]
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[ [ "Epistle to the Ephesians" ], [ "Introduction", "Papyrus 49, a 3rd-century manuscript of the Epistle to the EphesiansThe '''Epistle to the Ephesians''' is the tenth book of the New Testament.", "According to its text, the letter was written by Paul the Apostle, an attribution that Christians traditionally accepted.", "However, starting in 1792, some scholars have claimed the letter is actually Deutero-Pauline, meaning that it is pseudepigrapha written in Paul's name by a later author strongly influenced by Paul's thought.", "According to one scholarly source, the letter was probably written \"by a loyal disciple to sum up Paul's teaching and to apply it to a new situation fifteen to twenty-five years after the Apostle's death\"." ], [ "Themes", "According to New Testament scholar Daniel Wallace, the theme may be stated pragmatically as \"Christians, get along with each other!", "Maintain the unity practically which Christ has effected positionally by his death.", "\"Another major theme in Ephesians is the keeping of Christ's body (that is, the Church) pure and holy.", "In the second part of the letter, Ephesians 4:17–6:20, the author gives practical advice in how to live a holy, pure, and Christ-inspired lifestyle." ], [ "Composition", "According to tradition, the Apostle Paul wrote the letter while he was in prison in Rome (around AD 62).", "This would be about the same time as the Epistle to the Colossians (which in many points it resembles) and the Epistle to Philemon.", "However, many critical scholars have questioned the authorship of the letter and suggest that it may have been written between AD 80 and 100.===Authorship===The first verse in the letter identifies Paul as its author.", "While early lists of New Testament books, including the Muratorian fragment and possibly Marcion's canon (if it is to be equated with the Epistle to the Laodiceans), attribute the letter to Paul, more recently there have been challenges to Pauline authorship on the basis of the letter's characteristically non-Pauline syntax, terminology, and eschatology.Biblical scholar Harold Hoehner, surveying 279 commentaries written between 1519 and 2001, found that 54% favored Pauline authorship, 39% concluded against Pauline authorship and 7% remained uncertain.", "Norman Perrin and Dennis C. Duling found that of six authoritative scholarly references, \"four of the six decide for pseudonymity, and the other two (Peake's Commentary on the Bible and the Jerome Biblical Commentary) recognize the difficulties in maintaining Pauline authorship.", "Indeed, the difficulties are insurmountable.\"", "Bible scholar Raymond E. Brown asserts that about 80% of critical scholarship judges that Paul did not write Ephesians.There are four main theories in biblical scholarship that address the question of Pauline authorship.", "* The traditional view that the epistle is written by Paul is supported by scholars that include Ezra Abbot, Ragnar Asting, Markus Barth, F. F. Bruce, A. Robert, and André Feuillet, Gaugler, Grant, Harnack, Haupt, Fenton John Anthony Hort, Klijn, Johann David Michaelis, A.", "Van Roon, Sanders, Schille, Klyne Snodgrass, John R. W. Stott, Frank Thielman, Daniel B. Wallace, Brooke Foss Westcott, and Theodor Zahn.", "For a defense of the Pauline authorship of Ephesians, see ''Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary'', Harold Hoehner, pp. 2–61.", "* A second position suggests that Ephesians was dictated by Paul with interpolations from another author.", "Some of the scholars that espouse this view include Albertz, Benoit, Cerfaux, Goguel, Harrison, H. J. Holtzmann, Murphy-O'Connor, and Wagenführer.", "* A third group thinks it improbable that Paul authored Ephesians.", "Among this group are Allan, Beare, Brandon, Rudolf Bultmann, Conzelmann, Dibelius, Goodspeed, Kilsemann, J. Knox, W.L.", "Knox, Kümmel, K and S Lake, Marxsen, Masson, Mitton, Moffatt, Nineham, Pokorny, Schweizer, and J.", "Weiss.", "* Still other scholars suggest there is a lack of conclusive evidence.", "Some of this group are Cadbury, Julicher, McNeile, and Williams.===Place, date, and purpose of the writing of the letter===While most English translations indicate that the letter was addressed to \"the saints who are in Ephesus\" (1:1), the words \"in Ephesus\" do not appear in the best and earliest manuscripts of the letter, leading most textual critics, like Bart Ehrman, to regard the words as an interpolation.", "This lack of any internal references to Ephesus in the early manuscripts may have led Marcion, a second-century heresiarch who created the first New Testament canon, to believe that the letter was actually addressed to the church at Laodicea.", "For details see Epistle to the Laodiceans.Furthermore, if Paul is regarded as the author, the impersonal character of the letter, which lacks personal greetings or any indication that the author has personal knowledge of his recipients, is incongruous with the account in Acts of Paul staying more than two years in Ephesus.", "For these reasons, most regard Ephesians to be a circular letter intended for many churches.", "The Jerusalem Bible notes that some critics think the words \"who are\" would have been followed by a blank to be filled in with the name of \"whichever church was being sent the letter\".If Paul was the author of the letter, then it was probably written from Rome during Paul's first imprisonment, and probably soon after his arrival there in the year 62, four years after he had parted with the Ephesian elders at Miletus.", "However, scholars who dispute Paul's authorship date the letter to between 70 and 80 AD.", "In the latter case, the possible location of the authorship could have been within the church of Ephesus itself.", "Ignatius of Antioch seemed to be very well versed in the epistle to the Ephesians, and mirrors many of his own thoughts in his own epistle to the Ephesians." ], [ "Outline", "''Saint Paul'', 1740, by Vieira Lusitano.", "The saint is depicted preaching, holding an excerpt from the Epistle to the Ephesians (\"''avaritia est idolorum servitus''\", ) in his left hand.Ephesians contains:* '''1:1,2.'''", "The greeting, from Paul to the church of Ephesus.", "* '''1:3–2:10.'''", "A general account of the blessings that the gospel reveals.", "This includes the source of these blessings, the means by which they are attained, the reason why they are given, and their final result.", "The whole of the section Ephesians 1:3–23 consists in the original Greek of just two lengthy and complex sentences.", "It ends with a fervent prayer for the further spiritual enrichment of the Ephesians.", "* '''Ephesians 2:11–3:21''' A description of the change in the spiritual position of Gentiles as a result of the work of Christ.", "It ends with an account of how Paul was selected and qualified to be an apostle to the Gentiles, in the hope that this will keep them from being dispirited and lead him to pray for them.", "* '''Ephesians 4:1–16.'''", "A chapter on unity in the midst of the diversity of gifts among believers.", "* '''Ephesians 4:17–6:9.'''", "Instructions about ordinary life and different relationships.", "* '''Ephesians 6:10–24.'''", "The imagery of spiritual warfare (including the metaphor of the Armor of God), the mission of Tychicus, and valedictory blessings." ], [ "Founding of the church at Ephesus", "Paul's first and hurried visit for the space of three months to Ephesus is recorded in Acts 18:19–21.The work he began on this occasion was carried forward by Apollos and Aquila and Priscilla.", "On his second visit early in the following year, he remained at Ephesus \"three years\", for he found it was the key to the western provinces of Asia Minor.", "Here \"a great door and effectual\" was opened to him, and the church was established and strengthened by his diligent labours there.", "From Ephesus the gospel spread abroad \"almost throughout all Asia.\"", "The word \"mightily grew and prevailed\" despite all the opposition and persecution he encountered.On his last journey to Jerusalem, the apostle landed at Miletus and, summoning together the elders of the church from Ephesus, delivered to them a farewell charge, expecting to see them no more.The following parallels between this epistle and the Milesian charge may be traced:# Acts 20:19 = Ephesians 4:2.The phrase \"lowliness of mind\".# Acts 20:27 = Ephesians 1:11.The word \"counsel\", denoting the divine plan.# Acts 20:32 = Ephesians 3:20.The divine ability.# Acts 20:32 = Ephesians 2:20.The building upon the foundation.# Acts 20:32 = Ephesians 1:14,18 \"The inheritance of the saints.\"" ], [ "Purpose", "The purpose of the epistle, and to whom it was written, are matters of much speculation.", "It was regarded by C.H.", "Dodd as the \"crown of Paulinism.\"", "In general, it is born out of its particular socio-historical context and the situational context of both the author and the audience.", "Originating in the circumstance of a multicultural church (primarily Jewish and Hellenistic), the author addressed issues appropriate to the diverse religious and cultural backgrounds present in the community.German inscription of the text, \"One Lord, One faith, One baptism,\" (Ephesians 4:5).The author exhorts the church repeatedly to embrace a specific view of salvation, which he then explicates.Frank Charles Thompson argues that the main theme of Ephesians is in response to the newly converted Jews who often separated themselves from their Gentile brethren.", "The unity of the church, especially between Jew and Gentile believers, is the keynote of the book." ], [ "Interpretations", "Ephesians is notable for its domestic code treatment in Ephesians 5:22–6:9, covering husband-wife, parent-child, and master-slave relationships.", "In Ephesians 5:22, wives are urged to submit to their husbands, and husbands to love their wives \"as Christ loved the Church.\"", "Christian Egalitarian theologians, such as Katharine Bushnell and Jessie Penn-Lewis, interpret these commands in the context of the preceding verse, for all Christians to \"submit to one another.\"", "Thus, it is two-way, mutual submission of both husbands to wives and wives to husbands.", "But according to Peter O'Brien, Professor Emeritus at Moore Theological College, this would be the only instance of this meaning of submission in the whole New Testament, indeed in any extant comparable Greek texts; by O'Brien's account, the word simply does not connote mutuality.", "Dallas Theological Seminary professor Daniel Wallace understands it to be an extension of Ephesians 5:15-21 on being filled by the Holy Spirit.In the period leading up to the American Civil War (1861–65), Ephesians 6:5 on master-slave relationships was one of the Bible verses used by Confederate slaveholders in support of a slaveholding position." ], [ "See also", "* Earlier Epistle to the Ephesians* Textual variants in the Epistle to the Ephesians" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* A Brief Introduction to Ephesians * Ephesians Online Reading Room – extensive collection of online resources for Ephesians; Tyndale Seminary* Biblical Expository on Ephesians* Ephesians: The Calling of the Saints – Ephesians Messages, Audio & Podcast by Ray Stedman* Various versions*" ] ]
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[ [ "Exploit (computer security)" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''exploit''' (from the English verb ''to exploit'', meaning \"to use something to one’s own advantage\") is a piece of software, a chunk of data, or a sequence of commands that takes advantage of a bug or vulnerability to cause unintended or unanticipated behavior to occur on computer software, hardware, or something electronic (usually computerized).", "Such behavior frequently includes things like gaining control of a computer system, allowing privilege escalation, or a denial-of-service (DoS or related DDoS) attack.", "In lay terms, some exploit is akin to a 'hack'." ], [ "Classification", "There are several methods of classifying exploits.", "The most common is by how the exploit communicates to the vulnerable software.A ''remote exploit'' works over a network and exploits the security vulnerability without any prior access to the vulnerable system.A ''local exploit'' requires prior access to the vulnerable system and usually increases the privileges of the person running the exploit past those granted by the system administrator.", "Exploits against client applications also exist, usually consisting of modified servers that send an exploit if accessed with a client application.", "A common form of exploits against client applications are browser exploits.Exploits against client applications may also require some interaction with the user and thus may be used in combination with the social engineering method.", "Another classification is by the action against the vulnerable system; unauthorized data access, arbitrary code execution, and denial of service are examples.Many exploits are designed to provide superuser-level access to a computer system.", "However, it is also possible to use several exploits, first to gain low-level access, then to escalate privileges repeatedly until one reaches the highest administrative level (often called \"root\").", "In this case the attacker is chaining several exploits together to perform one attack, this is known as an exploit chain.After an exploit is made known to the authors of the affected software, the vulnerability is often fixed through a patch and the exploit becomes unusable.", "That is the reason why some black hat hackers as well as military or intelligence agencies' hackers do not publish their exploits but keep them private.Exploits unknown to everyone except the people that found and developed them are referred to as ''zero day or “0day” exploits''.Exploits are used by hackers to bypass security controls and manipulate system vulnerabilities.", "Researchers have estimated that this costs over $450 billion every year from the global economy.", "In response, organizations are using cyber threat intelligence to protect their vulnerabilities.===Types===Exploitations are commonly categorized and named by the type of vulnerability they exploit (see vulnerabilities for a list), whether they are local/remote and the result of running the exploit (e.g.", "EoP, DoS, spoofing).", "One scheme that offers zero day exploits is exploit as a service.==== Zero-click ====A zero-click attack is an exploit that requires no user interaction to operate – that is to say, no key-presses or mouse clicks.", "FORCEDENTRY, discovered in 2021, is an example of a zero-click attack.These exploits are commonly the most sought after exploits (specifically on the underground exploit market) because the target typically has no way of knowing they have been compromised at the time of exploitation.In 2022, NSO Group was reportedly selling zero-click exploits to governments for breaking into individuals' phones.====Pivoting====Pivoting is a method used by hackers and penetration testers to expand the attack surface of a target organization.", "A compromised system to attack other systems on the same network that are not directly reachable from the Internet due to restrictions such as firewall.", "There tends to be more machines reachable from inside a network as compared to Internet facing hosts.", "For example, if an attacker compromises a web server on a corporate network, the attacker can then use the compromised web server to attack any reachable system on the network.", "These types of attacks are often called multi-layered attacks.", "Pivoting is also known as ''island hopping''.", "Pivoting can further be distinguished into proxy pivoting and VPN pivoting:* Proxy pivoting is the practice of channeling traffic through a compromised target using a proxy payload on the machine and launching attacks from the computer.", "This type of pivoting is restricted to certain TCP and UDP ports that are supported by the proxy.", "* VPN pivoting enables the attacker to create an encrypted layer to tunnel into the compromised machine to route any network traffic through that target machine, for example, to run a vulnerability scan on the internal network through the compromised machine, effectively giving the attacker full network access as if they were behind the firewall.Typically, the proxy or VPN applications enabling pivoting are executed on the target computer as the payload of an exploit.Pivoting is usually done by infiltrating a part of a network infrastructure (as an example, a vulnerable printer or thermostat) and using a scanner to find other devices connected to attack them.", "By attacking a vulnerable piece of networking, an attacker could infect most or all of a network and gain complete control." ], [ "See also", "* Computer security* Computer virus* Crimeware* Exploit kit* ''Hacking: The Art of Exploitation'' (second edition)* IT risk* Metasploit* Shellcode* w3af" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Erg" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''erg''' is a unit of energy equal to 10−7joules (100nJ).", "It originated in the Centimetre–gram–second system of units (CGS).", "It has the symbol ''erg''.", "The erg is not an SI unit.", "Its name is derived from (), a Greek word meaning 'work' or 'task'.An erg is the amount of work done by a force of one dyne exerted for a distance of one centimetre.", "In the CGS base units, it is equal to one gram centimetre-squared per second-squared (g⋅cm2/s2).", "It is thus equal to 10−7 joules or 100 nanojoules (nJ) in SI units.", "* 1 erg = = * 1 erg = = = * 1 erg = = * 1 erg = = * 1 erg =" ], [ "History", "In 1864, Rudolf Clausius proposed the Greek word () for the unit of energy, work and heat.", "In 1873, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, including British physicists James Clerk Maxwell and William Thomson recommended the general adoption of the centimetre, the gramme, and the second as fundamental units (C.G.S.", "System of Units).", "To distinguish derived units, they recommended using the prefix \"C.G.S.", "unit of ...\" and requested that the word ''erg'' or ''ergon'' be strictly limited to refer to the ''C.G.S.", "unit of energy''.In 1922, chemist William Draper Harkins proposed the name micri-erg as a convenient unit to measure the surface energy of molecules in surface chemistry.", "It would equate to 10−14 erg, the equivalent to 10−21 joule.The erg is not a part of the International System of Units (SI), which have been recommended since 1 January 1978 when the European Economic Community ratified a directive of 1971 that implemented SI as agreed by the General Conference of Weights and Measures.", "It is the unit of energy in Gaussian units, which are widely used in astrophysics, applications involving microscopic problems and relativistic electrodynamics, and sometimes in mechanics." ], [ "See also", "* Foe (unit), relative measure for energy released by a supernova* Lumen second, for the lumerg and lumberg units* Metre–tonne–second system of units" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Everway" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Everway''''' is a fantasy role-playing game first published by Wizards of the Coast under their Alter Ego brand in 1995.Its lead designer was Jonathan Tweet.", "Marketed as a \"Visionary Roleplaying Game\", it has often been characterized as an innovative piece with a limited commercial success.", "Wizards later abandoned the line, and Rubicon Games purchased it, and published several supplements.", "The line was sold again to Gaslight Press in February 2001.The line is currently with The Everway Company, which has released a Silver Anniversary Edition.", "The game has a fantasy setting of the multiverse type, with many different worlds, some of which differed from generic fantasy.", "It appears to have been heavily influenced by divinatory tarot, the four classical elements of ancient Greece, and mythologies from around the world.Everway was first with implementing, in a commercial game, several new concepts including much more picture-based/visual source material and character creation than usual.", "Like other works by Jonathan Tweet, the rules are very simple and flexible.", "It is also one of a few diceless role-playing games.", "The Fortune Deck works as a randomizer and inspirational tool, and the results obtained by it are highly subjective.", "In order to clarify their use, Tweet coined some new vocabulary to describe and formalize methods of gamemaster adjudication; these terms have been adopted by the wider tabletop RPG community.", "Tweet's adjudication terms are: Karma (making a decision based on character abilities, tactics, and the internal logic of a fictional situation), Drama (making a decision based on what moves the story along), and Fortune (letting a randomizer — drawing a card in ''Everway'', but could also refer to rolling dice in other games — determine the outcome)." ], [ "Description", "''Everway'' was a boxed set designed by Jonathan Tweet, Jenny Scott, Aron Anderson, Scott Hungerford, Kathy Ice, Bob Kruger, and John Tynes, with illustrations by Doug Alexander, Rick Berry, Daniel Gelon, Janine Johnston, Hannibal King, Scott Kirschner, Ed Lee, John Matson, Martin McKenna, Ian Miller, Jeff Miracola, Roger Raupp, Andrew Robinson, Christopher Rush, and Amy Weber, and cover art by Susan HarrisThe components included:* 162-page Playing Guide* 64-page Gamemastering Guide* 14-page Guide to the Fortune Deck* 90 Vision cards (each depicts a fantastic scene of some sort and is backed with a series of leading questions such as, \"What does this person most enjoy?\"", "or \"What's the worst thing that could happen in this situation?", "\")* 36 Fortune cards (used for \"divination\" and action resolution, illustrated by Scott Kirschner and Jeff Miracola)* four source cards* six Questy cards* 24 full-colour character sheets* 16\" x 11\" Bonekeep map and 8\" x 11\" city map* plastic trays to hold cards* box" ], [ "Setting", "The official setting for Everway revolves around heroes with the power of \"spherewalking,\" traveling between worlds called \"spheres.\"", "Spheres typically consist of many \"realms.\"", "The city of Everway is located in a realm called Roundwander, in the sphere called Fourcorner.", "Roundwander is the only realm in Fourcorner that is described.", "There is some detail on the sphere's main city, Everway, which contains a stone pyramid, a set of family-oriented guilds, and various exotic events related to the city's position as an inter-dimensional trading center.", "Several dozen other spheres are described as one-sentence blurbs, a few as page-long summaries, and one in detail as the setting for a sample adventure, \"Journey to Stonekeep.\"", "The theme is strongly fantasy-oriented as opposed to science fictional, with advanced technology explicitly forbidden in the character creation rules.", "The authors gave significant thought to anthropology by describing how the people of various spheres live, including many similarities across cultures.", "Some of these common features are entirely realistic (language, art), and others plainly related to the game's fantasy elements (magic, knowledge of the Fortune Deck).", "Nearly all spheres are inhabited by humans, with mostly realistic physics." ], [ "Character creation", "Character design is abstract and simple by most role-playing games' standards.", "Each character begins with twenty points to divide between four Element scores roughly equivalent to statistics for Strength (Fire), Perception (Water), Intelligence (Air) and Endurance (Earth).", "Scores range from 1 (pathetic) to 3 (average) to 10 (godlike), so a generic hero would have scores of 5.Each Element also has a specialty for which a character can get a 1-point bonus; e.g., a 5-Air hero with an Air specialty of \"Writing\" could write as though their Air score were 6.As a general rule a statistic of N is twice as capable as a level of N-1, where this makes sense.", "(A 5-Fire, 5-Earth hero can typically defeat two 4-Fire, 5-Earth enemies, or handily defeat a 3-Fire, 5-Earth character in foot race, but cannot necessarily run twice as fast even though speed is governed by Fire.", ")Each character also has Powers representing unusual abilities.", "These cost from 0 to 3 or more points depending on whether they should be considered Frequent, Major (or even \"Twice Major\", for especially powerful abilities that significantly affect gameplay) and/or Versatile.", "For instance, a \"Cat Familiar,\" a slightly intelligent cat, is arguably worth 2 points for being Frequent (usually around and often useful) and Versatile (able to scout, carry messages, and fight).", "A \"Winning Smile\" that makes the hero likable is worth 0 points because of its trivial effect, while a \"Charming Song\" that inspires one emotion when played might be useful enough to count as Frequent (1 point).", "There is no strict rule for deciding what a Power is worth.", "Each hero can have one 0-point Power for free; additional Powers that would otherwise cost 0 points instead cost 1.Magic is also abstract.", "A hero wanting access to magic, as opposed to a few specific Powers, must design their own magic system.", "This is done by choosing an Element for its basis, which affects its theme; e.g., Air is associated with speech and intellect and would be suitable for a system of spoken spells gained through study.", "The new Magic statistic has a 1–10 rating and point cost, and can be no higher than the Element on what it is based.", "The game's rules suggest listing examples of what the magic system can do at each power level, working these out with the GM.", "It is suggested that most characters do not need magic and that it is not suitable for new players.Finally, each hero has personality traits based on the game's Fortune and Vision cards.", "Players are to choose one or more Vision cards and base a backstory on them, and to have three Fortune cards representing a Virtue, Fault, and Fate (a challenge they will face).", "These three cards can change to represent new phases in the hero's life.", "There is a list of suggested Motives for why the hero is adventuring, such as \"Adversity\" or \"Wanderlust\", but this feature has no gameplay effect.Equipment such as weaponry is handled completely abstractly, with no specific rules for item cost, carrying capacity, or combat statistics.", "However, a particularly powerful piece of equipment—for example, a cloak that renders its wearer invisible for a brief period—may be treated as a Power that the hero must spend their initial element points on." ], [ "The Fortune Deck", "To decide what happens, the GM considers the rules of Karma (characters' abilities, tactics, logic), Drama (the needs of the plot), and Fortune, the result of a card drawn from the Fortune Deck.", "Many of these cards are based on the \"Major Arcana\" of tarot divination, such as \"The Fool\" and \"Death\", but the deck includes original cards such as \"Drowning in Armor\" and \"Law.\"", "As with the Tarot deck there is symbolic art and each card has two complementary meanings when upright or reversed (while face up).", "The meanings are printed on the cards (e.g., \"Protective Measures Turn Dangerous\" vs. \"True Prudence\" for \"Drowning in Armor\") and explained more fully in the game's books.", "The rules are flexible about how often the GM should consult the Fortune Deck, whether the cards should be shown to players, and how much influence the draw should have—it is entirely acceptable for the GM to never use the deck at all, if she so desires.", "Though cards sometimes have obvious interpretations for the context in which they are drawn, the rules explain that sometimes they are best read simply as \"a positive (or negative) result.", "\"Although the Fortune Deck resembles (and can be used as) a fortune-telling device, Everway treats the Deck only as a storytelling device and an element of the fictional setting.", "It does not in any way endorse \"real\" fortune-telling or other supernatural concepts." ], [ "Reception", "In the December 1995 edition of ''Dragon'' (Issue 224), Rick Swan was surprised by Wizards of the Coast's choice of the very different ''Everway'' to enter the role-playing game market: \"Everway is so far out of the mainstream, it’s barely recognizable as an RPG.", "For starters, it has no dice.", "It has no tables or charts.", "A deck of cards directs the flow of the game.", "Monster bashing, treasure hunting, dungeon crawling—bye-bye; ''Everway'' is pure narrative.\"", "Swan liked the \"first class\" production values of the components, but found the maps \"lifeless\".", "Swan was a big fan of the diceless system, saying, \"It makes for a brisk game, and Everway, to its credit, plays at blinding speed.\"", "But Swan was concerned by the how the game placed an unreasonable onus on the improvisational skills of both the gamemaster and the players.", "He concluded by giving the game an average rating of 4 out of 6." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Everway Company Website* Official Facebook Page* EverWiki* Everweb (large resource collection)" ] ]
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[ [ "Eurocard (printed circuit board)" ], [ "Introduction", "STEbus 68008 processor on 100x160mm Eurocard'''Eurocard''' is an IEEE standard format for printed circuit board (PCB) cards that can be plugged together into a standard chassis which, in turn, can be mounted in a 19-inch rack.", "The chassis consists of a series of slotted card guides on the top and bottom, into which the cards are slid so they stand on end, like books on a shelf.", "At the spine of each card is one or more connectors which plug into mating connectors on a backplane that closes the rear of the chassis." ], [ "Dimensions", "As the cards are assumed to be installed in a vertical orientation, the usual meanings of height and width are transposed: A card might be 233.35 mm \"high\", but only 20 mm \"wide\".", "Height is measured in rack units, \"U\", with 1 U being .", "This dimension refers to the subrack in which the card is to be mounted, rather than the card itself.", "A single card is 100 mm high.", "Taller cards add a 133.35 mm, so that a double height card is 233.35 mm high and a triple 366.7 mm high.Enclosure heights are multiples of 3U, with the cards always shorter than the enclosure.", "Two common heights are 3U (a 100 mm card in a subrack) and 6U (a 233.35 mm card in a high subrack).", "As two 3U cards are shorter than a 6U card (by 33.35 mm), it is possible to install two 3U cards in one slot of a 6U subrack, with a mid-height structure for proper support.Card widths are specified in horizontal pitch units \"HP\", with 1 HP being .Card depths start at and increase in increments.", "The most common today is , but standard hardware is available for depths of , , , , , and .+ Valid Eurocard sizes.", "Dimensions in mm.", "Connectors on the right.", "↑366.7Triple-height(9U) subrack ↑boardheight+0/−0.3 ↑233.35Double-height(6U) subrack ↑100Single-height(3U) subrack ←400 ←340 ←280 ←220 ←160 ←100 ← board depth +0/−0.3" ], [ "Standards and architecture", "The Eurocard mechanical architecture was defined originally under IEC-60297-3.Today, the most widely recognized standards for this mechanical structure are IEEE 1101.1, IEEE 1101.10 (also known commonly as \"dot ten\") and IEEE 1101.11.IEEE 1101.10 covers the additional mechanical and electromagnetic interference features required for VITA 1.1-1997(R2002), which is the VME64 Extensions standard, as well as PICMG 2.0 (R3.0), which is the CompactPCI specification.The IEEE 1101.11 standard covers rear plug-in units that are also called rear transition modules or RTMs.The Eurocard is a mechanical system and does not define the specific connector to be used or the signals that are assigned to connector contacts.The connector systems that are commonly used with Eurocard architectures include the original DIN 41612 connector that is also standardized as IEC 60603.2.This is the connector that is used for the VMEbus standard, which was IEEE 1014.The connector known as the 5-row DIN, which is used for the VME64 Extensions standard is IEC 61076-4-113.The VME64 Extension architecture defined by VITA 1.1-1997 (R2002).Another popular computer architecture that utilizes the 6U-160 Eurocard is CompactPCI and CompactPCI Express.", "These are defined by PICMG 2.0R3 and PICMG Exp0 R1 respectively.", "Other computer architectures that utilize the Eurocard system are VME eXtensions for Instrumentation (VXI), PCI eXtensions for Instrumentation (PXI), and PXI Express.A computer architecture that used the 6U-220 Eurocard format was Multibus-II, which was IEEE 1296.Because the Eurocard system provided for so many modular card sizes and because connector manufacturers have continued to create new connectors that are compatible with this system, it is a popular mechanical standard that is also used for innumerable \"one-off\" applications.Conduction-cooled Eurocards are used in military and aerospace applications.", "They are defined by the IEEE 1101.2-1992 (2001) standard.The Eurocard standard is also the basis of the \"Eurorack\" format for modular electronic music synthesizers, popularized by Doepfer and other manufacturers." ], [ "See also", "* STEbus* VMEbus* Europe Card Bus" ] ]
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[ [ "Electron counting" ], [ "Introduction", "In chemistry, '''electron counting''' is a formalism for assigning a number of valence electrons to individual atoms in a molecule.", "It is used for classifying compounds and for explaining or predicting their electronic structure and bonding.", "Many rules in chemistry rely on electron-counting:*Octet rule is used with Lewis structures for main group elements, especially the lighter ones such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen,*18-electron rule in inorganic chemistry and organometallic chemistry of transition metals,*Hückel's rule for the π-electrons of aromatic compounds,*Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory for polyhedral cluster compounds, including transition metals and main group elements and mixtures thereof, such as boranes.Atoms are called \"electron-deficient\" when they have too few electrons as compared to their respective rules, or \"hypervalent\" when they have too many electrons.", "Since these compounds tend to be more reactive than compounds that obey their rule, electron counting is an important tool for identifying the reactivity of molecules.", "While the counting formalism considers each atom separately, these individual atoms (with their hypothetical assigned charge) do not generally exist as free species." ], [ "Counting rules", "Two methods of electron counting are \"neutral counting\" and \"ionic counting\".", "Both approaches give the same result (and can therefore be used to verify one's calculation).", "*The neutral counting approach assumes the molecule or fragment being studied consists of purely covalent bonds.", "It was popularized by Malcolm Green along with the L and X ligand notation.", "It is usually considered easier especially for low-valent transition metals.", "*The \"ionic counting\" approach assumes purely ionic bonds between atoms.It is important, though, to be aware that most chemical species exist between the purely covalent and ionic extremes.===Neutral counting===* This method begins with locating the central atom on the periodic table and determining the number of its valence electrons.", "One counts valence electrons for main group elements differently from transition metals.:E.g.", "in period 2: B, C, N, O, and F have 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 valence electrons, respectively.:E.g.", "in period 4: K, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Fe, Ni have 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 valence electrons respectively.", "* One is added for every halide or other anionic ligand which binds to the central atom through a sigma bond.", "* Two is added for every lone pair bonding to the metal (e.g.", "each Lewis base binds with a lone pair).", "Unsaturated hydrocarbons such as alkenes and alkynes are considered Lewis bases.", "Similarly Lewis and Bronsted acids (protons) contribute nothing.", "* One is added for each homoelement bond.", "* One is added for each negative charge, and one is subtracted for each positive charge.===Ionic counting===* This method begins by calculating the number of electrons of the element, assuming an oxidation state:E.g.", "for a Fe2+ has 6 electrons:S2− has 8 electrons* Two is added for every halide or other anionic ligand which binds to the metal through a sigma bond.", "* Two is added for every lone pair bonding to the metal (e.g.", "each phosphine ligand can bind with a lone pair).", "Similarly Lewis and Bronsted acids (protons) contribute nothing.", "* For unsaturated ligands such as alkenes, one electron is added for each carbon atom binding to the metal." ], [ "Electrons donated by common fragments", " Ligand Electrons contributed(neutral counting) Electrons contributed(ionic counting) Ionic equivalent X 1 2 X−; X = F, Cl, Br, I H 1 2 H− H 1 0 H+ O 2 4 O2− N 3 6 N3− NR3 2 2 NR3; R = H, alkyl, aryl CR2 2 4 Ethylene 2 2 C2H4 cyclopentadienyl 5 6 benzene 6 6 C6H6===\"Special cases\"===The numbers of electrons \"donated\" by some ligands depends on the geometry of the metal-ligand ensemble.", "An example of this complication is the M–NO entity.", "When this grouping is linear, the NO ligand is considered to be a three-electron ligand.", "When the M–NO subunit is strongly bent at N, the NO is treated as a pseudohalide and is thus a one electron (in the neutral counting approach).", "The situation is not very different from the ''η''3 versus the ''η''1 allyl.", "Another unusual ligand from the electron counting perspective is sulfur dioxide." ], [ "Examples", "*CH4, for the central C:neutral counting: C contributes 4 electrons, each H radical contributes one each: 4 + 4 × 1 = 8 valence electrons:ionic counting: C4− contributes 8 electrons, each proton contributes 0 each: 8 + 4 × 0 = 8 electrons.", ":Similar for H::neutral counting: H contributes 1 electron, the C contributes 1 electron (the other 3 electrons of C are for the other 3 hydrogens in the molecule): 1 + 1 × 1 = 2 valence electrons.", ":ionic counting: H contributes 0 electrons (H+), C4− contributes 2 electrons (per H), 0 + 1 × 2 = 2 valence electrons:conclusion: Methane follows the octet-rule for carbon, and the duet rule for hydrogen, and hence is expected to be a stable molecule (as we see from daily life)*H2S, for the central S:neutral counting: S contributes 6 electrons, each hydrogen radical contributes one each: 6 + 2 × 1 = 8 valence electrons:ionic counting: S2− contributes 8 electrons, each proton contributes 0: 8 + 2 × 0 = 8 valence electrons:conclusion: with an octet electron count (on sulfur), we can anticipate that H2S would be pseudo-tetrahedral if one considers the two lone pairs.", "*SCl2, for the central S:neutral counting: S contributes 6 electrons, each chlorine radical contributes one each: 6 + 2 × 1 = 8 valence electrons:ionic counting: S2+ contributes 4 electrons, each chloride anion contributes 2: 4 + 2 × 2 = 8 valence electrons:conclusion: see discussion for H2S above.", "Both SCl2 and H2S follow the octet rule - the behavior of these molecules is however quite different.", "*SF6, for the central S:neutral counting: S contributes 6 electrons, each fluorine radical contributes one each: 6 + 6 × 1 = 12 valence electrons:ionic counting: S6+ contributes 0 electrons, each fluoride anion contributes 2: 0 + 6 × 2 = 12 valence electrons:conclusion: ionic counting indicates a molecule lacking lone pairs of electrons, therefore its structure will be octahedral, as predicted by VSEPR.", "One might conclude that this molecule would be highly reactive - but the opposite is true: SF6 is inert, and it is widely used in industry because of this property.", "* TiCl4, for the central Ti:neutral counting: Ti contributes 4 electrons, each chlorine radical contributes one each: 4 + 4 × 1 = 8 valence electrons:ionic counting: Ti4+ contributes 0 electrons, each chloride anion contributes two each: 0 + 4 × 2 = 8 valence electrons:conclusion: Having only 8e (vs. 18 possible), we can anticipate that TiCl4 will be a good Lewis acid.", "Indeed, it reacts (in some cases violently) with water, alcohols, ethers, amines.", "* Fe(CO)5:neutral counting: Fe contributes 8 electrons, each CO contributes 2 each: 8 + 2 × 5 = 18 valence electrons:ionic counting: Fe(0) contributes 8 electrons, each CO contributes 2 each: 8 + 2 × 5 = 18 valence electrons:conclusions: this is a special case, where ionic counting is the same as neutral counting, all fragments being neutral.", "Since this is an 18-electron complex, it is expected to be isolable compound.", "* Ferrocene, (C5H5)2Fe, for the central Fe::neutral counting: Fe contributes 8 electrons, the 2 cyclopentadienyl-rings contribute 5 each: 8 + 2 × 5 = 18 electrons:ionic counting: Fe2+ contributes 6 electrons, the two aromatic cyclopentadienyl rings contribute 6 each: 6 + 2 × 6 = 18 valence electrons on iron.", ":conclusion: Ferrocene is expected to be an isolable compound." ], [ "See also", "* d electron count* Tolman's rule" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Entropy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Entropy''' is a scientific concept that is most commonly associated with a state of disorder, randomness, or uncertainty.", "The term and the concept are used in diverse fields, from classical thermodynamics, where it was first recognized, to the microscopic description of nature in statistical physics, and to the principles of information theory.", "It has found far-ranging applications in chemistry and physics, in biological systems and their relation to life, in cosmology, economics, sociology, weather science, climate change, and information systems including the transmission of information in telecommunication.Entropy is central to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of an isolated system left to spontaneous evolution cannot decrease with time.", "As a result, isolated systems evolve toward thermodynamic equilibrium, where the entropy is highest.", "A consequence of the second law of thermodynamics is that certain processes are irreversible.", "The thermodynamic concept was referred to by Scottish scientist and engineer William Rankine in 1850 with the names ''thermodynamic function'' and ''heat-potential''.", "In 1865, German physicist Rudolf Clausius, one of the leading founders of the field of thermodynamics, defined it as the quotient of an infinitesimal amount of heat to the instantaneous temperature.", "He initially described it as ''transformation-content'', in German ''Verwandlungsinhalt'', and later coined the term ''entropy'' from a Greek word for ''transformation''.Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann explained entropy as the measure of the number of possible microscopic arrangements or states of individual atoms and molecules of a system that comply with the macroscopic condition of the system.", "He thereby introduced the concept of statistical disorder and probability distributions into a new field of thermodynamics, called statistical mechanics, and found the link between the microscopic interactions, which fluctuate about an average configuration, to the macroscopically observable behavior, in form of a simple logarithmic law, with a proportionality constant, the Boltzmann constant, that has become one of the defining universal constants for the modern International System of Units (SI)." ], [ "History", "Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888), originator of the concept of entropyIn his 1803 paper ''Fundamental Principles of Equilibrium and Movement'', the French mathematician Lazare Carnot proposed that in any machine, the accelerations and shocks of the moving parts represent losses of ''moment of activity''; in any natural process there exists an inherent tendency towards the dissipation of useful energy.", "In 1824, building on that work, Lazare's son, Sadi Carnot, published ''Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire'', which posited that in all heat-engines, whenever \"caloric\" (what is now known as heat) falls through a temperature difference, work or motive power can be produced from the actions of its fall from a hot to cold body.", "He used an analogy with how water falls in a water wheel.", "That was an early insight into the second law of thermodynamics.", "Carnot based his views of heat partially on the early 18th-century \"Newtonian hypothesis\" that both heat and light were types of indestructible forms of matter, which are attracted and repelled by other matter, and partially on the contemporary views of Count Rumford, who showed in 1789 that heat could be created by friction, as when cannon bores are machined.", "Carnot reasoned that if the body of the working substance, such as a body of steam, is returned to its original state at the end of a complete engine cycle, \"no change occurs in the condition of the working body\".The first law of thermodynamics, deduced from the heat-friction experiments of James Joule in 1843, expresses the concept of energy and its conservation in all processes; the first law, however, is unsuitable to separately quantify the effects of friction and dissipation.In the 1850s and 1860s, German physicist Rudolf Clausius objected to the supposition that no change occurs in the working body, and gave that change a mathematical interpretation, by questioning the nature of the inherent loss of usable heat when work is done, e.g., heat produced by friction.", "He described his observations as a dissipative use of energy, resulting in a ''transformation-content'' ( in German), of a thermodynamic system or working body of chemical species during a change of state.", "That was in contrast to earlier views, based on the theories of Isaac Newton, that heat was an indestructible particle that had mass.", "Clausius discovered that the non-usable energy increases as steam proceeds from inlet to exhaust in a steam engine.", "From the prefix ''en-'', as in 'energy', and from the Greek word tropē, which is translated in an established lexicon as ''turning'' or ''change'' and that he rendered in German as , a word often translated into English as ''transformation'', in 1865 Clausius coined the name of that property as ''entropy''.", "The word was adopted into the English language in 1868.Later, scientists such as Ludwig Boltzmann, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and James Clerk Maxwell gave entropy a statistical basis.", "In 1877, Boltzmann visualized a probabilistic way to measure the entropy of an ensemble of ideal gas particles, in which he defined entropy as proportional to the natural logarithm of the number of microstates such a gas could occupy.", "The proportionality constant in this definition, called the Boltzmann constant, has become one of the defining universal constants for the modern International System of Units (SI).", "Henceforth, the essential problem in statistical thermodynamics has been to determine the distribution of a given amount of energy ''E'' over ''N'' identical systems.", "Constantin Carathéodory, a Greek mathematician, linked entropy with a mathematical definition of irreversibility, in terms of trajectories and integrability." ], [ "Etymology", "In 1865, Clausius named the concept of \"the differential of a quantity which depends on the configuration of the system\", ''entropy'' () after the Greek word for 'transformation'.", "He gave \"transformational content\" () as a synonym, paralleling his \"thermal and ergonal content\" () as the name of , but preferring the term ''entropy'' as a close parallel of the word ''energy'', as he found the concepts nearly \"analogous in their physical significance\".", "This term was formed by replacing the root of ('ergon', 'work') by that of ('tropy', 'transformation').In more detail, Clausius explained his choice of \"entropy\" as a name as follows:I prefer going to the ancient languages for the names of important scientific quantities, so that they may mean the same thing in all living tongues.", "I propose, therefore, to call ''S'' the ''entropy'' of a body, after the Greek word \"transformation\".", "I have designedly coined the word ''entropy'' to be similar to energy, for these two quantities are so analogous in their physical significance, that an analogy of denominations seems to me helpful.Leon Cooper added that in this way \"he succeeded in coining a word that meant the same thing to everybody: nothing\"." ], [ "Definitions and descriptions", "The concept of entropy is described by two principal approaches, the macroscopic perspective of classical thermodynamics, and the microscopic description central to statistical mechanics.", "The classical approach defines entropy in terms of macroscopically measurable physical properties, such as bulk mass, volume, pressure, and temperature.", "The statistical definition of entropy defines it in terms of the statistics of the motions of the microscopic constituents of a system – modeled at first classically, e.g.", "Newtonian particles constituting a gas, and later quantum-mechanically (photons, phonons, spins, etc.).", "The two approaches form a consistent, unified view of the same phenomenon as expressed in the second law of thermodynamics, which has found universal applicability to physical processes.=== State variables and functions of state ===Many thermodynamic properties are defined by physical variables that define a state of thermodynamic equilibrium; these are ''state variables''.", "State variables depend only on the equilibrium condition, not on the path evolution to that state.", "State variables can be functions of state, also called ''state functions'', in a sense that one state variable is a mathematical function of other state variables.", "Often, if some properties of a system are determined, they are sufficient to determine the state of the system and thus other properties' values.", "For example, temperature and pressure of a given quantity of gas determine its state, and thus also its volume via the ideal gas law.", "A system composed of a pure substance of a single phase at a particular uniform temperature and pressure is determined, and is thus a particular state, and has not only a particular volume but also a specific entropy.", "The fact that entropy is a function of state makes it useful.", "In the Carnot cycle, the working fluid returns to the same state that it had at the start of the cycle, hence the change or line integral of any state function, such as entropy, over this reversible cycle is zero.=== Reversible process ===Total entropy may be conserved during a reversible process.", "The entropy change '''' of the system (not including the surroundings) is well-defined as heat '''' transferred to the system divided by the system temperature '''', .", "A reversible process is a quasistatic one that deviates only infinitesimally from thermodynamic equilibrium and avoids friction or other dissipation.", "Any process that happens quickly enough to deviate from thermal equilibrium cannot be reversible, total entropy increases, and the potential for maximum work to be done in the process is also lost.", "For example, in the Carnot cycle, while the heat flow from the hot reservoir to the cold reservoir represents an increase in entropy in the cold reservoir, the work output, if reversibly and perfectly stored in some energy storage mechanism, represents a decrease in entropy that could be used to operate the heat engine in '''reverse''' and return to the previous state; thus the ''total'' entropy change may still be zero at all times if the entire process is reversible.", "An irreversible process increases the total entropy of the system and surroundings.=== Carnot cycle ===The concept of entropy arose from Rudolf Clausius's study of the Carnot cycle that is a thermodynamic cycle performed by a Carnot heat engine as a reversible heat engine.", "In a Carnot cycle, heat is absorbed isothermally at temperature from a 'hot' reservoir (in the isothermal expansion stage) and given up isothermally as heat to a 'cold' reservoir at (in the isothermal compression stage).", "According to Carnot's principle or theorem, work from a heat engine with two thermal reservoirs can be produced only when there is a temperature difference between these reservoirs, and for reversible engines which are mostly and equally efficient among all heat engines for a given thermal reservoir pair, the work is a function of the reservoir temperatures and the heat absorbed to the engine (heat engine work output = heat engine efficiency × heat to the engine, where the efficiency is a function of the reservoir temperatures for reversible heat engines).", "Carnot did not distinguish between and , since he was using the incorrect hypothesis that caloric theory was valid, and hence heat was conserved (the incorrect assumption that and were equal in magnitude) when, in fact, the magnitude of is greater than the magnitude of .", "Through the efforts of Clausius and Kelvin, it is now known that the work done by a reversible heat engine is the product of the Carnot efficiency (it is the efficiency of all reversible heat engines with the same thermal reservoir pairs according to the Carnot's theorem) and the heat absorbed from the hot reservoir:Here is work done by the Carnot heat engine, is heat to the engine from the hot reservoir, and is heat to the cold reservoir from the engine.", "To derive the ''Carnot efficiency'', which is (a number less than one), Kelvin had to evaluate the ratio of the work output to the heat absorbed during the isothermal expansion with the help of the Carnot–Clapeyron equation, which contained an unknown function called the Carnot function.", "The possibility that the Carnot function could be the temperature as measured from a zero point of temperature was suggested by Joule in a letter to Kelvin.", "This allowed Kelvin to establish his absolute temperature scale.", "It is also known that the net work produced by the system in one cycle is the net heat absorbed, which is the sum (or difference of the magnitudes) of the heat > 0 absorbed from the hot reservoir and the waste heat 0 is heat that is from the hot reservoir and is absorbed by the engine and R Δ''S'' of that energy must be given up to the system's surroundings as heat (''T''R is the temperature of the system's external surroundings).", "Otherwise the process cannot go forward.", "In classical thermodynamics, the entropy of a system is defined only if it is in physical thermodynamic equilibrium.", "(But chemical equilibrium is not required: the entropy of a mixture of two moles of hydrogen and one mole of oxygen at 1 bar pressure and 298 K is well-defined.", ")=== Statistical mechanics ===The statistical definition was developed by Ludwig Boltzmann in the 1870s by analyzing the statistical behavior of the microscopic components of the system.", "Boltzmann showed that this definition of entropy was equivalent to the thermodynamic entropy to within a constant factor—known as the Boltzmann constant.", "In short, the thermodynamic definition of entropy provides the experimental verification of entropy, while the statistical definition of entropy extends the concept, providing an explanation and a deeper understanding of its nature.The interpretation of entropy in statistical mechanics is the measure of uncertainty, disorder, or ''mixedupness'' in the phrase of Gibbs, which remains about a system after its observable macroscopic properties, such as temperature, pressure and volume, have been taken into account.", "For a given set of macroscopic variables, the entropy measures the degree to which the probability of the system is spread out over different possible microstates.", "In contrast to the macrostate, which characterizes plainly observable average quantities, a microstate specifies all molecular details about the system including the position and velocity of every molecule.", "The more such states are available to the system with appreciable probability, the greater the entropy.", "In statistical mechanics, entropy is a measure of the number of ways a system can be arranged, often taken to be a measure of \"disorder\" (the higher the entropy, the higher the disorder).", "This definition describes the entropy as being proportional to the natural logarithm of the number of possible microscopic configurations of the individual atoms and molecules of the system (microstates) that could cause the observed macroscopic state (macrostate) of the system.", "The constant of proportionality is the Boltzmann constant.The Boltzmann constant, and therefore entropy, have dimensions of energy divided by temperature, which has a unit of joules per kelvin (J⋅K−1) in the International System of Units (or kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅K−1 in terms of base units).", "The entropy of a substance is usually given as an intensive propertyeither entropy per unit mass (SI unit: J⋅K−1⋅kg−1) or entropy per unit amount of substance (SI unit: J⋅K−1⋅mol−1).Specifically, entropy is a logarithmic measure of the number of system states with significant probability of being occupied::( is the probability that the system is in th state, usually given by the Boltzmann distribution; if states are defined in a continuous manner, the summation is replaced by an integral over all possible states) or, equivalently, the expected value of the logarithm of the probability that a microstate is occupied:where ''k''B is the Boltzmann constant, equal to .The summation is over all the possible microstates of the system, and ''pi'' is the probability that the system is in the ''i''-th microstate.", "This definition assumes that the basis set of states has been picked so that there is no information on their relative phases.", "In a different basis set, the more general expression is:where is the density matrix, is trace, and is the matrix logarithm.", "This density matrix formulation is not needed in cases of thermal equilibrium so long as the basis states are chosen to be energy eigenstates.", "For most practical purposes, this can be taken as the fundamental definition of entropy since all other formulas for ''S'' can be mathematically derived from it, but not vice versa.In what has been called ''the fundamental assumption of statistical thermodynamics'' or ''the fundamental postulate in statistical mechanics'', among system microstates of the same energy (degenerate microstates) each microstate is assumed to be populated with equal probability; this assumption is usually justified for an isolated system in equilibrium.", "Then for an isolated system ''p''''i'' = 1/Ω, where Ω is the number of microstates whose energy equals the system's energy, and the previous equation reduces to:In thermodynamics, such a system is one in which the volume, number of molecules, and internal energy are fixed (the microcanonical ensemble).For a given thermodynamic system, the ''excess entropy'' is defined as the entropy minus that of an ideal gas at the same density and temperature, a quantity that is always negative because an ideal gas is maximally disordered.", "This concept plays an important role in liquid-state theory.", "For instance, Rosenfeld's excess-entropy scaling principle states that reduced transport coefficients throughout the two-dimensional phase diagram are functions uniquely determined by the excess entropy.The most general interpretation of entropy is as a measure of the extent of uncertainty about a system.", "The equilibrium state of a system maximizes the entropy because it does not reflect all information about the initial conditions, except for the conserved variables.", "This uncertainty is not of the everyday subjective kind, but rather the uncertainty inherent to the experimental method and interpretative model.The interpretative model has a central role in determining entropy.", "The qualifier \"for a given set of macroscopic variables\" above has deep implications: if two observers use different sets of macroscopic variables, they see different entropies.", "For example, if observer A uses the variables ''U'', ''V'' and ''W'', and observer B uses ''U'', ''V'', ''W'', ''X'', then, by changing ''X'', observer B can cause an effect that looks like a violation of the second law of thermodynamics to observer A.", "In other words: the set of macroscopic variables one chooses must include everything that may change in the experiment, otherwise one might see decreasing entropy.Entropy can be defined for any Markov processes with reversible dynamics and the detailed balance property.In Boltzmann's 1896 ''Lectures on Gas Theory'', he showed that this expression gives a measure of entropy for systems of atoms and molecules in the gas phase, thus providing a measure for the entropy of classical thermodynamics.=== Entropy of a system ===A thermodynamic systemA temperature–entropy diagram for steam.", "The vertical axis represents uniform temperature, and the horizontal axis represents specific entropy.", "Each dark line on the graph represents constant pressure, and these form a mesh with light gray lines of constant volume.", "(Dark-blue is liquid water, light-blue is liquid-steam mixture, and faint-blue is steam.", "Grey-blue represents supercritical liquid water.", ")Entropy arises directly from the Carnot cycle.", "It can also be described as the reversible heat divided by temperature.", "Entropy is a fundamental function of state.In a thermodynamic system, pressure and temperature tend to become uniform over time because the equilibrium state has higher probability (more possible combinations of microstates) than any other state.As an example, for a glass of ice water in air at room temperature, the difference in temperature between the warm room (the surroundings) and the cold glass of ice and water (the system and not part of the room) decreases as portions of the thermal energy from the warm surroundings spread to the cooler system of ice and water.", "Over time the temperature of the glass and its contents and the temperature of the room become equal.", "In other words, the entropy of the room has decreased as some of its energy has been dispersed to the ice and water, of which the entropy has increased.However, as calculated in the example, the entropy of the system of ice and water has increased more than the entropy of the surrounding room has decreased.", "In an isolated system such as the room and ice water taken together, the dispersal of energy from warmer to cooler always results in a net increase in entropy.", "Thus, when the \"universe\" of the room and ice water system has reached a temperature equilibrium, the entropy change from the initial state is at a maximum.", "The entropy of the thermodynamic system is a measure of how far the equalization has progressed.Thermodynamic entropy is a non-conserved state function that is of great importance in the sciences of physics and chemistry.", "Historically, the concept of entropy evolved to explain why some processes (permitted by conservation laws) occur spontaneously while their time reversals (also permitted by conservation laws) do not; systems tend to progress in the direction of increasing entropy.", "For isolated systems, entropy never decreases.", "This fact has several important consequences in science: first, it prohibits \"perpetual motion\" machines; and second, it implies the arrow of entropy has the same direction as the arrow of time.", "Increases in the total entropy of system and surroundings correspond to irreversible changes, because some energy is expended as waste heat, limiting the amount of work a system can do.Unlike many other functions of state, entropy cannot be directly observed but must be calculated.", "Absolute standard molar entropy of a substance can be calculated from the measured temperature dependence of its heat capacity.", "The molar entropy of ions is obtained as a difference in entropy from a reference state defined as zero entropy.", "The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system must increase or remain constant.", "Therefore, entropy is not a conserved quantity: for example, in an isolated system with non-uniform temperature, heat might irreversibly flow and the temperature become more uniform such that entropy increases.", "Chemical reactions cause changes in entropy and system entropy, in conjunction with enthalpy, plays an important role in determining in which direction a chemical reaction spontaneously proceeds.One dictionary definition of entropy is that it is \"a measure of thermal energy per unit temperature that is not available for useful work\" in a cyclic process.", "For instance, a substance at uniform temperature is at maximum entropy and cannot drive a heat engine.", "A substance at non-uniform temperature is at a lower entropy (than if the heat distribution is allowed to even out) and some of the thermal energy can drive a heat engine.A special case of entropy increase, the entropy of mixing, occurs when two or more different substances are mixed.", "If the substances are at the same temperature and pressure, there is no net exchange of heat or work – the entropy change is entirely due to the mixing of the different substances.", "At a statistical mechanical level, this results due to the change in available volume per particle with mixing.=== Equivalence of definitions ===Proofs of equivalence between the definition of entropy in statistical mechanics (the Gibbs entropy formula ) and in classical thermodynamics ( together with the fundamental thermodynamic relation) are known for the microcanonical ensemble, the canonical ensemble, the grand canonical ensemble, and the isothermal–isobaric ensemble.", "These proofs are based on the probability density of microstates of the generalized Boltzmann distribution and the identification of the thermodynamic internal energy as the ensemble average .", "Thermodynamic relations are then employed to derive the well-known Gibbs entropy formula.", "However, the equivalence between the Gibbs entropy formula and the thermodynamic definition of entropy is not a fundamental thermodynamic relation but rather a consequence of the form of the generalized Boltzmann distribution.Furthermore, it has been shown that the definitions of entropy in statistical mechanics is the only entropy that is equivalent to the classical thermodynamics entropy under the following postulates:" ], [ "Second law of thermodynamics", "The second law of thermodynamics requires that, in general, the total entropy of any system does not decrease other than by increasing the entropy of some other system.", "Hence, in a system isolated from its environment, the entropy of that system tends not to decrease.", "It follows that heat cannot flow from a colder body to a hotter body without the application of work to the colder body.", "Secondly, it is impossible for any device operating on a cycle to produce net work from a single temperature reservoir; the production of net work requires flow of heat from a hotter reservoir to a colder reservoir, or a single expanding reservoir undergoing adiabatic cooling, which performs adiabatic work.", "As a result, there is no possibility of a perpetual motion machine.", "It follows that a reduction in the increase of entropy in a specified process, such as a chemical reaction, means that it is energetically more efficient.It follows from the second law of thermodynamics that the entropy of a system that is not isolated may decrease.", "An air conditioner, for example, may cool the air in a room, thus reducing the entropy of the air of that system.", "The heat expelled from the room (the system), which the air conditioner transports and discharges to the outside air, always makes a bigger contribution to the entropy of the environment than the decrease of the entropy of the air of that system.", "Thus, the total of entropy of the room plus the entropy of the environment increases, in agreement with the second law of thermodynamics.In mechanics, the second law in conjunction with the fundamental thermodynamic relation places limits on a system's ability to do useful work.", "The entropy change of a system at temperature absorbing an infinitesimal amount of heat in a reversible way, is given by .", "More explicitly, an energy is not available to do useful work, where is the temperature of the coldest accessible reservoir or heat sink external to the system.", "For further discussion, see ''Exergy''.Statistical mechanics demonstrates that entropy is governed by probability, thus allowing for a decrease in disorder even in an isolated system.", "Although this is possible, such an event has a small probability of occurring, making it unlikely.The applicability of a second law of thermodynamics is limited to systems in or sufficiently near equilibrium state, so that they have defined entropy.", "Some inhomogeneous systems out of thermodynamic equilibrium still satisfy the hypothesis of local thermodynamic equilibrium, so that entropy density is locally defined as an intensive quantity.", "For such systems, there may apply a principle of maximum time rate of entropy production.", "It states that such a system may evolve to a steady state that maximizes its time rate of entropy production.", "This does not mean that such a system is necessarily always in a condition of maximum time rate of entropy production; it means that it may evolve to such a steady state." ], [ "Applications", "=== The fundamental thermodynamic relation ===The entropy of a system depends on its internal energy and its external parameters, such as its volume.", "In the thermodynamic limit, this fact leads to an equation relating the change in the internal energy to changes in the entropy and the external parameters.", "This relation is known as the ''fundamental thermodynamic relation''.", "If external pressure bears on the volume as the only external parameter, this relation is:: Since both internal energy and entropy are monotonic functions of temperature , implying that the internal energy is fixed when one specifies the entropy and the volume, this relation is valid even if the change from one state of thermal equilibrium to another with infinitesimally larger entropy and volume happens in a non-quasistatic way (so during this change the system may be very far out of thermal equilibrium and then the whole-system entropy, pressure, and temperature may not exist).The fundamental thermodynamic relation implies many thermodynamic identities that are valid in general, independent of the microscopic details of the system.", "Important examples are the Maxwell relations and the relations between heat capacities.=== Entropy in chemical thermodynamics ===Thermodynamic entropy is central in chemical thermodynamics, enabling changes to be quantified and the outcome of reactions predicted.", "The second law of thermodynamics states that entropy in an isolated system – the combination of a subsystem under study and its surroundings – increases during all spontaneous chemical and physical processes.", "The Clausius equation of introduces the measurement of entropy change, .", "Entropy change describes the direction and quantifies the magnitude of simple changes such as heat transfer between systems – always from hotter to cooler spontaneously.The thermodynamic entropy therefore has the dimension of energy divided by temperature, and the unit joule per kelvin (J/K) in the International System of Units (SI).Thermodynamic entropy is an extensive property, meaning that it scales with the size or extent of a system.", "In many processes it is useful to specify the entropy as an intensive property independent of the size, as a specific entropy characteristic of the type of system studied.", "Specific entropy may be expressed relative to a unit of mass, typically the kilogram (unit: J⋅kg−1⋅K−1).", "Alternatively, in chemistry, it is also referred to one mole of substance, in which case it is called the ''molar entropy'' with a unit of J⋅mol−1⋅K−1.Thus, when one mole of substance at about is warmed by its surroundings to , the sum of the incremental values of constitute each element's or compound's standard molar entropy, an indicator of the amount of energy stored by a substance at .", "Entropy change also measures the mixing of substances as a summation of their relative quantities in the final mixture.Entropy is equally essential in predicting the extent and direction of complex chemical reactions.", "For such applications, must be incorporated in an expression that includes both the system and its surroundings, .", "This expression becomes, via some steps, the Gibbs free energy equation for reactants and products in the system: the Gibbs free energy change of the system the enthalpy change the entropy change.=== World's technological capacity to store and communicate entropic information ===A 2011 study in Science (journal) estimated the world's technological capacity to store and communicate optimally compressed information normalized on the most effective compression algorithms available in the year 2007, therefore estimating the entropy of the technologically available sources.", "The author's estimate that human kind's technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 (entropically compressed) exabytes in 1986 to 295 (entropically compressed) exabytes in 2007.The world's technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcast networks was 432 exabytes of (entropically compressed) information in 1986, to 1.9 zettabytes in 2007.The world's effective capacity to exchange information through two-way telecommunication networks was 281 petabytes of (entropically compressed) information in 1986, to 65 (entropically compressed) exabytes in 2007.=== Entropy balance equation for open systems ===steady-state continuous operation, an entropy balance applied to an open system accounts for system entropy changes related to heat flow and mass flow across the system boundary.In chemical engineering, the principles of thermodynamics are commonly applied to \"open systems\", i.e.", "those in which heat, work, and mass flow across the system boundary.", "Flows of both heat () and work, i.e.", "(shaft work) and (pressure-volume work), across the system boundaries, in general cause changes in the entropy of the system.", "Transfer as heat entails entropy transfer , where is the absolute thermodynamic temperature of the system at the point of the heat flow.", "If there are mass flows across the system boundaries, they also influence the total entropy of the system.", "This account, in terms of heat and work, is valid only for cases in which the work and heat transfers are by paths physically distinct from the paths of entry and exit of matter from the system.To derive a generalized entropy balanced equation, we start with the general balance equation for the change in any extensive quantity in a thermodynamic system, a quantity that may be either conserved, such as energy, or non-conserved, such as entropy.", "The basic generic balance expression states that , i.e.", "the rate of change of in the system, equals the rate at which enters the system at the boundaries, minus the rate at which leaves the system across the system boundaries, plus the rate at which is generated within the system.", "For an open thermodynamic system in which heat and work are transferred by paths separate from the paths for transfer of matter, using this generic balance equation, with respect to the rate of change with time of the extensive quantity entropy , the entropy balance equation is::where* is the net rate of entropy flow due to the flows of mass into and out of the system (where is entropy per unit mass).", "* is the rate of entropy flow due to the flow of heat across the system boundary.", "* is the rate of entropy production within the system.", "This entropy production arises from processes within the system, including chemical reactions, internal matter diffusion, internal heat transfer, and frictional effects such as viscosity occurring within the system from mechanical work transfer to or from the system.If there are multiple heat flows, the term is replaced by where is the heat flow and is the temperature at the th heat flow port into the system.The nomenclature \"entropy balance\" is misleading and often deemed inappropriate because entropy is not a conserved quantity.", "In other words, the term is never a known quantity but always a derived one based on the expression above.", "Therefore, the open system version of the second law is more appropriately described as the \"entropy generation equation\" since it specifies that , with zero for reversible processes or greater than zero for irreversible ones." ], [ "Entropy change formulas for simple processes", "For certain simple transformations in systems of constant composition, the entropy changes are given by simple formulas.=== Isothermal expansion or compression of an ideal gas ===For the expansion (or compression) of an ideal gas from an initial volume and pressure to a final volume and pressure at any constant temperature, the change in entropy is given by::Here is the amount of gas (in moles) and is the ideal gas constant.", "These equations also apply for expansion into a finite vacuum or a throttling process, where the temperature, internal energy and enthalpy for an ideal gas remain constant.=== Cooling and heating ===For pure heating or cooling of any system (gas, liquid or solid) at constant pressure from an initial temperature to a final temperature , the entropy change is:provided that the constant-pressure molar heat capacity (or specific heat) ''C''''P'' is constant and that no phase transition occurs in this temperature interval.Similarly at constant volume, the entropy change is:where the constant-volume molar heat capacity ''C''v is constant and there is no phase change.At low temperatures near absolute zero, heat capacities of solids quickly drop off to near zero, so the assumption of constant heat capacity does not apply.Since entropy is a state function, the entropy change of any process in which temperature and volume both vary is the same as for a path divided into two steps – heating at constant volume and expansion at constant temperature.", "For an ideal gas, the total entropy change is:Similarly if the temperature and pressure of an ideal gas both vary,:=== Phase transitions ===Reversible phase transitions occur at constant temperature and pressure.", "The reversible heat is the enthalpy change for the transition, and the entropy change is the enthalpy change divided by the thermodynamic temperature.", "For fusion (melting) of a solid to a liquid at the melting point ''T''m, the entropy of fusion is:Similarly, for vaporization of a liquid to a gas at the boiling point ''T''b, the entropy of vaporization is:" ], [ "Approaches to understanding entropy", "As a fundamental aspect of thermodynamics and physics, several different approaches to entropy beyond that of Clausius and Boltzmann are valid.=== Standard textbook definitions ===The following is a list of additional definitions of entropy from a collection of textbooks:* a measure of energy dispersal at a specific temperature.", "* a measure of disorder in the universe or of the availability of the energy in a system to do work.", "* a measure of a system's thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable for doing useful work.In Boltzmann's analysis in terms of constituent particles, entropy is a measure of the number of possible microscopic states (or microstates) of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium.=== Order and disorder ===Entropy is often loosely associated with the amount of order or disorder, or of chaos, in a thermodynamic system.", "The traditional qualitative description of entropy is that it refers to changes in the state of the system and is a measure of \"molecular disorder\" and the amount of wasted energy in a dynamical energy transformation from one state or form to another.", "In this direction, several recent authors have derived exact entropy formulas to account for and measure disorder and order in atomic and molecular assemblies.", "One of the simpler entropy order/disorder formulas is that derived in 1984 by thermodynamic physicist Peter Landsberg, based on a combination of thermodynamics and information theory arguments.", "He argues that when constraints operate on a system, such that it is prevented from entering one or more of its possible or permitted states, as contrasted with its forbidden states, the measure of the total amount of \"disorder\" in the system is given by::Similarly, the total amount of \"order\" in the system is given by::In which ''C''D is the \"disorder\" capacity of the system, which is the entropy of the parts contained in the permitted ensemble, ''C''I is the \"information\" capacity of the system, an expression similar to Shannon's channel capacity, and ''C''O is the \"order\" capacity of the system.=== Energy dispersal ===Slow motion video of a glass cup smashing on a concrete floor.", "In the very short time period of the breaking process, the entropy of the mass making up the glass cup rises sharply, as the matter and energy of the glass disperse.The concept of entropy can be described qualitatively as a measure of energy dispersal at a specific temperature.", "Similar terms have been in use from early in the history of classical thermodynamics, and with the development of statistical thermodynamics and quantum theory, entropy changes have been described in terms of the mixing or \"spreading\" of the total energy of each constituent of a system over its particular quantized energy levels.Ambiguities in the terms ''disorder'' and ''chaos'', which usually have meanings directly opposed to equilibrium, contribute to widespread confusion and hamper comprehension of entropy for most students.", "As the second law of thermodynamics shows, in an isolated system internal portions at different temperatures tend to adjust to a single uniform temperature and thus produce equilibrium.", "A recently developed educational approach avoids ambiguous terms and describes such spreading out of energy as dispersal, which leads to loss of the differentials required for work even though the total energy remains constant in accordance with the first law of thermodynamics (compare discussion in next section).", "Physical chemist Peter Atkins, in his textbook ''Physical Chemistry'', introduces entropy with the statement that \"spontaneous changes are always accompanied by a dispersal of energy or matter and often both\".=== Relating entropy to energy ''usefulness'' ===It is possible (in a thermal context) to regard lower entropy as a measure of the ''effectiveness'' or ''usefulness'' of a particular quantity of energy.", "Energy supplied at a higher temperature (i.e.", "with low entropy) tends to be more useful than the same amount of energy available at a lower temperature.", "Mixing a hot parcel of a fluid with a cold one produces a parcel of intermediate temperature, in which the overall increase in entropy represents a \"loss\" that can never be replaced.As the entropy of the universe is steadily increasing, its total energy is becoming less useful.", "Eventually, this is theorized to lead to the heat death of the universe.=== Entropy and adiabatic accessibility ===A definition of entropy based entirely on the relation of adiabatic accessibility between equilibrium states was given by E. H. Lieb and J. Yngvason in 1999.This approach has several predecessors, including the pioneering work of Constantin Carathéodory from 1909 and the monograph by R. Giles.", "In the setting of Lieb and Yngvason, one starts by picking, for a unit amount of the substance under consideration, two reference states and such that the latter is adiabatically accessible from the former but not conversely.", "Defining the entropies of the reference states to be 0 and 1 respectively, the entropy of a state is defined as the largest number such that is adiabatically accessible from a composite state consisting of an amount in the state and a complementary amount, , in the state .", "A simple but important result within this setting is that entropy is uniquely determined, apart from a choice of unit and an additive constant for each chemical element, by the following properties: It is monotonic with respect to the relation of adiabatic accessibility, additive on composite systems, and extensive under scaling.=== Entropy in quantum mechanics ===In quantum statistical mechanics, the concept of entropy was developed by John von Neumann and is generally referred to as \"von Neumann entropy\",: where ''ρ'' is the density matrix, and Tr is the trace operator.This upholds the correspondence principle, because in the classical limit, when the phases between the basis states used for the classical probabilities are purely random, this expression is equivalent to the familiar classical definition of entropy,: i.e.", "in such a basis the density matrix is diagonal.Von Neumann established a rigorous mathematical framework for quantum mechanics with his work .", "He provided in this work a theory of measurement, where the usual notion of wave function collapse is described as an irreversible process (the so-called von Neumann or projective measurement).", "Using this concept, in conjunction with the density matrix he extended the classical concept of entropy into the quantum domain.=== Information theory ===When viewed in terms of information theory, the entropy state function is the amount of information in the system that is needed to fully specify the microstate of the system.", "Entropy is the measure of the amount of missing information before reception.", "Often called ''Shannon entropy'', it was originally devised by Claude Shannon in 1948 to study the size of information of a transmitted message.", "The definition of information entropy is expressed in terms of a discrete set of probabilities so that:where the base of the logarithm determines the units (for example, the binary logarithm corresponds to bits).In the case of transmitted messages, these probabilities were the probabilities that a particular message was actually transmitted, and the entropy of the message system was a measure of the average size of information of a message.", "For the case of equal probabilities (i.e.", "each message is equally probable), the Shannon entropy (in bits) is just the number of binary questions needed to determine the content of the message.Most researchers consider information entropy and thermodynamic entropy directly linked to the same concept, while others argue that they are distinct.", "Both expressions are mathematically similar.", "If is the number of microstates that can yield a given macrostate, and each microstate has the same ''a priori'' probability, then that probability is .", "The Shannon entropy (in nats) is:and if entropy is measured in units of per nat, then the entropy is given by:which is the Boltzmann entropy formula, where is the Boltzmann constant, which may be interpreted as the thermodynamic entropy per nat.", "Some authors argue for dropping the word entropy for the function of information theory and using Shannon's other term, \"uncertainty\", instead.===Measurement===The entropy of a substance can be measured, although in an indirect way.", "The measurement, known as entropymetry, is done on a closed system (with particle number N and volume V being constants) and uses the definition of temperature in terms of entropy, while limiting energy exchange to heat ().", ": The resulting relation describes how entropy changes when a small amount of energy is introduced into the system at a certain temperature .The process of measurement goes as follows.", "First, a sample of the substance is cooled as close to absolute zero as possible.", "At such temperatures, the entropy approaches zerodue to the definition of temperature.", "Then, small amounts of heat are introduced into the sample and the change in temperature is recorded, until the temperature reaches a desired value (usually 25 °C).", "The obtained data allows the user to integrate the equation above, yielding the absolute value of entropy of the substance at the final temperature.", "This value of entropy is called calorimetric entropy." ], [ "Interdisciplinary applications", "Although the concept of entropy was originally a thermodynamic concept, it has been adapted in other fields of study, including information theory, psychodynamics, thermoeconomics/ecological economics, and evolution.===Philosophy and theoretical physics===Entropy is the only quantity in the physical sciences that seems to imply a particular direction of progress, sometimes called an arrow of time.", "As time progresses, the second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system never decreases in large systems over significant periods of time.", "Hence, from this perspective, entropy measurement is thought of as a clock in these conditions.=== Biology ===Chiavazzo ''et al.''", "proposed that where cave spiders choose to lay their eggs can be explained through entropy minimization.Entropy has been proven useful in the analysis of base pair sequences in DNA.", "Many entropy-based measures have been shown to distinguish between different structural regions of the genome, differentiate between coding and non-coding regions of DNA, and can also be applied for the recreation of evolutionary trees by determining the evolutionary distance between different species.=== Cosmology ===Assuming that a finite universe is an isolated system, the second law of thermodynamics states that its total entropy is continually increasing.", "It has been speculated, since the 19th century, that the universe is fated to a heat death in which all the energy ends up as a homogeneous distribution of thermal energy so that no more work can be extracted from any source.If the universe can be considered to have generally increasing entropy, then – as Roger Penrose has pointed out – gravity plays an important role in the increase because gravity causes dispersed matter to accumulate into stars, which collapse eventually into black holes.", "The entropy of a black hole is proportional to the surface area of the black hole's event horizon.", "Jacob Bekenstein and Stephen Hawking have shown that black holes have the maximum possible entropy of any object of equal size.", "This makes them likely end points of all entropy-increasing processes, if they are totally effective matter and energy traps.", "However, the escape of energy from black holes might be possible due to quantum activity (see Hawking radiation).The role of entropy in cosmology remains a controversial subject since the time of Ludwig Boltzmann.", "Recent work has cast some doubt on the heat death hypothesis and the applicability of any simple thermodynamic model to the universe in general.", "Although entropy does increase in the model of an expanding universe, the maximum possible entropy rises much more rapidly, moving the universe further from the heat death with time, not closer.", "This results in an \"entropy gap\" pushing the system further away from the posited heat death equilibrium.", "Other complicating factors, such as the energy density of the vacuum and macroscopic quantum effects, are difficult to reconcile with thermodynamical models, making any predictions of large-scale thermodynamics extremely difficult.Current theories suggest the entropy gap to have been originally opened up by the early rapid exponential expansion of the universe.=== Economics ===Romanian American economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, a progenitor in economics and a paradigm founder of ecological economics, made extensive use of the entropy concept in his magnum opus on ''The Entropy Law and the Economic Process''.", "Due to Georgescu-Roegen's work, the laws of thermodynamics form an integral part of the ecological economics school.", "Although his work was blemished somewhat by mistakes, a full chapter on the economics of Georgescu-Roegen has approvingly been included in one elementary physics textbook on the historical development of thermodynamics.In economics, Georgescu-Roegen's work has generated the term 'entropy pessimism'.", "Since the 1990s, leading ecological economist and steady-state theorist Herman Daly – a student of Georgescu-Roegen – has been the economics profession's most influential proponent of the entropy pessimism position." ], [ "See also", "* Boltzmann entropy* Brownian ratchet* Configuration entropy* Conformational entropy* Entropic explosion* Entropic force* Entropic value at risk* Entropy and life* Entropy unit* Free entropy* Harmonic entropy* Info-metrics* Negentropy (negative entropy)* Phase space* Principle of maximum entropy* Residual entropy* Thermodynamic potential" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Lambert, Frank L.; * * * * * * Sharp, Kim (2019).", "''Entropy and the Tao of Counting: A Brief Introduction to Statistical Mechanics and the Second Law of Thermodynamics'' (SpringerBriefs in Physics).", "Springer Nature.", ".", "* Spirax-Sarco Limited, Entropy – A Basic Understanding A primer on entropy tables for steam engineering*" ], [ "External links", "* \"Entropy\" at ''Scholarpedia''* Entropy and the Clausius inequality MIT OCW lecture, part of 5.60 Thermodynamics & Kinetics, Spring 2008* Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics – an A-level physics lecture with 'derivation' of entropy based on Carnot cycle* Khan Academy: entropy lectures, part of Chemistry playlist** Entropy Intuition** More on Entropy** Proof: S (or Entropy) is a valid state variable** Reconciling Thermodynamic and State Definitions of Entropy** Thermodynamic Entropy Definition Clarification* * The Discovery of Entropy by Adam Shulman.", "Hour-long video, January 2013.", "* The Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy – Yale OYC lecture, part of Fundamentals of Physics I (PHYS 200)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Expert" ], [ "Introduction", "Adolf von Becker: ''The Art Expert''An '''expert''' is somebody who has a broad and deep understanding and competence in terms of knowledge, skill and experience through practice and education in a particular field or area of study.", "Informally, an expert is someone widely recognized as a reliable source of technique or skill whose faculty for judging or deciding rightly, justly, or wisely is accorded authority and status by peers or the public in a specific well-distinguished domain.", "An expert, more generally, is a person with extensive knowledge or ability based on research, experience, or occupation and in a particular area of study.", "Experts are called in for advice on their respective subject, but they do not always agree on the particulars of a field of study.", "An expert can be believed, by virtue of credentials, training, education, profession, publication or experience, to have special knowledge of a subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially (and legally) rely upon the individual's opinion on that topic.", "Historically, an expert was referred to as a sage.", "The individual was usually a profound thinker distinguished for wisdom and sound judgment.In specific fields, the definition of expert is well established by consensus and therefore it is not always necessary for individuals to have a professional or academic qualification for them to be accepted as an expert.", "In this respect, a shepherd with fifty years of experience tending flocks would be widely recognized as having complete expertise in the use and training of sheep dogs and the care of sheep.", "Another example from computer science is that an expert system may be taught by a human and thereafter considered an expert, often outperforming human beings at particular tasks.", "In law, an expert witness must be recognized by argument and authority.Research in this area attempts to understand the relation between expert knowledge, skills and personal characteristics and exceptional performance.", "Some researchers have investigated the cognitive structures and processes of experts.", "The fundamental aim of this research is to describe what it is that experts know and how they use their knowledge to achieve performance that most people assume requires extreme or extraordinary ability.", "Studies have investigated the factors that enable experts to be fast and accurate." ], [ "Expertise", "Expertise characteristics, skills and knowledge of a person (that is, expert) or of a system, which distinguish experts from novices and less experienced people.", "In many domains there are objective measures of performance capable of distinguishing experts from novices: expert chess players will almost always win games against recreational chess players; expert medical specialists are more likely to diagnose a disease correctly; etc.The word expertise is used to refer also to expert determination, where an expert is invited to decide a disputed issue.", "The decision may be binding or advisory, according to the agreement between the parties in dispute.===Academic views===There are two academic approaches to the understanding and study of expertise.", "The first understands expertise as an emergent property of communities of practice.", "In this view expertise is socially constructed; tools for thinking and scripts for action are jointly constructed within social groups enabling that group jointly to define and acquire expertise in some domain.In the second view, expertise is a characteristic of individuals and is a consequence of the human capacity for extensive adaptation to physical and social environments.", "Many accounts of the development of expertise emphasize that it comes about through long periods of deliberate practice.", "In many domains of expertise estimates of 10 years' experience deliberate practice are common.", "Recent research on expertise emphasizes the nurture side of the nature and nurture argument.", "Some factors not fitting the nature-nurture dichotomy are biological but not genetic, such as starting age, handedness, and season of birth.In the field of education there is a potential \"expert blind spot\" (see also Dunning–Kruger effect) in newly practicing educators who are experts in their content area.", "This is based on the \"expert blind spot hypothesis\" researched by Mitchell Nathan and Andrew Petrosino.", "Newly practicing educators with advanced subject-area expertise of an educational content area tend to use the formalities and analysis methods of their particular area of expertise as a major guiding factor of student instruction and knowledge development, rather than being guided by student learning and developmental needs that are prevalent among novice learners.The blind spot metaphor refers to the physiological blind spot in human vision in which perceptions of surroundings and circumstances are strongly impacted by their expectations.", "Beginning practicing educators tend to overlook the importance of novice levels of prior knowledge and other factors involved in adjusting and adapting pedagogy for learner understanding.", "This expert blind spot is in part due to an assumption that novices' cognitive schemata are less elaborate, interconnected, and accessible than experts' and that their pedagogical reasoning skills are less well developed.", "Essential knowledge of subject matter for practicing educators consists of overlapping knowledge domains: subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content matter.", "Pedagogical content matter consists of an understanding of how to represent certain concepts in ways appropriate to the learner contexts, including abilities and interests.", "The expert blind spot is a pedagogical phenomenon that is typically overcome through educators' experience with instructing learners over time.===Historical views===In line with the socially constructed view of expertise, expertise can also be understood as a form of power; that is, experts have the ability to influence others as a result of their defined social status.", "By a similar token, a fear of experts can arise from fear of an intellectual elite's power.", "In earlier periods of history, simply being able to read made one part of an intellectual elite.", "The introduction of the printing press in Europe during the fifteenth century and the diffusion of printed matter contributed to higher literacy rates and wider access to the once-rarefied knowledge of academia.", "The subsequent spread of education and learning changed society, and initiated an era of widespread education whose elite would now instead be those who produced the written content itself for consumption, in education and all other spheres.Plato's \"Noble Lie\", concerns expertise.", "Plato did not believe most people were clever enough to look after their own and society's best interest, so the few clever people of the world needed to lead the rest of the flock.", "Therefore, the idea was born that only the elite should know the truth in its complete form and the rulers, Plato said, must tell the people of the city \"the noble lie\" to keep them passive and content, without the risk of upheaval and unrest.In contemporary society, doctors and scientists, for example, are considered to be experts in that they hold a body of dominant knowledge that is, on the whole, inaccessible to the layman.", "However, this inaccessibility and perhaps even mystery that surrounds expertise does not cause the layman to disregard the opinion of the experts on account of the unknown.", "Instead, the complete opposite occurs whereby members of the public believe in and highly value the opinion of medical professionals or of scientific discoveries, despite not understanding it.===Related research===A number of computational models have been developed in cognitive science to explain the development from novice to expert.", "In particular, Herbert A. Simon and Kevin Gilmartin proposed a model of learning in chess called MAPP (Memory-Aided Pattern Recognizer).", "Based on simulations, they estimated that about 50,000 chunks (units of memory) are necessary to become an expert, and hence the many years needed to reach this level.", "More recently, the CHREST model (Chunk Hierarchy and REtrieval STructures) has simulated in detail a number of phenomena in chess expertise (eye movements, performance in a variety of memory tasks, development from novice to expert) and in other domains.An important feature of expert performance seems to be the way in which experts are able to rapidly retrieve complex configurations of information from long-term memory.", "They recognize situations because they have meaning.", "It is perhaps this central concern with meaning and how it attaches to situations which provides an important link between the individual and social approaches to the development of expertise.", "Work on \"Skilled Memory and Expertise\" by Anders Ericsson and James J. Staszewski confronts the paradox of expertise and claims that people not only acquire content knowledge as they practice cognitive skills, they also develop mechanisms that enable them to use a large and familiar knowledge base efficiently.Work on expert systems (computer software designed to provide an answer to a problem, or clarify uncertainties where normally one or more human experts would need to be consulted) typically is grounded on the premise that expertise is based on acquired repertoires of rules and frameworks for decision making which can be elicited as the basis for computer supported judgment and decision-making.", "However, there is increasing evidence that expertise does not work in this fashion.", "Rather, experts recognize situations based on experience of many prior situations.", "They are in consequence able to make rapid decisions in complex and dynamic situations.In a critique of the expert systems literature, Dreyfus & Dreyfus suggest: If one asks an expert for the rules he or she is using, one will, in effect, force the expert to regress to the level of a beginner and state the rules learned in school.", "Thus, instead of using rules he or she no longer remembers, as the knowledge engineers suppose, the expert is forced to remember rules he or she no longer uses.", "... No amount of rules and facts can capture the knowledge an expert has when he or she has stored experience of the actual outcomes of tens of thousands of situations.====Skilled memory theory====The role of long-term memory in the skilled memory effect was first articulated by Chase and Simon in their classic studies of chess expertise.", "They asserted that organized patterns of information stored in long-term memory (chunks) mediated experts' rapid encoding and superior retention.", "Their study revealed that all subjects retrieved about the same number of chunks, but the size of the chunks varied with subjects' prior experience.", "Experts' chunks contained more individual pieces than those of novices.", "This research did not investigate how experts find, distinguish, and retrieve the right chunks from the vast number they hold without a lengthy search of long-term memory.Skilled memory enables experts to rapidly encode, store, and retrieve information within the domain of their expertise and thereby circumvent the capacity limitations that typically constrain novice performance.", "For example, it explains experts' ability to recall large amounts of material displayed for only brief study intervals, provided that the material comes from their domain of expertise.", "When unfamiliar material (not from their domain of expertise) is presented to experts, their recall is no better than that of novices.The first principle of skilled memory, the ''meaningful encoding principle,'' states that experts exploit prior knowledge to durably encode information needed to perform a familiar task successfully.", "Experts form more elaborate and accessible memory representations than novices.", "The elaborate semantic memory network creates meaningful memory codes that create multiple potential cues and avenues for retrieval.The second principle, the ''retrieval structure principle'' states that experts develop memory mechanisms called retrieval structures to facilitate the retrieval of information stored in long-term memory.", "These mechanisms operate in a fashion consistent with the meaningful encoding principle to provide cues that can later be regenerated to retrieve the stored information efficiently without a lengthy search.The third principle, the ''speed up principle'' states that long-term memory encoding and retrieval operations speed up with practice, so that their speed and accuracy approach the speed and accuracy of short-term memory storage and retrieval.Examples of skilled memory research described in the Ericsson and Stasewski study include:* a '''waiter''' who can accurately remember up to 20 complete dinner orders in an actual restaurant setting by using mnemonic strategy, patterns, and spatial relations (position of the person ordering).", "At the time of recall all items of a category (e.g., all salad dressings, then all meat temperatures, then all steak types, then all starch type) would be recalled in clockwise for all customers.", "* a '''running enthusiast''' who grouped together short random sequences of digits and encoded the groups in terms of their meaning as running times, dates, and ages.", "He was thus able to recall over 84% of all digit groups presented in a session totaling 200–300 digits.", "His expertise was limited to digits; when a switch from digits to letters of the alphabet was made he exhibited no transfer—his memory span dropped back to about six consonants.", "* '''math enthusiasts''' who can in less than 25 seconds mentally solve 2 × 5 digit multiplication problems (e.g., 23 × 48,856) that have been presented orally by the researcher.====In problem solving====Much of the research regarding expertise involves the studies of how experts and novices differ in solving problems.", "Mathematics and physics are common domains for these studies.One of the most cited works in this area examines how experts (PhD students in physics) and novices (undergraduate students that completed one semester of mechanics) categorize and represent physics problems.", "They found that novices sort problems into categories based upon surface features (e.g., keywords in the problem statement or visual configurations of the objects depicted).", "Experts, however, categorize problems based upon their deep structures (i.e., the main physics principle used to solve the problem).Their findings also suggest that while the schemas of both novices and experts are activated by the same features of a problem statement, the experts' schemas contain more procedural knowledge which aid in determining which principle to apply, and novices' schemas contain mostly declarative knowledge which do not aid in determining methods for solution.====Germain's scale====Relative to a specific field, an expert has:* Specific education, training, and knowledge* Required qualifications* Ability to assess importance in work-related situations* Capability to improve themselves* Intuition* Self-assurance and confidence in their knowledgeMarie-Line Germain developed a psychometric measure of perception of employee expertise called the Generalized Expertise Measure.", "She defined a behavioral dimension in experts, in addition to the dimensions suggested by Swanson and Holton.", "Her 16-item scale contains objective expertise items and subjective expertise items.", "Objective items were named Evidence-Based items.", "Subjective items (the remaining 11 items from the measure below) were named Self-Enhancement items because of their behavioral component.", "* This person has knowledge specific to a field of work.", "* This person shows they have the education necessary to be an expert in the field.", "* This person has the qualifications required to be an expert in the field.", "* This person has been trained in their area of expertise.", "* This person is ambitious about their work in the company.", "* This person can assess whether a work-related situation is important or not.", "* This person is capable of improving themselves.", "* This person is charismatic.", "* This person can deduce things from work-related situations easily.", "* This person is intuitive in the job.", "* This person is able to judge what things are important in their job.", "* This person has the drive to become what they are capable of becoming in their field.", "* This person is self-assured.", "* This person has self-confidence.", "* This person is outgoing." ], [ "Rhetoric", "Scholars in rhetoric have also turned their attention to the concept of the expert.", "Considered an appeal to ethos or \"the personal character of the speaker\", established expertise allows a speaker to make statements regarding special topics of which the audience may be ignorant.", "In other words, the expert enjoys the deference of the audience's judgment and can appeal to authority where a non-expert cannot.In The Rhetoric of Expertise, E. Johanna Hartelius defines two basic modes of expertise: autonomous and attributed expertise.", "While an autonomous expert can \"possess expert knowledge without recognition from other people,\" attributed expertise is \"a performance that may or may not indicate genuine knowledge.\"", "With these two categories, Hartelius isolates the rhetorical problems faced by experts: just as someone with autonomous expertise may not possess the skill to persuade people to hold their points of view, someone with merely attributed expertise may be persuasive but lack the actual knowledge pertaining to a given subject.", "The problem faced by audiences follows from the problem facing experts: when faced with competing claims of expertise, what resources do non-experts have to evaluate claims put before them?===Dialogic expertise===Hartelius and other scholars have also noted the challenges that projects such as Wikipedia pose to how experts have traditionally constructed their authority.", "In \"Wikipedia and the Emergence of Dialogic Expertise\", she highlights Wikipedia as an example of the \"dialogic expertise\" made possible by collaborative digital spaces.", "Predicated upon the notion that \"truth emerges from dialogue\", Wikipedia challenges traditional expertise both because anyone can edit it and because no single person, regardless of their credentials, can end a discussion by fiat.", "In other words, the community, rather than single individuals, direct the course of discussion.", "The production of knowledge, then, as a process of dialogue and argumentation, becomes an inherently rhetorical activity.Hartelius calls attention to two competing norm systems of expertise: “network norms of dialogic collaboration” and “deferential norms of socially sanctioned professionalism”; Wikipedia being evidence of the first.", "Drawing on a Bakhtinian framework, Hartelius posits that Wikipedia is an example of an epistemic network that is driven by the view that individuals' ideas clash with one another so as to generate expertise collaboratively.", "Hartelius compares Wikipedia's methodology of open-ended discussions of topics to that of Bakhtin's theory of speech communication, where genuine dialogue is considered a live event, which is continuously open to new additions and participants.", "Hartelius acknowledges that knowledge, experience, training, skill, and qualification are important dimensions of expertise but posits that the concept is more complex than sociologists and psychologists suggest.", "Arguing that expertise is rhetorical, then, Hartelius explains that expertise \"is not simply about one person's skills being different from another's.", "It is also fundamentally contingent on a struggle for ownership and legitimacy.\"", "Effective communication is an inherent element in expertise in the same style as knowledge is.", "Rather than leaving each other out, substance and communicative style are complementary.", "Hartelius further suggests that Wikipedia's dialogic construction of expertise illustrates both the instrumental and the constitutive dimensions of rhetoric; instrumentally as it challenges traditional encyclopedias and constitutively as a function of its knowledge production.", "Going over the historical development of the encyclopedic project, Hartelius argues that changes in traditional encyclopedias have led to changes in traditional expertise.", "Wikipedia's use of hyperlinks to connect one topic to another depends on, and develops, electronic interactivity meaning that Wikipedia's way of knowing is dialogic.", "Dialogic expertise then, emerges from multiple interactions between utterances within the discourse community.", "The ongoing dialogue between contributors on Wikipedia not only results in the emergence of truth; it also explicates the topics one can be an expert of.", "As Hartelius explains, \"the very act of presenting information about topics that are not included in traditional encyclopedias is a construction of new expertise.\"", "While Wikipedia insists that contributors must only publish preexisting knowledge, the dynamics behind dialogic expertise creates new information nonetheless.", "Knowledge production is created as a function of dialogue.", "According to Hartelius, dialogic expertise has emerged on Wikipedia not only because of its interactive structure but also because of the site's hortative discourse which is not found in traditional encyclopedias.", "By Wikipedia's hortative discourse, Hartelius means various encouragements to edit certain topics and instructions on how to do so that appear on the site.", "One further reason to the emergence of dialogic expertise on Wikipedia is the site's community pages, which function as a techne; explicating Wikipedia's expert methodology.===Networked expertise===Building on Hartelius, Damien Pfister developed the concept of \"networked expertise\".", "Noting that Wikipedia employs a \"many to many\" rather than a \"one to one\" model of communication, he notes how expertise likewise shifts to become a quality of a group rather than an individual.", "With the information traditionally associated with individual experts now stored within a text produced by a collective, knowing about something is less important than knowing how to find something.", "As he puts it, \"With the internet, the historical power of subject matter expertise is eroded: the archival nature of the Web means that what and how to information is readily available.\"", "The rhetorical authority previously afforded to subject matter expertise, then, is given to those with the procedural knowledge of how to find information called for by a situation." ], [ "Contrasts and comparisons", "===Associated terms===An expert differs from the specialist in that a specialist has to ''be able to solve'' a problem and an expert has to ''know its solution''.", "The opposite of an expert is generally known as a layperson, while someone who occupies a middle grade of understanding is generally known as a technician and often employed to assist experts.", "A person may well be an expert in one field and a layperson in many other fields.", "The concepts of experts and expertise are debated within the field of epistemology under the general heading of expert knowledge.", "In contrast, the opposite of a specialist would be a generalist or polymath.The term is widely used informally, with people being described as 'experts' in order to bolster the relative value of their opinion, when no objective criteria for their expertise is available.", "The term crank is likewise used to disparage opinions.", "Academic elitism arises when experts become convinced that only their opinion is useful, sometimes on matters beyond their personal expertise.In contrast to an expert, a novice (known colloquially as a newbie or 'greenhorn') is any person that is new to any science or field of study or activity or social cause and who is undergoing training in order to meet normal requirements of being regarded a mature and equal participant.", "\"Expert\" is also being mistakenly interchanged with the term \"authority\" in new media.", "An expert can be an authority if through relationships to people and technology, that expert is allowed to control access to his expertise.", "However, a person who merely wields authority is not by right an expert.", "In new media, users are being misled by the term \"authority\".", "Many sites and search engines such as Google and Technorati use the term \"authority\" to denote the link value and traffic to a particular topic.", "However, this authority only measures populist information.", "It in no way assures that the author of that site or blog is an expert.An expert is not to be confused with a professional.", "A professional is someone who gets paid to do something.", "An amateur is the opposite of a professional, not the opposite of an expert.===Developmental characteristics===Some characteristics of the development of an expert have been found to include* A characterization of this practice as \"deliberate practice\", which forces the practitioner to come up with new ways to encourage and enable themselves to reach new levels of performance* An early phase of learning which is characterized by enjoyment, excitement, and participation without outcome-related goals.", "* The ability to rearrange or construct a higher dimension of creativity.", "Due to such familiarity or advanced knowledge experts can develop more abstract perspectives of their concepts and/or performances." ], [ "Use in literature", "Mark Twain defined an expert as \"an ordinary fellow from another town\".", "Will Rogers described an expert as \"A man fifty miles from home with a briefcase.\"", "Danish scientist and Nobel laureate Niels Bohr defined an expert as \"A person that has made every possible mistake within his or her field.\"", "Malcolm Gladwell describes expertise as a matter of practicing the correct way for a total of around 10,000 hours." ], [ "See also", "* * * ===General===* * * * * * ===Criticism===* * * * ===Psychology===* * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * Collins, R. (1979).", "''The Credential Society''* * * Dewey, J.", "(1927).", "''The Public and its Problems''* * Ericsson, K. A.", "(2000).", "Expert Performance and Deliberate Practice* * * * * Germain, M.-L. (2005).", "Apperception and self-identification of managerial and subordinate expertise.", "Academy of Human Resource Development.", "Estes Park, CO. February 24–27.", "* * Germain, M.-L. (2006b).", "Perception of Instructors’ Expertise by College Students: An Exploratory Qualitative Research Study.", "American Educational Research Association annual conference, San Francisco, CA.", "April 7–11.", "* Germain, M.-L. (2006c).", "What experts are not: Factors identified by managers as disqualifiers for selecting subordinates for expert team membership.", "Academy of Human Resource Development Conference.", "Columbus, OH.", "February 22–26.", "* Germain, M.-L. (2009).", "The impact of perceived administrators' expertise on subordinates' job satisfaction and turnover intention.", "Academy of Human Resource Development.", "Arlington, VA. February 18–22.", "* Germain, M.-L., & Tejeda, M. J.", "(2012).", "A preliminary exploration on the measurement of expertise: An initial development of a psychometric scale.", "Human Resource Development Quarterly, 23, no.", "2, 203–232.doi:10.1002/hrdq.21134.", "* * * * * * * * Goldman, A. I.", "(1999). ''", "Knowledge in a Social World''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* * * Kitsikis, Dimitri, ''Le rôle des experts à la Conférence de la Paix.", "Gestation d'une technocratie en politique internationale''.", "Ottawa, Editions de l'Université d'Ottawa, 1972, 227 pages.", "* Mieg, Harald A.", "(2001).", "''The social psychology of expertise''.", "Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.", "* * * * * * * Sowell, T. (1980).", "''Knowledge and decisions''.", "New York: Basic Books, Inc.* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", ";Books and publications* Brint, Steven.", "1994.In an Age of Experts: The Changing Roles of Professionals in Politics and Public Life.", "Princeton University Press.", "* Ikujiro Nonaka, Georg von Krogh, and Sven Voelpel, Organizational Knowledge Creation Theory: Evolutionary Paths and Future Advances.", "Organization Studies, Vol.", "27, No.", "8, 1179-1208 (2006).", "SAGE Publications, 2006.DOI 10.1177/0170840606066312* * * B Wynne, May the sheep safely graze?", "A reflexive view of the expert-lay knowledge divide.", "Risk, Environment and Modernity: Towards a New Ecology, 1996.", "* Thomas H. Davenport, et al., Working knowledge .", "1998, knowledge.hut.fi.", "* Mats Alvesson, Knowledge work: Ambiguity, image and identity.", "Human Relations, Vol.", "54, No.", "7, 863-886 (2001).", "The Tavistock Institute, 2001.", "* Peter J. Laugharne, Parliament and Specialist Advice, Manutius Press, 1994.", "* Jay Liebowitz, Knowledge Management Handbook.", "CRC Press, 1999.328 pages.", "* C. Nadine Wathen and Jacquelyn Burkell, Believe it or not: Factors influencing credibility on the Web.", "Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, VL.", "53, NO.", "2.PG 134–144.John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.DOI 10.1002/asi.10016* Nico Stehr, Knowledge Societies.", "Sage Publications, 1994.304 pages.", ";Patents* , Basic expert system tool, Steven Hardy et al., Filed November 25, 1987, Issued February 7, 1989." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Afghanistan" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Afghanistan''' is listed as the 124th largest in the world in terms of nominal gross domestic product (GDP), and 102nd largest in the world in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP).", "With a population of around 41 million people, Afghanistan's GDP (nominal) stands at $14.58 billion as of 2021, amounting to a GDP per capita of $363.7 (according to a World Bank report).", "Its annual exports exceed $2 billion, with agricultural, mineral and textile products accounting for 94% of total exports.", "The nation's total external debt is $1.4 billion as of 2022.The Afghan economy continues to improve due to the influx of expats, establishment of more trade routes with neighboring and regional countries, and expansion of the nation's agriculture, energy and mining sectors.", "The billions of dollars in assistance that came from expats and the international community saw this increase when there was more political reliability after NATO became involved in Afghanistan.Despite holding over one trillion dollars in proven untapped mineral deposits, Afghanistan remains one of the least developed countries in the world.", "Its unemployment rate is over 23% and about half of its population lives below the poverty line.", "The main factor behind this has been the continuous war in the country, which deterred business investors and left much of the population fighting among each other instead of catching up with the rest of the world.", "Afghanistan has long sought foreign investment in order to improve its economy.", "The population of Afghanistan increased by more than 50% between 2001 and 2014, while its GDP grew eightfold.", "After the U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan and the Taliban's return to power in 2021, the Biden administration decided to confiscate or withhold $9.5 billion worth of assets from the Afghanistan Central Bank to stop the Taliban from accessing it.The official currency of Afghanistan is the afghani (AFN), which has an exchange rate of around 70 afghanis to 1 United States dollar.", "The country has a central bank called Da Afghanistan Bank (DAB).", "A number of local banks also operate in the country, including the Afghanistan International Bank, Azizi Bank, New Kabul Bank and Pashtany Bank." ], [ "Economic history", "When Afghanistan was ruled by Emir Abdur Rahman Khan (1880–1901) and his son Habibullah Khan (1901–1919), a great deal of commerce was controlled by the government.", "These monarchs were eager to develop the stature of government and the country's military capability, and so attempted to raise money by the imposition of state monopolies on the sale of commodities and high taxes.", "This slowed the long-term development of Afghanistan during that period.", "Western technologies and manufacturing methods were introduced at the command of the Afghan ruler, but in general only according to the logistical requirements of the growing army.", "An emphasis was placed on the manufacture of weapons and other military material.", "This process was in the hands of a small number of foreign experts invited to Kabul by the Afghan kings.", "Otherwise, it was not possible for non-Afghans, particularly westerners, to set up large-scale enterprises in Afghanistan during that period.In the post-independence period, DAB strongly financed the cultivation of cotton; at one point, the Spinzar Cotton Company in Kunduz Province was one of the largest providers of cotton in the world, most of which were exported to the Soviet Union.", "Fruits were mainly exported to British-controlled India.The first prominent plan to develop Afghanistan's economy in modern times was the Helmand Valley Authority project of 1952, modeled on the Tennessee Valley Authority in the United States, which was expected to be of primary economic importance.", "Glenn Foster, an American contractor working in Afghanistan in the 1950s, stated this about the Afghan people:Afghanistan began facing severe economic hardships during the 1979 Soviet invasion and ensuing civil war destroyed much of the country's limited infrastructure, and disrupted normal patterns of economic activity.", "Eventually, Afghanistan went from a traditional economy to a centrally planned economy up until 2002 when it was replaced by a free market economy.", "Gross domestic product has fallen substantially since the 1980s due to disruption of trade and transport as well as loss of labor and capital.", "Continuing internal strife severely hampered domestic efforts to rebuild the nation or provide ways for the international community to help.According to the International Monetary Fund, the Afghan economy grew 20% in the fiscal year ending in March 2004, after expanding 30% in the previous 12 months.", "The growth was mainly attributed to United Nations assistance.", "Billions of dollars in international aid had entered Afghanistan from 2002 to 2021.A GDP of $4 billion in fiscal year 2003 was recalculated by the IMF to $6.1 billion, after adding proceeds from opium production.", "Mean graduate pay was $0.56 per man-hour in 2010.The country expects to be self sufficient in wheat, rice, poultry and dairy production by 2026.The recent reestablishment of the Taliban government led to temporary suspension of international development aid to Afghanistan.", "The World Bank and International Monetary Fund also halted payments during that period.", "In this regard, Taliban's spiritual leader Hibatullah Akhundzada stated, \"The economy of a country is built when its people work together and do not rely on foreign aid.\"", "The Biden administration froze about $9 billion in assets belonging to the DAB, which was intended to block the Taliban from accessing the money.", "The recent droughts, earthquakes and floods in the country have created further adverse economic situation for many residents.", "The Ministry of Finance has collected over $2 billion in 2022.The GDP of Afghanistan is estimated to have dropped by 20% following the Taliban return to power.", "Following this, after months of free-fall, the Afghan economy began stabilizing, as a result of the Taliban's restrictions on smuggled imports, limits on banking transactions, and UN aid.", "In 2023, the Afghan economy began seeing signs of revival.", "This has also been followed by stable exchange rates, low inflation, stable revenue collection, and the rise of trade in exports.", "In the third quarter of 2023, the Afghani rose to be the best performing currency in the world, climbing over 9% against the US dollar." ], [ "Agriculture and livestock", "Agriculture remains Afghanistan’s most important source of employment: 60-80 percent of Afghanistan’s population works in this sector, although it accounts for less than a third of GDP due to insufficient irrigation, drought, lack of market access, and other structural impediments.", "Most Afghan farmers are primarily subsistence farmers.An agricultural show in Kabul, in 2009Workers processing pomegranates (''anaar''), which Afghanistan is famous for in AsiaAfghan grapesAfghanistan produced in 2018:* 3.6 million tons of wheat;* 984 thousand tons of grape (18th largest world producer);* 615 thousand tons of potato;* 591 thousand tons of vegetable;* 381 thousand tons of watermelon;* 352 thousand tons of rice;* 329 thousand tons of melon;* 217 thousand tons of apple;* 150 thousand tons of onion;* 106 thousand tons of maize;* 56 thousand tons of barley;* 47 thousand tons of peach;In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.Afghanistan produces around 1.5 million tons of fresh fruits annually, which could be increased significantly.", "It is known for producing some of the finest fruits, especially pomegranates and grapes as well as sweet melons and mulberries.", "Other fruits grown in the country include apples, apricots, cherries, figs, kiwi, oranges, peaches, pears, persimmons, plums, and strawberries.", "As of 2022, farming is entirely organic and steadily increasing.", "There are over 5,000 greenhouses in the country.", "The northern and western Afghan provinces are long known for pistachio cultivation.", "In recent years, farmers in the southern provinces began growing American pistachio trees.", "Provinces in the east of the country, particularly Khost and Paktia, are famous for pine nuts.", "The northern and central provinces are also famous for almonds and walnuts, as well as for ''kangina'', a method of storing grapes in mud.", "The Bamyan Province in central Afghanistan is known for growing superior quality potatoes, which produced 370,000 tons in 2020.Nangarhar, Kunar and Laghman are the only provinces in the country where large farms of grapefruits, lemons, limes, and oranges can be found.", "Nangarhar also has farms of dates, peanuts, olives, and sugarcane.", "Cultivation of these products have spread to other provinces of the country.", "Other agricultural products such as avocados, bananas and pineapples have recently been planted in the provinces of Balkh, Helmand, Nangarhar, and Paktia.", "Afghanistan is listed as the 54th largest vegetables producing country.", "Most of its vegetables are for domestic consumption and include beans, broccoli, cabbages, carrots, cauliflowers, chickpeas, coriander, corns, cucumbers, eggplants, leeks, lettuces, okras, onions, peppers, potatoes, pumpkins, radishes, rhubarb, spinach, tomatoes, turnips, and zucchinis.", "Wheat and cereal production is Afghanistan's traditional agricultural mainstay.", "The nation is nearing self-sufficiency in grain production.", "It requires an additional 1 to 3 million tons of wheat to become self-sufficient, which is predicted to be accomplished in the near future.Samples of Afghan fresh and dried fruitsKabul River near Jalalabad in Nangarhar ProvinceLivestock in Afghanistan mainly include cattle, sheep, and goats.", "Poultry farming is widespread in the warmer parts of the country.", "The Habib Hassam Poultry Complex is located in Jalalabad.Arable land in Afghanistan was reported to be over 7.5 million hectares.", "Wheat production had stood at about 5 million tonnes in 2015, nurseries held 119,000 hectares of land, and grape production is at 615,000 tonnes.", "It was reported that cotton production has jumped to 500,000 tons.", "Around of farm land in Afghanistan is used to cultivate saffron, mostly in the west, north and south of the country.", "Sugarcane is currently grown on of land, and asafoetida on nearly of land.===Forestry===According to a 2010 report, only about 2.1% (or ) of Afghanistan is forested.", "This can be significantly increased by planting trees, including in the non-rocky hills and mountains which trap underground water.", "Some steps have been taken in recent years in planting trees in the urban areas all across Afghanistan.", "Even the Taliban spiritual leader has recently called for planting more trees.", "Felling has been made illegal nationally.===Fishing===Afghanistan is landlocked with its citizens having no direct access to an ocean.", "The country has many lakes, ponds, reservoirs, rivers, springs, streams, etc., which make it a suitable climate for fish farming.", "Historically, fish constituted a smaller part of the Afghan diet because of the unavailability of modern fish farms.", "Fishing only took place in the lakes and rivers, particularly in the Amu, Helmand and Kabul rivers.", "Consumption of fish has increased sharply due to the establishment of many fish farms.", "There are over 2,600 of them in the country.", "The largest ones are at the national reservoirs, which supply fish eggs to smaller fish farms." ], [ "Trade and industry", "Lapis Lazuli RouteAfghanistan's geographical location makes it economically secured.", "The Lapis Lazuli corridor connects Afghanistan with Turkmenistan and ultimately ends somewhere in Europe.", "Other such trade routes connect Afghanistan with neighboring Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.", "The country also has direct trade with China and India via air corridor.", "It has four international airports, which include: Kabul International Airport in the capital city; Mazar-e Sharif International Airport in the north of the country; Herat International Airport in the west; and the Ahmad Shah Baba International Airport in Kandahar.", "It also has about 24 domestic airports.", "The major airlines of the country include Ariana Afghan Airlines and Kam Air.", "Its national rail network is slowly expanding to connect Central Asia with Pakistan and Iran.", "In addition to Central Asia, imported goods also enter by rail from neighboring Iran and China.The Port of entry at Sher Khan Bandar in Kunduz Province, near the border with Tajikistan (2011)The Afghanistan–Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement (APTTA) allows Afghan and Pakistani cargo trucks to transit goods within both nations.", "This revised US-sponsored APTTA agreement also allows Afghan trucks to transport exports to India via Pakistan up to the Wagah crossing point.", "There are over a dozen official border crossing points all around Afghanistan.", "They include Abu Nasir Port in Farah Province, Ai-Khanoum in Takhar Province, Angur Ada in Paktika Province, Aqina in Faryab Province, Dand-aw-Patan in Paktia Province, Ghulam Khan in Khost Province, Hairatan in Balkh Province, Ishkashim in Badakhshan Province, Islam Qala in Herat Province, Sher Khan Bandar in Kunduz Province, Torghundi in Herat Province, Torkham in Nangarhar Province, Spin Boldak in Kandahar Province, and Zaranj in Nimruz Province.", "The country also has legal access to two major seaports in Pakistan, the Gwadar Port in Balochistan and the Port Qasim in Sindh.", "Afghanistan also has legal access to major seaports in Iran, which include the one in Bandar Abbas in the Persian Gulf and the Chabahar Port in the Gulf of Oman.rail service, transport in Afghanistan is mostly done by road and air.Afghanistan is endowed with a wealth of natural resources, which include extensive deposits of barites, chromite, coal, copper, gold, gemstone, iron ore, lead, lithium, marble, natural gas, petroleum, salt, sulfur, talc, uranium, and zinc.", "Rare-earth elements can be found all over the country.", "In 2006, a U.S. Geological Survey estimated that Afghanistan has as much as of natural gas, of oil and condensate reserves.", "According to a 2007 assessment, Afghanistan has significant amounts of undiscovered non-fuel mineral resources.", "Geologists also found indications of abundant deposits of colored stones and gemstones, including emerald, garnet, kunzite, lapis lazuli, peridot, ruby, sapphire, spinel, and tourmaline.It is claimed that Afghanistan has at least $1 trillion in untapped mineral deposits.", "A memo from the Pentagon stated that Afghanistan could become the \"Saudi Arabia of lithium\".", "Some believe that the untapped minerals are worth up to $3 trillion.", "The Khanashin carbonatites in the Helmand Province of the country have an estimated 1 million metric tonnes of rare earth elements.Afghanistan currently has a copper mining deal with China Metallurgical Group Corporation, which involves the investment of $2.8 billion by China and an annual income of about $400 million to the Afghan government.", "The country's Ainak copper mine, located in Logar Province, is one of the biggest in the world.", "It is estimated to hold at least 11 million tonnes or US$33 billion worth of copper.The previous government has signed a 30-year contract with investment group Centar and its operating company, Afghan Gold and Minerals Co., to explore and develop a copper mining operation in Balkhab District in Sar-e Pol Province, including a gold mining operation in Badakhshan Province.", "The copper contract involved a $56 million investment and the gold contract a $22 million investment.The country's other recently announced treasure is the Hajigak iron mine, located west of Kabul and is believed to hold an estimated 1.8 billion to 2 billion metric tons of the mineral used to make steel.", "The country also has a number of coal mines.Afghanistan's important resource in the past has been natural gas, which was first tapped in 1967.During the 1980s, gas sales accounted for $300 million a year in export revenues (56% of the total).", "About 90% of these exports went to the Soviet Union to pay for imports and debts.", "However, during the withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1989, the natural gas fields were capped to prevent sabotage by criminals.", "Gas production has dropped from a high of per day in the 1980s to a low of about in 2001.Production of natural gas was restored during the Karzai administration in 2010.It is predicted that by pumping-out its own oil reserves, Afghanistan will no longer be importing oil products after 2026.Originally, the Karzai administration and China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) signed a contract for the development of three oil fields in the northern provinces of Sar-e Pol, Jowzjan and Faryab.", "It was later reported that CNPC began extracting of oil annually.", "In early 2023, the Xinjiang Central Asia Petroleum and Gas Company signed a similar contract with the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.", "Russia had also found interest in oil and gas supply to Afghanistan." ], [ "Economic development and recovery", "From left to right: Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, Iranian President Hassan Rouhani, and Afghan President Ashraf Ghani, during the signing of the Chabahar Port transit agreement in May 2016Afghanistan embarked on a modest economic development program in the 1930s.", "The government founded banks; introduced paper money; established a university; expanded primary, secondary, and technical schools; and sent students abroad for education.", "In 1952 it created the Helmand Valley Authority to manage the economic development of the Helmand and Arghandab valleys through irrigation and land development, a scheme which remains one of the country's most important capital resources.In 1956, the government promulgated the first in a long series of ambitious development plans.", "By the late 1970s, these had achieved only mixed results due to flaws in the planning process as well as inadequate funding and a shortage of the skilled managers and technicians needed for implementation.Afghan United BankDa Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation.", "The \"afghani\" (AFN) is the national currency, which has an exchange rate of around 70 afghanis to 1 US dollar.", "There are over a dozen different banks operating in the country, including Afghanistan International Bank, Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, and First Micro Finance Bank.", "Cash is still widely used for most transactions.", "A new law on private investment provides three to seven-year tax holidays to eligible companies and a four-year exemption from exports tariffs and duties.", "Improvements to the business-enabling environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in telecom investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.Afghanistan is a member of ECO, OIC, SAARC, and WTO.", "It has an observer status in the SCO.", "It seeks to complete the so-called ''New Silk Road'' trade project, which is aimed to connecting South Asia with Central Asia and the Middle East.", "This way Afghanistan will be able to collect large fees from trade passing through the country, including from the Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline.Khair Khana neighborhood of KabulSome of the ongoing national mega projects include the Qosh Tepa Canal project in the north of the country and the New Kabul City.", "Other smaller development projects include the Qatar Township in Kabul, Aino Mena in Kandahar and the Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town east of Jalalabad.", "Similar projects are also found in Herat in the west, Mazar-e-Sharif in the north, Khost in the east, and in other cities.There are as much as 5,000 factories in Afghanistan.", "Most are locally owned, while others involve foreign investors.", "They produce construction materials, furniture, household items, apparel, food, beverages, pharmaceutical products, etc.", "The country imports roughly $500 million of textile goods from other countries.", "It exported about $168 million worth of cotton in 2022.Afghan handwoven rugs are one of the most popular products for exportation.", "Other products include hand crafted antique replicas as well as leather and furs.", "Afghanistan is the third largest exporter of cashmere.After the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan returned to power, the country suffered from a major liquidity crisis and lack of banknotes.", "Because outside donors have severely cut funding to support Afghanistan's health, education, and other essential sectors, many Afghans lost their incomes.", "Under the assessment system of the World Food Programme (WFP), almost 20 million people suffered either level-3 “crisis” or level-4 “emergency” levels of food insecurity.", "The crisis’ impact on women and girls was especially severe.", "Officials under the new Islamic Emirate continue to provide communication services to areas that lacked them.", "The government collected 61 billion afghanis in tariffs in 2022, which increased to 76 billion in 2023.It continues to attract foreign investors." ], [ "Tourism", "Tourism in Afghanistan was at its peak in 1977.Many tourists from around the world visited Afghanistan, including from as far away as Europe and North America.", "All of that ended with the start of the April 1978 Saur Revolution.", "However, it is again gradually increasing despite having reputation as one of the most dangerous countries in the world.", "Between 4,000 and 20,000 foreign tourists visit Afghanistan every year.", "As many as 371,000 Afghans have visited different parts of the country in 2022.Tourists are advised to avoid areas where armed criminals may operate.Ariana, Flydubai and Kam Air all provide flight services between Dubai International Airport and Kabul International Airport.", "The city of Kabul has many guest houses and hotels, which include the Kabul Serena Hotel, the Hotel Inter-Continental Kabul, the Safi Landmark Hotel, and the Kabul Star Hotel.", "Small number of guest houses and hotels are also available in other cities such Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif, Jalalabad, Bamyan, Fayezabad, etc.", "For those wanting to travel by road, there are bus terminals with mosques, Afghan style restaurants and small shops in the major cities.Badakhshan ProvinceBlue Mosque in Mazar-i-SharifBand-e Amir National Park in the Bamyan ProvinceSarda Dam in Ghazni ProvinceHerat Citadel in HeratThe Dahla Dam in Kandahar ProvinceThe following are some of the notable places in Afghanistan that tourists visit:*Badakhshan Province**Fayzabad**Ishkashim (border crossing between Afghanistan and Tajikistan)**Wakhan National Park in Wakhan District*Balkh Province**Great Blue Mosque in Mazar-i-Sharif**Balkh (ancient town)**Hairatan (border crossing between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan)*Bamyan Province**Band-e Amir National Park**Site of Buddhas of Bamyan**Zuhak*Ghazni Province**Burial site of Al-Biruni**Burial site of Mahmud of Ghazni**Citadel of Ghazni**Jaghori District (various cultural and scenic sites)**Sarda Dam in Andar District*Herat Province**Great Mosque of Herat**Herat Citadel**Islam Qala (border crossing between Afghanistan and Iran)**Torghundi (border crossing between Afghanistan and Turkmenistan)**Salma Dam (Afghanistan-India Friendship Dam)*Kabul Province**Chihil Sutun**Darulaman (Darul Aman Palace, Tajbeg Palace, Afghan Parliament, National Museum of Afghanistan, etc.", ")**Gardens of Babur**Paghman**Qargha Reservoir**Shahr-e Naw (Kabul City Center, Serena Hotel, Abdul Rahman Mosque, Shahr-e Naw Park, foreign embassies, etc.", ")**Wazir Akbar Khan (Arg, Kabul International Airport, foreign embassies, etc.", ")*Kandahar Province**Aino Mina (modern community with hotels, guest houses, restaurants, shops, parks, etc.", ")**Dahla Dam in Shah Wali Kot District**Chilzina Park**Mausoleum of Mirwais Hotak**Reg District (Sand District)**Shrine of the Cloak**Shrine of Baba Wali in Arghandab*Nangarhar Province**Jalalabad**Ghazi Amanullah International Cricket Stadium (next to Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town)**Darunta Dam*Nimruz Province**Zaranj (border crossing between Afghanistan and Iran)**Kamal Khan Dam*Nuristan Province**Parun*Panjshir Province**Bazarak**Panjshir Valley" ], [ "National data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 2002–2020 (with IMF staff estimates in 2021–2026).", "Inflation below 5% is in green.", "The annual unemployment rate is extracted from the World Bank, although the International Monetary Fund find them unreliable.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal)GDP per capita(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)200219.681,051.824.37233.43n/an/a11.3%346.0%200321.81,118.54.6233.88.7%35.7%11.1%270.6%200422.51,112.85.1254.30.7%16.4%11.0%245.0%200526.01,239.86.2294.411.8%10.6%11.2%206.4%200628.21,305.36.9320.75.4%6.8%11.1%23.0%200732.81,462.98.6381.513.3%8.7%11.3%20.1%200834.71,510.610.3447.73.9%26.4%11.1%19.1%200942.21,788.812.1511.420.6%-6.8%11.3%16.2%201046.31,908.015.3631.58.4%2.2%11.4%7.7%201150.32,010.817.9714.76.5%11.8%11.1%7.5%201259.92,317.720.3784.614.0%6.4%11.3%6.8%201363.82,385.720.2754.45.7%7.4%11.2%6.9%201469.42,516.020.6747.62.7%4.7%11.1%8.7%201572.12,534.920.2711.31.0%-0.7%11.1%9.2%201670.12,400.618.0616.22.2%4.4%11.2%8.4%201774.72,515.618.9636.72.6%5.0%11.2%8.0%201877.42,449.918.4582.31.2%0.6%11.2%7.4%201981.92,542.918.9586.23.9%2.3%11.2%6.1%202078.72,390.019.1580.8-5.0%5.6%11.7%7.8%202183.42,474.019.9591.74.0%5.1%n/a8.8%202289.12,585.021.2615.04.5%4.5%n/a9.6%202395.22,700.322.0624.14.5%4.0%n/a10.3%2024101.12,802.922.8630.74.0%4.0%n/a11.0%2025107.22,905.823.9647.54.0%4.0%n/a11.6%2026113.63,009.624.6650.34.0%4.0%n/a12.3%GDP (nominal) per capita.", "'''Gross national saving''': 22.7% of GDP (2017)'''GDP - composition by sector''':*''agriculture'': 23% (2016)*''industry'': 21.1% (2016)*''services'': 55.9% (2016)'''note:''' data excludes opium production'''GDP - composition by end use''':*''household consumption'': 81.6% (2016)*''government consumption'': 12% (2016)*''investment in fixed capital'': 17.2% (2016)*''investment in inventories'': 30% (2016)*''exports of goods and services'': 6.7% (2016)*''imports of goods and services'': -47.6% (2016)'''Household income or consumption by percentage share''':*''lowest 10%'': 3.8%*''highest 10%'': 24% (2008)'''Agriculture - products''': wheat, milk, grapes, vegetables, potatoes, watermelons, melons, rice, onions, apples'''Industries''': small-scale production of bricks, textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, apparel, food-products, non-alcoholic beverages, mineral water, cement; handwoven carpets; natural gas, coal, copper'''Industrial production growth rate''': -1.9% (2016)''country comparison to the world:'' 181'''Labor force''': 8.478 million (2017) ''country comparison to the world:'' 58'''Labor force - by occupation''': agriculture 44.3%, industry 18.1%, services 37.6% (2017)'''Population below poverty line''': 54.5% (2017)'''Budget''':*''revenues'': 2.276 billion (2017)*''expenditures'': 5.328 billion'''Taxes and other revenues''': 11.2% (of GDP) (2017)''country comparison to the world:'' 210'''Exports''': $2 billion (2022)''country comparison to the world:'' 164'''Exports - commodities''': gold, grapes, opium, fruits and nuts, insect resins, cotton, handwoven carpets, soapstone, scrap metal (2019)'''Exports - partners''': United Arab Emirates 45%, Pakistan 24%, India 22%, China 1% (2019)'''Imports''': $7 billion (2022)''country comparison to the world:'' 125'''Imports - commodities''': wheat flours, broadcasting equipment, refined petroleum, rolled tobacco, aircraft parts, synthetic fabrics (2019)'''Imports - partners''': United Arab Emirates 23%, Pakistan 17%, India 13%, China 9%, United States 9%, Uzbekistan 7%, Kazakhstan 6% (2019)'''Reserves of foreign exchange and gold''': $7.187 billion (2017)''country comparison to the world:'' 85'''Current account balance:''' $1.014 billion (2017)''country comparison to the world:'' 49'''Currency''': Afghani (AFN)'''Exchange rates''': 67 afghanis to 1 US dollar (2023)'''Fiscal year''': 21 December - 20 December" ], [ "Energy in Afghanistan", "Aerial photography of Kandahar at night in 2011.It's electricity is provided mainly by two sources, the Kajaki power station in neighboring Helmand Province and solar farms on the outskirts of the city.Energy in Afghanistan is provided by hydropower followed by fossil fuel and solar power.", "The nation currently generates over 600 megawatts (MW) of electricity from its several hydroelectric plants as well as using fossil fuel and solar panels.", "Over 670 MW more is imported from neighboring Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.", "Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat (DABS) is the national electricity provider.Price of electricity is 2.5 afghanis per kw in Kabul Province, 4 afghanis in Herat Province, and around 6 afghanis in Balkh Province.", "The government wants to use the nation's coal reserves to produce extra electricity.", "The CASA-1000 project will also add 300 MW of electricity to the national grid.Due to large influx of expats from neighboring Pakistan and Iran, the nation may require as much as 7,000 MW of electricity in the coming years.", "The Afghan National Development Strategy has identified renewable energy alternatives, such as wind and solar energy, as a high value power source to develop.", "A number of major solar and wind farms already exist in the country, with more under development." ], [ "See also", "*Afghanistan Accession to World Trade Organization" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Afghanistan: The World Bank* Asian Development Bank - Afghanistan and ADB* FAO in Afghanistan* Afghan Agriculture (information resource site maintained by UC Davis and USDA)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Elf" ], [ "Introduction", "''Ängsälvor'' (Swedish \"Meadow Elves\") by Nils Blommér (1850)An '''elf''' () is a type of humanoid supernatural being in Germanic folklore.", "Elves appear especially in North Germanic mythology, being mentioned in the Icelandic Poetic Edda and Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda.In medieval Germanic-speaking cultures, elves generally seem to have been thought of as beings with magical powers and supernatural beauty, ambivalent towards everyday people and capable of either helping or hindering them.", "However, the details of these beliefs have varied considerably over time and space and have flourished in both pre-Christian and Christian cultures.Sometimes elves are, like dwarves, associated with craftsmanship.", "Wayland the Smith embodies this feature.", "He is known under many names, depending on the language in which the stories were distributed.", "The names include ''Völund'' in Old Norse, ''Wēland'' in Anglo-Saxon and ''Wieland'' in German.", "The story of Wayland is also to be found in the ''Prose Edda''.", "The word ''elf'' is found throughout the Germanic languages and seems originally to have meant 'white being'.", "However, reconstructing the early concept of an elf depends largely on texts written by Christians, in Old and Middle English, medieval German, and Old Norse.", "These associate elves variously with the gods of Norse mythology, with causing illness, with magic, and with beauty and seduction.After the medieval period, the word ''elf'' tended to become less common throughout the Germanic languages, losing out to alternative native terms like ''Zwerg'' (\"dwarf\") in German and ''huldra'' (\"hidden being\") in North Germanic languages, and to loan-words like ''fairy'' (borrowed from French into most of the Germanic languages).", "Still, belief in elves persisted in the early modern period, particularly in Scotland and Scandinavia, where elves were thought of as magically powerful people living, usually invisibly, alongside everyday human communities.", "They continued to be associated with causing illnesses and with sexual threats.", "For example, several early modern ballads in the British Isles and Scandinavia, originating in the medieval period, describe elves attempting to seduce or abduct human characters.With urbanisation and industrialisation in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, belief in elves declined rapidly (though Iceland has some claim to continued popular belief in elves).", "However, elves started to be prominent in the literature and art of educated elites from the early modern period onwards.", "These literary elves were imagined as tiny, playful beings, with William Shakespeare's ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' being a key development of this idea.", "In the eighteenth century, German Romantic writers were influenced by this notion of the elf and re-imported the English word ''elf'' into the German language.", "From the Romantic idea of elves came the elves of popular culture that emerged in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.", "The \"Christmas elves\" of contemporary popular culture are a relatively recent creation, popularized during the late nineteenth century in the United States.", "Elves entered the twentieth-century high fantasy genre in the wake of works published by authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien; these re-popularised the idea of elves as human-sized and humanlike beings.", "Elves remain a prominent feature of fantasy media today." ], [ "Relationship with reality", "=== Reality and perception ===Elves have in many times and places been believed to be real beings.", "Where enough people have believed in the reality of elves that those beliefs then had real effects in the world, they can be understood as part of people's worldview, and as a social reality: a thing which, like the exchange value of a dollar bill or the sense of pride stirred up by a national flag, is real because of people's beliefs rather than as an objective reality.", "Accordingly, beliefs about elves and their social functions have varied over time and space.Even in the twenty-first century, fantasy stories about elves have been argued both to reflect and to shape their audiences' understanding of the real world, and traditions about Santa Claus and his elves relate to Christmas.Over time, people have attempted to demythologise or rationalise beliefs in elves in various ways.=== Integration into Christian cosmologies ===Title page of ''Daemonologie'' by James VI and I, which tried to explain traditional Scottish beliefs in terms of Christian scholarshipBeliefs about elves have their origins before the conversion to Christianity and associated Christianization of northwest Europe.", "For this reason, belief in elves has, from the Middle Ages through into recent scholarship, often been labelled \"pagan\" and a \"superstition.\"", "However, almost all surviving textual sources about elves were produced by Christians (whether Anglo-Saxon monks, medieval Icelandic poets, early modern ballad-singers, nineteenth-century folklore collectors, or even twentieth-century fantasy authors).", "Attested beliefs about elves, therefore, need to be understood as part of Germanic-speakers' Christian culture and not merely a relic of their pre-Christian religion.", "Accordingly, investigating the relationship between beliefs in elves and Christian cosmology has been a preoccupation of scholarship about elves both in early times and modern research.Historically, people have taken three main approaches to integrate elves into Christian cosmology, all of which are found widely across time and space:* Identifying elves with the demons of Judaeo-Christian-Mediterranean tradition.", "For example:** In English-language material: in the Royal Prayer Book from c. 900, ''elf'' appears as a gloss for \"Satan\".", "In the late-fourteenth-century ''Wife of Bath's Tale'', Geoffrey Chaucer equates male elves with incubi (demons which rape sleeping women).", "In the early modern Scottish witchcraft trials, witnesses' descriptions of encounters with elves were often interpreted by prosecutors as encounters with the Devil.", "** In medieval Iceland, Snorri Sturluson wrote in his ''Prose Edda'' of ''ljósálfar'' and ''dökkálfar'' ('light-elves and dark-elves'), the ''ljósálfar'' living in the heavens and the ''dökkálfar'' under the earth.", "The consensus of modern scholarship is that Snorri's elves are based on angels and demons of Christian cosmology.", "** Elves appear as demonic forces widely in medieval and early modern English, German, and Scandinavian prayers.", "* Viewing elves as being more or less like people and more or less outside Christian cosmology.", "The Icelanders who copied the ''Poetic Edda'' did not explicitly try to integrate elves into Christian thought.", "Likewise, the early modern Scottish people who confessed to encountering elves seem not to have thought of themselves as having dealings with the Devil.", "Nineteenth-century Icelandic folklore about elves mostly presents them as a human agricultural community parallel to the visible human community, which may or may not be Christian.", "It is possible that stories were sometimes told from this perspective as a political act, to subvert the dominance of the Church.", "* Integrating elves into Christian cosmology without identifying them as demons.", "The most striking examples are serious theological treatises: the Icelandic ''Tíðfordrif'' (1644) by Jón Guðmundsson lærði or, in Scotland, Robert Kirk's ''Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns, and Fairies'' (1691).", "This approach also appears in the Old English poem ''Beowulf'', which lists elves among the races springing from Cain's murder of Abel.", "The late thirteenth-century ''South English Legendary'' and some Icelandic folktales explain elves as angels that sided neither with Lucifer nor with God and were banished by God to earth rather than hell.", "One famous Icelandic folktale explains elves as the lost children of Eve.=== Demythologising elves as indigenous peoples ===Some nineteenth- and twentieth-century scholars attempted to rationalise beliefs in elves as folk memories of lost indigenous peoples.", "Since belief in supernatural beings is ubiquitous in human cultures, scholars no longer believe such explanations are valid.", "Research has shown, however, that stories about elves have often been used as a way for people to think metaphorically about real-life ethnic others.=== Demythologising elves as people with illness or disability ===Scholars have at times also tried to explain beliefs in elves as being inspired by people suffering certain kinds of illnesses (such as Williams syndrome).", "Elves were certainly often seen as a cause of illness, and indeed the English word ''oaf'' seems to have originated as a form of ''elf'': the word ''elf'' came to mean 'changeling left by an elf' and then, because changelings were noted for their failure to thrive, to its modern sense 'a fool, a stupid person; a large, clumsy man or boy'.", "However, it again seems unlikely that the origin of beliefs in elves itself is to be explained by people's encounters with objectively real people affected by disease." ], [ "Etymology", "A chart showing how the sound of the word ''elf'' has changed in the history of EnglishThe English word ''elf'' is from the Old English word most often attested as (whose plural would have been *).", "Although this word took a variety of forms in different Old English dialects, these converged on the form ''elf'' during the Middle English period.", "During the Old English period, separate forms were used for female elves (such as , putatively from Proto-Germanic *''ɑlβ(i)innjō''), but during the Middle English period the word ''elf'' routinely came to include female beings.The Old English forms are cognates – linguistic siblings stemming from a common origin – with medieval Germanic terms such as Old Norse ('elf'; plural ), Old High German ('evil spirit'; pl.", ", ; feminine ), Burgundian *''alfs'' ('elf'), and Middle Low German '''' ('evil spirit').", "These words must come from Proto-Germanic, the ancestor-language of the attested Germanic languages; the Proto-Germanic forms are reconstructed as *''ɑlβi-z'' and *''ɑlβɑ-z''.Germanic ''*ɑlβi-z~*ɑlβɑ-z'' is generally agreed to be a cognate with Latin ''albus'' ('(matt) white'), Old Irish ''ailbhín'' ('flock'), Ancient Greek ἀλφός (''alphós''; 'whiteness, white leprosy';), and Albanian ''elb'' ('barley'); and the Germanic word for 'swan' reconstructed as ''*albit-'' (compare Modern Icelandic ''álpt'') is often thought to be derived from it.", "These all come from a Proto-Indo-European root ''*h₂elbʰ-'', and seem to be connected by the idea of whiteness.", "The Germanic word presumably originally meant 'white one', perhaps as a euphemism.", "Jakob Grimm thought whiteness implied positive moral connotations, and, noting Snorri Sturluson's ''ljósálfar'', suggested that elves were divinities of light.", "This is not necessarily the case, however.", "For example, because the cognates suggest matt white rather than shining white, and because in medieval Scandinavian texts whiteness is associated with beauty, Alaric Hall has suggested that elves may have been called 'the white people' because whiteness was associated with (specifically feminine) beauty.", "Some scholars have argued that the names Albion and Alps may also be related (possibly through Celtic).A completely different etymology, making ''elf'' a cognate with the ''Ṛbhus'', semi-divine craftsmen in Indian mythology, was suggested by Adalbert Kuhn in 1855.In this case, *''ɑlβi-z'' would connote the meaning 'skillful, inventive, clever', and could be a cognate with Latin ''labor'', in the sense of 'creative work'.", "While often mentioned, this etymology is not widely accepted.=== In proper names ===Throughout the medieval Germanic languages, ''elf'' was one of the nouns used in personal names, almost invariably as a first element.", "These names may have been influenced by Celtic names beginning in ''Albio-'' such as ''Albiorix''.Alden Valley, Lancashire, possibly a place once associated with elvesPersonal names provide the only evidence for ''elf'' in Gothic, which must have had the word * (plural *).", "The most famous name of this kind is ''Alboin''.", "Old English names in ''elf''- include the cognate of ''Alboin'' Ælfwine (literally \"elf-friend\", m.), Ælfric (\"elf-powerful\", m.), Ælfweard (\"elf-guardian\", m.), and Ælfwaru (\"elf-care\", f.).", "A widespread survivor of these in modern English is Alfred (Old English ''Ælfrēd'', \"elf-advice\").", "Also surviving are the English surname Elgar (''Ælfgar'', \"elf-spear\") and the name of St Alphege (''Ælfhēah'', \"elf-tall\").", "German examples are ''Alberich'', ''Alphart'' and ''Alphere'' (father of Walter of Aquitaine) and Icelandic examples include ''Álfhildur''.", "These names suggest that elves were positively regarded in early Germanic culture.", "Of the many words for supernatural beings in Germanic languages, the only ones regularly used in personal names are ''elf'' and words denoting pagan gods, suggesting that elves were considered similar to gods.In later Old Icelandic, (\"elf\") and the personal name which in Common Germanic had been * both coincidentally became .Elves appear in some place names, though it is difficult to be sure how many of other words, including personal names, can appear similar to ''elf''.", "The clearest English examples are ''Elveden'' (\"elves' hill\", Suffolk) and ''Elvendon'' (\"elves' valley\", Oxfordshire); other examples may be ''Eldon Hill'' (\"Elves' hill\", Derbyshire); and ''Alden Valley'' (\"elves' valley\", Lancashire).", "These seem to associate elves fairly consistently with woods and valleys." ], [ "In medieval texts and post-medieval folk belief", "=== Medieval English-language sources ======= As causes of illnesses ====The earliest surviving manuscripts mentioning elves in any Germanic language are from Anglo-Saxon England.", "Medieval English evidence has, therefore, attracted quite extensive research and debate.", "In Old English, elves are most often mentioned in medical texts which attest to the belief that elves might afflict humans and livestock with illnesses: apparently mostly sharp, internal pains and mental disorders.", "The most famous of the medical texts is the metrical charm ''Wið færstice'' (\"against a stabbing pain\"), from the tenth-century compilation ''Lacnunga'', but most of the attestations are in the tenth-century ''Bald's Leechbook'' and ''Leechbook III''.", "This tradition continues into later English-language traditions too: elves continue to appear in Middle English medical texts.Belief in elves causing illnesses remained prominent in early modern Scotland, where elves were viewed as supernaturally powerful people who lived invisibly alongside everyday rural people.", "Thus, elves were often mentioned in the early modern Scottish witchcraft trials: many witnesses in the trials believed themselves to have been given healing powers or to know of people or animals made sick by elves.", "Throughout these sources, elves are sometimes associated with the succubus-like supernatural being called the ''mare''.While they may have been thought to cause diseases with magical weapons, elves are more clearly associated in Old English with a kind of magic denoted by Old English ''sīden'' and ''sīdsa'', a cognate with the Old Norse ''seiðr'', and also paralleled in the Old Irish ''Serglige Con Culainn''.", "By the fourteenth century, they were also associated with the arcane practice of alchemy.==== \"Elf-shot\" ====The Eadwine Psalter, f. 66r.", "Detail: Christ and demons attacking the psalmist.In one or two Old English medical texts, elves might be envisaged as inflicting illnesses with projectiles.", "In the twentieth century, scholars often labelled the illnesses elves caused as \"elf-shot\", but work from the 1990s onwards showed that the medieval evidence for elves' being thought to cause illnesses in this way is slender; debate about its significance is ongoing.The noun ''elf-shot'' is first attested in a Scots poem, \"Rowlis Cursing,\" from around 1500, where \"elf schot\" is listed among a range of curses to be inflicted on some chicken thieves.", "The term may not always have denoted an actual projectile: ''shot'' could mean \"a sharp pain\" as well as \"projectile.\"", "But in early modern Scotland, ''elf-schot'' and other terms like ''elf-arrowhead'' are sometimes used of neolithic arrow-heads, apparently thought to have been made by elves.", "In a few witchcraft trials, people attest that these arrow-heads were used in healing rituals and occasionally alleged that witches (and perhaps elves) used them to injure people and cattle.", "Compare with the following excerpt from a 1749–50 ode by William Collins:==== Size, appearance, and sexuality ====Because of elves' association with illness, in the twentieth century, most scholars imagined that elves in the Anglo-Saxon tradition were small, invisible, demonic beings, causing illnesses with arrows.", "This was encouraged by the idea that \"elf-shot\" is depicted in the Eadwine Psalter, in an image which became well known in this connection.", "However, this is now thought to be a misunderstanding: the image proves to be a conventional illustration of God's arrows and Christian demons.", "Rather, twenty-first century scholarship suggests that Anglo-Saxon elves, like elves in Scandinavia or the Irish ''Aos Sí'', were regarded as people.", "\"⁊ ylfe\" (\"and elves\") in ''Beowulf''Like words for gods and men, the word ''elf'' is used in personal names where words for monsters and demons are not.", "Just as ''álfar'' is associated with ''Æsir'' in Old Norse, the Old English ''Wið færstice'' associates elves with ''ēse''; whatever this word meant by the tenth century, etymologically it denoted pagan gods.", "In Old English, the plural (attested in ''Beowulf'') is grammatically an ethnonym (a word for an ethnic group), suggesting that elves were seen as people.", "As well as appearing in medical texts, the Old English word ''ælf'' and its feminine derivative ''ælbinne'' were used in glosses to translate Latin words for nymphs.", "This fits well with the word ''ælfscȳne'', which meant \"elf-beautiful\" and is attested describing the seductively beautiful Biblical heroines Sarah and Judith.Likewise, in Middle English and early modern Scottish evidence, while still appearing as causes of harm and danger, elves appear clearly as humanlike beings.", "They became associated with medieval chivalric romance traditions of fairies and particularly with the idea of a Fairy Queen.", "A propensity to seduce or rape people becomes increasingly prominent in the source material.", "Around the fifteenth century, evidence starts to appear for the belief that elves might steal human babies and replace them with changelings.==== Decline in the use of the word ''elf'' ====By the end of the medieval period, ''elf'' was increasingly being supplanted by the French loan-word ''fairy''.", "An example is Geoffrey Chaucer's satirical tale ''Sir Thopas'', where the title character sets out in a quest for the \"elf-queen\", who dwells in the \"countree of the Faerie\".=== Old Norse texts ======= Mythological texts ====One possible semantic field diagram of words for sentient beings in Old Norse, showing their relationships as an Euler diagramEvidence for elf beliefs in medieval Scandinavia outside Iceland is sparse, but the Icelandic evidence is uniquely rich.", "For a long time, views about elves in Old Norse mythology were defined by Snorri Sturluson's ''Prose Edda'', which talks about ''svartálfar'', ''dökkálfar'' and ''ljósálfar'' (\"black elves\", \"dark elves\", and \"light elves\").", "For example, Snorri recounts how the ''svartálfar'' create new blond hair for Thor's wife Sif after Loki had shorn off Sif's long hair.", "However, these terms are attested only in the Prose Edda and texts based on it.", "It is now agreed that they reflect traditions of dwarves, demons, and angels, partly showing Snorri's \"paganisation\" of a Christian cosmology learned from the ''Elucidarius'', a popular digest of Christian thought.Scholars of Old Norse mythology now focus on references to elves in Old Norse poetry, particularly the Elder Edda.", "The only character explicitly identified as an elf in classical Eddaic poetry, if any, is Völundr, the protagonist of ''Völundarkviða''.", "However, elves are frequently mentioned in the alliterating phrase ''Æsir ok Álfar'' ('Æsir and elves') and its variants.", "This was a well-established poetic formula, indicating a strong tradition of associating elves with the group of gods known as the Æsir, or even suggesting that the elves and Æsir were one and the same.", "The pairing is paralleled in the Old English poem ''Wið færstice'' and in the Germanic personal name system; moreover, in Skaldic verse the word ''elf'' is used in the same way as words for gods.", "Sigvatr Þórðarson's skaldic travelogue ''Austrfaravísur'', composed around 1020, mentions an ''álfablót'' ('elves' sacrifice') in Edskogen in what is now southern Sweden.", "There does not seem to have been any clear-cut distinction between humans and gods; like the Æsir, then, elves were presumably thought of as being humanlike and existing in opposition to the giants.", "Many commentators have also (or instead) argued for conceptual overlap between elves and dwarves in Old Norse mythology, which may fit with trends in the medieval German evidence.There are hints that the god Freyr was associated with elves.", "In particular, ''Álfheimr'' (literally \"elf-world\") is mentioned as being given to Freyr in ''Grímnismál''.", "Snorri Sturluson identified Freyr as one of the Vanir.", "However, the term ''Vanir'' is rare in Eddaic verse, very rare in Skaldic verse, and is not generally thought to appear in other Germanic languages.", "Given the link between Freyr and the elves, it has therefore long been suspected that ''álfar'' and ''Vanir'' are, more or less, different words for the same group of beings.", "However, this is not uniformly accepted.A kenning (poetic metaphor) for the sun, ''álfröðull'' (literally \"elf disc\"), is of uncertain meaning but is to some suggestive of a close link between elves and the sun.Although the relevant words are of slightly uncertain meaning, it seems fairly clear that Völundr is described as one of the elves in ''Völundarkviða''.", "As his most prominent deed in the poem is to rape Böðvildr, the poem associates elves with being a sexual threat to maidens.", "The same idea is present in two post-classical Eddaic poems, which are also influenced by chivalric romance or Breton ''lais'', ''Kötludraumur'' and ''Gullkársljóð''.", "The idea also occurs in later traditions in Scandinavia and beyond, so it may be an early attestation of a prominent tradition.", "Elves also appear in a couple of verse spells, including the Bergen rune-charm from among the Bryggen inscriptions.==== Other sources ====Glasgow Botanic Gardens.", "Kibble Palace.", "William Goscombe John, ''The Elf'', 1899.The appearance of elves in sagas is closely defined by genre.", "The Sagas of Icelanders, Bishops' sagas, and contemporary sagas, whose portrayal of the supernatural is generally restrained, rarely mention ''álfar'', and then only in passing.", "But although limited, these texts provide some of the best evidence for the presence of elves in everyday beliefs in medieval Scandinavia.", "They include a fleeting mention of elves seen out riding in 1168 (in ''Sturlunga saga''); mention of an ''álfablót'' (\"elves' sacrifice\") in ''Kormáks saga''; and the existence of the euphemism ''ganga álfrek'' ('go to drive away the elves') for \"going to the toilet\" in ''Eyrbyggja saga''.The Kings' sagas include a rather elliptical but widely studied account of an early Swedish king being worshipped after his death and being called Ólafr Geirstaðaálfr ('Ólafr the elf of Geirstaðir'), and a demonic elf at the beginning of ''Norna-Gests þáttr''.The legendary sagas tend to focus on elves as legendary ancestors or on heroes' sexual relations with elf-women.", "Mention of the land of Álfheimr is found in ''Heimskringla'' while ''Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar'' recounts a line of local kings who ruled over Álfheim, who since they had elven blood were said to be more beautiful than most men.", "According to ''Hrólfs saga kraka'', Hrolfr Kraki's half-sister Skuld was the half-elven child of King Helgi and an elf-woman (''álfkona'').", "Skuld was skilled in witchcraft (''seiðr'').", "Accounts of Skuld in earlier sources, however, do not include this material.", "The ''Þiðreks saga'' version of the Nibelungen (Niflungar) describes Högni as the son of a human queen and an elf, but no such lineage is reported in the Eddas, ''Völsunga saga'', or the ''Nibelungenlied''.", "The relatively few mentions of elves in the chivalric sagas tend even to be whimsical.In his ''Rerum Danicarum fragmenta'' (1596) written mostly in Latin with some Old Danish and Old Icelandic passages, Arngrímur Jónsson explains the Scandinavian and Icelandic belief in elves (called ''Allffuafolch'').Both Continental Scandinavia and Iceland have a scattering of mentions of elves in medical texts, sometimes in Latin and sometimes in the form of amulets, where elves are viewed as a possible cause of illness.", "Most of them have Low German connections.=== Medieval and early modern German texts ===Portrait of Margarethe Luther (right), believed by her son Martin to have been afflicted by ''elbe'' (\"elves\")The Old High German word ''alp'' is attested only in a small number of glosses.", "It is defined by the ''Althochdeutsches Wörterbuch'' as a \"nature-god or nature-demon, equated with the Fauns of Classical mythology... regarded as eerie, ferocious beings... As the mare he messes around with women\".", "Accordingly, the German word ''Alpdruck'' (literally \"elf-oppression\") means \"nightmare\".", "There is also evidence associating elves with illness, specifically epilepsy.In a similar vein, elves are in Middle High German most often associated with deceiving or bewildering people in a phrase that occurs so often it would appear to be proverbial: (\"the elves/elf are/is deceiving me\").", "The same pattern holds in Early Modern German.", "This deception sometimes shows the seductive side apparent in English and Scandinavian material: most famously, the early thirteenth-century Heinrich von Morungen's fifth ''Minnesang'' begins \"Von den elben wirt entsehen vil manic man / Sô bin ich von grôzer liebe entsên\" (\"full many a man is bewitched by elves / thus I too am bewitched by great love\").", "''Elbe'' was also used in this period to translate words for nymphs.In later medieval prayers, Elves appear as a threatening, even demonic, force.", "For example, some prayers invoke God's help against nocturnal attacks by ''Alpe''.", "Correspondingly, in the early modern period, elves are described in north Germany doing the evil bidding of witches; Martin Luther believed his mother to have been afflicted in this way.As in Old Norse, however, there are few characters identified as elves.", "It seems likely that in the German-speaking world, elves were to a significant extent conflated with dwarves ().", "Thus, some dwarves that appear in German heroic poetry have been seen as relating to elves.", "In particular, nineteenth-century scholars tended to think that the dwarf Alberich, whose name etymologically means \"elf-powerful,\" was influenced by early traditions of elves." ], [ "Post-medieval folklore", "=== Britain ===''Thomas the Rhymer'' in Walter Scott's ''Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border''From around the Late Middle Ages, the word ''elf'' began to be used in English as a term loosely synonymous with the French loan-word ''fairy''; in elite art and literature, at least, it also became associated with diminutive supernatural beings like Puck, hobgoblins, Robin Goodfellow, the English and Scots brownie, and the Northumbrian English hob.However, in Scotland and parts of northern England near the Scottish border, beliefs in elves remained prominent into the nineteenth century.", "James VI of Scotland and Robert Kirk discussed elves seriously; elf beliefs are prominently attested in the Scottish witchcraft trials, particularly the trial of Issobel Gowdie; and related stories also appear in folktales, There is a significant corpus of ballads narrating stories about elves, such as ''Thomas the Rhymer'', where a man meets a female elf; ''Tam Lin'', ''The Elfin Knight'', and ''Lady Isabel and the Elf-Knight'', in which an Elf-Knight rapes, seduces, or abducts a woman; and ''The Queen of Elfland's Nourice'', a woman is abducted to be a wet-nurse to the elf queen's baby, but promised that she might return home once the child is weaned.=== Scandinavia ======= Terminology ====In Scandinavian folklore, many humanlike supernatural beings are attested, which might be thought of as elves and partly originate in medieval Scandinavian beliefs.", "However, the characteristics and names of these beings have varied widely across time and space, and they cannot be neatly categorised.", "These beings are sometimes known by words descended directly from the Old Norse ''álfr''.", "However, in modern languages, traditional terms related to ''álfr'' have tended to be replaced with other terms.", "Things are further complicated because when referring to the elves of Old Norse mythology, scholars have adopted new forms based directly on the Old Norse word ''álfr''.", "The following table summarises the situation in the main modern standard languages of Scandinavia.languageterms related to ''elf'' in traditional usagemain terms of similar meaning in traditional usagescholarly term for Norse mythological elvesDanish''elver'', ''elverfolk'', ''ellefolk''''nøkke,'' ''nisse'', ''fe''''alf''Swedish''älva''''skogsrå, skogsfru'', ''tomte''''alv'', ''alf''Norwegian (bokmål)''alv'', ''alvefolk''''vette'', ''huldra''''alv''Icelandic''álfur''''huldufólk''''álfur''==== Appearance and behaviour ====''Älvalek'', \"Elf Play\" by August Malmström (1866)The elves of Norse mythology have survived into folklore mainly as females, living in hills and mounds of stones.", "The Swedish ''älvor'' were stunningly beautiful girls who lived in the forest with an elven king.The elves could be seen dancing over meadows, particularly at night and on misty mornings.", "They left a circle where they had danced, called ''älvdanser'' (elf dances) or ''älvringar'' (elf circles), and to urinate in one was thought to cause venereal diseases.", "Typically, elf circles were fairy rings consisting of a ring of small mushrooms, but there was also another kind of elf circle.", "In the words of the local historian Anne Marie Hellström:If a human watched the dance of the elves, he would discover that even though only a few hours seemed to have passed, many years had passed in the real world.", "Humans being invited or lured to the elf dance is a common motif transferred from older Scandinavian ballads.Elves were not exclusively young and beautiful.", "In the Swedish folktale ''Little Rosa and Long Leda'', an elvish woman (''älvakvinna'') arrives in the end and saves the heroine, Little Rose, on the condition that the king's cattle no longer graze on her hill.", "She is described as a beautiful old woman and by her aspect people saw that she belonged to the ''subterraneans''.==== In ballads ====Elves have a prominent place in several closely related ballads, which must have originated in the Middle Ages but are first attested in the early modern period.", "Many of these ballads are first attested in Karen Brahes Folio, a Danish manuscript from the 1570s, but they circulated widely in Scandinavia and northern Britain.", "They sometimes mention elves because they were learned by heart, even though that term had become archaic in everyday usage.", "They have therefore played a major role in transmitting traditional ideas about elves in post-medieval cultures.", "Indeed, some of the early modern ballads are still quite widely known, whether through school syllabuses or contemporary folk music.", "They, therefore, give people an unusual degree of access to ideas of elves from older traditional culture.The ballads are characterised by sexual encounters between everyday people and humanlike beings referred to in at least some variants as elves (the same characters also appear as mermen, dwarves, and other kinds of supernatural beings).", "The elves pose a threat to the everyday community by lure people into the elves' world.", "The most famous example is ''Elveskud'' and its many variants (paralleled in English as ''Clerk Colvill''), where a woman from the elf world tries to tempt a young knight to join her in dancing, or to live among the elves; in some versions he refuses, and in some he accepts, but in either case he dies, tragically.", "As in ''Elveskud'', sometimes the everyday person is a man and the elf a woman, as also in ''Elvehøj'' (much the same story as ''Elveskud,'' but with a happy ending), ''Herr Magnus og Bjærgtrolden'', ''Herr Tønne af Alsø'', ''Herr Bøsmer i elvehjem'', or the Northern British ''Thomas the Rhymer''.", "Sometimes the everyday person is a woman, and the elf is a man, as in the northern British ''Tam Lin'', ''The Elfin Knight'', and ''Lady Isabel and the Elf-Knight'', in which the Elf-Knight bears away Isabel to murder her, or the Scandinavian ''Harpans kraft''.", "In ''The Queen of Elfland's Nourice'', a woman is abducted to be a wet nurse to the elf-queen's baby, but promised that she might return home once the child is weaned.==== As causes of illness ====The \"Elf cross\" which protected against malevolent elves.In folk stories, Scandinavian elves often play the role of disease spirits.", "The most common, though the also most harmless case was various irritating skin rashes, which were called ''älvablåst'' (elven puff) and could be cured by a forceful counter-blow (a handy pair of bellows was most useful for this purpose).", "''Skålgropar'', a particular kind of petroglyph (pictogram on a rock) found in Scandinavia, were known in older times as ''älvkvarnar'' (elven mills), because it was believed elves had used them.", "One could appease the elves by offering a treat (preferably butter) placed into an elven mill.In order to protect themselves and their livestock against malevolent elves, Scandinavians could use a so-called Elf cross (''Alfkors'', ''Älvkors'' or ''Ellakors''), which was carved into buildings or other objects.", "It existed in two shapes, one was a pentagram, and it was still frequently used in early 20th-century Sweden as painted or carved onto doors, walls, and household utensils to protect against elves.", "The second form was an ordinary cross carved onto a round or oblong silver plate.", "This second kind of elf cross was worn as a pendant in a necklace, and to have sufficient magic, it had to be forged during three evenings with silver, from nine different sources of inherited silver.", "In some locations it also had to be on the altar of a church for three consecutive Sundays.==== Modern continuations ====In Iceland, expressing belief in the ''huldufólk'' (\"hidden people\"), elves that dwell in rock formations, is still relatively common.", "Even when Icelanders do not explicitly express their belief, they are often reluctant to express disbelief.", "A 2006 and 2007 study by the University of Iceland's Faculty of Social Sciences revealed that many would not rule out the existence of elves and ghosts, a result similar to a 1974 survey by Erlendur Haraldsson.", "The lead researcher of the 2006–2007 study, Terry Gunnell, stated: \"Icelanders seem much more open to phenomena like dreaming the future, forebodings, ghosts and elves than other nations\".", "Whether significant numbers of Icelandic people do believe in elves or not, elves are certainly prominent in national discourses.", "They occur most often in oral narratives and news reporting in which they disrupt house- and road-building.", "In the analysis of Valdimar Tr.", "Hafstein, \"narratives about the insurrections of elves demonstrate supernatural sanction against development and urbanization; that is to say, the supernaturals protect and enforce religious values and traditional rural culture.", "The elves fend off, with more or less success, the attacks, and advances of modern technology, palpable in the bulldozer.\"", "Elves are also prominent, in similar roles, in contemporary Icelandic literature.Folk stories told in the nineteenth century about elves are still told in modern Denmark and Sweden.", "Still, they now feature ethnic minorities in place of elves in essentially racist discourse.", "In an ethnically fairly homogeneous medieval countryside, supernatural beings provided the Other through which everyday people created their identities; in cosmopolitan industrial contexts, ethnic minorities or immigrants are used in storytelling to similar effect." ], [ "Post-medieval elite culture", "=== Early modern elite culture ===Illustration of Shakespeare's ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' by Arthur RackhamEarly modern Europe saw the emergence for the first time of a distinctive elite culture: while the Reformation encouraged new skepticism and opposition to traditional beliefs, subsequent Romanticism encouraged the fetishisation of such beliefs by intellectual elites.", "The effects of this on writing about elves are most apparent in England and Germany, with developments in each country influencing the other.", "In Scandinavia, the Romantic movement was also prominent, and literary writing was the main context for continued use of the word ''elf,'' except in fossilised words for illnesses.", "However, oral traditions about beings like elves remained prominent in Scandinavia into the early twentieth century.Elves entered early modern elite culture most clearly in the literature of Elizabethan England.", "Here Edmund Spenser's ''Faerie Queene'' (1590–) used ''fairy'' and ''elf'' interchangeably of human-sized beings, but they are complex, imaginary and allegorical figures.", "Spenser also presented his own explanation of the origins of the ''Elfe'' and ''Elfin kynd'', claiming that they were created by Prometheus.", "Likewise, William Shakespeare, in a speech in ''Romeo and Juliet'' (1592) has an \"elf-lock\" (tangled hair) being caused by Queen Mab, who is referred to as \"the fairies' midwife\".", "Meanwhile, ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' promoted the idea that elves were diminutive and ethereal.", "The influence of Shakespeare and Michael Drayton made the use of ''elf'' and ''fairy'' for very small beings the norm, and had a lasting effect seen in fairy tales about elves, collected in the modern period.=== The Romantic movement ===Illustration of ''Der Erlkönig'' (c. 1910) by Albert SternerEarly modern English notions of elves became influential in eighteenth-century Germany.", "The Modern German ''Elf'' (m) and ''Elfe'' (f) was introduced as a loan-word from English in the 1740s and was prominent in Christoph Martin Wieland's 1764 translation of ''A Midsummer Night's Dream''.As German Romanticism got underway and writers started to seek authentic folklore, Jacob Grimm rejected ''Elf'' as a recent Anglicism, and promoted the reuse of the old form ''Elb'' (plural ''Elbe'' or ''Elben'').", "In the same vein, Johann Gottfried Herder translated the Danish ballad ''Elveskud'' in his 1778 collection of folk songs, '''', as \"\" (\"The Erl-king's Daughter\"; it appears that Herder introduced the term ''Erlkönig'' into German through a mis-Germanisation of the Danish word for ''elf'').", "This in turn inspired Goethe's poem ''Der Erlkönig''.", "However, Goethe added another new meaning, as the German word \"Erle\" does not mean \"elf\", but \"black alder\" - the poem about the ''Erlenkönig'' is set in the area of an alder quarry in the Saale valley in Thuringia.", "Goethe's poem then took on a life of its own, inspiring the Romantic concept of the Erlking, which was influential on literary images of elves from the nineteenth century on.Little ''älvor'', playing with ''Tomtebobarnen''.", "From ''Children of the Forest'' (1910) by Swedish author and illustrator Elsa Beskow.In Scandinavia too, in the nineteenth century, traditions of elves were adapted to include small, insect-winged fairies.", "These are often called \"elves\" (''älvor'' in modern Swedish, ''alfer'' in Danish, ''álfar'' in Icelandic), although the more formal translation in Danish is ''feer''.", "Thus, the ''alf'' found in the fairy tale ''The Elf of the Rose'' by Danish author Hans Christian Andersen is so tiny he can have a rose blossom for home, and \"wings that reached from his shoulders to his feet\".", "Yet Andersen also wrote about ''elvere'' in ''The Elfin Hill''.", "The elves in this story are more alike those of traditional Danish folklore, who were beautiful females, living in hills and boulders, capable of dancing a man to death.", "Like the ''huldra'' in Norway and Sweden, they are hollow when seen from the back.English and German literary traditions both influenced the British Victorian image of elves, which appeared in illustrations as tiny men and women with pointed ears and stocking caps.", "An example is Andrew Lang's fairy tale ''Princess Nobody'' (1884), illustrated by Richard Doyle, where fairies are tiny people with butterfly wings.", "In contrast, elves are small people with red stocking caps.", "These conceptions remained prominent in twentieth-century children's literature, for example Enid Blyton's The Faraway Tree series, and were influenced by German Romantic literature.", "Accordingly, in the Brothers Grimm fairy tale ''Die Wichtelmänner'' (literally, \"the little men\"), the title protagonists are two tiny naked men who help a shoemaker in his work.", "Even though ''Wichtelmänner'' are akin to beings such as kobolds, dwarves and brownies, the tale was translated into English by Margaret Hunt in 1884 as ''The Elves and the Shoemaker''.", "This shows how the meanings of ''elf'' had changed and was in itself influential: the usage is echoed, for example, in the house-elf of J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter stories.", "In his turn, J. R. R. Tolkien recommended using the older German form ''Elb'' in translations of his works, as recorded in his ''Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings'' (1967).", "''Elb, Elben'' was consequently introduced in 1972 German translation of ''The Lord of the Rings'', repopularising the form in German." ], [ "In popular culture", "=== Christmas elf ===A person dressed as a Christmas Elf, Virginia, 2016Richard DoyleWith industrialisation and mass education, traditional folklore about elves waned; however, as the phenomenon of popular culture emerged, elves were re-imagined, in large part based on Romantic literary depictions and associated medievalism.As American Christmas traditions crystallized in the nineteenth century, the 1823 poem \"A Visit from St. Nicholas\" (widely known as \"'Twas the Night before Christmas\") characterized St Nicholas himself as \"a right jolly old elf.\"", "However, it was his little helpers, inspired partly by folktales like ''The Elves and the Shoemaker'', who became known as \"Santa's elves\"; the processes through which this came about are not well-understood, but one key figure was a Christmas-related publication by the German-American cartoonist Thomas Nast.", "Thus in the US, Canada, UK, and Ireland, the modern children's folklore of Santa Claus typically includes small, nimble, green-clad elves with pointy ears, long noses, and pointy hats, as Santa's helpers.", "They make the toys in a workshop located in the North Pole.", "The role of elves as Santa's helpers has continued to be popular, as evidenced by the success of the popular Christmas movie ''Elf''.=== Fantasy fiction ===Typical illustration of a female elf in the high fantasy styleThe fantasy genre in the twentieth century grew out of nineteenth-century Romanticism, in which nineteenth-century scholars such as Andrew Lang and the Grimm brothers collected fairy stories from folklore and in some cases retold them freely.A pioneering work of the fantasy genre was ''The King of Elfland's Daughter'', a 1924 novel by Lord Dunsany.", "The Elves of Middle-earth played a central role in Tolkien's legendarium, notably ''The Hobbit'' and ''The Lord of the Rings''; this legendarium was enormously influential on subsequent fantasy writing.", "Tolkien's writing had such influence that in the 1960s and afterwards, elves speaking an elvish language similar to those in Tolkien's novels became staple non-human characters in high fantasy works and in fantasy role-playing games.", "Tolkien also appears to be the first author to have introduced the notion that elves are immortal.", "Post-Tolkien fantasy elves (which feature not only in novels but also in role-playing games such as ''Dungeons & Dragons'') are often portrayed as being wiser and more beautiful than humans, with sharper senses and perceptions as well.", "They are said to be gifted in magic, mentally sharp and lovers of nature, art, and song.", "They are often skilled archers.", "A hallmark of many fantasy elves is their pointed ears.In works where elves are the main characters, such as ''The Silmarillion'' or Wendy and Richard Pini's comic book series ''Elfquest'', elves exhibit a similar range of behaviour to a human cast, distinguished largely by their superhuman physical powers.", "However, where narratives are more human-centered, as in ''The Lord of the Rings'', elves tend to sustain their role as powerful, sometimes threatening, outsiders.", "Despite the obvious fictionality of fantasy novels and games, scholars have found that elves in these works continue to have a subtle role in shaping the real-life identities of their audiences.", "For example, elves can function to encode real-world racial others in video games, or to influence gender norms through literature." ], [ "Equivalents in non-Germanic traditions", "Greek black-figure vase painting depicting dancing satyrs.", "A propensity for dancing and making mischief in the woods is among the traits satyrs and elves have in common.Beliefs in humanlike supernatural beings are widespread in human cultures, and many such beings may be referred to as ''elves'' in English.=== Europe ===Elfish beings appear to have been a common characteristic within Indo-European mythologies.", "In the Celtic-speaking regions of north-west Europe, the beings most similar to elves are generally referred to with the Gaelic term ''Aos Sí''.", "The equivalent term in modern Welsh is ''Tylwyth Teg''.", "In the Romance-speaking world, beings comparable to elves are widely known by words derived from Latin ''fata'' ('fate'), which came into English as ''fairy''.", "This word became partly synonymous with ''elf'' by the early modern period.", "Other names also abound, however, such as the Sicilian ''Donas de fuera'' ('ladies from outside'), or French ''bonnes dames'' ('good ladies').", "In the Finnic-speaking world, the term usually thought most closely equivalent to ''elf'' is ''haltija'' (in Finnish) or ''haldaja'' (Estonian).", "Meanwhile, an example of an equivalent in the Slavic-speaking world is the ''vila'' (plural ''vile'') of Serbo-Croatian (and, partly, Slovene) folklore.", "Elves bear some resemblances to the satyrs of Greek mythology, who were also regarded as woodland-dwelling mischief-makers.=== Asia and Oceania ===Some scholarship draws parallels between the Arabian tradition of ''jinn'' with the elves of medieval Germanic-language cultures.", "Some of the comparisons are quite precise: for example, the root of the word ''jinn'' was used in medieval Arabic terms for madness and possession in similar ways to the Old English word ''ylfig'', which was derived from ''elf'' and also denoted prophetic states of mind implicitly associated with elfish possession.Khmer culture in Cambodia includes the ''Mrenh kongveal'', elfish beings associated with guarding animals.In the animistic precolonial beliefs of the Philippines, the world can be divided into the material world and the spirit world.", "All objects, animate or inanimate, have a spirit called ''anito''.", "Non-human ''anito'' are known as ''diwata'', usually euphemistically referred to as ''dili ingon nato'' ('those unlike us').", "They inhabit natural features like mountains, forests, old trees, caves, reefs, etc., as well as personify abstract concepts and natural phenomena.", "They are similar to elves in that they can be helpful or hateful but are usually indifferent to mortals.", "They can be mischievous and cause unintentional harm to humans, but they can also deliberately cause illnesses and misfortunes when disrespected or angered.", "Spanish colonizers equated them with elves and fairy folklore.Orang bunian are supernatural beings in Malaysian, Bruneian and Indonesian folklore, invisible to most humans except those with spiritual sight.", "While the term is often translated as \"elves\", it literally translates to \"hidden people\" or \"whistling people\".", "Their appearance is nearly identical to humans dressed in an ancient Southeast Asian style.In Māori culture, Patupaiarehe are beings similar to European elves and fairies." ], [ "See also", "* Svartálfar* Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar" ], [ "Footnotes", "=== Citations ====== References ===* * * * * * * * * Grimm, Jacob (1835), ''Deutsche Mythologie''.", "* * * * * * Eprints.whiterose.ac.uk.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Vol.2* .", "* * ** *.", "* .", "* * * * * * * * <!--" ], [ "Additional reading", "* Höfler, M., ''Deutsches Krankheitsnamen-Buch'' (Munich: Piloty & Loehele, 1899)* * -->" ], [ "Further reading", "* Goodrich, Jean N. \"Fairy, Elves and the Enchanted Otherworld\".", "In: ''Handbook of Medieval Culture'' Volume 1.Edited by Albrecht Classen.", "Berlin, München, Boston: De Gruyter, 2015.pp.", "431-464.https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110267303-022" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Evil" ], [ "Introduction", "Sendan Kendatsuba, one of the eight guardians of Buddhist law, banishing evil in one of the five paintings of ''Extermination of Evil''.", "'''Evil''', or being '''bad''', in a general sense, is acting out morally incorrect behavior, or the condition of causing unnecessary pain and suffering, thus, containing a net negative on the world.Evil is commonly seen as the opposite or sometimes absence of good.", "It can be an extremely broad concept, although in everyday usage it is often more narrowly used to talk about profound wickedness and against common good.", "It is generally seen as taking multiple possible forms, such as the form of personal moral evil commonly associated with the word, or impersonal natural evil (as in the case of natural disasters or illnesses), and in religious thought, the form of the demonic or supernatural/eternal.", "While some religions, world views, and philosophies focus on \"good versus evil\", others deny evil's existence and usefulness in describing people.Evil can denote profound immorality, but typically not without some basis in the understanding of the human condition, where strife and suffering (cf.", "Hinduism) are the true roots of evil.", "In certain religious contexts, evil has been described as a supernatural force.", "Definitions of evil vary, as does the analysis of its motives.", "Elements that are commonly associated with personal forms of evil involve unbalanced behavior including anger, revenge, hatred, psychological trauma, expediency, selfishness, ignorance, destruction and neglect.In some forms of thought, evil is also sometimes perceived as the dualistic antagonistic binary opposite to good, in which good should prevail and evil should be defeated.", "In cultures with Buddhist spiritual influence, both good and evil are perceived as part of an antagonistic duality that itself must be overcome through achieving ''Nirvana''.", "The ethical questions regarding good and evil are subsumed into three major areas of study: meta-ethics concerning the nature of good and evil, normative ethics concerning how we ought to behave, and applied ethics concerning particular moral issues.", "While the term is applied to events and conditions without agency, the forms of evil addressed in this article presume one or more '''evildoers'''." ], [ "Etymology", "The modern English word ''evil'' (Old English ) and its cognates such as the German and Dutch are widely considered to come from a Proto-Germanic reconstructed form of ''*ubilaz'', comparable to the Hittite ''huwapp-'' ultimately from the Proto-Indo-European form and suffixed zero-grade form .", "Other later Germanic forms include Middle English , , , Old Frisian (adjective and noun), Old Saxon , Old High German , and Gothic .The root meaning of the word is of obscure origin though shown to be akin to modern German ''übel'' (noun: ''Übel'', although the noun ''evil'' is normally translated as \"das Böse\") with the basic idea of social or religious transgression." ], [ "Chinese moral philosophy", "As with Buddhism, in Confucianism or Taoism there is no direct analogue to the way ''good and evil'' are opposed although reference to ''demonic influence'' is common in Chinese folk religion.", "Confucianism's primary concern is with correct social relationships and the behavior appropriate to the learned or superior man.", "Thus ''evil'' would correspond to wrong behavior.", "Still less does it map into Taoism, in spite of the centrality of dualism in that system, but the opposite of the cardinal virtues of Taoism, compassion, moderation, and humility can be inferred to be the analogue of evil in it." ], [ "European philosophy", "In response to the practices of Nazi Germany, Hannah Arendt concluded that \"the problem of evil would be the fundamental problem of postwar intellectual life in Europe\", although such a focus did not come to fruition.===Spinoza===Baruch Spinoza statesSpinoza assumes a quasi-mathematical style and states these further propositions which he purports to prove or demonstrate from the above definitions in part IV of his ''Ethics'':* Proposition 8 \"Knowledge of good or evil is nothing but affect of joy or sorrow in so far as we are conscious of it.", "\"* Proposition 30 \"Nothing can be evil through that which it possesses in common with our nature, but in so far as a thing is evil to us it is contrary to us.", "\"* Proposition 64 \"The knowledge of evil is inadequate knowledge.", "\"** Corollary \"Hence it follows that if the human mind had none but adequate ideas, it would form no notion of evil.", "\"* Proposition 65 \"According to the guidance of reason, of two things which are good, we shall follow the greater good, and of two evils, follow the less.", "\"* Proposition 68 \"If men were born free, they would form no conception of good and evil so long as they were free.\"" ], [ "Psychology", "===Carl Jung===Carl Jung, in his book ''Answer to Job'' and elsewhere, depicted evil as the dark side of God.", "People tend to believe evil is something external to them, because they project their shadow onto others.", "Jung interpreted the story of Jesus as an account of God facing his own shadow.=== Philip Zimbardo ===In 2007, Philip Zimbardo suggested that people may act in evil ways as a result of a collective identity.", "This hypothesis, based on his previous experience from the Stanford prison experiment, was published in the book ''The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil''.=== Milgram experiment ===In 1961, Stanley Milgram began an experiment to help explain how thousands of ordinary, non-deviant, people could have reconciled themselves to a role in the Holocaust.", "Participants were led to believe they were assisting in an unrelated experiment in which they had to inflict electric shocks on another person.", "The experiment unexpectedly found that most could be led to inflict the electric shocks, including shocks that would have been fatal if they had been real.", "The participants tended to be uncomfortable and reluctant in the role.", "Nearly all stopped at some point to question the experiment, but most continued after being reassured.A 2014 re-assessment of Milgram's work argued that the results should be interpreted with the \"engaged followership\" model: that people are not simply obeying the orders of a leader, but instead are willing to continue the experiment because of their desire to support the scientific goals of the leader and because of a lack of identification with the learner.", "Thomas Blass argues that the experiment explains how people can be complicit in roles such as \"the dispassionate bureaucrat who may have shipped Jews to Auschwitz with the same degree of routinization as potatoes to Bremerhaven\".", "However, like James Waller, he argues that it cannot explain an event like the Holocaust.", "Unlike the perpetrators of the Holocaust, the participants in Milgram's experiment were reassured that their actions would cause little harm and had little time to contemplate their actions." ], [ "Religions", "===Abrahamic=======Baháʼí Faith====The Baháʼí Faith asserts that evil is non-existent and that it is a concept reflecting lack of good, just as cold is the state of no heat, darkness is the state of no light, forgetfulness the lacking of memory, ignorance the lacking of knowledge.", "All of these are states of lacking and have no real existence.Thus, evil does not exist and is relative to man.", "`Abdu'l-Bahá, son of the founder of the religion, in Some Answered Questions states:\"Nevertheless a doubt occurs to the mind—that is, scorpions and serpents are poisonous.", "Are they good or evil, for they are existing beings?", "Yes, a scorpion is evil in relation to man; a serpent is evil in relation to man; but in relation to themselves they are not evil, for their poison is their weapon, and by their sting they defend themselves.", "\"Thus, evil is more of an intellectual concept than a true reality.", "Since God is good, and upon creating creation he confirmed it by saying it is Good (Genesis 1:31) evil cannot have a true reality.====Christianity====The devil, in opposition to the will of God, represents evil and tempts Christ, the personification of the character and will of God.", "Ary Scheffer, 1854.Christian theology draws its concept of evil from the Old and New Testaments.", "The Christian Bible exercises \"the dominant influence upon ideas about God and evil in the Western world.\"", "In the Old Testament, evil is understood to be an opposition to God as well as something unsuitable or inferior such as the leader of the fallen angels Satan In the New Testament the Greek word ''poneros'' is used to indicate unsuitability, while ''kakos'' is used to refer to opposition to God in the human realm.", "Officially, the Catholic Church extracts its understanding of evil from its canonical antiquity and the Dominican theologian, Thomas Aquinas, who in ''Summa Theologica'' defines evil as the absence or privation of good.", "French-American theologian Henri Blocher describes evil, when viewed as a theological concept, as an \"unjustifiable reality.", "In common parlance, evil is 'something' that occurs in the experience that ''ought not to be''.", "\"====Islam====There is no concept of absolute evil in Islam, as a fundamental universal principle that is independent from and equal with good in a dualistic sense.", "Although the Quran mentions the biblical forbidden tree, it never refers to it as the 'tree of knowledge of good and evil'.", "Within Islam, it is considered essential to believe that all comes from God, whether it is perceived as good or bad by individuals; and things that are perceived as ''evil'' or ''bad'' are either natural events (natural disasters or illnesses) or caused by humanity's free will.", "Much more the behavior of beings with free will, then they disobey God's orders, harming others or putting themselves over God or others, is considered to be evil.", "Evil does not necessarily refer to evil as an ontological or moral category, but often to harm or as the intention and consequence of an action, but also to unlawful actions.Unproductive actions or those who do not produce benefits are also thought of as evil.A typical understanding of evil is reflected by Al-Ash`ari founder of Asharism.", "Accordingly, qualifying something as evil depends on the circumstances of the observer.", "An event or an action itself is neutral, but it receives its qualification by God.", "Since God is omnipotent and nothing can exist outside of God's power, God's will determine, whether or not something is evil.====Rabbinic Judaism====In Judaism and Jewish theology, the existence of evil is presented as part of the idea of free will: if humans were created to be perfect, always and only doing good, being good would not mean much.", "For Jewish theology, it is important for humans to have the ability to choose the path of goodness, even in the face of temptation and ''yetzer hara'' (the inclination to do evil).", "===Ancient Egyptian===Evil in the religion of ancient Egypt is known as ''Isfet'', \"disorder/violence\".", "It is the opposite of ''Maat'', \"order\", and embodied by the serpent god Apep, who routinely attempts to kill the sun god Ra and is stopped by nearly every other deity.", "Isfet is not a primordial force, but the consequence of free will and an individual's struggle against the non-existence embodied by Apep, as evidenced by the fact that it was born from Ra's umbilical cord instead of being recorded in the religion's creation myths.===Indian=======Buddhism====''Extermination of Evil'', The God of Heavenly Punishment, from the Chinese tradition of yin and yang.", "Late Heian period (12th-century Japan).The primal duality in Buddhism is between suffering and enlightenment, so the good vs. evil splitting has no direct analogue in it.", "One may infer from the general teachings of the Buddha that the catalogued causes of suffering are what correspond in this belief system to 'evil'.Practically this can refer to 1) the three selfish emotions—desire, hate and delusion; and 2) to their expression in physical and verbal actions.", "Specifically, ''evil'' means whatever harms or obstructs the causes for happiness in this life, a better rebirth, liberation from samsara, and the true and complete enlightenment of a buddha (samyaksambodhi).", "\"What is evil?", "Killing is evil, lying is evil, slandering is evil, abuse is evil, gossip is evil: envy is evil, hatred is evil, to cling to false doctrine is evil; all these things are evil.", "And what is the root of evil?", "Desire is the root of evil, illusion is the root of evil.\"", "Gautama Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, 563–483 BC.====Hinduism====In Hinduism, the concept of Dharma or righteousness clearly divides the world into good and evil, and clearly explains that wars have to be waged sometimes to establish and protect Dharma, this war is called Dharmayuddha.", "This division of good and evil is of major importance in both the Hindu epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata.", "The main emphasis in Hinduism is on bad action, rather than bad people.", "The Hindu holy text, the Bhagavad Gita, speaks of the balance of good and evil.", "When this balance goes off, divine incarnations come to help to restore this balance.====Sikhism====In adherence to the core principle of spiritual evolution, the Sikh idea of evil changes depending on one's position on the path to liberation.", "At the beginning stages of spiritual growth, good and evil may seem neatly separated.", "Once one's spirit evolves to the point where it sees most clearly, the idea of evil vanishes and the truth is revealed.", "In his writings Guru Arjan explains that, because God is the source of all things, what we believe to be evil must too come from God.", "And because God is ultimately a source of absolute good, nothing truly evil can originate from God.Sikhism, like many other religions, does incorporate a list of \"vices\" from which suffering, corruption, and abject negativity arise.", "These are known as the Five Thieves, called such due to their propensity to cloud the mind and lead one astray from the prosecution of righteous action.", "These are:* Moh, or Attachment* Lobh, or Greed* Karodh, or Wrath* Kaam, or Lust* Ahankar, or EgotismOne who gives in to the temptations of the Five Thieves is known as \"Manmukh\", or someone who lives selfishly and without virtue.", "Inversely, the \"Gurmukh, who thrive in their reverence toward divine knowledge, rise above vice via the practice of the high virtues of Sikhism.", "These are:* Sewa, or selfless service to others.", "* Nam Simran, or meditation upon the divine name." ], [ "Question of a universal definition", "A fundamental question is whether there is a universal, transcendent definition of evil, or whether one's definition of evil is determined by one's social or cultural background.", "C. S. Lewis, in ''The Abolition of Man'', maintained that there are certain acts that are universally considered evil, such as rape and murder.", "However, the rape of women, by men, is found in every society, and there are more societies that see at least some versions of it, such as marital rape or punitive rape, as normative than there are societies that see all rape as non-normative (a crime).", "In nearly all societies, killing except for defense or duty is seen as murder.", "Yet the definition of defense and duty varies from one society to another.", "Social deviance is not uniformly defined across different cultures, and is not, in all circumstances, necessarily an aspect of evil.Defining evil is complicated by its multiple, often ambiguous, common usages: evil is used to describe the whole range of suffering, including that caused by nature, and it is also used to describe the full range of human immorality from the \"evil of genocide to the evil of malicious gossip\".", "It is sometimes thought of as the generic opposite of good.", "Marcus Singer asserts that these common connotations must be set aside as overgeneralized ideas that do not sufficiently describe the nature of evil.In contemporary philosophy, there are two basic concepts of evil: a broad concept and a narrow concept.", "A broad concept defines evil simply as any and all pain and suffering: \"any bad state of affairs, wrongful action, or character flaw\".", "Yet, it is also asserted that evil cannot be correctly understood \"(as some of the utilitarians once thought) on a simple hedonic scale on which pleasure appears as a plus, and pain as a minus\".", "This is because pain is necessary for survival.", "Renowned orthopedist and missionary to lepers, Dr. Paul Brand explains that leprosy attacks the nerve cells that feel pain resulting in no more pain for the leper, which leads to ever increasing, often catastrophic, damage to the body of the leper.", "Congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP), also known as congenital analgesia, is a neurological disorder that prevents feeling pain.", "It \"leads to ... bone fractures, multiple scars, osteomyelitis, joint deformities, and limb amputation ...", "Mental retardation is common.", "Death from hyperpyrexia occurs within the first 3 years of life in almost 20% of the patients.\"", "Few with the disorder are able to live into adulthood.", "Evil cannot be simply defined as all pain and its connected suffering because, as Marcus Singer says: \"If something is really evil, it can't be necessary, and if it is really necessary, it can't be evil\".The narrow concept of evil involves moral condemnation, therefore it is ascribed only to moral agents and their actions.", "This eliminates natural disasters and animal suffering from consideration as evil: according to Claudia Card, \"When not guided by moral agents, forces of nature are neither \"goods\" nor \"evils\".", "They just are.", "Their \"agency\" routinely produces consequences vital to some forms of life and lethal to others\".", "The narrow definition of evil \"picks out only the most morally despicable sorts of actions, characters, events, etc.", "''Evil'' in this sense ... is the worst possible term of opprobrium imaginable”.", "Eve Garrard suggests that evil describes \"particularly horrifying kinds of action which we feel are to be contrasted with more ordinary kinds of wrongdoing, as when for example we might say 'that action wasn't just wrong, it was positively evil'.", "The implication is that there is a qualitative, and not merely quantitative, difference between evil acts and other wrongful ones; evil acts are not just very bad or wrongful acts, but rather ones possessing some specially horrific quality\".", "In this context, the concept of evil is one element in a full nexus of moral concepts." ], [ "Philosophical questions", "===Approaches===Views on the nature of evil belong to the branch of philosophy known as ethics—which in modern philosophy is subsumed into three major areas of study:# Meta-ethics, that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments.# Normative ethics, investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking.# Applied ethics, concerned with the analysis of particular moral issues in private and public life.===Usefulness as a term===There is debate on how useful the term \"evil\" is, since it is often associated with spirits and the devil.", "Some see the term as useless because they say it lacks any real ability to explain what it names.", "There is also real danger of the harm that being labeled \"evil\" can do when used in moral, political, and legal contexts.", "Those who support the usefulness of the term say there is a secular view of evil that offers plausible analyses without reference to the supernatural.", "Garrard and Russell argue that evil is as useful an explanation as any moral concept.", "Garrard adds that evil actions result from a particular kind of motivation, such as taking pleasure in the suffering of others, and this distinctive motivation provides a partial explanation even if it does not provide a complete explanation.", "Most theorists agree use of the term evil can be harmful but disagree over what response that requires.", "Some argue it is \"more dangerous to ignore evil than to try to understand it\".Those who support the usefulness of the term, such as Eve Garrard and David McNaughton, argue that the term evil \"captures a distinct part of our moral phenomenology, specifically, 'collecting together those wrongful actions to which we have ... a response of moral horror'.\"", "Claudia Card asserts it is only by understanding the nature of evil that we can preserve humanitarian values and prevent evil in the future.", "If evils are the worst sorts of moral wrongs, social policy should focus limited energy and resources on reducing evil over other wrongs.", "Card asserts that by categorizing certain actions and practices as evil, we are better able to recognize and guard against responding to evil with more evil which will \"interrupt cycles of hostility generated by past evils\".One school of thought holds that no ''person'' is evil and that only ''acts'' may be properly considered evil.", "Some theorists define an evil action simply as a kind of action an evil person performs.", "But just as many theorists believe that an evil character is one who is inclined toward evil acts.Luke Russell argues that both evil actions and evil feelings are necessary to identify a person as evil, while Daniel Haybron argues that evil feelings and evil motivations are necessary.American psychiatrist M. Scott Peck describes evil as a kind of personal \"militant ignorance\".", "According to Peck, an evil person is consistently self-deceiving, deceives others, psychologically projects his or her evil onto very specific targets, hates, abuses power, and lies incessantly.", "Evil people are unable to think from the viewpoint of their victim.", "Peck considers those he calls evil to be attempting to escape and hide from their own conscience (through self-deception) and views this as being quite distinct from the apparent absence of conscience evident in sociopaths.", "He also considers that certain institutions may be evil, using the My Lai Massacre to illustrate.", "By this definition, acts of criminal and state terrorism would also be considered evil.===Necessity===Martin Luther believed that occasional minor evil could have a positive effect.Martin Luther argued that there are cases where a little evil is a positive good.", "He wrote, \"Seek out the society of your boon companions, drink, play, talk bawdy, and amuse yourself.", "One must sometimes commit a sin out of hate and contempt for the Devil, so as not to give him the chance to make one scrupulous over mere nothings ... \"The international relations theories of realism and neorealism, sometimes called ''realpolitik'' advise politicians to explicitly ban absolute moral and ethical considerations from international politics, and to focus on self-interest, political survival, and power politics, which they hold to be more accurate in explaining a world they view as explicitly amoral and dangerous.", "Political realists usually justify their perspectives by stating that morals and politics should be separated as two unrelated things, as exerting authority often involves doing something not moral.", "Machiavelli wrote: \"there will be traits considered good that, if followed, will lead to ruin, while other traits, considered vices which if practiced achieve security and well being for the prince.\"" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Further reading'''* Baumeister, Roy F. (1999).", "''Evil: Inside Human Violence and Cruelty''.", "New York: W.H.", "Freeman / Owl Book* Bennett, Gaymon, Hewlett, Martinez J, Peters, Ted, Russell, Robert John (2008).", "''The Evolution of Evil''.", "Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.", "* Katz, Fred Emil (1993).", "''Ordinary People and Extraordinary Evil'', SUNY Press, ;* Katz, Fred Emil (2004).", "''Confronting Evil'', SUNY Press, .", "* Neiman, Susan (2002).", "''Evil in Modern Thought – An Alternative History of Philosophy.''", "Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "* * Shermer, M. (2004).", "''The Science of Good & Evil.''", "New York: Time Books.", "* * Stapley, A.B.", "& Elder Delbert L. (1975).", "''Using Our Free Agency''.", "Ensign May: 21* Stark, Ryan (2009).", "''Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenth-Century England.''", "Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.", "115–45.", "* Vetlesen, Arne Johan (2005).", "''Evil and Human Agency – Understanding Collective Evildoing'' New York: Cambridge University Press.", "* Wilson, William McF., Julian N. Hartt (2004).", "''Farrer's Theodicy''.", "In David Hein and Edward Hugh Henderson (eds), ''Captured by the Crucified: The Practical Theology of Austin Farrer''.", "New York and London: T & T Clark / Continuum." ], [ "External links", "** * Good and Evil in (Ultra Orthodox) Judaism* ABC News: Looking for Evil in Everyday Life* Psychology Today: Indexing Evil* ''Booknotes'' interview with Lance Morrow on ''Evil: An Investigation'', October 19, 2003.", "* \"Good and Evil\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Leszek Kolakowski and Galen Strawson (''In Our Time'', Apr.", "1, 1999).", "* \"Evil\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Jones Erwin, Stefan Mullhall and Margaret Atkins (''In Our Time'', May 3, 2001)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Epistle to the Hebrews" ], [ "Introduction", "Papyrus 13, 3rd or 4th century AD, with the Epistle to the Hebrews in the original Koine Greek.The '''Epistle to the Hebrews''' () is one of the books of the New Testament.The text does not mention the name of its author, but was traditionally attributed to Paul the Apostle.", "Most of the Ancient Greek manuscripts, the Old Syriac Peshitto and some of the Old Latin manuscripts have the epistle to the Hebrews among Paul's letters.", "However, doubt on Pauline authorship in the Roman Church is reported by Eusebius.", "Modern biblical scholarship considers its authorship unknown, written in deliberate imitation of the style of Paul, with some contending that it was authored by Priscilla and Aquila.Scholars of Greek consider its writing to be more polished and eloquent than any other book of the New Testament, and \"the very carefully composed and studied Greek of Hebrews is not Paul's spontaneous, volatile contextual Greek\".", "The book has earned the reputation of being a masterpiece.", "It has also been described as an intricate New Testament book.", "Some scholars believe it was written for Jewish Christians who lived in Jerusalem.", "Its essential purpose was to exhort Christians to persevere in the face of persecution.", "At this time, certain believers were considering turning back to Judaism and to the Jewish system of law to escape being persecuted for believing Christ to be the Messiah.", "The theme of the epistle is the teaching of the person of Christ and his role as mediator between God and humanity.According to traditional scholarship, the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, following in the footsteps of Paul, argued that Jewish Law had played a legitimate role in the past but was superseded by a New Covenant for the Gentiles (cf.", "Romans 7:1–6; Galatians 3:23–25; Hebrews 8, 10).", "However, a growing number of scholars note that the terms Gentile, Christian and Christianity are not present in the text and posit that Hebrews was written for a Jewish audience, and is best seen as a debate between Jewish followers of Jesus and mainstream Judaism.", "In tone, and detail, Hebrews goes beyond Paul and attempts a more complex, nuanced, and openly adversarial definition of the relationship.", "The epistle opens with an exaltation of Jesus as \"the radiance of God's glory, the express image of his being, and upholding all things by his powerful word\" (Hebrews 1:1–3).", "The epistle presents Jesus with the titles \"pioneer\" or \"forerunner\", \"Son\" and \"Son of God\", \"priest\" and \"high priest\".", "The epistle casts Jesus as both exalted Son and High Priest, a unique dual Christology." ], [ "Composition", "Memorial to French soldiers of the Franco-Prussian War: it quotes Heb 11:16, \"they desire a better country.", "\"Hebrews uses Old Testament quotations interpreted in light of first-century rabbinical Judaism.", "New Testament and Second Temple Judaism scholar Eric Mason argues that the conceptual background of the priestly Christology of the Epistle to the Hebrews closely parallels presentations of the messianic priest and Melchizedek in the Qumran scrolls.", "In both Hebrews and Qumran, a priestly figure is discussed in the context of a Davidic figure; in both cases a divine decree appoints the priests to their eschatological duty; both priestly figures offer an eschatological sacrifice of atonement.", "Although the author of Hebrews was not directly influenced by Qumran's \"Messiah of Aaron\", these and other conceptions did provide \"a precedent... to conceive Jesus similarly as a priest making atonement and eternal intercession in the heavenly sanctuary\".=== Authorship ===By the end of the first century there was no consensus on the author's identity.", "Clement of Rome, Barnabas, Paul the Apostle, and other names were proposed.", "Others later suggested Luke the Evangelist, Apollos, or his teacher Priscilla as possible authors.In the 3rd century, Origen wrote of the letter:Matthew J. Thomas argues that Origen was not denying Paul's authorship of Hebrews in that quote, but that he was only meaning that Paul would have employed an amanuensis to compose the letter.", "He points out that in other writings and quotations of Hebrews, Origen describes Paul as the author of the letter.In the 4th century, Jerome and Augustine of Hippo supported Paul's authorship: the Church largely agreed to include Hebrews as the fourteenth letter of Paul, and affirmed this authorship until the Reformation.", "Scholars argued that in the 13th chapter of Hebrews, Timothy is referred to as a companion.", "Timothy was Paul's missionary companion in the same way Jesus sent disciples out in pairs.", "The writer also states that he wrote the letter from \"Italy\", which also at the time fits Paul.", "The difference in style is explained as simply an adjustment to a distinct audience, to the Jewish Christians who were being persecuted and pressured to go back to traditional Judaism.Many scholars now believe that the author was one of Paul's pupils or associates, citing stylistic differences between Hebrews and the other Pauline epistles.", "Recent scholarship has favored the idea that the author was probably a leader of a predominantly Jewish congregation to whom they were writing.Because of its anonymity, it had some trouble being accepted as part of the Christian canon, being classed with the Antilegomena.", "Eventually it was accepted as Scripture because of its sound theology, eloquent presentation, and other intrinsic factors.", "In antiquity, certain circles began to ascribe it to Paul in an attempt to provide the anonymous work with an explicit apostolic pedigree.The original King James Version of the Bible titled the work \"The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Hebrews\".", "However, the KJV's attribution to Paul was only a guess, and is currently disputed by recent research.", "Its vastly different style, different theological focus, different spiritual experience and different Greek vocabulary are all believed to make Paul's authorship of Hebrews increasingly indefensible.", "At present, modern scholarship does not ascribe Hebrews to Paul.Inscription at Salinelles cemetery, Hebrews 9:27; \"After death, judgment.\"A.J.", "Gordon ascribes the authorship of Hebrews to Priscilla, writing that \"It is evident that the Holy Spirit made this woman Priscilla a teacher of teachers\".", "Later proposed by Adolf von Harnack in 1900, Harnack's reasoning won the support of prominent Bible scholars of the early twentieth century.", "Harnack believes the letter was written in Rome – not to the Church, but to the inner circle.", "In setting forth his evidence for Priscillan authorship, he finds it amazing that the name of the author was blotted out by the earliest tradition.", "Citing Hebrews 13, he says it was written by a person of \"high standing and apostolic teacher of equal rank with Timothy\".", "If Luke, Clement, Barnabas, or Apollos had written it, Harnack believes their names would not have been obliterated.Donald Guthrie's commentary ''The Letter to the Hebrews'' (1983) mentions Priscilla by name as a suggested author.Believing the author to have been Priscilla, Ruth Hoppin posits that the name was omitted either to suppress its female authorship, or to protect the letter itself from suppression.Also convinced that Priscilla was the author of Hebrews, Gilbert Bilezikian, professor of biblical studies at Wheaton College, remarks on \"the conspiracy of anonymity in the ancient church,\" and reasons: \"The lack of any firm data concerning the identity of the author in the extant writings of the church suggests a deliberate blackout more than a case of collective loss of memory.", "\"===Date===The use of tabernacle terminology in Hebrews has been used to date the epistle before the destruction of the temple, the idea being that knowing about the destruction of both Jerusalem and the temple would have influenced the development of the author's overall argument.", "Therefore, the most probable date for its composition is the second half of the year 63 or the beginning of 64, according to the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''.The text itself, for example, makes a contrast between the resurrected Christ \"in heaven\" \"who serves in the sanctuary, the true tabernacle set up by the Lord\" and the version on earth, where \"there are already priests who offer the gifts prescribed by the law.", "They serve at a sanctuary that is a copy and shadow of what is in heaven.\"", "(NIV version)Despite this, some scholars, such as Harold Attridge and Ellen Aitken, hold to a later date of composition, between 70 and 100 AD." ], [ "Audience", "Scholars have suggested that Hebrews is part of an internal New Testament debate between the extreme Judaizers (who argued that non-Jews must convert to Judaism before they can receive the Holy Spirit of Jesus' New Covenant) versus the extreme antinomians (who argued that Jews must reject God's commandments and that Jewish law was no longer in effect).", "James and Paul represent the moderates of each faction, respectively, and Peter may have served as moderator.It sets before the Jew the claims of Christianity – to bring the Jew to the full realization of the relation of Judaism to Christianity, to make clear that Christ has fulfilled those temporary and provisional institutions, and has thus abolished them.", "This view is commonly referred to as supersessionism.According to the theology of supersessionism, the church replaces Israel, and thus the church takes the place of Israel as the people of God.", "The dominant interpretation in modern Hebrews scholarship has been that the epistle contains an implicit supersessionist claim (that the Levitical sacrifices and the Levitical priests have been replaced/superseded by Christ's sacrifice).", "Per Bibliowicz, Hebrews scholars may be divided into those that are supportive-sympathetic to the epistle's theological message, those that are critical of the epistle's supersessionary message, and those attempting a middle ground.Due to the importance of Hebrews for the formation of future Christian attitudes toward Jews and Judaism, a distinction must be made between the author's intent and the way in which the text was interpreted by future generations.", "The impact of the deployment and implementation of supersession theology is difficult to convey and grasp.", "The implementation of this theological claim eventually led to the negation and disenfranchisement of the Jewish followers of Jesus, and later, of all Jews." ], [ "Purpose for writing", "Those to whom Hebrews is written seem to have begun to doubt whether Jesus could really be the Messiah for whom they were waiting, because they believed the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Scriptures was to come as a militant king and destroy the enemies of his people.", "In contrast, Jesus came as a man of no social standing who was slandered, arrested and condemned by the Jewish leaders and who suffered and was crucified by the Romans.", "Although he was seen resurrected, he still left the earth and his people, who now faced persecution rather than victory.", "The Book of Hebrews argues that the Hebrew Scriptures also foretold that the Messiah would be a priest (although of a different sort than the traditional Levitical priests) and Jesus came to fulfill this role, as a sacrificial offering to God, to atone for sins.", "His role of a king is yet to come, and so those who follow him should be patient and not be surprised that they suffer for now.Some scholars today believe the document was written to prevent apostasy.", "Some have interpreted apostasy to mean a number of different things, such as a group of Christians in one sect leaving for another more conservative sect, one of which the author disapproves.", "Some have seen apostasy as a move from the Christian assembly to pagan ritual.", "In light of a possibly Jewish-Christian audience, the apostasy in this sense may be in regard to Jewish Christians leaving the Christian assembly to return to the Jewish synagogue.", "The author writes, \"Let us hold fast to our confession\".", "The epistle has been viewed as a long, rhetorical argument for having confidence in the new way to God revealed in Jesus Christ.The book could be argued to affirm special creation.", "It says that God by his Son, Jesus Christ, made the worlds.", "\"God ... hath in these last days spoken unto us by his Son ... by whom also he made the worlds\".", "The epistle also emphasizes the importance of faith.", "\"Through faith we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of God, so that things which are seen were not made of things which do appear\".Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant.", "His famous sermon from a hill representing Mount Zion is considered by many Christian scholars to be the antitype of the proclamation of the Old Covenant by Moses from Mount Sinai." ], [ "Style", "Hebrews is a very consciously \"literary\" document.", "The purity of its Greek was noted by Clement of Alexandria, according to Eusebius, and Origen of Alexandria asserted that every competent judge must recognize a great difference between this epistle and those of Paul.The letter consists of two strands: an expositional or doctrinal strand, and a hortatory or strongly urging strand which punctuates the exposition parenthetically at key points as warnings to the readers.Hebrews does not fit the form of a traditional Hellenistic epistle, lacking a proper prescript.", "Modern scholars generally believe this book was originally a sermon or homily, although possibly modified after it was delivered to include the travel plans, greetings and closing.Hebrews contains many references to the Old Testament – specifically to the Septuagint text." ], [ "Christology", "The Epistle to the Hebrews is notable for the manner in which it expresses the divine nature of Christ.", "As A.C. Purdy summarized for ''The Interpreter's Bible'':Mikeal Parsons has commented:" ], [ "See also", "* Textual variants in the New Testament#Epistle to the Hebrews" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Exegetical commentaries===* Attridge, Harold W., ''Hebrews''.", "Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1989.", "* Bruce, Frederick F., ''The Epistle to the Hebrews''.", "New International Commentary on the New Testament.", "Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964.Rev Ed 1990.", "* Gareth Lee Cockerill, ''The Epistle to the Hebrews''.", "New International Commentary on the New Testament.", "Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2012.", "* Ellingworth, Paul, ''The Epistle to the Hebrews''.", "New International Greek Testament Commentary, Eerdmans, 1993.", "* Guthrie, Donald, ''The Letter to the Hebrews''.", "Grand Rapids, MI: Wm.", "B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1983.", "* Guthrie, George H.'', ''Hebrews''.", "The NIV Application Commentary.", "Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998.", "* Heen, Erik M. and Krey, Philip D.W., eds.", "''Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture: Hebrews''.", "Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2005.", "* Hughes, P.E., ''A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews''.", "Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977.", "* Hurst, L. D., ''The Epistle to the Hebrews: Its Background of Thought''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.", "* Koester, Craig R., ''Hebrews''.", "Anchor Bible 36.New York: Doubleday, 2001.", "* Lane, William L., ''Hebrews 1–8''.", "Word Biblical Commentary Vol.", "47A.", "Dallas, TX: Word Books, 1991.", "* --- ''Hebrews 9–13''.", "Word Biblical Commentary Vol.", "47B.", "Dallas, TX: Word Books, 1991.", "* Moffatt, James.", "''Hebrews''.", "International Critical Commentary.", "Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1979.", "(Originally Published in 1924)* Westcott, B.F., ''The Epistle to the Hebrews: the Greek text with notes and essays''.", "New York: MacMillan, 1892.===Other books===* Easter, Matthew C. ''Faith and the Faithfulness of Jesus in Hebrews''.", "SNTS Vol.", "160.New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.", "* Hagen, Kenneth.", "''Hebrews Commenting from Erasmus to Beze''.", "Tübingen: J.C.B.", "Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1981.===Articles===* Paul Ellingworth Reading through Hebrews 1–7, Listening especially for the theme of Jesus as high priest.", "''Epworth Review'' 12.1 (Jan. 1985): 80–88.", "*" ], [ "External links", "Online translations of the Epistle to the Hebrews:* ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org* NET Bible* Various versionsOther:* The letter to the Hebrews in \"biblical literature\", Encyclopædia Britannica Online.", "* Goodspeed's introductory analysis of ''Hebrews'', 1908 at earlychristianwritings.com* Catholic Encyclopedia: Epistle to the Hebrews* BibleProject Animated Overview (Evangelical Perspective)* Free Online Seminary Class from BiblicalTraining on Hebrews (Registration required; Evangelical Perspective)* ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'' 1897: Epistle to the Hebrews* Holiness in Hebrews – Wayne G. McCown p. 58* Hebrews from the Biblical Resource Database* Eusebius' Church History 3.3.5 includes comment by Eusebius on canonicity of Hebrews and also extensive note by Philip Schaff on topic*" ] ]
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[ [ "Esther" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Esther''' (originally '''Hadassah''') is the eponymous heroine of the Book of Esther.", "The story the book tells is as follows: Ahasuerus, the king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, falls in love with the beautiful Jewish woman Esther and makes her his Queen.", "His grand vizier, Haman, is offended by Esther's cousin and guardian, Mordecai, who refuses to prostrate himself before Haman.", "Haman plots to have all the Jews in Persia killed, and convinces Ahasuerus to permit him to do so.", "However, Esther foils the plan by revealing Haman's eradication plans to Ahasuerus, who then has Haman executed and grants permission to the Jews to kill their enemies.The Book of Esther provides the traditional explanation for the Jewish holiday of Purim, celebrated on the date given in the story for when Haman's order was to go into effect, which is the day that the Jews killed their enemies after the plan was reversed.", "Since the 1890s, several academics have “agreed in seeing The Book of Esther as a historicized myth or ritual” and generally concluded that Purim has its origin in a Babylonian, Persian, or Palestinian myth or festival (though which one is a subject of discussion).The book exists in two related forms: a shorter Biblical Hebrew-sourced version found in Jewish and Protestant Bibles, and a longer Koine Greek-sourced version found in Catholic and Orthodox Bibles." ], [ "Name", "When she is introduced, in Esther 2:7, she is first referred to by the Hebrew name ''Hadassah'', which means \"myrtle tree.\"", "This name is absent from the early Greek manuscripts, although present in the targumic texts, and was probably added to the Hebrew text in the 2nd century CE at the earliest to stress the heroine's Jewishness.", "The name \"Esther\" probably derives from the name of the Babylonian goddess Ishtar or from the Persian word cognate with the English word \"star\" (implying an association with Ishtar) though some scholars contend it is related to the Persian words for \"woman\" or \"myrtle\"." ], [ "Narrative", "''Esther Denouncing Haman'' (1888) by Ernest NormandIn the third year of the reign of King Ahasuerus of Persia the king banishes his queen, Vashti, and seeks a new queen.", "Beautiful maidens gather together at the harem in the citadel of Susa under the authority of the eunuch Hegai.Esther, a cousin of Mordecai, was a member of the Jewish community in the Exilic Period who claimed as an ancestor Kish, a Benjamite who had been taken from Jerusalem into captivity.", "She was the orphaned daughter of Mordecai's uncle, another Benjamite named Abihail.", "Upon the king's orders, Esther is taken to the palace where Hegai prepares her to meet the king.", "Even as she advances to the highest position of the harem, perfumed with gold and myrrh and allocated certain foods and servants, she is under strict instructions from Mordecai, who meets with her each day, to conceal her Jewish origins.", "The king falls in love with her and makes her his Queen.Following Esther's coronation, Mordecai learns of an assassination plot by Bigthan and Teresh to kill King Ahasuerus.", "Mordecai tells Esther, who tells the king in the name of Mordecai, and he is saved.", "This act of great service to the king is recorded in the Annals of the Kingdom.After Mordecai saves the king's life, Haman the Agagite is made Ahasuerus' highest adviser, and orders that everyone bow down to him.", "When Mordecai (who had stationed himself in the street to advise Esther) refuses to bow to him, Haman pays King Ahasuerus 10,000 silver talents for the right to exterminate all of the Jews in Ahasuerus' kingdom.", "Haman casts lots, Purim, using supernatural means, and sees that the thirteenth day of the Month of Adar is a fortunate day for the genocide.", "Using the seal of the king, in the name of the king, Haman sends an order to the provinces of the kingdom to allow the extermination of the Jews on the thirteenth of Adar.", "When Mordecai learns of this, he tells Esther to reveal to the king that she is Jewish and ask that he repeal the order.", "Esther hesitates, saying that she could be put to death if she goes to the king without being summoned; nevertheless, Mordecai urges her to try.", "Esther asks that the entire Jewish community fast and pray for three days before she goes to see the king; Mordecai agrees.On the third day, Esther goes to the courtyard in front of the king's palace, and she is welcomed by the king, who stretches out his scepter for her to touch, and offers her anything she wants \"up to half of the kingdom\".", "Esther invites the king and Haman to a banquet she has prepared for the next day.", "She tells the king she will reveal her request at the banquet.", "During the banquet, the king repeats his offer again, whereupon Esther invites both the king and Haman to a banquet she is making on the following day as well.Seeing that he is in favor with the king and queen, Haman takes counsel from his wife and friends to build a gallows upon which to hang Mordecai; as he is in their good favors, he believes he will be granted his wish to hang Mordecai the very next day.", "After building the gallows, Haman goes to the palace in the middle of the night to wait for the earliest moment he can see the king.That evening, the king, unable to sleep, asks that the Annals of the Kingdom be read to him so that he will become drowsy.", "The book miraculously opens to the page telling of Mordecai's great service, and the king asks if he had already received a reward.", "When his attendants answer in the negative, Ahasuerus is suddenly distracted and demands to know who is standing in the palace courtyard in the middle of the night.", "The attendants answer that it is Haman.", "Ahasuerus invites Haman into his room.", "Haman, instead of requesting that Mordecai be hanged, is ordered to take Mordecai through the streets of the capital on the Royal Horse wearing the royal robes.", "Haman is also instructed to yell, \"This is what shall be done to the man whom the king wishes to honor!", "\"After spending the entire day honoring Mordecai, Haman rushes to Esther's second banquet, where Ahasuerus is already waiting.", "Ahasuerus repeats his offer to Esther of anything \"up to half of the kingdom\".", "Esther tells Ahasuerus that while she appreciates the offer, she must put before him a more basic issue: she explains that there is a person plotting to kill her and her entire people, and that this person's intentions are to harm the king and the kingdom.", "When Ahasuerus asks who this person is, Esther points to Haman and names him.", "Upon hearing this, an enraged Ahasuerus goes out to the garden to calm down and consider the situation.While Ahasuerus is in the garden, Haman throws himself at Esther's feet asking for mercy.", "Upon returning from the garden, the king is further enraged.", "As it was the custom to eat on reclining couches, it appears to the king as if Haman is attacking Esther.", "He orders Haman to be removed from his sight.", "While Haman is being led out, Harvona, a civil servant, tells the king that Haman had built a gallows for Mordecai, \"who had saved the king's life\".", "In response, the king says \"Hang him (Haman) on it\".After Haman is put to death, Ahasuerus gives Haman's estate to Esther.", "Esther tells the king about Mordecai being her relative, and the king makes Mordecai his adviser.", "When Esther asks the king to revoke the order exterminating the Jews, the king is initially hesitant, saying that an order issued by the king cannot be repealed.", "Ahasuerus allows Esther and Mordecai to draft another order, with the seal of the king and in the name of the king, to allow the Jewish people to defend themselves and fight with their oppressors on the thirteenth day of Adar.On the thirteenth day of Adar, the same day that Haman had set for them to be killed, the Jews defend themselves in all parts of the kingdom and rest on the fourteenth day of Adar.", "The fourteenth day of Adar is celebrated with the giving of charity, exchanging foodstuffs, and feasting.", "In Susa, the Jews of the capital were given another day to kill their oppressors; they rested and celebrated on the fifteenth day of Adar, again giving charity, exchanging foodstuffs, and feasting as well.", "The Shrine venerated as the Tomb of Esther and Mordechai in Hamadan, IranThe Jews established an annual feast, the feast of Purim, in memory of their deliverance.", "Haman having set the date of the thirteenth of Adar to commence his campaign against the Jews, this determined the date of the festival of Purim." ], [ "Historicity", "Although the details of the setting are entirely plausible and the story may even have some basis in actual events, there is general agreement among scholars that the book of Esther is a work of fiction.", "Persian kings did not marry outside of seven Persian noble families, making it unlikely that there was a Jewish queen Esther.", "Further, the name ''Ahasuerus'' can be translated to ''Xerxes'', as both derive from the Persian ''Khshayārsha.''", "Ahasuerus as described in the Book of Esther is usually identified in modern sources to refer to Xerxes I, who ruled between 486 and 465 BCE, as it is to this monarch that the events described in Esther are thought to fit the most closely.", "Xerxes I's queen was Amestris, further highlighting the fictitious nature of the story.", "Some scholars speculate that the story was created to justify the Jewish appropriation of an originally non-Jewish feast.", "The festival which the book explains is Purim, which is explained as meaning \"lot\", from the Babylonian word ''puru''.", "One popular theory says the festival has its origins in a historicized Babylonian myth or ritual in which Mordecai and Esther represent the Babylonian gods Marduk and Ishtar, while others trace the ritual to the Persian New Year, and scholars have surveyed other theories in their works.", "Some scholars have defended the story as real history, but the attempt to find a historical kernel to the narrative \"is likely to be futile\"." ], [ "Interpretations", "The Book of Esther begins by portraying Esther as beautiful and obedient, though a relatively passive figure.", "Throughout the story, she evolves into a character who takes a decisive role in her own future and that of her people.", "According to Sidnie White Crawford, \"Esther's position in a male court mirrors that of the Jews in a Gentile world, with the threat of danger ever present below the seemingly calm surface.\"", "Esther is compared to Daniel in that both represent a \"type\" for Jews living in Diaspora, and hoping to live a successful life in an alien environment.According to Susan Zaeske, by virtue of the fact that Esther used only rhetoric to convince the king to save her people, the story of Esther is a \"rhetoric of exile and empowerment that, for millennia, has notably shaped the discourse of marginalized peoples such as Jews, women, and African Americans\", persuading those who have power over them." ], [ "Persian culture", "Interior of the structure venerated as the alt=Modern day Persian Jews are called \"Esther's Children\".", "A building venerated as being the Tomb of Esther and Mordechai is located in Hamadan, Iran, although the village of Kfar Bar'am in northern Israel also claims to be the burial place of Queen Esther." ], [ "Artistic Depictions of Esther", "Johannes Spilberg the Younger, ''Esther and Mordecai Writing the First Purim Letter'' by Aert de Gelder, c.1685Throughout history, many artists have created paintings depicting Esther.", "Notable early portrayals include the Heilspiegel Altarpiece by Konrad Witz and ''Esther Before Ahasuerus'' by Tintoretto (1546–47, Royal Collection) which show Esther appearing before the king to beg mercy for the Jews, despite the punishment for appearing without being summoned being death.", "This scene became one of the most commonly depicted parts of the story.", "Esther's faint had not often been depicted in art before Tintoretto.", "It is shown in the series of ''cassone'' scenes of the ''Life of Esther'' attributed variously to Sandro Botticelli and Filippino Lippi from the 1470s.", "In other cassone depictions, for example by Filippino Lippi, Esther's readiness to show herself before the court is contrasted to Vashti's refusal to expose herself to the public assembly.Esther was regarded in Catholic theology as a typological forerunner of the Virgin Mary in her role as intercessor Her regal election parallels Mary's Assumption and as she becomes queen of Persia, Mary becomes queen of heaven; Mary's epithet as 'stella maris' parallels Esther as a 'star' and both figure as sponsors of the humble before the powerful.", "Contemporary viewers would likely have recognized a similarity between the faint and the common motif of the Swoon of the Virgin, seen in many depictions of the Crucifixion of Jesus.", "Esther's fainting became a popular subject in the Baroque painting of the following century.", "A notable Baroque example is ''Esther Before Ahasuerus'' by Artemisia Gentileschi." ], [ "In Christianity", "Esther is commemorated as a matriarch in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod on May 24.Esther is recognized as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, commemorated on the Sunday before Christmas.", "\"The Septuagint edition of Esther contains six parts (totaling 107 verses) not found in the Hebrew Bible.", "Although these interpretations originally may have been composed in Hebrew, they survive only in Greek texts.", "Because the Hebrew Bible's version of Esther's story contains neither prayers nor even a single reference to God, Greek redactors apparently felt compelled to give the tale a more explicit religious orientation, alluding to \"God\" or the \"Lord\" fifty times.\"", "These additions to Esther in the Apocrypha were added approximately in the second or first century BCE.The story of Esther is also referenced in chapter 28 of 1 Meqabyan, a book considered canonical in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church." ], [ "Music", "* Marc-Antoine Charpentier'', Historia Esther'', H.396, for soloist, chorus, strings and continuo, 1677.", "* George Frideric Handel, ''Esther'', with a libretto based on a play by Jean Racine, 1718 and 1732.", "* Elisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre, Esther, for soprano and continuo, 1708." ], [ "See also", "* Shushandukht* Esterka" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===********.", "****************************************" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Entamoeba" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Entamoeba''''' is a genus of Amoebozoa found as internal parasites or commensals of animals.", "In 1875, Fedor Lösch described the first proven case of amoebic dysentery in St. Petersburg, Russia.", "He referred to the amoeba he observed microscopically as ''Amoeba coli''; however, it is not clear whether he was using this as a descriptive term or intended it as a formal taxonomic name.", "The genus ''Entamoeba'' was defined by Casagrandi and Barbagallo for the species ''Entamoeba coli'', which is known to be a commensal organism.", "Lösch's organism was renamed ''Entamoeba histolytica'' by Fritz Schaudinn in 1903; he later died, in 1906, from a self-inflicted infection when studying this amoeba.", "For a time during the first half of the 20th century the entire genus ''Entamoeba'' was transferred to ''Endamoeba'', a genus of amoebas infecting invertebrates about which little is known.", "This move was reversed by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature in the late 1950s, and ''Entamoeba'' has stayed 'stable' ever since." ], [ "Species", "Several species are found in humans and animals.", "''Entamoeba histolytica'' is the pathogen responsible for invasive 'amoebiasis' (which includes amoebic dysentery and amoebic liver abscesses).", "Others such as ''Entamoeba coli'' (not to be confused with ''Escherichia coli'') and ''Entamoeba dispar'' are harmless.", "With the exception of ''Entamoeba gingivalis'', which lives in the mouth, and ''E.", "moshkovskii'', which is frequently isolated from river and lake sediments, all ''Entamoeba'' species are found in the intestines of the animals they infect.", "''Entamoeba invadens'' is a species that can cause a disease similar to ''E.", "histolytica'' but in reptiles.", "In contrast to other species, ''E.", "invadens'' forms cysts in vitro in the absence of bacteria and is used as a model system to study this aspect of the life cycle.", "Many other species of ''Entamoeba'' have been described, and it is likely that many others remain to be found." ], [ "Structure", "''Entamoeba gingivalis''''Entamoeba'' cells are small, with a single nucleus and typically a single lobose pseudopod taking the form of a clear anterior bulge.", "They have a simple life cycle.", "The trophozoite (feeding-dividing form) is approximately 10-20 μm in diameter and feeds primarily on bacteria.", "It divides by simple binary fission to form two smaller daughter cells.", "Almost all species form cysts, the stage involved in transmission (the exception is ''Entamoeba gingivalis'').", "Depending on the species, these can have one, four or eight nuclei and are variable in size; these characteristics help in species identification." ], [ "Classification", "''Entamoeba'' belongs to the Archamoebae, which like many other anaerobic eukaryotes have reduced mitochondria.", "This group also includes ''Endolimax'' and ''Iodamoeba'', which also live in animal intestines and are similar in appearance to ''Entamoeba'', although this may partly be due to convergence.", "Also in this group are the free-living amoebo-flagellates of the genus ''Mastigamoeba'' and related genera.", "Certain other genera of symbiotic amoebae, such as ''Endamoeba'', might prove to be synonyms of ''Entamoeba'' but this is still unclear." ], [ "Culture", "===Fission===Studying ''Entamoeba invadens'', David Biron of the Weizmann Institute of Science and coworkers found that about one third of the cells are unable to separate unaided and recruit a neighboring amoeba (dubbed the \"midwife\") to complete the fission.", "He writes::''When an amoeba divides, the two daughter cells stay attached by a tubular tether which remains intact unless mechanically severed.", "If called upon, the neighbouring amoeba midwife travels up to 200 μm towards the dividing amoeba, usually advancing in a straight trajectory with an average velocity of about 0.5 μm/s.", "The midwife then proceeds to rupture the connection, after which all three amoebae move on.", "''They also reported a similar behavior in ''Dictyostelium''.Since ''E.", "histolytica'' does not form cysts in the absence of bacteria, ''E.", "invadens'' has become used as a model for encystation studies as it will form cysts under axenic growth conditions, which simplifies analysis.", "After inducing encystation in ''E.", "invadens'', DNA replication increases initially and then slows down.", "On completion of encystation, predominantly tetra-nucleate cysts are formed along with some uni-, bi- and tri-nucleate cysts." ], [ "Differentiation and cell biology", "Uninucleated trophozoites convert into cysts in a process called encystation.", "The number of nuclei in the cyst varies from 1 to 8 among species and is one of the characteristics used to tell species apart.", "Of the species already mentioned, ''Entamoeba coli'' forms cysts with 8 nuclei while the others form tetra-nucleated cysts.", "Since ''E.", "histolytica'' does not form cysts ''in vitro'' in the absence of bacteria, it is not possible to study the differentiation process in detail in that species.", "Instead the differentiation process is studied using ''E.", "invadens'', a reptilian parasite that causes a very similar disease to ''E.", "histolytica'' and which can be induced to encyst ''in vitro''.", "Until recently there was no genetic transfection vector available for this organism and detailed study at the cellular level was not possible.", "However, recently a transfection vector was developed and the transfection conditions for ''E.", "invadens'' were optimised which should enhance the research possibilities at the molecular level of the differentiation process." ], [ "Meiosis", "In sexually reproducing eukaryotes, homologous recombination (HR) ordinarily occurs during meiosis.", "The meiosis-specific recombinase, Dmc1, is required for efficient meiotic HR, and Dmc1 is expressed in ''E.", "histolytica''.", "The purified Dmc1 from ''E.", "histolytica'' forms presynaptic filaments and catalyzes ATP-dependent homologous DNA pairing and DNA strand exchange over at least several thousand base pairs.", "The DNA pairing and strand exchange reactions are enhanced by the eukaryotic meiosis-specific recombination accessory factor (heterodimer) Hop2-Mnd1.These processes are central to meiotic recombination, suggesting that ''E.", "histolytica'' undergoes meiosis.Studies of ''E.", "invadens'' found that, during the conversion from the tetraploid uninucleate trophozoite to the tetranucleate cyst, homologous recombination is enhanced.", "Expression of genes with functions related to the major steps of meiotic recombination also increased during encystations.", "These findings in ''E.", "invadens'', combined with evidence from studies of ''E.", "histolytica'' indicate the presence of meiosis in the ''Entamoeba''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ''Entamoeba'' Homepage* Pathema-''Entamoeba'' Resource* Genome Database at AmoebaDB" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "England national football team" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''England national football team''' have represented England in international football since the first international match in 1872.It is controlled by The Football Association (FA), the governing body for football in England, which is affiliated with UEFA and comes under the global jurisdiction of world football's governing body FIFA.", "England competes in the three major international tournament contested by European nations: the FIFA World Cup, the UEFA European Championship and the UEFA Nations League.England is the joint oldest national team in football having played in the world's first international football match in 1872, against Scotland.", "England's home ground is Wembley Stadium, London, and its training headquarters is at St George's Park, Burton upon Trent.", "Gareth Southgate is the current manager of the team.England won the 1966 World Cup final on home soil, making it one of eight nations to have won the World Cup.", "They have qualified for the World Cup sixteen times, with their next best performance fourth place finishes in the 1990 and 2018 editions.", "England has never won the European Championship, with their best performance to date being runners-up in 2020.As a constituent country of the United Kingdom, England is not a member of the International Olympic Committee and so does not compete at the Olympic Games.", "England is currently the only team to have won the World Cup at senior level, but not their major continental title, and the only non-sovereign entity to have won the World Cup." ], [ "History", "===Early years===Scotland at Richmond in 1893The England men's national football team is the joint-oldest in the world; it was formed at the same time as Scotland.", "A representative match between England and Scotland was played on 5 March 1870, having been organised by the Football Association.", "A return fixture was organised by representatives of Scottish football teams on 30 November 1872.This match, played at Hamilton Crescent in Scotland, is viewed as the first official international football match, because the two teams were independently selected and operated, rather than being the work of a single football association.", "Over the next 40 years, England played exclusively with the other three Home Nations—Scotland, Wales and Ireland—in the British Home Championship.At first, England had no permanent home stadium.", "They joined FIFA in 1906 and played their first games against countries other than the Home Nations on a tour of Central Europe in 1908.Wembley Stadium was opened in 1923 and became their home ground.", "The relationship between England and FIFA became strained, and this resulted in their departure from FIFA in 1928, before they rejoined in 1946.As a result, they did not compete in a World Cup until 1950, in which they were beaten in a 1–0 defeat by the United States, failing to get past the first round in one of the most embarrassing defeats in the team's history.Their first defeat on home soil to a foreign team was a 2–0 loss to Ireland, on 21 September 1949 at Goodison Park.", "A 6–3 loss in 1953 to Hungary, was their second defeat by a foreign team at Wembley.", "In the return match in Budapest, Hungary won 7–1.This stands as England's largest ever defeat.", "After the game, a bewildered Syd Owen said, \"it was like playing men from outer space\".", "In the 1954 FIFA World Cup, England reached the quarter-finals for the first time, and lost 4–2 to reigning champions Uruguay.===Walter Winterbottom and Alf Ramsey===Elizabeth II presenting England captain Bobby Moore with the Jules Rimet trophy following England's 4–2 victory over West Germany in the 1966 World Cup finalAlthough Walter Winterbottom was appointed as England's first full-time manager in 1946, the team was still picked by a committee until Alf Ramsey took over in 1963.The 1966 FIFA World Cup was hosted in England and Ramsey guided England to victory with a 4–2 win against West Germany after extra time in the final, during which Geoff Hurst scored a hat-trick.", "In UEFA Euro 1968, the team reached the semi-finals for the first time, being eliminated by Yugoslavia.England qualified automatically for the 1970 World Cup in Mexico as reigning champions, and reached the quarter-finals, where they were knocked out by West Germany.", "England had been 2–0 up, but were eventually beaten 3–2 after extra time.", "They then failed to qualify for the 1974 World Cup, leading to Ramsey's dismissal by the FA.===Don Revie, Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson===Following Ramsey's dismissal, Joe Mercer took immediate temporary charge of England for a seven-match spell until Don Revie was appointed as new permanent manager in 1974.Under Revie, the team underperformed and failed to qualify for either UEFA Euro 1976 or the 1978 World Cup.", "Revie resigned in 1977 and was replaced by Ron Greenwood, under whom performances improved.", "The team qualified for Euro 1980 without losing any of their games, but exited in the group stage of the final tournament.", "They also qualified for the 1982 World Cup in Spain; despite not losing a game, they were eliminated at the second group stage.Bobby Robson managed England from 1982 to 1990.Although the team failed to qualify for UEFA Euro 1984, they reached the quarter-finals of the 1986 World Cup, losing 2–1 to Argentina in a game made famous by two highly contrasting goals scored by Diego Maradona – the first being blatantly knocked in by his hand, prompting his \"Hand of God\" remark, the second being an outstandingly skilful individual goal, involving high speed dribbling past several opponents.", "England striker Gary Lineker finished as the tournament's top scorer with six goals.England went on to lose every match at UEFA Euro 1988.They next achieved their second best result in the 1990 FIFA World Cup by finishing fourth – losing again to West Germany after a closely contested semi-final finishing 1–1 after extra time, then 3–4 in England's first penalty shoot-out.", "Despite losing to Italy in the third place play-off, the members of the England team were given bronze medals identical to the Italians'.", "Due to the team's good performance at the tournament against general expectations, and the emotional nature of the narrow defeat to West Germany, the team were welcomed home as heroes and thousands of people lined the streets for an open-top bus parade.===Graham Taylor, Terry Venables, Glenn Hoddle and Kevin Keegan===The 1990s saw four England managers follow Robson, each in the role for a relatively brief period.", "Graham Taylor was Robson's immediate successor.", "England failed to win any matches at UEFA Euro 1992, drawing with tournament winners Denmark and later with France, before being eliminated by host nation Sweden.", "The team then failed to qualify for the 1994 FIFA World Cup after losing a controversial game against the Netherlands in Rotterdam, which resulted in Taylor's resignation.", "Taylor faced much newspaper criticism during his tenure for his tactics and team selections.Between 1994 and 1996, Terry Venables took charge of the team.", "At UEFA Euro 1996, held in England, they equalled their best performance at a European Championship, reaching the semi-finals as they did in 1968, before exiting via another penalty shoot-out loss to Germany.", "England striker Alan Shearer was the tournament's top scorer with five goals.", "At Euro 96, the song \"Three Lions\" by Baddiel, Skinner and The Lightning Seeds became the definitive anthem for fans on the terraces.", "Venables announced before the tournament that he would resign at the end of it, following investigations into his personal financial activities and ahead of upcoming court cases.", "Due to the controversy around him, the FA stressed that he was the coach, not the manager, of the team.Venables' successor, Glenn Hoddle, took the team to the 1998 World Cup  in which England were eliminated in the second round, again by Argentina and again on penalties (after a 2–2 draw).", "In February 1999, Hoddle was sacked by the FA due to controversial comments he had made about disabled people to a newspaper.", "Howard Wilkinson took over as caretaker manager for two matches.", "Kevin Keegan was then appointed as the new permanent manager and took England to UEFA Euro 2000, but the team exited in the group stage and he unexpectedly resigned shortly afterwards.===Sven-Göran Eriksson, Steve McClaren and Fabio Capello===The England team at the 2006 FIFA World CupPeter Taylor was appointed as caretaker manager for one match, before Sven-Göran Eriksson took charge between 2001 and 2006, and was the team's first non-English manager.", "Although England's players in this era were dubbed a \"golden generation\" and only lost five competitive matches during Eriksson's tenure, they exited at the quarter-finals of the 2002 FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro 2004 and the 2006 FIFA World Cup.", "In January 2006 it was announced that Eriksson would leave the role following that year's World Cup.Steve McClaren was then appointed as manager, but after failing to qualify for Euro 2008 he was sacked on 22 November 2007 after 18 matches in charge.", "The following month, he was replaced by a second foreign manager, Italian Fabio Capello.", "England won all but one of their qualifying games for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, but at the tournament itself, England drew their opening two games; this led to questions about the team's spirit, tactics and ability to handle pressure.", "They progressed to the next round, where they were beaten 4–1 by Germany, their heaviest defeat in a World Cup finals tournament match.", "In February 2012, Capello resigned from his role as England manager, following a disagreement with the FA over their request to remove John Terry from team captaincy after accusations of racial abuse concerning the player.===Roy Hodgson, Sam Allardyce and Gareth Southgate===Following Capello's departure, Stuart Pearce was appointed as caretaker manager for one match, after which in May 2012, Roy Hodgson was announced as the new manager, just six weeks before UEFA Euro 2012.England managed to finish top of their group, but exited the Championships in the quarter-finals via a penalty shoot-out against Italy.", "In the 2014 FIFA World Cup, England were eliminated at the group stage for the first time since the 1958 World Cup.", "At UEFA Euro 2016, England were eliminated in the round of 16, losing 2–1 to Iceland.", "Hodgson resigned as manager in June 2016, and just under a month later was replaced by Sam Allardyce.", "After only 67 days in charge, Allardyce resigned from his managerial post by mutual agreement, after an alleged breach of FA rules, making him the shortest serving permanent England manager.Belgium, 28 June 2018Gareth Southgate, then the coach of the England under-21 team, was put in temporary charge of the national team until November 2016, before being given the position on a permanent basis.", "At the 2018 FIFA World Cup, England reached the semi-finals for only the third time.", "After finishing second in their group, England won on penalties against Colombia in the round of 16 before beating Sweden in the quarter-finals.", "In the semi-final, they were beaten 2–1 in extra time by Croatia and finished 4th after losing the third place play-off match against Belgium.", "England striker Harry Kane finished the tournament as top scorer with six goals.On 14 November 2019, England played their 1000th International match, defeating Montenegro 7–0 at Wembley in a UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying match.England cap awarded to Harry Kane for his appearance against Germany in June 2021 at the 2020 UEFA Euro, his 58th overall.At the delayed UEFA Euro 2020, England reached the final of a major tournament for the first time since 1966 and their first ever European Championship final appearance.", "After finishing top of a group including Croatia, Scotland and Czech Republic, the Three Lions would subsequently defeat Germany, Ukraine and Denmark to advance to the final.", "In the final held at Wembley, England were defeated by Italy on penalties after a 1–1 draw.At the 2022 World Cup, England defeated Iran and Wales in the group stage to qualify for the round of 16.In the round of 16, England defeated the reigning African champions Senegal by 3–0, but were eliminated by the reigning world champions France in the quarter-finals, 2–1.Harry Kane's goal against France was his 53rd for England, equalling the all-time record.", "He would later miss an 84th-minute penalty with the chance to level the match." ], [ "Team image", "===Kits and crest=======Kit suppliers====Kit supplierPeriodRefSt.", "Blaize and Hope Brothers 1949–1954 Umbro 1954–19611965–19741984–2013Bukta 1959–1965 Admiral 1974–1984Nike2013–present====Kit deals==== Kit supplier Period Contractannouncement Contractduration Value Nike 2013–present 3 September 2012 Spring 2013 – July 2018 (5 years) Total £125m(£25m per year) 13 December 2016 August 2018 – 2030 (12 years) Total £400m(£33.3m per year)====Crest====The motif of the England national football team has three lions ''passant guardant'', the emblem of King Richard I, who reigned from 1189 to 1199.In 1872, English players wore white jerseys emblazoned with the three lions crest of the Football Association.", "The lions, often blue, have had minor changes to colour and appearance.", "Initially topped by a crown, this was removed in 1949 when the FA was given an official coat of arms by the College of Arms; this introduced ten Tudor roses, one for each of the regional branches of the FA.", "Since 2003, England top their logo with a star to recognise their World Cup win in 1966; this was first embroidered onto the left sleeve of the home kit, and a year later was moved to its current position, first on the away shirt.====Colours====1966 World Cup finalEngland's traditional home colours are white shirts, navy blue shorts and white or black socks.", "The team has periodically worn an all-white kit.Although England's first away kits were blue, England's traditional away colours are red shirts, white shorts and red socks.", "In 1996, England's away kit was changed to grey shirts, shorts and socks.", "This kit was only worn three times, including against Germany in the semi-final of Euro 1996 but the deviation from the traditional red was unpopular with supporters and the England away kit remained red until 2011, when a navy blue away kit was introduced.", "The away kit is also sometimes worn during home matches, when a new edition has been released to promote it.England have occasionally had a third kit.", "At the 1970 World Cup England wore a third kit with pale blue shirts, shorts and socks against Czechoslovakia.", "They had a kit similar to Brazil's, with yellow shirts, yellow socks and blue shorts which they wore in the summer of 1973.For the World Cup in 1986 England had a third kit of pale blue, imitating that worn in Mexico 16 years before and England retained pale blue third kits until 1992, but they were rarely used.Umbro first agreed to manufacture the kit in 1954 and since then has supplied most of the kits, the exceptions being from 1959 to 1965 with Bukta and 1974–1984 with Admiral.", "Nike purchased Umbro in 2008 and took over as kit supplier in 2013 following their sale of the Umbro brand.===Home stadium===Wembley Stadium during a friendly match between England and GermanyFor the first 50 years of their existence, England played their home matches all around the country.", "They initially used cricket grounds before later moving on to football club stadiums.", "The original Empire Stadium was built in Wembley, London, for the British Empire Exhibition.England played their first match at the stadium in 1924 against Scotland and for the next 27 years Wembley was used as a venue for matches against Scotland only.", "The stadium later became known simply as Wembley Stadium and it became England's permanent home stadium during the 1950s.", "In October 2000, the stadium closed its doors, ending with a defeat against Germany.This stadium was demolished during the period of 2002–03, and work began to completely rebuild it.", "During this time, England played at venues across the country, though by the time of the 2006 World Cup qualification, this had largely settled down to having Manchester United's Old Trafford stadium as the primary venue, with Newcastle United's St. James' Park used on occasions when Old Trafford was unavailable.Their first match in the new Wembley Stadium was in March 2007 when they drew with Brazil.", "The stadium is now owned by the Football Association, via its subsidiary Wembley National Stadium Limited.===Rivalries===England's three main rivalries are Scotland, Germany and Argentina.", "Smaller rivalries with France, Wales and the Republic of Ireland have also been observed.England's rivalry with Scotland is one of the fiercest international rivalries that exists.", "It is the oldest international fixture in the world, first played in 1872 at Hamilton Crescent, Glasgow.", "The history of the British Isles has led to much rivalry between the nations in many forms, and the social and cultural effects of centuries of antagonism and conflict between the two has contributed to the intense nature of the sporting contests.", "Scottish nationalism has also been a factor in the Scots' desire to defeat England above all other rivals, with Scottish sports journalists traditionally referring to the English as the \"Auld Enemy\".", "The footballing rivalry has diminished somewhat since the late 1970s, particularly since the annual fixture stopped in 1989.For England, games against Germany and Argentina are now considered to be more important than the historic rivalry with Scotland.England's rivalry with Germany is considered to be mainly an English phenomenon—in the run-up to any competition match between the two teams, many UK newspapers will print articles detailing results of previous encounters, such as those in 1966 and 1990.However, this rivalry has diminished significantly in recent years.", "Most German fans consider the Netherlands or Italy to be their traditional footballing rivals, and as such, usually the rivalry is not taken quite as seriously in Germany as it is in England.England's rivalry with Argentina is highly competitive.", "Games between the two teams, even those that are only friendly matches, are often marked by notable and sometimes controversial incidents such as the hand of God in 1986.The rivalry is unusual in that it is an intercontinental one; typically such footballing rivalries exist between bordering nations.", "England is regarded in Argentina as one of the major rivals of the national football team, matched only by Brazil and Uruguay.", "The rivalry is, to a lesser extent reciprocal in England, locally described as a ''grudge match'' although matches against Germany carry a greater significance in popular perception.", "The rivalry emerged across several games during the latter half of the 20th century, even though as of 2008 the teams have played each other on only 14 occasions in full internationals.", "The rivalry was intensified, particularly in Argentina, by non-footballing events, especially the 1982 Falklands War between Argentina and the United Kingdom.", "However, England and Argentina have not met since a friendly in November 2005.===Songs===Numerous songs have been released about the England national football team.===Media coverage===All England matches are broadcast with full commentary on talkSPORT and BBC Radio 5 Live.", "From the 2008–09 season until the 2017–18 season, England's home and away qualifiers, and friendlies both home and away were broadcast live on ITV Sport (often with the exception of STV, the ITV franchisee in central and northern Scotland).", "England's away qualifiers for the 2010 World Cup were shown on Setanta Sports until that company's collapse.", "As a result of Setanta Sports's demise, England's World Cup qualifier in Ukraine on 10 October 2009 was shown in the United Kingdom on a pay-per-view basis via the internet only.", "This one-off event was the first time an England game had been screened in such a way.", "The number of subscribers, paying between £4.99 and £11.99 each, was estimated at between 250,000 and 300,000 and the total number of viewers at around 500,000.In 2018, Sky Sports broadcast the England Nations League and in-season friendlies, until 2021 and ITV Sport broadcast the European Qualifiers for Euro-World Cups and pre-tournament friendlies (after the Nations League group matches end), until 2022.In April 2022, Channel 4 won the rights for England matches until June 2024, including 2022–23 UEFA Nations League matches, UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying games, and friendlies.", "2022 World Cup rights remained with the BBC and ITV." ], [ "Results and fixtures", "The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.===2023======2024===" ], [ "Coaching staff", " Position Name Manager Gareth Southgate Assistant Manager Steve Holland Goalkeeping Coach Martyn Margetson Coach Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink Coach Paul Nevin First-Team Doctor Mark Williams Head of Performance Steve Kemp" ], [ "Players", "===Current squad===The following 21 players were named in the squad for the UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying matches against Malta and North Macedonia on 17 and 20 November 2023, respectively.", "''Caps and goals are correct as of 20 November 2023, after the match against North Macedonia.", "''===Recent call-ups===The following players have also been called up to the England squad within the last twelve months.", "INJ Withdrew due to injuryPRE Preliminary squad / standbyRET Retired from the national teamSUS Serving suspensionWD Player withdrew from the squad due to non-injury issue." ], [ "Individual records", "=== Most appearances ===.Goalkeeper Peter Shilton is England's most capped player with 125 appearances.RankPlayerCapsGoalsPosition1Peter Shilton1250GK2Wayne Rooney12053FW2003–20183David Beckham11517MF1996–20094Steven Gerrard11421MF2000–20145Bobby Moore1082DF1962–19736Ashley Cole1070DF2001–20147Bobby Charlton10649MF1958–1970Frank Lampard10629MF1999–20149Billy Wright1053DF1946–195910Bryan Robson9026MF1980–1991=== Top goalscorers ===.Harry Kane is England's all-time top scorer with 62 goals.RankPlayerGoalsCapsAverage1'''Harry Kane''' (list)62892015–present2Wayne Rooney (list)531203Bobby Charlton (list)491061958–19704Gary Lineker48801984–19925Jimmy Greaves44571959–19676Michael Owen40891998–20087Nat Lofthouse30331950–1958Alan Shearer30631992–2000Tom Finney30761946–195810Vivian Woodward29231903–1911Frank Lampard291061999–2014=== Most clean sheets ===.RankPlayerClean sheetsCaps1Peter Shilton661252Joe Hart43752008–20173David Seaman40751988–20024Gordon Banks35731963–19725'''Jordan Pickford'''28586Ray Clemence27611972–19837Chris Woods26431985–19938Paul Robinson24412003–20079David James21531997–201010Nigel Martyn13231992–2002===Manager records===; Most manager appearances: Walter Winterbottom: 139; Highest win ratio (minimum 25 games in charge): : Fabio Capello: 66.7%; Youngest to take job: Walter Winterbottom: 33 years old; Oldest to take job: Roy Hodgson: 64 years old" ], [ "Team records", "; Biggest win: 13–0 vs. '''Ireland''', 18 February 1882; Biggest defeat : 1–7 vs. '''Hungary''', 23 May 1954; Longest unbeaten run: '''22 games''' from 18 November 2020 to 29 March 2022 ; Longest winless run: '''7 games''' from 11 May 1958 to 4 October 1958; Most consecutive wins: '''10 games''' from 6 June 1908 to 1 June 1909; Most consecutive matches without conceding a goal: '''7 games''' from 2 June 2021 to 3 July 2021" ], [ "Competitive record", "''For the all-time record of the national team against opposing nations, see the team's all-time record page''===FIFA World Cup===2018 World Cup semi-final: Croatia vs. England.Line-ups of the 2018 World Cup semi-final: England (white) vs. Croatia.England first appeared at the 1950 FIFA World Cup, and have subsequently qualified for a total of 16 FIFA World Cup finals tournaments, tied for sixth best by number of appearances.", "They are also placed sixth by number of wins, with 32.The national team is one of only eight nations to have won at least one FIFA World Cup title.", "The England team won their first and only World Cup title in 1966.The tournament was played on home soil, and England defeated West Germany 4–2 in the final.", "In 1990, England finished in fourth place, losing 2–1 to host nation Italy in the third place play-off, following defeat on penalties, after extra time, to champions West Germany in the semi-final.", "They also finished in fourth place in 2018, losing 2–0 to Belgium in the third place play-off, following a 2–1 defeat to Croatia, again after extra time, in the semi-final.", "The team also reached the quarter-final stage in 1954, 1962, 1970, 1986, 2002, 2006 and 2022.England failed to qualify for the World Cup in 1974, 1978 and 1994.The team's earliest exit in the finals tournament was its elimination in the first round in 1950, 1958 and, most recently, 2014.This was after being defeated in both their opening two matches for the first time, against Italy and Uruguay in Group D. In 1950, four teams remained after the first round, in 1958 eight teams remained and in 2014 sixteen teams remained.", "In 2010, England suffered its most resounding World Cup defeat, 4–1 to Germany, in the round of 16 stage.FIFA World Cup recordQualification recordManager(s)YearRoundSquad 1930''Not a FIFA member''''Not a FIFA member''''None'' 1934 1938 1950Group stage8th310222Squad3300143Winterbottom 1954Quarter-finals7th311188Squad3300114 1958Group stage11th403145Squad4310155 1962Quarter-finals8th411256Squad4310162 1966'''Champions''''''1st''''''6''''''5''''''1''''''0''''''11''''''3''''''Squad'''''Qualified as hosts''Ramsey 1970Quarter-finals8th420244Squad''Qualified as defending champions'' Ramsey 1974''Did not qualify''412134 19786501154Revie 1982Second group stage6th532061Squad8413138Greenwood 1986Quarter-finals8th521273Squad8440212Robson 1990Fourth place4th733186Squad6330100 1994''Did not qualify''10532269Taylor 1998Round of 169th421174Squad8611152Hoddle 2002Quarter-finals6th522163Squad8521166Keegan, Wilkinson, Eriksson 20067th532062Squad10811175Eriksson 2010Round of 1613th412135Squad10901346Capello 2014Group stage26th301224Squad10640314Hodgson 2018Fourth place4th7313128Squad10820183Allardyce, Southgate 2022Quarter-finals6th5311134Squad10820393Southgate 2026''To be determined''''To be determined'' 2030 2034Total1 title16/227432222010468 —12284271131470 — '''Champions'''   '''Runners-up'''   '''Third place'''   Fourth place''*Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.", "''''**Red border colour indicates tournament was held on home soil.", "''''***England played all of their 2002 matches in Japan.", "''''Correct as of 10 December 2022''===UEFA European Championship===England first entered the UEFA European Championship in 1964, and have since qualified for eleven finals tournaments, tied for fourth-best by number of finals appearances.", "England's greatest results at the tournament were finishing as runners-up in the 2020 edition (held in 2021), and a third-place finish in 1968.The team also reached the semi-finals in 1996, a tournament they hosted.", "England additionally reached the quarter-finals on two further occasions, in 2004 and 2012.England's worst results in the finals tournament to date have been first round eliminations in 1980, 1988, 1992 and 2000, whilst they failed to qualify for the finals in 1964, 1972, 1976, 1984 and 2008.UEFA European Championship recordQualifying recordManager(s)YearRoundSquad 1960''Did not enter''''Did not enter'' Winterbottom 1964''Did not qualify''201136 Winterbottom, Ramsey 1968'''Third place''''''3rd''''''2''''''1''''''0''''''1''''''2''''''1''''''Squad'''8611186 Ramsey 1972''Did not qualify''8521166Ramsey 1976''Did not qualify''6321113Revie 1980Group stage6th311133Squad8710225 Greenwood 1984''Did not qualify''8521233Robson 1988Group stage7th300327Squad6510191 19927th302112Squad633073 Taylor 1996'''Semi-finals''''''3rd''''''5''''''2''''''3''''''0''''''8''''''3''''''Squad'''''Qualified as hosts'' Venables 2000Group stage11th310256Squad10442165 Hoddle, Keegan 2004Quarter-finals5th4211106Squad8620145 Eriksson 2008''Did not qualify''12723247 McClaren 2012Quarter-finals5th422053Squad8530175Capello, Hodgson 2016Round of 1612th412144Squad101000313 Hodgson 2020'''Runners-up''''''2nd''''''7''''''5''''''2''''''0''''''11''''''2''''''Squad'''8701376 Southgate 2024''Qualified''8620224 Southgate 2028''To be determined''''To be determined'' 2032TotalRunners-up11/17381513105137 —11679261127068 — '''Champions'''   '''Runners-up'''   '''Third place/Semi-finalists'''   Fourth place  ''*Draws include knockout matches decided via penalty shoot-out.", "''''**Red border colour indicates tournament was held on home soil.", "''''***Third place includes all tournaments where England reached the semi-finals following Euro 1980 as the third place play-offs were scrapped from the following editions of the tournament.", "''===UEFA Nations League===UEFA Nations League recordLeague phaseFinalsManager(s)SeasonYear*Squad2018–19A41st421163rd 2019'''3rd''''''2''''''0''''''1''''''1''''''1''''''3''''''Squad'''Southgate2020–21A23rd631279th 2021''Did not qualify''Southgate2022–23A34th6033415th 20232024–25B 2025''Did not enter''Total1655617193rdTotal201113—— '''Champions'''   '''Runners-up'''   '''Third place'''   Fourth place   ''*Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.", "''''**Group stage played home and away.", "Flag shown represents host nation for the finals stage.", "''''Correct as of 26 September 2022 after the match against ''===Minor tournaments===YearRoundPositionGPWD*LGSGARef 1964 Taça de Nações '''Group stage''' 3rd301227 1976 USA Bicentennial Cup Tournament '''Group stage''' 2nd320164 1985 Rous Cup '''One match''' 2nd100101 1985 Ciudad de México Cup Tournament '''Group stage''' 3rd200213 1985 Azteca 2000 Tournament '''Group stage''' 2nd210131 1986 Rous Cup '''Winners, one match''' 1st110021 1987 Rous Cup '''Group stage''' 2nd202011 1988 Rous Cup '''Winners, group stage''' 1st211021 1989 Rous Cup '''Winners, group stage''' 1st211020 1991 England Challenge Cup '''Winners, group stage''' 1st211053 1995 Umbro Cup '''Group stage''' 2nd311167 1997 Tournoi de France '''Winners, group stage''' 1st320131 1998 King Hassan II International Cup Tournament '''Group stage''' 2nd211010 2004 FA Summer Tournament '''Winners, group stage''' 1st211072Total 6 titles331210114337–" ], [ "Honours", "Elizabeth II presents the Jules Rimet Trophy to England captain Bobby Moore, after winning the 1966 World Cup===Major===*FIFA World Cup**Champions: 1966*UEFA European Championship**Runners-up: 2020**Third place: 1968, 1996 *UEFA Nations League**Third place: 2019===Regional===*British Home Championship**Champions (54): ''(including 20 shared)''*Rous Cup**Champions: 1986, 1988, 1989===Awards===*FIFA Fair Play Trophy**Winners: 1990, 1998, 2022===Exhibition tournament===*England Challenge Cup: 1991*Tournoi de France: 1997*FA Summer Tournament: 2004===Summary===CompetitionTotalFIFA World Cup1001UEFA European Championship0123UEFA Nations League0011Total1135" ], [ "See also", "* Great Britain men's Olympic football team* England national football team manager* England women's national football team* England national amateur football team* United Kingdom national football team* England national football B team* England national football C team" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations===" ], [ "External links", "* * England at FIFA* England at UEFA* The England International Database at englandstats.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eureka, Missouri" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Eureka''' is a city in St. Louis County and Jefferson County, Missouri, adjacent to Wildwood and Pacific.", "It is in the extreme southwest of the Greater St. Louis metro area.", "As of the 2020 census, the city had a population of 11,646.Since 1971, Eureka has been known as the home of the amusement park Six Flags St. Louis." ], [ "History", "Missouri Route 109 entering Eureka.The area's first known inhabitants were Shawnee Native Americans on the banks of the Meramec river; archaeological artifacts can still be found today as evidence of their past occupation of the area.The village of Eureka was platted in 1858 along the route of the Pacific Railroad.", "By 1890, the village consisted of about 100 homes.", "According to the Eureka, railroad workers, while clearing the way for the track and the next railroad camp, saw Eureka, level land with little to clear, and declared, \"Eureka!\"", "Greek meaning \"I have found it.\"", "Thus, Eureka was founded.", "In 1898, Eureka became home to the St. Louis Children's Industrial Farm, established to give children from St. Louis tenement neighborhoods a chance to experience life in a rural setting.", "It later became Camp Wyman (now part of Wyman Center) and is one of the oldest camps in the United States.", "The first high school class in Eureka was held in 1909.Eureka was incorporated as a fourth-class city on April 7, 1954.Historically, Eureka was wholly within St. Louis County.", "In September 2019, the city's Board of Aldermen voted to annex two commercial lots—one of them a 72.5-acre tract that houses Kirkwood Materials West, a sand and gravel quarry, and the other a 75-acre field, both at highways 109 and FF—located just across the Meramec River in Jefferson County into the city.", "On October 1, 2019, the city voted to annex the under construction 549-home Windswept Farms subdivision just to the south into the city.", "Both annexations both voluntary by the owners.===City of Allenton===The railroad town of Allenton is a former community on U.S. Route 66 located (now) at the junction of Interstate 44 and Business Loop 44 in western St. Louis County.", "In 1985, it was annexed by the city of Eureka.", "The town is currently rural, with adjacent farmland and forested Ozark ridges.", "This community was declared blighted by St. Louis County in 1973." ], [ "Geography", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land, and is water.=== Floods ===Members of a Coast Guard Disaster Area Response Team rescue two victims and their pet from their flooded home in Eureka in 2008The city of Eureka has suffered multiple floods, the two most catastrophic being in 2015 and 2017.This caused the city and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to evaluate a dozen strategic options, from the use of levees and walls, to buyouts of high-risk properties, to the restoration of flood plain as water storage.", "Scientific researchers determined that the flooding was a man-made calamity caused in part by \"inaccurate Federal Emergency Management Agency flood frequencies based on the assumption that today's river will behave as it has in the past greatly underestimating our real flood risk and leading to inappropriate development in floodways and floodplains.", "\"Flooding on the Meramec River near Eureka in 2016==== 2015 ====The december 2015 North American storm complex deeply impacted the state of Missouri with heavy rain and snow causing severe floods.", "The storm system was responsible for heavy rain that caused severe flooding.", "Parts of the state were hit with over of heavy rainfall.", "In Eureka, more than 100 boat rescues were conducted by Eureka Fire Department of people and several pets from the second stories of homes near the Meramec River.==== 2017 ====A flooding event caused by a strong spring storm system brought multiple rounds of thunderstorms and heavy rain to portions of the Midwest the weekend of April 29–30, 2017.The middle portion of the Mississippi approached historical record flooding.", "The National Weather Service anticipated a 48.5 ft. crest at Cape Girardeau, Missouri on May 5, 2017, which was within 6 inches of the January 2, 2016 crest of 48.86 ft.", "The first floor of a church flooded with about 48 inches of water, the same amount as in December 2015.Floodwater from the Meramec River covered athletic fields at Eureka High School, encroached on the school's buildings, and ruined the gymnasium floor." ], [ "Demographics", "Six Flags St. Louis in Eureka===2020 census===The 2020 United States census counted 11,646 people, 3,486 households, and 2,575 families in Eureka.", "The population density was 1,053.9 per square mile (406.9/km).", "There were 3,740 housing units at an average density of 338.5 per square mile (130.7/km).", "The racial makeup was 90.73% (10,566) white, 0.82% (96) black or African-American, 0.12% (14) Native American, 1.57% (183) Asian, 0.05% (6) Pacific Islander, 0.76% (89) from other races, and 5.94% (692) from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race was 2.1% (211) of the population.Of the 3,486 households, 40.5% had children under the age of 18; 64.5% were married couples living together; 16.1% had a female householder with no husband present.", "Of all households, 20.1% consisted of individuals and 11.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.8 and the average family size was 3.4.26.4% of the population was under the age of 18, 3.9% from 18 to 24, 20.4% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 12.9% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 39.8 years.", "For every 100 females, the population had 109.5 males.", "For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 98.5 males.The 2016-2020 5-year American Community Survey estimates show that the median household income was $112,750 (with a margin of error of +/- $13,390) and the median family income was $121,977 (+/- $8,559).", "Males had a median income of $74,452 (+/- $8,634) versus $47,137 (+/- $8,637) for females.", "The median income for those above 16 years old was $59,316 (+/- $9,813).", "Approximately, 0.0% of families and 0.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 0.0% of those under the age of 18 and 0.8% of those ages 65 or over.===2010 census===As of the 2010 census, there were 10,189 people, 3,474 households, and 2,758 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 3,683 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 94.9% White, 0.8% African American, 0.2% Native American, 1.9% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.3% from other races, and 1.7% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.0% of the population.There were 3,474 households, of which 46.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.2% were married couples living together, 9.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 20.6% were non-families.", "17.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.87 and the average family size was 3.27.The median age in the city was 37.1 years.", "30.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.6% were from 25 to 44; 26.7% were from 45 to 64, and 9.6% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the city was 49.6% male and 50.4% female.===2000 census===As of the 2000 census, there were 7,676 people in the city, organized into 2,487 households and two families.", "Its population density was .", "There were 2,622 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 97.38% White, 0.82% Asian, 0.57% Black or African American, 0.20% Native American, no Pacific Islanders, 0.26% from other races, and 0.77% from two or more races.", "1.22% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 2,487 households, out of which half have children under the age of 18 living with them, 71.6% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.0% were non-families.", "13.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.98 and the average family size was 3.30.In the city, the population was spread out, with 31.9% under the age of 18, 5.7% from 18 to 24, 34.4% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 8.5% 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 34 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 94.9 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.6 males.The median income for a household in the city was $74,301, and the median income for a family was $80,625.Males had a median income of $51,799 compared to $33,269 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $27,553.2.2% of the population and 1.3% of families were below the poverty line.", "Out of the total population, 3.1% of those under the age of 18 and 5.9% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line." ], [ "Education", "Rockwood R-Vi School District operates 3 elementary schools, Lasalle Springs Middle School and Eureka High School.The city also contains two private schools, St. Mark's Lutheran Church and School and Most Sacred Heart Church and School.The city has the Eureka Hills Branch lending library, a branch of the St. Louis County Library.", "It was moved to a newly built location that opened on June 2, 2021.Eureka from the south along Missouri Route 109" ], [ "News media", "Local news coverage for the town and some of its neighbors is provided by the ''Tri County Journal'', the ''Eureka and Pacific Current NewsMagazine'', and the ''Washington Missourian''." ], [ "Notable people", "* Clayton Echard (Star of The Bachelor Season 26)* Cam Janssen, National Hockey League player* Bob Klinger, Major League Baseball player* Rissi Palmer, Country Western singer" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* City of Eureka official website* Eureka Chamber of Commerce" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Equation of state" ], [ "Introduction", "In physics and chemistry, an '''equation of state''' is a thermodynamic equation relating state variables, which describe the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions, such as pressure, volume, temperature, or internal energy.", "Most modern equations of state are formulated in the Helmholtz free energy.", "Equations of state are useful in describing the properties of pure substances and mixtures in liquids, gases, and solid states as well as the state of matter in the interior of stars." ], [ "Overview", "At present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all substances under all conditions.", "An example of an equation of state correlates densities of gases and liquids to temperatures and pressures, known as the ideal gas law, which is roughly accurate for weakly polar gases at low pressures and moderate temperatures.", "This equation becomes increasingly inaccurate at higher pressures and lower temperatures, and fails to predict condensation from a gas to a liquid.The general form of an equation of state may be written aswhere is the pressure, the volume, and the temperature of the system.", "Yet also other variables may be used in that form.", "It is directly related to Gibbs phase rule, that is, the number of independent variables depends on the number of substances and phases in the system.An equation used to model this relationship is called an equation of state.", "In most cases this model will comprise some empirical parameters that are usually adjusted to measurement data.", "Equations of state can also describe solids, including the transition of solids from one crystalline state to another.", "Equations of state are also used for the modeling of the state of matter in the interior of stars, including neutron stars, dense matter (quark–gluon plasmas) and radiation fields.", "A related concept is the perfect fluid equation of state used in cosmology.Equations of state are applied in many fields such as process engineering and petroleum industry as well as pharmaceutical industry.Any consistent set of units may be used, although SI units are preferred.", "Absolute temperature refers to the use of the Kelvin (K), with zero being absolute zero.", "*, number of moles of a substance*, , molar volume, the volume of 1 mole of gas or liquid*, ideal gas constant ≈ 8.3144621J/mol·K*, pressure at the critical point*, molar volume at the critical point*, absolute temperature at the critical point" ], [ "Historical background", "Boyle's law was one of the earliest formulation of an equation of state.", "In 1662, the Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end.", "Mercury was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube.", "Then the volume of gas was measured as additional mercury was added to the tube.", "The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end.", "Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the gas volume varied inversely with the pressure.", "In mathematical form, this can be stated as:The above relationship has also been attributed to Edme Mariotte and is sometimes referred to as Mariotte's law.", "However, Mariotte's work was not published until 1676.In 1787 the French physicist Jacques Charles found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to roughly the same extent over the same 80-kelvin interval.", "This is known today as Charles's law.", "Later, in 1802, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac published results of similar experiments, indicating a linear relationship between volume and temperature:Dalton's law (1801) of partial pressure states that the pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all of the constituent gases alone.Mathematically, this can be represented for species as:In 1834, Émile Clapeyron combined Boyle's law and Charles' law into the first statement of the ''ideal gas law''.", "Initially, the law was formulated as ''pVm'' = ''R''(''TC'' + 267) (with temperature expressed in degrees Celsius), where ''R'' is the gas constant.", "However, later work revealed that the number should actually be closer to 273.2, and then the Celsius scale was defined with , giving:In 1873, J. D. van der Waals introduced the first equation of state derived by the assumption of a finite volume occupied by the constituent molecules.", "His new formula revolutionized the study of equations of state, and was the starting point of cubic equations of state, which most famously continued via the Redlich–Kwong equation of state and the Soave modification of Redlich-Kwong.The van der Waals equation of state can be written as:where is a parameter describing the attractive energy between particles and is a parameter describing the volume of the particles." ], [ "Ideal gas law", "=== Classical ideal gas law ===The classical ideal gas law may be writtenIn the form shown above, the equation of state is thusIf the calorically perfect gas approximation is used, then the ideal gas law may also be expressed as followswhere is the density, is the (constant) adiabatic index (ratio of specific heats), is the internal energy per unit mass (the \"specific internal energy\"), is the specific heat capacity at constant volume, and is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure.=== Quantum ideal gas law ===Since for atomic and molecular gases, the classical ideal gas law is well suited in most cases, let us describe the equation of state for elementary particles with mass and spin that takes into account quantum effects.", "In the following, the upper sign will always correspond to Fermi–Dirac statistics and the lower sign to Bose–Einstein statistics.", "The equation of state of such gases with particles occupying a volume with temperature and pressure is given bywhere is the Boltzmann constant and the chemical potential is given by the following implicit functionIn the limiting case where , this equation of state will reduce to that of the classical ideal gas.", "It can be shown that the above equation of state in the limit reduces toWith a fixed number density , decreasing the temperature causes in Fermi gas, an increase in the value for pressure from its classical value implying an effective repulsion between particles (this is an apparent repulsion due to quantum exchange effects not because of actual interactions between particles since in ideal gas, interactional forces are neglected) and in Bose gas, a decrease in pressure from its classical value implying an effective attraction.", "The quantum nature of this equation is in it dependence on s and '''ħ'''." ], [ "Cubic equations of state", "Cubic equations of state are called such because they can be rewritten as a cubic function of .", "Cubic equations of state originated from the van der Waals equation of state.", "Hence, all cubic equations of state can be considered 'modified van der Waals equation of state'.", "There is a very large number of such cubic equations of state.", "For process engineering, cubic equations of state are today still highly relevant, e.g.", "the Peng Robinson equation of state or the Soave Redlich Kwong equation of state." ], [ "Virial equations of state", "=== Virial equation of state ===Although usually not the most convenient equation of state, the virial equation is important because it can be derived directly from statistical mechanics.", "This equation is also called the Kamerlingh Onnes equation.", "If appropriate assumptions are made about the mathematical form of intermolecular forces, theoretical expressions can be developed for each of the coefficients.", "''A'' is the first virial coefficient, which has a constant value of 1 and makes the statement that when volume is large, all fluids behave like ideal gases.", "The second virial coefficient ''B'' corresponds to interactions between pairs of molecules, ''C'' to triplets, and so on.", "Accuracy can be increased indefinitely by considering higher order terms.", "The coefficients ''B'', ''C'', ''D'', etc.", "are functions of temperature only.=== The BWR equation of state ===where* is pressure* is molar densityValues of the various parameters can be found in reference materials.", "The BWR equation of state has also frequently been used for the modelling of the Lennard-Jones fluid.", "There are several extensions and modifications of the classical BWR equation of state available.The Benedict–Webb–Rubin–Starling equation of state is a modified BWR equation of state and can be written as Note that in this virial equation, the fourth and fifth virial terms are zero.", "The second virial coefficient is monotonically decreasing as temperature is lowered.", "The third virial coefficient is monotonically increasing as temperature is lowered.The Lee–Kesler equation of state is based on the corresponding states principle, and is a modification of the BWR equation of state." ], [ "Physically based equations of state", "There is a large number of physically based equations of state available today.", "Most of those are formulated in the Helmholtz free energy as a function of temperature, density (and for mixtures additionally the composition).", "The Helmholtz energy is formulated as a sum of multiple terms modelling different types of molecular interaction or molecular structures, e.g.", "the formation of chains or dipolar interactions.", "Hence, physically based equations of state model the effect of molecular size, attraction and shape as well as hydrogen bonding and polar interactions of fluids.", "In general, physically based equations of state give more accurate results than traditional cubic equations of state, especially for systems containing liquids or solids.", "Most physically based equations of state are built on monomer term describing the Lennard-Jones fluid or the Mie fluid.=== Perturbation theory-based models ===Perturbation theory is frequently used for modelling dispersive interactions in an equation of state.", "There is a large number of perturbation theory based equations of state available today, e.g.", "for the classical Lennard-Jones fluid.", "The two most important theories used for these types of equations of state are the Barker-Henderson perturbation theory and the Weeks–Chandler–Andersen perturbation theory.=== Statistical associating fluid theory (SAFT) ===An important contribution for physically based equations of state is the statistical associating fluid theory (SAFT) that contributes the Helmholtz energy that describes the association (a.k.a.", "hydrogen bonding) in fluids, which can also be applied for modelling chain formation (in the limit of infinite association strength).", "The SAFT equation of state was developed using statistical mechanical methods (in particular the perturbation theory of Wertheim) to describe the interactions between molecules in a system.", "The idea of a SAFT equation of state was first proposed by Chapman et al.", "in 1988 and 1989.Many different versions of the SAFT models have been proposed, but all use the same chain and association terms derived by Chapman et al." ], [ "Multiparameter equations of state", "Multiparameter equations of state are empirical equations of state that can be used to represent pure fluids with high accuracy.", "Multiparameter equations of state are empirical correlations of experimental data and are usually formulated in the Helmholtz free energy.", "The functional form of these models is in most parts not physically motivated.", "They can be usually applied in both liquid and gaseous states.", "Empirical multiparameter equations of state represent the Helmholtz energy of the fluid as the sum of ideal gas and residual terms.", "Both terms are explicit in temperature and density:with The reduced density and reduced temperature are in most cases the critical values for the pure fluid.", "Because integration of the multiparameter equations of state is not required and thermodynamic properties can be determined using classical thermodynamic relations, there are few restrictions as to the functional form of the ideal or residual terms.", "Typical multiparameter equations of state use upwards of 50 fluid specific parameters, but are able to represent the fluid's properties with high accuracy.", "Multiparameter equations of state are available currently for about 50 of the most common industrial fluids including refrigerants.", "The IAPWS95 reference equation of state for water is also a multiparameter equations of state.", "Mixture models for multiparameter equations of state exist, as well.", "Yet, multiparameter equations of state applied to mixtures are known to exhibit artifacts at times.One example of such an equation of state is the form proposed by Span and Wagner.This is a somewhat simpler form that is intended to be used more in technical applications.", "Equations of state that require a higher accuracy use a more complicated form with more terms." ], [ "List of further equations of state", "=== Stiffened equation of state ===When considering water under very high pressures, in situations such as underwater nuclear explosions, sonic shock lithotripsy, and sonoluminescence, the stiffened equation of state is often used:where is the internal energy per unit mass, is an empirically determined constant typically taken to be about 6.1, and is another constant, representing the molecular attraction between water molecules.", "The magnitude of the correction is about 2 gigapascals (20,000 atmospheres).The equation is stated in this form because the speed of sound in water is given by .Thus water behaves as though it is an ideal gas that is ''already'' under about 20,000 atmospheres (2 GPa) pressure, and explains why water is commonly assumed to be incompressible: when the external pressure changes from 1 atmosphere to 2 atmospheres (100 kPa to 200 kPa), the water behaves as an ideal gas would when changing from 20,001 to 20,002 atmospheres (2000.1 MPa to 2000.2 MPa).This equation mispredicts the specific heat capacity of water but few simple alternatives are available for severely nonisentropic processes such as strong shocks.=== Morse oscillator equation of state ===An equation of state of Morse oscillator has been derived, and it has the following form:Where is the first order virial parameter and it depends on the temperature, is the second order virial parameter of Morse oscillator and it depends on the parameters of Morse oscillator in addition to the absolute temperature.", "is the fractional volume of the system.=== Ultrarelativistic equation of state ===An ultrarelativistic fluid has equation of statewhere is the pressure, is the mass density, and is the speed of sound.=== Ideal Bose equation of state ===The equation of state for an ideal Bose gas iswhere ''α'' is an exponent specific to the system (e.g.", "in the absence of a potential field, α = 3/2), ''z'' is exp(''μ''/''k''B''T'') where ''μ'' is the chemical potential, Li is the polylogarithm, ζ is the Riemann zeta function, and ''T''''c'' is the critical temperature at which a Bose–Einstein condensate begins to form.=== Jones–Wilkins–Lee equation of state for explosives (JWL equation) ===The equation of state from Jones–Wilkins–Lee is used to describe the detonation products of explosives.The ratio is defined by using , which is the density of the explosive (solid part) and , which is the density of the detonation products.", "The parameters , , , and are given by several references.", "In addition, the initial density (solid part) , speed of detonation , Chapman–Jouguet pressure and the chemical energy per unit volume of the explosive are given in such references.", "These parameters are obtained by fitting the JWL-EOS to experimental results.", "Typical parameters for some explosives are listed in the table below.", "Material (g/cm3) (m/s) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa)TNT 1.630 6930 21.0 373.8 3.747 4.15 0.90 0.35 6.00 Composition B 1.717 7980 29.5 524.2 7.678 4.20 1.10 0.35 8.50 PBX 9501 1.844 36.3 852.4 18.02 4.55 1.3 0.38 10.2=== Others ===* Tait equation for water and other liquids.", "Several equations are referred to as the '''Tait equation'''.", "* Murnaghan equation of state* Birch–Murnaghan equation of state* Stacey–Brennan–Irvine equation of state* Modified Rydberg equation of state* Adapted polynomial equation of state* Johnson–Holmquist equation of state* Mie–Grüneisen equation of state* Anton-Schmidt equation of state* State-transition equation" ], [ "See also", "* Gas laws* Departure function* Table of thermodynamic equations* Real gas* Cluster expansion" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ecclesiastes" ], [ "Introduction", "Ecclesiastes 3 in the Leningrad Codex'''Ecclesiastes ''' ( ; , ) is one of the Ketuvim (\"Writings\") of the Hebrew Bible and part of the Wisdom literature of the Christian Old Testament.", "The title commonly used in English is a Latin transliteration of the Greek translation of the Hebrew word ( or ).", "An unnamed author introduces \"The words of Kohelet, son of David, king in Jerusalem\" (1:1) and does not use his own voice again until the final verses (12:9–14), where he gives his own thoughts and summarises the statements of '''Kohelet'''; the main body of the text is ascribed to Kohelet himself.Kohelet proclaims (1:2) \"Vanity of vanities!", "All is futile!", "\"; the Hebrew word , \"vapor\" or \"breath\", can figuratively mean \"insubstantial\", \"vain\", \"futile\", or \"meaningless\".", "Given this, the next verse presents the basic existential question with which the rest of the book is concerned: \"What profit hath a man for all his toil, in which he toils under the sun?", "\", expressing that the lives of both wise and foolish people all end in death.", "In light of this perceived meaninglessness, he suggests that human beings should enjoy the simple pleasures of daily life, such as eating, drinking, and taking enjoyment in one's work, which are gifts from the hand of God.", "The book concludes with the injunction to \"Fear God and keep his commandments; for that is the duty of all of mankind.", "Since every deed will God bring to judgment, for every hidden act, be it good or evil.", "\"According to rabbinic tradition the book was written by King Solomon (reigned c. 970–931 BCE) in his old age, but the presence of Persian loanwords and Aramaisms point to a date no earlier than about 450 BCE, while the latest possible date for its composition is 180 BCE." ], [ "Title", "''Ecclesiastes'' is a phonetic transliteration of the Greek word (), which in the Septuagint translates the Hebrew name of its stated author, Kohelet ().", "The Greek word derives from (assembly), as the Hebrew word derives from (assembly), but while the Greek word means 'member of an assembly', the meaning of the original Hebrew word it translates is less certain.", "As Strong's concordance mentions, it is a female active participle of the verb in its simple () paradigm, a form not used elsewhere in the Bible and which is sometimes understood as active or passive depending on the verb, so that Kohelet would mean '(female) assembler' in the active case (recorded as such by Strong's concordance), and '(female) assembled, member of an assembly' in the passive case (as per the Septuagint translators).", "According to the majority understanding today, the word is a more general (, ) form rather than a literal participle, and the intended meaning of Kohelet in the text is 'someone speaking before an assembly', hence 'Teacher' or 'Preacher' (this was also the position of the Midrash and of Jerome).Commentators struggle to explain why a man was given an apparently feminine name.", "According to Isaiah di Trani (also adopted by Simonis), \"He authored this work in his old age, when he was weak like a woman, and therefore he received a feminine name\".", "According to Solomon b. Jeroham (also Lorinus, Zirkel), \"This is because, even as a woman births and raises children, Qoheleth revealed and organized wisdom\".", "According to Yefet b. Ali (also adopted by Abraham ibn Ezra and Joseph Ibn Kaspi), \"He ascribed this activity to his wisdom, and because Wisdom is female, he used a feminine name\".", "This last opinion is accepted by a wide variety of modern scholars, including C. D. Ginsburg." ], [ "Structure", "Ecclesiastes is presented as the biography of \"Kohelet\" or \"Qoheleth\"; his story is framed by the voice of the narrator, who refers to Kohelet in the third person, praises his wisdom, but reminds the reader that wisdom has its limitations and is not man's main concern.", "Kohelet reports what he planned, did, experienced and thought, but his journey to knowledge is, in the end, incomplete; the reader is not only to hear Kohelet's wisdom, but to observe his journey towards understanding and acceptance of life's frustrations and uncertainties: the journey itself is important.The Jerusalem Bible divides the book into two parts, part one comprising Ecclesiastes 1:4-6:12, part two consisting of chapters 7 to 12, each commencing with a separate prologue.Few of the many attempts to uncover an underlying structure to Ecclesiastes have met with widespread acceptance; among them, the following is one of the more influential:* Title (1:1)* Initial poem (1:2–11)* I: Kohelet's investigation of life (1:12–6:9)* II: Kohelet's conclusions (6:10–11:6)** Introduction (6:10–12)** A: Man cannot discover what is good for him to do (7:1–8:17)** B: Man does not know what will come after him (9:1–11:6)* Concluding poem (11:7–12:8)* Epilogue (12:9–14)Despite the acceptance by some of this structure, there have been many criticisms, such as that of Fox: \"Addison G. Wright's proposed structure has no more effect on interpretation than a ghost in the attic.", "A literary or rhetorical structure should not merely 'be there'; it must something.", "It should guide readers in recognizing and remembering the author's train of thought.", "\"Verse 1:1 is a superscription, the ancient equivalent of a title page: it introduces the book as \"the words of Kohelet, son of David, king in Jerusalem.", "\"Most, though not all, modern commentators regard the epilogue (12:9–14) as an addition by a later scribe.", "Some have identified certain other statements as further additions intended to make the book more religiously orthodox (e.g., the affirmations of God's justice and the need for piety).It has been proposed that the text is composed of three distinct voices.", "The first belongs to Qoheleth as the prophet, the \"true voice of wisdom\", which speaks in the first person, recounting wisdom through his own experience.", "The second voice belongs to Qoheleth as the king of Jerusalem, who is more didactic and thus speaks primarily in second-person imperative statements.", "The third voice is that of the epilogist, who speaks proverbially in the third person.", "The epilogist is most identified in the book's first and final verses.", "Kyle R. Greenwood suggests that following this structure, Ecclesiastes should be read as a dialogue between these voices." ], [ "Summary", "The ten-verse introduction in verses 1:2–11 are the words of the frame narrator; they set the mood for what is to follow.", "Kohelet's message is that all is meaningless.", "This distinction first appeared in the commentaries of Samuel ibn Tibbon (d. 1230) and Aaron ben Joseph of Constantinople (d. 1320).After the introduction come the words of Kohelet.", "As king, he has experienced everything and done everything, but concludes that nothing is ultimately reliable, as death levels all.", "Kohelet states that the only good is to partake of life in the present, for enjoyment is from the hand of God.", "Everything is ordered in time and people are subject to time in contrast to God's eternal character.", "The world is filled with injustice, which only God will adjudicate.", "God and humans do not belong in the same realm, and it is therefore necessary to have a right attitude before God.", "People should enjoy, but should not be greedy; no one knows what is good for humanity; righteousness and wisdom escape humanity.", "Kohelet reflects on the limits of human power: all people face death, and death is better than life, but people should enjoy life when they can, for a time may come when no one can.", "The world is full of risk: he gives advice on living with risk, both political and economic.", "Kohelet's words finish with imagery of nature languishing and humanity marching to the grave.The frame narrator returns with an epilogue: the words of the wise are hard, but they are applied as the shepherd applies goads and pricks to his flock.", "The ending of the book sums up its message: \"Fear God and keep his commandments for God will bring every deed to judgment.\"", "Some scholars suggest 12:13–14 were an addition by a more orthodox author than the original writer (that the epilogue was added later was first proposed by Samuel ibn Tibbon); others think it is likely the work of the original author." ], [ "Composition", "===Title, date and author===King Solomon in Old Age'' by Gustave Doré (1866), a depiction of the purported author of Ecclesiastes, according to rabbinic traditionThe book takes its name from the Greek , a translation of the title by which the central figure refers to himself: \"Kohelet\", meaning something like \"one who convenes or addresses an assembly\".", "According to rabbinic tradition, Ecclesiastes was written by King Solomon in his old age (an alternative tradition that \"Hezekiah and his colleagues wrote Isaiah, Proverbs, the Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes\" probably means simply that the book was edited under Hezekiah), but critical scholars have long rejected the idea of a pre-exilic origin.", "According to Christian tradition, the book was probably written by another Solomon (Gregory of Nyssa wrote that it was written by another Solomon; Didymus the Blind wrote that it was probably written by several authors).", "The presence of Persian loanwords and numerous Aramaisms points to a date no earlier than about 450 BCE, while the latest possible date for its composition is 180 BCE, when the Jewish writer Ben Sira quotes from it.", "The dispute as to whether Ecclesiastes belongs to the Persian or the Hellenistic periods (i.e., the earlier or later part of this period) revolves around the degree of Hellenization (influence of Greek culture and thought) present in the book.", "Scholars arguing for a Persian date () hold that there is a complete lack of Greek influence; those who argue for a Hellenistic date () argue that it shows internal evidence of Greek thought and social setting.Also unresolved is whether the author and narrator of Kohelet are identical.", "Ecclesiastes regularly switches between third-person quotations of Kohelet and first-person reflections on Kohelet's words, which would indicate the book was written as a commentary on Kohelet's parables rather than a personally-authored repository of his sayings.", "Some scholars have argued that the third-person narrative structure is an artificial literary device along the lines of Uncle Remus, although the description of the Kohelet in 12:8–14 seems to favour a historical person whose thoughts are presented by the narrator.", "It has been argued, however, that the question has no theological importance; one scholar (Roland Murphy) has commented that Kohelet himself would have regarded the time and ingenuity put into interpreting his book as \"one more example of the futility of human effort\".===Genre and setting===Ecclesiastes has taken its literary form from the Middle Eastern tradition of the fictional autobiography, in which a character, often a king, relates his experiences and draws lessons from them, often self-critical: Kohelet likewise identifies himself as a king, speaks of his search for wisdom, relates his conclusions, and recognises his limitations.", "The book belongs to the category of wisdom literature, the body of biblical writings which give advice on life, together with reflections on its problems and meanings—other examples include the Book of Job, Proverbs, and some of the Psalms.", "Ecclesiastes differs from the other biblical Wisdom books in being deeply skeptical of the usefulness of wisdom itself.", "Ecclesiastes in turn influenced the deuterocanonical works, Wisdom of Solomon and Sirach, both of which contain vocal rejections of the Ecclesiastical philosophy of futility.Wisdom was a popular genre in the ancient world, where it was cultivated in scribal circles and directed towards young men who would take up careers in high officialdom and royal courts; there is strong evidence that some of these books, or at least sayings and teachings, were translated into Hebrew and influenced the Book of Proverbs, and the author of Ecclesiastes was probably familiar with examples from Egypt and Mesopotamia.", "He may also have been influenced by Greek philosophy, specifically the schools of Stoicism, which held that all things are fated, and Epicureanism, which held that happiness was best pursued through the quiet cultivation of life's simpler pleasures.===Canonicity===The presence of Ecclesiastes in the Bible is something of a puzzle, as the common themes of the Hebrew canon—a God who reveals and redeems, who elects and cares for a chosen people—are absent from it, which suggests that Kohelet had lost his faith in his old age.", "Understanding the book was a topic of the earliest recorded discussions (the hypothetical Council of Jamnia in the 1st century CE).", "One argument advanced at that time was that the name of Solomon carried enough authority to ensure its inclusion; however, other works which appeared with Solomon's name were excluded despite being more orthodox than Ecclesiastes.", "Another was that the words of the epilogue, in which the reader is told to fear God and keep his commands, made it orthodox; but all later attempts to find anything in the rest of the book that would reflect this orthodoxy have failed.", "A modern suggestion treats the book as a dialogue in which different statements belong to different voices, with Kohelet himself answering and refuting unorthodox opinions, but there are no explicit markers for this in the book, as there are (for example) in the Book of Job.Yet another suggestion is that Ecclesiastes is simply the most extreme example of a tradition of skepticism, but none of the proposed examples match Ecclesiastes for a sustained denial of faith and doubt in the goodness of God.", "Martin A. Shields, in his 2006 book ''The End of Wisdom: A Reappraisal of the Historical and Canonical Function of Ecclesiastes'', summarized that \"In short, we do not know why or how this book found its way into such esteemed company\"." ], [ "Themes", "Scholars disagree about the themes of Ecclesiastes: whether it is positive and life-affirming, or deeply pessimistic; whether it is coherent or incoherent, insightful or confused, orthodox or heterodox; whether the ultimate message of the book is to copy Kohelet, \"the wise man,\" or to avoid his errors.", "At times, Kohelet raises deep questions; he \"doubted every aspect of religion, from the very ideal of righteousness, to the by now traditional idea of divine justice for individuals\".", "Some passages of Ecclesiastes seem to contradict other portions of the Hebrew Bible, and even itself.", "The Talmud even suggests that the rabbis considered censoring Ecclesiastes due to its seeming contradictions.", "One suggestion for resolving the contradictions is to read the book as the record of Kohelet's quest for knowledge: opposing judgments (e.g., \"the dead are better off than the living\" (4:2) vs. \"a living dog is better off than a dead lion\" (9:4)) are therefore provisional, and it is only at the conclusion that the verdict is delivered (11–12:7).", "On this reading, Kohelet's sayings are goads, designed to provoke dialogue and reflection in his readers, rather than to reach premature and self-assured conclusions.The subjects of Ecclesiastes are the pain and frustration engendered by observing and meditating on the distortions and inequities pervading the world, the uselessness of human ambition, and the limitations of worldly wisdom and righteousness.", "The phrase \"under the sun\" appears twenty-nine times in connection with these observations; all this coexists with a firm belief in God, whose power, justice and unpredictability are sovereign.", "History and nature move in cycles, so that all events are predictable and unchangeable, and life, without the Sun, has no meaning or purpose: the wise man and the man who does not study wisdom will both die and be forgotten: man should be reverent (i.e., fear God), but in this life it is best to simply enjoy God's gifts." ], [ "Usage", "===Judaism===In Judaism, Ecclesiastes is read either on Shemini Atzeret (by Yemenites, Italians, some Sephardim, and the mediaeval French Jewish rite) or on the Shabbat of the intermediate days of Sukkot (by Ashkenazim).", "If there is no intermediate Shabbat of Sukkot, Ashkenazim too read it on Shemini Atzeret (or, in Israel, on the first Shabbat of Sukkot).", "It is read on Sukkot as a reminder to not get too caught up in the festivities of the holiday and to carry over the happiness of Sukkot to the rest of the year by telling the listeners that, without God, life is meaningless.The final poem of Kohelet has been interpreted in the Targum, Talmud and Midrash, and by the rabbis Rashi, Rashbam and ibn Ezra, as an allegory of old age.===Catholicism===Ecclesiastes has been cited in the writings of past and current Catholic Church leaders.", "For example, Doctors of the Church have cited Ecclesiastes.", "Augustine of Hippo cited Ecclesiastes in Book XX of ''City of God''.", "Jerome wrote a commentary on Ecclesiastes.", "Thomas Aquinas cited Ecclesiastes (\"The number of fools is infinite.\")", "in his .The 20th-century Catholic theologian and cardinal-elect Hans Urs von Balthasar discussed Ecclesiastes in his work on theological aesthetics, ''The Glory of the Lord''.", "He describes Qoheleth as \"a critical transcendentalist \", whose God is distant from the world, and whose is a \"form of time which is itself empty of meaning\".", "For Balthasar, the role of Ecclesiastes in the Biblical canon is to represent the \"final dance on the part of wisdom, the conclusion of the ways of man\", a logical end-point to the unfolding of human wisdom in the Old Testament that paves the way for the advent of the New.The book continues to be cited by recent popes, including Pope John Paul II and Pope Francis.", "Pope John Paul II, in his general audience of October 20, 2004, called the author of Ecclesiastes \"an ancient biblical sage\" whose description of death \"makes frantic clinging to earthly things completely pointless\".", "Pope Francis cited Ecclesiastes in his address on September 9, 2014.Speaking of vain people, he said, \"How many Christians live for appearances?", "Their life seems like a soap bubble.\"" ], [ "Influence on Western literature", "Ecclesiastes has had a deep influence on Western literature.", "It contains several phrases that have resonated in British and American culture, such as \"eat, drink and be merry\", \"nothing new under the sun\", \"a time to be born and a time to die\", and \"vanity of vanities; all is vanity\".", "American novelist Thomas Wolfe wrote: \"Of all I have ever seen or learned, that book seems to me the noblest, the wisest, and the most powerful expression of man's life upon this earth—and also the highest flower of poetry, eloquence, and truth.", "I am not given to dogmatic judgments in the matter of literary creation, but if I had to make one I could say that Ecclesiastes is the greatest single piece of writing I have ever known, and the wisdom expressed in it the most lasting and profound.", "\"* The opening of William Shakespeare's Sonnet 59 references Ecclesiastes 1:9–10.", "* Line 23 of T. S. Eliot's ''The Waste Land'' alludes to Ecclesiastes 12:5.", "* Christina Rossetti's \"One Certainty\" quotes from Ecclesiastes 1:2–9.", "* Leo Tolstoy's ''Confession'' describes how the reading of Ecclesiastes affected his life.", "* Robert Burns' \"Address to the Unco Guid\" begins with a verse appeal to Ecclesiastes 7:16.", "* The title of Ernest Hemingway's first novel ''The Sun Also Rises'' comes from Ecclesiastes 1:5.", "* The title of Edith Wharton's novel ''The House of Mirth'' was taken from Ecclesiastes 7:4 (\"The heart of the wise is in the house of mourning; but the heart of fools is in the house of mirth.\").", "* Ecclesiastes 4: 9–12 is quoted in chapter 28 of John Steinbeck's ''The Grapes of Wrath'' (1939).", "* The title of Laura Lippman's novel ''Every Secret Thing'' and that of its film adaptation come from Ecclesiastes 12:14 (\"For God shall bring every work into judgment, with every secret thing, whether ''it be'' good, or whether ''it be'' evil.\").", "* The main character in George Bernard Shaw's short story ''The Adventures of the Black Girl in Her Search for God'' meets Koheleth, \"known to many as Ecclesiastes\".", "* The title of Henry James's novel ''The Golden Bowl'' is taken from Ecclesiastes 12:6.", "* The title and theme of George R. Stewart's post-apocalyptic novel ''Earth Abides'' is from Ecclesiastes 1:4.", "* In the dystopian novel ''Fahrenheit 451'', Ray Bradbury's main character, Montag, memorizes much of Ecclesiastes and Revelation in a world where books are forbidden and burned.", "* The passage in chapter 3, with its repetition of \"A time to ...\" has been used as a title in many other cases, including the novels ''A Time to Dance'' by Melvyn Bragg and ''A Time to Kill'' by John Grisham, the records ''...And a Time to Dance'' by Los Lobos and ''A Time to Love'' by Stevie Wonder, and films ''A Time to Love and a Time to Die'', ''A Time to Live'' and ''A Time to Kill''.", "* The opening quote in the movie ''Platoon'' by Oliver Stone is taken from Ecclesiastes 11:9.", "* The essay \"Politics and the English Language\" by George Orwell uses Ecclesiastes 9:11 as an example of clear and vivid writing, and \"translates\" it into \"modern English of the worst sort\" to demonstrate common fallings of the latter." ], [ "Influence on Western music", "* Pete Seeger's song \"Turn!", "Turn!", "Turn!\"", "takes all but one of its lines from the Book of Ecclesiastes chapter 3.", "* Alec Roth's oratorio \"A Time to Dance\" (2012) takes both its title and the text for its opening movement from chapter 3.", "* Boygenius's song \"Satanist\" (2023) mentions Ecclesiastes, attributing the writings to King Solomon with the lyric: \"Solomon had a point when he wrote \"Ecclesiastes\", If nothing can be known, then stupidity is holy\"* Pete Townshend's song \"Empty Glass\" (1980) from his album of the same name contains the words, \"Why was I born today?", "Life is useless like Ecclesiastes say.", "\"* Stevie Wonder's instrumental song \"Ecclesiastes\" appears on side 3 of ''Stevie Wonder's Journey Through \"The Secret Life of Plants\"''* Ace of Base paraphrases Ecclesiastes 3 in their 2009 demo recording \"Couldn't Care Less\"* Architects paraphrases Ecclesiastes 1:7 in the chorus of their song \"Doomsday\"." ], [ "See also", "* Bible* ''Q'', novel by Luther Blissett* \"A Rose for Ecclesiastes\"* ''The Song''* Tanakh* \"Turn!", "Turn!", "Turn!", "\"* Vanitas* ''Vier ernste Gesänge''* Wisdom of Sirach" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * Trans.", "of \"Canon\",  ''Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers'', vol.", "2.Paris, 1752.", "* * * * * * * * * * Ricasoli, Corinna, ed.", "(2018).", "''The Living Dead: Ecclesiastes through Art''.", "Ferdinand Schöningh.", ".", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Kohelet – Ecclesiastes (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org* Ecclesiastes: New Revised Standard Version* Ecclesiastes: Douay Rheims Bible Version* ''Ecclesiastes'' at Wikisource (Authorised King James Version)* ''Ecclesiastes'' at United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (New American Bible)* ''Ecclesiastes'' at Bible Gateway (New King James Version)* ''A Metaphrase of the Book Of Ecclesiastes'' by Gregory Thaumaturgus.", "* – Various versions" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ezekiel" ], [ "Introduction", "Ezekiel's Vision'' by Raphael, '''Ezekiel''' or '''Ezechiel''' (; ''Yəḥezqēʾl'' ; in the Septuagint written in ) is the central protagonist of the Book of Ezekiel in the Hebrew Bible.In Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Ezekiel is acknowledged as a Hebrew prophet.", "In Judaism and Christianity, he is also viewed as the 6th-century BCE author of the Book of Ezekiel, which includes time-travel prophecies about the destruction of Jerusalem and the Jews' restoration to the land of Israel, over and over again.The name Ezekiel means \"God is strong\" or \"God strengthens\"." ], [ "In the Bible", "The author of the Book of Ezekiel presents himself as Ezekiel, the son of Buzi, born into a priestly (kohen) lineage.", "Apart from identifying himself, the author gives a date for the first divine encounter which he presents: \"in the thirtieth year\".", "Ezekiel describes his calling to be a prophet by going into great detail about his encounter with God and four \"living creatures\" with four wheels that stayed beside the creatures.=== Living in Babylon ===According to the Bible, Ezekiel and his wife lived during the Babylonian captivity on the banks of the Kebar Canal in Tel Abib near Nippur with other exiles from the Kingdom of Judah.", "There is no mention of him having any offspring." ], [ "Chronology", "Ezekiel's \"thirtieth year\" is given as the fifth year of the exile of Judah's king Jehoiachin by the Babylonians, counting the years ''after'' the exile in 598 BCE, that is from 597 to 593 BCE.", "The last recorded prophecy of Ezekiel dates to April 571 BCE, sixteen years after the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BCE.", "On the basis of dates given in the Book of Ezekiel, his span of prophecies can be calculated to have occurred over the course of about 22 years, starting in 593 BCE.The Aramaic Targum on Ezekiel 1:1 and the 2nd-century rabbinic work ''Seder Olam Rabba'' (chapter 26) both say that Ezekiel's vision came \"in the thirtieth year after Josiah was presented with a Book of the Law discovered in the Temple\", the latter taking place about the time of Josiah's reforms in 622 BCE, shortly after the call of Jeremiah to prophetic ministry around 626 BCE.", "If the \"thirtieth year\" of Ezekiel 1:1 instead refers to Ezekiel's age, then he was born around 622 BCE and was fifty years old when he had his final vision." ], [ "Extrabiblical traditions", "=== Jewish tradition ===Monument to Holocaust survivors at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem; the quote is Ezekiel 37:14.According to Jewish tradition, Ezekiel did not write his own book, the Book of Ezekiel, but rather his prophecies were collected and written by the Great Assembly.Ezekiel, like Jeremiah, is said by Talmud and Midrash to have been a descendant of Joshua by his marriage with the proselyte and former prostitute Rahab.", "Some statements found in rabbinic literature posit that Ezekiel was the son of Jeremiah, who was (also) called \"Buzi\" because he was despised by the Jews.Ezekiel was said to be already active as a prophet while in the Land of Israel, and he retained this gift when he was exiled with Jehoiachin and the nobles of the country to Babylon.", "Josephus claims that Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia's armies exiled three thousand people from Judah, after deposing King Jehoiachin in 598 BCE.One traditional depiction of the cherubim and chariot vision, based on the description by EzekielRava states in the Babylonian Talmud that although Ezekiel describes the appearance of the throne of God (merkabah), this is not because he had seen more than the prophet Isaiah, but rather because the latter was more accustomed to such visions; for the relation of the two prophets is that of a courtier to a peasant, the latter of whom would always describe a royal court more floridly than the former, to whom such things would be familiar.", "Ezekiel, like all the other prophets, has beheld only a blurred reflection of the divine majesty, just as a poor mirror reflects objects only imperfectly.According to the midrash ''Shir HaShirim Rabbah'', it was Ezekiel whom the three pious men, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah (also called Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego) asked for advice as to whether they should resist Nebuchadnezzar's command and choose death by fire rather than worship his idol.At first God revealed to the prophet that they could not hope for a miraculous rescue; whereupon the prophet was greatly grieved, since these three men constituted the \"remnant of Judah\".", "But after they had left the house of the prophet, fully determined to sacrifice their lives to God, Ezekiel received this revelation:=== Christian tradition ===Russian icon of the Prophet Ezekiel holding a scroll with his prophecy and pointing to the \"closed gate\" (18th century, Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Russia)Ezekiel is commemorated as a saint in the liturgical calendar of the Eastern Orthodox Church—and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite—on July 21 (for those churches which use the traditional Julian Calendar, July 21 falls on August 5 of the modern Gregorian Calendar).", "Ezekiel is commemorated on August 28 on the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church, and on April 10 in the Roman Martyrology.Certain Lutheran churches also celebrate his commemoration on July 21.Saint Bonaventure interpreted Ezekiel's statement about the \"closed gate\" as a prophecy of the Incarnation: the \"gate\" signifying the Virgin Mary and the \"prince\" referring to Jesus.", "This is one of the readings at Vespers on Great Feasts of the Theotokos in the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches.", "This imagery is also found in the traditional Catholic Christmas hymn \"Gaudete\" and in a saying by Bonaventure, quoted by Alphonsus Maria de' Liguori: \"No one can enter Heaven unless by Mary, as though through a door.\"", "The imagery provides the basis for the concept that God gave Mary to humanity as the \"Gate of Heaven\" (thence the dedication of churches and convents to the Porta Coeli), an idea also laid out in the ''Salve Regina'' (Hail Holy Queen) prayer.John B. Taylor credits the subject with imparting the Biblical understanding of the nature of God.=== Islamic tradition ===Allah raised the dead at the request of the Prophet Ezekiel.", "He is standing in a desert with skulls and bones scattered.", "The prophet is depicted with a halo in the form of flames, typical in Islamic arts.Iraqi Jews at the tomb of Ezekiel in Al-Kifl in the 1930sEzekiel (; \"Ḥazqiyāl\") is recognized as a prophet in Islamic tradition.", "Although not mentioned by name in the Quran, Muslim scholars, both classical and modern have included Ezekiel in lists of the prophets of Islam.The Quran mentions a prophet called ''Dhū al-Kifl'' ().", "Although Dhu al-Kifl's identity is disputed, he is often identified with Ezekiel.", "Carsten Niebuhr, in his ''Reisebeschreibung nach Arabian'', says he visited Al Kifl in Iraq, midway between Najaf and Hilla and said ''Kifl'' was the Arabic form of ''Ezekiel''.", "He further explained in his book that Ezekiel's Tomb was present in Al Kifl and that the Jews came to it on pilgrimage.", "The name \"Dhu al-Kifl\" means \"Possessor of the Double\" or \"Possesor of the Fold\" ( ''dhū'' \"possessor of, owner of\" and ''al-kifl'' \"double, folded\").", "Some Islamic scholars have likened Ezekiel's mission to the description of Dhu al-Kifl.", "During the exile, the monarchy and state were annihilated, and political and national life were no longer possible.", "In the absence of a worldly foundation, it became necessary to build a spiritual one and Ezekiel performed this mission by observing the signs of the time and deducing his doctrines from them.", "In conformity with the two parts of his book, his personality and his preaching are alike twofold.Regardless of the identification of Dhu al-Kifl with Ezekiel, Muslims have viewed Ezekiel as a prophet.", "Ezekiel appears in all collections of ''Stories of the Prophets''.", "Muslim exegesis further lists Ezekiel's father as Buzi (''Budhi'') and Ezekiel is given the title ''ibn al-‘ajūz'', denoting \"son of the old (man)\", as his parents are supposed to have been very old when he was born.", "A tradition, which resembles that of Hannah and Samuel in the Hebrew Bible, states that Ezekiel's mother prayed to God in old age for the birth of an offspring and was given Ezekiel as a gift from God.==== Bibliography ====* Ibn Kutayba, ''K.", "al-Ma'arif'' ed.", "S. Ukasha, 51* Tabari, History of the Prophets and Kings, 2, 53–54* Tabari, ''Tafsir'', V, 266 (old ed.", "ii, 365)* Masudi, ''Murudj'', i, 103ff.", "* ''K.", "al-Badwa l-tarikh'', iii, 4/5 and 98/100, ''Ezechiel''* Abdullah Yusuf Ali, ''Holy Qur'an: Translation and Commentary'', Note.", "2473 (cf.", "index: ''Ezekiel'')* Emil Heller Henning III, \"Ezekiel's Temple: A Scriptural Framework Illustrating the Covenant of Grace\", 2012." ], [ "Purported tombs", "=== Al Kifl ===The tomb of Ezekiel is a structure within the Al-Nukhailah Mosque complex, located at modern-day south Iraq near Kefil, believed to be the final resting place of Ezekiel.", "It has been a place of pilgrimage to both Muslims and Jews alike.", "After the Jewish exodus from Iraq, Jewish activity in the tomb decreased, although a disused synagogue remains in place.=== Ergani ===A tomb in the Ergani district of Diyarbakır Province, Turkey, is also believed to be the resting place of prophet Ezekiel.", "It is located 5 km from the city centre on a hill, revered and visited by the local Muslims, called ''Makam Dağı''." ], [ "In popular culture", "Ezekiel is portrayed by Darrell Dunham in a 1979 episode of the television series ''Our Jewish Roots'' (1978–)." ], [ "See also", "* Apocryphon of Ezekiel* Pseudo-Ezekiel* List of names referring to El" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "******* Kugler, Gili, The Cruel Theology of Ezekiel 20" ], [ "External links", "* * * Prophet Ezekiel Orthodox icon and synaxarion" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Executable and Linkable Format" ], [ "Introduction", "An ELF file has two views: the program header shows the ''segments'' used at run time, whereas the section header lists the set of ''sections''.In computing, the '''Executable and Linkable Format''' ('''ELF''', formerly named '''Extensible Linking Format'''), is a common standard file format for executable files, object code, shared libraries, and core dumps.", "First published in the specification for the application binary interface (ABI) of the Unix operating system version named System V Release 4 (SVR4), and later in the Tool Interface Standard, it was quickly accepted among different vendors of Unix systems.", "In 1999, it was chosen as the standard binary file format for Unix and Unix-like systems on x86 processors by the 86open project.By design, the ELF format is flexible, extensible, and cross-platform.", "For instance, it supports different endiannesses and address sizes so it does not exclude any particular CPU or instruction set architecture.", "This has allowed it to be adopted by many different operating systems on many different hardware platforms." ], [ "File layout", "Each ELF file is made up of one ELF header, followed by file data.", "The data can include:* Program header table, describing zero or more memory segments* Section header table, describing zero or more sections* Data referred to by entries in the program header table or section header tableStructure of an ELF file with key entries highlightedThe segments contain information that is needed for run time execution of the file, while sections contain important data for linking and relocation.", "Any byte in the entire file can be owned by one section at most, and orphan bytes can occur which are unowned by any section.=== File header ===The ELF header defines whether to use 32-bit or 64-bit addresses.", "The header contains three fields that are affected by this setting and offset other fields that follow them.", "The ELF header is 52 or 64 bytes long for 32-bit and 64-bit binaries respectively.+ ELF header Offset Size (bytes) Field Purpose 32-bit 64-bit 32-bit 64-bit 0x00 4 through 0x7F followed by ELF() in ASCII; these four bytes constitute the magic number.", "0x04 1 This byte is set to either 1 or 2 to signify 32- or 64-bit format, respectively.", "0x05 1 This byte is set to either 1 or 2 to signify little or big endianness, respectively.", "This affects interpretation of multi-byte fields starting with offset 0x10.0x06 1 Set to 1 for the original and current version of ELF.", "0x07 1 Identifies the target operating system ABI.ValueABI0x00System V0x01HP-UX0x02NetBSD0x03Linux0x04GNU Hurd0x06Solaris0x07AIX (Monterey)0x08IRIX0x09FreeBSD0x0ATru640x0BNovell Modesto0x0COpenBSD0x0DOpenVMS0x0ENonStop Kernel0x0FAROS0x10FenixOS0x11Nuxi CloudABI0x12Stratus Technologies OpenVOS 0x08 1 Further specifies the ABI version.", "Its interpretation depends on the target ABI.", "Linux kernel (after at least 2.6) has no definition of it, so it is ignored for statically-linked executables.", "In that case, offset and size of EI_PAD are 8.glibc 2.12+ in case treats this field as ABI version of the dynamic linker: it defines a list of dynamic linker's features, treats as a feature level requested by the shared object (executable or dynamic library) and refuses to load it if an unknown feature is requested, i.e.", "is greater than the largest known feature.", "0x09 7 Reserved padding bytes.", "Currently unused.", "Should be filled with zeros and ignored when read.", "0x10 2 Identifies object file type.ValueTypeMeaning0x00ET_NONEUnknown.0x01ET_RELRelocatable file.0x02ET_EXECExecutable file.0x03ET_DYNShared object.0x04ET_CORECore file.0xFE00ET_LOOS Reserved inclusive range.", "Operating system specific.0xFEFFET_HIOS0xFF00ET_LOPROC Reserved inclusive range.", "Processor specific.0xFFFFET_HIPROC 0x12 2 Specifies target instruction set architecture.", "Some examples are:ValueISA0x00 No specific instruction set0x01 AT&T WE 321000x02SPARC0x03x860x04Motorola 68000 (M68k)0x05Motorola 88000 (M88k)0x06Intel MCU0x07Intel 808600x08MIPS0x09IBM System/3700x0AMIPS RS3000 Little-endian0x0B - 0x0EReserved for future use0x0FHewlett-Packard PA-RISC0x13Intel 809600x14PowerPC0x15PowerPC (64-bit)0x16S390, including S390x0x17IBM SPU/SPC0x18 - 0x23Reserved for future use0x24NEC V8000x25Fujitsu FR200x26TRW RH-320x27Motorola RCE0x28Arm (up to Armv7/AArch32)0x29Digital Alpha0x2ASuperH0x2BSPARC Version 90x2CSiemens TriCore embedded processor0x2DArgonaut RISC Core0x2EHitachi H8/3000x2FHitachi H8/300H0x30Hitachi H8S0x31Hitachi H8/5000x32IA-640x33Stanford MIPS-X0x34Motorola ColdFire0x35Motorola M68HC120x36Fujitsu MMA Multimedia Accelerator0x37Siemens PCP0x38Sony nCPU embedded RISC processor0x39Denso NDR1 microprocessor0x3AMotorola Star*Core processor0x3BToyota ME16 processor0x3CSTMicroelectronics ST100 processor0x3DAdvanced Logic Corp. TinyJ embedded processor family0x3EAMD x86-640x3FSony DSP Processor0x40Digital Equipment Corp. PDP-100x41Digital Equipment Corp. PDP-110x42Siemens FX66 microcontroller0x43STMicroelectronics ST9+ 8/16 bit microcontroller0x44STMicroelectronics ST7 8-bit microcontroller0x45Motorola MC68HC16 Microcontroller0x46Motorola MC68HC11 Microcontroller0x47Motorola MC68HC08 Microcontroller0x48Motorola MC68HC05 Microcontroller0x49Silicon Graphics SVx0x4ASTMicroelectronics ST19 8-bit microcontroller0x4BDigital VAX0x4CAxis Communications 32-bit embedded processor0x4DInfineon Technologies 32-bit embedded processor0x4EElement 14 64-bit DSP Processor0x4FLSI Logic 16-bit DSP Processor0x8CTMS320C6000 Family0xAFMCST Elbrus e2k0xB7Arm 64-bits (Armv8/AArch64)0xDCZilog Z800xF3RISC-V0xF7Berkeley Packet Filter0x101WDC 65C816 0x14 4 Set to 1 for the original version of ELF.", "0x18 4 8 This is the memory address of the entry point from where the process starts executing.", "This field is either 32 or 64 bits long, depending on the format defined earlier (byte 0x04).", "If the file doesn't have an associated entry point, then this holds zero.", "0x1C 0x20 4 8 Points to the start of the program header table.", "It usually follows the file header immediately following this one, making the offset 0x34 or 0x40 for 32- and 64-bit ELF executables, respectively.", "0x20 0x28 4 8 Points to the start of the section header table.", "0x24 0x30 4 Interpretation of this field depends on the target architecture.", "0x28 0x34 2 Contains the size of this header, normally 64 Bytes for 64-bit and 52 Bytes for 32-bit format.", "0x2A 0x36 2 Contains the size of a program header table entry.", "As explained below, this will typically be 0x20 (32 bit) or 0x38 (64 bit).", "0x2C 0x38 2 Contains the number of entries in the program header table.", "0x2E 0x3A 2 Contains the size of a section header table entry.", "As explained below, this will typically be 0x28 (32 bit) or 0x40 (64 bit).", "0x30 0x3C 2 Contains the number of entries in the section header table.", "0x32 0x3E 2 Contains index of the section header table entry that contains the section names.0x340x40End of ELF Header (size).=== Program header ===The program header table tells the system how to create a process image.", "It is found at file offset , and consists of entries, each with size .", "The layout is slightly different in 32-bit ELF vs 64-bit ELF, because the are in a different structure location for alignment reasons.", "Each entry is structured as:+ Program header Offset Size (bytes) Field Purpose 32-bit 64-bit 32-bit 64-bit 0x00 4 Identifies the type of the segment.ValueNameMeaning0x00000000 Program header table entry unused.0x00000001 Loadable segment.0x00000002 Dynamic linking information.0x00000003 Interpreter information.0x00000004 Auxiliary information.0x00000005 Reserved.0x00000006 Segment containing program header table itself.0x00000007 Thread-Local Storage template.0x60000000 Reserved inclusive range.", "Operating system specific.0x6FFFFFFF0x70000000 Reserved inclusive range.", "Processor specific.0x7FFFFFFF 0x04 Segment-dependent flags (position for 64-bit structure).ValueNameMeaning0x1Executable segment.0x2Writeable segment.0x4Readable segment.", "0x04 0x08 4 Offset of the segment in the file image.", "0x08 0x10 4 Virtual address of the segment in memory.", "0x0C 0x18 4 On systems where physical address is relevant, reserved for segment's physical address.", "0x10 0x20 4 Size in bytes of the segment in the file image.", "May be 0.0x14 0x28 4 Size in bytes of the segment in memory.", "May be 0.0x18 4 Segment-dependent flags (position for 32-bit structure).", "See above p_flags field for flag definitions.", "0x1C 0x30 4 0 and 1 specify no alignment.", "Otherwise should be a positive, integral power of 2, with equating modulus .0x200x38End of Program Header (size).=== Section header ===OffsetSize (bytes)FieldPurpose32-bit64-bit32-bit64-bit0x004sh_nameAn offset to a string in the '''.shstrtab''' section that represents the name of this section.0x044sh_typeIdentifies the type of this header.ValueNameMeaning0x0SHT_NULLSection header table entry unused0x1SHT_PROGBITSProgram data0x2SHT_SYMTABSymbol table0x3SHT_STRTABString table0x4SHT_RELARelocation entries with addends0x5SHT_HASHSymbol hash table0x6SHT_DYNAMICDynamic linking information0x7SHT_NOTENotes0x8SHT_NOBITSProgram space with no data (bss)0x9SHT_RELRelocation entries, no addends0x0ASHT_SHLIBReserved0x0BSHT_DYNSYMDynamic linker symbol table0x0ESHT_INIT_ARRAYArray of constructors0x0FSHT_FINI_ARRAYArray of destructors0x10SHT_PREINIT_ARRAYArray of pre-constructors0x11SHT_GROUPSection group0x12SHT_SYMTAB_SHNDXExtended section indices0x13SHT_NUMNumber of defined types.0x60000000SHT_LOOSStart OS-specific..........0x0848sh_flagsIdentifies the attributes of the section.ValueNameMeaning0x1SHF_WRITEWritable0x2SHF_ALLOCOccupies memory during execution0x4SHF_EXECINSTRExecutable0x10SHF_MERGEMight be merged0x20SHF_STRINGSContains null-terminated strings0x40SHF_INFO_LINK'sh_info' contains SHT index0x80SHF_LINK_ORDERPreserve order after combining0x100SHF_OS_NONCONFORMINGNon-standard OS specific handling required0x200SHF_GROUPSection is member of a group0x400SHF_TLSSection hold thread-local data0x0FF00000SHF_MASKOSOS-specific0xF0000000SHF_MASKPROCProcessor-specific0x4000000SHF_ORDEREDSpecial ordering requirement (Solaris)0x8000000SHF_EXCLUDESection is excluded unless referenced or allocated (Solaris)0x0C0x1048sh_addrVirtual address of the section in memory, for sections that are loaded.0x100x1848sh_offsetOffset of the section in the file image.0x140x2048sh_sizeSize in bytes of the section in the file image.", "May be 0.0x180x284sh_linkContains the section index of an associated section.", "This field is used for several purposes, depending on the type of section.0x1C0x2C4sh_infoContains extra information about the section.", "This field is used for several purposes, depending on the type of section.0x200x3048sh_addralignContains the required alignment of the section.", "This field must be a power of two.0x240x3848sh_entsizeContains the size, in bytes, of each entry, for sections that contain fixed-size entries.", "Otherwise, this field contains zero.0x280x40End of Section Header (size)." ], [ "Tools", "* readelf is a Unix binary utility that displays information about one or more ELF files.", "A free software implementation is provided by GNU Binutils.", "* elfutils provides alternative tools to GNU Binutils purely for Linux.", "* elfdump is a command for viewing ELF information in an ELF file, available under Solaris and FreeBSD.", "* objdump provides a wide range of information about ELF files and other object formats.", "objdump uses the Binary File Descriptor library as a back-end to structure the ELF data.", "* The Unix file utility can display some information about ELF files, including the instruction set architecture for which the code in a relocatable, executable, or shared object file is intended, or on which an ELF core dump was produced." ], [ "Applications", "=== Unix-like systems ===The ELF format has replaced older executable formats in various environments.It has replaced a.out and COFF formats in Unix-like operating systems:* Linux* Solaris / Illumos* IRIX* FreeBSD* NetBSD* OpenBSD* Redox* DragonFly BSD* Syllable* HP-UX (except for 32-bit PA-RISC programs which continue to use SOM)* QNX Neutrino* MINIX=== Non-Unix adoption ===ELF has also seen some adoption in non-Unix operating systems, such as:* OpenVMS, in its Itanium and amd64 versions* BeOS Revision 4 and later for x86 based computers (where it replaced the Portable Executable format; the PowerPC version stayed with Preferred Executable Format)* Haiku, an open source reimplementation of BeOS* RISC OS* Stratus VOS, in PA-RISC and x86 versions* SkyOS* Fuchsia OS* Z/TPF* HPE NonStop OS* DeosMicrosoft Windows also uses the ELF format, but only for its Windows Subsystem for Linux compatibility system.=== Game consoles ===Some game consoles also use ELF:* PlayStation Portable, PlayStation Vita, PlayStation (console), PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5* GP2X* Dreamcast* GameCube* Nintendo 64* Wii* Wii U=== PowerPC ===Other (operating) systems running on PowerPC that use ELF:* AmigaOS 4, the ELF executable has replaced the prior Extended Hunk Format (EHF) which was used on Amigas equipped with PPC processor expansion cards.", "* MorphOS* AROS* Café OS (The operating system ran on Wii U)=== Mobile phones ===Some operating systems for mobile phones and mobile devices use ELF:* Symbian OS v9 uses E32Image format that is based on the ELF file format;* Sony Ericsson, for example, the W800i, W610, W300, etc.", "* Siemens, the SGOLD and SGOLD2 platforms: from Siemens C65 to S75 and BenQ-Siemens E71/EL71;* Motorola, for example, the E398, SLVR L7, v360, v3i (and all phone LTE2 which has the patch applied).", "* Bada, for example, the Samsung Wave S8500.", "* Nokia phones or tablets running the Maemo or the Meego OS, for example, the Nokia N900.", "* Android uses ELF (shared object) libraries for the Java Native Interface.", "With Android Runtime (ART), the default since Android 5.0 \"Lollipop\", all applications are compiled into native ELF binaries on installation.", "It also possible to use native Linux software from package managers like Termux, or compile them from sources via Clang or GCC, that also available in repositories.Some phones can run ELF files through the use of a patch that adds assembly code to the main firmware, which is a feature known as ''ELFPack'' in the underground modding culture.", "The ELF file format is also used with the Atmel AVR (8-bit), AVR32and with Texas Instruments MSP430 microcontroller architectures.", "Some implementations of Open Firmware can also load ELF files, most notably Apple's implementation used in almost all PowerPC machines the company produced." ], [ "Specifications", "* Generic:** '' System V Application Binary Interface'' Edition 4.1 (1997-03-18)** '' System V ABI Update'' (October 2009)* AMD64:** '' System V ABI, AMD64 Supplement''* Arm:** '' ELF for the ARM Architecture''* IA-32:** '' System V ABI, Intel386 Architecture Processor Supplement''* IA-64:** '' Itanium Software Conventions and Runtime Guide'' (September 2000)* M32R:** '' M32R ELF ABI Supplement'' Version 1.2 (2004-08-26)* MIPS:** '' System V ABI, MIPS RISC Processor Supplement''** '' MIPS EABI documentation '' (2003-06-11)* Motorola 6800:** '' Motorola 8- and 16- bit Embedded ABI''* PA-RISC:** '' ELF Supplement for PA-RISC'' Version 1.43 (October 6, 1997)* PowerPC:** '' System V ABI, PPC Supplement''** '' PowerPC Embedded Application Binary Interface 32-Bit Implementation'' (1995-10-01)** '' 64-bit PowerPC ELF Application Binary Interface Supplement'' Version 1.9 (2004)* RISC-V:** '' RISC-V ELF Specification''* SPARC:** '' System V ABI, SPARC Supplement''* S/390:** '' S/390 32bit ELF ABI Supplement''* zSeries:** '' zSeries 64bit ELF ABI Supplement''* Symbian OS 9:** '' E32Image file format on Symbian OS 9''The Linux Standard Base (LSB) supplements some of the above specifications for architectures in which it is specified.", "For example, that is the case for the System V ABI, AMD64 Supplement." ], [ "86open", "'''86open''' was a project to form consensus on a common binary file format for Unix and Unix-like operating systems on the common PC compatible x86 architecture, to encourage software developers to port to the architecture.", "The initial idea was to standardize on a small subset of Spec 1170, a predecessor of the Single UNIX Specification, and the GNU C Library (glibc) to enable unmodified binaries to run on the x86 Unix-like operating systems.", "The project was originally designated \"Spec 150\".The format eventually chosen was ELF, specifically the Linux implementation of ELF, after it had turned out to be a ''de facto'' standard supported by all involved vendors and operating systems.The group began email discussions in 1997 and first met together at the Santa Cruz Operation offices on August 22, 1997.The steering committee was Marc Ewing, Dion Johnson, Evan Leibovitch, Bruce Perens, Andrew Roach, Bryan Wayne Sparks and Linus Torvalds.", "Other people on the project were Keith Bostic, Chuck Cranor, Michael Davidson, Chris G. Demetriou, Ulrich Drepper, Don Dugger, Steve Ginzburg, Jon \"maddog\" Hall, Ron Holt, Jordan Hubbard, Dave Jensen, Kean Johnston, Andrew Josey, Robert Lipe, Bela Lubkin, Tim Marsland, Greg Page, Ronald Joe Record, Tim Ruckle, Joel Silverstein, Chia-pi Tien, and Erik Troan.", "Operating systems and companies represented were BeOS, BSDI, FreeBSD, Intel, Linux, NetBSD, SCO and SunSoft.The project progressed and in mid-1998, SCO began developing lxrun, an open-source compatibility layer able to run Linux binaries on OpenServer, UnixWare, and Solaris.", "SCO announced official support of lxrun at LinuxWorld in March 1999.Sun Microsystems began officially supporting lxrun for Solaris in early 1999, and later moved to integrated support of the Linux binary format via Solaris Containers for Linux Applications.With the BSDs having long supported Linux binaries (through a compatibility layer) and the main x86 Unix vendors having added support for the format, the project decided that Linux ELF was the format chosen by the industry and \"declared itself dissolved\" on July 25, 1999." ], [ "FatELF: universal binaries for Linux", "FatELF is an ELF binary-format extension that adds fat binary capabilities.", "It is aimed for Linux and other Unix-like operating systems.", "Additionally to the CPU architecture abstraction (byte order, word size, CPU instruction set etc.", "), there is the potential advantage of software-platform abstraction e.g., binaries which support multiple kernel ABI versions.", ", FatELF has not been integrated into the mainline Linux kernel." ], [ "See also", "* Application binary interface* Comparison of executable file formats* DWARF a format for debugging data* Intel Binary Compatibility Standard* Portable Executable format used by Windows* vDSO virtual DSO* Position-independent code" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Code: Errata: * * '' An unsung hero: The hardworking ELF'' by Peter Seebach, December 20, 2005, archived from the original on February 24, 2007* * '' The ELF Object File Format: Introduction'', '' The ELF Object File Format by Dissection'' by Eric Youngdale (1995-05-01)* '' A Whirlwind Tutorial on Creating Really Teensy ELF Executables for Linux'' by Brian Raiter* ELF relocation into non-relocatable objects by Julien Vanegue (2003-08-13)* Embedded ELF debugging without ptrace by the ELFsh team (2005-08-01)* '' Study of ELF loading and relocs'' by Pat Beirne (1999-08-03)" ], [ "External links", "* FreeBSD Handbook: Binary formats (archived version)* FreeBSD manual page* NetBSD ELF FAQ* Linux manual page* Oracle Solaris Linker and Libraries Guide* The ERESI project : reverse engineering on ELF-based operating systems * Linux Today article on 86open July 26, 1999* Announcement of 86open on Debian Announce mailing list October 10, 1997, Bruce Perens* Declaration of Ulrich Drepper (PDF) in The SCO Group vs IBM, September 19, 2006* 86open and ELF discussion on Groklaw, August 13, 2006" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Explorers Program" ], [ "Introduction", "An Explorer mission observes Sagittarius A*, the Milky Way's central black hole, flaring.The '''Explorers program''' is a NASA exploration program that provides flight opportunities for physics, geophysics, heliophysics, and astrophysics investigations from space.", "Launched in 1958, Explorer 1 was the first spacecraft of the United States to achieve orbit.", "Over 90 space missions have been launched since.", "Starting with Explorer 6, it has been operated by NASA, with regular collaboration with a variety of other institutions, including many international partners.Launchers for the Explorer program have included Juno I, Juno II, various Thor, Scout, Delta and Pegasus launch vehicles, and Falcon 9.The program has three classes: Medium-Class Explorers (MIDEX), Small Explorers (SMEX), and University-Class Explorers (UNEX), with select Missions of Opportunity operated with other agencies." ], [ "History", "=== Early Explorer satellites ===Launch of Explorer 1 on the Juno I launch vehicle.Explorer 1, the first Earth satellite orbited by the United StatesThe Explorer program began as a U.S. Army proposal (Project Orbiter) to place a \"civilian\" artificial satellite into orbit during the International Geophysical Year (IGY).", "Although that proposal was rejected in favor of the U.S. Navy's Project Vanguard, which made the first sub-orbital flight Vanguard TV0 in December 1956, the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik 1 on 4 October 1957 (and the resulting \"Sputnik crisis\") and the failure of the Vanguard 1 launch attempt resulted in the Army program being funded to match the Soviet space achievements.", "Explorer 1 was launched on the Juno I on 1 February 1958, becoming the first U.S. satellite, as well as discovering the Van Allen radiation belt.Four follow-up satellites of the Explorer series were launched by the Juno I launch vehicle in 1958, of which Explorer 3 and Explorer 4 were successful, while Explorer 2 and Explorer 5 failed to reach orbit.", "The Juno I vehicle was replaced by the Juno II in 1959.=== Continuation of the Explorer program ===UV light does not have a \"color\" (the eye stopping at about violet).", "This view was taken by the Explorer Swift, which can also detect X-rays, and has contributed to the study of gamma-ray bursts and other topics.With the establishment of NASA in 1958, the Explorer program was transferred to NASA from the U.S. Army.", "NASA continued to use the name for an ongoing series of relatively small space missions, typically an artificial satellite with a specific science focus.", "Explorer 6 in 1959 was the first scientific satellite under the project direction of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) in Greenbelt, Maryland.The Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP) was launched in 1963, and involved a network of eleven Explorer satellites designed to collect data on space radiation in support of the Apollo program.", "The IMP program was a major step forward in spacecraft electronics design, as it was the first space program to use integrated circuit (IC) chips and MOSFETs (MOS transistors).", "The IMP-A (Explorer 18) in 1963 was the first spacecraft to use IC chips, and the IMP-D (Explorer 33) in 1966 was the first to use MOSFETs.Over the following two decades, NASA has launched over 50 Explorer missions, some in conjunction to military programs, usually of an exploratory or survey nature or had specific objectives not requiring the capabilities of a major space observatory.", "Explorer satellites have made many important discoveries on: Earth's magnetosphere and the shape of its gravity field; the solar wind; properties of micrometeoroids raining down on the Earth; ultraviolet, cosmic and X-rays from the Solar System and beyond; ionospheric physics; Solar plasma; solar energetic particles; and atmospheric physics.", "These missions have also investigated air density, radio astronomy, geodesy, and gamma-ray astronomy.With drops in NASA's budget, Explorer missions became infrequent in the early 1980s.=== SMEX, MIDEX, and Student Explorer programs ===In 1988, the '''Small Explorer (SMEX)''' class was established with a focus on frequent flight opportunities for highly focused and relatively inexpensive space science missions in the disciplines of astrophysics and space physics.", "The first three SMEX missions were chosen in April 1989 out of 51 candidates, and launched in 1992, 1996 and 1998 The second set of two missions were announced in September 1994 and launched in 1998 and 1999.In the mid 1990s, NASA initiated the '''Medium-class Explorer (MIDEX)''' to enable more frequent flights.", "These are larger than SMEX missions and were to be launched aboard a new kind of medium-light class launch vehicle.", "This new launch vehicle was not developed and instead, these missions were flown on a modified Delta II rocket.", "The first announcement opportunity for MIDEX was issued in March 1995, and the first launch under this new class was FUSE in 1999.In May 1994, NASA started the '''Student Explorer Demonstration Initiative''' (STEDI) pilot program, to demonstrate that high-quality space science can be carried out with small, low-cost missions.", "Of the three selected missions, SNOE was launched in 1998 and TERRIERS in 1999, but the latter failed after launch.", "The STEDI program was terminated in 2001.Later, NASA established the '''University-Class Explorer''' (UNEX) program for much cheaper missions, which is regarded as a successor to STEDI.The Explorer missions were at first managed by the Small Explorer Project Office at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC).", "In early 1999, that office was closed and with the announcement of opportunity for the third set of SMEX missions NASA converted the SMEX class so that each mission was managed by its principal investigator, with oversight by the GSFC Explorer Project.", "The Explorer program Office at Goddard Space Flight Center, provides management of the many operational scientific exploration missions that are characterized by relatively moderate costs and small to medium-sized missions that are capable of being built, tested, and launched in a short time interval compared to larger observatories like NASA's Great Observatories.Excluding the launches, the MIDEX class has a current mission cap cost of US$250 million in 2018, with future MIDEX missions being capped at US$350 million.", "The cost cap for SMEX missions in 2017 was US$165 million.", "UNEX missions are capped at US$15 million.", "A sub-project called '''Missions of Opportunity''' (MO) has funded science instruments or hardware components of onboard non-NASA space missions, and have a total NASA cost cap of US$70 million." ], [ "Classes", "=== Medium-Class Explorers (MIDEX) ===+List of MIDEX missions Name MIDEXnumber Explorernumber Launch (UTC) Status RXTE Explorer-69 30 December 1995 Ended in 2012 ACE Explorer-71 25 August 1997 FUSE MIDEX-0 Explorer-77 23 June 1999 Ended in 2007 IMAGE MIDEX-1 Explorer-78 25 March 2000 Lost contact in 2005.Partial contact reestablished in January 2018 WMAP MIDEX-2 Explorer-80 June 30, 2001 Ended in 2010 Swift MIDEX-3 Explorer-84 November 20, 2004 FAME MIDEX-4 ''Scheduled for 2004'' Cancelled in 2002 (cost) THEMIS A MIDEX-5A Explorer-85 February 17, 2007 THEMIS B MIDEX-5B Explorer-86 February 17, 2007 THEMIS C MIDEX-5C Explorer-87 February 17, 2007 THEMIS D MIDEX-5D Explorer-88 February 17, 2007 THEMIS E MIDEX-5E Explorer-89 February 17, 2007 WISE / NEOWISE MIDEX-6 Explorer-92 December 14, 2009 TESS MIDEX-7 Explorer-95 April 18, 2018 ICON MIDEX-8 Explorer-96 11 October 2019 SPHEREx MIDEX-9 April 2025 ===Small Explorers (SMEX)===The Small Explorers class was implemented in 1989 specifically to fund space exploration missions that cost no more than .", "The missions are managed by the Explorers Project at the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC).The first set of three SMEX missions were launched between 1992 and 1998.The second set of two missions were launched in 1998 and 1999.These early missions were managed by the Small Explorer Project Office at Goddard Space Flight Center.", "In early 1999, that office was closed and with the announcement of opportunity for the third set of SMEX missions NASA converted the program so that each mission was managed by its Principal Investigator, with oversight by the GSFC Explorers Project.NASA funded a competitive study of five candidate heliophysics Small Explorers missions for flight in 2022.The proposals were Mechanisms of Energetic Mass Ejection – eXplorer (MEME-X), Focusing Optics X-ray Solar Imager (FOXSI), Multi-Slit Solar Explorer (MUSE), Tandem Reconnection and Cusp Electrodynamics Reconnaissance Satellites (TRACERS), and Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH).", "In June 2019 NASA selected TRACERS and PUNCH for flight.+List of SMEX missions Name SMEXnumber Explorernumber Launch (UTC) End ofmission Status SAMPEX SMEX-1 Explorer-68 3 July 1992 30 June 2004 Reentered on 13 November 2012 FAST SMEX-2 Explorer-70 21 August 1996 4 May 2009 SWAS SMEX-3 Explorer-74 6 December 1998 21 July 2004 TRACE SMEX-4 Explorer-73 2 April 1998 21 June 2010 WIRE SMEX-5 Explorer-75 5 March 1999 Spacecraft equipment failure; reentered on 10 May 2011 RHESSI SMEX-6 Explorer-81 5 February 2002 April 2018 Deorbited on April 20, 2023 GALEX SMEX-7 Explorer-83 28 April 2003 May 2012 Decommissioned on 28 June 2013 SPIDR SMEX-8 ''Scheduled for 2005'' Cancelled in 2003 due to poor instrument sensitivity Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere (AIM) SMEX-9 Explorer-90 25 April 2007 IBEX SMEX-10 Explorer-91 19 October 2008 NuSTAR SMEX-11 Explorer-93 13 June 2012 IRIS 28 June 2013 GEMS SMEX-13 ''Scheduled for 2014'' Cancelled in 2012 due to expected cost overruns Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) SMEX-14 9 December 2021 TRACERS April 2025 PUNCH April 2025 COSI 2027 File:SAMPEX 3.jpg|SAMPEXFile:RHESSI.jpg|RHESSIFile:IBEX spacecraft.jpg|IBEXFile:IXPE-artist-rendition.jpg|IXPE===University-Class Explorers (UNEX)===+List of UNEX missions Name UNEX number Explorernumber Launch (UTC) Status SNOE UNEX-1 Explorer-72 26 February 1998 Ended in 2000 IMEX UNEX-2 ''Scheduled for 2003'' Cancelled before 2005 (cost) CHIPS UNEX-3 Explorer-82 12 January 2003 Ended in 2008===Missions of Opportunity (MO)===Missions of Opportunity (MO) are investigations characterized by being part of a non-NASA space mission of any size and having a total NASA cost of under $55 million.", "These missions are conducted on a no-exchange-of-funds basis with the organization sponsoring the mission.", "NASA solicits proposals for Missions of Opportunity on SMEX, MIDEX and UNEX investigations.+List of MO Name Launcher (mission) Launch (UTC) Status HETE-2 NASA (Explorer-79) 9 October 2000 Ended in 2008 INTEGRAL ESA 17 October 2002 Suzaku (Astro-E2) JAXA 10 July 2005 Ended in 2015 TWINS NRO (USA-184;USA-200) TWINS-1: 28 June 2006TWINS-2: 13 March 2008 CINDI DoD (C/NOFS) 16 April 2008 Ended in 2015 Hitomi (Astro-H) JAXA 17 February 2016 NICER ISS (CRS-11) 3 June 2017 GOLD SES (SES-14) 25 January 2018 XRISM JAXA 6 September 2023 AWE ISS (CRS-29) December 2023 GUSTO NASA, high-altitude balloon December 2023 SunRISE NASA (Maxar satellite) April 2024 EZIE NASA, JHUAPL June 2024 Solar-C EUVST JAXA July 2028 CASE ESA (Cosmic Vision M4) 2029 ===Beacon Explorers===Three satellites were planned in this series: Beacon Explorer-A, Beacon Explorer-B, Beacon Explorer-C.===GEOS series===A series of three Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite (GEOS) were put in orbit: GEOS 1, GEOS 2, GEOS 3." ], [ "Launched spacecraft", "Explorer name numbers can be found in the NSSDC master catalog, typically assigned to each spacecraft in a mission.", "These numbers were not officially assigned until after 1975.+ '''Explorers Program satellites''' No.", "Name(s) Launch date (UTC) Rocket Mass (kg) Orbit regime End of data Re-entry Mission/Notes 1 Explorer 1 1 February 1958 Juno I 14 MEO 23 May 1958 31 March 1970 First American satellite, third satellite to achieve orbit; discovered the Van Allen radiation belt; launched by the U.S. Army 2 Explorer 2 5 March 1958 Juno I 15 ''Failed'' — — Failed to achieve orbit.", "3 Explorer 3 26 March 1958 Juno I 14 MEO 27 June 1958 27 June 1958 Energetic particle studies helped confirm the presence of Van Allen radiation belt 4 Explorer 4 July 26, 1958 Juno I 26 MEO October 5, 1958 October 23, 1959 Monitor charged particles inside Van Allen belts from nuclear detonations (during Operation Argus) 5 Explorer 5 August 24, 1958 Juno I 17 ''failed'' — — Planned in conjunction with Explorer 4, but launch failed — Explorer S-1 (7X) July 16, 1959 Juno II 42 ''failed'' — — Planned to measure Earth's radiation balance, but destroyed within seconds by range safety 6 Explorer 6 (S-2, Able 3) August 7, 1959 Thor-Able 64 HEO October 6, 1959 July 1, 1961 Magnetosphere research and digital telemetry; first NASA launch, first Earth photo from orbit 7 Explorer 7 (S-1A) October 13, 1959 Juno II 42 LEO August 24, 1961 In orbit Micrometeoroids and energetic particle studies, first satellite to measure Earth's climate – S-46A (IE-B) March 23, 1960 Juno II 16 ''failed'' — — Analyze electron and proton radiation energies, failed to achieve orbit 8 Explorer 8 (S-30) 3 November 1960 Juno II 41 LEO 27 December 1960 27 March 2012 Measured atmospheric composition of the ionosphere – S-56 December 4, 1960 Scout X-1 6 ''failed'' — — Atmosphere density measurement, but failed to achieve orbit 9 Explorer 9 (S-56A) February 16, 1961 Scout X-1 36 LEO April 9, 1964 April 9, 1964 Atmospheric density measurements, first spacecraft placed in orbit by a solid-fuel rocket – S-45 February 24, 1961 Juno II 34 ''failed'' — — Ionosphere research, but failed to achieve orbit 10 Explorer 10 (P 14) March 25, 1961 Thor-Delta 79 HEO March 25, 1961 June 1, 1968 Investigated the magnetic field between the Earth and Moon 11 Explorer 11 (S 15) April 27, 1961 Juno II 37 LEO November 17, 1961 In orbit Gamma ray astronomy – S-45A May 25, 1961 Juno II 34 ''failed'' — — Ionosphere research, failed to achieve orbit.", "Last Juno II launch.", "– S-55 (satellite) (Meteoroid Satellite-A, Micrometeorite Explorer) June 30, 1961 Scout X-1 85 ''failed'' — — Micrometeoroid research, failed to achieve orbit 12 EPE-A (S 3, Energetic Particle Explorer-A) August 16, 1961 Thor-Delta 38 HEO December 6, 1961 September 1, 1963 Energetic particle research 13 S-55A August 25, 1961 Scout X-1 86 LEO August 28, 1961 August 28, 1961 Micrometeoroid research; partial failure 14 EPE-B (Energetic Particle Explorer-B) October 2, 1962 Delta A 40 HEO August 11, 1963 July 1, 1966 Energetic particle research 15 EPE-C (S-3B, Energetic Particle Explorer-C) October 27, 1962 Delta A 44 HEO January 30, 1963 January 15, 1978 Energetic particle research 16 S-55B December 16, 1962 Scout X-3 101 LEO July 22, 1963 In orbit Micrometeoroid research 17 AE-A (S-6, Atmosphere Explorer-A) April 3, 1963 Delta B 184 LEO July 10, 1963 November 24, 1966 Atmospheric research 18 IMP-A (IMP 1, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-A) November 27, 1963 Delta C 138 HEO May 10, 1965 December 30, 1965 Magnetospheric research 19 AD-A (Atmospheric Density-A) December 19, 1963 Scout X-4 8 LEO May 10, 1981 May 10, 1981 Atmospheric density measurements – BE-A (Beacon Explorer-A, S-66A) March 19, 1964 Delta B 114 ''failed'' — — Launch failure 20 IE-A (S 48, TOPSI, Ionosphere Explorer-A) August 25, 1964 Scout X-4 45 LEO December 29, 1965 In orbit Ionosphere research 21 IMP-B (IMP 2, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-B) October 4, 1964 Delta C 135 HEO October 13, 1965 January 30, 1966 Magnetospheric research 22 BE-B (Beacon Explorer-B, S-66B) October 10, 1964 Scout X-4 53 LEO February 1970 In orbit Ionospheric and geodetic research 23 S 55C November 6, 1964 Scout X-4 134 LEO November 7, 1965 June 29, 1983 Micrometeoric research 24 AD-B (Atmospheric Density-B) November 21, 1964 Scout X-4 9 MEO October 18, 1968 October 18, 1968 Atmospheric density measurements 25 Injun 4 (IE-B, Ionosphere Explorer-B) November 21, 1964 Scout X-4 40 LEO December 1966 In orbit Ionospheric research 26 EPE-D (Energetic Particle Explorer-D) December 21, 1964 Delta C 46 MEO December 27, 1967 August 23, 2021 High energy particle observations 27 BE-C (Beacon Explorer-C,S-66C) April 29, 1965 Scout X-4 61 LEO July 20, 1973 In orbit Magnetospheric research 28 IMP-C (IMP 3, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-C) May 29, 1965 Delta C 128 HEO May 12, 1967 July 4, 1968 Magnetospheric research 29 GEOS 1 (GEOS-A, Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite-1) November 6, 1965 Delta E 387 LEO June 23, 1978 In orbit Geodetic Earth monitoring 30 SOLRAD 8 (SE-A) November 19, 1965 Scout X-4 57 LEO November 5, 1967 In orbit Solar radiation monitoring (Cover for covert ELINT mission) 31 DME-A (Direct Measurements Explorer) November 29, 1965 Thor-Agena B 99 LEO October 1, 1969 In orbit Ionospheric research 32 AE-B (Atmosphere Explorer-B) May 25, 1966 Delta C1 225 LEO March 1967 February 22, 1985 Atmospheric research 33 IMP-D (AIMP 1, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-D) July 1, 1966 Delta E1 212 HEO September 21, 1971 In orbit Magnetospheric research 34 IMP-F (IMP 4, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-F) May 24, 1967 Delta E1 163 MEO May 3, 1969 May 3, 1969 Magnetospheric research 35 IMP-E (AIMP 2, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-E) July 19, 1967 Delta E1 230 Lunar June 24, 1973 Lunar orbit Magnetospheric research 36 GEOS 2 (GEOS-B, Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite-2) January 11, 1968 Delta E1 469 LEO July 1, 1982 In orbit Geodetic Earth monitoring 37 SOLRAD 9 (SE B) March 5, 1968 Scout B 198 LEO April 30, 1974 November 16, 1990 Solar radiation monitoring(Cover for covert ELINT mission) 38 RAE-A (RAE 1, Radio Astronomy Explorer-A) July 4, 1968 Delta J 602 MEO (~1969) In orbit Radio astronomy 39 AD-C (Atmospheric Density-C) August 8, 1968 Scout B 9 LEO June 23, 1971 June 22, 1981 Atmospheric density measurements 40 Injun 5 (Injun C, IE-C, Ionosphere Explorer-C) August 8, 1968 Scout B 71 LEO June 1971 In orbit Magnetospheric Research 41 IMP-G (IMP 5, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-G) June 21, 1969 Delta E1 145 HEO December 23, 1972 December 23, 1972 Magnetospheric research 42 Uhuru (SAS-A, SAS 1) December 12, 1970 Scout B 142 LEO January 4, 1975 April 5, 1979 X-ray astronomy 43 IMP-H (IMP 7, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-H) March 13, 1971 Delta M6 635 MEO October 2, 1974 October 2, 1974 Magnetospheric research 44 SOLRAD 10 (SE-C, SOLRAD-C) July 8, 1971 Scout B 260 LEO June 30, 1973 December 15, 1979 Solar radiation monitoring(Cover for covert ELINT mission) 45 SSS-A (S-Cubed A) November 15, 1971 Scout B 52 MEO September 30, 1974 January 10, 1992 Magnetospheric research 46 MTS (Meteoroid Technology Satellite, METEC) August 13, 1972 Scout D-1 90 LEO November 4, 1974 November 2, 1979 Micrometeoroids research 47 IMP-I (IMP 6, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-I) September 23, 1972 Delta 1604 635 HEO October 31, 1978 In orbit Magnetospheric research 48 SAS-B (Small Astronomy Satellite-B, SAS 2) November 15, 1972 Scout D-1 166 LEO June 8, 1973 August 20, 1980 X-ray astronomy 49 RAE-B (RAE 2, Radio Astronomy Explorer-B) June 10, 1973 Delta 1913 328 Lunar April 26, 1977 Presumed crashed into Moon sometime after August 1977 Radio astronomy 50 IMP-J (IMP 8, Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-J) October 26, 1973 Delta 1604 371 HEO October 7, 2006 In orbit Magnetospheric research 51 AE-C (Atmosphere Explorer-C) December 16, 1973 Delta 1900 658 LEO (December 12, 1978) December 12, 1978 Atmospheric research 52 Hawkeye 1 (Injun-F, Injun 6, IE-D, Ionosphere Explorer-D) June 3, 1974 Scout E-1 23 HEO April 28, 1978 April 28, 1978 Magnetospheric research 53 SAS-C (Small Astronomy Satellite-C, SAS 3) May 7, 1975 Scout F-1 197 LEO April 7, 1979 April 9, 1979 X-ray astronomy 54 AE-D (Atmosphere Explorer-D) October 6, 1975 Delta 2910 681 LEO January 29, 1976 March 12, 1976 Atmospheric research 55 AE-E (Atmosphere Explorer-E) November 20, 1975 Delta 2910 735 LEO September 25, 1980 June 10, 1981 Atmospheric research — DADE-A (Dual Air Density Explorer-A) December 5, 1975 Scout F-1 40 ''failed'' — — Atmospheric research; failed during launch — DADE-B (Dual Air Density Explorer-B) December 5, 1975 Scout F-1 43 ''failed'' — — Atmospheric research; failed during launch 56 ISEE-1 (ISEE-A) October 22, 1977 Delta 2914 340 HEO September 26, 1987 September 26, 1987 Magnetospheric research; launched with ESA's ISEE-2; co-mission with ISEE 3 57 IUE January 26, 1978 Delta 2914 669 MEO September 30, 1996 In orbit Ultraviolet astronomy 58 HCMM (AEM-A) April 26, 1978 Scout F 117 LEO September 30, 1980 December 22, 1981 Thermal mapping of the Earth 59 ICE (ISEE 3, ISEE-C) August 12, 1978 Delta 2914 390 Sun–Earth L1 September 16, 2014 Heliocentric orbit Magnetospheric research; heliocentric mission, re-purposed in 1982 as a cometary probe (renamed International Cometary Explorer).", "First spacecraft to be placed at a libration point, and first one to perform a flyby of a comet.", "60 SAGE (AEM-B) February 18, 1979 Scout D-1 149 LEO January 7, 1982 April 11, 1989 Stratospheric aerosol and ozone data 61 MAGSAT (AEM-C) October 30, 1979 Scout G-1 158 LEO May 6, 1980 June 11, 1980 Mapped the near surface magnetic field of the Earth 62 Dynamics Explorer 1 (DE-1) 3 August 1981 Delta 3913 424 MEO 28 February 1991 In orbit Magnetospheric research 63 Dynamics Explorer 2 (DE-2) 3 August 1981 Delta 3913 420 LEO 19 February 1983 19 February 1983 Magnetospheric research 64 SME October 6, 1981 Delta 2310 145 LEO April 4, 1989 March 5, 1991 Atmospheric research 65 AMPTE-CCE 16 August 1984 Delta 3924 242 MEO 12 July 1989 In orbit Magnetosphere research 66 COBE November 18, 1989 Delta 5920 2,206 LEO December 23, 1993 In orbit Microwave astronomy 67 EUVE (BERKSAT) June 7, 1992 Delta II 6920-X 3,275 LEO January 31, 2001 January 30, 2002 Ultraviolet astronomy 68 SAMPEX July 3, 1992 Scout G-1 158 LEO June 30, 2004 November 13, 2012.SMEX: magnetospheric research 69 RXTE December 30, 1995 Delta II 7920 3,200 LEO January 3, 2012 April 30, 2018 MIDEX: X-ray astronomy 70 FAST August 21, 1996 Pegasus XL 187 LEO May 4, 2009 In orbit SMEX: auroral phenomena — HETE 1 November 4, 1996 Pegasus XL 128 LEO — April 7, 2002 Separation failure, mission relaunched as HETE 2 71 ACE August 25, 1997 Delta II 7920 596 Sun–Earth L1 '''Operational''' In L1 orbit MIDEX: solar/interplanetary/interstellar particle research 72 SNOE February 26, 1998 Pegasus XL 120 LEO December 13, 2003 December 13, 2003 STEDI, UNEX: atmospheric research 73 TRACE April 2, 1998 Pegasus XL 250 LEO June 21, 2010 In orbit SMEX: solar observatory 74 SWAS December 6, 1998 Pegasus XL 288 LEO September 1, 2005 In orbit SMEX: submillimeter astronomy 75 WIRE March 5, 1999 Pegasus XL 250 SSO September 30, 2000 May 10, 2011 SMEX, Infrared astronomy, primary mission failed due to loss of coolant 76 TERRIERS May 18, 1999 Pegasus XL 120 Polar LEO May 18, 1999 In orbit STEDI: atmospheric research, satellite failed shortly after achieving orbit 77 FUSE June 23, 1999 Delta II 7320 1,400 LEO October 18, 2007 In orbit MIDEX: ultraviolet astronomy 78 IMAGE March 25, 2000 Delta II 7326 536 Polar MEO December 18, 2005 In orbit MIDEX: magnetospheric research 79 HETE-2 October 9, 2000 Pegasus-H 124 LEO March 28, 2007 In orbit MO: UV, X-ray, and gamma ray astronomy 80 WMAP June 30, 2001 Delta II 7425-10 840 Sun–Earth L2 October 2010 Heliocentric orbit MIDEX: microwave astronomy 81 RHESSI February 5, 2002 Pegasus XL 230 LEO August 16, 2018 In orbit SMEX: X-ray and gamma ray solar flare imaging — INTEGRAL October 17, 2002 Proton-K Blok DM-2 4,000 HEO '''Operational''' In orbit International: space telescope for observing gamma rays 82 CHIPSat January 13, 2003 Delta II 7320-10 60 LEO April 11, 2008 In orbit UNEX: ultraviolet spectroscopy and astronomy 83 GALEX April 28, 2003 Pegasus XL 280 LEO June 28, 2013 In orbit SMEX: ultraviolet astronomy 84 Swift November 20, 2004 Delta II 7320-10C 1,470 LEO '''Operational''' In orbit MIDEX: gamma ray astronomy — Suzaku (Astro E2) July 10, 2005 M-V 1,706 LEO September 2, 2015 In orbit MO: instrument on JAXA's Suzaku mission — TWINS A June 28, 2006 Delta IV M+(4,2) ''classified'' Molniya '''Operational''' In orbit MO: payload on Trumpet-F/O-1 1 (USA-184) 85 THEMIS A February 17, 2007 Delta II 7925 77 HEO '''Operational''' In orbit MIDEX: magnetospheric research 86 THEMIS B (ARTEMIS P1) February 17, 2007 Delta II 7925 77 Lunar '''Operational''' Lunar orbit MIDEX; Magnetospheric research 87 THEMIS C (ARTEMIS P2) February 17, 2007 Delta II 7925 77 Lunar '''Operational''' Lunar orbit MIDEX: magnetospheric research 88 THEMIS D February 17, 2007 Delta II 7925 77 HEO '''Operational''' In orbit MIDEX: magnetospheric research 89 THEMIS E February 17, 2007 Delta II 7925 77 HEO '''Operational''' In orbit MIDEX: magnetospheric research 90 AIM April 25, 2007 Pegasus XL 197 SSO '''Operational''' In orbit SMEX: noctilucent cloud observation — TWINS B March 13, 2008 Atlas V 411 ''classified'' Molniya '''Operational''' In orbit MO: payload on Trumpet-F/O-1 2 (USA-200) — CINDI April 16, 2008 Pegasus XL 395 LEO November 28, 2015 November 28, 2015 MO: instruments on C/NOFS 91 IBEX October 19, 2008 Pegasus XL 107 MEO '''Operational''' In orbit SMEX: mapping the boundary between the Solar System and interstellar space.", "92 WISE December 14, 2009 Delta II 7320 661 LEO '''Operational''' In orbit MIDEX: infrared astronomy, NEOWISE extension.", "Discovered first Earth trojan.", "93 NuSTAR June 13, 2012 Pegasus XL 350 LEO '''Operational''' In orbit SMEX: high-energy X-ray astronomy 94 IRIS June 27, 2013 Pegasus XL 183 SSO '''Operational''' In orbit SMEX: solar UV astronomy — Hitomi (NeXT, ASTRO-H) February 7, 2016 H-2A-202 2,700 LEO March 26, 2016 In orbit MO: X-ray instrument on JAXA's Hitomi, but spacecraft failed after initial checkouts — NICER May 3, 2017 Falcon 9 FT 372 ISS '''Operational''' ISS MO: instrument on ISS for neutron star observations — GOLD January 25, 2018 Ariane 5 ECA 37 GEO '''Operational''' In orbit MO: instrument on SES-14 comsat for studying Earth–space boundary 95 TESS April 18, 2018 Falcon 9 FT 362 HEO '''Operational''' In orbit MIDEX: survey for transiting exoplanets 96 ICON October 11, 2019 Pegasus XL 287 LEO '''Operational''' In orbit MIDEX: ionospheric studies 97 IXPE December 9, 2021 Falcon 9 Block 5 330 LEO '''Operational''' In orbit SMEX: X-ray studies — XRISM September 6, 2023 H-IIA 202 2,300 LEO '''Operational''' In orbit MO: instruments on JAXA's XRISM x-ray space telescope" ], [ "Cancelled missions", "WISE was restarted after it was turned offExplorer 6 on a Thor-Able III launch in August 1959ISEE-C in a dynamic test chamber, 1978Many missions are proposed, but not selected.", "For example, in 2011, the Explorers Program received 22 full missions solicitations, 20 Missions of Opportunity, and 8 USPI.", "Sometimes mission are only partially developed but must be stopped for financial, technological, or bureaucratic reasons.", "Some missions failed upon reaching orbit including WIRE and TERRIERS.Examples of missions that were not developed or cancelled were:*Owl 1 and 2 (cost, 1965)*MSS A (Magnetic Storm Satellite, Explorer-A, 1970)*CATSAT (STEDI 3) (cost)*IMEX (UNEX 2) (cost)*FAME (MIDEX 4)*SPIDR (SMEX 8) (technical, 2003)*GEMS (SMEX 13)Recent examples of conclusions of launched missions, cancelled due to budgetary constraints:*FAST - 2009*TRACE - 2010 (Solar observatory, see Solar Dynamics Observatory)*Wilkinson MAP - 2010*WISE - 2011 (extended in 2013 as NEOWISE mission)*RXTE - 2012*Galaxy Evolution Explorer - 2013" ], [ "Launch statistics", "Number of launches per decade:" ], [ "See also", "* Cosmic Vision, a European Space Agency (ESA) programme * Cosmic Vision S-class missions, the European Space Agency equivalent to the Small Explorer program* Discovery program* New Frontiers program" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** NASA Explorers Program missions page* NSSDC updated list of Explorers missions* Explorers Program Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration* Small Explorers Missions by Goddard Space Flight Center* SMEX-series satellites by Colorado State University" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Electronic oscillator" ], [ "Introduction", "Simple relaxation oscillator made by feeding back an inverting Schmitt trigger's output voltage through a RC network to its input.An '''electronic oscillator''' is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating or alternating current (AC) signal, usually a sine wave, square wave or a triangle wave, powered by a direct current (DC) source.", "Oscillators are found in many electronic devices, such as radio receivers, television sets, radio and television broadcast transmitters, computers, computer peripherals, cellphones, radar, and many other devices.Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal:*A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an oscillator that generates a frequency below approximately 20 Hz.", "This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator.", "*An audio oscillator produces frequencies in the audio range, 20 Hz to 20 kHz.", "*A radio frequency (RF) oscillator produces signals above the audio range, more generally in the range of 100 kHz to 100 GHz.118x118pxThere are two general types of electronic oscillators: the '''linear''' or '''harmonic oscillator''', and the '''nonlinear''' or '''relaxation oscillator'''.", "The two types are fundamentally different in how oscillation is produced, as well as in the characteristic type of output signal that is generated.The most-common linear oscillator in use is the crystal oscillator, in which the output frequency is controlled by a piezo-electric resonator consisting of a vibrating quartz crystal.", "Crystal oscillators are ubiquitous in modern electronics, being the source for the clock signal in computers and digital watches, as well as a source for the signals generated in radio transmitters and receivers.", "As a crystal oscillator’s “native” output waveform is sinusoidal, a signal-conditioning circuit may be used to convert the output to other waveform types, such as the square wave typically utilized in computer clock circuits." ], [ "Harmonic oscillators", "filter, ''β(jω)''.", "'''Linear''' or '''harmonic oscillators''' generate a sinusoidal (or nearly-sinusoidal) signal.", "There are two types:===Feedback oscillator===The most common form of linear oscillator is an electronic amplifier such as a transistor or operational amplifier connected in a feedback loop with its output fed back into its input through a frequency selective electronic filter to provide positive feedback.", "When the power supply to the amplifier is switched on initially, electronic noise in the circuit provides a non-zero signal to get oscillations started.", "The noise travels around the loop and is amplified and filtered until very quickly it converges on a sine wave at a single frequency.Feedback oscillator circuits can be classified according to the type of frequency selective filter they use in the feedback loop:*In an ''RC oscillator'' circuit, the filter is a network of resistors and capacitors.", "RC oscillators are mostly used to generate lower frequencies, for example in the audio range.", "Common types of RC oscillator circuits are the phase shift oscillator and the Wien bridge oscillator.", "LR oscillators, using inductor and resistor filters also exist, however they are much less common due to the required size of an inductor to achieve a value appropriate for use at lower frequencies.Two common LC oscillator circuits, the Hartley and Colpitts oscillators*In an ''LC oscillator'' circuit, the filter is a tuned circuit (often called a ''tank circuit'') consisting of an inductor (L) and capacitor (C) connected together, which acts as a resonator.", "Charge flows back and forth between the capacitor's plates through the inductor, so the tuned circuit can store electrical energy oscillating at its resonant frequency.", "The amplifier adds power to compensate for resistive energy losses in the circuit and supplies the power for the output signal.", "LC oscillators are often used at radio frequencies, when a tunable frequency source is necessary, such as in signal generators, tunable radio transmitters and the local oscillators in radio receivers.", "Typical LC oscillator circuits are the Hartley, Colpitts and Clapp circuits.", "*In a ''crystal oscillator'' circuit the filter is a piezoelectric crystal (commonly a quartz crystal).", "The crystal mechanically vibrates as a resonator, and its frequency of vibration determines the oscillation frequency.", "Crystals have a very high Q-factor and also better temperature stability than tuned circuits, so crystal oscillators have much better frequency stability than LC or RC oscillators.", "Crystal oscillators are the most common type of linear oscillator, used to stabilize the frequency of most radio transmitters, and to generate the clock signal in computers and quartz clocks.", "Crystal oscillators often use the same circuits as LC oscillators, with the crystal replacing the tuned circuit; the Pierce oscillator circuit is also commonly used.", "Quartz crystals are generally limited to frequencies of 30 MHz or below.", "Other types of resonators, dielectric resonators and surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices, are used to control higher frequency oscillators, up into the microwave range.", "For example, SAW oscillators are used to generate the radio signal in cell phones.===Negative-resistance oscillator===In addition to the feedback oscillators described above, which use two-port amplifying active elements such as transistors and operational amplifiers, linear oscillators can also be built using one-port (two terminal) devices with negative resistance, such as magnetron tubes, tunnel diodes, IMPATT diodes and Gunn diodes.", "Negative-resistance oscillators are usually used at high frequencies in the microwave range and above, since at these frequencies feedback oscillators perform poorly due to excessive phase shift in the feedback path.In negative-resistance oscillators, a resonant circuit, such as an LC circuit, crystal, or cavity resonator, is connected across a device with negative differential resistance, and a DC bias voltage is applied to supply energy.", "A resonant circuit by itself is \"almost\" an oscillator; it can store energy in the form of electronic oscillations if excited, but because it has electrical resistance and other losses the oscillations are damped and decay to zero.", "The negative resistance of the active device cancels the (positive) internal loss resistance in the resonator, in effect creating a resonator with no damping, which generates spontaneous continuous oscillations at its resonant frequency.The negative-resistance oscillator model is not limited to one-port devices like diodes; feedback oscillator circuits with two-port amplifying devices such as transistors and tubes also have negative resistance.", "At high frequencies, three terminal devices such as transistors and FETs are also used in negative resistance oscillators.", "At high frequencies these devices do not need a feedback loop, but with certain loads applied to one port can become unstable at the other port and show negative resistance due to internal feedback.", "The negative resistance port is connected to a tuned circuit or resonant cavity, causing them to oscillate.", "High-frequency oscillators in general are designed using negative-resistance techniques.=== List of harmonic oscillator circuits ===Some of the many harmonic oscillator circuits are listed below:Active devices used in oscillators and approximate maximum frequencies Device Frequency Triode vacuum tube ~1 GHz Bipolar transistor (BJT) ~20 GHz Heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) ~50 GHz Metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MESFET) ~100 GHz Gunn diode, fundamental mode ~100 GHz Magnetron tube ~100 GHz High electron mobility transistor (HEMT) ~200 GHz Klystron tube ~200 GHz Gunn diode, harmonic mode ~200 GHz IMPATT diode ~300 GHz Gyrotron tube ~600 GHz* Armstrong oscillator, a.k.a.", "Meissner oscillator* Clapp oscillator* Colpitts oscillator* Cross-coupled oscillator* Dynatron oscillator* Hartley oscillator* Opto-electronic oscillator* Pierce oscillator* Phase-shift oscillator* Robinson oscillator* Tri-tet oscillator* Vackář oscillator* Wien bridge oscillator" ], [ "Relaxation oscillator", "A popular op-amp relaxation oscillator.A '''nonlinear''' or '''relaxation oscillator''' produces a non-sinusoidal output, such as a square, sawtooth or triangle wave.", "It consists of an energy-storing element (a capacitor or, more rarely, an inductor) and a nonlinear switching device (a latch, Schmitt trigger, or negative-resistance element) connected in a feedback loop.", "The switching device periodically charges and discharges the energy stored in the storage element thus causing abrupt changes in the output waveform.Square-wave relaxation oscillators are used to provide the clock signal for sequential logic circuits such as timers and counters, although crystal oscillators are often preferred for their greater stability.", "Triangle-wave or sawtooth oscillators are used in the timebase circuits that generate the horizontal deflection signals for cathode ray tubes in analogue oscilloscopes and television sets.", "They are also used in voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs), inverters and switching power supplies, dual-slope analog to digital converters (ADCs), and in function generators to generate square and triangle waves for testing equipment.", "In general, relaxation oscillators are used at lower frequencies and have poorer frequency stability than linear oscillators.Ring oscillators are built of a ring of active delay stages.", "Generally the ring has an odd number of inverting stages, so that there is no single stable state for the internal ring voltages.", "Instead, a single transition propagates endlessly around the ring.Some of the more common relaxation oscillator circuits are listed below:*Multivibrator*Pearson–Anson oscillator*Ring oscillator*Delay-line oscillator*Royer oscillator" ], [ "Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)", "An oscillator can be designed so that the oscillation frequency can be varied over some range by an input voltage or current.", "These voltage controlled oscillators are widely used in phase-locked loops, in which the oscillator's frequency can be locked to the frequency of another oscillator.", "These are ubiquitous in modern communications circuits, used in filters, modulators, demodulators, and forming the basis of frequency synthesizer circuits which are used to tune radios and televisions.Radio frequency VCOs are usually made by adding a varactor diode to the tuned circuit or resonator in an oscillator circuit.", "Changing the DC voltage across the varactor changes its capacitance, which changes the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit.", "Voltage controlled relaxation oscillators can be constructed by charging and discharging the energy storage capacitor with a voltage controlled current source.", "Increasing the input voltage increases the rate of charging the capacitor, decreasing the time between switching events." ], [ "Theory of feedback oscillators", "A feedback oscillator circuit consists of two parts connected in a feedback loop; an amplifier and an electronic filter .", "The filter's purpose is to limit the frequencies that can pass through the loop so the circuit only oscillates at the desired frequency.", "Since the filter and wires in the circuit have resistance they consume energy and the amplitude of the signal drops as it passes through the filter.", "The amplifier is needed to increase the amplitude of the signal to compensate for the energy lost in the other parts of the circuit, so the loop will oscillate, as well as supply energy to the load attached to the output.===Frequency of oscillation - the Barkhausen criterion===To determine the frequency(s) at which a feedback oscillator circuit will oscillate, the feedback loop is thought of as broken at some point (see diagrams) to give an input and output port.", "A sine wave is applied to the input and the amplitude and phase of the sine wave after going through the loop is calculated:      and           so      Since in the complete circuit is connected to , for oscillations to exist:The ratio of output to input of the loop, , is called the loop gain.", "So the condition for oscillation is that the loop gain must be one:Since is a complex number with two parts, a magnitude and an angle, the above equation actually consists of two conditions:*The magnitude of the gain (amplification) around the loop at ω0 must be unity:::so that after a trip around the loop the sine wave is the same amplitude.", "It can be seen intuitively that if the loop gain were greater than one, the amplitude of the sinusoidal signal would increase as it travels around the loop, resulting in a sine wave that grows exponentially with time, without bound.", "If the loop gain were less than one, the signal would decrease around the loop, resulting in an exponentially decaying sine wave that decreases to zero.", "*The sine wave at the end of the loop must be in phase with the wave at the beginning of the loop.", "Since the sine wave is periodic and repeats every 2π radians, this means that the phase shift around the loop at the oscillation frequency ω0 must be zero or a multiple of 2π radians (360°):: Equations (1) and (2) are called the ''Barkhausen stability criterion''.", "It is a necessary but not a sufficient criterion for oscillation, so there are some circuits which satisfy these equations that will not oscillate.", "An equivalent condition often used instead of the Barkhausen condition is that the circuit's closed loop transfer function (the circuit's complex impedance at its output) have a pair of poles on the imaginary axis.In general, the phase shift of the feedback network increases with increasing frequency so there are only a few discrete frequencies (often only one) which satisfy the second equation.", "If the amplifier gain is high enough that the loop gain is unity (or greater, see Startup section) at one of these frequencies, the circuit will oscillate at that frequency.", "Many amplifiers such as common-emitter transistor circuits are \"inverting\", meaning that their output voltage decreases when their input increases.", "In these the amplifier provides 180° phase shift, so the circuit will oscillate at the frequency at which the feedback network provides the other 180° phase shift.At frequencies well below the poles of the amplifying device, the amplifier will act as a pure gain , but if the oscillation frequency is near the amplifier's cutoff frequency , within , the active device can no longer be considered a 'pure gain', and it will contribute some phase shift to the loop.An alternate mathematical stability test sometimes used instead of the Barkhausen criterion is the Nyquist stability criterion.", "This has a wider applicability than the Barkhausen, so it can identify some of the circuits which pass the Barkhausen criterion but do not oscillate.===Frequency stability===Temperature changes, aging, and manufacturing tolerances will cause component values to \"drift\" away from their designed values.", "Changes in ''frequency determining'' components such as the tank circuit in LC oscillators will cause the oscillation frequency to change, so for a constant frequency these components must have stable values.", "How stable the oscillator's frequency is to other changes in the circuit, such as changes in values of other components, gain of the amplifier, the load impedance, or the supply voltage, is mainly dependent on the Q factor (\"quality factor\") of the feedback filter.", "Since the ''amplitude'' of the output is constant due to the nonlinearity of the amplifier (see Startup section below), changes in component values cause changes in the phase shift of the feedback loop.", "Since oscillation can only occur at frequencies where the phase shift is a multiple of 360°, , shifts in component values cause the oscillation frequency to change to bring the loop phase back to 360n°.", "The amount of frequency change caused by a given phase change depends on the slope of the loop phase curve at , which is determined by the :      so      RC oscillators have the equivalent of a very low , so the phase changes very slowly with frequency, therefore a given phase change will cause a large change in the frequency.", "In contrast, LC oscillators have tank circuits with high (~102).", "This means the phase shift of the feedback network increases rapidly with frequency near the resonant frequency of the tank circuit.", "So a large change in phase causes only a small change in frequency.", "Therefore the circuit's oscillation frequency is very close to the natural resonant frequency of the tuned circuit, and doesn't depend much on other components in the circuit.", "The quartz crystal resonators used in crystal oscillators have even higher (104 to 106) and their frequency is very stable and independent of other circuit components.===Tunability===The frequency of RC and LC oscillators can be tuned over a wide range by using variable components in the filter.", "A microwave cavity can be tuned mechanically by moving one of the walls.", "In contrast, a quartz crystal is a mechanical resonator whose resonant frequency is mainly determined by its dimensions, so a crystal oscillator's frequency is only adjustable over a very narrow range, a tiny fraction of one percent.", "It's frequency can be changed slightly by using a trimmer capacitor in series or parallel with the crystal.===Startup and amplitude of oscillation===The Barkhausen criterion above, eqs.", "(1) and (2), merely gives the frequencies at which steady-state oscillation is possible, but says nothing about the amplitude of the oscillation, whether the amplitude is stable, or whether the circuit will start oscillating when the power is turned on.", "For a practical oscillator two additional requirements are necessary:*In order for oscillations to start up in the circuit from zero, the circuit must have \"excess gain\"; the loop gain for small signals must be greater than one at its oscillation frequency ::*For stable operation, the feedback loop must include a nonlinear component which reduces the gain back to unity as the amplitude increases to its operating value.A typical rule of thumb is to make the small signal loop gain at the oscillation frequency 2 or 3.When the power is turned on, oscillation is started by the power turn-on transient or random electronic noise present in the circuit.", "Noise guarantees that the circuit will not remain \"balanced\" precisely at its unstable DC equilibrium point (Q point) indefinitely.", "Due to the narrow passband of the filter, the response of the circuit to a noise pulse will be sinusoidal, it will excite a small sine wave of voltage in the loop.", "Since for small signals the loop gain is greater than one, the amplitude of the sine wave increases exponentially.During startup, while the amplitude of the oscillation is small, the circuit is approximately linear, so the analysis used in the Barkhausen criterion is applicable.", "When the amplitude becomes large enough that the amplifier becomes nonlinear, technically the frequency domain analysis used in normal amplifier circuits is no longer applicable, so the \"gain\" of the circuit is undefined.", "However the filter attenuates the harmonic components produced by the nonlinearity of the amplifier, so the fundamental frequency component mainly determines the loop gain (this is the \"harmonic balance\" analysis technique for nonlinear circuits).The sine wave cannot grow indefinitely; in all real oscillators some nonlinear process in the circuit limits its amplitude, reducing the gain as the amplitude increases, resulting in stable operation at some constant amplitude.", "In most oscillators this nonlinearity is simply the saturation (limiting) of the amplifying device, the transistor, vacuum tube or op-amp.", "The maximum voltage swing of the amplifier's output is limited by the DC voltage provided by its power supply.", "Another possibility is that the output may be limited by the amplifier slew rate.As the amplitude of the output nears the power supply voltage rails, the amplifier begins to saturate on the peaks (top and bottom) of the sine wave, flattening or \"clipping\" the peaks.", "Since the output of the amplifier can no longer increase with increasing input, further increases in amplitude cause the equivalent gain of the amplifier and thus the loop gain to decrease.", "The amplitude of the sine wave, and the resulting clipping, continues to grow until the loop gain is reduced to unity, , satisfying the Barkhausen criterion, at which point the amplitude levels off and steady state operation is achieved, with the output a slightly distorted sine wave with peak amplitude determined by the supply voltage.", "This is a stable equilibrium; if the amplitude of the sine wave increases for some reason, increased clipping of the output causes the loop gain to drop below one temporarily, reducing the sine wave's amplitude back to its unity-gain value.", "Similarly if the amplitude of the wave decreases, the decreased clipping will cause the loop gain to increase above one, increasing the amplitude.The amount of harmonic distortion in the output is dependent on how much excess loop gain the circuit has:*If the small signal loop gain is made close to one, just slightly greater, the output waveform will have minimum distortion, and the frequency will be most stable and independent of supply voltage and load impedance.", "However, the oscillator may be slow starting up, and a small decrease in gain due to a variation in component values may prevent it from oscillating.", "*If the small signal loop gain is made significantly greater than one, the oscillator starts up faster, but more severe clipping of the sine wave occurs, and thus the resulting distortion of the output waveform increases.", "The oscillation frequency becomes more dependent on the supply voltage and current drawn by the load.", "An exception to the above are high Q oscillator circuits such as crystal oscillators; the narrow bandwidth of the crystal removes the harmonics from the output, producing a 'pure' sinusoidal wave with almost no distortion even with large loop gains.===Design procedure===Since oscillators depend on nonlinearity for their operation, the usual linear frequency domain circuit analysis techniques used for amplifiers based on the Laplace transform, such as root locus and gain and phase plots (Bode plots), cannot capture their full behavior.", "To determine startup and transient behavior and calculate the detailed shape of the output waveform, electronic circuit simulation computer programs like SPICE are used.", "A typical design procedure for oscillator circuits is to use linear techniques such as the Barkhausen stability criterion or Nyquist stability criterion to design the circuit, then simulate the circuit on computer to make sure it starts up reliably and to determine the nonlinear aspects of operation such as harmonic distortion.", "Component values are tweaked until the simulation results are satisfactory.", "The distorted oscillations of real-world (nonlinear) oscillators are called limit cycles and are studied in nonlinear control theory.===Amplitude-stabilized oscillators===In applications where a 'pure' very low distortion sine wave is needed, such as precision signal generators, a nonlinear component is often used in the feedback loop that provides a 'slow' gain reduction with amplitude.", "This stabilizes the loop gain at an amplitude below the saturation level of the amplifier, so it does not saturate and \"clip\" the sine wave.", "Resistor-diode networks and FETs are often used for the nonlinear element.", "An older design uses a thermistor or an ordinary incandescent light bulb; both provide a resistance that increases with temperature as the current through them increases.As the amplitude of the signal current through them increases during oscillator startup, the increasing resistance of these devices reduces the loop gain.", "The essential characteristic of all these circuits is that the nonlinear gain-control circuit must have a long time constant, much longer than a single period of the oscillation.", "Therefore over a single cycle they act as virtually linear elements, and so introduce very little distortion.", "The operation of these circuits is somewhat analogous to an automatic gain control (AGC) circuit in a radio receiver.", "The Wein bridge oscillator is a widely used circuit in which this type of gain stabilization is used.===Frequency limitations===At high frequencies it becomes difficult to physically implement feedback oscillators because of shortcomings of the components.", "Since at high frequencies the tank circuit has very small capacitance and inductance, parasitic capacitance and parasitic inductance of component leads and PCB traces become significant.", "These may create unwanted feedback paths between the output and input of the active device, creating instability and oscillations at unwanted frequencies (parasitic oscillation).", "Parasitic feedback paths inside the active device itself, such as the interelectrode capacitance between output and input, make the device unstable.", "The input impedance of the active device falls with frequency, so it may load the feedback network.", "As a result, stable feedback oscillators are difficult to build for frequencies above 500 MHz, and negative resistance oscillators are usually used for frequencies above this." ], [ "History", "The first practical oscillators were based on electric arcs, which were used for lighting in the 19th century.", "The current through an arc light is unstable due to its negative resistance, and often breaks into spontaneous oscillations, causing the arc to make hissing, humming or howling sounds which had been noticed by Humphry Davy in 1821, Benjamin Silliman in 1822, Auguste Arthur de la Rive in 1846, and David Edward Hughes in 1878.Ernst Lecher in 1888 showed that the current through an electric arc could be oscillatory.An oscillator was built by Elihu Thomson in 1892 by placing an LC tuned circuit in parallel with an electric arc and included a magnetic blowout.", "Independently, in the same year, George Francis FitzGerald realized that if the damping resistance in a resonant circuit could be made zero or negative, the circuit would produce oscillations, and, unsuccessfully, tried to build a negative resistance oscillator with a dynamo, what would now be called a parametric oscillator.", "The arc oscillator was rediscovered and popularized by William Duddell in 1900.Duddell, a student at London Technical College, was investigating the hissing arc effect.", "He attached an LC circuit (tuned circuit) to the electrodes of an arc lamp, and the negative resistance of the arc excited oscillation in the tuned circuit.", "Some of the energy was radiated as sound waves by the arc, producing a musical tone.", "Duddell demonstrated his oscillator before the London Institute of Electrical Engineers by sequentially connecting different tuned circuits across the arc to play the national anthem \"God Save the Queen\".", "Duddell's \"singing arc\" did not generate frequencies above the audio range.", "In 1902 Danish physicists Valdemar Poulsen and P. O. Pederson were able to increase the frequency produced into the radio range by operating the arc in a hydrogen atmosphere with a magnetic field, inventing the Poulsen arc radio transmitter, the first continuous wave radio transmitter, which was used through the 1920s.A 120 MHz oscillator from 1938 using a parallel rod transmission line resonator (Lecher line).", "Transmission lines are widely used for UHF oscillators.The vacuum-tube feedback oscillator was invented around 1912, when it was discovered that feedback (\"regeneration\") in the recently invented audion (triode) vacuum tube could produce oscillations.", "At least six researchers independently made this discovery, although not all of them can be said to have a role in the invention of the oscillator.", "In the summer of 1912, Edwin Armstrong observed oscillations in audion radio receiver circuits and went on to use positive feedback in his invention of the regenerative receiver.", "Austrian Alexander Meissner independently discovered positive feedback and invented oscillators in March 1913.Irving Langmuir at General Electric observed feedback in 1913.Fritz Lowenstein may have preceded the others with a crude oscillator in late 1911.In Britain, H. J.", "Round patented amplifying and oscillating circuits in 1913.In August 1912, Lee De Forest, the inventor of the audion, had also observed oscillations in his amplifiers, but he didn't understand the significance and tried to eliminate it until he read Armstrong's patents in 1914, which he promptly challenged.", "Armstrong and De Forest fought a protracted legal battle over the rights to the \"regenerative\" oscillator circuit which has been called \"the most complicated patent litigation in the history of radio\".", "De Forest ultimately won before the Supreme Court in 1934 on technical grounds, but most sources regard Armstrong's claim as the stronger one.The first and most widely used relaxation oscillator circuit, the astable multivibrator, was invented in 1917 by French engineers Henri Abraham and Eugene Bloch.", "They called their cross-coupled, dual-vacuum-tube circuit a ''multivibrateur'', because the square-wave signal it produced was rich in harmonics, compared to the sinusoidal signal of other vacuum-tube oscillators.Vacuum-tube feedback oscillators became the basis of radio transmission by 1920.However, the triode vacuum tube oscillator performed poorly above 300 MHz because of interelectrode capacitance.", "To reach higher frequencies, new \"transit time\" (velocity modulation) vacuum tubes were developed, in which electrons traveled in \"bunches\" through the tube.", "The first of these was the Barkhausen–Kurz oscillator (1920), the first tube to produce power in the UHF range.", "The most important and widely used were the klystron (R. and S. Varian, 1937) and the cavity magnetron (J. Randall and H. Boot, 1940).Mathematical conditions for feedback oscillations, now called the Barkhausen criterion, were derived by Heinrich Georg Barkhausen in 1921.The first analysis of a nonlinear electronic oscillator model, the Van der Pol oscillator, was done by Balthasar van der Pol in 1927.He showed that the stability of the oscillations (limit cycles) in actual oscillators was due to the nonlinearity of the amplifying device.", "He originated the term \"relaxation oscillation\" and was first to distinguish between linear and relaxation oscillators.", "Further advances in mathematical analysis of oscillation were made by Hendrik Wade Bode and Harry Nyquist in the 1930s.", "In 1969 Kaneyuki Kurokawa derived necessary and sufficient conditions for oscillation in negative-resistance circuits, which form the basis of modern microwave oscillator design." ], [ "See also", "*Injection locked oscillator*Numerically controlled oscillator*Extended interaction oscillator*Variable-frequency drive*Thin-film bulk acoustic resonator" ], [ "References", "*.", "History of radio in 1925.Oscillator claims 1912; De Forest and Armstrong court case cf p. 45.Telephone hummer/oscillator by A. S. Hibbard in 1890 (carbon microphone has power gain); Larsen \"used the same principle in the production of alternating current from a direct current source\"; accidental development of vacuum tube oscillator; all at p. 86.Von Arco and Meissner first to recognize application to transmitter; Round for first transmitter; nobody patented triode transmitter at p. 87." ], [ "Further reading", "* Ulrich Rohde, Ajay Poddar, and Georg Bock, The Design of Modern Microwave Oscillators for Wireless Applications: Theory and Optimization, (543 pages) John Wiley & Sons, 2005, .", "* E. Rubiola, ''Phase Noise and Frequency Stability in Oscillators'' Cambridge University Press, 2008.." ], [ "External links", "* Howstuffworks: oscillator.", "* Oscillator Oddities.", "* Tutorial on Precision Frequency Generation." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Societas Europaea" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''''' (, ; \"European society\" or \"company\"; plural: ; abbr.", "'''SE''') is a public company registered in accordance with the corporate law of the European Union (EU), introduced in 2004 with the Council Regulation on the Statute for a European Company.", "Such a company may more easily transfer to or merge with companies in other member states.As of April 2018, more than 3,000 registrations have been reported, including the following nine components (18%) of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index of leading eurozone companies (excluding the SE designation): Airbus, Allianz, BASF, E.ON, Fresenius, LVMH Moët Hennessy Louis Vuitton (and its parent company Dior), SAP, Schneider Electric and Unibail-Rodamco-Westfield.National law continues to supplement the basic rules in the Regulation on formation and mergers.", "The European Company Regulation is complemented by an Employee Involvement Directive which manages the rules for participation by employees on the company's board of directors.", "There is also a statute allowing European Cooperative Societies." ], [ "Main provisions", "===Formation===The statute provides four ways of forming a European limited company:# By merger of national companies from different member states#By creation of a European limited company as a parent company in a holding structure of joint stock companies and limited liability companies from different member states # By the creation of a joint venture between companies (or other entities) in different member states# By the creation of an SE subsidiary of a national company# By the conversion of a national company into an SEFormation by merger is available only to public limited companies from different member states.", "Formation of an SE holding company is available to public and private limited companies with their registered offices in different member states or having subsidiaries or branches in member states other than that of their registered office.", "Formation of a joint subsidiary is available under the same circumstances to any legal entities governed by public or private law.===Minimum capital===The SE must have a minimum subscribed capital of €120,000 as per article 4(2) of the directive, subject to the provision that where a member state requires a larger capital for companies exercising certain types of activities, the same requirement will also apply to an SE with its registered office in that member state (article 4(3)).===Registered office===The registered office of the SE designated in the statutes must be the place where it has its central administration, that is to say its true centre of operations.", "The SE may transfer its registered office within the European Economic Area without dissolving the company in one member state in order to form a new one in another member state; however, such a transfer is subject to the provisions of 8 which require, inter alia, the drawing up of a transfer proposal, a report justifying the legal and economic aspects of the transfer and the issuing, by the competent authority in the member state in which the SE is registered, of a certificate attesting to the completion of the required acts and formalities.===Laws applicable===The order of precedence of the laws applicable to the SE is clarified.===Registration and liquidation===The registration and completion of the liquidation of an SE must be disclosed for information purposes in the Official Journal of the European Communities.", "Every SE must be registered in the state where it has its registered office, in a register designated by the law of that state.===Statutes===The statutes of the SE must provide as governing bodies the annual general meeting of shareholders and either a management board and a supervisory board (two-tier system) or an administrative board (single-tier system).", "Under the two-tier system the SE is managed by a management board.", "The member or members of the management board have the power to represent the company in dealings with third parties and in legal proceedings.", "They are appointed and removed by the supervisory board.", "No person may be a member of both the management board and the supervisory board of the same company at the same time.", "But the supervisory board may appoint one of its members to exercise the functions of a member of the management board in the event of absence through holidays.", "During such a period the function of the person concerned as a member of the supervisory board shall be suspended.", "Under the single-tier system, the SE is managed by an administrative board.", "The member or members of the administrative board have the power to represent the company in dealings with third parties and in legal proceedings.", "Under the single-tier system the administrative board may delegate the power of management to one or more of its members.The following operations require the authorization of the supervisory board or the deliberation of the administrative board:* any investment project requiring an amount more than the percentage of subscribed capital* the conclusion of supply and performance contracts where the total turnover provided for therein is more than the percentage of turnover for the previous financial year* the raising or granting of loans, the issue of debt securities and the assumption of liabilities of a third party or suretyship for a third party where the total money value in each case is more than the percentage of subscribed capital* the setting-up, acquisition, disposal or closing down of undertakings, businesses or parts of businesses where the purchase price or disposal proceeds account for more than the percentage of subscribed capital* the percentage referred to above is to be determined by the statutes of the SE.", "It may not be less than 5% nor more than 25%.===Annual accounts===The SE must draw up annual accounts comprising the balance sheet, the profit and loss account, and the notes to the accounts, and an annual report giving a fair view of the company's business and of its position; consolidated accounts may also be required.===Taxation===In tax matters, the SE is treated the same as any other multinational, i.e., it is subject to the tax regime of the national legislation applicable to the company and its subsidiaries.", "SEs are subject to taxes and charges in all member states where their administrative centres are situated.===Winding-up===Winding-up, liquidation, insolvency, and suspension of payments are in large measure to be governed by national law.", "When an SE transfers its registered office outside the Community, or in any other manner no longer complies with requirements of article 7, the member state must take appropriate measures to ensure compliance or take necessary measures to ensure that the SE is liquidated." ], [ "Status of the legislation and implementation", "Council Regulation (EC) No 2157/2001 of 8 October 2001 on the Statute for a European company (SE).Council Directive 2001/86/EC of 8 October 2001 supplementing the Statute for a European company with regard to the involvement of employees.See also: Europa's collection of press releases, regulations, directives and FAQs on the European Company Statute.===United Kingdom===Following the withdrawal of the UK from the European Union, any SE registered in the United Kingdom converted to a United Kingdom ''Societas'' and '''UK Societas''' replaced SE in its name.", "UK Societas retain many of the elements from the SE framework but importantly without the ability to transfer their registered office outside of the UK." ], [ "Employee participation", "The regulation is complemented by the '''Council Directive supplementing the Statute for a European Company with regard to the involvement of employees''' (informally \"Council Directive on Employee Participation\"), adopted 8 October 2001.The directive establishes rules on worker involvement in the management of the SE.EU member states differ in the degree of worker involvement in corporate management.", "In Germany, most large corporations are required to allow employees to elect a certain percentage of seats on the supervisory board.", "Other member states have no such requirement, and furthermore in these states such practices are largely unknown and considered a threat to the rights of management.These differing traditions of worker involvement have held back the adoption of the statute for over a decade.", "States without worker involvement provisions were afraid that the SE might lead to having such provisions being imposed on their companies; and states with those provisions were afraid they might lead to those provisions being circumvented.A compromise, contained in the directive, was worked out as follows: worker involvement provisions in the SE will be decided upon by negotiations between employees and management before the creation of the SE.", "If agreement cannot be reached, provisions contained in the directive will apply.", "The directive provides for worker involvement in the SE if a minimum percentage of employees from the entities coming together to form the SE enjoyed worker involvement provisions.", "The directive permits member states to not implement these default worker involvement provisions in their national law, but then an SE cannot be created in that member state if the provisions in the directive would apply and negotiations between workers and management are unsuccessful.===Definition===Definition of employee participation: it does not mean participation in day-to-day decisions, which are a matter for the management, but participation in the supervision and strategic development of the company.===Participation===* If the two parties do not reach a satisfactory arrangement, a set of standard principles set out in the annex to the directive becomes applicable.", "* Several models of participation are possible: firstly, a model in which the employees form part of the supervisory board or of the administrative board, as the case may be; secondly, a model in which the employees are represented by a separate body; and finally, other models to be agreed between the management or administrative boards of the founder companies and the employees or their representatives in those companies, the level of information and consultation being the same as in the case of the second model.", "The general meeting may not approve the formation of an SE unless one of the models of participation defined in the directive has been chosen.", "* The employees' representatives must be provided with such financial and material resources and other facilities as enable them to perform their duties properly.", "* With regard to a European company formed through a merger, the standard principles relating to worker participation will apply where at least 25% of the employees had the right to participate in decisions before the merger.", "Here a political agreement proved impossible until the Nice summit in December 2000.The compromise adopted by the heads of state or governments allowed a member state not to apply the directive to SEs formed from a merger, in which case the SE could not be registered in the member state in question unless an agreement had been concluded between the management and employees, or that no SE employee had the right of participation before the formation of the SE.===Employment contracts and pensions===Employment contracts and pensions are not covered by the directive.", "With regard to occupational pension schemes, the SE is covered by the provisions laid down in the proposal for a directive on institutions for occupational schemes, presented by the Commission in October 2000, in particular in connection with the possibility of introducing a single pension scheme for all their employees in the European Union." ], [ "Development", "Two approaches have been attempted to solve the problems cited above.", "One approach is to harmonize the company law of the member states.", "This approach has had some successes, but after thirty years only limited progress has been made.", "It is difficult to harmonize widely different regulatory systems, especially when they reflect different national attitudes to issues such as worker involvement in the management of the company.The other approach is to construct a whole new system of EU company law, that co-exists with the individual company laws of the member states.", "Companies would have the choice of operating either under national regulations or under the EU-wide system.", "However, this approach has been only somewhat more effective than the harmonization approach: while states are not as concerned about having foreign traditions of corporate governance imposed on their companies, which the harmonization approach could well entail; they also wish to ensure that the EU-wide system would be palatable to the traditions of their national companies, so that they will not be put at a disadvantage compared to the other member states.The European Company Statute represents a step in this direction, albeit a limited one.", "While it establishes some common EU rules on the SE, these rules are incomplete, and the holes in the rules are to be filled in using the law of the member state in which the SE is registered.", "This has been due to the difficulties of agreeing on common European rules on these issues." ], [ "Registrations", "As of 11 April 2018, 3,015 registrations have been made.", "In terms of registrations, the Czech Republic is vastly overrepresented, accounting for 79% of all ''Societates Europaeae'' as of December 2015.9 of the 50 constituents of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index of leading eurozone companies are as of December 2015 ''Societates Europaeae''.Annual registrations by member state are presented in the following chart:Registrations of new ''societates'' are to be published in the ''Official Journal of the European Union''.", "There is no official union-wide register of ''societates'', as they are registered in the nation in which their corporate seats are located. ''", "worker-participation.eu'' does however maintain a database of current and planned registrations.", "Examples of companies include:+ Notable examples Name State in which thecompany is seated Airbus SE Atos SE AmRest SE Aixtron SE Axel Springer SE Autopistas de Puerto Rico Allianz SE BASF SE Bilfinger SE Christian Dior SE Colt CZ Group Conrad Electronic Dassault Systèmes Deutsche Börse E.ON SE EPEX SPOT Fresenius SE Getlink Gfk SE Graphisoft SE KWS Saat SE OHB SE Puma SE LVMH Moët Hennessy Louis Vuitton SE MAN SE New Work SE Nordex SE Porsche Automobil Holding SE Rocket Internet Hannover Rück SE Vapiano SE Senvion SE HAWE Hydraulik SE ADVA Optical Networking SE Equens SE Dekra SE SGL Carbon SE Prosafe SE ProSiebenSat.1 Media Klöckner Songa Offshore SE SAP SE Schneider Electric SE Scor SE Solon SE Strabag SE TotalEnergies SE Unibail-Rodamco-Westfield SE Zalando SE Ziehl-Abegg SE" ], [ "See also", "* Societas cooperativa Europaea* European economic interest grouping* Societas privata Europaea* Types of business entity" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* A. Arlt, C. Bervoets, K. Grechenig, S. Kalss, The Societas Europaea in Relation to the Public Corporation of Five Member States (France, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, Austria), European Business Organization Law Review (EBOR) 2002, pp.", "733–764.", "* Catherine Cathiard and Arnaud Lecourt, \"La Pratique du Droit Européen des Sociétés – Analyse comparative des structures et des fusions transfrontalières\", Practice of European Company Law – Comparative analysis of European structures and cross-border mergers, Paris, JOLY Editions, Pratique des Affaires, 2010(available in French).", "* Catherine Cathiard,\"Societé Européenne (Societas Europaea)\" (European Company),Lexis-Nexis, Jurisclasseur, Company Law, Forms, Brochures C-5 and C-6 (available in French).", "* Catherine Cathiard, \" Plea for an underestimated corporate form : the Societas Europaea (SE)\", OPTION FINANCE, 17 janvier 2011(available in French).", "* Catherine Cathiard,\" The Societas Europaea : positive assessment from the practice\", JOURNAL DES SOCIETES, n°83, janv.", "2011 (available in French).", "* Catherine Cathiard and David Zeitoun, group legal director, Unibail-Rodamco, \"The European Company : advantages and opportunities\", DECIDEURS Stratégie Finance Droit n° 108, sept. 2009 (available in French and English, see External links hereunder).", "* Catherine Cathiard and Frédéric Lemos, managing director of Foncière LFPI, \"First cross-border transfers of seat of European Companies in France : the experience of Foncière LFPI\", JCP E n° 1, January 2009 (available in French).", "* Catherine Cathiard and Patrick Thourot, co general manager of Scor, \"La Société Européenne : bilan, perspectives et retour d’expérience\", ACTES PRATIQUES & Ingénierie Sociétaire, n°102, nov-déc.", "2008 (available in French)." ], [ "External links", "* Information by the European Commission** Frequently asked questions* Database of ''societates'' maintained by the European Trade Union Institute" ] ]
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[ [ "Electronic mixer" ], [ "Introduction", "A simple three-channel passive additive mixer.", "More channels can be added by simply adding more input jacks and mix resistors.A \"virtual ground\" active additive mixer.", "The buffer amplifiers serve to reduce crosstalk and distortion.An '''electronic mixer''' is a device that combines two or more electrical or electronic signals into one or two composite output signals.", "There are two basic circuits that both use the term ''mixer'', but they are very different types of circuits: additive mixers and multiplicative mixers.", "Additive mixers are also known as '''analog adders''' to distinguish from the related digital adder circuits.Simple additive mixers use Kirchhoff's circuit laws to add the currents of two or more signals together, and this terminology (\"mixer\") is only used in the realm of audio electronics where audio mixers are used to add together audio signals such as voice signals, music signals, and sound effects.Multiplicative mixers multiply together two time-varying input signals instantaneously (instant-by-instant).", "If the two input signals are both sinusoids of specified frequencies f1 and f2, then the output of the mixer will contain two new sinusoids that have the sum f1 + f2 frequency and the difference frequency absolute value |f1 - f2|.Any nonlinear electronic block driven by two signals with frequencies f1 and f2 would generate intermodulation (mixing) products.", "A multiplier (which is a nonlinear device) will generate ideally only the sum and difference frequencies, whereas an arbitrary nonlinear block will also generate signals at 2·f1-3·f2, etc.", "Therefore, normal nonlinear amplifiers or just single diodes have been used as mixers, instead of a more complex multiplier.", "A multiplier usually has the advantage of rejecting – at least partly – undesired higher-order intermodulations and larger conversion gain." ], [ "Additive mixers", "Additive mixers add two or more signals, giving out a composite signal that contains the frequency components of each of the source signals.", "The simplest additive mixers are resistor networks, and thus purely passive, while more complex matrix mixers employ active components such as buffer amplifiers for impedance matching and better isolation." ], [ "Multiplicative mixers", "An ideal multiplicative mixer produces an output signal equal to the product of the two input signals.", "In communications, a multiplicative mixer is often used together with an oscillator to modulate signal frequencies.", "A multiplicative mixer can be coupled with a filter to either up-convert or down-convert an input signal frequency, but they are more commonly used to down-convert to a lower frequency to allow for simpler filter designs, as done in superheterodyne receivers.", "In many typical circuits, the single output signal actually contains multiple waveforms, namely those at the sum and difference of the two input frequencies and harmonic waveforms.", "The output signal may be obtained by removing the other signal components with a filter.í===Mathematical treatment===The received signal can be represented as:and that of the local oscillator can be represented as:For simplicity, assume that the output ''I'' of the detector is proportional to the square of the amplitude::::::::::The output has high frequency (, and ) and constant components.", "In heterodyne detection, the high frequency components and usually the constant components are filtered out, leaving the intermediate (beat) frequency at .", "The amplitude of this last component is proportional to the amplitude of the signal radiation.", "With appropriate signal analysis the phase of the signal can be recovered as well.If is equal to then the beat component is a recovered version of the original signal, with the amplitude equal to the product of and ; that is, the received signal is amplified by mixing with the local oscillator.", "This is the basis for a Direct conversion receiver.===Implementations===Multiplicative mixers have been implemented in many ways.", "The most popular are Gilbert cell mixers, diode mixers, diode ring mixers (ring modulation) and switching mixers.", "Diode mixers take advantage of the non-linearity of diode devices to produce the desired multiplication in the squared term.", "They are very inefficient as most of the power output is in other unwanted terms which need filtering out.", "Inexpensive AM radios still use diode mixers.Electronic mixers are usually made with transistors and/or diodes arranged in a balanced circuit or even a double-balanced circuit.", "They are readily manufactured as monolithic integrated circuits or hybrid integrated circuits.", "They are designed for a wide variety of frequency ranges, and they are mass-produced to tight tolerances by the hundreds of thousands, making them relatively cheap.", "'''Double-balanced mixers''' are very widely used in microwave communications, satellite communications, ultrahigh frequency (UHF) communications transmitters, radio receivers, and radar systems.", "'''Gilbert cell mixers''' are an arrangement of transistors that multiplies the two signals.", "'''Switching mixers''' use arrays of field-effect transistors or vacuum tubes.", "These are used as electronic switches, to alternate the signal direction.", "They are controlled by the signal being mixed.", "They are especially popular with digitally controlled radios.", "Switching mixers pass more power and usually insert less distortion than Gilbert cell mixers." ] ]
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[ [ "Eubulides" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eubulides''' (; fl.", "4th century BCE) of Miletus was a philosopher of the Megarian school who is famous for his paradoxes." ], [ "Life", "According to Diogenes Laërtius, Eubulides was a pupil of Euclid of Megara, the founder of the Megarian school.", "He was a contemporary of Aristotle, against whom he wrote with great bitterness.", "He taught logic to Demosthenes, and he is also said to have taught Apollonius Cronus, the teacher of Diodorus Cronus, and the historian Euphantus." ], [ "Paradoxes of Eubulides", "Eubulides is most famous for inventing the forms of seven famous paradoxes, some of which, however, are also ascribed to Diodorus Cronus: # The Liar (''pseudomenos'') paradox:A man says: \"What I am saying now is a lie.\"", "If the statement is true, then he is lying, even though the statement is true.", "If the statement is a lie, then he is not actually lying, even though the statement is a lie.", "Thus, if the speaker is lying, he tells the truth, and vice versa.# The Masked Man (''enkekalymmenos'') paradox:\"Do you know this masked man?\"", "\"No.\"", "\"But he is your father.", "So – do you not know your own father?", "\"# The Electra (''Elektra'') paradox:Electra doesn't know that the man approaching her is her brother, Orestes.", "Electra knows her brother.", "Does Electra know the man who is approaching?# The Overlooked Man (''dialanthanôn'') paradox:Alpha ignored the man approaching him and treated him as a stranger.", "The man was his father.", "Did Alpha ignore his own father and treat him as a stranger?# The Heap (''sôritês'') paradox:A single grain of sand is certainly not a heap.", "Nor is the addition of a single grain of sand enough to transform a non-heap into a heap: when we have a collection of grains of sand that is not a heap, then adding but one single grain will not create a heap.", "And yet we know that at some point we will have a heap.# The Bald Man (''phalakros'') paradox:A man with a full head of hair is obviously not bald.", "Now the removal of a single hair will not turn a non-bald man into a bald one.", "And yet it is obvious that a continuation of that process must eventually result in baldness.# The Horns (''keratinês'') paradox:What you have not lost, you have.", "But you have not lost horns.", "Therefore, you have horns.The first paradox (the Liar) is probably the most famous, and is similar to the famous paradox of Epimenides the Cretan.", "The second, third and fourth paradoxes are variants of a single paradox and relate to the problem of what it means to \"know\" something and the identity of objects involved in an affirmation (compare the masked-man fallacy).", "The fifth and sixth paradoxes are also a single paradox and is usually thought to relate to the vagueness of language.", "The final paradox, the horns, is a paradox related to presupposition." ], [ "Legacy", "These paradoxes were very well known in ancient times, some are alluded to by Eubulides' contemporary Aristotle and even partially by Plato.", "Chrysippus, the Stoic philosopher wrote about the paradoxes developed by Eubulides and characterized the Horns paradox as an intractable problem (aporoi logoi).", "Aulus Gellius mentions how the discussion of such paradoxes was considered (for him) after-dinner entertainment at the Saturnalia, but Seneca, on the other hand, considered them a waste of time: \"Not to know them does no harm, and mastering them does no good.\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Ancient primary sources", "*" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * Rescher, N. (2001) ''Paradoxes: Their Roots, Range, and Resolution.''", "Open Court Publishing.", "* Seuren, P. A. M. (2005) ''Eubulides as a 20th-century semanticist''.", "Language Sciences, 27(1), 75-95.", "* * Wheeler, S. C. (1983) ''Megarian Paradoxes as Eleatic Arguments'', American Philosophical Quarterly, 20 (3), 287-295." ] ]
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[ [ "ETA (separatist group)" ], [ "Introduction", "ETA emblem'''ETA''', an acronym for '''''' (\"Basque Homeland and Liberty\" or \"Basque Country and Freedom\"), was an armed Basque nationalist and far-left separatist organization in the Basque Country between 1959 and 2018, with its goal being independence for the region.", "The group was founded in 1959 during the era of Francoist Spain, and later evolved from a pacifist group promoting traditional Basque culture to a violent paramilitary group.", "It engaged in a campaign of bombings, assassinations, and kidnappings throughout Spain and especially the Southern Basque Country against the regime, which was highly centralised and hostile to the expression of non-Castilian minority identities.", "ETA was the main group within the Basque National Liberation Movement and was the most important Basque participant in the Basque conflict.ETA's motto was (\"Keep up on both\"), referring to the two figures in its symbol, a snake (representing politics) wrapped around an axe (representing armed struggle).", "Between 1968 and 2010, ETA killed 829 people (including 340 civilians) and injured more than 22,000.ETA was classified as a terrorist group by Spain, France, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and the European Union.", "This convention was followed by a plurality of domestic and international media, which also referred to the group as terrorists.", ", there were more than 260 imprisoned former members of the group in Spain, France, and other countries.ETA declared ceasefires in 1989, 1996, 1998 and 2006.On 5 September 2010, ETA declared a new ceasefire that remained in force, and on 20 October 2011, ETA announced a \"definitive cessation of its armed activity\".", "On 24 November 2012, it was reported that the group was ready to negotiate a \"definitive end\" to its operations and disband completely.", "The group announced on 7 April 2017 that it had given up all its weapons and explosives.", "On 2 May 2018, ETA made public a letter dated 16 April 2018 according to which it had \"completely dissolved all its structures and ended its political initiative\"." ], [ "Structure", "Day of the Basque Soldier of 2006ETA changed its internal structure on several occasions, commonly for security reasons.", "The group used to have a very hierarchical organization with a leading figure at the top, delegating into three substructures: the logistical, military and political sections.", "Reports from Spanish and French police point towards significant changes in ETA's structures in its later years.", "ETA divided the three substructures into a total of eleven.", "The change was a response to captures, and possible infiltration, by the different law enforcement agencies.", "ETA intended to disperse its members and reduce the effects of detentions.The leading committee comprised 7 to 11 individuals, and ETA's internal documentation referred to it as , an abbreviation of (directorial committee).", "There was another committee named that functioned as an advisory committee.", "The eleven different substructures were: logistics, politics, international relations with fraternal organisations, military operations, reserves, prisoner support, expropriation, information, recruitment, negotiation, and treasury.ETA's armed operations were organized in different s (groups or commandos), generally composed of three to five members, whose objective was to conduct attacks in a specific geographic zone.", "The s were coordinated by the (\"military cupola\").", "To supply the s, support groups maintained safe houses and (small rooms concealed in forests, garrets or underground, used to store arms, explosives or, sometimes, kidnapped people; the Basque word literally means \"hole\").", "The small cellars used to hide the people kidnapped are named by ETA and ETA's supporters \"people's jails\".", "The most common ''commandos'' were itinerant, not linked to any specific area, and thus were more difficult to capture.Among its members, ETA distinguished between / (\"legal ones\"), those members who did not have police records and lived apparently normal lives; (\"liberated members\") known to the police that were on ETA's payroll and working full-time for ETA; and (\"supporters\") who just gave occasional help and logistics support to the group when required.There were also imprisoned members of the group, serving time scattered across Spain and France, that sometimes still had significant influence inside the organisation; and finally the (\"burnt out\"), members freed after having been imprisoned or those that were suspected by the group of being under police surveillance.", "In the past, there was also the figure of the deportees, expelled by the French government to remote countries where they lived freely.", "ETA's internal bulletin was named (\"Column\"), replacing the earlier one (1962) (\"Standing\").ETA also promoted the (\"street fight\"), that is, violent acts against public transportation, political parties' offices or cultural buildings, destruction of private property of politicians, police, military, bank offices, journalists, council members, and anyone voicing criticism of ETA.", "Tactics included threats, graffiti of political mottoes, and rioting, usually using Molotov cocktails.", "These groups were mostly made up of young people, who were directed through youth organisations (such as , and ).", "Many members of ETA started their collaboration with the group as participants in the ." ], [ "Political support", "A pro-ETA mural in Durango, BiscayThe former political party Batasuna, disbanded in 2003, pursued the same political goals as ETA and did not condemn ETA's use of violence.", "Formerly known as Euskal Herritarrok and \"Herri Batasuna\", it was banned by the Spanish Supreme Court as an anti-democratic organisation following the Political Parties Law (''Ley de Partidos Políticos'').", "It generally received 10% to 20% of the vote in the Basque Autonomous Community.Batasuna's political status was controversial.", "It was considered to be the political wing of ETA.", "Moreover, after the investigations on the nature of the relationship between Batasuna and ETA by Judge Baltasar Garzón, who suspended the activities of the political organisation and ordered police to shut down its headquarters, the Supreme Court of Spain finally declared Batasuna illegal on 18 March 2003.The court considered proven that Batasuna had links with ETA and that it constituted in fact part of ETA's structure.", "In 2003, the Constitutional Tribunal upheld the legality of the law.However, the party itself denied being the political wing of ETA, although double membership – simultaneous or alternative – between Batasuna and ETA was often recorded, such as with the cases of prominent Batasuna leaders like Josu Urrutikoetxea, Arnaldo Otegi, Jon Salaberria and others.The Spanish Cortes (the Spanish Parliament) began the process of declaring the party illegal in August 2002 by issuing a bill entitled the ''Ley de Partidos Políticos'' which bars political parties that use violence to achieve political goals, promote hatred against different groups or seek to destroy the democratic system.", "The bill passed the Cortes with a 304 to 16 vote.", "Many within the Basque nationalistic movement strongly disputed the Law, which they considered too draconian or even unconstitutional; alleging that any party could be made illegal almost by choice, simply for not clearly stating their opposition to an attack.Defenders of the law argued that the ''Ley de Partidos'' did not necessarily require responses to individual acts of violence, but rather a declaration of principles explicitly rejecting violence as a means of achieving political goals.", "Defenders also argued that the ban of a political party is subject to judicial process, with all the guarantees of the State of Law.", "Batasuna had failed to produce such a statement.", "other political parties linked to organizations such as ''Partido Comunista de España (reconstituted)'' have also been declared illegal, and Acción Nacionalista Vasca and Communist Party of the Basque Lands (EHAK/PCTV, ''Euskal Herrialdeetako Alderdi Komunista/Partido Comunista de las Tierras Vascas'') was declared illegal in September 2008.A new party called Aukera Guztiak ''(All the Options)'' was formed expressly for the elections to the Basque Parliament of April 2005.Its supporters claimed no heritage from Batasuna, asserting that they aimed to allow Basque citizens to freely express their political ideas, even those of independence.", "On the matter of political violence, Aukera Guztiak stated their right not to condemn some kinds of violence more than others if they did not see fit (in this regard, the Basque National Liberation Movement (MLNV) regards present police actions as violence, torture and state terrorism).", "Nevertheless, most of their members and certainly most of their leadership were former Batasuna supporters or affiliates.", "The Spanish Supreme Court unanimously considered the party to be a successor to Batasuna and declared a ban on it.After Aukera Guztiak had been banned, and less than two weeks before the election, another political group appeared born from an earlier schism from Herri Batasuna, the Communist Party of the Basque Lands (EHAK/PCTV, ''Euskal Herrialdeetako Alderdi Komunista/Partido Comunista de las Tierras Vascas''), a formerly unknown political party which had no representation in the Autonomous Basque Parliament.", "EHAK announced that they would apply the votes they obtained to sustain the political programme of the now-banned Aukera Guztiak platform.This move left no time for the Spanish courts to investigate EHAK in compliance with the ''Ley de Partidos'' before the elections were held.", "The bulk of Batasuna supporters voted in this election for PCTV.", "It obtained 9 seats of 75 (12.44% of votes) in the Basque Parliament.The election of EHAK representatives eventually allowed the programme of the now-illegal Batasuna to continue being represented without having condemned violence as required by the ''Ley de Partidos''.In February 2011, Sortu, a party described as \"the new Batasuna\", was launched.", "Unlike predecessor parties, Sortu explicitly rejects politically motivated violence, including that of ETA.", "However, on 23 March 2011, the Spanish Supreme Court banned Sortu from registering as a political party on the grounds that it was linked to ETA.===Social support===Graffiti in Pasaia (2003).", "\"ETA, the people with you\" on the left, and Batasuna using several nationalist symbols asking for \"Independence!", "\"The Spanish transition to democracy from 1975 on and ETA's progressive radicalisation had resulted in a steady loss of support, which became especially apparent at the time of their 1997 kidnapping and countdown assassination of Miguel Ángel Blanco.", "Their loss of sympathisers had been reflected in an erosion of support for the political parties identified with them.", "In the 1998 Basque parliament elections Euskal Herritarrok, formerly Batasuna, polled 17.7% of the votes.", "However, by 2001 the party's support had fallen to 10.0%.", "There were also concerns that Spain's \"judicial offensive\" against alleged ETA supporters (two Basque political parties and one NGO were banned in September 2008) constituted a threat to human rights.", "Strong evidence was seen that a legal network had grown so wide as to lead to the arrest of numerous innocent people.", "According to Amnesty International, torture was still \"persistent\", though not \"systematic\".", "Inroads could be undermined by judicial short-cuts and abuses of human rights.===Clerical support===Despite its far-left orientation, ETA was founded by students of the Benedictine seminary in Lazkao and owed its ability to survive the Francoist years of harsh repression to the support of Basque clergy, with many Basque priests having strong nationalist and separatist tendencies.", "With the approval of the local ecclesiastical hierarchy, ETA was able to store its weapons in churches, chapels and monasteries.", "According to the US researcher Robert P. Clark, 73% of Basque priests were members of ETA in 1968.ETA was also able to survive because of profound sympathy it found in the French Basque Country, and the support of local nationalists and clergy granted ETA safe haven in France, where it was beyond the reach of Francoist security forces.Basque clergy was also important in terms of ideology of the organization, as it provided ETA with both new members as well as influences of the far-left liberation theology.", "Largely protected from Francoist persecution, Basque-speaking priests educated members of ETA in the nationalist faith and were considered the guardians of Basque language and culture, heavily influencing Basque nationalism.", "Basque nationalism acquired a religious character, as evidenced by the motto of Basque Nationalist Party, ‘Jaun-Goikua eta Legi Zarra’ (God and Old Laws).", "Sabino Arana, the father of Basque nationalism, argued that the Basque Country could not be truly Catholic as long as it was dependent on Spain, and portrayed his struggle for independent Euskadi not as a political project, but rather as something that was ‘about saving souls’.ETA-supportive clergy accepted the violence of ETA, following the beliefs of liberation theology and seeing it as a part of the oppressed people's aspiration for freedom and independence.", "The Archbishop of San Sebastián José María Setién repeatedly justified the actions of ETA in his statements, causing consternation and even indignation in Spain.", "His statement that dialogue with ETA should have begun before it even stopped the attacks was condemned by the Filipino cardinal Jose Tomas Sanchez.", "Catholic clergy then played an important role in trying to mediate the conflict; in 1998 the Catholic organisation Community of Sant'Egidio offered to negotiate with the Spanish government on behalf of ETA, but it was turned down by the Minister of Interior Jaime Mayor Oreja.", "ETA still enjoyed support of the Basque clergy in the 2000s, with sympathetic priests such as Joseba Segura Etxezarraga consistently encouraging the Spanish government to enter dialogue.===Opinion polls===The Euskobarometro, the survey carried out by the Universidad del País Vasco (University of the Basque Country), asking about the views of ETA within the Basque population, obtained these results in May 2009: 64% rejected ETA totally, 13% identified themselves as former ETA sympathisers who no longer support the group.", "Another 10% agreed with ETA's ends, but not their means.", "3% said that their attitude towards ETA was mainly one of fear, 3% expressed indifference and 3% were undecided or did not answer.", "About 3% gave ETA \"justified, with criticism\" support (supporting the group but criticising some of their actions) and only 1% gave ETA total support.", "Even within Batasuna voters, at least 48% rejected ETA's violence.A poll taken by the Basque Autonomous Government in December 2006 during ETA's \"permanent\" ceasefire showed that 88% of the Basques thought that all political parties needed to launch a dialogue, including a debate on the political framework for the Basque Country (86%).", "69% support the idea of ratifying the results of this hypothetical multiparty dialogue through a referendum.", "This poll also reveals that the hope of a peaceful resolution to the issue of the constitutional status of the Basque region has fallen to 78% (from 90% in April).These polls did not cover Navarre, where support for Basque nationalist electoral options is weaker (around 25% of the population); or the Northern Basque Country, where support is even weaker (around 15% of the population)." ], [ "History", "===During Franco's dictatorship===Federico Krutwig, the anarchist theorist of the ETA.", "He sought to move Basque nationalism away from its ethnic and religious origins.ETA grew out of a student group called Ekin, founded in the early 1950s, which published a magazine and undertook direct action.", "ETA was founded on 31 July 1959 as (\"Basque Homeland and Liberty\" or \"Basque Country and Freedom\") by students frustrated by the moderate stance of the Basque Nationalist Party.", "(Originally, the name for the organisation used the word ''Aberri'' instead of ''Euskadi'', creating the acronym ''ATA''.", "However, in some Basque dialects, ''ata'' means ''duck'', so the name was changed.", ")ETA held their first assembly in Bayonne, France, in 1962, during which a \"declaration of principles\" was formulated and following which a structure of activist cells was developed.", "Subsequently, Marxist and third-worldist perspectives developed within ETA, becoming the basis for a political programme set out in Federico Krutwig's (an anarchist of German origin) 1963 book ''Vasconia'', which is considered to be the defining text of the movement.", "In contrast to previous Basque nationalist platforms, Krutwig's vision was anti-religious and based upon language and culture rather than race.", "ETA's third and fourth assemblies, held in 1964 and 1965, adopted an anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist position, seeing nationalism and the class struggle as intrinsically connected.Some sources attributed the 1960 bombing of the Amara station in Donostia-San Sebastian (which killed a 22-month-old child) to ETA, but statistics published by the Spanish Ministry of the Interior have always showed that ETA's first victim was killed in 1968.The 1960 attack was claimed by the Portuguese and Galician left-wing group Directorio Revolucionario Ibérico de Liberación (DRIL) (together with four other very similar bombings committed that same day across Spain, all of them attributed to DRIL), and the attribution to ETA has been considered to be unfounded by researchers.", "Police documents dating from 1961, released in 2013, show that the DRIL was indeed the author of the bombing.", "A more recent study by the ''Memorial de Víctimas del Terrorismo'' based on the analysis of police diligences at the time reached the same conclusion, naming Guillermo Santoro, member of DRIL, as the author of the attack.Memorial plate at the place of the assassination of Admiral Luis Carrero BlancoETA's first killing occurred on 7 June 1968, when Guardia Civil member José Pardines Arcay was shot dead after he tried to halt ETA member Txabi Etxebarrieta during a routine road check.", "Etxebarrieta was chased down and killed as he tried to flee.", "This led to retaliation in the form of the first planned ETA assassination: that of Melitón Manzanas, chief of the secret police in San Sebastián and associated with a long record of tortures inflicted on detainees in his custody.", "In December 1970, several members of ETA were condemned to death in the Burgos trials (''Proceso de Burgos''), but international pressure resulted in their sentences being commuted (a process which, however, had by that time already been applied to some other members of ETA).In early December 1970, ETA kidnapped the German consul in San Sebastian, Eugen Beilh, to exchange him for the Burgos defendants.", "He was released unharmed on 24 December.Nationalists who refused to follow the tenets of Marxism–Leninism and who sought to create a united front appeared as ETA-V, but lacked the support to challenge ETA.The most significant assassination performed by ETA during Franco's dictatorship was Operación Ogro, the December 1973 bomb assassination in Madrid of Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco, Franco's chosen successor and president of the government (a position roughly equivalent to being a prime minister).", "The assassination had been planned for months and was executed by placing a bomb in a tunnel dug below the street where Carrero Blanco's car passed every day.", "The bomb blew up beneath the politician's car and left a massive crater in the road.For some in the Spanish opposition, Carrero Blanco's assassination, i.e., the elimination of Franco's chosen successor was an instrumental step for the subsequent re-establishment of democracy.", "The government responded with new anti-terrorism laws which gave police greater powers and empowered military tribunals to pass death sentences against those found guilty.", "However, the last use of capital punishment in Spain when two ETA members were executed in September 1975, eight weeks before Franco's death, sparked massive domestic and international protests against the Spanish government.===During the transition===During the Spanish transition to democracy which began following Franco's death, ETA split into two separate groups: ETA political-military or ETA(pm), and ETA military or ETA(m).Both ETA(m) and ETA(pm) refused offers of amnesty, and instead pursued and intensified their violent struggle.", "The years 1978–1980 were to prove ETA's most deadly, with 68, 76, and 98 fatalities, respectively.During the Franco dictatorship, ETA was able to take advantage of tolerance by the French government, which allowed its members to move freely through French territory, believing that in this manner they were contributing to the end of Franco's regime.", "There is much controversy over the degree to which this policy of \"sanctuary\" continued even after the transition to democracy, but it is generally agreed that after 1983 the French authorities started to collaborate with the Spanish government against ETA.The transition to democracy did not undermine core reasons for the existence of ETA, with a large part of its members remaining committed to armed struggle and local Basque community remaining supportive of it into the 1990s.", "This was caused by the character of Spanish transition, as it was based on the ‘pact of forgetting’ ().", "Francoist officials in the army, police and judiciary retained their posts, and no attempt was ever made to hold the representatives of the Francoist regime responsible for political violence and oppression.", "Left-wing Basque nationalist Rafael Díez Usabiaga recalled: \"We confront the flagrant contradiction that in the Spanish state they still have not addressed something so fundamental as the crimes of Francoism.", "\"ETA members were further radicalized by the shifting position of leading left-wing parties, the Communist Party of Spain and Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, on the issue of self-determination.", "In 1974 self-determination for the Basque Country was a part of PSOE platform, and the party asserted that \"all nationalities and regions had the right to break free from the Spanish state\".", "However, the party moved towards centralist position after 1976, and Spanish parties \"abandoned all pretensions to support self-determination within a constitutional drafting committee\".", "Basque parties connected to ETA such as KAS and the MLVN created a new far-left Herri Batasuna coalition to push for a statute of autonomy for Euskadi.One of the parties within Herri Batasuna, ETA-affiliated KAS, listed five conditions from ETA that would need to be fulfilled for it to abandon armed struggle - amnesty for all Basque prisoners, legalisation of separatist Basque parties, withdrawal of Spanish police from Euskadi, improvement of the working class' living condition, and an autonomy statue that allowed for Basque self-determination.", "However, these demands were rejected by the Spanish government, and Madrid passed a new anti-terrorist law in 1978 that reintroduced Franco-esque policing methods; Robert Clark described the law and its consequences as \"the long road back to Francoism without Franco\".The final issue that moved ETA towards continuing the armed struggle was the 1978 Spanish constitutional referendum.", "The new Spanish constitution was opposed by Basque nationalists as it was considered insufficient in terms of Basque autonomy, protection of the Basque language and providing Euskadi with no legal way towards achieving independence from Spain.", "Basque politicians decried the new constitution as \"the continuing occupation of the Basque Country\" and called for abstention from the constitutional referendum.", "As the result, the abstention rate in Euskadi was over 55%, and although 75% of Basque voters voted in favour of the new constitution, they represented only 31% of the Basque population.", "Because of this, \"Euskadi remained the one region in the country in which a majority of the electorate did not support the foundational document of Spain’s democracy.", "\"In the 1980s, ETA(pm) accepted the Spanish government's offer of individual pardons to all ETA prisoners, even those who had committed violent crimes, who publicly abandoned the policy of violence.", "This caused a new division in ETA(pm) between the seventh and eighth assemblies.", "ETA VII accepted this partial amnesty granted by the now democratic Spanish government and integrated into the political party ''Euskadiko Ezkerra'' (\"Left of the Basque Country\").ETA VIII, after a brief period of independent activity, eventually integrated into ETA(m).", "With no factions existing anymore, ETA(m) reclaimed the original name of .====GAL====During the 1980s a \"dirty war\" ensued using the Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación (GAL, \"Antiterrorist Liberation Groups\"), a paramilitary group which billed themselves as counter-terrorist, active between 1983 and 1987.The GAL's stated mission was to avenge every ETA killing with another killing of ETA exiles in the French department of Pyrénées Atlantiques.", "GAL committed 27 assassinations (all but one in France), plus several kidnappings and torture, not only of ETA members but of civilians supposedly related to those, some of whom turned out to have nothing to do with ETA.", "GAL activities were a follow-up of similar dirty war actions by death squads, actively supported by members of Spanish security forces and secret services, using names such as active from 1975 to 1981.They were responsible for the killing of about 48 people.One consequence of GAL's activities in France was the decision in 1984 by interior minister Pierre Joxe to permit the extradition of ETA suspects to Spain.", "Reaching this decision had taken 25 years and was critical in curbing ETA's capabilities by denial of previously safe territory in France.The airing of the state-sponsored \"dirty war\" scheme and the imprisonment of officials responsible for GAL in the early 1990s led to a political scandal in Spain.", "The group's connections with the state were unveiled by the Spanish journal , with an investigative series leading to the GAL plot being discovered and a national trial initiated.", "As a consequence, the group's attacks since the revelation have generally been dubbed state terrorism.In 1997 the Spanish court finished its trial, which resulted in convictions and imprisonment of several individuals related to the GAL, including civil servants and politicians up to the highest levels of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) government, such as former Homeland Minister José Barrionuevo.", "Premier Felipe González was quoted as saying that the constitutional state has to defend itself \"even in the sewers\" (), something which, for some, indicated at least his knowledge of the scheme.", "However, his involvement with the GAL could never be proven.These events marked the end of the armed \"counter-terrorist\" period in Spain and no major cases of foul play on the part of the Spanish government after 1987 (when GAL ceased to operate) have been proven in courts.====Human rights====According to the radical nationalist group, Euskal Memoria, between 1960 and 2010 there were 465 deaths in the Basque Country due to (primarily Spanish) state violence.", "This figure is considerably higher than those given elsewhere, which are usually between 250 and 300.Critics of ETA cite only 56 members of that organisation killed by state forces since 1975.ETA members and supporters routinely claim torture at the hands of Spanish police forces.", "While these claims are hard to verify, some convictions were based on confessions while prisoners were held incommunicado and without access to a lawyer of their choice, for a maximum of five days.", "These confessions were routinely repudiated by the defendants during trials as having been extracted under torture.", "There were some successful prosecutions of proven tortures during the \"dirty war\" period of the mid-1980s, although the penalties have been considered by Amnesty International as unjustifiably light and lenient with co-conspirators and enablers.In this regard, Amnesty International showed concern for the continuous disregard of the recommendations issued by the agency to prevent the alleged abuses from possibly taking place.", "Also in this regard, ETA's manuals were found instructing its members and supporters to claim routinely that they had been tortured while detained.", "Unai Romano's case was very controversial: pictures of him with a symmetrically swollen face of uncertain aetiology were published after his incommunicado period leading to claims of police abuse and torture.", "Martxelo Otamendi, the ex-director of the Basque newspaper , decided to bring charges in September 2008 against the Spanish Government in the European Court of Human Rights for \"not inspecting properly\" cases tainted by torture.As a result of ETA's violence, threats and killings of journalists, Reporters Without Borders included Spain in all six editions of its annual watchlist on press freedom up to 2006.Thus, the NGO included ETA in its watchlist \"Predators of Press Freedom\".===Under democracy===ETA performed their first car bomb assassination in Madrid in September 1985, resulting in one death (American citizen Eugene Kent Brown, employee of Johnson & Johnson) and sixteen injuries; the Plaza República Dominicana bombing in July 1986 killed 12 members of the Guardia Civil and injured 50; on 19 June 1987, the Hipercor bombing was an attack in a shopping centre in Barcelona, killing 21 and injuring 45; in the last case, entire families were killed.", "The horror caused then was so striking that ETA felt compelled to issue a communiqué stating that they had given warning of the Hipercor bomb, but that the police had declined to evacuate the area.", "The police said that the warning came only a few minutes before the bomb exploded.In 1986 (known in English as Association for Peace in the Basque Country) was founded; they began to convene silent demonstrations in communities throughout the Basque Country the day after any violent killing, whether by ETA or by GAL.", "These were the first systematic demonstrations in the Basque Country against political violence.", "Also in 1986, in Ordizia, ETA gunned down María Dolores Katarain, known as \"Yoyes\", while she was walking with her infant son.", "Yoyes was a former member of ETA who had abandoned the armed struggle and rejoined civil society: they accused her of \"desertion\" because of her taking advantage of the Spanish reinsertion policy which granted amnesty to those prisoners who publicly renounced political violence (see below).On 12 January 1988, all Basque political parties except ETA-affiliated Herri Batasuna signed the Ajuria-Enea pact with the intent of ending ETA's violence.", "Weeks later on 28 January, ETA announced a 60-day \"ceasefire\", later prolonged several times.", "Negotiations known as the (\"Algiers Table\") took place between the ETA representative Eugenio Etxebeste (\"Antxon\") and the then PSOE government of Spain, but no successful conclusion was reached, and ETA eventually resumed the use of violence.During this period, the Spanish government had a policy referred to as \"reinsertion\", under which imprisoned ETA members whom the government believed had genuinely abandoned violence could be freed and allowed to rejoin society.", "Claiming a need to prevent ETA from coercively impeding this reinsertion, the PSOE government decided that imprisoned ETA members, who previously had all been imprisoned within the Basque Country, would instead be dispersed to prisons throughout Spain, some as far from their families as in the Salto del Negro prison in the Canary Islands.", "France has taken a similar approach.In the event, the only clear effect of this policy was to incite social protest, especially from nationalists and families of the prisoners, claiming cruelty of separating family members from the insurgents.", "Much of the protest against this policy runs under the slogan (\"Basque prisoners to the Basque Country\"; by \"Basque prisoners\" only ETA members are meant).", "It has to be noted that almost in any Spanish jail there is a group of ETA prisoners, as the number of ETA prisoners makes it difficult to disperse them./ (\"Pro-Amnesty Managing Assemblies\", currently illegal)''/'' (\"Pro-Amnesty Managing Assemblies\", currently illegal), later (\"Freedom\") and (\"The Family Members\"), provided support for prisoners and families.", "The Basque Government and several Nationalist town halls granted money on humanitarian reasons for relatives to visit prisoners.", "The long road trips have caused accidental deaths that are protested against by Nationalist Prisoner's Family supporters.During the ETA ceasefire of the late 1990s, the PSOE government brought the prisoners on the islands and in Africa back to the mainland.", "Since the end of the ceasefire, ETA prisoners have not been sent back to overseas prisons.", "Some Basque authorities have established grants for the expenses of visiting families.Another Spanish \"counter-terrorist\" law puts suspected terrorist cases under the central tribunal in Madrid, due to the threats by the group over the Basque courts.", "Under Article 509 suspected terrorists are subject to being held incommunicado for up to thirteen days, during which they have no contact with the outside world other than through the court-appointed lawyer, including informing their family of their arrest, consultation with private lawyers or examination by a physician other than the coroners.", "In comparison, the habeas corpus term for other suspects is three days.In 1992, ETA's three top leaders—\"military\" leader Francisco Mujika Garmendia (\"Pakito\"), political leader José Luis Alvarez Santacristina (\"Txelis\") and logistical leader José María Arregi Erostarbe (\"Fiti\"), often referred to collectively as the \"cúpula\" of ETA or as the Artapalo collective—were arrested in the northern Basque town of Bidart, which led to changes in ETA's leadership and direction.After a two-month truce, ETA adopted even more radical positions.", "The principal consequence of the change appears to have been the creation of the \"Y Groups\", formed by young militants of ETA parallel groups (generally minors), dedicated to so-called —street struggle—and whose activities included burning buses, street lamps, benches, ATMs, and garbage containers, and throwing Molotov cocktails.", "The appearance of these groups was attributed by many to the supposed weakness of ETA, which obliged them to resort to minors to maintain or augment their impact on society after arrests of leading militants, including the \"cupola\".", "ETA also began to menace leaders of other parties besides rival Basque nationalist parties.In 1995, the armed group again launched a peace proposal.", "The so-called \"Democratic Alternative\" replaced the earlier KAS Alternative as a minimum proposal for the establishment of Euskal Herria.", "The Democratic Alternative offered the cessation of all armed ETA activity if the Spanish government would recognize the Basque people as having sovereignty over Basque territory, the right to self-determination, and that it freed all ETA members in prison.", "The Spanish government ultimately rejected this peace offer as it would go against the Spanish Constitution of 1978.Changing the constitution was not considered.Also in 1995 was a failed ETA car bombing attempt directed against José María Aznar, a conservative politician who was the leader of the then-opposition (PP) and was shortly after elected to the presidency of the government; there was also an abortive attempt in Majorca on the life of King Juan Carlos I.", "Still, the act with the largest social impact came the following year.", "On 10 July 1997, PP council member Miguel Ángel Blanco was kidnapped in the Basque town of Ermua, with the separatist group threatening to assassinate him unless the Spanish government met ETA's demand of starting to bring all ETA's inmates to prisons of the Basque Country within two days after the kidnapping.This demand was not met by the Spanish government and after three days Miguel Ángel Blanco was found shot dead when the deadline expired.", "More than six million people took out to the streets to demand his liberation, with massive demonstrations occurring as much in the Basque regions as elsewhere in Spain, chanting cries of \"Assassins\" and \"Basques yes, ETA no\".", "This response came to be known as the \"Spirit of Ermua\".Later acts of violence included the 6 November 2001 car bomb in Madrid which injured 65 people, and attacks on football stadiums and tourist destinations throughout Spain.The 11 September 2001 attacks in the US appeared to have dealt a hard blow to ETA, owing to the worldwide toughening of \"anti-terrorist\" measures (such as the freezing of bank accounts), the increase in international policy coordination, and the end of the toleration some countries had, up until then, extended to ETA.", "Additionally, in 2002 the Basque nationalist youth movement, ''Jarrai'', was outlawed and the law of parties was changed outlawing Herri Batasuna, the \"political arm\" of ETA (although even before the change in law, Batasuna had been largely paralysed and under judicial investigation by judge Baltasar Garzón).With ever-increasing frequency, attempted ETA actions were frustrated by Spanish security forces.On 24 December 2003, in San Sebastián and in Hernani, National Police arrested two ETA members who had left dynamite in a railroad car prepared to explode in Chamartín Station in Madrid.", "On 1 March 2004, in a place between Alcalá de Henares and Madrid, a light truck with 536 kg of explosives was discovered by the Guardia Civil.ETA was initially blamed for the 2004 Madrid bombings by the outgoing government and large sections of the press.", "However, the group denied responsibility and Islamic fundamentalists from Morocco were eventually convicted.", "The judicial investigation currently states that there is no relationship between ETA and the Madrid bombings.====2006 ceasefire declaration and subsequent discontinuation====Barajas Airport parking lot after the bombIn the context of negotiation with the Spanish government, ETA declared what it described as a \"truce\" several times since its creation.On 22 March 2006, ETA sent a DVD message to the Basque Network Euskal Irrati-Telebista and the journals ''Gara'' and ''Berria'' with a communiqué from the group announcing what it called a \"permanent ceasefire\" that was broadcast over Spanish TV.Talks with the group were then officially opened by Spanish ''Presidente del Gobierno'' José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero.These took place all over 2006, not free from incidents such as an ETA cell stealing some 300 handguns, ammunition and spare parts in France in October 2006.or a series of warnings made by ETA such as the one of 23 September, when masked ETA militants declared that the group would \"keep taking up arms\" until achieving \"independence and socialism in the Basque country\", which were regarded by some as a way to increase pressure on the talks, by others as a tactic to reinforce ETA's position in the negotiations.Finally, on 30 December 2006 ETA detonated a van bomb after three confusing warning calls, in a parking building at the Madrid Barajas international airport.", "The explosion caused the collapse of the building and killed two Ecuadorian immigrants who were napping inside their cars in the parking building.", "At 6:00 pm, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero released a statement stating that the \"peace process\" had been discontinued.===2008 to present===In January 2008, ETA stated that its call for independence is similar to that of the Kosovo status and Scotland.", "In the week of 8 September 2008, two Basque political parties were banned by a Spanish court for their secretive links to ETA.", "In another case in the same week, 21 people were convicted whose work on behalf of ETA prisoners actually belied secretive links to the armed separatists themselves.", "ETA reacted to these actions by placing three major car bombs in less than 24 hours in northern Spain.In April 2009 Jurdan Martitegi was arrested, making him the fourth consecutive ETA military chief to be captured within a single year, an unprecedented police record, further weakening the group.", "Violence surged in the middle of 2009, with several ETA attacks leaving three people dead and dozens injured around Spain.", "Amnesty International condemned these attacks as well as ETA's \"grave human rights abuses\".The Basque newspaper ''Gara'' published an article that suggested that ETA member Jon Anza could have been killed and buried by Spanish police in April 2009.The central prosecutor in the French town of Bayonne, Anne Kayanakis, announced, as the official version, that the autopsy carried out on the body of Jon Anza – a suspected member of the armed Basque group ETA, missing since April 2009 – revealed no signs of having been beaten, wounded or shot, which should rule out any suspicions that he died from unnatural causes.", "Nevertheless, that very magistrate denied the demand of the family asking for the presence of a family doctor during the autopsy.", "After this, Jon Anza's family members asked for a second autopsy to be carried out.In December 2009, Spain raised its terror alert after warning that ETA could be planning major attacks or high-profile kidnappings during Spain's European Union presidency.", "The next day, after being asked by the opposition, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba said that warning was part of a strategy.====2010 ceasefire====On 5 September 2010, ETA declared a new ceasefire, its third after two previous ceasefires were ended by the group.", "A spokesperson speaking on a video announcing the ceasefire said the group wished to use \"peaceful, democratic means\" to achieve its aims, though it was not specified whether the ceasefire was considered permanent by the group.", "ETA claimed that it had decided to initiate a ceasefire several months before the announcement.", "In the part of the video, the spokesperson said that the group was \"prepared today as yesterday to agree to the minimum democratic conditions necessary to put in motion a democratic process if the Spanish government is willing\".The announcement was met with a mixed reaction; Basque nationalist politicians responded positively and said that the Spanish and international governments should do the same, while the Spanish interior counsellor of Basque, Rodolfo Ares, said that the committee did not go far enough.", "He said that he considered ETA's statement \"absolutely insufficient\" because it did not commit to a complete termination of what Ares considered \"terrorist activity\" by the group.====2011 permanent ceasefire and cessation of armed activity====The final declaration of the Donostia-San Sebastián International Peace Conference (17 October 2011) led to an announcement of the cessation of armed activity by ETA.On 10 January 2011, ETA declared that their September 2010 ceasefire would be permanent and verifiable by international observers.", "Observers urged caution, pointing out that ETA had broken permanent ceasefires in the past, whereas Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (who left office in December 2011) demanded that ETA declare that it had given up violence once and for all.", "After the declaration, Spanish press started speculating of a possible Real IRA-type split within ETA, with hardliners forming a new more violent offshoot led by \"Dienteputo\".On 21 October 2011, ETA announced a cessation of armed activity via video clip sent to media outlets following the Donostia-San Sebastián International Peace Conference, which was attended by former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, former Taoiseach of Ireland Bertie Ahern, former prime minister of Norway Gro Harlem Brundtland (an international leader in sustainable development and public health), former Interior Minister of France Pierre Joxe, president of Sinn Féin Gerry Adams (a Teachta Dála in Dáil Éireann), and British diplomat Jonathan Powell, who served as the first Downing Street Chief of Staff.They all signed a final declaration that was supported also by former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair, the former US president and 2002 Nobel Peace Prize winner Jimmy Carter, and the former US senator and former US Special Envoy for Middle East Peace George J. Mitchell.", "The meeting did not include Spanish or French government representatives.The day after the ceasefire, in a contribution piece to ''The New York Times'', Tony Blair indicated that lessons in dealing with paramilitary separatist groups can be learned from how the Spanish administration handled ETA.", "Blair wrote, \"governments must firmly defend themselves, their principles and their people against terrorists.", "This requires good police and intelligence work as well as political determination.", "However, firm security pressure on terrorists must be coupled with offering them a way out when they realize that they cannot win by violence.", "Terrorist groups are rarely defeated by military means alone\".", "Blair also suggested that Spain would need to discuss weapon decommissioning, peace strategies, reparations for victims, and security with ETA, as Britain discussed with the Provisional IRA.ETA had declared ceasefires many times before, most significantly in 1999 and 2006, but the Spanish government and media outlets expressed particularly hopeful opinions regarding the permanence of this proclamation.", "Spanish premier José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero described the move as \"a victory for democracy, law and reason\".", "Additionally, the effort of security and intelligence forces in Spain and France are cited by politicians as the primary instruments responsible for the weakening of ETA.", "The optimism may come as a surprise considering ETA's failure to renounce the independence movement, which has been one of the Spanish government's requirements.Less optimistically, Spanish Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy of the centre-right People's Party expressed the need to push for the full dissolution of ETA.", "The People's Party has emphasized the obligation of the state to refuse negotiations with separatist movements since former Prime Minister José María Aznar was in office.", "Aznar was responsible for banning media outlets seen as subversive to the state and Batasuna, the political party of ETA.", "Additionally, in preparation for his party's manifesto, on 30 October 2011, Rajoy declared that the People's Party would not negotiate with ETA under threats of violence nor announcements of the group's termination, but would instead focus party efforts on remembering and honouring victims of separatist violence.This event may not alter the goals of the Basque separatist movement but will change the method of the fight for a more autonomous state.", "Negotiations with the newly elected administration may prove difficult with the return to the centre-right People's Party, which is replacing Socialist control, due to pressure from within the party to refuse all ETA negotiations.In September 2016, French police stated that they did not believe ETA had made progress in giving up arms.", "In March 2017, well-known French-Basque activist was quoted as having told ''Le Monde'', \"ETA has made us responsible for the disarmament of its arsenal, and by the afternoon of 8 April, ETA will be completely unarmed.\"", "On 7 April, the BBC reported that ETA would disarm \"tomorrow\", including a photo of a stamped ETA letter attesting to this.", "The French police found 3.5 tonnes of weapons on 8 April, the following day, at the caches handed over by ETA.ETA, for its part, issued a statement endorsing the 2017 Catalan independence referendum.==== End of political activity ====In a letter to online newspaper ''El Diario'', published on 2 May 2018, ETA formally announced that it had \"completely dissolved all its structures and ended its political initiative\" on 16 April 2018.A leading left-wing Basque nationalist politician and former ETA member, Arnaldo Otegi, the general coordinator of the Basque coalition party EH Bildu, has said the violence ETA used in its quest for independence \"should never have happened\" and it ought to have laid down its arms far earlier than it did." ], [ "Victims, tactics and attacks", "===Victims===Flowers and a plate remember Ertzaina officer José \"Txema\" Agirre, shot dead by ETA gunmen in 1997 while protecting the Guggenheim Bilbao Museum (visible in the background)Repairs to the Balmaseda law courts after a bombing in 2006ETA's targets expanded from military or police-related personnel and their families to a wider array, which included the following:* Fascist leaders, such as Prime Minister Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco, Franco's successor was killed in a bombing on December 20, 1973.", "* Spanish military and police personnel, active duty or retired.", "The barracks of the Guardia Civil also provide housing for their families, thus, attacks on the barracks have also resulted in deaths of relatives, including children.", "As the regional police (Ertzaintza in the Basque Country and Mossos d'Esquadra in Catalonia) took a greater role in combating ETA, they were added to their list of targets.", "* Businessmen (such as Javier Ybarra and Ignacio Uria Mendizabal): these are mainly targeted in order to extort them for the so-called \"revolutionary tax\".", "Refusal to pay has been punished with assassinations, kidnappings for ransom or bombings of their business.", "* Prison officers such as José Antonio Ortega Lara.", "* Elected parliamentarians, city councillors and ex-councillors, politicians in general: most prominently Luis Carrero Blanco (killed in 1973).", "Dozens of politicians belonging to the People's Party (PP) and Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) were assassinated or maimed.", "Some Basque nationalist politicians from the PNV party, such as Juan Mari Atutxa, also received threats.", "Hundreds of politicians in Spain required a constant bodyguard service.", "Bodyguards are contingent victims as well.", "In 2005 ETA announced that it would no longer \"target\" elected politicians.", "Nonetheless, ETA killed ex-council member Isaías Carrasco in Mondragon/Arrasate on 7 March 2008.", "* Judges and prosecutors.", "Particularly threatened were the members of the Spanish anti-terrorist court: the ''Audiencia Nacional''.", "* University professors who publicly expressed ideas that countered armed Basque separatism: such as Manuel Broseta or Francisco Tomás y Valiente.", "In the latter case, the shooting resulted in more than half a million people protesting against ETA.", "* Journalists: some of these professionals began to be labelled by ETA as targets starting with the killing of journalist José Luis López de la Calle, assassinated in May 2000.", "* Economic targets: a wide array of private or public property considered valuable assets of Spain, especially railroads, tourist sites, industries, or malls.", "* Exceptionally, ETA also assassinated former ETA members such as María Dolores Katarain as a reprisal for having left the group.", "* A number of ETA attacks by car bomb caused random civilian casualties, like ETA's bloodiest attack, the bombing in 1987 of the subterranean parking lot of the Hipercor supermarket in Barcelona which killed 21 civilians and left 45 seriously wounded, of whom 20 were left disabled; also the attack of Plaza de Callao in Madrid.===Tactics===ETA's tactics included:* Direct attacks: killing by shooting the victim in the nape.", "* Bombings (often with car bombs).", "When the bombs targeted individuals for assassination they were often surreptitiously rigged in the victim's car.", "The detonating systems varied.", "They were rarely manually ignited but instead, for example, wired so the bomb would explode on the ignition or when the car went over a set speed limit.", "Sometimes the bomb was placed inside a stolen car with false plates, parked along the route of the objective, and the explosive remotely activated when the target passed by (e.g.", "V.I.P.", "cars, police patrols or military vehicles).These bombs sometimes killed family members of ETA's target victim and bystanders.", "When the bombs were large car-bombs seeking to produce large damage and terror, they were generally announced by one or more telephone calls made to newspapers speaking in the name of ETA.", "Charities (usually Detente Y Ayuda—DYA) were also used to announce the threat if the bomb was in a populated area.", "The type of explosives used in these attacks was initially Goma-2 or self-produced ammonal.", "After several successful robberies in France, ETA began using Titadyne.", "* Shells: hand-made mortars (the ''Jo ta ke'' model) were occasionally used to attack military or police bases.", "Their lack of precision was probably the reason their use was discontinued.", "* Anonymous threats: often delivered in the Basque Country by placards or graffiti.", "Such threats forced many people into hiding or exile from the Basque Country and were used to prevent people from freely expressing political ideas other than Basque nationalist ones.", "* Extortion or blackmail: called by ETA a \"revolutionary tax\", demanding money from a business owner in the Basque Country or elsewhere in Spain, under threats to him and his family, up to and including death threats.", "Occasionally, some French Basques were threatened in this manner, such as footballer Bixente Lizarazu.", "ETA moves the extorted funds to accounts in Liechtenstein and other fiscal havens.", "According to French judiciary sources, as of 2008 ETA exacted an estimated €900,000 a year in this manner.", "* Kidnapping: often as a punishment for failing to pay the blackmail known as \"revolutionary tax\", but was also used to try to force the government to free ETA prisoners under the threat of killing the kidnapped, as in the kidnapping and execution of Miguel Angel Blanco.", "ETA often hid the kidnapped in underground chambers without windows, called ''zulos'', of very reduced dimensions for extended periods.", "Also, people robbed of their vehicles would usually be tied up and abandoned in an isolated place to allow those who carjacked them to escape.", "* Robbery: ETA members also stole weapons, explosives, machines for license plates and vehicles.===Attacks===" ], [ "Activity", "With its attacks against what they considered \"enemies of the Basque people\", ETA killed over 820 people since 1968, including more than 340 civilians.", "It maimed hundreds more and kidnapped dozens.", "ETA was opposed to Lemóniz Nuclear Power Plant.Its ability to inflict violence had declined steadily since the group was at its strongest during the late 1970s and 1980 (when it killed 92 people in a single year).", "After decreasing peaks in the fatal casualties in 1987 and 1991, 2000 was the last year when ETA killed more than 20 in a single year.", "After 2002, the yearly number of ETA's fatal casualties was reduced to single digits.Similarly, over the 1990s and, especially, during the 2000s, fluid cooperation between the French and Spanish police, state-of-the-art tracking devices and techniques and, apparently, police infiltration allowed increasingly repeating blows to ETA's leadership and structure (between May 2008 and April 2009 no less than four consecutive \"military chiefs\" were arrested).ETA operated mainly in Spain, particularly in the Basque Country, Navarre, and (to a lesser degree) Madrid, Barcelona, and the tourist areas of the Spanish Mediterranean coast.", "To date, about 65% of ETA's killings were committed in the Basque Country, followed by Madrid with roughly 15%.", "Navarre and Catalonia also registered significant numbers.", "ETA cooperated with the Catalan nationalist movement, which had its own far-left separatist organization that based itself off ETA - Terra Lliure; Terra Lliure was ultimately less successful and also avoided violent actions - excluding deaths amongst its members, Terra Lliure only had a single, accidental victim.Actions in France usually consisted of assaults on arsenals or military industries to steal weapons or explosives; these were usually stored in large quantities in hide-outs located in the French Basque Country rather than Spain.", "The French judge Laurence Le Vert was threatened by ETA and a plot arguably aiming to assassinate her was unveiled.", "Only very rarely have ETA members engaged in shootings with the French Gendarmerie.", "This often occurred mainly when members of the group were confronted at checkpoints.Despite this, on 1 December 2007 ETA killed two Spanish Civil Guards on counter-terrorist surveillance duties in Capbreton, Landes, France.", "This was its first killing after it ended its 2006 declaration of \"permanent ceasefire\" and the first killing committed by ETA in France of a Spanish police agent since 1976, when they kidnapped, tortured and assassinated two Spanish inspectors in Hendaye.===Financing===In 2007, police reports pointed out that, after the serious blows suffered by ETA and its political counterparts during the 2000s, its budget would have been adjusted to €2,000,000 annually.Although ETA used robbery as a means of financing its activities in its early days, it was accused both of arms trafficking and of benefiting economically from its political counterpart Batasuna.", "Extortion was ETA's main source of funds." ], [ "Basque nationalist context", "ETA was considered to form part of what is informally known as the Basque National Liberation Movement, a movement born much after ETA's creation.", "This loose term refers to a range of political organizations that are ideologically similar, comprising several distinct organizations that promote a type of leftist Basque nationalism that is often referred to by the Basque-language term ''Ezker Abertzalea'' (Nationalist Left).", "Other groups typically considered to belong to this independentist movement are the political party Batasuna, the nationalist youth organization Segi, the labour union Langile Abertzaleen Batzordeak (LAB), and Askatasuna among others.", "There are often strong interconnections between these groups, double or even triple membership are not infrequent.There are Basque nationalist parties with similar goals as those of ETA (namely, independence) but who reject their violent means.", "They are: EAJ-PNV, Eusko Alkartasuna, Aralar and, in the French Basque country, Abertzaleen Batasuna.", "Also, many left-wing parties, such as Ezker Batua, Batzarre and some sectors of the EAJ-PNV party, also support self-determination but are not in favour of independence." ], [ "French role", "Historically, members of ETA took refuge in France, particularly the French Basque Country.", "The leadership typically chose to live in France for security reasons, where police pressure was much less than in Spain.", "Accordingly, ETA's tactical approach had been to downplay the issue of independence of the French Basque country so as to get French acquiescence for their activities.", "The French government quietly tolerated the group, especially during Franco's regime, when ETA members could face the death penalty in Spain.", "In the 1980s, the advent of the GAL still hindered counter-terrorist cooperation between France and Spain, with the French government considering ETA a Spanish domestic problem.", "At the time, ETA members often travelled between the two countries using the French sanctuary as a base of operations.With the disbanding of the GAL, the French government changed its position on the matter and in the 1990s initiated the ongoing period of active cooperation with the Spanish government against ETA, including fast-track transfers of detainees to Spanish tribunals that are regarded as fully compliant with European Union legislation on human rights and the legal representation of detainees.", "Virtually all of the highest ranks within ETA –including their successive \"military\", \"political\" or finances chiefs – have been captured in French territory, from where they had been plotting their activities after having crossed the border from Spain.In response to the new situation, ETA carried out attacks against French policemen and made threats to some French judges and prosecutors.", "This implied a change from the group's previous low-profile in the French Basque Country, which successive ETA leaders had used to discreetly manage their activities in Spain." ], [ "Government response", "ETA considered its prisoners political prisoners.", "Until 2003, ETA consequently forbade them to ask penal authorities for progression to ''tercer grado'' (a form of open prison that allows single-day or weekend furloughs) or parole.", "Before that date, those who did so were menaced and expelled from the group.", "Some were assassinated by ETA for leaving the group and going through reinsertion programs.The Spanish Government passed the ''Ley de Partidos Políticos''.", "This is a law barring political parties that support violence and do not condemn terrorist actions or are involved with terrorist groups.", "The law resulted in the banning of Herri Batasuna and its successor parties unless they explicitly condemned terrorist actions and, at times, imprisoning or trying some of its leaders who have been indicted for cooperation with ETA.Judge Baltasar Garzón initiated a judicial procedure (coded as ''18/98''), aimed towards the support structure of ETA.", "This procedure started in 1998 with the preventive closure of the newspaper ''Egin'' (and its associated radio-station ''Egin Irratia''), accused of being linked to ETA, and temporary imprisoning the editor of its \"investigative unit\", Pepe Rei, under similar accusations.", "In August 1999 Judge Baltasar Garzón authorized the reopening of the newspaper and the radio, but they could not reopen due to economic difficulties.Judicial procedure 18/98 has many ramifications, including the following:* A trial against a little-known organization called ''Xaki'', acquitted in 2001 as the \"international network\" of ETA.", "* A trial against the youths' movement ''Jarrai''-'' Haika''-''Segi'', accused of contributing to street violence in an organized form and connivance with ETA.", "* Another trial against Pepe Rei and his new investigation magazine ''Ardi Beltza'' (''Black Sheep'').", "The magazine was also closed down.", "* A trial against the political organization ''Ekin'' (''Action''), accused of promoting civil disobedience.", "* A trial against the organization ''Joxemi Zumalabe Fundazioa'', which was once again accused of promoting civil disobedience.", "* A trial against the prisoner support movement ''Amnistiaren Aldeko Komiteak''.", "* A trial against Batasuna and the ''Herriko Tabernak'' (''people's taverns''), accused of acting as a network of meeting centres for members and supporters of ETA.", "Batasuna was outlawed in all forms.", "Most taverns continue working normally as their ownership is not directly linked to Batasuna.", "* A trial against the league of Basque-language academies AEK.", "The case was dropped in 2001.", "* Another trial against ''Ekin'', accusing Iker Casnova of managing the finances of ETA.", "* A trial against the association of Basque municipalities Udalbiltza.", "* The closing of the newspaper Euskaldunon Egunkaria in 2003 and the imprisonment and trial of its editor, Martxelo Otamendi, due to links with ETA accounting and fundraising, and other journalists (some of whom reported torture).In 2007, indicted members of the youth movements Haika, Segi and Jarrai were found guilty of a crime of connivance with terrorism.In May 2008, leading ETA figures were arrested in Bordeaux, France.", "Francisco Javier López Peña, also known as 'Thierry,' had been on the run for twenty years before his arrest.", "A final total of arrests brought in six people, including ETA members and supporters, including the ex-Mayor of Andoain, José Antonio Barandiarán, who is rumoured to have led police to 'Thierry'.", "The Spanish Interior Ministry claimed the relevance of the arrests would come in time with the investigation.", "Furthermore, the Interior Minister said that those members of ETA now arrested had ordered the latest attacks and that senior ETA member Francisco Javier López Peña was \"not just another arrest because he is, in all probability, the man who has most political and military weight in the terrorist group.", "\"After Lopez Pena's arrest, along with the Basque referendum being put on hold, police work has been on the rise.", "On 22 July 2008, Spanish police dismantled the most active cell of ETA by detaining nine suspected members of the group.", "Interior Minister Alfredo Perez Rubalcaba said about the arrests: \"We can't say this is the only ETA unit but it was the most active, most dynamic and of course the most wanted one.\"", "Four days later French police also arrested two suspects believed to be tied to the same active cell.", "The two suspects were: Asier Eceiza, considered a top aide to a senior ETA operative still sought by police, and Olga Comes, whom authorities have linked to the ETA suspects.===International response===The European Union and the United States listed ETA as a terrorist group in their relevant watch lists.", "ETA has been a Proscribed Organisation in the United Kingdom under the Terrorism Act 2000 since 29 March 2001.The Canadian Parliament listed ETA as a terrorist group in 2003.France and Spain have often shown co-operation in the fight against ETA, after France's lack of co-operation during the Franco era.", "In late 2007, two Spanish guards were shot to death in France when on a joint operation with their French counterparts.", "Furthermore, in May 2008, the arrests of four people in Bordeaux led to a breakthrough against ETA, according to the Spanish Interior Ministry.In 2008, as ETA activity increased, France increased its pressure on ETA by arresting more ETA suspects, including Unai Fano, María Lizarraga, and Esteban Murillo Zubiri in Bidarrain.", "He had been wanted by the Spanish authorities since 2007 when a Europol arrest warrant was issued against him.", "French judicial authorities had already ordered that he be held in prison on remand.Spain has also sought cooperation from the United Kingdom in dealing with ETA-IRA ties.", "In 2008, this came to light after Iñaki de Juana Chaos, whose release from prison was cancelled on appeal, had moved to Belfast.", "He was thought to be staying at an IRA safe house while being sought by the Spanish authorities.", "Interpol notified the judge, Eloy Velasco, that he was in either the Republic of Ireland or Northern Ireland." ], [ "Other related armed groups", "===Disbanded violent groups===* Anti-ETA groups:** ''Acción Nacional Española''** ''ATE (Anti-Terrorismo ETA)''** ''Batallón Vasco Español''** ''Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación'' (GAL)** ''Guerrilleros de Cristo Rey''* Minor Basque nationalist and radical left-wing groups:** ''Iparretarrak''** ''Iraultza''** ''Comandos Autónomos Anticapitalistas''** ''Euskal Zuzentasuna''** ''Hordago''** ''Irrintzi''===International links===A republican mural in Belfast showing solidarity with Basque nationalism* ETA was known to have had 'fraternal' contacts with the Provisional Irish Republican Army; the two groups have both, at times, characterized their struggles as parallel.", "Links between the two groups go back to at least March 1974.ETA purchased Strela 2 surface-to-air missiles from the IRA and in 2001 unsuccessfully attempted to shoot down a jet carrying the Spanish Prime Minister, José María Aznar.", "IRA member Maria McGuire stated the IRA received fifty revolvers from ETA in exchange for explosives training.", "* In the late 1960s, the Portuguese group (LUAR), which was fighting the dictatorship, brokered the contacts that allowed ETA to purchase weapons in the former Czechoslovak Republic.", "The partnership continued as LUAR would later assign part of the stolen passports on Portugal consulted in Rotterdam and Luxembourg, in 1971.These were used by ETA in the Ogro operation that resulted in the assassination of Prime Minister, Admiral Carrero Blanco.", "Later, in 1981, when Portugal and Spain were living already in full democracy, ETA exchanged weapons, explosives and provided logistical support to the Forças Populares 25 de Abril (FP-25), a Portuguese far-left terrorist group.", "In 1981, FP-25 received Gama 2 explosives and two dozen FireBird pistols in exchange for G3 machine guns.", "Additionally, ETA came to harbor, in the Basque Country, two FP-25 terrorists who needed to retreat.", "* ETA acquired weapons from Carlos the Jackal (Ilich Ramírez Sánchez) in the early 1980s.", "* In 1999 ETA militants teamed up with the (now self-dissolved) Breton Revolutionary Army to steal explosives from magazines in Brittany.", "* The Colombian government stated that there are contacts between ETA and the Colombian guerrillas FARC.", "The recent capture of FARC's leaders' computers, and leaked email exchanges between both groups, show that ETA members received training from FARC.", "Apparently, FARC asked for help from ETA to conduct future attacks in Spain, but the Anncol news agency later denied it, clarifying that the Spanish capital Madrid had been confused with a city in northern Colombia also named Madrid.", "Following a judicial investigation, it was reported that FARC and ETA had held meetings in Colombia, exchanging information about combat tactics and methods of activating explosives through mobile phones.", "The two organizations were said to have met at least three times.", "One of the meetings involved two ETA representatives and two FARC leaders, at a FARC camp, and lasted for a week in 2003.FARC also offered to hide ETA fugitives while requesting anti-air missiles, as well as asking ETA to supply medical experts who could work at FARC prison camps for more than a year.", "Besides, and more controversially, FARC also asked ETA to stage attacks and kidnappings on its behalf in Europe.", "** Italian author and mafia specialist Roberto Saviano pointed to a relationship of the group with the Mafia.", "According to this view, ETA trafficked cocaine which it got via its FARC contacts, then traded it with the Mafia for guns.", "* Several ex-militants were sent from France through Panama to reside in Cuba after an agreement of the Spanish government (under Felipe González) with Cuba.", "The United States Department of State has no information on their activities on Cuban territory.", "* Mapuche groups in the Argentine province of Neuquén have been accused of being trained by both ETA and FARC.", "Local Mapuches have classified the rumours as part of a plot by businessmen and other Argentines.", "The United States diplomatic cables leak showed the government of Michelle Bachelet had asked the United States aid in investigating a possible FARC-ETA-Mapuche link." ], [ "In the media", "===Films=======Documentary films====* , about the families of Basque politician Fernando Buesa and his bodyguard, both killed by ETA.", "* ''The Basque Ball: The Skin Against the Stone'', (''La Pelota Vasca'', 2003) about the Basque conflict by filmmaker Julio Medem: interviews about Basque nationalism and politics.", "Includes testimonials of ETA victims and relatives of ETA prisoners.", "* , Eterio Ortega and Elías Querejeta interview local councillors threatened by ETA.", "* , the testimony of some of ETA's victims in the last 30 years by filmmaker Iñaki Arteta.", "* 48 horas: A movie about the kidnapping of Miguel Angel Blanco and his murder*''ETA.", "Une histoire basque'', about the history of ETA* Chronique Basque About a Basque politician who is the target of an ETA death threat.", "* ''Asier ETA biok'' (\"Asier and/ETA I\", 2013) Filmmaker Aitor Merino explores his relation with his childhood friend Asier Aranguren, who had become an ETA member.", "* ''El fin de ETA'' a documentary about the history of ETA====Other fact-based films about ETA====* ''Commando Txikia'' (José Luis Madrid, 1977)* (Operation Ogre, 1979), Gillo Pontecorvo's film about the assassination of Luis Carrero Blanco.", "* (\"The Burgos Trial\", Imanol Uribe, 1979)* , about the Segovia prison break when ETA prisoners escaped from Segovia prison.", "* (\"The Trial of ETA\", Manuel Macià, 1988)* , María Dolores Katarain, also known as \"Yoyes\", tries to leave ETA and is killed by her former comrades.", "* , based on the life of Mikel Lejarza, who, prompted by the Spanish police, entered ETA to be a double agent.", "* ''Munich'', where the squad of Israeli operatives pretend to be members of ETA to avoid conflict with a squad of PLO operatives whilst sharing a neutral safe house.", "* , about the journalistic research leading to the uncovering of the state-supported GAL.", "* (2008) (\"A bullet in the head\"), about the life of an ETA member the day he will kill two Spanish Policemen in Capbreton, France.", "* (\"A Bullet for the King\", March 2009) about ETA's failed plot to murder Juan Carlos I during his holidays in Majorca in 1995.", "* (2021) about the meetings between Maixabel Lasa, widow of an assassinated politician, and the repenting assassins.====Fictional films featuring ETA members and actions====* ''El caso Almería'' (\"The Almería Case\", Pedro Costa Musté, 1983)* ''La Muerte de Mikel'' (\"The Death of Mikel\", Imanol Uribe, 1983)* ''it:Goma 2'' (José Antonio de la Loma, 1984)* ''Ander y Yul'' (\"Ander and Yul\", Ana Díez, 1988)* ''Días de humo'' (\"Days of Smoke\", Antton Eceiza, 1989)* ''Sombras en una batalla'' (\"Shadows in a Battle\", Mario Camus, 1993)* ''Días contados'' (\"Counted Days\", Imanol Uribe, 1994)* ''A ciegas'' (\"Blinded\", Daniel Calparsoro, 1997)* ''The Jackal'' (Michael Caton-Jones, 1997)* ''El viaje de Arián'' (\"Arián's Voyage\", Eduard Bosch, 2001)* ''La voz de su amo'' (\"His Master's Voice\", Emilio Martínez Lázaro, 2001)* ''Esos cielos'' (\"Those skies\", Aitzpea Goenaga, 2006)* ''Todos estamos invitados'' (\"We are all invited\", Manuel Gutiérrez Aragón, 2008)* ''Casa de mi padre'' (\"My Father's House\", Gorka Merchán, 2008)* ''Celda 211'' (\"Cell 211\", Daniel Monzón, 2009)* ''Carlos'' (Olivier Assayas, 2010)* ''Bomb Scared'' (Borga Cabeaga, 2017)* ''Patria'' (''\"Fatherland\"'', Aitor Gabilondo, 2020).", "Based on the novel ''Patria'' (Fernando Aramburu, 2016) fictional, but based on the social conflict between families of ETA members and families of the victims.===Novels===* ''The Spanish Game'' (Charles Cumming, 2006)* ''The Sands of Time'' (Sidney Sheldon, 1988)* ''The Fish of Bitterness'' ''(Los peces de la amargura)'' in Spanish (Fernando Aramburu, 2006)* ''A Basque Story'' (M. Bryce Ternet, 2009)* ''Fatherland'' ''(Patria)'' in Spanish (Fernando Aramburu, 2016)* ''The Absent (Los Ausentes)'' in Spanish (Juana Cortés Amunarriz, 2021)===Video games===* In ''Counter-Strike: Global Offensive'', the group was represented by the in-game faction ''The Separatists '' and as playable characters on the in-game map ''de_Inferno ''(defusal group) and ''cs_italy'' (hostage group)." ], [ "See also", "* Etxerat* José Larrañaga Arenas* Felix Likiniano* Julen Madariaga* Kasilda Hernáez" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===*This article makes use of material translated from the corresponding article in the Spanish-language Wikipedia.", "*Enric Martinez-Herrera,   originally published in the ''International Journal on Multicultural Studies'', Vol.", "4, No.", "1, 2002." ], [ "External links", "** ETA terrorism and art.", "Exhibition '1989 After the Conversations of Algiers.", "Delirium and Truce' at Fundació Antoni Tàpies" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Endomembrane system" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''endomembrane system''' is composed of the different membranes ('''endomembranes''') that are suspended in the cytoplasm within a eukaryotic cell.", "These membranes divide the cell into functional and structural compartments, or organelles.", "In eukaryotes the organelles of the endomembrane system include: the nuclear membrane, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, endosomes, and plasma (cell) membrane among others.", "The system is defined more accurately as the set of membranes that forms a single functional and developmental unit, either being connected directly, or exchanging material through vesicle transport.", "Importantly, the endomembrane system does not include the membranes of plastids or mitochondria, but might have evolved partially from the actions of the latter (see below).The nuclear membrane contains a lipid bilayer that encompasses the contents of the nucleus.", "The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a synthesis and transport organelle that branches into the cytoplasm in plant and animal cells.", "The Golgi apparatus is a series of multiple compartments where molecules are packaged for delivery to other cell components or for secretion from the cell.", "Vacuoles, which are found in both plant and animal cells (though much bigger in plant cells), are responsible for maintaining the shape and structure of the cell as well as storing waste products.", "A vesicle is a relatively small, membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports substances.", "The cell membrane is a protective barrier that regulates what enters and leaves the cell.", "There is also an organelle known as the Spitzenkörper that is only found in fungi, and is connected with hyphal tip growth.In prokaryotes endomembranes are rare, although in many photosynthetic bacteria the plasma membrane is highly folded and most of the cell cytoplasm is filled with layers of light-gathering membrane.", "These light-gathering membranes may even form enclosed structures called chlorosomes in green sulfur bacteria.", "Another example is the complex \"pepin\" system of ''Thiomargarita'' species, especially ''T.", "magnifica''.The organelles of the endomembrane system are related through direct contact or by the transfer of membrane segments as vesicles.", "Despite these relationships, the various membranes are not identical in structure and function.", "The thickness, molecular composition, and metabolic behavior of a membrane are not fixed, they may be modified several times during the membrane's life.", "One unifying characteristic the membranes share is a lipid bilayer, with proteins attached to either side or traversing them." ], [ "History of the concept", "Most lipids are synthesized in yeast either in the endoplasmic reticulum, lipid particles, or the mitochondrion, with little or no lipid synthesis occurring in the plasma membrane or nuclear membrane.", "Sphingolipid biosynthesis begins in the endoplasmic reticulum, but is completed in the Golgi apparatus.", "The situation is similar in mammals, with the exception of the first few steps in ether lipid biosynthesis, which occur in peroxisomes.", "The various membranes that enclose the other subcellular organelles must therefore be constructed by transfer of lipids from these sites of synthesis.", "However, although it is clear that lipid transport is a central process in organelle biogenesis, the mechanisms by which lipids are transported through cells remain poorly understood.The first proposal that the membranes within cells form a single system that exchanges material between its components was by Morré and Mollenhauer in 1974.This proposal was made as a way of explaining how the various lipid membranes are assembled in the cell, with these membranes being assembled through ''lipid flow'' from the sites of lipid synthesis.", "The idea of lipid flow through a continuous system of membranes and vesicles was an alternative to the various membranes being independent entities that are formed from transport of free lipid components, such as fatty acids and sterols, through the cytosol.", "Importantly, the transport of lipids through the cytosol and lipid flow through a continuous endomembrane system are not mutually exclusive processes and both may occur in cells." ], [ "Components of the system", "=== Nuclear envelope ===Diagram of the nucleus with the nuclear envelope shown as the orange portion.The nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus, separating its contents from the cytoplasm.", "It has two membranes, each a lipid bilayer with associated proteins.", "The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum membrane, and like that structure, features ribosomes attached to the surface.", "The outer membrane is also continuous with the inner nuclear membrane since the two layers are fused together at numerous tiny holes called nuclear pores that perforate the nuclear envelope.", "These pores are about 120 nm in diameter and regulate the passage of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm, permitting some to pass through the membrane, but not others.", "Since the nuclear pores are located in an area of high traffic, they play an important role in cell physiology.", "The space between the outer and inner membranes is called the perinuclear space and is joined with the lumen of the rough ER.The nuclear envelope's structure is determined by a network of intermediate filaments (protein filaments).", "This network is organized into a mesh-like lining called the nuclear lamina, which binds to chromatin, integral membrane proteins, and other nuclear components along the inner surface of the nucleus.", "The nuclear lamina is thought to help materials inside the nucleus reach the nuclear pores and in the disintegration of the nuclear envelope during mitosis and its reassembly at the end of the process.The nuclear pores are highly efficient at selectively allowing the passage of materials to and from the nucleus, because the nuclear envelope has a considerable amount of traffic.", "RNA and ribosomal subunits must be continually transferred from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.", "Histones, gene regulatory proteins, DNA and RNA polymerases, and other substances essential for nuclear activities must be imported from the cytoplasm.", "The nuclear envelope of a typical mammalian cell contains 3000–4000 pore complexes.", "If the cell is synthesizing DNA each pore complex needs to transport about 100 histone molecules per minute.", "If the cell is growing rapidly, each complex also needs to transport about 6 newly assembled large and small ribosomal subunits per minute from the nucleus to the cytosol, where they are used to synthesize proteins.=== Endoplasmic reticulum ===Nucleus'''2''' Nuclear pore'''3''' Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)'''4''' Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)'''5''' Ribosome on the rough ER'''6''' Proteins that are transported'''7''' Transport vesicle'''8''' Golgi apparatus'''9''' Cis face of the Golgi apparatus'''10''' Trans face of the Golgi apparatus'''11''' Cisternae of the Golgi apparatusThe endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membranous synthesis and transport organelle that is an extension of the nuclear envelope.", "More than half the total membrane in eukaryotic cells is accounted for by the ER.", "The ER is made up of flattened sacs and branching tubules that are thought to interconnect, so that the ER membrane forms a continuous sheet enclosing a single internal space.", "This highly convoluted space is called the ER lumen and is also referred to as the ER cisternal space.", "The lumen takes up about ten percent of the entire cell volume.", "The endoplasmic reticulum membrane allows molecules to be selectively transferred between the lumen and the cytoplasm, and since it is connected to the nuclear envelope, it provides a channel between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.The ER has a central role in producing, processing, and transporting biochemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell.", "Its membrane is the site of production of all the transmembrane proteins and lipids for most of the cell's organelles, including the ER itself, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, endosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, secretory vesicles, and the plasma membrane.", "Furthermore, almost all of the proteins that will exit the cell, plus those destined for the lumen of the ER, Golgi apparatus, or lysosomes, are originally delivered to the ER lumen.", "Consequently, many of the proteins found in the cisternal space of the endoplasmic reticulum lumen are there only temporarily as they pass on their way to other locations.", "Other proteins, however, constantly remain in the lumen and are known as endoplasmic reticulum resident proteins.", "These special proteins contain a specialized retention signal made up of a specific sequence of amino acids that enables them to be retained by the organelle.", "An example of an important endoplasmic reticulum resident protein is the chaperone protein known as BiP which identifies other proteins that have been improperly built or processed and keeps them from being sent to their final destinations.The ER is involved in cotranslational sorting of proteins.", "A polypeptide which contains an ER signal sequence is recognised by the signal recognition particle which halts the production of the protein.", "The SRP transports the nascent protein to the ER membrane where it is released through a membrane channel and translation resumes.By using electron microscope, ribosomes (\"particles\") on the rough endoplasmic reticulum can be observed.", "There are two distinct, though connected, regions of ER that differ in structure and function: smooth ER and rough ER.", "The rough endoplasmic reticulum is so named because the cytoplasmic surface is covered with ribosomes, giving it a bumpy appearance when viewed through an electron microscope.", "The smooth ER appears smooth since its cytoplasmic surface lacks ribosomes.==== Functions of the smooth ER ====In the great majority of cells, smooth ER regions are scarce and are often partly smooth and partly rough.", "They are sometimes called transitional ER because they contain ER exit sites from which transport vesicles carrying newly synthesized proteins and lipids bud off for transport to the Golgi apparatus.", "In certain specialized cells, however, the smooth ER is abundant and has additional functions.", "The smooth ER of these specialized cells functions in diverse metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, and detoxification of drugs and poisons.Enzymes of the smooth ER are vital to the synthesis of lipids, including oils, phospholipids, and steroids.", "Sex hormones of vertebrates and the steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal glands are among the steroids produced by the smooth ER in animal cells.", "The cells that synthesize these hormones are rich in smooth ER.Liver cells are another example of specialized cells that contain an abundance of smooth ER.", "These cells provide an example of the role of smooth ER in carbohydrate metabolism.", "Liver cells store carbohydrates in the form of glycogen.", "The breakdown of glycogen eventually leads to the release of glucose from the liver cells, which is important in the regulation of sugar concentration in the blood.", "However, the primary product of glycogen breakdown is glucose-1-phosphate.", "This is converted to glucose-6-phosphate and then an enzyme of the liver cell's smooth ER removes the phosphate from the glucose, so that it can then leave the cell.Enzymes of the smooth ER can also help detoxify drugs and poisons.", "Detoxification usually involves the addition of a hydroxyl group to a drug, making the drug more soluble and thus easier to purge from the body.", "One extensively studied detoxification reaction is carried out by the cytochrome P450 family of enzymes, which catalyze oxidation reactions on water-insoluble drugs or metabolites that would otherwise accumulate to toxic levels in cell membrane.In muscle cells, a specialized smooth ER (sarcoplasmic reticulum) forms a membranous compartment (cisternal space) into which calcium ions are pumped.", "When a muscle cell becomes stimulated by a nerve impulse, calcium goes back across this membrane into the cytosol and generates the contraction of the muscle cell.==== Functions of the rough ER ====Many types of cells export proteins produced by ribosomes attached to the rough ER.", "The ribosomes assemble amino acids into protein units, which are carried into the rough ER for further adjustments.", "These proteins may be either transmembrane proteins, which become embedded in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, or water-soluble proteins, which are able to pass through the membrane into the lumen.", "Those that reach the inside of the endoplasmic reticulum are folded into the correct three-dimensional conformation.", "Chemicals, such as carbohydrates or sugars, are added, then the endoplasmic reticulum either transports the completed proteins, called secretory proteins, to areas of the cell where they are needed, or they are sent to the Golgi apparatus for further processing and modification.Once secretory proteins are formed, the ER membrane separates them from the proteins that will remain in the cytosol.", "Secretory proteins depart from the ER enfolded in the membranes of vesicles that bud like bubbles from the transitional ER.", "These vesicles in transit to another part of the cell are called transport vesicles.", "An alternative mechanism for transport of lipids and proteins out of the ER are through lipid transfer proteins at regions called membrane contact sites where the ER becomes closely and stably associated with the membranes of other organelles, such as the plasma membrane, Golgi or lysosomes.In addition to making secretory proteins, the rough ER makes membranes that grows in place from the addition of proteins and phospholipids.", "As polypeptides intended to be membrane proteins grow from the ribosomes, they are inserted into the ER membrane itself and are kept there by their hydrophobic portions.", "The rough ER also produces its own membrane phospholipids; enzymes built into the ER membrane assemble phospholipids.", "The ER membrane expands and can be transferred by transport vesicles to other components of the endomembrane system.=== Golgi apparatus ===Micrograph of Golgi apparatus, visible as a stack of semicircular black rings near the bottom.", "Numerous circular vesicles can be seen in proximity to the organelleThe Golgi apparatus (also known as the Golgi body and the Golgi complex) is composed of separate sacs called cisternae.", "Its shape is similar to a stack of pancakes.", "The number of these stacks varies with the specific function of the cell.", "The Golgi apparatus is used by the cell for further protein modification.", "The section of the Golgi apparatus that receives the vesicles from the ER is known as the cis face, and is usually near the ER.", "The opposite end of the Golgi apparatus is called the trans face, this is where the modified compounds leave.", "The trans face is usually facing the plasma membrane, which is where most of the substances the Golgi apparatus modifies are sent.Vesicles sent off by the ER containing proteins are further altered at the Golgi apparatus and then prepared for secretion from the cell or transport to other parts of the cell.", "Various things can happen to the proteins on their journey through the enzyme covered space of the Golgi apparatus.", "The modification and synthesis of the carbohydrate portions of glycoproteins is common in protein processing.", "The Golgi apparatus removes and substitutes sugar monomers, producing a large variety of oligosaccharides.", "In addition to modifying proteins, the Golgi also manufactures macromolecules itself.", "In plant cells, the Golgi produces pectins and other polysaccharides needed by the plant structure.Once the modification process is completed, the Golgi apparatus sorts the products of its processing and sends them to various parts of the cell.", "Molecular identification labels or tags are added by the Golgi enzymes to help with this.", "After everything is organized, the Golgi apparatus sends off its products by budding vesicles from its trans face.=== Vacuoles ===Vacuoles, like vesicles, are membrane-bound sacs within the cell.", "They are larger than vesicles and their specific function varies.", "The operations of vacuoles are different for plant and animal vacuoles.In plant cells, vacuoles cover anywhere from 30% to 90% of the total cell volume.", "Most mature plant cells contain one large central vacuole encompassed by a membrane called the tonoplast.", "Vacuoles of plant cells act as storage compartments for the nutrients and waste of a cell.", "The solution that these molecules are stored in is called the cell sap.", "Pigments that color the cell are sometime located in the cell sap.", "Vacuoles can also increase the size of the cell, which elongates as water is added, and they control the turgor pressure (the osmotic pressure that keeps the cell wall from caving in).", "Like lysosomes of animal cells, vacuoles have an acidic pH and contain hydrolytic enzymes.", "The pH of vacuoles enables them to perform homeostatic procedures in the cell.", "For example, when the pH in the cells environment drops, the H+ ions surging into the cytosol can be transferred to a vacuole in order to keep the cytosol's pH constant.In animals, vacuoles serve in exocytosis and endocytosis processes.", "Endocytosis refers to when substances are taken into the cell, whereas for exocytosis substances are moved from the cell into the extracellular space.", "Material to be taken-in is surrounded by the plasma membrane, and then transferred to a vacuole.", "There are two types of endocytosis, phagocytosis (cell eating) and pinocytosis (cell drinking).", "In phagocytosis, cells engulf large particles such as bacteria.", "Pinocytosis is the same process, except the substances being ingested are in the fluid form.=== Vesicles ===Vesicles are small membrane-enclosed transport units that can transfer molecules between different compartments.", "Most vesicles transfer the membranes assembled in the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus, and then from the Golgi apparatus to various locations.There are various types of vesicles each with a different protein configuration.", "Most are formed from specific regions of membranes.", "When a vesicle buds off from a membrane it contains specific proteins on its cytosolic surface.", "Each membrane a vesicle travels to contains a marker on its cytosolic surface.", "This marker corresponds with the proteins on the vesicle traveling to the membrane.", "Once the vesicle finds the membrane, they fuse.There are three well known types of vesicles.", "They are clathrin-coated, COPI-coated, and COPII-coated vesicles.", "Each performs different functions in the cell.", "For example, clathrin-coated vesicles transport substances between the Golgi apparatus and the plasma membrane.", "COPI- and COPII-coated vesicles are frequently used for transportation between the ER and the Golgi apparatus.=== Lysosomes ===Lysosomes are organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes that are used for intracellular digestion.", "The main functions of a lysosome are to process molecules taken in by the cell and to recycle worn out cell parts.", "The enzymes inside of lysosomes are acid hydrolases which require an acidic environment for optimal performance.", "Lysosomes provide such an environment by maintaining a pH of 5.0 inside of the organelle.", "If a lysosome were to rupture, the enzymes released would not be very active because of the cytosol's neutral pH.", "However, if numerous lysosomes leaked the cell could be destroyed from autodigestion.Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion, in a process called phagocytosis (from the Greek , to eat and , vessel, referring here to the cell), by fusing with a vacuole and releasing their enzymes into the vacuole.", "Through this process, sugars, amino acids, and other monomers pass into the cytosol and become nutrients for the cell.", "Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the cell's obsolete organelles in a process called autophagy.", "The lysosome engulfs another organelle and uses its enzymes to take apart the ingested material.", "The resulting organic monomers are then returned to the cytosol for reuse.", "The last function of a lysosome is to digest the cell itself through autolysis.=== Spitzenkörper ===The spitzenkörper is a component of the endomembrane system found only in fungi, and is associated with hyphal tip growth.", "It is a phase-dark body that is composed of an aggregation of membrane-bound vesicles containing cell wall components, serving as a point of assemblage and release of such components intermediate between the Golgi and the cell membrane.", "The spitzenkörper is motile and generates new hyphal tip growth as it moves forward.Detailed illustration of the plasma membrane.", "Including the structure of a phospholipid.=== Plasma membrane ===The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer membrane that separates the cell from its environment and regulates the transport of molecules and signals into and out of the cell.", "Embedded in the membrane are proteins that perform the functions of the plasma membrane.", "The plasma membrane is not a fixed or rigid structure, the molecules that compose the membrane are capable of lateral movement.", "This movement and the multiple components of the membrane are why it is referred to as a fluid mosaic.", "Smaller molecules such as carbon dioxide, water, and oxygen can pass through the plasma membrane freely by diffusion or osmosis.", "Larger molecules needed by the cell are assisted by proteins through active transport.The plasma membrane of a cell has multiple functions.", "These include transporting nutrients into the cell, allowing waste to leave, preventing materials from entering the cell, averting needed materials from leaving the cell, maintaining the pH of the cytosol, and preserving the osmotic pressure of the cytosol.", "Transport proteins which allow some materials to pass through but not others are used for these functions.", "These proteins use ATP hydrolysis to pump materials against their concentration gradients.In addition to these universal functions, the plasma membrane has a more specific role in multicellular organisms.", "Glycoproteins on the membrane assist the cell in recognizing other cells, in order to exchange metabolites and form tissues.", "Other proteins on the plasma membrane allow attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix; a function that maintains cell shape and fixes the location of membrane proteins.", "Enzymes that catalyze reactions are also found on the plasma membrane.", "Receptor proteins on the membrane have a shape that matches with a chemical messenger, resulting in various cellular responses." ], [ "Evolution", "The origin of the endomembrane system is linked to the origin of eukaryotes themselves and the origin of eukaryoties to the endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria.", "Many models have been put forward to explain the origin of the endomembrane system (reviewed in).", "The most recent concept suggests that the endomembrane system evolved from outer membrane vesicles the endosymbiotic mitochondrion secreted, and got enclosed within infoldings of the host prokaryote (in turn, a result of the ingestion of the endosymbiont).", "This OMV (outer membrane vesicles)-based model for the origin of the endomembrane system is currently the one that requires the fewest novel inventions at eukaryote origin and explains the many connections of mitochondria with other compartments of the cell.", "Currently, this \"inside-out\" hypothesis (which states that the alphaproteobacteria, the ancestral mitochondria, were engulfed by the blebs of an asgardarchaeon, and later the blebs fused leaving infoldings which would eventually become the endomembrane system) is favored more than the outside-in one (which suggested that the endomembrane system arose due to infoldings within the archaeal membrane)." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Ethnology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ethnology''' (from the , meaning 'nation') is an academic field and discipline that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationships between them (compare cultural, social, or sociocultural anthropology)." ], [ "Scientific discipline", "Adam František Kollár, 1779Compared to ethnography, the study of single groups through direct contact with the culture, ethnology takes the research that ethnographers have compiled and then compares and contrasts different cultures.The term ''ethnologia'' (''ethnology'') is credited to Adam Franz Kollár (1718-1783) who used and defined it in his ''Historiae ivrisqve pvblici Regni Vngariae amoenitates'' published in Vienna in 1783.as: \"the science of nations and peoples, or, that study of learned men in which they inquire into the origins, languages, customs, and institutions of various nations, and finally into the fatherland and ancient seats, in order to be able better to judge the nations and peoples in their own times.", "\"Kollár's interest in linguistic and cultural diversity was aroused by the situation in his native multi-ethnic and multilingual Kingdom of Hungary and his roots among its Slovaks, and by the shifts that began to emerge after the gradual retreat of the Ottoman Empire in the more distant Balkans.Among the goals of ethnology have been the reconstruction of human history, and the formulation of cultural invariants, such as the incest taboo and culture change, and the formulation of generalizations about \"human nature\", a concept which has been criticized since the 19th century by various philosophers (Hegel, Marx, structuralism, etc.).", "In some parts of the world, ethnology has developed along independent paths of investigation and pedagogical doctrine, with ''cultural anthropology'' becoming dominant especially in the United States, and ''social anthropology'' in Great Britain.", "The distinction between the three terms is increasingly blurry.", "Ethnology has been considered an academic field since the late 18th century, especially in Europe and is sometimes conceived of as any comparative study of human groups.Claude Lévi-Straussİzmir Ethnography Museum seen from the courtyardThe 15th-century exploration of America by European explorers had an important role in formulating new notions of the Occident (the Western world), such as the notion of the \"Other\".", "This term was used in conjunction with \"savages\", which was either seen as a brutal barbarian, or alternatively, as the \"noble savage\".", "Thus, civilization was opposed in a dualist manner to barbary, a classic opposition constitutive of the even more commonly shared ethnocentrism.", "The progress of ethnology, for example with Claude Lévi-Strauss's structural anthropology, led to the criticism of conceptions of a linear progress, or the pseudo-opposition between \"societies with histories\" and \"societies without histories\", judged too dependent on a limited view of history as constituted by accumulative growth.Lévi-Strauss often referred to Montaigne's essay on cannibalism as an early example of ethnology.", "Lévi-Strauss aimed, through a structural method, at discovering universal invariants in human society, chief among which he believed to be the incest taboo.", "However, the claims of such cultural universalism have been criticized by various 19th- and 20th-century social thinkers, including Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Derrida, Althusser, and Deleuze.The French school of ethnology was particularly significant for the development of the discipline, since the early 1950s.", "Important figures in this movement have included Lévi-Strauss, Paul Rivet, Marcel Griaule, Germaine Dieterlen, and Jean Rouch." ], [ "Scholars", "See: List of scholars of ethnology" ], [ "See also", "*Anthropology*Cultural anthropology*Comparative cultural studies*Cross-cultural studies*Ethnography*Folklore studies*Cultural survival*Culture*Ethnocentrism*Evolutionism*Indigenous peoples*Intangible cultural heritage*Marxism*Meta-analysis*Critical theory*Modernism*Postmodernism*Postcolonial*Decoloniality*Primitive culture*Primitivism*Scientific Racism*Secondary research*Society*Structural anthropology*Structural functionalism*Ethnobiology*Ethnopoetics*Ethnic studies*Critical race studies*Cultural studies" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Forster, Johann Georg Adam.", "''Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop, Resolution, Commanded by Capt.", "James Cook, during the Years 1772, 3, 4, and 5'' (2 vols), London (1777).", "*Lévi-Strauss, Claude.", "''The Elementary Structures of Kinship'', (1949), ''Structural Anthropology'' (1958)*Mauss, Marcel.", "originally published as ''Essai sur le don.", "Forme et raison de l'échange dans les sociétés archaïques'' in 1925, this classic text on gift economy appears in the English edition as '' The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies''.", "*Maybury-Lewis, David.", "''Akwe-Shavante society'' (1967), ''The Politics of Ethnicity: Indigenous Peoples in Latin American States'' (2003).", "*Clastres, Pierre.", "''Society Against the State'' (1974).", "*Pop, Mihai and Glauco Sanga.", "\"Problemi generali dell'etnologia europea\", ''La Ricerca Folklorica'', No.", "1, ''La cultura popolare.", "Questioni teoriche'' (April 1980), pp.", "89–96." ], [ "External links", "* What is European Ethnology?", "* Webpage \"History of German Anthropology/Ethnology 1945/49-1990* Languages describes the languages and ethnic groups found worldwide, grouped by host nation-state.", "* Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History – over 160,000 objects from Pacific, North American, African, Asian ethnographic collections with images and detailed description, linked to the original catalogue pages, field notebooks, and photographs are available online.", "* National Museum of Ethnology – Osaka, Japan*" ] ]
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[ [ "Espagnole sauce" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Espagnole sauce''' () is a basic brown sauce, and is one of the mother sauces of classic French cooking.", "In the early 19th century the chef Antonin Carême included it in his list of the basic sauces of French cooking.", "In the early 20th century Auguste Escoffier named it as one of the five sauces at the core of France's cuisine." ], [ "Etymology", "\"Espagnole\" is the French for \"Spanish\".", "Many French sauces have names of countries, such as hollandaise sauce or crème anglaise.", "Generally, the country's name is chosen as a tribute to a historical event or because the sauce's content evokes that country.", "In the case of Spanish sauce, it is thought that the name was given due to its red color, which is associated with Spain.Subsequently, several legends were created to explain its name.", "It is said, for example, that Anne of Austria – who despite her name was Spanish – introduced cooks from Spain to the kitchens of the French court and that her cooks improved the French brown sauce by adding tomatoes.", "A similar tale refers to the Spanish cooks employed by Louis XIV's wife, Maria Theresa of Spain.", "Another suggestion is that in the 17th century, Spanish bacon and ham were introduced as the meat for the stock on which the sauce is based, rather than the traditional beef.", "There is no historical evidence of Spanish cooks in the kitchens of the French court, therefore, these legends appear to be untrue." ], [ "History", "The term \"sauce espagnole\" appears in Vincent La Chapelle's 1733 cookery book ''Le Cuisinier moderne'', but no recipe is given.", "Antonin Carême printed a detailed recipe in his 1828 book ''Le Cuisinier parisien''.", "By the middle of the 19th century the sauce was familiar in the English-speaking world: in her ''Modern Cookery'' of 1845 Eliza Acton gave two recipes for it, one with added wine and one without.", "The sauce was included in Auguste Escoffier's 1903 classification of the five mother sauces, on which much French cooking depends." ], [ "Ingredients", "The recipe given by Carême runs to more than 400 words.", "He calls for ham, veal, and partridges in the cooking pan, gently braised in water for two hours, after which roux is mixed in and the pan is returned to the stove for a further two hours or more.", "It is garnished with \"parsley, chives, bay leaves, thyme, sweet basil and cloves and parings of mushrooms\".", "Carême is credited with codifying the key sauces – the mother sauces, or in his phrase, the ''grandes sauces'' – on which classic French ''haute cuisine'' is based.", "His recipes for velouté, béchamel, allemande, as well as espagnole became standard for French chefs of his day.Nearly a century after Carême, Auguste Escoffier followed the former's classification of the key sauces, though adding mayonnaise and tomato sauces to the list and removing allemande.", "His recipe for espagnole, dating from 1903, is briefer than his predecessor's.", "It calls for brown stock (made from veal, beef and bacon), a brown roux, diced bacon fat, diced carrot, thyme, bay, parsley and butter, simmered for three hours.Tomato purée is added to the other ingredients in some more recent recipes, including in the catering textbook ''Practical Cookery'' by Victor Ceserani and Ronald Kinton." ], [ "Derivatives", "Sauce espagnole is the basis for many French sauces.", "They include:SauceIngredientsRef africaine Cayenne pepper, madeira, onion rings, diced truffles bigarade juice and zest of orange and lemon; duck stock, sugar bordelaise thyme, mignonette pepper, bay leaves, red wine bourguignonne shallots, parsley, thyme, bay, mushroom trimmings, butter and red wine aux champignons mushroom stock and small mushroom caps charcutière onions, white wine, vinegar, pepper, mustard, gherkins chasseur sliced mushrooms, chopped sautéed shallots, white wine, butter, parsley chevreuil mirepoix of vegetables, game trimmings, red wine, pepper sauce, Cayenne pepper à la diable anglaise shallots, white pepper, vinegar, tomato purée financière madeira, truffle essence aux pignoles à l'italienne pine kernels (pignoles), sugar, vinegar, nutmeg, pepper, red wine Robert onions, white wine, vinegar, pepper, mustard Saint-Malo white wine, shallots, mustard, anchovy paste venaison game essence, pepper sauce, redcurrant jelly, sugar" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* *** **** * * * *" ], [ "See also", "*Brown sauce*Demi-glace" ], [ "External links", "* ''The Cook's Decameron'' from Project Gutenberg* Emeril Lagasse's recipe at emerils.com" ] ]
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[ [ "Amplifier" ], [ "Introduction", "McIntosh stereo audio amplifier with output power of 50 watts per channel used in home component audio systems in the 1970s.", "''Amplification'' means increasing the amplitude (voltage or current) of a time-varying signal by a given factor, as shown here.", "The graph shows the input ''(blue)'' and output voltage ''(red)'' of an ideal linear amplifier with an arbitrary signal applied as input.", "In this example the amplifier has a ''voltage gain'' of 3; that is at any instant An '''amplifier''', '''electronic amplifier''' or (informally) '''amp''' is an electronic device that can increase the magnitude of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current).", "It is a two-port electronic circuit that uses electric power from a power supply to increase the amplitude (magnitude of the voltage or current) of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output.", "The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain: the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input.", "An amplifier is defined as a circuit that has a power gain greater than one.An amplifier can be either a separate piece of equipment or an electrical circuit contained within another device.", "Amplification is fundamental to modern electronics, and amplifiers are widely used in almost all electronic equipment.", "Amplifiers can be categorized in different ways.", "One is by the frequency of the electronic signal being amplified.", "For example, audio amplifiers amplify signals in the audio (sound) range of less than 20 kHz, RF amplifiers amplify frequencies in the radio frequency range between 20 kHz and 300 GHz, and servo amplifiers and instrumentation amplifiers may work with very low frequencies down to direct current.", "Amplifiers can also be categorized by their physical placement in the signal chain; a preamplifier may precede other signal processing stages, for example, while a power amplifier is usually used after other amplifier stages to provide enough output power for the final use of the signal.", "The first practical electrical device which could amplify was the triode vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest, which led to the first amplifiers around 1912.Today most amplifiers use transistors." ], [ "History", "=== Vacuum tubes ===The first practical prominent device that could amplify was the triode vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest, which led to the first amplifiers around 1912.Vacuum tubes were used in almost all amplifiers until the 1960s–1970s when transistors replaced them.", "Today, most amplifiers use transistors, but vacuum tubes continue to be used in some applications.De Forest's prototype audio amplifier of 1914.The Audion (triode) vacuum tube had a voltage gain of about 5, providing a total gain of approximately 125 for this three-stage amplifier.The development of audio communication technology in form of the telephone, first patented in 1876, created the need to increase the amplitude of electrical signals to extend the transmission of signals over increasingly long distances.", "In telegraphy, this problem had been solved with intermediate devices at stations that replenished the dissipated energy by operating a signal recorder and transmitter back-to-back, forming a relay, so that a local energy source at each intermediate station powered the next leg of transmission.For duplex transmission, i.e.", "sending and receiving in both directions, bi-directional relay repeaters were developed starting with the work of C. F. Varley for telegraphic transmission.", "Duplex transmission was essential for telephony and the problem was not satisfactorily solved until 1904, when H. E. Shreeve of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company improved existing attempts at constructing a telephone repeater consisting of back-to-back carbon-granule transmitter and electrodynamic receiver pairs.", "The Shreeve repeater was first tested on a line between Boston and Amesbury, MA, and more refined devices remained in service for some time.", "After the turn of the century it was found that negative resistance mercury lamps could amplify, and were also tried in repeaters, with little success.The development of thermionic valves which began around 1902, provided an entirely electronic method of amplifying signals.", "The first practical version of such devices was the Audion triode, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest, which led to the first amplifiers around 1912.Since the only previous device which was widely used to strengthen a signal was the relay used in telegraph systems, the amplifying vacuum tube was first called an ''electron relay''.", "The terms ''amplifier'' and ''amplification'', derived from the Latin ''amplificare'', (''to enlarge or expand''), were first used for this new capability around 1915 when triodes became widespread.The amplifying vacuum tube revolutionized electrical technology.", "It made possible long-distance telephone lines, public address systems, radio broadcasting, talking motion pictures, practical audio recording, radar, television, and the first computers.", "For 50 years virtually all consumer electronic devices used vacuum tubes.", "Early tube amplifiers often had positive feedback (regeneration), which could increase gain but also make the amplifier unstable and prone to oscillation.", "Much of the mathematical theory of amplifiers was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories during the 1920s to 1940s.", "Distortion levels in early amplifiers were high, usually around 5%, until 1934, when Harold Black developed negative feedback; this allowed the distortion levels to be greatly reduced, at the cost of lower gain.", "Other advances in the theory of amplification were made by Harry Nyquist and Hendrik Wade Bode.The vacuum tube was virtually the only amplifying device, other than specialized power devices such as the magnetic amplifier and amplidyne, for 40 years.", "Power control circuitry used magnetic amplifiers until the latter half of the twentieth century when power semiconductor devices became more economical, with higher operating speeds.", "The old Shreeve electroacoustic carbon repeaters were used in adjustable amplifiers in telephone subscriber sets for the hearing impaired until the transistor provided smaller and higher quality amplifiers in the 1950s.===Transistors===The first working transistor was a point-contact transistor invented by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain in 1947 at Bell Labs, where William Shockley later invented the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) in 1948.They were followed by the invention of the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.Due to MOSFET scaling, the ability to scale down to increasingly small sizes, the MOSFET has since become the most widely used amplifier.The replacement of bulky electron tubes with transistors during the 1960s and 1970s created a revolution in electronics, making possible a large class of portable electronic devices, such as the transistor radio developed in 1954.Today, use of vacuum tubes is limited to some high power applications, such as radio transmitters, as well as some musical instrument and high-end audiophile amplifiers.Beginning in the 1970s, more and more transistors were connected on a single chip thereby creating higher scales of integration (such as small-scale, medium-scale and large-scale integration) in integrated circuits.", "Many amplifiers commercially available today are based on integrated circuits.For special purposes, other active elements have been used.", "For example, in the early days of the satellite communication, parametric amplifiers were used.", "The core circuit was a diode whose capacitance was changed by an RF signal created locally.", "Under certain conditions, this RF signal provided energy that was modulated by the extremely weak satellite signal received at the earth station.Advances in digital electronics since the late 20th century provided new alternatives to the conventional linear-gain amplifiers by using digital switching to vary the pulse-shape of fixed amplitude signals, resulting in devices such as the Class-D amplifier." ], [ "Ideal", "The four types of dependent source—control variable on left, output variable on rightIn principle, an amplifier is an electrical two-port network that produces a signal at the output port that is a replica of the signal applied to the input port, but increased in magnitude.The input port can be idealized as either being a voltage input, which takes no current, with the output proportional to the voltage across the port; or a current input, with no voltage across it, in which the output is proportional to the current through the port.", "The output port can be idealized as being either a dependent voltage source, with zero source resistance and its output voltage dependent on the input; or a dependent current source, with infinite source resistance and the output current dependent on the input.", "Combinations of these choices lead to four types of ideal amplifiers.", "In idealized form they are represented by each of the four types of dependent source used in linear analysis, as shown in the figure, namely: Input Output Dependent source Amplifier type Gain units I I Current controlled current source, CCCS Current amplifier Unitless I V Current controlled voltage source, CCVS Transresistance amplifier Ohm V I Voltage controlled current source, VCCS Transconductance amplifier Siemens V V Voltage controlled voltage source, VCVS Voltage amplifier UnitlessEach type of amplifier in its ideal form has an ideal input and output resistance that is the same as that of the corresponding dependent source: Amplifier type Dependent source Input impedance Output impedance Current CCCS 0 ∞ Transresistance CCVS 0 0 Transconductance VCCS ∞ ∞ Voltage VCVS ∞ 0In real amplifiers the ideal impedances are not possible to achieve, but these ideal elements can be used to construct equivalent circuits of real amplifiers by adding impedances (resistance, capacitance and inductance) to the input and output.", "For any particular circuit, a small-signal analysis is often used to find the actual impedance.", "A small-signal AC test current ''Ix'' is applied to the input or output node, all external sources are set to AC zero, and the corresponding alternating voltage ''Vx'' across the test current source determines the impedance seen at that node as ''R = Vx / Ix''.Amplifiers designed to attach to a transmission line at input and output, especially RF amplifiers, do not fit into this classification approach.", "Rather than dealing with voltage or current individually, they ideally couple with an input or output impedance matched to the transmission line impedance, that is, match ''ratios'' of voltage to current.", "Many real RF amplifiers come close to this ideal.", "Although, for a given appropriate source and load impedance, RF amplifiers can be characterized as amplifying voltage or current, they fundamentally are amplifying power." ], [ "Properties", "Amplifier properties are given by parameters that include: * Gain, the ratio between the magnitude of output and input signals* Bandwidth, the width of the useful frequency range* Efficiency, the ratio between the power of the output and total power consumption* Linearity, the extent to which the proportion between input and output amplitude is the same for high amplitude and low amplitude input* Noise, a measure of undesired noise mixed into the output* Output dynamic range, the ratio of the largest and the smallest useful output levels* Slew rate, the maximum rate of change of the output* Rise time, settling time, ringing and overshoot that characterize the step response* Stability, the ability to avoid self-oscillationAmplifiers are described according to the properties of their inputs, their outputs, and how they relate.", "All amplifiers have gain, a multiplication factor that relates the magnitude of some property of the output signal to a property of the input signal.", "The gain may be specified as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage (voltage gain), output power to input power (power gain), or some combination of current, voltage, and power.", "In many cases the property of the output that varies is dependent on the same property of the input, making the gain unitless (though often expressed in decibels (dB)).Most amplifiers are designed to be linear.", "That is, they provide constant gain for any normal input level and output signal.", "If an amplifier's gain is not linear, the output signal can become distorted.", "There are, however, cases where variable gain is useful.", "Certain signal processing applications use exponential gain amplifiers.Amplifiers are usually designed to function well in a specific application, for example: radio and television transmitters and receivers, high-fidelity (\"hi-fi\") stereo equipment, microcomputers and other digital equipment, and guitar and other instrument amplifiers.", "Every amplifier includes at least one active device, such as a vacuum tube or transistor." ], [ "Negative feedback", "Negative feedback is a technique used in most modern amplifiers to increase bandwidth, reduce distortion, and control gain.", "In a negative feedback amplifier part of the output is fed back and added to the input in the opposite phase, subtracting from the input.", "The main effect is to reduce the overall gain of the system.", "However, any unwanted signals introduced by the amplifier, such as distortion are also fed back.", "Since they are not part of the original input, they are added to the input in opposite phase, subtracting them from the input.", "In this way, negative feedback also reduces nonlinearity, distortion and other errors introduced by the amplifier.", "Large amounts of negative feedback can reduce errors to the point that the response of the amplifier itself becomes almost irrelevant as long as it has a large gain, and the output performance of the system (the \"closed loop performance\") is defined entirely by the components in the feedback loop.", "This technique is used particularly with operational amplifiers (op-amps).Non-feedback amplifiers can achieve only about 1% distortion for audio-frequency signals.", "With negative feedback, distortion can typically be reduced to 0.001%.", "Noise, even crossover distortion, can be practically eliminated.", "Negative feedback also compensates for changing temperatures, and degrading or nonlinear components in the gain stage, but any change or nonlinearity in the components in the feedback loop will affect the output.", "Indeed, the ability of the feedback loop to define the output is used to make active filter circuits.Another advantage of negative feedback is that it extends the bandwidth of the amplifier.", "The concept of feedback is used in operational amplifiers to precisely define gain, bandwidth, and other parameters entirely based on the components in the feedback loop.Negative feedback can be applied at each stage of an amplifier to stabilize the operating point of active devices against minor changes in power-supply voltage or device characteristics.Some feedback, positive or negative, is unavoidable and often undesirable—introduced, for example, by parasitic elements, such as inherent capacitance between input and output of devices such as transistors, and capacitive coupling of external wiring.", "Excessive frequency-dependent positive feedback can produce parasitic oscillation and turn an amplifier into an oscillator." ], [ "Categories", "=== Active devices ===All amplifiers include some form of active device: this is the device that does the actual amplification.", "The active device can be a vacuum tube, discrete solid state component, such as a single transistor, or part of an integrated circuit, as in an op-amp).Transistor amplifiers (or solid state amplifiers) are the most common type of amplifier in use today.", "A transistor is used as the active element.", "The gain of the amplifier is determined by the properties of the transistor itself as well as the circuit it is contained within.Common active devices in transistor amplifiers include bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs).Applications are numerous, some common examples are audio amplifiers in a home stereo or public address system, RF high power generation for semiconductor equipment, to RF and microwave applications such as radio transmitters.Transistor-based amplification can be realized using various configurations: for example a bipolar junction transistor can realize common base, common collector or common emitter amplification; a MOSFET can realize common gate, common source or common drain amplification.", "Each configuration has different characteristics.Vacuum-tube amplifiers (also known as tube amplifiers or valve amplifiers) use a vacuum tube as the active device.", "While semiconductor amplifiers have largely displaced valve amplifiers for low-power applications, valve amplifiers can be much more cost effective in high power applications such as radar, countermeasures equipment, and communications equipment.", "Many microwave amplifiers are specially designed valve amplifiers, such as the klystron, gyrotron, traveling wave tube, and crossed-field amplifier, and these microwave valves provide much greater single-device power output at microwave frequencies than solid-state devices.", "Vacuum tubes remain in use in some high end audio equipment, as well as in musical instrument amplifiers, due to a preference for \"tube sound\".Magnetic amplifiers are devices somewhat similar to a transformer where one winding is used to control the saturation of a magnetic core and hence alter the impedance of the other winding.They have largely fallen out of use due to development in semiconductor amplifiers but are still useful in HVDC control, and in nuclear power control circuitry due to not being affected by radioactivity.Negative resistances can be used as amplifiers, such as the tunnel diode amplifier.===Power amplifiers===Power amplifier by Skyworks Solutions in a Smartphone.A power amplifier is an amplifier designed primarily to increase the power available to a load.", "In practice, amplifier power gain depends on the source and load impedances, as well as the inherent voltage and current gain.", "A radio frequency (RF) amplifier design typically optimizes impedances for power transfer, while audio and instrumentation amplifier designs normally optimize input and output impedance for least loading and highest signal integrity.", "An amplifier that is said to have a gain of 20 dB might have a voltage gain of 20 dB and an available power gain of much more than 20 dB (power ratio of 100)—yet actually deliver a much lower power gain if, for example, the input is from a 600 Ω microphone and the output connects to a 47 kΩ input socket for a power amplifier.", "In general, the power amplifier is the last 'amplifier' or actual circuit in a signal chain (the output stage) and is the amplifier stage that requires attention to power efficiency.", "Efficiency considerations lead to the various classes of power amplifiers based on the biasing of the output transistors or tubes: see power amplifier classes below.Audio power amplifiers are typically used to drive loudspeakers.", "They will often have two output channels and deliver equal power to each.", "An RF power amplifier is found in radio transmitter final stages.", "A Servo motor controller: amplifies a control voltage to adjust the speed of a motor, or the position of a motorized system.=== Operational amplifiers (op-amps) ===op-ampAn operational amplifier is an amplifier circuit which typically has very high open loop gain and differential inputs.", "Op amps have become very widely used as standardized \"gain blocks\" in circuits due to their versatility; their gain, bandwidth and other characteristics can be controlled by feedback through an external circuit.", "Though the term today commonly applies to integrated circuits, the original operational amplifier design used valves, and later designs used discrete transistor circuits.A fully differential amplifier is similar to the operational amplifier, but also has differential outputs.", "These are usually constructed using BJTs or FETs.=== Distributed amplifiers ===These use balanced transmission lines to separate individual single stage amplifiers, the outputs of which are summed by the same transmission line.", "The transmission line is a balanced type with the input at one end and on one side only of the balanced transmission line and the output at the opposite end is also the opposite side of the balanced transmission line.", "The gain of each stage adds linearly to the output rather than multiplies one on the other as in a cascade configuration.", "This allows a higher bandwidth to be achieved than could otherwise be realised even with the same gain stage elements.=== Switched mode amplifiers ===These nonlinear amplifiers have much higher efficiencies than linear amps, and are used where the power saving justifies the extra complexity.", "Class-D amplifiers are the main example of this type of amplification.=== Negative resistance amplifier ===Negative Resistance Amplifier is a type of Regenerative Amplifier that can use the feedback between the transistor's source and gate to transform a capacitive impedance on the transistor's source to a negative resistance on its gate.", "Compared to other types of amplifiers, this \"negative resistance amplifier\" will require only a tiny amount of power to achieve very high gain, maintaining a good noise figure at the same time." ], [ "Applications", "=== Video amplifiers ===Video amplifiers are designed to process video signals and have varying bandwidths depending on whether the video signal is for SDTV, EDTV, HDTV 720p or 1080i/p etc..", "The specification of the bandwidth itself depends on what kind of filter is used—and at which point ( or for example) the bandwidth is measured.", "Certain requirements for step response and overshoot are necessary for an acceptable TV image.=== Microwave amplifiers ===Traveling wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) are used for high power amplification at low microwave frequencies.", "They typically can amplify across a broad spectrum of frequencies; however, they are usually not as tunable as klystrons.Klystrons are specialized linear-beam vacuum-devices, designed to provide high power, widely tunable amplification of millimetre and sub-millimetre waves.", "Klystrons are designed for large scale operations and despite having a narrower bandwidth than TWTAs, they have the advantage of coherently amplifying a reference signal so its output may be precisely controlled in amplitude, frequency and phase.Solid-state devices such as silicon short channel MOSFETs like double-diffused metal–oxide–semiconductor (DMOS) FETs, GaAs FETs, SiGe and GaAs heterojunction bipolar transistors/HBTs, HEMTs, IMPATT diodes, and others, are used especially at lower microwave frequencies and power levels on the order of watts specifically in applications like portable RF terminals/cell phones and access points where size and efficiency are the drivers.", "New materials like gallium nitride (GaN) or GaN on silicon or on silicon carbide/SiC are emerging in HEMT transistors and applications where improved efficiency, wide bandwidth, operation roughly from few to few tens of GHz with output power of few Watts to few hundred of Watts are needed.Depending on the amplifier specifications and size requirements microwave amplifiers can be realised as monolithically integrated, integrated as modules or based on discrete parts or any combination of those.The maser is a non-electronic microwave amplifier.=== Musical instrument amplifiers ===Instrument amplifiers are a range of audio power amplifiers used to increase the sound level of musical instruments, for example guitars, during performances.", "Amplifiers' tone mainly come from the order and amount in which it applies EQ and distortion" ], [ "Classification of amplifier stages and systems", "=== Common terminal ===One set of classifications for amplifiers is based on which device terminal is common to both the input and the output circuit.", "In the case of bipolar junction transistors, the three classes are common emitter, common base, and common collector.", "For field-effect transistors, the corresponding configurations are common source, common gate, and common drain; for vacuum tubes, common cathode, common grid, and common plate.The common emitter (or common source, common cathode, etc.)", "is most often configured to provide amplification of a voltage applied between base and emitter, and the output signal taken between collector and emitter is inverted, relative to the input.", "The common collector arrangement applies the input voltage between base and collector, and to take the output voltage between emitter and collector.", "This causes negative feedback, and the output voltage tends to follow the input voltage.", "This arrangement is also used as the input presents a high impedance and does not load the signal source, though the voltage amplification is less than one.", "The common-collector circuit is, therefore, better known as an emitter follower, source follower, or cathode follower.=== Unilateral or bilateral ===An amplifier whose output exhibits no feedback to its input side is described as 'unilateral'.", "The input impedance of a unilateral amplifier is independent of load, and output impedance is independent of signal source impedance.An amplifier that uses feedback to connect part of the output back to the input is a ''bilateral'' amplifier.", "Bilateral amplifier input impedance depends on the load, and output impedance on the signal source impedance.All amplifiers are bilateral to some degree; however they may often be modeled as unilateral under operating conditions where feedback is small enough to neglect for most purposes, simplifying analysis (see the common base article for an example).=== Inverting or non-inverting ===Another way to classify amplifiers is by the phase relationship of the input signal to the output signal.", "An 'inverting' amplifier produces an output 180 degrees out of phase with the input signal (that is, a polarity inversion or mirror image of the input as seen on an oscilloscope).", "A 'non-inverting' amplifier maintains the phase of the input signal waveforms.", "An emitter follower is a type of non-inverting amplifier, indicating that the signal at the emitter of a transistor is following (that is, matching with unity gain but perhaps an offset) the input signal.", "Voltage follower is also non-inverting type of amplifier having unity gain.This description can apply to a single stage of an amplifier, or to a complete amplifier system.=== Function ===Other amplifiers may be classified by their function or output characteristics.", "These functional descriptions usually apply to complete amplifier systems or sub-systems and rarely to individual stages.", "*A '''servo amplifier''' indicates an integrated feedback loop to actively control the output at some desired level.", "A DC servo indicates use at frequencies down to DC levels, where the rapid fluctuations of an audio or RF signal do not occur.", "These are often used in mechanical actuators, or devices such as DC motors that must maintain a constant speed or torque.", "An '''AC servo''' amp.", "can do this for some AC motors.", "*A '''linear''' amplifier responds to different frequency components independently, and does not generate harmonic distortion or intermodulation distortion.", "No amplifier can provide ''perfect'' linearity (even the most linear amplifier has some nonlinearities, since the amplifying devices—transistors or vacuum tubes—follow nonlinear power laws such as square-laws and rely on circuitry techniques to reduce those effects).", "*A '''nonlinear''' amplifier generates significant distortion and so changes the harmonic content; there are situations where this is useful.", "Amplifier circuits intentionally providing a non-linear transfer function include:** a device like a silicon controlled rectifier or a transistor used as a switch may be employed to turn either fully ''on'' or ''off'' a load such as a lamp based on a threshold in a continuously variable input.", "** a non-linear amplifier in an analog computer or true RMS converter for example can provide a special transfer function, such as logarithmic or square-law.", "** a Class C RF amplifier may be chosen because it can be very efficient—but is non-linear.", "Following such an amplifier with a so-called ''tank'' tuned circuit can reduce unwanted harmonics (distortion) sufficiently to make it useful in transmitters, or some desired harmonic may be selected by setting the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit to a higher frequency rather than fundamental frequency in frequency multiplier circuits.", "** Automatic gain control circuits require an amplifier's gain be controlled by the time-averaged amplitude so that the output amplitude varies little when weak stations are being received.", "The non-linearities are assumed arranged so the relatively small signal amplitude suffers from little distortion (cross-channel interference or intermodulation) yet is still modulated by the relatively large gain-control DC voltage.", "** AM detector circuits that use amplification such as anode-bend detectors, precision rectifiers and infinite impedance detectors (so excluding ''unamplified'' detectors such as cat's-whisker detectors), as well as peak detector circuits, rely on changes in amplification based on the signal's instantaneous amplitude to derive a direct current from an alternating current input.", "** Operational amplifier comparator and detector circuits.", "*A '''wideband''' amplifier has a precise amplification factor over a wide frequency range, and is often used to boost signals for relay in communications systems.", "A '''narrowband''' amp amplifies a specific narrow range of frequencies, to the exclusion of other frequencies.", "*An '''RF''' amplifier amplifies signals in the radio frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum, and is often used to increase the sensitivity of a receiver or the output power of a transmitter.", "*An '''audio amplifier''' amplifies audio frequencies.", "This category subdivides into small signal amplification, and power amps that are optimised to driving speakers, sometimes with multiple amps grouped together as separate or bridgeable channels to accommodate different audio reproduction requirements.", "Frequently used terms within audio amplifiers include:** Preamplifier (preamp.", "), which may include a phono preamp with RIAA equalization, or tape head preamps with CCIR equalisation filters.", "They may include filters or tone control circuitry.", "** Power amplifier (normally drives loudspeakers), headphone amplifiers, and public address amplifiers.", "** Stereo amplifiers imply two channels of output (left and right), though the term simply means \"solid\" sound (referring to three-dimensional)—so quadraphonic stereo was used for amplifiers with four channels.", "5.1 and 7.1 systems refer to Home theatre systems with 5 or 7 normal spatial channels, plus a subwoofer channel.", "*Buffer amplifiers, which may include emitter followers, provide a high impedance input for a device (perhaps another amplifier, or perhaps an energy-hungry load such as lights) that would otherwise draw too much current from the source.", "Line drivers are a type of buffer that feeds long or interference-prone interconnect cables, possibly with differential outputs through twisted pair cables.=== Interstage coupling method ===Amplifiers are sometimes classified by the coupling method of the signal at the input, output, or between stages.", "Different types of these include:;Resistive-capacitive (RC) coupled amplifier, using a network of resistors and capacitors: By design these amplifiers cannot amplify DC signals as the capacitors block the DC component of the input signal.", "RC-coupled amplifiers were used very often in circuits with vacuum tubes or discrete transistors.", "In the days of the integrated circuit a few more transistors on a chip are much cheaper and smaller than a capacitor.", ";Inductive-capacitive (LC) coupled amplifier, using a network of inductors and capacitors: This kind of amplifier is most often used in selective radio-frequency circuits.", ";Transformer coupled amplifier, using a transformer to match impedances or to decouple parts of the circuits :Quite often LC-coupled and transformer-coupled amplifiers cannot be distinguished as a transformer is some kind of inductor.", ";Direct coupled amplifier, using no impedance and bias matching components: This class of amplifier was very uncommon in the vacuum tube days when the anode (output) voltage was at greater than several hundred volts and the grid (input) voltage at a few volts minus.", "So they were used only if the gain was specified down to DC (e.g., in an oscilloscope).", "In the context of modern electronics developers are encouraged to use directly coupled amplifiers whenever possible.", "In FET and CMOS technologies direct coupling is dominant since gates of MOSFETs theoretically pass no current through themselves.", "Therefore, DC component of the input signals is automatically filtered.=== Frequency range ===Depending on the frequency range and other properties amplifiers are designed according to different principles.Frequency ranges down to DC are used only when this property is needed.", "Amplifiers for direct current signals are vulnerable to minor variations in the properties of components with time.", "Special methods, such as chopper stabilized amplifiers are used to prevent objectionable drift in the amplifier's properties for DC.", "\"DC-blocking\" capacitors can be added to remove DC and sub-sonic frequencies from audio amplifiers.Depending on the frequency range specified different design principles must be used.", "Up to the MHz range only \"discrete\" properties need be considered; e.g., a terminal has an input impedance.As soon as any connection within the circuit gets longer than perhaps 1% of the wavelength of the highest specified frequency (e.g., at 100 MHz the wavelength is 3 m, so the critical connection length is approx.", "3 cm) design properties radically change.", "For example, a specified length and width of a PCB trace can be used as a selective or impedance-matching entity.Above a few hundred MHz, it gets difficult to use discrete elements, especially inductors.", "In most cases, PCB traces of very closely defined shapes are used instead (stripline techniques).The frequency range handled by an amplifier might be specified in terms of bandwidth (normally implying a response that is 3 dB down when the frequency reaches the specified bandwidth), or by specifying a '''frequency response''' that is within a certain number of decibels between a lower and an upper frequency (e.g.", "\"20 Hz to 20 kHz plus or minus 1 dB\")." ], [ "Power amplifier classes", "Power amplifier circuits (output stages) are classified as A, B, AB and C for analog designs—and class D and E for switching designs.", "The power amplifier classes are based on the proportion of each input cycle (conduction angle) during which an amplifying device passes current.", "The image of the conduction angle derives from amplifying a sinusoidal signal.", "If the device is always on, the conducting angle is 360°.", "If it is on for only half of each cycle, the angle is 180°.", "The angle of flow is closely related to the amplifier power efficiency." ], [ "Example amplifier circuit", "thumbThe practical amplifier circuit shown above could be the basis for a moderate-power audio amplifier.", "It features a typical (though substantially simplified) design as found in modern amplifiers, with a class-AB push–pull output stage, and uses some overall negative feedback.", "Bipolar transistors are shown, but this design would also be realizable with FETs or valves.The input signal is coupled through capacitor C1 to the base of transistor Q1.The capacitor allows the AC signal to pass, but blocks the DC bias voltage established by resistors R1 and R2 so that any preceding circuit is not affected by it.", "Q1 and Q2 form a differential amplifier (an amplifier that multiplies the difference between two inputs by some constant), in an arrangement known as a long-tailed pair.", "This arrangement is used to conveniently allow the use of negative feedback, which is fed from the output to Q2 via R7 and R8.The negative feedback into the difference amplifier allows the amplifier to compare the input to the actual output.", "The amplified signal from Q1 is directly fed to the second stage, Q3, which is a common emitter stage that provides further amplification of the signal and the DC bias for the output stages, Q4 and Q5.R6 provides the load for Q3 (a better design would probably use some form of active load here, such as a constant-current sink).", "So far, all of the amplifier is operating in class A.", "The output pair are arranged in class-AB push–pull, also called a complementary pair.", "They provide the majority of the current amplification (while consuming low quiescent current) and directly drive the load, connected via DC-blocking capacitor C2.The diodes D1 and D2 provide a small amount of constant voltage bias for the output pair, just biasing them into the conducting state so that crossover distortion is minimized.", "That is, the diodes push the output stage firmly into class-AB mode (assuming that the base-emitter drop of the output transistors is reduced by heat dissipation).This design is simple, but a good basis for a practical design because it automatically stabilises its operating point, since feedback internally operates from DC up through the audio range and beyond.", "Further circuit elements would probably be found in a real design that would roll-off the frequency response above the needed range to prevent the possibility of unwanted oscillation.", "Also, the use of fixed diode bias as shown here can cause problems if the diodes are not both electrically and thermally matched to the output transistors if the output transistors turn on too much, they can easily overheat and destroy themselves, as the full current from the power supply is not limited at this stage.A common solution to help stabilise the output devices is to include some emitter resistors, typically one ohm or so.", "Calculating the values of the circuit's resistors and capacitors is done based on the components employed and the intended use of the amp." ], [ "Notes on implementation", "Any real amplifier is an imperfect realization of an ideal amplifier.", "An important limitation of a real amplifier is that the output it generates is ultimately limited by the power available from the power supply.", "An amplifier saturates and clips the output if the input signal becomes too large for the amplifier to reproduce or exceeds operational limits for the device.", "The power supply may influence the output, so must be considered in the design.", "The power output from an amplifier cannot exceed its input power.The amplifier circuit has an \"open loop\" performance.", "This is described by various parameters (gain, slew rate, output impedance, distortion, bandwidth, signal-to-noise ratio, etc.).", "Many modern amplifiers use negative feedback techniques to hold the gain at the desired value and reduce distortion.", "Negative loop feedback has the intended effect of lowering the output impedance and thereby increasing electrical damping of loudspeaker motion at and near the resonance frequency of the speaker.When assessing rated amplifier power output, it is useful to consider the applied load, the signal type (e.g., speech or music), required power output duration (i.e., short-time or continuous), and required dynamic range (e.g., recorded or live audio).", "In high-powered audio applications that require long cables to the load (e.g., cinemas and shopping centres) it may be more efficient to connect to the load at line output voltage, with matching transformers at source and loads.", "This avoids long runs of heavy speaker cables.To prevent instability or overheating requires care to ensure solid state amplifiers are adequately loaded.", "Most have a rated minimum load impedance.All amplifiers generate heat through electrical losses.", "The amplifier must dissipate this heat via convection or forced air cooling.", "Heat can damage or reduce electronic component service life.", "Designers and installers must also consider heating effects on adjacent equipment.Different power supply types result in many different methods of bias.", "Bias is a technique by which active devices are set to operate in a particular region, or by which the DC component of the output signal is set to the midpoint between the maximum voltages available from the power supply.", "Most amplifiers use several devices at each stage; they are typically matched in specifications except for polarity.", "Matched inverted polarity devices are called complementary pairs.", "Class-A amplifiers generally use only one device, unless the power supply is set to provide both positive and negative voltages, in which case a dual device symmetrical design may be used.", "Class-C amplifiers, by definition, use a single polarity supply.Amplifiers often have multiple stages in cascade to increase gain.", "Each stage of these designs may be a different type of amp to suit the needs of that stage.", "For instance, the first stage might be a class-A stage, feeding a class-AB push–pull second stage, which then drives a class-G final output stage, taking advantage of the strengths of each type, while minimizing their weaknesses." ], [ "Special types", "*Charge transfer amplifier*CMOS amplifiers*Current sense amplifier *Distributed amplifier*Doherty amplifier*Double-tuned amplifier*Faithful amplifier*Intermediate power amplifier*Low-noise amplifier*Negative feedback amplifier*Optical amplifier*Programmable-gain amplifier*Tuned amplifier*Valve amplifier" ], [ "See also", "*Power added efficiency" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* AES guide to amplifier classes*contains an explanation of different amplifier classes*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Escort carrier" ], [ "Introduction", "Escort carrier The '''escort carrier''' or '''escort aircraft carrier''' (U.S. hull classification symbol CVE), also called a \"jeep carrier\" or \"baby flattop\" in the United States Navy (USN) or \"Woolworth Carrier\" by the Royal Navy, was a small and slow type of aircraft carrier used by the Royal Navy, the Royal Canadian Navy, the United States Navy, the Imperial Japanese Navy and Imperial Japanese Army Air Force in World War II.", "They were typically half the length and a third the displacement of larger fleet carriers, slower, more-lightly armed and armored, and carried fewer planes.", "Escort carriers were most often built upon a commercial ship hull, so they were cheaper and could be built quickly.", "This was their principal advantage as they could be completed in greater numbers as a stop-gap when fleet carriers were scarce.", "However, the lack of protection made escort carriers particularly vulnerable, and several were sunk with great loss of life.", "The light carrier (U.S. hull classification symbol CVL) was a similar concept to the escort carrier in most respects, but was fast enough to operate alongside fleet carriers.Escort carriers were too slow to keep up with the main forces consisting of fleet carriers, battleships, and cruisers.", "Instead, they were used to escort merchant ship convoys, defending them from enemy threats such as submarines and planes.", "In the invasions of mainland Europe and Pacific islands, escort carriers provided air support to ground forces during amphibious operations.", "Escort carriers also served as backup aircraft transports for fleet carriers, and ferried aircraft of all military services to points of delivery.In the Battle of the Atlantic, escort carriers were used to protect convoys against U-boats.", "Initially escort carriers accompanied the merchant ships and helped to fend off attacks from aircraft and submarines.", "As numbers increased later in the war, escort carriers also formed part of hunter-killer groups that sought out submarines instead of being attached to a particular convoy.In the Pacific theater, CVEs provided air support of ground troops in the Battle of Leyte Gulf.", "They lacked the speed and weapons to counter enemy fleets, relying on the protection of a Fast Carrier Task Force.", "However, at the Battle off Samar, one U.S. task force of escort carriers and destroyers managed to successfully defend itself against a much larger Japanese force of battleships and cruisers.", "The Japanese met a furious defense of carrier aircraft, screening destroyers, and destroyer escorts.Of the 151 aircraft carriers built in the U.S. during World War II, 122 were escort carriers, though no examples survive.", "The was the most numerous class of aircraft carrier, with 50 launched.", "Second was the , with 45 launched." ], [ "Development", "In the early 1920s, the Washington Naval Treaty imposed limits on the maximum size and total tonnage of aircraft carriers for the five main naval powers.", "Later treaties largely kept these provisions.", "As a result, construction between the World Wars had been insufficient to meet operational needs for aircraft carriers as World War II expanded from Europe.", "Too few fleet carriers were available to simultaneously transport aircraft to distant bases, support amphibious invasions, offer carrier landing training for replacement pilots, conduct anti-submarine patrols, and provide defensive air cover for deployed battleships and cruisers.", "The foregoing mission requirements limited use of fleet carriers' unique offensive strike capability demonstrated at the Battle of Taranto and the Attack on Pearl Harbor.", "Conversion of existing ships (and hulls under construction for other purposes) provided additional aircraft carriers until new construction became available.Conversions of cruisers and passenger liners with speed similar to fleet carriers were identified by the U.S. as \"light aircraft carriers\" (hull classification symbol CVL) able to operate at battle fleet speeds.", "Slower conversions were classified as \"escort carriers\" and were considered naval auxiliaries suitable for pilot training and transport of aircraft to distant bases.The Royal Navy had recognized a need for carriers to defend its trade routes in the 1930s.", "While designs had been prepared for \"trade protection carriers\" and five suitable liners identified for conversion, nothing further was done mostly because there were insufficient aircraft for even the fleet carriers under construction at the time.", "However, by 1940 the need had become urgent and was converted from the captured German merchant ship MV ''Hannover'' and commissioned in July 1941.For defense from German aircraft, convoys were supplied first with fighter catapult ships and CAM ships that could carry a single (disposable) fighter.", "In the interim, before escort carriers could be supplied, they also brought in merchant aircraft carriers that could operate four aircraft.In 1940, U.S. Admiral William Halsey recommended construction of naval auxiliaries for pilot training.", "In early 1941 the British asked the U.S. to build on their behalf six carriers of an improved ''Audacity'' design, but the U.S. had already begun their own escort carrier.", "On 1 February 1941, the United States Chief of Naval Operations gave priority to construction of naval auxiliaries for aircraft transport.", "U.S. ships built to meet these needs were initially referred to as '''auxiliary aircraft escort vessels''' ('''AVG''') in February 1942 and then '''auxiliary aircraft carrier''' ('''ACV''') on 5 August 1942.The first U.S. example of the type was .", "Operation Torch and North Atlantic anti-submarine warfare proved these ships capable aircraft carriers for ship formations moving at the speed of trade or amphibious invasion convoys.", "U.S. classification revision to '''escort aircraft carrier''' ('''CVE''') on 15 July 1943 reflected upgraded status from auxiliary to combatant.", "They were informally known as \"Jeep carriers\" or \"baby flattops\".", "It was quickly found that the escort carriers had better performance than light carriers, which tended to pitch badly in moderate to high seas.", "The was designed to incorporate the best features of American CVLs on a more stable hull with a less expensive propulsion system.Among their crews, CVE was sarcastically said to stand for \"Combustible, Vulnerable, and Expendable\", and the CVEs were called “Kaiser coffins\" in honor of Casablanca-class manufacturer Henry J. Kaiser.", "Magazine protection was minimal in comparison to fleet aircraft carriers.", "was sunk within minutes by a single torpedo, and exploded from undetermined causes with very heavy loss of life.", "Three escort carriers—, and —were destroyed by kamikazes, the largest ships to meet such a fate.Allied escort carriers were typically around long, not much more than half the length of the almost fleet carriers of the same era, but were less than of the weight.", "A typical escort carrier displaced about , as compared to almost for a full-size fleet carrier.", "The aircraft hangar typically ran only of the way under the flight deck and housed a combination of 24–30 fighters and bombers organized into one single \"composite squadron\".", "By comparison, a late ''Essex''-class fleet carrier of the period could carry 103 aircraft organized into separate fighter, bomber and torpedo-bomber squadrons.The island (superstructure) on these ships was small and cramped, and located well forward of the funnels (unlike on a normal-sized carrier, where the funnels were integrated into the island).", "Although the first escort carriers had only one aircraft elevator, having two elevators (one fore and one aft), along with the single aircraft catapult, quickly became standard.", "The carriers employed the same system of arresting cables and tail hooks as on the big carriers, and procedures for launch and recovery were the same as well.The crew size was less than of that of a large carrier, but this was still a bigger complement than most naval vessels.", "U.S. escort carriers were large enough to have facilities such as a permanent canteen or snack bar, called a gedunk bar, in addition to the mess.", "The bar was open for longer hours than the mess and sold several flavors of ice cream, along with cigarettes and other consumables.", "There were also several vending machines available on board.In all, 130 Allied escort carriers were launched or converted during the war.", "Of these, six were British conversions of merchant ships: , , , , and .", "The remaining escort carriers were U.S.-built.", "Like the British, the first U.S. escort carriers were converted merchant vessels (or in the , converted military oilers).", "The ''Bogue''-class carriers were based on the hull of the Type C3 cargo ship.", "The last 69 escort carriers of the and ''Commencement Bay'' classes were purpose-designed and purpose-built carriers drawing on the experience gained with the previous classes." ], [ "Royal Navy", "Originally developed at the behest of the United Kingdom to operate as part of a North Atlantic convoy escort, rather than as part of a naval strike force, many of the escort carriers produced were assigned to the Royal Navy for the duration of the war under the Lend-Lease act.", "They supplemented and then replaced the converted merchant aircraft carriers that were put into service by the British and Dutch as an emergency measure until dedicated escort carriers became available.", "As convoy escorts, they were used by the Royal Navy to provide air scouting, to ward off enemy long-range scouting aircraft and, increasingly, to spot and hunt submarines.", "Often additional escort carriers joined convoys, not as fighting ships but as transporters, ferrying aircraft from the U.S. to Britain; twice as many aircraft could be carried by storing aircraft on the flight deck as well as in the hangar.The ships sent to the Royal Navy were slightly modified, partly to suit the traditions of that service.", "Among other things the ice-cream making machines were removed, since they were considered unnecessary luxuries on ships which provided a grog ration.", "The heavy duty washing machines of the laundry room were removed, since \"all a British sailor needs to keep clean is a bucket and a bar of soap\" (quoted from Warrilow).Other modifications were due to the need for a completely enclosed hangar when operating in the North Atlantic and in support of the Arctic convoys." ], [ "Royal Canadian Navy", "Of the U.S.-built escort carriers, Nabob and Puncher sailed on launch from Tacoma to the port of Vancouver, where they were lightly refitted to Canadian standard and then crewed by Royal Canadian Navy personnel.", "Both ships served in the North Atlantic while nominally under the British fleet and carrying aircraft of the Fleet Air Arm." ], [ "U.S. Navy service", "The attack on Pearl Harbor brought up an urgent need for aircraft carriers, so some T3 tankers were converted to escort carriers; is an example of how a T3 tanker hull, AO-33, was rebuilt to be an escort carrier.", "The T3 tanker size and speed made the T3 a useful escort carrier.", "There were two classes of T3 hull carriers: ''Sangamon'' class and ''Commencement Bay'' class.The U.S. discovered their own uses for escort carriers.", "In the North Atlantic, they supplemented the escorting destroyers by providing air support for anti-submarine warfare.", "One of these escort carriers, , was instrumental in the capture of off North Africa in 1944.In the Pacific theater, escort carriers lacked the speed to sail with fast carrier attack groups, so were often tasked to escort the landing ships and troop carriers during the island-hopping campaign.", "In this role they provided air cover for the troopships and flew the first wave of attacks on beach fortifications in amphibious landing operations.", "On occasion, they even escorted the large carriers, serving as emergency airstrips and providing fighter cover for their larger sisters while these were busy readying or refueling their own planes.", "They also transported aircraft and spare parts from the U.S. to remote island airstrips.===Battle off Samar===, burning from earlier gunfire damage, is bracketed by a salvo from a Japanese heavy cruiser (faintly visible in the background, center-right) shortly before sinking during the Battle off Samar.A battle in which escort carriers played a major role was the Battle off Samar in the Philippines on 25 October 1944.The Japanese lured Admiral William Halsey, Jr. into chasing a decoy fleet with his powerful 3rd Fleet.", "This left about 450 aircraft from 16 small and slow escort carriers in three task units (\"Taffies\"), armed primarily to bomb ground forces, and their protective screen of destroyers and slower destroyer escorts to protect undefended troop and supply ships in Leyte Gulf.", "No Japanese threat was believed to be in the area, but a force of four battleships, including the formidable , eight cruisers, and 11 destroyers, appeared, sailing towards Leyte Gulf.", "Only the Taffies were in the way of the Japanese attack.The slow carriers could not outrun cruisers.", "They launched their aircraft and maneuvered to avoid shellfire, helped by smoke screens, for over an hour.", "\"Taffy 3\" bore the brunt of the fight.", "The Taffy ships took dozens of hits, mostly from armor-piercing rounds that passed right through their thin, unarmored hulls without exploding.", ", sunk in this action, was the only U.S. carrier lost to enemy surface gunfire in the war; the Japanese concentration of fire on this one carrier assisted the escape of the others.", "The carriers' only substantial armament—aside from their aircraft—was a single dual-purpose gun mounted on the stern, but the pursuing Japanese cruisers closed to within range of these guns.", "One of the guns damaged the burning Japanese heavy cruiser , and a subsequent bomb dropped by an aircraft hit the cruiser's forward machinery room, leaving her dead in the water.", "A ''kamikaze'' attack sank ; ''kamikaze'' aircraft attacking other ships were shot down.", "Ultimately the superior Japanese surface force withdrew, believing they were confronted by a stronger force than was the case.", "Most of the damage to the Japanese fleet was inflicted by torpedoes fired by destroyers, and bombs from the carriers' aircraft.The U.S. Navy lost a similar number of ships and more men than in the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway combined (though major fleet carriers were lost in the other battles).", "''Casablanca''-class ''Gambier Bay'' at USS ''Midway'' museum" ], [ "The ships", "Many escort carriers were Lend-Leased to the United Kingdom, this list specifies the breakdown in service to each navy.", "*: Two ships, one in USN service () and one in British service ().", "*: Four ships, one mainly in USN service (as ) and three in British service.", "*: Four ships, all in USN service.", "*: 45 ships, 11 in USN service, 34 in British service as ''Attacker'' class (first group) and ''Ruler'' class (second group, of which 2 were crewed by Royal Canadian Navy personnel).", "*: 50 ships, all in USN service.", "*: 19 ships, all in USN service, including two that were accepted but not commissioned and laid up for many years after the war.", "Four more units were canceled and scrapped on the building slips.", "The ''Commencement Bay''-class ships were seen as the finest escort carriers ever built, and several units continued in service after the war as training carriers, aircraft ferries and other auxiliary uses.In addition, six escort carriers were converted from other types by the British during the war.The table below lists escort carriers and similar ships performing the same missions.", "The first four were built as early fleet aircraft carriers.", "Merchant aircraft carriers (MAC) carried trade cargo in addition to operating aircraft.", "Aircraft transports carried larger numbers of planes by eliminating accommodation for operating personnel and storage of fuel and ammunition.", "Name Date Nation Displacement Speed Aircraft Notes 1918UK14,000 tons (net)18converted liner 1922United States11,500 tons30converted collier 1923Japan7,500 tons (standard)12early fleet carrier 1924UK10,850 tons (standard)12early fleet carrier 1941UK11,000 tons6merchant conversion , 1941United States and UK9,000 tons15–21merchant conversions , , , 1941United States and UK8,200 tons15–21merchant conversions , , 1941Japan17,830 tons (standard)27converted liners 1942UK11,800 tons (standard)10–15merchant conversion 1942United States, Canada, and UK9,800 tons15–2145 conversions of C-3 merchant hulls , , , 1942United States11,400 tons (standard)31converted oilers , 1942Japan (Army)11,800 tons (standard)8liners converted to ''Hei''-type landing craft carriers 1943UK12,400 tons (standard)18merchant conversion 1943UK13,400 tons (standard)15–20merchant conversion 1943UK14,000 tons (standard)15–20merchant conversion ''Rapana'' class (, , , , , , , , )1943UK12,000 tons3tankers converted to merchant aircraft carriers 1943United States7,800 tons2850 built as escort aircraft carriers 1943Japan13,600 tons (standard)24converted liner 1943UK17,400tons (standard)21merchant conversion , , , , , 1943UK8,000 tons (gross)4grain carrying merchant aircraft carriers , , , 1943UK9,000 tons (gross)3tanker merchant aircraft carriers 1944United States10,900 tons3419 built as escort aircraft carriers 1944Japan17,500 tons33converted liner 1945Japan (Army)16,119 tons (standard)8converted tanker 1945Japan (Army)8,258 tons (standard)8–37Type M cargo ship converted to ''Hei''-type landing craft carrier" ], [ "Relative carrier sizes in World War II", " escort carrier light carrier fleet carrier fleet carrier Length: Beam: Displacement:9,800 t11,000 t27,100 t23,000 t Armament1x 5-inch/38-caliber gun, light AAlight AA12x 5-inch/38-caliber guns, light AA16x QF 4.5-inch Mk I – V naval guns ArmorNone50–125 mm150–200 mm75 mm deck Aircraft:24339057 Speed: Crew:8501,5693,448817 + 390" ], [ "Post-World War II", "The years following World War II brought many revolutionary new technologies to naval aviation, most notably the helicopter and the jet fighter, and with this a complete rethinking of its strategies and ships' tasks.", "Although several of the latest ''Commencement Bay''-class CVE were deployed as floating airfields during the Korean War, the main reasons for the development of the escort carrier had disappeared or could be dealt with better by newer weapons.", "The emergence of the helicopter meant that helicopter-deck equipped frigates could now take over the CVE's role in a convoy while also performing their usual role as submarine hunters.", "Ship-mounted guided missile launchers took over much of the aircraft protection role, and in-flight refueling eliminated the need for floating stopover points for transport or patrol aircraft.", "Consequently, after the ''Commencement Bay'' class, no new escort carriers were designed, and with every downsizing of the navy, the CVEs were the first to be mothballed.Several escort carriers were pressed back into service during the first years of the Vietnam War because of their ability to carry large numbers of aircraft.", "Redesignated AKV (air transport auxiliary), they were manned by a civilian crew and used to ferry whole aircraft and spare parts from the U.S. to Army, Air Force and Marine bases in South Vietnam.", "However, CVEs were useful in this role only for a limited period.", "Once all major aircraft were equipped with refueling probes, it became much easier to fly the aircraft directly to its base instead of shipping it.The last chapter in the history of escort carriers consisted of two conversions: as an experiment, was converted from an aircraft carrier into a pure helicopter carrier (CVHA-1) and used by the Marine Corps to carry assault helicopters for the first wave of amphibious warfare operations.", "Later, ''Thetis Bay'' became a full amphibious assault ship (LHP-6).", "Although in service only from 1955 (the year of her conversion) to 1964, the experience gained in her training exercises greatly influenced the design of today's amphibious assault ships.In the second conversion, in 1961, had all her aircraft handling equipment removed and four tall radio antennas installed on her long, flat deck.", "In lieu of aircraft, the hangar deck now had 24 military radio transmitter trucks bolted to its floor.", "Rechristened , the ship was used as a communication relay ship and served dutifully through the Vietnam War as a floating radio station, relaying transmissions between the forces on the ground and the command centers back home.", "Like ''Thetis Bay'', the experience gained before ''Annapolis'' was stricken in 1976 helped develop today's purpose-built amphibious command ships of the .Unlike almost all other major classes of ships and patrol boats from World War II, most of which can be found in a museum or port, no escort carrier or American light carrier has survived; all were destroyed during the war or broken up in the following decades.", "The Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships records that the last former escort carrier remaining in naval service—USS ''Annapolis''—was sold for scrapping 19 December 1979.The last American light carrier (the escort carrier's faster sister type) was , which was broken up in 2002 after a decade-long attempt to preserve the vessel.Later in the Cold War the U.S.-designed Sea Control Ship was intended to serve a similar role; while none were actually built, the and the Thai are based on the concept." ], [ "See also", "For complete lists see:*List of escort carriers by country*List of United States Navy escort aircraft carriers*List of sunken aircraft carriers*List of escort carriers of the Royal Navy*List of ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy*List of aircraft carriers of World War II" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "******" ], [ "Further reading", "********" ], [ "External links" ] ]
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[ [ "Extreme sport" ], [ "Introduction", "free solo ice climber on a steep ice slope, with personal safety gear (such as a helmet) but completely without a rope or any form of climbing protection from fall'''Action sports''', '''adventure sports''' or '''extreme sports''' are activities perceived as involving a high degree of risk.", "These activities often involve speed, height, a high level of physical exertion and highly specialized gear.", "Extreme tourism overlaps with extreme sport.", "The two share the same main attraction, \"adrenaline rush\" caused by an element of risk, and differ mostly in the degree of engagement and professionalism." ], [ "Definition", "The definition of extreme sports is not exact and the origin of the terms is unclear, but it gained popularity in the 1990s when it was picked up by marketing companies to promote the X Games and when the Extreme Sports Channel and Extreme International launched.", "More recently, the commonly used definition from research is \"a competitive (comparison or self-evaluative) activity within which the participant is subjected to natural or unusual physical and mental challenges such as speed, height, depth or natural forces and where fast and accurate cognitive perceptual processing may be required for a successful outcome\" by Dr. Rhonda Cohen (2012).While the use of the term \"extreme sport\" has spread everywhere to describe a multitude of different activities, exactly which sports are considered 'extreme' is debatable.", "There are, however, several characteristics common to most extreme sports.", "While they are not the exclusive domain of youth, extreme sports tend to have a younger-than-average target demographic.", "Extreme sports are also rarely sanctioned by schools for their physical education curriculum.", "Extreme sports tend to be more solitary than many of the popular traditional sports (rafting and paintballing are notable exceptions, as they are done in teams).Activities categorized by media as extreme sports differ from traditional sports due to the higher number of inherently uncontrollable variables.", "These environmental variables are frequently weather and terrain related, including wind, snow, water and mountains.", "Because these natural phenomena cannot be controlled, they inevitably affect the outcome of the given activity or event.In a traditional sporting event, athletes compete against each other under controlled circumstances.", "While it is possible to create a controlled sporting event such as X Games, there are environmental variables that cannot be held constant for all athletes.", "Examples include changing snow conditions for snowboarders, rock and ice quality for climbers, and wave height and shape for surfers.Whilst traditional sporting judgment criteria may be adopted when assessing performance (distance, time, score, etc.", "), extreme sports performers are often evaluated on more subjective and aesthetic criteria.", "This results in a tendency to reject unified judging methods, with different sports employing their own ideals and indeed having the ability to evolve their assessment standards with new trends or developments in the sports." ], [ "Classification", "While the exact definition and what is included as extreme sport is debatable, some attempted to make classification for extreme sports.One argument is that to qualify as an \"extreme sport\" '''both''' expression terms need to be fulfilled;* \"'''sport'''\": The participant has to dispose of considerable skill and/or physical ability to avoid ''poor execution of the activity'';* \"'''extreme'''\": The ''poor execution of the activity'' has to result in considerable risk of serious physical harm to the participant;Along this definition, being a passenger in a canyon jet boat ride will not fulfill the requirements as the skill required pertains to the pilot, not the passengers.", "\"Thrill seeking\" might be a more suitable qualification than \"extreme sport\" or \"action sport\" in these cases." ], [ "History", "The origin of the divergence of the term \"extreme sports\" from \"sports\" may date to the 1950s in the appearance of a phrase usually, but wrongly, attributed to Ernest Hemingway.", "The phrase is;There are only three sports: bullfighting, motor racing, and mountaineering; all the rest are merely games.The implication of the phrase was that the word \"sport\" defined an activity in which one might be killed, other activities being termed \"games.\"", "The phrase may have been invented by either writer Barnaby Conrad or automotive author Ken Purdy.Hang glider launching from Mount TamalpaisThe Dangerous Sports Club of Oxford University, England was founded by David Kirke, Chris Baker, Ed Hulton and Alan Weston.", "They first came to wide public attention by inventing modern day bungee jumping, by making the first modern jumps on 1 April 1979, from the Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol, England.", "They followed the Clifton Bridge effort with a jump from the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, California (including the first female bungee jump by Jane Wilmot), and with a televised leap from the Royal Gorge Suspension Bridge in Colorado, sponsored by and televised on the popular American television program ''That's Incredible!''", "Bungee jumping was treated as a novelty for a few years, then became a craze for young people, and is now an established industry for thrill seekers.The Club also pioneered a surrealist form of skiing, holding three events at St. Moritz, Switzerland, in which competitors were required to devise a sculpture mounted on skis and ride it down a mountain.", "The event reached its limits when the Club arrived in St. Moritz with a London double-decker bus, wanting to send it down the ski slopes, and the Swiss resort managers refused.Other Club activities included expedition hang gliding from active volcanoes; the launching of giant (20 m) plastic spheres with pilots suspended in the centre (zorbing); microlight flying; and BASE jumping (in the early days of this sport).In recent decades the term ''extreme sport'' was further promoted after the Extreme Sports Channel, Extremesportscompany.com launched and then the X Games, a multi-sport event was created and developed by ESPN.", "The first X Games (known as 1995 Extreme Games) were held in Newport, Providence, Mount Snow, and Vermont in the United States.Certain extreme sports clearly trace back to other extreme sports, or combinations thereof.", "For example, windsurfing was conceived as a result of efforts to equip a surfboard with a sailing boat's propulsion system (mast and sail).", "Kitesurfing on the other hand was conceived by combining the propulsion system of kite buggying (a parafoil) with the bi-directional boards used for wakeboarding.", "Wakeboarding is in turn derived from snowboarding and waterskiing." ], [ "Marketing", "Snowboarder drops off a cornice.Some contend that the distinction between an extreme sport and a conventional one has as much to do with marketing as with the level of danger involved or the adrenaline generated.", "For example, rugby union is both dangerous and adrenaline-inducing but is not considered an extreme sport due to its traditional image, and because it does not involve high speed or an intention to perform stunts (the aesthetic criteria mentioned above) and also it does not have changing environmental variables for the athletes." ], [ "Motivation", "A feature of such activities in the view of some is their alleged capacity to induce an adrenaline rush in participants.", "However, the medical view is that the rush or high associated with the activity is not due to adrenaline being released as a response to fear, but due to increased levels of dopamine, endorphins and serotonin because of the high level of physical exertion.", "Furthermore, recent studies suggest that the link to adrenaline and 'true' extreme sports is tentative.", "Brymer and Gray's study defined 'true' extreme sports as a leisure or recreation activity where the most likely outcome of a mismanaged accident or mistake was death.", "This definition was designed to separate the marketing hype from the activity.Wingsuit flying is a recent activity.Eric Brymer also found that the potential of various extraordinary human experiences, many of which parallel those found in activities such as meditation, was an important part of the extreme sport experience.", "Those experiences put the participants outside their comfort zone and are often done in conjunction with adventure travel.Some of the sports have existed for decades and their proponents span generations, some going on to become well known personalities.", "Rock climbing and ice climbing have spawned publicly recognizable names such as Edmund Hillary, Chris Bonington, Wolfgang Güllich and more recently Joe Simpson.", "Another example is surfing, invented centuries ago by the inhabitants of Polynesia, it will become national sport of Hawaii.Disabled people participate in extreme sports.", "Nonprofit organizations such as Adaptive Action Sports seek to increase awareness of the participation in action sports by members of the disabled community, as well as increase access to the adaptive technologies that make participation possible and to competitions such as The X Games." ], [ "Mortality, health, and thrill", "Extreme sports may be perceived as extremely dangerous, conducive to fatalities, near-fatalities and other serious injuries.", "The perceived risk in an extreme sport has been considered a somewhat necessary part of its appeal, which is partially a result of pressure for athletes to make more money and provide maximum entertainment.While attempting a forward loop in overpowered storm conditions off the coast of Cantabria, Spain, a windsurfer jumping waves gets catapulted into a high double flip.Extreme sports is a sub-category of sports that are described as any kind of sport \"of a character or kind farthest removed from the ordinary or average\".", "These kinds of sports often carry out the potential risk of serious and permanent physical injury and even death.", "However, these sports also have the potential to produce drastic benefits on mental and physical health and provide opportunity for individuals to engage fully with life.Extreme sports trigger the release of the hormone adrenaline, which can facilitate performance of stunts.", "It is believed that the implementation of extreme sports on mental health patients improves their perspective and recognition of aspects of life.In outdoor adventure sports, participants get to experience the emotion of intense thrill, usually associated with the extreme sports.", "Even though some extreme sports present a higher level of risk, people still choose to embark in the experience of extreme sports for the sake of the adrenaline.", "According to Sigmund Freud, we have an instinctual 'death wish', which is a subconscious inbuilt desire to destroy ourselves, proving that in the seek for the thrill, danger is considered pleasurable." ], [ "List of extreme and adventure sports", "===Adventure sports===* Bungee jumping* Canyoning* Cave diving* Equestrianism* Extreme pogo* Extreme skiing* Alpine ski racing* Flowriding* Freediving* Freeride (mountain biking)* Freerunning* Freeskiing* Freestyle scootering* Freestyle skiing* Hang gliding* Ice climbing* Ice diving* Ice yachting* Inline skating* Ironman Triathlon* Extreme ironing* Foiling* Jetskiing* Kitesurfing* Land windsurfing* Longboarding* Motocross* Motorcycle sport* Mountainboarding* Mountaineering (mountain climbing)* Mountain biking* Paragliding* Parkour* Rallying* Rock climbing* Scuba diving* Skateboarding* Ski jumping* Skydiving* Skysurfing* Slacklining* Snorkeling* Snowboarding* Snowmobiling (Snocross)* Street luge* Surfing* Technical Diving* Volcano Boarding* Wakeboarding* Water skiing* Waveski* Whitewater kayaking* Windsurfing* Winging===Extreme sports===* Air racing* BASE jumping* BMX* Bobsleigh* Bodyboarding* Cliff jumping* Canyoning* Cave diving* Extreme pogo* Extreme skiing* Freeride (mountain biking)* Freerunning* Hang gliding* Ice climbing* Ice diving* Ice yachting* Inline skating* Ironman Triathlon* Kitesurfing* Land windsurfing* Longboarding* Motocross* Motorcycle sport* Mountainboarding* Mountaineering (mountain climbing)* Mountain biking* Parkour* Rallying* Rock climbing* Sandboarding* Skateboarding* Ski jumping* Skysurfing* Slacklining* Snowmobiling (Snocross)* Street luge* Technical Diving* Volcano Boarding* Wakeboarding* Waveski* Wingsuiting* Whitewater kayaking" ], [ "See also", "* Action camera* Ekstremsportveko* Extreme Sports Channel* Extreme tourism and adventure travel* Extreme Games* Stunt* Urban exploration" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Eadgyth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edith of England''', also spelt '''Eadgyth''' or '''Ædgyth''' (, ; 910–946), a member of the House of Wessex, was a German queen from 936, by her marriage to King Otto I." ], [ "Life", "Edith was born to the reigning English king Edward the Elder by his second wife, Ælfflæd, and hence was a granddaughter of King Alfred the Great.", "She had an older sister, Eadgifu.", "She apparently spent her early years near Winchester in Wessex, moving about frequently with the court, and may have spent her later youth, with her mother, living for a time at a monastery.At the request of the East Frankish king Henry the Fowler, who wished to stake a claim to equality and to seal the alliance between the two Saxon kingdoms, her half-brother King Æthelstan sent his sisters Edith and Edgiva to Germany.", "Henry's eldest son and heir to the throne Otto was instructed to choose whichever one pleased him best.", "Otto chose Edith, according to Hrotsvitha a woman \"of pure noble countenance, graceful character and truly royal appearance\", and married her in 930.In 929 King Otto I had granted the city of Magdeburg to his Edith as dower.", "She had a particular love for the town and often lived there.Otto I and his wife Edith arrive near Magdeburg (Hugo Vogel 1898, Ständehaus Merseburg)In 936 Henry the Fowler died and his eldest son Otto, Edith's husband, was crowned king at Aachen Cathedral.", "A surviving report of the ceremony by the medieval chronicler Widukind of Corvey makes no mention of his wife having been crowned at this point, but according to Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg's chronicle, Eadgyth was nevertheless anointed as queen, albeit in a separate ceremony.As queen consort, Edith undertook the usual state duties of a \"First Lady\": when she turns up in the records it is generally in connection with gifts to the state's favoured monasteries or memorials to holy women and saints.", "In this respect she seems to have been more diligent than her now widowed and subsequently sainted mother-in-law, Queen Matilda, whose own charitable activities only achieve a single recorded mention from the period of Eadgyth's time as queen.", "There was probably rivalry between the Benedictine Monastery of St Maurice founded at Magdeburg by Otto and Eadgyth in 937, a year after coming to the throne, and Matilda's foundation Quedlinburg Abbey, intended by her as a memorial to her husband, the late King Henry.", "Edith accompanied her husband on his travels, though not during battles.", "While Otto fought against the rebellious dukes Eberhard of Franconia and Gilbert of Lorraine in 939, she spent the hostilities at Lorsch Abbey.", "In 941 she effected a reconciliation between her husband and his mother.", "Like her brother, Æthelstan, Edith was devoted to the cult of their ancestor Saint Oswald of Northumbria and was instrumental in introducing this cult into Germany after her marriage to the emperor.", "Her lasting influence may have caused certain monasteries and churches in the Duchy of Saxony to be dedicated to this saint.Eadgyth's death in 946 at around the age of thirty-six, was unexpected.", "Otto apparently mourned the loss of a beloved spouse.", "He married Adelaide of Italy in 951." ], [ "Children", "Edith and Otto's children were:* Liudolf, Duke of Swabia (930 – 6 September 957)* Liutgarde (931 – 18 November 953), married the Lotharingian duke Conrad the Red in 947both buried in St. Alban's Abbey, Mainz." ], [ "Tomb", "View inside the lead coffinInitially buried in the St Maurice monastery, Edith's tomb since the 16th century has been located in Magdeburg Cathedral.", "Long regarded as a cenotaph, a lead coffin inside a stone sarcophagus with her name on it was found and opened in 2008 by archaeologists during work on the building.", "An inscription recorded that it was the body of Eadgyth, reburied in 1510.The fragmented and incomplete bones were examined in 2009, then brought to Bristol, England, for tests in 2010.The investigations at Bristol, applying isotope tests on tooth enamel, checked whether she was born and brought up in Wessex and Mercia, as written history indicated.", "Testing on the bones revealed that they are the remains of Eadgyth, from study made of the enamel of the teeth in her upper jaw.", "Testing of the enamel revealed that the individual entombed at Magdeburg had spent time as a youth in the chalky uplands of Wessex.", "The bones are the oldest found of a member of English royalty.Following the tests the bones were re-interred in a new titanium coffin in her tomb at Magdeburg Cathedral on 22 October 2010." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*Freytag von Loringhoven, Baron.", "Stammtafeln zur Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten, 1965.", "*Klaniczay, Gábor.", "''Holy Rulers and Blessed Princesses'', 2002." ], [ "External links", "* How the study of teeth is revealing our history, Mike Pitts, ''The Guardian'', 17 June 2010*" ] ]
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[ [ "Kingdom of Essex" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Kingdom of the East Saxons''' (; ), referred to as the '''Kingdom of Essex''' , was one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy.", "It was founded in the 6th century and covered the territory later occupied by the counties of Essex, Middlesex, much of Hertfordshire and (for a short while) west Kent.", "The last king of Essex was Sigered of Essex, who in 825 ceded the kingdom to Ecgberht, King of Wessex." ], [ "Extent", "A map showing the outline of those parts now adjacent to the traditional county of Essex (in grey), but which historians postulate were part of the ancient Kingdom of Essex before becoming detached during the middle of the 8th century.The Kingdom of Essex was bounded to the north by the River Stour and the Kingdom of East Anglia, to the south by the River Thames and Kent, to the east lay the North Sea and to the west Mercia.", "The territory included the remains of two provincial Roman capitals, Colchester and London.The kingdom included the Middle Saxon Province, which included the area of the later county of Middlesex, and most if not all of Hertfordshire Although the province is only ever recorded as a part of the East Saxon kingdom, charter evidence shows that it was not part of their core territory.", "In the core area they granted charters freely, but further west they did so while also making reference to their Mercian overlords.", "At times, Essex was ruled jointly by co-Kings, and it thought that the Middle Saxon Province is likely to have been the domain of one of these co-kings.", "The links to Essex between Middlesex and parts of Hertfordshire were long reflected in the Diocese of London, re-established in 604 as the East Saxon see, and its boundaries continued to be based on the Kingdom of Essex until the nineteenth century.The East Saxons also had intermittent control of Surrey.", "For a brief period in the 8th century, the Kingdom of Essex controlled west Kent.The Diocese of London in 1714.The diocese had its roots in the East Saxon kingdom, and was probably originally larger than shown here.The modern English county of Essex maintains the historic northern and the southern borders, but only covers the territory east of the River Lea, the other parts being lost to neighbouring Mercia during the 8th century.In the Tribal Hidage it is listed as containing 7,000 hides." ], [ "History", "Although the kingdom of Essex was one of the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, its history is not well documented.", "It produced relatively few Anglo-Saxon charters and no version of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''; in fact the only mention in the chronicle concerns Bishop Mellitus.", "As a result, the kingdom is regarded as comparatively obscure.", "For most of the kingdom's existence, the Essex king was subservient to an overlord – variously the kings of Kent, East Anglia or Mercia.===Origin===Saxon occupation of land that was to form the kingdom had begun by the early 5th century at Mucking and other locations.", "A large proportion of these original settlers came from Old Saxony.", "According to British legend (see ) the territory known later as Essex was ceded by the Celtic Britons to the Saxons following the infamous Treason of the Long Knives, which occurred during the reign of High King Vortigern.", "Della Hooke relates the territory ruled by the kings of Essex to the pre-Roman territory of the Trinovantes.", "Studies suggest a pattern of typically peaceful co-existence, with the structure of the Romano-British landscape being maintained, and with the Saxon settlers believed to have been in the minority.The kingdom of Essex grew by the absorption of smaller subkingdoms or Saxon tribal groups.", "There are a number of suggestions for the location of these subkingdoms including:*The Rodings (\"the people of Hrōþa\"),*the ''Haemele'', Hemel Hempstead*Vange – \"marsh district\" (possibly stretching to the Mardyke)*Denge*''Ginges''*Berecingas – Barking, in the south west of the kingdom*Haeferingas in the London Borough of Havering*Uppingas – Epping===Essex monarchy===Essex emerged as a single kingdom during the 6th century.", "The dates, names and achievements of the Essex kings, like those of most early rulers in the Heptarchy, remain conjectural.", "The historical identification of the kings of Essex, including the evidence and a reconstructed genealogy are discussed extensively by Yorke.", "The dynasty claimed descent from Woden via Seaxnēat.", "A genealogy of the Essex royal house was prepared in Wessex in the 9th century.", "Unfortunately, the surviving copy is somewhat mutilated.", "At times during the history of the kingdom several sub-kings within Essex appear to have been able to rule simultaneously.", "They may have exercised authority over different parts of the kingdom.", "The first recorded king, according to the East Saxon King List, was Æscwine of Essex, to which a date of 527 is given for the start of his reign, although there are some difficulties with the date of his reign, and Sledd of Essex is listed as the founder of the Essex royal house by other sources.", "The kings of Essex are notable for their S-nomenclature, nearly all their names begin with the letter S.The Essex kings issued coins that echoed those issued by Cunobeline simultaneously asserting a link to the first century rulers while emphasising independence from Mercia.===Christianity===Christianity is thought to have flourished among the Trinovantes in the 4th century (late Roman period); indications include the remains of a probable church at Colchester, dating from some time after 320 AD, shortly after the Constantine the Great granted freedom of worship to Christians in 313 AD.", "Other archaeological evidence includes a chi rho symbol etched on a tile at a site in Wickford, and a gold ring inscribed with a chi rho monogram found at Brentwood.", "It is not clear to what extent, if any, Christianity persisted by the time of the pagan East Saxon kings in the sixth century.The earliest English record of the kingdom dates to Bede's , which noted the arrival of Bishop (later Saint) Mellitus in London in 604.Æthelberht (King of Kent and overlord of southern England according to Bede) was in a position to exercise some authority in Essex shortly after 604, when his intervention helped in the conversion of King Saebert of Essex (son of Sledd), his nephew, to Christianity.", "It was Æthelberht, and not Sæberht, who built and endowed St. Paul's in London, where St. Paul's Cathedral now stands.", "Bede describes Æthelberht as Sæberht's overlord.", "After the death of Saebert in AD 616, Mellitus was driven out and the kingdom reverted to paganism.", "This may have been the result of opposition to Kentish influence in Essex affairs rather than being specifically anti-Christian.The kingdom reconverted to Christianity under Sigeberht II the Good following a mission by St Cedd who established monasteries at ''Tilaburg'' (probably East Tilbury, but possibly West Tilbury) and ''Ithancester'' (almost certainly Bradwell-on-Sea).", "A royal tomb at Prittlewell was discovered and excavated in 2003.Finds included gold foil crosses, suggesting the occupant was Christian.", "If the occupant was a king, it was probably either Saebert or Sigeberht (murdered AD 653).", "It is, however, also possible that the occupant was not royal, but simply a wealthy and powerful individual whose identity has gone unrecorded.St Peter’s Chapel, Bradwell-on-Sea.", "Established by St Cedd, the patron saint of Essex around 662, it was built on the site of the abandoned Roman Saxon Shore fort of Othona.Essex reverted to Paganism again in 660 with the ascension of the Pagan King Swithelm of Essex.", "He converted in 662, but died in 664.He was succeeded by his two sons, Sigehere and Sæbbi.", "A plague the same year caused Sigehere and his people to recant their Christianity and Essex reverted to Paganism a third time.", "This rebellion was suppressed by Wulfhere of Mercia who established himself as overlord.", "Bede describes Sigehere and Sæbbi as \"rulers … under Wulfhere, king of the Mercians\".", "Wulfhere sent Jaruman, the bishop of Lichfield, to reconvert the East Saxons.Wine (in 666) and Erkenwald (in 675) were appointed bishops of London with spiritual authority over the East Saxon Kingdom.", "A small stone chest bearing the name of Sæbbi of Essex () was visible in Old St Paul's Cathedral until the Great Fire of London of 1666 when the cathedral and the tombs within it were lost.", "The inscription on the chest was recorded by Paul Hentzner and translated by Robert Naunton as reading: \"Here lies Seba, King of the East Saxons, who was converted to the faith by St. Erkenwald, Bishop of London, A.D.", "677.", "\"Although London (and the rest of Middlesex) was lost by the East Saxons in the 8th century, the bishops of London continued to exert spiritual authority over Essex as a kingdom, shire and county until 1845.===Later history and end===Despite the comparative obscurity of the kingdom, there were strong connections between Essex and the Kentish kingdom across the river Thames which led to the marriage of King Sledd to Ricula, sister of the king, Aethelbert of Kent.", "For a brief period in the 8th century the kingdom included west Kent.", "During this period, Essex kings were issuing their own sceattas (coins), perhaps as an assertion of their own independence.", "However, by the mid-8th century, much of the kingdom, including London, had fallen to Mercia and the rump of Essex, roughly the modern county, was now subordinate to the same.", "After the defeat of the Mercian king Beornwulf around AD 825, Sigered, the last king of Essex, ceded the kingdom which then became a possession of the Wessex king Egbert.The Mercians continued to control parts of Essex and may have supported a pretender to the Essex throne since a Sigeric witnessed a Mercian charter after AD 825.During the ninth century, Essex was part of a sub-kingdom that included Sussex, Surrey and Kent.", "Sometime between 878 and 886, the territory was formally ceded by Wessex to the Danelaw kingdom of East Anglia, under the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum.", "After the reconquest by Edward the Elder the king's representative in Essex was styled an ealdorman and Essex came to be regarded as a shire." ], [ "List of kings", "The following list of kings may omit whole generations.", "Reign Incumbent Notes 527 to 587 (perhaps) '''Æscwine''' or '''Erchenwine''' First king according to some sources, others saying son Sledd was first 587 to ''ante'' 604 '''Sledd''' Son of Æscwine/Erchenwine ''ante'' 604 to 616/7?", "'''Sæberht''' Son of Sledd 616/7?", "to 623?", "'''Sexred''' Son of Sæberht.", "Joint king with Saeward and a third brother; killed in battle against the West Saxons 616/7?", "to 623?", "'''Saeward''' Son of Sæberht.", "Joint king with Sexred and a third brother; killed in battle against the West Saxons 616/7?", "to 623?", "(''another son of Sæberht, name unknown'') Joint king with Sexred and Saeward; killed in battle against the West Saxons 623?", "to ''ante'' '''Sigeberht the Little''' '''Sigeberht the Good''' Apparently son of Sæward.", "Saint Sigeberht; Saint Sebbi (Feast Day 29 August) 660 to 664 '''Swithhelm''' 664 to 683 '''Sighere''' son of a Sigeberht, probably 'the Good'.", "Joint-king with Sæbbi 664 to '''Sæbbi''' Son of Sexred.", "Joint-king with Sighere; abdicated in favour of his son Sigeheard to '''Sigeheard''' Joint-king with his brother Swaefred to '''Swæfred''' Son of Sæbbi.", "Joint-king with his brother Sigeheard '''Offa''' Son of Sighere.", "Joint-king during latter part of reign of Swæfred and perhaps Sigeheard.", "'''Saelred''' Representing distant line descended from Sledd.", "Probably joint-king with Swaefbert '''Swæfbert''' Probably joint-king with Saelred 746 to 758 '''Swithred''' Grandson of Sigeheard 758 to 798 '''Sigeric''' Son of Saelred.", "Abdicated 798 to 812 '''Sigered''' Son of Sigeric.", "''Mercia defeated by Egbert of Wessex, sub-kingdom of Essex subsumed into Wessex''; from 812 to about 825 held it only as ''dux''." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Carpenter, Clive.", "''Kings, Rulers and Statesmen''.", "Guinness Superlatives, Ltd.* Ross, Martha.", "''Rulers and Governments of the World'', Vol.", "1.", "''Earliest Times to 1491''." ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Eve (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eve''' is the first woman created by God according to the creation narrative of Abrahamic religions.", "'''Eve''' or '''EVE''' may also refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Eve (rapper) (born 1974), American recording artist and actress* Eve (Japanese singer) (born 1995), a Vocaloid producer and Japanese singer-songwriter." ], [ "Places", "* Eve Cone, a volcano in British Columbia, Canada* Ève, Oise, a commune in the Oise département of France* Eve, Kentucky, an unincorporated community* Eve, Missouri, an unincorporated community" ], [ "Technology", "* Eve (cryptography), a placeholder name for an archetypal eavesdropper* EVE/ZeBu, a provider of hardware-assisted verification tools* Eve (robot), a robot scientist working at Aberystwyth University* EVE (text editor), a text editor provided with the VMS operating system* VMS ''Eve'', a spacecraft* European Venus Explorer, a proposed space probe* Eve, a typeface created by Rudolf Koch* Eve Systems, German smart home product brand and manufacturer" ], [ "Books and magazines", "* ''Eve'' (magazine), a monthly women's magazine* ''Eve'' (Chase novel), a 1945 psychological thriller novel by James Hadley Chase* ''Eve'' (Young novel), a 2015 Christian fantasy novel by William P. Young* ''Eve: How the Female Body Drove 200 Million Years of Human Evolution'', a 2023 science book by Cat Bohannon" ], [ "Film and television", "* ''Eve'' (1968 film), a thriller film* ''Eve'' (2008 film), a short film by Natalie Portman* ''Eve'' (American TV series), a 2003–2006 American television sitcom* ''Eve'' (British TV series), a 2015–2017 British children's TV programme* \"Eve\" (''The X-Files''), a 1993 episode of ''The X-Files''* \"Eve\", an episode of ''Journey to the Unknown''* ''Eve'' (South Korean TV series), a 2022 South Korean TV series===Fictional characters and items===* Eve (''Angel''), a character in the Joss Whedon TV series ''Angel''* Eve (''Black Cat''), a character in the 2000–2004 manga series ''Black Cat''* Eve (comics), a character in the Neil Gaiman comic book series ''The Sandman''* Eve (''The X-Files''), the name of multiple female clones in the TV series ''The X-Files''* EVE (''WALL-E''), a character in the 2008 Pixar film ''WALL-E''* Eve (''Xena''), a character in the TV series ''Xena: Warrior Princess''* Eve, a member of the musical comedy trio The Kransky Sisters* Eve, a character in the ''Species'' film series* Eve, a character in the ''Underworld'' film series* Eve, a fictional serum in the 2007 video game ''BioShock''* Eve Luciano, a character in the 1978–1981 manga series ''California Story''* Eve Polastri, a character in the 2018—2022 TV series ''Killing Eve'' and related Luke Jennings novels* EVE VIII, a character in the 1991 film ''Eve of Destruction''* Eve Wakamiya, the keyboardist of the band Pastel*Palettes in the ''BanG Dream!''", "franchise* Eve, a character in the 1995 novel ''Parasite Eve'' byHideaki Sena* Eve, a character in ''The Binding of Isaac''* Eve, a character in ''Freedom Force''* EVE (''Sonic the Hedgehog''), a character in ''Sonic the Hedgehog'' comic books* Eve, a character in the 2012 video game ''Mass Effect 3''* Eve, a character in Season 6 of the series ''Supernatural''* Eve, a planet in the 2011 video game Kerbal Space Program" ], [ "Games", "* ''Eve: The Second Genesis Collectible Card Game''* ''Eve Online'', a 2003 MMO space simulation computer game* ''Peter Gabriel: Eve'', a video game created in association with and featuring the music of Peter Gabriel* ''Stellar Blade'', initially revealed as ''Project Eve''" ], [ "Music", "* ''Ève'' (Massenet), a French biblical oratorio by Jules Massenet===Bands===* Eve (American band) or Honey Ltd.* Eve (Korean band), a Korean visual rock band===Albums===* ''Eve'' (The Alan Parsons Project album) (1979)* ''Eve'' (Over the Rhine album) (1994)* ''Eve'' (Showta album) (2008)* ''Eve'', a 2010 album by Ufomammut* ''Eve'' (Emery album) (2018)* ''Eve'' (Rapsody album) (2019)===Songs===* \"Eve\" (Jim Capaldi song), 1972* \"Eve\" (Idoling song), 2010* \"Eve\", song by The Carpenters from ''Ticket to Ride'', 1969* \"Eve\", song by Dream Theater from ''Awake'', 1994* \"Eve\", song by Spacek, 1999* \"Eve\", song by Asking Alexandria from ''Asking Alexandria'', 2017* \"Ève lève-toi\", by Julie Pietri, 1986" ], [ "Other uses", "* Mitochondrial Eve, the matrilineal most recent common ancestor of modern humans* Eve (cigarette), a brand of cigarette* EVE (organization), a Vancouver-based advocacy group* ''Eve'' (Davidson), a 1931 bronze sculpture by Robert Davidson* Endogenous viral element* 3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine or Eve, an empathogenic psychoactive drug* Harstad/Narvik Airport, Evenes's IATA code* The day or night before a special day, usually a holiday, for example Christmas Eve* NIO Eve, a concept car made by the automotive brand NIO." ], [ "See also", "* Eaves* Eevee, a Pokémon* Eevee (band), a Philippine band formed in 2004* Eve 6, a Californian rock band* Evening* Evette (disambiguation)* Evi (disambiguation)* Evie (disambiguation)* Evy (disambiguation)* Ewe language or Eve* First woman (disambiguation)* Ive (disambiguation)* Yve* Yves (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Æthelberht of Kent" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Æthelberht''' (; also '''Æthelbert''', '''Aethelberht''', '''Aethelbert''' or '''Ethelbert'''; ; 550 – 24 February 616) was King of Kent from about 589 until his death.", "The eighth-century monk Bede, in his ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', lists him as the third king to hold ''imperium'' over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.", "In the late ninth century ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', he is referred to as a ''bretwalda'', or \"Britain-ruler\".", "He was the first English king to convert to Christianity.Æthelberht was the son of Eormenric, succeeding him as king, according to the ''Chronicle''.", "He married Bertha, the Christian daughter of Charibert I, king of the Franks, thus building an alliance with the most powerful state in contemporary Western Europe; the marriage probably took place before he came to the throne.", "Bertha's influence may have led to Pope Gregory I's decision to send Augustine as a missionary from Rome.", "Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet in east Kent in 597.Shortly thereafter, Æthelberht converted to Christianity, churches were established, and wider-scale conversion to Christianity began in the kingdom.", "He provided the new church with land in Canterbury, thus helping to establish one of the foundation stones of English Christianity.Æthelberht's law for Kent, the earliest written code in any Germanic language, instituted a complex system of fines; the law code is preserved in the ''Textus Roffensis''.", "Kent was rich, with strong trade ties to the Continent, and Æthelberht may have instituted royal control over trade.", "Coinage probably began circulating in Kent during his reign for the first time since the Anglo-Saxon settlement.", "He later came to be regarded as a saint for his role in establishing Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons.", "His feast day was originally 24 February but was changed to 25 February." ], [ "Historical context", "The state of Anglo-Saxon England at the time Æthelberht came to the throne of KentIn the fifth century, raids on Britain by continental peoples had developed into full-scale migrations.", "The newcomers are known to have included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, and there is evidence of other groups as well.", "These groups captured territory in the east and south of England, but at about the end of the fifth century, a British victory at the battle of Mount Badon (Mons Badonicus) halted the Anglo-Saxon advance for fifty years.", "From about 550, however, the British began to lose ground once more, and within twenty-five years it appears that control of almost all of southern England was in the hands of the invaders.Anglo-Saxons probably conquered Kent before Mons Badonicus.", "There is both documentary and archaeological evidence that Kent was primarily colonised by Jutes, from the southern part of the Jutland peninsula.", "According to legend, the brothers Hengist and Horsa landed in 449 as mercenaries for a British king, Vortigern.", "After a rebellion over pay and Horsa's death in battle, Hengist established the Kingdom of Kent.", "Some historians now think the underlying story of a rebelling mercenary force may be accurate; most now date the founding of the kingdom of Kent to the middle of the fifth-century, which is consistent with the legend.", "This early date, only a few decades after the departure of the Romans, also suggests that more of Roman civilization may have survived into Anglo-Saxon rule in Kent than in other areas.Overlordship was a central feature of Anglo-Saxon politics which began before Æthelberht's time; kings were described as overlords as late as the ninth century.", "The Anglo-Saxon invasion may have involved military coordination of different groups within the invaders, with a leader who had authority over many different groups; Ælle of Sussex may have been such a leader.", "Once the new states began to form, conflicts among them began.", "Tribute from dependents could lead to wealth.", "A weaker state also might ask or pay for the protection of a stronger neighbour against a warlike third state.Sources for this period in Kentish history include the ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', written in 731 by Bede, a Northumbrian monk.", "Bede was interested primarily in England's Christianization.", "Since Æthelberht was the first Anglo-Saxon king to convert to Christianity, Bede provides more substantial information about him than about any earlier king.", "One of Bede's correspondents was Albinus, abbot of the monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul (subsequently renamed St. Augustine's) in Canterbury.", "The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', a collection of annals assembled in the kingdom of Wessex, mentions several events in Kent during Æthelberht's reign.", "Further mention of events in Kent occurs in the late sixth century history of the Franks by Gregory of Tours.", "This is the earliest surviving source to mention any Anglo-Saxon kingdom.", "Some of Pope Gregory the Great's letters concern the mission of St. Augustine to Kent in 597; these letters also mention the state of Kent and its relationships with neighbours.", "Other sources include regnal lists of the kings of Kent and early charters (land grants by kings to their followers or to the church).", "Although no originals survive from Æthelberht's reign, later copies exist.", "A law code from Æthelberht's reign also survives." ], [ "Ancestry, accession and chronology", "According to Bede, Æthelberht was descended directly from Hengist.", "Bede gives the line of descent as follows: \"Ethelbert was son of Irminric, son of Octa, and after his grandfather Oeric, surnamed Oisc, the kings of the Kentish folk are commonly known as Oiscings.", "The father of Oeric was Hengist.\"", "An alternative form of this genealogy, found in the ''Historia Brittonum'' among other places, reverses the position of Octa and Oisc in the lineage.", "The first of these names that can be placed historically with reasonable confidence is Æthelberht's father, whose name now usually is spelled Eormenric.", "The only direct written reference to Eormenric is in Kentish genealogies, but Gregory of Tours does mention that Æthelberht's father was the king of Kent, though Gregory gives no date.", "Eormenric's name provides a hint of connections to the kingdom of the Franks, across the English channel; the element \"Eormen\" was rare in names of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy, but much more common among Frankish nobles.", "One other member of Æthelberht's family is known: his sister, Ricole, who is recorded by both Bede and the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' as the mother of Sæberht, king of the East Saxons (i.e., Essex).The dates of Æthelberht's birth and accession to the throne of Kent are both matters of debate.", "Bede, the earliest source to give dates, is thought to have drawn his information from correspondence with Albinus.", "Bede states that when Æthelberht died in 616 he had reigned for fifty-six years, placing his accession in 560.Bede also says that Æthelberht died twenty-one years after his baptism.", "Augustine's mission from Rome is known to have arrived in 597, and according to Bede, it was this mission that converted Æthelberht.", "Hence Bede's dates are inconsistent.", "The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', an important source for early dates, is inconsistent with Bede and also has inconsistencies among different manuscript versions.", "Putting together the different dates in the ''Chronicle'' for birth, death and length of reign, it appears that Æthelberht's reign was thought to have been either 560–616 or 565–618 but that the surviving sources have confused the two traditions.It is possible that Æthelberht was converted to Christianity before Augustine's arrival.", "Æthelberht's wife was a Christian and brought a Frankish bishop with her, to attend her at court, so Æthelberht would have had knowledge of Christianity before the mission reached Kent.", "It also is possible that Bede had the date of Æthelberht's death wrong; if, in fact, Æthelberht died in 618, this would be consistent with his baptism in 597, which is in accord with the tradition that Augustine converted the king within a year of his arrival.Gregory of Tours, in his ''Historia Francorum'', writes that Bertha, daughter of Charibert I, king of the Franks, married the son of the king of Kent.", "Bede says that Æthelberht received Bertha \"from her parents\".", "If Bede is interpreted literally, the marriage would have had to take place before 567, when Charibert died.", "The traditions for Æthelberht's reign, then, would imply that Æthelberht married Bertha before either 560 or 565.The extreme length of Æthelberht's reign also has been regarded with skepticism by historians; it has been suggested that he died in the fifty-sixth year of his life, rather than the fifty-sixth year of his reign.", "This would place the year of his birth approximately at 560, and he would not then have been able to marry until the mid 570s.", "According to Gregory of Tours, Charibert was king when he married Ingoberg, Bertha's mother, which places that marriage no earlier than 561.It therefore is unlikely that Bertha was married much before about 580.These later dates for Bertha and Æthelberht also solve another possible problem: Æthelberht's daughter, Æthelburh, seems likely to have been Bertha's child, but the earlier dates would have Bertha aged sixty or so at Æthelburh's likely birthdate using the early dates.Gregory, however, also says that he thinks that Ingoberg was seventy years old in 589; and this would make her about forty when she married Charibert.", "This is possible, but seems unlikely, especially as Charibert seems to have had a preference for younger women, again according to Gregory's account.", "This would imply an earlier birth date for Bertha.", "On the other hand, Gregory refers to Æthelberht at the time of his marriage to Bertha simply as \"a man of Kent\", and in the 589 passage concerning Ingoberg's death, which was written in about 590 or 591, he refers to Æthelberht as \"the son of the king of Kent\".", "If this does not simply reflect Gregory's ignorance of Kentish affairs, which seems unlikely given the close ties between Kent and the Franks, then some assert that Æthelberht's reign cannot have begun before 589.While all of the contradictions above cannot be reconciled, the most probable dates that may be drawn from available data place Æthelberht's birth at approximately 560 and, perhaps, his marriage to Bertha at 580.His reign is most likely to have begun in 589 or 590." ], [ "Kingship of Kent", "The later history of Kent shows clear evidence of a system of joint kingship, with the kingdom being divided into east Kent and west Kent, although it appears that there generally was a dominant king.", "This evidence is less clear for the earlier period, but there are early charters, known to be forged, which nevertheless imply that Æthelberht ruled as joint king with his son, Eadbald.", "It may be that Æthelberht was king of east Kent and Eadbald became king of west Kent; the east Kent king seems generally to have been the dominant ruler later in Kentish history.", "Whether or not Eadbald became a joint king with Æthelberht, there is no question that Æthelberht had authority throughout the kingdom.The division into two kingdoms is most likely to date back to the sixth century; east Kent may have conquered west Kent and preserved the institutions of kingship as a subkingdom.", "This was a common pattern in Anglo-Saxon England, as the more powerful kingdoms absorbed their weaker neighbours.", "An unusual feature of the Kentish system was that only sons of kings appeared to be legitimate claimants to the throne, although this did not eliminate all strife over the succession.The main towns of the two kingdoms were Rochester, for west Kent, and Canterbury, for east Kent.", "Bede does not state that Æthelberht had a palace in Canterbury, but he does refer to Canterbury as Æthelberht's \"metropolis\", and it is clear that it is Æthelberht's seat." ], [ "Relations with the Franks", "Sculpture of Æthelberht on Canterbury Cathedral in EnglandThere are many indications of close relations between Kent and the Franks.", "Æthelberht's marriage to Bertha certainly connected the two courts, although not as equals: the Franks would have thought of Æthelberht as an under-king.", "There is no record that Æthelberht ever accepted a continental king as his overlord and, as a result, historians are divided on the true nature of the relationship.", "Evidence for an explicit Frankish overlordship of Kent comes from a letter written by Pope Gregory the Great to Theuderic, king of Burgundy, and Theudebert, king of Austrasia.", "The letter concerned Augustine's mission to Kent in 597, and in it Gregory says that he believes \"that you wish your subjects in every respect to be converted to that faith in which you, their kings and lords, stand\".", "It may be that this is a papal compliment, rather than a description of the relationship between the kingdoms.", "It also has been suggested that Liudhard, Bertha's chaplain, was intended as a representative of the Frankish church in Kent, which also could be interpreted as evidence of overlordship.A possible reason for the willingness of the Franks to connect themselves with the Kentish court is the fact that a Frankish king, Chilperic I, is recorded as having conquered a people known as the Euthiones during the mid-sixth century.", "If, as seems likely from the name, these people were the continental remnants of the Jutish invaders of Kent, then it may be that the marriage was intended as a unifying political move, reconnecting different branches of the same people.", "Another perspective on the marriage may be gained by considering that it is likely that Æthelberht was not yet king at the time he and Bertha were wed: it may be that Frankish support for him, acquired via the marriage, was instrumental in gaining the throne for him.Regardless of the political relationship between Æthelberht and the Franks, there is abundant evidence of strong connections across the English Channel.", "There was a luxury trade between Kent and the Franks, and burial artefacts found include clothing, drink, and weapons that reflect Frankish cultural influence.", "The Kentish burials have a greater range of imported goods than those of the neighbouring Anglo-Saxon regions, which is not surprising given Kent's easier access to trade across the English Channel.", "In addition, the grave goods are both richer and more numerous in Kentish graves, implying that material wealth was derived from that trade.", "Frankish influences also may be detected in the social and agrarian organization of Kent.", "Other cultural influences may be seen in the burials as well, so it is not necessary to presume that there was direct settlement by the Franks in Kent." ], [ "Rise to dominance", "===Bretwalda===Image:Entry for 827 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which lists the eight bretwaldas.gif|thumb|right|The entry for 827 in the C ms. (one of the Abingdon manuscripts) of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', listing the eight ''bretwaldas''; Æthelberht's name, spelled \"Æþelbriht\", is the second-to-last word on the fifth lineIn his ''Ecclesiastical History'', Bede includes his list of seven kings who held ''imperium'' over the other kingdoms south of the Humber.", "The usual translation for ''imperium'' is \"overlordship\".", "Bede names Æthelberht as the third on the list, after Ælle of Sussex and Ceawlin of Wessex.", "The anonymous annalist who composed one of the versions of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' repeated Bede's list of seven kings in a famous entry under the year 827, with one additional king, Egbert of Wessex.", "The ''Chronicle'' also records that these kings held the title ''bretwalda'', or \"Britain-ruler\".", "The exact meaning of ''bretwalda'' has been the subject of much debate; it has been described as a term \"of encomiastic poetry\", but there also is evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership.The prior ''bretwalda'', Ceawlin, is recorded by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' as having fought Æthelberht in 568 at a place called \"Wibbandun\" (\"Wibba's Mount\") whose location has not been identified.", "The entry states that Æthelberht lost the battle and was driven back to Kent.", "Comparison of the entries concerning the West Saxons in this section of the ''Chronicle'' with the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List shows that their dating is unreliable: Ceawlin's reign is more likely to have been approximately 581–588, rather 560–592 as claimed in the ''Chronicle''.At some point Ceawlin lost his overlordship, perhaps after a battle at ''Fethan leag'', thought to have been in Oxfordshire, which the ''Chronicle'' dates to 584, some eight years before he was deposed in 592 (again using the ''Chronicle's'' unreliable dating).", "Æthelberht certainly was a dominant ruler by 601, when Gregory the Great wrote to him: Gregory urges Æthelberht to spread Christianity among those kings and peoples subject to him, implying some level of overlordship.", "If the battle of Wibbandun was fought c. 590, as has been suggested, then Æthelberht must have gained his position as overlord at some time in the 590s.", "This dating for Wibbandun is slightly inconsistent with the proposed dates of 581–588 for Ceawlin's reign, but those dates are not thought to be precise, merely the most plausible given the available data.===Relationships with other kingdoms===In addition to the evidence of the ''Chronicle'' that Æthelberht was accorded the title of ''bretwalda'', there is evidence of his domination in several of the southern kingdoms of the Heptarchy.", "In Essex, Æthelberht appears to have been in a position to exercise authority shortly after 604, when his intervention helped in the conversion of King Sæberht of Essex, his nephew, to Christianity.", "It was Æthelberht, and not Sæberht, who built and endowed St. Pauls in London, where St Paul's Cathedral now stands.", "Further evidence is provided by Bede, who explicitly describes Æthelberht as Sæberht's overlord.Bede describes Æthelberht's relationship with Rædwald, king of East Anglia, in a passage that is not completely clear in meaning.", "It seems to imply that Rædwald retained ''ducatus'', or military command of his people, even while Æthelberht held ''imperium''.", "This implies that being a ''bretwalda'' usually included holding the military command of other kingdoms and also that it was more than that, since Æthelberht is ''bretwalda'' despite Rædwald's control of his own troops.", "Rædwald was converted to Christianity while in Kent but did not abandon his pagan beliefs; this, together with the fact that he retained military independence, implies that Æthelberht's overlordship of East Anglia was much weaker than his influence with the East Saxons.", "An alternative interpretation, however, is that the passage in Bede should be translated as \"Rædwald, king of the East Angles, who while Æthelberht lived, even conceded to him the military leadership of his people\"; if this is Bede's intent, then East Anglia firmly was under Æthelberht's overlordship.There is no evidence that Æthelberht's influence in other kingdoms was enough for him to convert any other kings to Christianity, although this is partly due to the lack of sources—nothing is known of Sussex's history, for example, for almost all of the seventh and eighth centuries.", "Æthelberht was able to arrange a meeting in 602 in the Severn valley, on the northwestern borders of Wessex, however, and this may be an indication of the extent of his influence in the west.", "No evidence survives showing Kentish domination of Mercia, but it is known that Mercia was independent of Northumbria, so it is quite plausible that it was under Kentish overlordship." ], [ "Augustine's mission and early Christianisation", "Stained-glass window of Æthelberht from the chapel of All Souls College, OxfordThe native Britons had converted to Christianity under Roman rule.", "The Anglo-Saxon invasions separated the British church from European Christianity for centuries, so the church in Rome had no presence or authority in Britain, and in fact, Rome knew so little about the British church that it was unaware of any schism in customs.", "However, Æthelberht would have known something about the Roman church from his Frankish wife, Bertha, who had brought a bishop, Liudhard, with her across the Channel, and for whom Æthelberht built a chapel, St Martin's.In 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine, prior of the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome, to England as a missionary, and in 597, a group of nearly forty monks, led by Augustine, landed on the Isle of Thanet in Kent.", "According to Bede, Æthelberht was sufficiently distrustful of the newcomers to insist on meeting them under the open sky, to prevent them from performing sorcery.", "The monks impressed Æthelberht, but he was not converted immediately.", "He agreed to allow the mission to settle in Canterbury and permitted them to preach.It is not known when Æthelberht became a Christian.", "It is possible, despite Bede's account, that he already was a Christian before Augustine's mission arrived.", "It is likely that Liudhard and Bertha pressed Æthelberht to consider becoming a Christian before the arrival of the mission, and it is also likely that a condition of Æthelberht's marriage to Bertha was that Æthelberht would consider conversion.", "Conversion via the influence of the Frankish court would have been seen as an explicit recognition of Frankish overlordship, however, so it is possible that Æthelberht's delay of his conversion until it could be accomplished via Roman influence might have been an assertion of independence from Frankish control.", "It also has been argued that Augustine's hesitation—he turned back to Rome, asking to be released from the mission—is an indication that Æthelberht was a pagan at the time Augustine was sent.At the latest, Æthelberht must have converted before 601, since that year Gregory wrote to him as a Christian king.", "An old tradition records that Æthelberht converted on 1 June, in the summer of the year that Augustine arrived.", "Through Æthelberht's influence Sæberht, king of Essex, also was converted, but there were limits to the effectiveness of the mission.", "The entire Kentish court did not convert: Eadbald, Æthelberht's son and heir, was a pagan at his accession.", "Rædwald, king of East Anglia, was only partly converted (apparently while at Æthelberht's court) and retained a pagan shrine next to the new Christian altar.", "Augustine also was unsuccessful in gaining the allegiance of the British clergy." ], [ "Law code", "The first page of the twelfth-century manuscript of Æthelberht's law codeSome time after the arrival of Augustine's mission, perhaps in 602 or 603, Æthelberht issued a set of laws, in ninety sections.", "These laws are by far the earliest surviving code composed in any of the Germanic countries, and they were almost certainly among the first documents written down in Anglo-Saxon, as literacy would have arrived in England with Augustine's mission.", "The only surviving early manuscript, the ''Textus Roffensis'', dates from the twelfth century, and it now resides in the Medway Studies Centre in Strood, Kent.", "Æthelberht's code makes reference to the church in the very first item, which enumerates the compensation required for the property of a bishop, a deacon, a priest, and so on; but overall, the laws seem remarkably uninfluenced by Christian principles.", "Bede asserted that they were composed \"after the Roman manner\", but there is little discernible Roman influence either.", "In subject matter, the laws have been compared to the ''Lex Salica'' of the Franks, but it is not thought that Æthelberht based his new code on any specific previous model.The laws are concerned with setting and enforcing the penalties for transgressions at all levels of society; the severity of the fine depended on the social rank of the victim.", "The king had a financial interest in enforcement, for part of the fines would come to him in many cases, but the king also was responsible for law and order, and avoiding blood feuds by enforcing the rules on compensation for injury was part of the way the king maintained control.", "Æthelberht's laws are mentioned by Alfred the Great, who compiled his own laws, making use of the prior codes created by Æthelberht, as well as those of Offa of Mercia and Ine of Wessex.One of Æthelberht's laws seems to preserve a trace of a very old custom: the third item in the code states that \"If the king is drinking at a man's home, and anyone commits any evil deed there, he is to pay twofold compensation.\"", "This probably refers to the ancient custom of a king traveling the country, being hosted, and being provided for by his subjects wherever he went.", "The king's servants retained these rights for centuries after Æthelberht's time.Items 77–81 in the code have been interpreted as a description of a woman's financial rights after a divorce or legal separation.", "These clauses define how much of the household goods a woman could keep in different circumstances, depending on whether she keeps custody of the children, for example.", "It has recently been suggested, however, that it would be more correct to interpret these clauses as referring to women who are widowed, rather than divorced." ], [ "Trade and coinage", "A ''thrymsa'' from the reign of Eadbald, Æthelberht's son, none of the coins are known to carry Æthelberht's name, although they may have been minted during his reign|alt=There is little documentary evidence about the nature of trade in Æthelberht's Kent.", "It is known that the kings of Kent had established royal control of trade by the late seventh century, but it is not known how early this control began.", "There is archaeological evidence suggesting that the royal influence predates any of the written sources.", "It has been suggested that one of Æthelberht's achievements was to take control of trade away from the aristocracy and to make it a royal monopoly.", "The continental trade provided Kent access to luxury goods which gave it an advantage in trading with the other Anglo-Saxon nations, and the revenue from trade was important in itself.Kentish manufacture before 600 included glass beakers and jewelry.", "Kentish jewellers were highly skilled, and before the end of the sixth century they gained access to gold.", "Goods from Kent are found in cemeteries across the channel and as far away as at the mouth of the Loire.", "It is not known what Kent traded for all of this wealth, although it seems likely that there was a flourishing slave trade.", "It may well be that this wealth was the foundation of Æthelberht's strength, although his overlordship and the associated right to demand tribute would have brought wealth in its turn.It may have been during Æthelberht's reign that the first coins were minted in England since the departure of the Romans: none bear his name, but it is thought likely that the first coins predate the end of the sixth century.", "These early coins were gold, and probably were the shillings ( in Old English) that are mentioned in Æthelberht's laws.", "The coins are also known to numismatists as ''thrymsas''." ], [ "Death and succession", "Statue of Æthelberht with Canterbury Cathedral in the backgroundÆthelberht died on 24 February 616 and was succeeded by his son, Eadbald, who was not a Christian—Bede says he had been converted but went back to his pagan faith, although he ultimately did become a Christian king.", "Eadbald outraged the church by marrying his stepmother, which was contrary to Church law, and by refusing to accept baptism.", "Sæberht of the East Saxons also died at approximately this time, and he was succeeded by his three sons, none of whom were Christian.", "A subsequent revolt against Christianity and the expulsion of the missionaries from Kent may have been a reaction to Kentish overlordship after Æthelberht's death as much as a pagan opposition to Christianity.In addition to Eadbald, it is possible that Æthelberht had another son, Æthelwald.", "The evidence for this is a papal letter to Justus, archbishop of Canterbury from 619 to 625, that refers to a king named Aduluald, who is apparently different from Audubald, which refers to Eadbald.", "There is no agreement among modern scholars on how to interpret this: \"Aduluald\" might be intended as a representation of \"Æthelwald\", and hence an indication of another king, perhaps a sub-king of west Kent; or it may be merely a scribal error which should be read as referring to Eadbald." ], [ "Liturgical celebration", "Æthelberht was later regarded as a saint for his role in establishing Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons.", "His feast day was originally 24 February but was changed to 25 February.", "In the 2004 edition of the Roman Martyrology, he is listed under his date of death, 24 February, with the citation: 'King of Kent, converted by St Augustine, bishop, the first leader of the English people to do so'.", "The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Southwark, which contains Kent, commemorates him on 25 February.He is also venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church as '''Saint Ethelbert, king''' '''of Kent''', his day commemorated on 25 February." ], [ "See also", "* Kentish Royal Legend" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "=== Primary sources ===* * * Law-code of Æthelberht, ed.", "and tr.", "F. Liebermann, ''Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen''.", "3 vols.", "Halle, 1898–1916: 3–8 (vol 1); ed.", "and tr.", "L. Oliver, ''The Beginnings of English Law''.", "Toronto Medieval Texts and Translations.", "Toronto, 2002.", "* Letters of Gregory the Great, ed.", "D. Norberg, ''S.", "Gregorii magni registrum epistularum''.", "2 vols.", "Turnhout, 1982; tr.", "J.R.C.", "Martyn, ''The letters of Gregory the Great''.", "3 vols.", "Toronto, 2004.", "* Earliest ''vita'' of Gregory the Great, ed.", "and tr.", "Bertram Colgrave, ''The earliest life of Gregory the Great by an anonymous monk of Whitby''.", "Lawrence, 1968.", "* Gregory of Tours, ''Libri Historiarum''.=== Secondary sources ===* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * The Laws of Æthelberht, at Mediaeval Sourcebook" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Erwin Schrödinger" ], [ "Introduction", "Bust of Schrödinger, in the courtyard arcade of the main building, University of Vienna, Austria'''Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger''' (, ; ; 12 August 1887 – 4 January 1961), sometimes written as '''''' or '''''', was a Nobel Prize–winning Austrian and naturalized Irish physicist who developed fundamental results in quantum theory.", "In particular, he is recognized for postulating the Schrödinger equation, an equation that provides a way to calculate the wave function of a system and how it changes dynamically in time.", "He coined the term \"quantum entanglement\", and was the earliest to discuss it, doing so in 1932.In addition, he wrote many works on various aspects of physics: statistical mechanics and thermodynamics, physics of dielectrics, colour theory, electrodynamics, general relativity, and cosmology, and he made several attempts to construct a unified field theory.", "In his book ''What Is Life?''", "Schrödinger addressed the problems of genetics, looking at the phenomenon of life from the point of view of physics.", "He also paid great attention to the philosophical aspects of science, ancient, and oriental philosophical concepts, ethics, and religion.", "He also wrote on philosophy and theoretical biology.", "In popular culture, he is best known for his \"Schrödinger's cat\" thought experiment.Spending most of his life as an academic with positions at various universities, Schrödinger, along with Paul Dirac, won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933 for his work on quantum mechanics, the same year he left Germany due to his opposition to Nazism.", "In his personal life, he lived with both his wife and his mistress which may have led to problems causing him to leave his position at Oxford.", "Subsequently, until 1938, he had a position in Graz, Austria, until the Nazi takeover when he fled, finally finding a long-term arrangement in Dublin, Ireland, where he remained until retirement in 1955, and where he pursued several sexual relationships with minors.", "He died in Vienna of tuberculosis when he was 73." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years===Schrödinger was born in , Vienna, Austria, on 12 August 1887, to ( producer, botanist) and Georgine Emilia Brenda Schrödinger (née Bauer) (daughter of , professor of chemistry, TU Wien).", "He was their only child.His mother was of half Austrian and half English descent; his father was Catholic and his mother was Lutheran.", "He himself was an atheist.", "However, he had strong interests in Eastern religions and pantheism, and he used religious symbolism in his works.", "He also believed his scientific work was an approach to Divinity in an intellectual sense.He was also able to learn English outside school, as his maternal grandmother was British.", "Between 1906 and 1910 (the year he earned his doctorate) Schrödinger studied at the University of Vienna under the physicists Franz S. Exner (1849–1926) and Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1874–1915).", "He received his doctorate at Vienna under Hasenöhrl.", "He also conducted experimental work with Karl Wilhelm Friedrich \"Fritz\" Kohlrausch.", "In 1911, Schrödinger became an assistant to Exner.===Middle years===Erwin Schrödinger as a young manIn 1914 Schrödinger achieved habilitation (''venia legendi'').", "Between 1914 and 1918 he participated in war work as a commissioned officer in the Austrian fortress artillery (Gorizia, Duino, Sistiana, Prosecco, Vienna).", "In 1920 he became the assistant to Max Wien, in Jena, and in September 1920 he attained the position of ao.", "Prof. (''ausserordentlicher Professor''), roughly equivalent to Reader (UK) or associate professor (US), in Stuttgart.", "In 1921, he became o. Prof. (''ordentlicher Professor'', i.e.", "full professor), in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland).In 1921, he moved to the University of Zürich.", "In 1927, he succeeded Max Planck at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin.", "In 1933, Schrödinger decided to leave Germany because he strongly disapproved of the Nazis' antisemitism.", "He became a Fellow of Magdalen College at the University of Oxford.", "Soon after he arrived, he received the Nobel Prize together with Paul Dirac.", "His position at Oxford did not work out well; his unconventional domestic arrangements, sharing living quarters with two women, were not met with acceptance.", "In 1934, Schrödinger lectured at Princeton University; he was offered a permanent position there, but did not accept it.", "Again, his wish to set up house with his wife and his mistress may have created a problem.", "He had the prospect of a position at the University of Edinburgh but visa delays occurred, and in the end he took up a position at the University of Graz in Austria in 1936.He had also accepted the offer of chair position at Department of Physics, Allahabad University in India.In the midst of these tenure issues in 1935, after extensive correspondence with Albert Einstein, he proposed what is now called the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment.===Later years===In 1938, after the Anschluss, Schrödinger had problems in Graz because of his flight from Germany in 1933 and his known opposition to Nazism.", "He issued a statement recanting this opposition (he later regretted doing so and explained the reason to Einstein).", "However, this did not fully appease the new dispensation and the University of Graz dismissed him from his post for political unreliability.", "He suffered harassment and was instructed not to leave the country.", "He and his wife, however, fled to Italy.", "From there, he went to visiting positions in Oxford and Ghent University.Schrödinger (front row 2nd from right) and De Valera (front row 4th from left) at Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies in 1942In the same year he received a personal invitation from Ireland's Taoiseach, Éamon de Valera – a mathematician himself – to reside in Ireland and agreed to help establish an Institute for Advanced Studies in Dublin.", "He moved to Kincora Road, Clontarf, Dublin, and lived modestly.", "A plaque has been erected at his Clontarf residence and at the address of his workplace in Merrion Square.", "Schrödinger believed that as an Austrian he had a unique relationship to Ireland.", "In October 1940, a writer from the ''Irish Press'' interviewed Schrödinger who spoke of Celtic heritage of Austrians, saying: \"I believe there is a deeper connection between us Austrians and the Celts.", "Names of places in the Austrian Alps are said to be of Celtic origin.\"", "He became the Director of the School for Theoretical Physics in 1940 and remained there for 17 years.", "He became a naturalized Irish citizen in 1948, but also retained his Austrian citizenship.", "He wrote around 50 further publications on various topics, including his explorations of unified field theory.In 1944, he wrote ''What Is Life?", "'', which contains a discussion of negentropy and the concept of a complex molecule with the genetic code for living organisms.", "According to James D. Watson's memoir, ''DNA, the Secret of Life'', Schrödinger's book gave Watson the inspiration to research the gene, which led to the discovery of the DNA double helix structure in 1953.Similarly, Francis Crick, in his autobiographical book ''What Mad Pursuit'', described how he was influenced by Schrödinger's speculations about how genetic information might be stored in molecules.Schrödinger stayed in Dublin until retiring in 1955.A manuscript \"Fragment from an unpublished dialogue of Galileo\" from this time recently resurfaced at The King's Hospital boarding school, Dublin after it was written for the School's 1955 edition of their Blue Coat to celebrate his leaving of Dublin to take up his appointment as Chair of Physics at the University of Vienna.In 1956, he returned to Vienna (chair ''ad personam'').", "At an important lecture during the World Energy Conference he refused to speak on nuclear energy because of his scepticism about it and gave a philosophical lecture instead.", "During this period, Schrödinger turned from mainstream quantum mechanics' definition of wave–particle duality and promoted the wave idea alone, causing much controversy.===Tuberculosis and death===Schrödinger's quantum mechanical wave equation is inscribed on a circular plaque:Schrödinger suffered from tuberculosis and several times in the 1920s stayed at a sanatorium in Arosa in Switzerland.", "It was there that he formulated his wave equation.", "On 4 January 1961, Schrödinger died of tuberculosis, aged 73, in Vienna.", "He left Anny a widow, and was buried in Alpbach, Austria, in a Catholic cemetery.", "Although he was not Catholic, the priest in charge of the cemetery permitted the burial after learning Schrödinger was a member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences." ], [ "Personal life", "On April 6, 1920, Schrödinger married Annemarie (Anny) Bertel.When he migrated to Ireland in 1938, he obtained visas for himself, his wife and also another woman, Hilde March.", "March was the wife of an Austrian colleague and Schrödinger had fathered a daughter with her in 1934.Schrödinger wrote to the Taoiseach, Éamon de Valera personally, so as to obtain a visa for March.", "In October 1939 the ''ménage à trois'' duly took up residence in Dublin.", "His wife, Anny (born 3 December 1896), died on 3 October 1965.One of Schrödinger's grandchildren, Terry Rudolph, has followed in his footsteps as a quantum physicist, and teaches at Imperial College London.=== Sexual abuse ===At the age of 39, Schrödinger tutored a 14-year-old named \"Ithi\" Junger.", "Walter Moore relates in his 1989 biography of Schrödinger that the lessons \"included 'a fair amount of petting and cuddling'\" and Schrödinger \"had fallen in love with his pupil\".", "Moore further relates that \"not long after her seventeenth birthday, they became lovers\".", "The relationship continued and in 1932 she became pregnant (then aged 19).", "\"Erwin tried to persuade her to have the child; he said he would take care of it, but he did not offer to divorce wife Anny... in desperation, Ithi arranged for an abortion.", "\"Moore describes Schrödinger having a 'Lolita complex'.", "He quotes from Schrödinger's diary from the time where he said that \"men of strong, genuine intellectuality are immensely attracted only by women who, forming the very beginning of the intellectual series, are as nearly connected to the preferred springs of nature as they\".", "A 2021 Irish Times article summarized this as a \"predilection for teenage girls\", and denounced Schrödinger as \"a serial abuser whose behaviour fitted the profile of a paedophile in the widely understood sense of that term\" Schrödinger's grandson and his mother were unhappy with the accusation made by Moore, and once the biography was published, their family broke off contact with him.Carlo Rovelli notes in his book ''Helgoland'' that Schrödinger \"always kept a number of relationships going at once – and made no secret of his fascination with preadolescent girls\".", "In Ireland, Rovelli writes, he fathered children from two students identified in a ''Der Standard'' article as being a 26-year-old and a married political activist of unknown age.", "Moore's book described both of these episodes, giving the name Kate Nolan as a pseudonym for the first and naming the other as Sheila May, though neither were students.", "The book also described an episode of Schrödinger being \"infatuated\" with a twelve-year-old girl, Barbara MacEntee, while in Ireland.", "He desisted from attentions after a \"serious word\" from someone, and later \"listed her among the unrequited loves of his life.\"", "This episode from the book was highlighted by the Irish Times article and others.Walter Moore stated that Schrödinger's attitude towards women was \"that of a male supremacist\", but that he disliked the \"official misogyny\" at Oxford which socially excluded women.", "Helge Kragh, in his review of Moore's biography, said the \"conquest of women, especially very young women, was the salt of life for this sincere romantic and male chauvinist\".The physics department of Trinity College Dublin announced in January 2022 that they would recommend a lecture theatre that had been named for Schrödinger since the 1990s be renamed in light of his history of sexual abuse, while a picture of the scientist would be removed, and the renaming of an eponymous lecture series would be considered.", "The College's webpage \"The History of the School of Physics\" currently has a photo labeled, \"View of the front desk and blackboard at the Physics Lecture Theatre\"." ], [ "Academic interests and life of the mind", "Early in his life, Schrödinger experimented in the fields of electrical engineering, atmospheric electricity, and atmospheric radioactivity, but he usually worked with his former teacher Franz Exner.", "He also studied vibrational theory, the theory of Brownian motion, and mathematical statistics.", "In 1912, at the request of the editors of the ''Handbook of Electricity and Magnetism'', Schrödinger wrote an article titled ''Dielectrism''.", "That same year, Schrödinger gave a theoretical estimate of the probable height distribution of radioactive substances, which is required to explain the observed radioactivity of the atmosphere, and in August 1913 executed several experiments in Zeehame that confirmed his theoretical estimate and those of Victor Franz Hess.", "For this work, Schrödinger was awarded the 1920 Haitinger Prize (Haitinger-Preis) of the Austrian Academy of Sciences.", "Other experimental studies conducted by the young researcher in 1914 were checking formulas for capillary pressure in gas bubbles and the study of the properties of soft beta radiation produced by gamma rays striking a metal surface.", "The last work he performed together with his friend Fritz Kohlrausch.", "In 1919, Schrödinger performed his last physical experiment on coherent light and subsequently focused on theoretical studies.===Quantum mechanics=======New quantum theory====In the first years of his career, Schrödinger became acquainted with the ideas of the old quantum theory, developed in the works of Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Arnold Sommerfeld, and others.", "This knowledge helped him work on some problems in theoretical physics, but the Austrian scientist at the time was not yet ready to part with the traditional methods of classical physics.Schrödinger's first publications about atomic theory and the theory of spectra began to emerge only from the beginning of the 1920s, after his personal acquaintance with Sommerfeld and Wolfgang Pauli and his move to Germany.", "In January 1921, Schrödinger finished his first article on this subject, about the framework of the Bohr-Sommerfeld effect of the interaction of electrons on some features of the spectra of the alkali metals.", "Of particular interest to him was the introduction of relativistic considerations in quantum theory.", "In autumn 1922, he analyzed the electron orbits in an atom from a geometric point of view, using methods developed by the mathematician Hermann Weyl (1885–1955).", "This work, in which it was shown that quantum orbits are associated with certain geometric properties, was an important step in predicting some of the features of wave mechanics.", "Earlier in the same year, he created the Schrödinger equation of the relativistic Doppler effect for spectral lines, based on the hypothesis of light quanta and considerations of energy and momentum.", "He liked the idea of his teacher Exner on the statistical nature of the conservation laws, so he enthusiastically embraced the articles of Bohr, Kramers, and Slater, which suggested the possibility of violation of these laws in individual atomic processes (for example, in the process of emission of radiation).", "Although the experiments of Hans Geiger and Walther Bothe soon cast doubt on this, the idea of energy as a statistical concept was a lifelong attraction for Schrödinger, and he discussed it in some reports and publications.====Creation of wave mechanics====In January 1926, Schrödinger published in ''Annalen der Physik'' the paper \"\" (Quantization as an Eigenvalue Problem) on wave mechanics and presented what is now known as the Schrödinger equation.", "In this paper, he gave a \"derivation\" of the wave equation for time-independent systems and showed that it gave the correct energy eigenvalues for a hydrogen-like atom.", "This paper has been universally celebrated as one of the most important achievements of the twentieth century and created a revolution in most areas of quantum mechanics and indeed of all physics and chemistry.", "A second paper was submitted just four weeks later that solved the quantum harmonic oscillator, rigid rotor, and diatomic molecule problems and gave a new derivation of the Schrödinger equation.", "A third paper, published in May, showed the equivalence of his approach to that of Heisenberg and gave the treatment of the Stark effect.", "A fourth paper in this series showed how to treat problems in which the system changes with time, as in scattering problems.", "In this paper, he introduced a complex solution to the wave equation in order to prevent the occurrence of fourth- and sixth-order differential equations.", "Schrödinger ultimately reduced the order of the equation to one.Schrödinger was not entirely comfortable with the implications of quantum theory referring to his theory as \"wave mechanics\".", "He wrote about the probability interpretation of quantum mechanics, saying, \"I don't like it, and I'm sorry I ever had anything to do with it.\"", "(Just in order to ridicule the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, he contrived the famous thought experiment called Schrödinger's cat paradox and was said to have angrily complained to his students that \"''now the damned Göttingen physicists use my beautiful wave mechanics for calculating their shitty matrix elements.", "''\")====Work on a unified field theory====Following his work on quantum mechanics, Schrödinger devoted considerable effort to working on a unified field theory that would unite gravity, electromagnetism, and nuclear forces within the basic framework of general relativity, doing the work with an extended correspondence with Albert Einstein.", "In 1947, he announced a result, \"Affine Field Theory\", in a talk at the Royal Irish Academy, but the announcement was criticized by Einstein as \"preliminary\" and failed to lead to the desired unified theory.", "Following the failure of his attempt at unification, Schrödinger gave up his work on unification and turned to other topics.", "Additionally, Schrödinger reportedly never collaborated with a major physicist for the remainder of his career.===Color===Schrödinger had a strong interest in psychology, in particular color perception and colorimetry (German: '''').", "He spent quite a few years of his life working on these questions and published a series of papers in this area:* \"Theorie der Pigmente von größter Leuchtkraft\", ''Annalen der Physik'', (4), 62, (1920), 603–22 (Theory of Pigments with Highest Luminosity)* \"Grundlinien einer Theorie der Farbenmetrik im Tagessehen\", ''Annalen der Physik'', (4), 63, (1920), 397–456; 481–520 (Outline of a theory of colour measurement for daylight vision)* \"Farbenmetrik\", ''Zeitschrift für Physik'', 1, (1920), 459–66 (Colour measurement).", "* \"Über das Verhältnis der Vierfarben- zur Dreifarben-theorie\", ''Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse'', Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien, 134, 471, (On The Relationship of Four-Color Theory to Three-Color Theory).", "* \"Lehre von der strahlenden Energie\", ''Müller-Pouillets Lehrbuch der Physik und Meteorologie'', Vol 2, Part 1 (1926) (Thresholds of Color Differences).His work on the psychology of color perception follows the step of Newton, Maxwell and von Helmholtz in the same area.", "Some of these papers have been translated into English and can be found in: ''Sources of Colour Science'', Ed.", "David L. MacAdam, MIT Press (1970) and in ''Erwin Schrödinger’s Color Theory, Translated with Modern Commentary'', Ed.", "Keith K. Niall, Springer (2017).", ".===Interest in philosophy===Schrödinger had a deep interest in philosophy, and was influenced by the works of Arthur Schopenhauer and Baruch Spinoza.", "In his 1956 lecture \"Mind and Matter\", he said that \"The world extended in space and time is but our representation.\"", "This is a repetition of the first words of Schopenhauer's main work.", "Schopenhauer's works also introduced him to Indian philosophy, more specifically to the Upanishads and Advaita Vedanta’s interpretation.", "He once took on a particular line of thought: \"If the world is indeed created by our act of observation, there should be billions of such worlds, one for each of us.", "How come your world and my world are the same?", "If something happens in my world, does it happen in your world, too?", "What causes all these worlds to synchronize with each other?\".", "\"There is obviously only one alternative, namely the unification of minds or consciousnesses.", "Their multiplicity is only apparent, in truth there is only one mind.", "This is the doctrine of the Upanishads.", "\"Schrödinger discussed topics such as consciousness, the mind–body problem, sense perception, free will, and objective reality in his lectures and writings.Schrödinger’s attitude with respect to the relations between Eastern and Western thought was one of prudence, expressing appreciation for Eastern philosophy while also admitting that some of the ideas did not fit with empirical approaches to natural philosophy.", "Some commentators have suggested that Schrödinger was so deeply immersed in a non-dualist Vedântic-like view that it may have served as a broad framework or subliminal inspiration for much of his work including that in theoretical physics.", "Schrödinger expressed sympathy for the idea of tat tvam asi, stating \"you can throw yourself flat on the ground, stretched out upon Mother Earth, with the certain conviction that you are one with her and she with you.", "\"Schrödinger said that \"Consciousness cannot be accounted for in physical terms.", "For consciousness is absolutely fundamental.", "It cannot be accounted for in terms of anything else.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "The philosophical issues raised by Schrödinger's cat are still debated today and remain his most enduring legacy in popular science, while Schrödinger's equation is his most enduring legacy at a more technical level.", "Schrödinger is one of several individuals who have been called \"the father of quantum mechanics\".", "The large crater Schrödinger, on the far side of the Moon, is named after him.", "The Erwin Schrödinger International Institute for Mathematical Physics was founded in Vienna in 1992.Schrödinger's portrait was the main feature of the design of the 1983–97 Austrian 1000-schilling banknote, the second-highest denomination.A building is named after him at the University of Limerick, in Limerick, Ireland, as is the 'Erwin Schrödinger Zentrum' at Adlershof in Berlin and the Route Schrödinger at CERN, Prévessin, France.Schrödinger's 126th birthday anniversary in 2013 was celebrated with a Google Doodle." ], [ "Honors and awards", "Erwin Schrödinger's Nobel Prize diploma* Nobel Prize in Physics (1933) for the formulation of the Schrödinger equation, shared with Paul Dirac* Max Planck Medal (1937)* Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1949* Erwin Schrödinger Prize of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (1956)* Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (1957)Schrödinger's cat is named in his honour.", "See also List of things named after Erwin Schrödinger." ], [ "Published works", "* The List of Erwin Schrödinger's publications , compiled by Auguste Dick, Gabriele Kerber, Wolfgang Kerber and Karl von Meyenn* ''Science and the human temperament'' Allen & Unwin (1935), translated and introduced by James Murphy, with a foreword by Ernest Rutherford* ''Nature and the Greeks'' and ''Science and Humanism'' Cambridge University Press (1996) .", "* ''The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics'' Ox Bow Press (1995) .", "* ''Statistical Thermodynamics'' Dover Publications (1989) .", "* ''Collected papers'' Friedr.", "Vieweg & Sohn (1984) .", "* ''My View of the World'' Ox Bow Press (1983) .", "* ''Expanding Universes'' Cambridge University Press (1956).", "* ''Space-Time Structure'' Cambridge University Press (1950) .", "* ''What Is Life?''", "Macmillan (1944).", "* ''What Is Life?", "& Mind and Matter'' Cambridge University Press (1974) ." ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Erwin Schrödinger and others on Austrian banknotes* * \"'' biographie''\" (in German) or* \"'' Biography from the Austrian Central Library for Physics''\" (in English)* Encyclopædia Britannica article on Erwin Schrödinger* with his Nobel Lecture, 12 December 1933 ''The Fundamental Idea of Wave Mechanics''* Vallabhan, C. P. Girija, \"'' Indian influences on Quantum Dynamics''\" ''ed.''", "Schrödinger's interest in Vedanta* Schrödinger Medal of the World Association of Theoretically Oriented Chemists (WATOC)* ''The Discovery of New Productive Forms of Atomic Theory'' Nobel Banquet speech (in German)* Annotated bibliography for Erwin Schrödinger from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues* Critical interdisciplinary review of Schrödinger's \"What Is life?", "\"* * ''Schrödinger in Oxford by Sir David C Clary '' , World Scientific, 2022" ] ]
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